THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 

LINDSAY & BLAKISTON, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, 
 
 PUBLISH 
 
 HOPE'S PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 ADAPTED TO 
 
 FORBES, TWEEDIE, CONOLLY, AND DUNGLISON'S CYCLO- 
 PEDIA OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE AND AJNDRAL'S 
 ELEMENTS. 
 
 With two hundred and sixty beautifully colored illustrations. 
 
 Edited by L. M. LAWSON, M. D., 
 Professor of General and Pathological Anatomy in the Transylvania University. 
 
 The additions to the text made by the American editor, are judicious, and in 
 keeping with the plan and spirit of the original. Dr. Lawson has succeeded in 
 obtaining very accurate fac similes of the illustrations, by which the work ia 
 accompanied ; the execution of which is but little inferior to those of the London 
 edition. The execution of the work throughout does, in fact, great credit to its 
 editors as well as publishers, and we trust that their very commendable enter- 
 prise mny be rewarded by a ready sale of the correct and beautiful, and, at the 
 same time, cheap edition they have presented to the profession of the very 
 valuable treatise of Dr. Hope. American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF PATHOLOGY 
 
 AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. 
 
 BY JOHN MACKINTOSH, M. D., &c. 
 
 Fourth American, from the last London edition, with notes and additions, 
 
 By SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON, M.D., &c. 
 
 In one volume, 8vo. 
 
 That this volume should have passed to a fourth edition in this country, is a 
 strong proof of its popularity. It is a valuable epitome of medical practice, 
 founded upon the most approved pathology, the state of which at the present 
 day it very accurately represents. No better book can be purchased by the 
 student than this. The author was a man of great learning, indefatigable zeal, 
 and extensive practice. As a pathologist he was able, warm and enthusiastic. 
 He writes agreeably, with clearness and vigor, and his book bears the marks 
 at once of thought, close and correct observation, ample experience, and accu- 
 rate knowledge of past and actual pathology. The American editor has added 
 much valuable matter. The work is one of the most useful text-books on the 
 subject of which it treats, extant in our tongue, and should be in the hands of 
 every student, and on the shelves of every medical library. New York Journal 
 of Medical Science. 
 
EARTH AND ROGERS' 
 MANUAL OF AUSCULTATION AN3 PERCUSSION, 
 
 TRANSLATED, WITH ADDITIONS, 
 BY F. G. SMITH, M. D., 
 
 Lecturer on Physiology, Fellow of the College of Physicians, &c. 
 A small pocket volume for the Practitioner and Student. 
 
 This Manual is strictly elementary, and is so arranged as to convey to the 
 Student an accurate, yet condensed view of Auscultation and Percussion in their 
 most extended applications. Plain and simple rules are given by which the 
 merest tyro may become an expert Auscultator; we would strongly recommend 
 it to the Student who wishes to become familiar with the elements of this depart- 
 ment. The translator has evinced judgment and ability. Western Lancet. 
 
 This is a very useful manual of the most important diseases of the chest and 
 abdomen, which we cheerfully commend to all who wish to cultivate the indis- 
 pensable department of physical diagnosis. IV. Y. Med. and Surg. Journal. 
 
 We commend this little Manual to the Student and to the Physician, it comes 
 from the proper source and is well translated. Jour, of Dental Science. 
 
 THE MEDICAL EXAMINER 
 
 AND 
 
 RECORD OF MEDICAL SCIENCE, 
 
 NEW AND ENLARGED SERIES. 
 
 Published Monthly, each Number containing 72 handsomely printed 
 octavo pages, or 864 pages per annum, the year commencing with 
 January. 
 
 EMBRA CING 
 
 Original Articles by some of the most Eminent Men in the Profession ; Re- 
 views and Notices of all New Works on Medicine and the Col- 
 lateral Sciences ; together with a complete record 
 of all that is new or valuable in 
 
 Medicine. 
 WITH OCCASIONAL WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Edited by ROBERT ML HUSTON, M, D,, 
 
 Professor of Materia Medica and General Therapeutics in the Jefferson Medical Col- 
 lege, President of the Philadelphia Medical Society, &c. &c. 
 
 TERJfIS Or SUBSCRIPTION. 
 
 Three dollars per annum ; two copies for five dollars, five copies for 
 ten dollars, or two years to any subscriber remitting five dollars in 
 advance. 
 
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DENTAL SURGERY, 
 
 Revised, improved and greatly enlarged. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS WELL EXECUTED ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 In one volume. 
 
 The members of the profession, and students in particular, have long felt the 
 necessity of a treatise on Dentistry, in all its branches, medical, surgical and 
 mechanical, which should at once be comprehensive in its scope, practical in 
 its detail, correct in its science and beautiful in typographical execution. This 
 desideratum is now supplied in a manner highly creditable to the accomplished 
 author, and peculiarly acceptable to the profession at large. 
 
 Dr. Harris has proved himself so well qualified for his task, that it may be 
 safely asserted that no one volume in the English language contains an equal 
 amount of correct and valuable information for the use of the student in dentistry. 
 There are manifested also in Dr. Harris's volume an originality of thought and 
 an independence of opinion equally calculated to elicit truth and to expose 
 error. Journ. of Dental Surgery. 
 
 
 THE SURGICAL AND MECHANICAL TREATMENT 
 
 <BB? ^nim 'jjiaiB'ffliEu 
 
 INCLUDING DENTAL MECHANICS. 
 
 WITH ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-NINE ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 BY JAMES ROBINSON, 
 
 Surgeon-Dentist to the Metropolitan Hospital, &c. &c. 
 
 A superior book, beautifully printed on fine paper, with numerous well executed 
 illustrations, in one 12mo. volume. 
 
 ARTHUR'S MANUAL OF THE DISEASES 
 OF THE TEETH. 
 
 WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THEIR STRUCTURE, MODES OF 
 TREATMENT, &c. &c. 
 
 A SMALL POCKET VOLUME. 
 
 This is a good manual, and comprises all that is necessary for the genera* 
 reader and practitioner of medicine to know on the subject, and being written 
 in a plain and perspicuous style, without the unnecessary use of technicalities, 
 is adapted to readers of every class. Med. Examiner. 
 
 It gives us pleasure to state that we have seldom read a popular treatise on 
 the Teeth, that contains so much useful and valuable information as does this. 
 It is a work which every family should have, and we can recommend it, too, to 
 the members of the Dental Profession as well worthy of perusal. Dental Intelli- 
 gencer. 
 
 It gives us pleasure to announce the publication of this work which we regard, 
 so far as we have had an opportunity of examining it, as one of the best popular 
 treatises on the subject extant. As a literary production it is highly creditable 
 jo its author. Amer. Jour, of Dental Science. 
 
MEIGS' VELPEAU'S MIDWIFERY. 
 
 THIRD EDITION, REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS, 
 BY WM, HARRIS, M. D. 
 
 We have chosen this^ because it appears to us to be one of the very best. It 
 is a model for such a work ; the several parts being duly connected, related, 
 and managed with a beautiful simplicity and dexterity, like that used by the 
 naturalist. A sort of nomenclatural neatness and conciseness reigns throughout. 
 It is a book that no physician should be without N. A. Medical Journal. 
 
 This very able work on Midwifery has, for years, been a text-book for the 
 profession, being unrivalled amongst the numerous similar volumes that have 
 issued from the press, in the different countries of Europe and the western 
 world. Velpeau is, at the present moment, one of the greatest medical lumi- 
 naries of the age. A prolific writer, he has adorned almost every department of 
 the healing art, surgical and medical, with his numerous publications* The 
 science of Obstetrics in his hands acquires fresh interest, from the valuable sug- 
 gestions, hints and conclusions with which he has enriched it. No accoucheur 
 should be without a copy of this treatise. New Orleans paper. 
 
 THE WRITINGS OF 
 
 HIPPOCRATES AND GALEN, 
 
 EPITOMIZED AND RENDERED INTO ENGLISH 
 BY JOHN REDMAN COXE, M. D. 
 
 PUBLISHERS' NOTICE. 
 
 Dr. Coxe, having translated the writings of these fathers in Medicine, has 
 epitomized them in such a way as he deemed most expedient, in order to afford 
 to the Profession a brief exposition of their contents : some of the Treatises are 
 given in full; most of them, however, would be considered superfluous, and are 
 far too voluminous for the perusal of those members of the Profession who are 
 engaged in its active duties. There are, probably, few physicians who would 
 not desire to trace an outline of the writings of two men who have always held 
 such high rank, of whom so much is said both in books, in conversation and in 
 every school of medicine. 
 
 THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ALMANAC, 
 
 OR, 
 
 Physician's and Student's Guide: 
 
 CONTAINING VALUABLE STATISTICAL AND OTHER INFOR- 
 MATION; TO BE ISSUED IN THE FALL OF 1847, 
 AND CONTINUED ANNUALLY. 
 
 MENDENHALL'S MEDICAL STUDENT'S VADE MEDUM, 
 
 OR, 
 
 MANUAL OF EXAMINATIONS 
 
 IN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, SURGERY, OBSTETRICS, THE 
 PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, CHEMISTRY, &c 
 
 A neat Pocket Volume. 
 
HANDBOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 HUMAN ANATOMY, 
 
 I 
 
 GENERAL, SPECIAL, AND TOPOGRAPHICAL. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL GERMAN 
 
 DK. ALFRED VON BEHR, 
 
 AND ADAPTED TO THE USE OF THE ENGLISH STUDENT, 
 
 .. -* . '.' - 
 
 JOHN BIRKETT 
 
 FELLOW OF THE ROTAL COLLEGE OF SURG 
 D 
 
 OSSTRATOR OF AXATOSY AT GV 
 
 ( 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 LINDSAY AND BLAKISTON. 
 
 1847. 
 

 i 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 
 T. K. AND P. G. COLLINS, 
 
 PRINTERS. 
 

 
 - 
 
 TO 
 
 STUDENTS OF ANATOMY, 
 
 THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE INSCRIBED 
 
 BY 
 
 THE TRANSLATOR 
 
 London, October, 1846. 
 

THE AUTHOK'S PREFACE. 
 
 THE " Pocket-book of Anatomy" is intended to afford the Student a short 
 and comprehensive detail of anatomical facts, suited to the practical tendency 
 of the " Medical Encyclopaedia."* It may serve either as an introduction to 
 the study of Anatomy, or for refreshing the memory, more especially of those 
 preparing for examinations. With this view, the relations which Anatomy 
 bears to Physiology, Pathology, and Surgery, have been considered in an espe- 
 cial manner, either tacitly intimated, or expressly mentioned; but critical and 
 useless observations have been, as far as appeared practicable, disregarded. 
 
 Our German Handbooks and introductions (especially that of C. A. Bock) 
 have only very lately attempted to appropriate, from the French, the advan- 
 tages of a clear, summary, and agreeable detail ; the author of the Pocket- 'xx)k 
 also thinks that he might take the latter as a model for his work without dero- 
 gating from the much-prized German profoundness. We trust we shall not 
 be misunderstood, as though we were going to encourage an unscientific 
 superficiality. On the contrary, we wish that the science were seriously con- 
 sidered, and that the trouble which the mere elements require, increasing, as 
 it does daily, with the growth of materials, may not be unnecessarily en- 
 hanced, but applied to that which is really useful. 
 
 The science of Physiology and Anatomy has, since the year 1838, received 
 so important an elevation in consequence of Schwann's cell theory, that the 
 author does not hesitate to take it as the foundation of his work, and he chiefly 
 refers for farther study to the admirable work of Henle (Sommerring, Jttlgt- 
 meine dnatomie, ed. Henle). 
 
 In the special anatomy, the author, although aiming at the greatest brevity, 
 saw the necessity of frequent repetitions, which, although of use to the Stu- 
 dent, are detrimental to the uniformity of the book ; which, by the utmost 
 precision in doubtful points, by greater amplitude in some sections, by the 
 statement of numerical determinations, by tabular views, and by the addition 
 of the Topographical portion and the situs mscerum, he tried to give it, and thus 
 to make it preferred to similar pocket-books, 
 
 * See Translator's Preface. 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 THE following pages have been translated from one of a series of volumes, 
 entitled " The Pocket Encyclopaedia of the Medical Sciences," by Dr. von 
 Behr and Dr. Minding, and now in course of publication at Erlangen. 
 
 The translator has long experienced, in his daily intercourse with students, 
 the disadvantages under which they labour from the want of a really ele- 
 mentary work on Anatomy, one which would, by giving a well-defined 
 outline of the subject, lead them to fill up the picture from the book of Na- 
 ture, or more elaborate and highly finished works. Of such books the Student 
 has, now, as many as he can desire, but their size, beauty, or prolixity, render 
 them better adapted for reference than as class books for their course of study. 
 This translation was, therefore, undertaken in the hope that it might lead to 
 an assiduous and earnest study of the subject in the dissecting-room, and not 
 with the view of superseding the diligent prosecution of the inquiry by means 
 of dissections, the only mode in which an accurate and available acquaintance 
 with the structure and arrangement of the organs of the body can be acquired. 
 
 To assist the Student, however, in the literature of the science, references 
 have been made at the head of each division of the work, to such monographs 
 in the English language as contain original observations. 
 
 The translator has made additions in a few places, which are thus indi- 
 cated [ ~] ; and in the Topographical portion he has given such instructions 
 as he considers most suitable for the display, by dissection, of the parts de- 
 scribed. 
 
 The abbreviations in the body of the work were adopted as consistent with 
 the intention of the book ; namely, to embrace as great a number of facts in 
 as small a space as possible. 
 
 The marks ' , ff , r " , express, successively a foot, an inch, a line. 
 The translator does not concur in all the observations made by the author. 
 
 Should this translation be found useful to the Student, other volumes of the 
 series will, perhaps, be published. 
 
 London, October 1846. 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 "Along with the observation of the living person, the more searching 
 examination which could be carried on in the dead body, and the comparison 
 of various kinds of animals, soon showed that this pursuit was rich in know- 
 ledge and interest. Moreover, besides the interest which the mere speculative 
 faculty gave to this study, the art of healing added to it a great practical 
 value, and the effects of diseases and of medicines supplied new materials 
 and new motives for the reasonings of the philosopher." WHEWELL. Hist, 
 of the Inductive Sciences. 
 
 " The most simple mode of investigating an animal body is first to consider 
 the matter of which it is composed." HUKTER. 
 
 LITERATURE : 
 
 Anatomy : General and Descriptive : 
 
 Elements of Anatomy. By Jones Quain, M. D. 5th edition, illustrated. 1843. 
 Descriptive Anatomy. By J. Cruveilhier, 2 vols. Library of Medicine. 
 
 1841. 
 Lectures on Anatomy, interspersed with practical Remarks. By B. B. 
 
 Cooper, F. R. S. 
 The Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology. Edited by Robt Todd, M. D., 
 
 F. R. S. 
 Reports on the chief Results obtained by the Use of the Microscope in the 
 
 Study of Human Anatomy and Physiology. By James Paget. Brit, and 
 
 For. Med. Rev. 1842. Part First, and continued. 
 Schwann. "Microscopical Observations upon the Accordance in the Structure 
 
 and Growth of Animals and Vegetables." A translation of which is to 
 
 appear among the volumes of the Sydenham Society. 
 Horner's Special and General Anatomy. 2 vols. 5th edit. 1839. For tensor 
 
 tarsi. Vol. ii. p. 407. Also the Muscles of the Rectum. 
 Gerber. General Anatomy. Translated by Gulliver, 1841. Text, plates. 
 /, Muller. The intimate Structure of the Secreting Glands. Translated by 
 
 S. Solly, F. R. S. Plates. 1839. 
 
 Bowman. Art. " Mucous Membrane" in Cyclopaedia of Anatomy, with Biblio- 
 graphical References. 
 Goodsir, John and Harry. Anatomical and Path. Obs. 1845. Chap. "Centres 
 
 of Nutrition." Also, "Structure of the Lymphatic Glands," p. 44. 
 Beclard. Elements of General Anatomy. Knox, 1830. 
 
LITERATURE. 
 
 Craigie. Elements of General Anatomy. 1828. 
 
 Henle. General Anatomy. The French translation. 
 
 Quekett, J. Obs. on Structure of Bat's Hair. Microscop. Trans, vol. i. p. 58. 
 
 On the Movement of the Cilia in the common Mussel (Mytilus 
 
 Eclulis). Microscop. Trans, vol. ii. 
 
 Physiology : 
 
 Hatter. Elementa Physiologise. 4to. 1757. 
 
 A Manual of Physiology, &c. By W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F. R. S., with illus- 
 trations. 1846. 
 
 Hunter. Rem. on Fat. Catal. of Museum, vol. iii. 
 Principles of General and Comparative Physiology. By W. B. Carpenter, 
 
 M. D. Last edition. 
 
 Principles of Human Physiology. By the same Author. Last edition. 
 An Elementary System of Physiology. By John Bostock, M. D., F. R. S. 3d 
 
 edit. vol. i. 1836. 
 
 Rudiments of Physiology. By John Fletcher. 1837. 
 Elements of Physiology- By J. Miiller, M. D. Translated by W. Baly, M. D. 
 
 2d edition. 
 
 Elements of Physiology. By R. Wagner, M. D. Translated by R. Willis, M. D. 
 Life. Art. Cycl. of Anat. and Phys. Bibliography at the end. 
 Dutrochet. Art. "Endosmose." Cycl. Anat. and Phys. 
 Alison. Outlines of Physiology and Path. 1831 1833. 
 Barclay. On Life and Organization. 8vo. 
 Bell, Sir C. Anat. and Phys. of the Human Body. 1823. 
 Davy, J. Phys. and Anat. Researches. 2 vols. 1839. 
 Elliotsoris Human Physiology. 1840. 
 Articles in the Cyclopaedia of Anatomy, &c. 
 Hewson, W. Experimental Enquiries into the Blood, &c. 8vo. 1772 1777. 
 
 Also, his Works. Edited by G. Gulliver, Esq., Sydenham Society. 
 G. O. Rees and S. Lane. On the Structure of the Blood Corpuscle. Guy's 
 
 Hosp. Rep. vol. vi. 
 Coste. Researches on the Primary Modifications of Organic Matter, and on 
 
 the Formation of Cells. Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. xvi. p. 377. 
 Nasmyth. Memoirs on the Development of the Teeth and Epithelium, 1841, 
 
 and Brit. Association Reports, 1839. 
 Himter, J. On the Blood. 4to. 1793. 
 Thackrah. An Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of the Blood in Health, 
 
 &c. 1819. 
 
 Animal Chemistry : 
 J. F. Simon. Animal Chemistry, &c. Translated by G. E. Day, M. A. and 
 
 L. M. Cantab. 1845. Printed for the Sydenham Society. 
 J". Liebig. Animal Chemistry, &c. Translated by W. Gregory, M. D. A new 
 
 edition. 
 G. O. Rees, M. D. On the Analysis of the Blood and Urine in Health, &c. 
 
 The new edition. 
 Fluoric Acid an Ingredient in certain Animal Matters. Guy's 
 
 Hosp. Rep. vol. iv. p. 381. 
 Arsenic as a Natural Constituent of Human Bones. Guy's Hosp. 
 
 Rep. vol. vi. 
 
HANDBOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 HUMAN ANATOMY, 
 
 L ANATOMY (avattfjivfiv, to dissect) has for its object a know- 
 ledge of the separate parts of organic bodies. Every organismus 
 consists of a series of different parts (organs) associated together 
 with a view to the maintenance and self-preservation of the whole, 
 which, likewise, proceed from the connection of dissimilar struc- 
 tures (tissues). The consideration of the tissues, their form, 
 development, and constituents, belongs to the general part of ana- 
 tomy (" Anatomy of Tissues," Histologici), a science, for the 
 foundation of which we have to thank Bichat (born 1771, died 
 1802), and for the farther advance of which we are indebted to 
 the labours of more modern inquirers. A description of the 
 organs forms the particular part, Special Anatomy. 
 
 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 2. The animal body consists of solid and fluid substances, 
 which, permeating one another, may, by chemical means, be 
 resolved, into proximate and ultimate elements, and supply the 
 material base to the forms of the elementary constituents and 
 tissues. 
 
 I. CONSTITUENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 3. The 17 19 bases which the chemist recognises in the 
 tissues and fluids of the healthy human body, are : 
 
 Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen ; Phosphorus, Sulphur, Chlorine, Flu- 
 orine ; Potassium, Sodium ; Calcium, Magnesium, Silicium, Aluminum ; Iron, 
 Manganese, Titanium, and (according to Raspail) Arsenic, Copper. 
 
 Of these Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, and Nitrogen form the principal rrass 
 of the fluids and soft tissues ; Lime (as phosphate and carbonate of lime) 
 that of the bones ; the rest are found in smaller quantities only. A few of 
 

 18 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 them are present in a pure state (Nitrogen and Oxygen in the blood, Nitrogen 
 in the intestinal gases), the rest in binary, ternary, and quarternary com- 
 pounds. 
 
 4. Binary, called inorganic compounds : 
 
 1. Water; composes the largest part of all animal fluids, permeates most 
 solid parts, giving rise to their various degrees of softness. 
 
 2. Carbonic Add- in blood, urine, the exhalations from the lungs, and the 
 cutaneous transpiration; in their salts. 
 
 a. Carbonates ; of Potassa in Serum. 
 
 b. Soda, in Serum, Haematin, Bile, liq. JLmnios, Mucus, Sweat, 
 
 Saliva, Tears ; Cartilage, Bone, Teeth. 
 
 c. Ammonia, in Urine and liq. JLmnws. 
 
 d. Lime, in Cartilage, Bones, Teeth, Sand of ear, Nails. 
 
 e. Magnesia in grease of the skin. 
 
 3. Pkosphatic Salts: 
 
 a. Soda in Serum, Haematin, Bile, liq. Jlmnias, Urine, Sweat, Saliva, 
 
 Tears ; Nails, Cartilage, Muscles. 
 
 b. Lime in Bones, Cartilages, Teeth, sand of Pineal gland. 
 
 c. Soda and Ammonia in Urine ; Blood (Hiinefeld). 
 
 d. Oxide of Iron in Haematin, Gastric juice, Urine. 
 
 4. Chlorine Compounds: 
 
 a. Hydrochloric acid in the fluid of the stomach and Caecum. 
 
 b. Chloride Sodium in Blood and Secretions ; Brain, Muscles, Bone, Car- 
 
 tilage, Teeth, Pigment of eyes. 
 
 o. Chloride of Potassium in Blood, Crystalline lens, Saliva, Gastric juice, 
 Urine, Milk. 
 
 d. Chloride of Ammonium in Urine, Sweat, Gastric juice. 
 
 e. Chloride of Calcium in Gastric juice. 
 
 5. Sulphates: 
 
 a. Potash in Urine, Gastric juice, Cartilage. 
 
 b. Soda in Urine, liq. Jlmnios ; Sweat, Bile, Cartilage. 
 
 c. Lime in liq. Jlmnios ; Bile, Gastric juice, Hair, Epidermis. 
 
 6. Sulpho-cyanide of Potassium in the Saliva. 
 
 7. Fluoride of Calcium in enamel of teeth. 
 
 8. Silica and Oxide of Manganese in Hair. 
 
 9. Alumina in enamel of teeth, Bones (?) and white hair (?). 
 
 1 0. Oxide of Iron in Hsematin, black Pigment, Lens, and Hair. 
 
 11. Oxide of Titanium in the supra renal capsules. (Rees.) 
 
 Ammonia (Nitrogen, Hydrogen) and Cyanogen (Nitrogen, Carbon) do 
 not exist in a free state in the organism, but as compound salts, and 
 even then in excreted substances only (Urine, Sweat, Saliva). 
 
 Compounds exist likewise of inorganic bases with organic acids. 
 (See Urine, Milk, Oil, Mar gar ic acid.) 
 
 5. How the ternary and quarternary compounds of the ele- 
 ments which constitute the proper organic mass are brought about, 
 lias not been, hitherto, ascertained by inorganic chemistry, because 
 it is not possible to analyse them in the common binary com- 
 pounds, or to compose them from these. The most, besides 
 oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, consist also of nitrogen, and are 
 
CONSTITUENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 19 
 
 often of exactly similar composition, although very different in 
 their characters. One essential distinction is in regard to the 
 existence of nitrogen, upon which generally depends the rapidity 
 with which they pass into a state of decomposition (become 
 putrid). 
 
 We therefore distinguish : 
 
 6. 1. Nitrogenized Substances. 
 
 1. Protein (discovered by Mulder), [C 40 H 3 , N 5 O 12 ], in the moist state 
 gelatinous; dried, brittle, and brownish; is scentless and tasteless, insoluble in 
 water, spirit and ether ; soluble in all dilute acids, and forms with a little Sul- 
 phur and Phosphorus the following (albuminous) bodies. 
 
 a. Albumen; [Pr 10 +P SJ, the most diffused of them, is, when dried, yel- 
 lowish, brittle, soluble in cold water, coagulable by heat, creosote, spirits of 
 wine, and unites insolubly with nitric and tanuic acid, Plumb, diacet, alum, 
 Corrosive sublimate, &c. It is found in Lymph, Chyle, Serum of blood, and 
 especially in the Brain. 
 
 b. Fibrin; [Pr 10 + P S], readily coagulates (within 3 7 minutes), is fibrous, 
 reteform; is present in a soluble condition in the blood, from which it is ob- 
 tained by whisking it with twigs, coagulated in the muscles. Vegetable acids 
 (and their salts) and caustic alkalies hinder the coagulation. Coagulated fibrin 
 decomposes super-oxyde [Binoxyde] of Hydrogen in water, not albumen; the 
 latter becomes violet with Hydrochloric acid, the former indigo blue. 
 
 c. Casein; [Prj -}- S], soluble in water, pale yellow in solution, coagulates 
 (membranous upon milk) by boiling (in flakes), by Alcohol, Acids (particu- 
 larly lactic), and rennet. It is found in milk, blood, saliva, bile, and pancreatic 
 fluid, lens. 
 
 d. Pepsin; (discovered by Schwann) [C 48 H 32 N 8 O 10 Vogel], in the gastric 
 juice, in the parietes of the gastric glands, and upon other mucous membranes; 
 precipitates by acetate of lead, dissolves with some acid, albumen and fibrin, 
 very readily (digestion) ; is very like albumen ; loses by coagulating the soluble 
 property; also by bile. 
 
 e. Globulin; [Pr 15 -f- S], that is, the envelopes and nuclei of the (microscopic) 
 blood corpuscles, without the coloring matter, insoluble in Alcohol ; very like 
 albumen. Is (according to Fr. Simon) Casein united with Haematin. 
 
 f. Spermatin; in the seminal fluid, is probably only fibrin ; is soluble in water, 
 becoming a clear fluid, which does not coagulate by boiling. 
 
 g. Mucus; consists of the secretion of the mucous glands, the cast-ofF epithe- 
 lium of mucous membranes, and usually also of pus ; swells up in water, is 
 soluble in strong acids, and precipitated by tannin. 
 
 h. Peculiar matter of tears; dries in the air to a yellow, insoluble mucus ; in 
 acids and heat not coagulable. 
 
 i. Keratin; [Pr S 2 ], the seemingly homogeneous matter of Epithelium, Hair, 
 Nails, consists of different substances, like e, f, g, the chemical relations of which 
 are not yet singly determined. 
 
 [Nora. There are great doubts as to the existence of "Protein."] 
 
 2. Extractive Matters. 
 
 7- Not less diffused than the Protein compounds, is the animal extractive 
 matter, which is particularly obtained from muscular substance (flesh), by 
 
20 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 compression and inspissation, and hence called flesh extract. From this is 
 again obtained: Water, Spirit (Osmazome), and Alcohol extract, according as 
 it is extracted with water, spirit, or alcohol. To the materials soluble in 
 water, merely, belong Ptyalin, the principle of saliva, colorless, scentless, and 
 tasteless, soluble in water, forming a slimy fluid, and which is only precipitated 
 from it by Alcohol. It is found only in Saliva, which changes Starch into 
 Sugar, and Kreatin (Chevreul). 
 
 8. 3. Matter yielding gelatin 
 
 is produced by long boiling, from cartilages, the cartilaginous basis of bones* 
 from the membranes, tendons, and ligaments, and from the cornea. A solu- 
 tion of gelatin in boiling water becomes, upon cooling, a jelly. We dis- 
 tinguish the proper Gelatin (colla) [C 52 H 40 N 8 2 J, which is obtained from 
 the membranes, tendons, ligaments, and the cartilaginous basis of bone, from 
 the Chondrin [C 32 H 26 N 4 14 ] which exists in the cartilages of the nose, of 
 the ears, the ribs, articular cartilages, and the cornea. (Pyine, the basis of pus 
 [Tritoxyd of Protein C 40 H 31 N 5 0, 5 + H 0], is said to be, likewise, a gela- 
 tinous substance.) 
 
 9. 4. Haematin, [C* H 33 N 3 6 Fe], 
 
 the colouring principle of the blood which is contained in the vesicles of the 
 coloured corpuscles suspended in the serum, is obtained by boiling fresh blood, 
 and evaporating it to dryness ; the residue is then boiled with ^Ether, after- 
 wards with spirit, when the red matter is precipitated in flocculi. In a pure 
 state brownish black; contains Iron (also some oxyde of manganese) ; is solu- 
 ble in alkalies. [Haematin may be obtained free from iron, as a red Pigment 
 C 44 H 22 N 3 O 6 .j 
 
 10. 5. Principles of the Bile. (Berzelius.) 
 
 a. Bilin, the essential principle of bile, is, in a pure state, when dry, colour- 
 less, transparent, not crystallised, bitter to the taste, easily soluble in water, 
 very readily metamorphosed; is decomposed by acids into Fellinic and Cho- 
 linic acids, Taurin, Dyslysin, and Ammonia. Its reaction is neither alkaline 
 nor acid, but it forms with acids and bases easily soluble compounds. 
 
 b. Cholepyrrhiri [bilipha?in, Simon], colouring matter of bile, is sometimes 
 found as yellow powder deposited in bile, or as concretions in the gall-bladder 
 (gall stones) ; is bright reddish yellow, tasteless and scentless, contains nitrogen, 
 colours water pale yellow, being a little soluble therein, more so in a ley of 
 caustic potash or Soda, becomes at first bluish by Nitric acid, then green, violet, 
 red, and finally yellow or yellowish brown. The (green) Biliverdin is a pro- 
 duct of its metamorphosis by acids. 
 
 Mucus from the biliary passages and the Gall-bladder, causes a certain 
 metamorphosis of the bile, is precipitated by Alcohol (also acetic acid). 
 
 Bilifulvin, the yellow colouring matter of bile, is a double salt of lime and 
 of soda combined with an [organic] nitrogenous acid. 
 
 Extractive matter, Cholesterin, oleate, margarate, and stearate of soda, with 
 some saponifiable fat. Chloride Sodium, sulphate, phosphate, and lactate of 
 soda ; phosphate of lime. 
 
 [The formulae for the above do not appear to be accurately determined.] 
 
 11. 6. Urea and Uric Acid. 
 
 a. Urea [C 2 H 4 N 2 OJ, in the urine (with lactic acid); in ox blood; in the 
 
CONSTITUENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 21 
 
 blood, in disease, and in other fluids. Produced by Nitric acid, and again libe- 
 rated by means of Carbonate of Baryta. Composition : corresponds with the 
 cyanide of Ammonia with Water. Artificially formed by Wohler. Colour- 
 less, four-sided prisms, or long, silky, shining needles. Spec. grav. = 1-35. 
 Scentless, it produces neither acid nor alkaline reaction ; soluble in any pro- 
 portion in boiling water. Unites as well with acids as with bases. 
 
 b. Uric Acid [C 10 H 4 N 4 O 6 ], in the urine of animals feeding on flesh, in 
 urinary calculi, and gouty concretions. United with ammonia in the excre- 
 ments of birds (Guano) and serpents. Forms a light, fine, white powder ; 
 with difficulty soluble in water. Is precipitated from human urine upon 
 cooling ; at first grey, men pale, rosy red ; or by the addition of nitric or mu- 
 riatic acids. Uric acid easily decomposes urea, upon which a substance re- 
 mains behind which Liebig calls Uric. Uric is one of the most feeble acids ; 
 its salts are little soluble in water. -(Colouring matter of urine, an extractive, 
 mixed with salts, is reddish brown, saltish bitter, urinous odour, soluble in 
 water and alcohol, is of an amber or brownish yellow, easily decomposes, 
 decreases when living on vegetable diet.) 
 
 II. Non-nitrogenized Materials. 
 
 12. Sugar of milk, lactic acid, fats. 
 
 1. Sugar of milk, [C g H 4 4 -f- H O] saccharum lactis. f of the solid con- 
 stituents of human milk consist of sugar of milk. It may be procured by 
 evaporation and crystallization from whey, that is, the fluid of milk deprived 
 of fat and casein. It forms white four-sided prisms. Spec. grav. = 1-543. 
 Taste slightly sweet, harder man cane sugar, easily soluble in water ; changes, 
 in time, of itself into lactic acid, as well as by rennet ; by yeast it passes into 
 grape sugar and spirituous fermentation. 
 
 2. Lactic acid acidum lacticum. [C 6 H 5 O-.J In all fluids and secretions 
 of the body, freely united to Potash, fcoda, Ammonia, Lime, and Magnesia. 
 Free in the milk, urine, muscles, and sweat. It is colourless and scentless, 
 very acid, not volatile like acetic acid, into which it is decomposed by strong 
 heat ; causes albumen and casein to coagulate, and holds phosphate of lime, 
 the principal element of the bones, in solution. It is a strong acid, separating 
 acetic acid from its compounds. Most of its salts are soluble in water, and 
 crystallizable. 
 
 3. Fats (Pingucdines) are insoluble in water, in hot spirit and aether they 
 form soluble compounds of Carburetted Hydrogen with a little oxygen. 
 Most of them become metamorphosed by strong bases, especially alkalies and 
 oxyde of lead, into soaps, as the acid contained in them with the base is 
 transformed into a salt. We therefore distinguish the saponifiable fats from 
 the unsaponifiable (Cholesterin [C 37 H 32 O], an element of the blood, of bile 
 and of neurine, frequently present in gall stones and other pathological secre- 
 tions, and Serotin discovered by Boudet in the blood). Fat exists free in 
 the fibro-cellular tissue and medulla of bones, or united with other substances, 
 as for example in the milk, the brain, the hair, the cerumen of the ear, 
 pus, &c. 
 
 The base of the saponifiable fats of the human body is Glycerin, [C 6 H 7 
 5 .] a substance separated by boiling fat with oxyde of lead ; the acids which 
 unite with that base form the different kinds of fat, Stearic (or tallow) [C 68 
 H 66 s + 2 H O] and Margaric ['2 C 34 H 33 3 -f H O] acids on the one side, 
 and Hair, (oil) [C 44 H 40 OJ acid on the other ; lastly, Butteric [C g H 7 3 -\- 
 H O] and Cerebric acids. 
 
22 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 The solidity of different fats depends upon the proportional quantity of the 
 above-mentioned substances. A preponderance of Elain renders the fat fluid, 
 such as oils ; Margarin constitutes the solid element of lard, whereof human 
 fat is an example j Stearin of suet. 
 
 II. ELEMENTARY FORMS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 a. Elementary parts. 
 
 13. The first form from which matter is developed, and which 
 lies as the basis of every organic structure (vegetable and animal), 
 is, according to the general principle first enunciated by Schwann, 
 1838, the 
 
 Nucleated Cell, that is, a microscopical, delicately membranous vesicle, with 
 fluid contents and a minute dark nucleus (Cytoblast) in one of its walls, sur- 
 rounded by an amorphous, solid or fluid, substance (Cytoblastema or Inter- 
 cellular substance), out of which the nucleated cell forms itself. 
 
 The nucleus is round or oval, rather flattened, yellowish red, smooth or 
 granular, has a diameter of 0'002 (H)04'" and probably first arises, as the 
 granules are deposited from the amorphous mass about a central point, are 
 circumscribed and blend together. About the nucleus formed from the mass 
 a membrane is generated, the vesicle of the cell [cell membrane]. 
 
 14. This process of development may at least be observed in 
 the egg [germ] of vegetables and animals, in the formation and 
 reproduction of certain tissues (for example, the nails and cuticle). 
 Also in the blood, in pus, and in milk, the process is essentially 
 the same. The formation of the elementary granules may be 
 compared with the physical phenomenon, discovered by Ascher- 
 son, namely, that when albumen was brought into contact with 
 fat (oil drops) it coagulated in the form of a membrane, and 
 enveloped them. But the vital and self-dependent progressive 
 development of the nucleated cell is in no degree explained by 
 this. 
 
 15. Increase of the Cells. The number of the cells in a 
 tissue in the process of development, increases either by the 
 origin of single new ones independent of one another (e. g., in the 
 hair, nails, inflammatory exudation) ; or by the development, in 
 the interior of the old and mature, of new secondary cells, to 
 which the contents of the primary cell serve as cytoblastema. 
 (Thus, in the development of the liver, and in pathological 
 growths; e. g., Scirrhous.) 
 
 16. Metamorphosis of Cells. As the cells pass through vari- 
 ous stages of development, they also present different circum- 
 stances in respect to their shape, position, contents, and chemical 
 relations. In some tissues they maintain their independence, at 
 most lying upon one another, and becoming thereby flattened, or 
 
ELEMENTARY FORMS. 23 
 
 elongated and pointed (e. g., in the granular pigment, in the blood, 
 in the muscular tunic of the intestines). Others attain a size of 
 more importance (fat cells), or diminish in size (the lymph glob- 
 ules, if they become changed into blood corpuscles) ; they lose 
 after a time their nucleus (the mature blood corpuscles); their 
 parietes become thickened (cartilage cells). 
 
 17. In most tissues the cells blend together and coalesce. We 
 find remaining, 
 
 1. The cavities of the cells unaltered, as their thickened walls blended 
 together (in true cartilage, and osseous tissue), or the parietes impinging upon 
 one another are broken through, so that continuous tubes arise (renal and 
 seminal tubuli, perhaps also capillaries) ; or, 
 
 2. The cavities disappearing, their parietes lying flat together, so that the 
 cells form solid laminae, which appear to be spread out either in a mem- 
 branous or fibrous form, according to the position. 
 
 Here belongs also the coalescing of complex (endogenous) cells [see 
 before], which are transformed into the primitive fibres of the nerves, and 
 the primitive bundles of the animal muscular tissue. 
 
 3. The nuclei of the cells elongate, coalesce, and thus form the " nucleus 
 fibres," which, much stronger than the cell fibres, upon which they are found, 
 are distinguished from them, also, by their insolubility in acetic acid. They 
 are either rectilinear, spiral, or like a tendril, according to the position of the 
 nucleus in the cell. 
 
 18. As the cells are dislodged from their situation, or become 
 again formed into the homogeneous mass of cytoblastema out of 
 which they arose, intervals are formed which are filled with fluids 
 or air ; these are the intercellular passages. They are circum- 
 scribed by layers of cells, and appear, after the metamorphosis of 
 the cells into fibres, as canals and cavities (closed and open vascu- 
 lar cavities, lined with mucous membrane), with membranous or 
 fleshy parietes. It is, moreover, a matter of indifference whether 
 the structureless matter which also serves as a uniting medium be 
 solid, as in the bones, or fluid, as in the blood. The conditions 
 for the formation of proper tissues are given with the metamor- 
 phoses of the cells and nuclei ; in a system of Histologia these 
 must also be received as a basis, and not that, more or less com- 
 posed of organs, as in the earlier systems. As however the 
 number of facts is yet too small for the complete carrying out of 
 a scientific arrangement, we must for the present observe a greater 
 number of casual successions. In this point of view, therefore, 
 anatomy can lay no claim to the name of a science. 
 
 b. Individual tissues. 
 
 19. External membrane, Epithelium. 
 
 The non-vascular and nerveless thin investment which covers 
 
24 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 all the surfaces of the body, the external skin, as well as the in- 
 terior of cavities and canals, is called Epithelium. (Formerly 
 this term comprehended the covering of the mucous membrane 
 only.) 
 
 It consists of a layer of independent nucleated cells, formed from the or- 
 ganic matter, which the highly vascular surface (matrix) lying immediately 
 underneath it, deposits, and which increases layer by layer. 
 
 20. It does not merely serve as a defence to the tunic upon 
 which it exists, but also for the reception and secretion of certain 
 substances. Wounding it gives rise to neither pain nor bleeding. 
 
 According to the Elementary parts, three kinds are distinguished. (Henle.) 
 
 a. Pavement epithelium. Cells and nuclei roundish, oval, or where lying 
 close to one another, multangular, and conjoined like mosaic. This most 
 frequent variety forms thick layers, and is found upon the internal surface of 
 serous membranes, of the vascular system, upon the mucous membrane of 
 the mouth, the nose, or the globe of the eye. Upon the cornea of the eye it 
 soon becomes dull after death, and appears as a white mucus, whence the 
 dull appearance of the dead eye arises. The salivary mucus, also, consists 
 in great part of this kind. 
 
 To this belongs also the Epidermis. See external skin. 
 
 b. Cylinder epithelium. Cells of a cylindrical or conical shape, the point 
 of which is directed towards the mucous membrane, arranged like fibres. 
 Nucleus generally between the base and apex of the cone. 
 
 They are present in man upon the mucous membranes only. In the ali- 
 mentary canal they commence at the mouth of the stomach (Cardia), and ter- 
 minate at the anus ; being most distinct in the cylindrical glands of the large 
 intestines. Upon the mucous membrane of the male organs of generation ; 
 at the opening of the salivary glands. In the gall-bladder they appear 
 coloured green. 
 
 c. Ciliated epithelium is distinguished from the cylindrical simply in the 
 fact of its possessing ciliae at one of its extremities. The ciliae themselves 
 are variously formed. Longitudinal diam. of cell= 0'015 of a line, the ciliae 
 = 0-0018 of a line. 
 
 They exist in man upon the mucous membrane of the respiratory organs, 
 the eyelids, the female organs of generation, and upon the parietes of the 
 cerebral ventricles. It is obtained most readily from the nasal mucous mem- 
 brane. 
 
 Ciliary motion. According to Purkinje and Valentin, the discoverers, it is 
 of three kinds : 
 
 1. The ciliae more in the shape of an inverted cone, since their apices de- 
 scribe a wider circle than their bases. 
 
 2. The whole cilium moves in an undulating manner. 
 
 3. The apex curves like a hook. 
 
 A low temperature (-}- 5 R.), acetic, strong mineral acids and bile arrest 
 the ciliary motion. The stream of the fluid in which the ciliae move is op- 
 posed to the direction in which they curve, and generally passes from within 
 to without. 
 
 The object of the ciliary movements is not yet ascertained. In diseases, 
 for example, catarrh, the ciliary epithelium is at first thrown ofil 
 
ELEMENTARY FORMS. 25 
 
 21. Nails, Ungues, 
 
 are four-sided transparent plates of horn, rounded from before to 
 behind, and from side to side, which are placed upon the dorsal 
 surface of the last phalanx of the fingers and toes. They lie 
 with their lateral edges in a fold of the corium. In the same 
 manner the posterior border, the root, the length of which con- 
 tributes one-fifth to one-sixth the length of the entire nail. The 
 root extends about two lines deep into the fold, and is likewise 
 surrounded above and below by the corium. The remaining 
 portion, the body of the nail, is only united on the inferior surface 
 with the corium ; its anterior edge, the point of the nail, quite free. 
 
 22. The epidermis turns up at the root of the nail towards 
 the fold of skin, without going deeper into it. By scalding the 
 epidermis is loosened from the corium, and the nail with it. 
 
 23. The bed of the nail, matrix unguis, is the fold before 
 mentioned, and the surface of the cutis which is covered by the 
 nail. It determines the shape of the nail; is smooth above, below 
 striated like the cutis. The striae consist of elevated ridges which 
 pass from before to behind, and upon which are placed cylindrical 
 papillae. The striae become stronger towards the point of the 
 nail and appear through, but the nail itself does not consist of 
 parallel longitudinal fibres. Anteriorly the matrix is richer in 
 vessels than at the root of the nail, where even a whitish semi- 
 lunar mark (lunula) appears, whilst the rest of the nail is pale red. 
 
 The tissue of the nails is only distinguished from that of the Epidermis by 
 its hardness and brittleness, which depends upon Phosphate of Lime (Lauth). 
 It consists of flat, dry, non-nucleated cells, which, deposited in layers and 
 spread out like a membrane, form plates, which run longitudinally. Cor- 
 responding to the Rete Malpighi of the Epidermis, we may here also remark 
 a soft and white layer, particularly in young children. In old people in- 
 dented, undulating transverse striae appear upon the nails, particularly of the 
 toes. 
 
 The nails are first distinguishable in the fifth month of foetal life by their 
 firmness, but even in the third month the fold fixes their limits. 
 
 The growth of the nail takes place from the matrix, and the old parts are 
 pushed forwards by the younger, from the roots. They may reach the length 
 of two inches. In many diseases (e. g., Typhus) they fall out, in others (as 
 Phthisis pulmonalis, Plica Polonica) they become thickened and curved. After 
 falling out. the surface of the matrix becomes covered with a thin horny layer, 
 which is always more thickened over the recess of the lunula. 
 
 24. Granular Pigment, 
 
 improperly denominated black pigment, is, like the preceding, a 
 nerveless and non-vascular tissue, for which the highly vascular 
 membranes upon which it appears serve as a matrix. 
 
26 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 25. It exists to the greatest extent among the coloured races, 
 especially negroes, the entire surface of whose bodies is covered 
 with it. It here lies between the cutis and rete Malp. of the 
 epidermis. It is not black, but dark brown, and thus gradually 
 proceeds even into yellowish. Among the Caucasian tribes it is 
 especially found in the eye on the posterior surface of the iris. 
 Moreover, also in the healthy state about the female nipple, on 
 the skin of the scrotum, of the great labia, and of the anus, in the 
 Bronchial glands; in pathological conditions, as Freckles, and in 
 scirrhous growths. 
 
 The pigment tissue consists of globular, multangular, or tubular, elongated 
 cells (pigment cells) in which the coloured particles lie (pigment corpuscles). 
 The pigment from the internal surface of the Choroid coat of the globe of the 
 eye is the best for examination. 
 
 The cells are destroyed by putrefaction, and are soluble in acetic acid ; 
 the pigment granules pass out, as extremely small, flat points, which, only 
 when they are heaped together, present a yellowish red and brownish ap- 
 pearance. They are only soluble in caustic Potash, and become changed in 
 colour by Chlorine. 
 
 The ashes of the Pigment consist of muriate of soda, lime, phosphate of 
 lime, and oxide of iron. The purpose fulfilled by the Pigment in the skin 
 cannot be decided; in the eye it serves to protect it from too strong light. 
 Pigment is wanting in the eyes as well as in the hair of Albinos. 
 
 26. Hairs, Pili s. Crines, 
 
 are thin, hard, elastic, and thread-like cylinders of various colours. 
 Non-vascular and without nerves like the foregoing tissues, they 
 must, however, on account of their more complicated structure, 
 be considered as more highly organised. They are also nourished 
 by a highly vascular basis, which is regarded as an inversion of 
 the cutis. 
 
 The whole external surface of the body is covered with larger 
 or smaller hairs, with the exception of the palms of the hand, the 
 sole of the foot, the lips, the superior eyelid, the foreskin, Glans 
 penis, and Clitoris. 
 
 Structure. The roots of the hair lie deeply in the cutis, sur- 
 rounded by the hair follicle, and seated with the soft club-shaped 
 bulb upon the germ of the hair (Pulpa). The body or shaft of 
 the hair projects beyond the surface of the body, and terminates 
 in a free point. 
 
 In the shaft two substances are distinguished : 
 
 a. The Cortex, is transparent and smooth, striated longitudinally, fibrous, 
 especially towards the roots. The transverse strirp, which are observed upon 
 it, consist of encircling scales, which may be detached by the action of 
 Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 b. The medullary substance is wanting at certain points in coarse, and 
 sometimes altogether in fine hair. It consists of small globules, resembling 
 fat drops, is dark, and never found in the point of the hair. Diameter 
 
ELEMENTARY FORMS. 27 
 
 = 0-017 of a line. The length, thickness, and shape of the shaft vary 
 considerably with individuals and in different parts of the body. The free 
 extremity is frequently split. 
 
 The hairs of the head are generally cylindrical, frequently also flat and 
 very curly (woolly hah: of Negroes). 
 
 The beard and pubic hairs, those of the axillary fossa, of the eyebrows, the 
 entrance to the nose and the ears, are oval (upon transverse section). 
 
 The root of the hair, bulb (head of the hair according to Henle), bulbus 
 pili, is soft, viscous 1 2 lines long, below thick and hollow, containing a 
 tenacious substance, in which cell nuclei lie (as in the rete Malp.) ; farther 
 upwards, surrounded by transverse fibres, which connect firmly together the 
 longitudinal fibres ; the superior extremity is uninterruptedly connected with 
 the shaft of the hair. The Medulla by degrees loses itself below. 
 
 Outside the shaft of the hair the sheath of the root passes from the bulb, 
 which immediately continues into the Epidermis, of which it is only an in- 
 version, just as 
 
 The Hair follicle (folliculus pili) is an inversion of the Corium. This 
 consists of fibres of areolar tissue, and terminates blindly, with a process 
 above (Pulpa), upon which the hair bulb is seated. It possesses nerves and 
 vessels, pain and blood, therefore, on wounding. Into it open the smallest 
 sebaceous (gland of the hair follicle) glands. (See, under Cutis.) 
 
 Characters. Hairs become electrical by rubbing, and attract moisture both 
 from the air and body. They are therefore soft and shining in perspirable, 
 and brittle in dry skins. 
 
 Chemical. Hair consists of fat and Keratose substance, the former pro- 
 bably coming from the medulla, the latter from the cortex. Boiling alcohol 
 draws out the fat containing the colouring matter, Elaine. It is acid; red 
 in red, and greyish green in dark hair. Nitric acid dissolves the hair, chlorine 
 bleaches and makes it glutinous. In the ash we find some oxide of iron, 
 oxide of manganese, and silex, together with sulphate, phosphate, and car- 
 bonate of lime. 
 
 Growth. Hairs grow out of the highly vascular follicle, and are renewed, 
 like the nails, by deposits from below. The cut off point is not again re- 
 stored, but the piece immediately next to it is pushed from below forwards; 
 the point is also the first part generated. The first development appears 
 after the third month of foetal life; even before birth the entire body is 
 covered with woolly hair (lanugo), which at a later period falls off. 
 
 With puberty the beard and pubic hairs are developed, the hair in the 
 axilla, glandebalte, and on the chest. 
 
 NOTE. The skin of the head produces most hair (= 293 on ^ a line square), 
 more fair than brown, and more brown than black. The hair follicles gene- 
 rally lie in twos and threes in regular lines, for which a fixed point, e. g., the 
 crown of the head, serves as a centre. 
 
 In old age the roots of the hair become knotty; the shaft, from deficiency 
 of oil, grey ; and the hair falls off. White hair is also found on Albinos. 
 
 NOTE. Hair is sometimes found abnormally upon the mucous membrane 
 of the eye, in the gall bladder, in the ovaries [and in the thorax. Prepara- 
 tion shown to me by Dr. Munk. TKAXS.] 
 
 27. To the so-called non-organised tissues, the laminated structures 
 (Burdach). belong the Cornea arid crystalline lens of the eye. (To which 
 refer.) Nearest to these we may comprehend : 
 
 23. The uniting tissue (J. Muller) cellular, areolar or fibro-cellular, a 
 sort humid mass, penetrated by vessels and nerves, which is diffused every- 
 
28 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 where throughout the body, serving partly as a uniting, partly as an envelop- 
 ing medium for the organs and their elements. It possesses a fibrous inter- 
 lacement, is very elastic and translucent, and by boiling is metamorphosed 
 into Gelatin (?). 
 
 Structure. Uniting tissue consists of long and probably solid fibres, which, 
 held together by amorphous blastema, and generally united into white bundles, 
 become transparent by acetic acid. Dark spiral filaments, which are not made 
 transparent by acetic acid, wind themselves in a serpentine arrangement about 
 each bundle, and are probably developed from nucleus fibres, just as those 
 of the first from fibres of the cell vesicle. 
 
 29. We distinguish two kinds of uniting tissue : 
 
 1. Amorphous. It is loose and fills up the intervals between the organs 
 and their parts, for example, between the lobes and lobules of the liver ; it 
 lies in great masses under the Cutis, and forms cells, in which air and fluid 
 may collect, or in which fat vesicles are deposited. Vessels and nerves 
 traverse it in larger or smaller numbers. Burdach calls the uniting tissue 
 which envelopes the exterior of organs atmospherical (thus the subcutaneous 
 areolar tissue), and that which enters into the organ parenchymatous. 
 
 2. Figurate. It forms membranes, bladders, cords, and discs ; is fibrous, 
 and the more even and brilliant the thicker its tissue. Of it we may dis- 
 tinguish two kinds : 
 
 a. Not contractile, uniting tissue (fibrous or tendinous). 
 
 1. Tendons. They are very dense and strong, little elastic, and long 
 resist decomposition and chemical influences; they contain 0'62 water. 
 Where tendons pass over bones, a loose uniting tissue with coarse meshes 
 surrounds them (Synovial sheaths), in which a glairy clear fluid is contained 
 (Synovia). The tendons (sinews) are adherent to the muscular fibres, irom 
 which they are only prolonged, and to which they are firmly attached by 
 uniting tissue. 
 
 2. Ligaments, ligamenta, are quite similar to tendons, but generally flat. 
 To this class belongs the round ligament (Jig. teres), which assists in main- 
 taining the head of the femur in the acetabulum ; the membrana obturat. of 
 the thyroid or oval foramen of the oss innominatum and the memb. interrossea 
 form a transition towards the fibrous membranes. The elastic and inter- 
 articular ligaments of the vertebral column do not belong to this class. (See 
 Syndesmology). 
 
 3. Ligamentary discs. [Interarticular cartilages, Glenoicl ligaments.] 
 Very strong, and therefore formerly enumerated with the cartilages which, 
 moreover, are less elastic. They are intended to prevent the pressure of 
 two cartilaginous surfaces upon one another, on which account they are also 
 invested with Synovial sheaths. Tendinous fibres, which pass off from the 
 borders, are attached to the articular capsules or cartilages. 
 
 Ligamentary Discs are found in the articulations of the jaw and knee ; in 
 the superior eyelid (tarsus, the so-called cartilage), around the articular fossae 
 of the acetabulum and scapula (labra cartilaginea). 
 
 4. Fibrous membranes. To this class belong: 
 
 The external coverings or case of many viscera, serving as a defence for 
 the Parenchyma, or for the attachment of muscles, e. g., the Sclerotica of the 
 eye, the jHbuginea of the testis, Dura Mater of Brain and Spinal cord, the 
 covering of the pericardium, of the kidneys, ovaries, spleen, clitoris, and 
 urethra. 
 
 The tendons of the muscles attached are interwoven with them. Their 
 tissue consists of separate fibres, or of more or less interlaced bundles. They 
 are covered with epithelium. 
 
ELEMENTARY FORMS. 29 
 
 The tendinous expansion of the Diaphragm. 
 
 The membrana tympani. 
 
 The valves in the heart, the veins, and in the lymphatics. 
 
 The neurilemma, that is, the envelope which surrounds the nerves. 
 
 The fasciae. They are developed from the amorphous layers of uniting 
 tissue like membranes, and envelope the muscles passing into the intermus- 
 cular ligaments, and from these into the periosteum (ligament. Cruriata), or 
 into the tendons of muscles (fasc. rect. abdomin.") 
 
 Periosteum (membrane covering the bones), and Perichondrium (that cover- 
 ing the cartilages). They surround the bones and cartilages externally, and 
 are attached to these, from the first, by the extremely numerous vessels 
 connected together by areolar tissue, of which they consist In the cavity of 
 the bones the periosteum is with difficulty separated from the epithelium 
 lying upon it 
 
 5. Tunica propria of the intestinal canal, of the gall and urinary bladders, 
 the pelvis of the kidneys, the ureters, &c., is a peculiar membrane (T. nervea, 
 vasculosa) of uniting tissue, which lies between the muscular layer and mu- 
 cous membrane ; shining white ; almost inseparably connected, externally, 
 with the uniting tissue of the muscles ; internally, with that of the mucous 
 membrane. 
 
 6. Serous membranes. They serve as the boundaries of cavities inside 
 the body, and are generally quite closed. Henle makes a distinction between 
 true, that is, such as are covered on the outside with (pavement) epithelium, 
 and false, in which it is wanting. 
 
 To the false belong the Bursts Mucosa of muscles, tendons, and mem- 
 branes ; these are closed sacs, filled with watery or viscous fluid, which lie 
 between muscles and bones (capsula synoviales). 
 
 The true serous membranes consist of a layer of Epithelium (generally 
 pavement, only in the tubes of the Uterus ciliated), and of fibrous uniting 
 tissue, which approaches at one time fibrous, at another time elastic tissue. 
 The separation of the subserous uniting tissue is, almost in all cases, only 
 artificial. 
 
 They not only serve for lining cavities, but also as the envelopes of the 
 organs which lie in them. But it is not essential that they should be, every- 
 where, entirely closed. (The peritoneum of the female is open at the extre- 
 mities of the Fallopian tubes.) 
 
 To this class belong: Plura and Peritoneum, Pericardium, Arachnoidea, 
 Tunica Vaginalis. They lie in the cavities as sacs, the external surface of 
 which is attached by plain uniting tissue, partly to the walls of the cavities, 
 partly passing over upon the organs, which forms a sort of inversion of it ; 
 the internal surface is smooth, covered with pavement epithelium, and se- 
 cretes a thin, watery, albuminous fluid. Serum. 
 
 The sacs form folds, ligaments, and rete, particularly at the places where 
 the vessels and nerves are allowed a free thoroughfare to the organs enveloped 
 by them. The vessels and nerves become, therefore, covered by uniting tissue 
 and epithelium, but they do not perforate the serous sacs. 
 
 The serous membranes do not pass merely into fibrous, but also into mucous 
 membranes (e. g., mucous membrane of the tympanic cavity). 
 
 7. The vascular membrane of the brain (Pia Mater), and that of the eye 
 (Choroidea), that is, a membranous uniting tissue as a support for vessels 
 which nourish another organ. Pia Mater, like periosteum, is firmly connected 
 with the brain, into which its vessels penetrate, and consists of loose bundles. 
 Choroidea resembles the Corium, which serves as a Matrix for the Epidermis. 
 
30 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 It is dense, strong, and smooth, and only made adhesive by the black Pigment 
 which it deposits. 
 
 Vessels and nerves of figurate, non-contractile uniting tissue. Vessels which 
 not only go through, but belong to the uniting tissue itself, are found in small 
 numbers in the strong structures (tendons, fibrous membranes) ; in larger in 
 the serous, the proper, and vascular membranes. Moreover, the quantity of 
 the vessels in one and the same membrane differs according to position (e. g., 
 the synovial membrane is more highly vascular at that part where it covers 
 the fibrous articular capsule, than upon the cartilage). 
 
 Nerves are not found in the tendons (therefore they are not sensitive); 
 such as are found in the fibrous membranes do not probably terminate in 
 then: substance. Whether nerves passing to serous membranes remain in 
 them, is also still doubtful, although it is a fact that peritonitis or pleuritis is 
 very painful. 
 
 b. Contractile uniting tissue, that is, such as contracts upon irritation. To 
 this class belong : 
 
 1. The external skin, Cutis and Corium (which see). 
 
 2. Tunica dartos (see Splanchnol.), the wrinkled, reddish membrane on 
 the posterior surface of the Scrotum, of fibrous tissue, which consists of a 
 network of longer meshes, since the longitudinal bundles of uniting tissue 
 anastomose. (Septum Scroti consists of fibrous and common uniting tissue.) 
 It is remarkable for its vascularity and contractility, without muscular fibres. 
 
 3. The tissue of the Corpora Cavernosa, of the penis and Clitoris, of the 
 corpus Spongiosum urethra, consists of a dense network of very extensible, but 
 strong, flattened, or roundish bundles of uniting tissue A fibrous sheath 
 envelopes and separates the two cavernous bodies. From it (tunica JllbugineiC) 
 larger or smaller laminae and septa extend inwards into the above-mentioned 
 network : each lamina is provided with a blood-vessel. 
 
 4. The contractile tissue of the longitudinal and circular fibrous coat of the 
 veins and lymphatics (which see). 
 
 The movement of the contractile tissues is not the consequence of a merely 
 physical elasticity. The external skin, when it contracts, becomes thickened, 
 shortened, and sinks in ; the openings of the hair follicles therefore pass out 
 (goose-skin), the hair stands on end. The same with the nipple. 
 
 The Scrotal skin lies in transverse folds, when the longitudinal fibres of 
 Tunica Dartos contract. 
 
 The Penis shrinks up, becomes harder and firmer, and the blood retires, 
 when the cavernous tissue contracts. 
 
 The development of uniting tissue takes place from nucleated 
 cells, as may be demonstrated, which, according to Schwann, be- 
 come pointed in two opposite directions, and in this manner form 
 spindle-shaped fibres, from which finer ramifications pass of. 
 
 Uniting tissue is very readily regenerated ; its lost substance is 
 replaced by a scar (cicatrix), which in loose parts is more firm, 
 in tendinous less so. 
 
 The fluid (serum) which we find in uniting tissue, is no secreted 
 product from it, but is the fluid of the blood which penetrates the 
 parietes of the vessels therein, and so much the sooner collects 
 together the looser it is (e. g., in dropsy of the scrotum, about the 
 ankles, &c.) 
 
ELEMENTARY FORMS. 31 
 
 111 like manner, the fat is still less a secretion of the uniting, 
 but, a proper tissue. 
 
 30. The Adipose Tissue, 
 
 has only of late been recognized as an independent tissue, par- 
 ticularly by Gurlt, whilst formerly, misled by the appearance of 
 the fat vesicles in the cellular interspaces of the uniting tissue, 
 we were accustomed to regard the latter as the organ for the 
 secretion of the fat. But even the divided portions of fat, sur- 
 rounded by uniting tissue, have their own proper cells separated 
 from it. 
 
 Distribution. The fat tissue appears connected together like a 
 membrane, especially in the uniting tissue under the corium, as 
 the most inferior layer of which (fat membrane, Panniculus adi- 
 posus] it is considered ; more abundant in children and women 
 than in the aged and men ; in greatest quantity under the sole of 
 the foot and on the mammary gland. Less perfectly formed and 
 more collected together in masses it presents itself in the orbits, 
 and as marrow in the medullary cavities of the cylindrical bones. 
 Accumulated immoderately in all the usual places, general corpu- 
 lency results ; in separate or uncommon regions it is present, as 
 lipoma (fatty tumour). 
 
 Structure. The fat tissue consists of cells, in which a dropping fluid, the 
 fat, is contained. The cell is, inside the body, oval and smooth, becomes 
 irregular on cooling, angular or flat. Diam. == 0*018 of a line to 0*056. Their 
 surface refracts light strongly, the edges are bright silvery white when light 
 falls upon them. The vesicle is very delicate ; in its wall an oval nucleus 
 generally appears (even two). The cell becomes smaller, and is entirely 
 soluble in acetic acid. 
 
 Development. Fat forms and becomes consumed very quickly, 
 probably in consequence of the fat-cells being dissolved (especially 
 in dyscratic diseases and after blood-letting), and the fat taken up 
 by the lymphatics and carried into the blood. 
 
 31. Elastic Tissue, tela elastica, 
 
 is when of some thickness yellow ; elastic but fragile, closely 
 allied to the uniting tissue ; does not change into Gelatin by 
 boiling (Berzelius), is insoluble in concentrated acetic acid, solu- 
 ble in dilute sulphuric acid, and is precipitated from the solution 
 by Infus. of Galls, but not by ferro-cyanide of Potassium. 
 
 Distribution. The Elastic appears in connection with other 
 tissues, but also independently, combined as membranes and flat 
 ligaments, in 
 
32 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 1. The yellow ligaments of the vertebral columns : Lig.flava, 
 obturatoria atlantis. 
 
 2. The ligaments and membranes of the Larynx, the Trachea, 
 and the Bronchi. 
 
 3. The elastic fibres of the (Esophagus, in the cutis, many 
 fasciae and serous membranes. 
 
 4. The external (not central) coat of the arteries (and veins ?). 
 See Angiology. 
 
 The fibres of this tissue are strongly serpentine, like the nucleus fibres of 
 uniting tissue (both insoluble in acetic acid) ; or curved and curled, of an S 
 shape (in the ligg. flava) ; or anastomosing with parallel, neighbouring fibres 
 (in the arterial coat). The fibrous appearance is not so distinct as in the 
 structures consisting of uniting tissue. It is commonly mixed up with uniting 
 tissue ; the purest is presented by the yellow ligaments. 
 ' Few vessels are found therein ; nerves, probably, not at all. 
 Uses. Connection of bones, for the boundary of cavities, envelope of mus- 
 cles, the last being assisted in their performance by the very extensible elastic 
 tissue. 
 
 32. Cartilage tissue. 
 
 Cartilage, cartilagines, ^ovfipot, are smooth, firm, elastic and 
 flexible, more or less brittle parts, of a milk blue, even yellow, 
 colour, of spec. grav. = 1'15; consisting of a homogeneous base- 
 ment substance, between which vesicles are scattered, or even 
 fibres are found. We accordingly distinguish : 
 
 1. True cartilages, that is, such as consist of homogeneous basement sub- 
 stance, containing cavities and cells with (from 1 to 4) nuclei, but seldom 
 cells containing fat. They are covered with a strong membrane of uniting 
 tissue, Perickondrium which contains vessels, on their free surfaces. To them 
 belong, 
 
 a. The Nasal. 
 
 b. Cartilages of the respiratory organs (except, cc. Santorim, arytcenoid, epi- 
 glottis, corpusc. triticea, and ligg. hyothyreoid. later alia'). 
 
 c. Rib cartilages and cartilage of proc. xiphoideus. 
 
 d. Articular cartilage (except the ring around the cavitat. gknoidal, and the 
 condylus-maxill. inferior). 
 
 The rib cartilages break transversely very easily, and incline to ossification, 
 whilst in them, as in the thyroid cartilage, fibres become developed, which 
 are at first pale, later yellow and stiff. They lie close together in bundles, 
 and receive the cartilage cavities between them. Thus arises the transitional 
 form into 
 
 2. Fibro-cartilages, cc. fibrosee. Their basement substance consists of 
 darker, harsher, and stronger fibres than are present in the true cartilages ; 
 they are more flexible (do not break so easily), and more yellow, containing 
 nucleated cells holding fat (hence an inclination to be transformed into fat). 
 To them belong : 
 
 Ligg. intervertebralia, Synchondroses, Ear cartilages, Epiglottis, cartt. Santorini, 
 and Wrisbergii, cart, tuba Eustadrii, c. inter articular, of the sterno-clavicular 
 articulation, the Meniscus of the maxillary articulation. The so-called fibro- 
 
ELEMENTARY FORMS. 33 
 
 cartilaginous mass in the space between Petrous, Sphenoid, and Occipital bone 
 (foram. lacerum anteriuLS) consists of pure uniting tissue. 
 
 Chemical. The principal element of cartilage is Chondrin, which arises 
 after boiling true cartilages from fifteen to eighteen hours, and false, which is 
 well supplied with cartilage cells, for forty-eight hours. Cartilage contains 
 about three-fourths water, nevertheless it does not readily decompose. Salts; 
 Carb. Soda (most); Sulphate of Soda, Chlor. Soda, phosph. Magnes.; some 
 oxyd of Iron. 
 
 Vessels and nerves. Most cartilages are without vessels, but in connection 
 with highly vascular bones and synovial capsules. From out of the Peri- 
 chondrium vessels pass into the (true) cartilages, e. g., the ribs. Also the Syn- 
 chondroses (Symphysis pubis, &c.)are said to contain vessels during pregnancy. 
 In the ossification of the thyroid, rib, and fetal cartilages new vessels form. 
 The articular cartilages never ossify, but become rough and degenerate ; in 
 consequence, the immediate ends of the bones grow together (Anchylosis). 
 Cartilage is not sensitive, possessing no nerves. 
 
 Upon bone cartilage, see Osteology. 
 
 33. Nutritious Juice 
 
 consists of a fluid portion, Plasma, and of a solid, the microsco- 
 pical corpuscles which are suspended in the former in great num- 
 bers. Plasma (lig. sanguinis et lymphx) is a homogeneous mass 
 which at death divides into a fluid (serum) and a coagulahle 
 portion which forms by enclosing the corpuscles, the blood or 
 lymph clot, coagulum (Cruor. Placenta). 
 
 The corpuscles pass through, in a short time, several stages of 
 development, like the Organismus, to the maintenance of which 
 they contribute. As the last stage, as modifications (certainly 
 only imaginary) of the nutritious juices, we must consider those 
 which are designated by the expression Blood, Chyle, and Lymph. 
 
 The analogy between the Plasma and Cytoblastema, the corpus- 
 cles and nucleated cells, has already been referred to. 
 
 34. 1. CHYLE, Lymph. 
 
 1. Chyle. This is the milky fluid formed as the result of the 
 digestion of nutritious substances in the intestines, and taken up 
 from them by the lymphatics (lacteals). It immediately takes its 
 course with the lymph, which very soon unites with it, through 
 the large lymphatic trunks, and thus passes into the sanguineous 
 system. 
 
 The Chyle at the commencements of the lymphatics [lacteals] 
 (where it is not, however, even more free from lymph) has a 
 milk-white colour, which depends upon fat globules, and does 
 not coagulate. It contains besides 
 
 the fat (C. H. Schultz), very small, generally round corpuscles (nuclei of 
 blood corpuscles?), which increase the more the fat diminishes j the rela- 
 tive quantity of fibrin and albumen is smaller than in lymph. 
 3 
 
34 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 35. 2. Lymph is the fluid of the lymphatics, flowing into the 
 system of blood-vessels, formed from the surplus of the blood 
 plasma and the destruction of the particles of organs. 
 
 A thin fluid, colourless, sometimes yellowish and lastly red; alkaline reac- 
 tion, and saltish taste. Contains larger corpuscles which, round and smooth, 
 are rather larger than the blood corpuscles (see after), of about 0*002 to 0*005 
 of a line diameter; their shell soluble in acetic acid, the nucleus insoluble; 
 and smaller, that is, nuclei without cells; the Plasma of lymph contains fibrin 
 which coagulates of itself, after ten to fifteen minutes, into a lymph coagulum 
 which encloses, partly, the corpuscles. 
 
 The Serum consists of 92 to 96 parts water, albumen, alkaline 
 salts, and oxide of iron. The small lymph corpuscles, cell-less 
 nuclei, are metamorphosed into blood discs, but not so the perfect 
 lymph globules. 
 
 36. 2. BLOOD, Sanguis, 
 
 a bright red fluid in those vessels called arteries, a dark red in the 
 veins, of 1'052 to 1'057 sp. grav. (at -f 15 R.), [65 Fahr.], 
 and saltish taste, easily decomposes. Living blood consists of 
 fluid (Plasma) and blood corpuscles. 
 
 Out of the vessels the blood coagulates after 5 to 7 minutes, 
 and separates into a firm portion (coagulum, Placenta), and into 
 a fluid (Serum) ; the coagulum contains the coagulated fibrin, 
 and the (red) blood corpuscles, the yellow serum, the albumen, 
 and the salts of the blood. 
 
 1. Blood corpuscles. Coloured and colourless are now dis- 
 tinguished. 
 
 a. The coloured, singly yellow, in heaps appearing red, are very smooth 
 and slippery; in the human subject flat, round, of 0*0025 to 0*0032 of a line 
 diam. (broad), and of 0*0008 to 0*0012 of a line diam. (thick); very elastic, 
 soft and heavier than the plasma. A nucleus (as we see in the blood cor- 
 puscles of the frog, which are four times as large) is rarely or never observed 
 in those of man. 
 
 The substance of the nucleus is fibrin (J. Muller, Fr. Simon). The case 
 is very sensitive, swells out in water and principally in less concentrated 
 fluids than the Serum; shrinks together in concentrated solutions, and is 
 soluble in acetic acid. 
 
 Inside the case we find a viscous fluid, in which, probably, the colouring 
 matter, soluble in water, is contained (Haematin and Haemaphaein), which 
 amounts to about 0*55, and may be abstracted by alcohol. The Globulin 
 (Berzelius) is also a part of these contents, probably albumen with phosphate 
 of lime. The cases of the blood corpuscles have not yet been chemically 
 examined alone. 
 
 Cruor (not to be confounded with Haematin), blood red, is the term given 
 to the mixture of the cases with their contents. 
 
 6. The colourless blood corpuscles are somewhat larger than the coloured ; 
 they possess a nucleus, and are more frequently present in the serum than in 
 
ELEMENTARY FORMS. 35 
 
 the blood coagulum. They are developed from the Chyle and Lymph cor- 
 puscles, and are metamorphosed into coloured blood corpuscles, without 
 nuclei. 
 
 2. Blood Plasma, the fluid element of the blood, contains, dis- 
 solved in water : 
 
 a. Fibrin, more in males, in pregnant women, and in inflammations, par- 
 ticularly of the lungs. 
 
 b. Albumen, more in females than in males. 
 
 c. Fat, in indefinite quantity; the greater the quantity, so much the more 
 white the serum. 
 
 d. Extractive matters. 
 
 e. (Peculiar smelling substance, which is especially brought out by sul- 
 phuric acid, and may serve to distinguish between animal and human blood.) 
 (Barruel.) 
 
 f. Salts: 1. Soda and lime, with lactic, fatty, carbonic, sulphuric, and 
 
 phosphatic acids ; particularly chlor. sodium (common salt). 
 
 2. Lactate ammonia. 
 
 3. Phosphor. Lime and Magnesia. 
 
 Oxide of iron is found in the blood in very indefinite quantity, only. Bile, 
 urea, as well as sugar also, are found probably only in diseased blood. 
 
 Although the composition of the healthy blood differs according to the age, 
 sex, &c. of man, there always remains, nevertheless, a certain relative propor- 
 tion of the elements before quoted. F. Simon gives the following proportions 
 as the result of an analysis of healthy venous blood. 
 1000 parts of blood consist of: 
 
 Water ..... 791*900 
 Solid residue .... 208-100 
 
 Fibrin ..... 2-011 
 
 Fat 1-978 
 
 Albumen 75-590 
 
 Globulin ..... 105-165 
 Haematin ..... 7-181 
 Extractive matter and salts . . 14-174 
 
 The arterial blood contains less solid elements, less fat, albumen, haematin, 
 extractive matters, and salts. The blood also of ven. porta,, that of the 
 hepatic veins, &c., present each again particular differences. 
 Coats of vessels* see Angiology. 
 Muscular tissue, see Myology. 
 Tissue of nerves, see Neurology. 
 
 37. Tissue of Glands. 
 
 Glands, glandulse, was the name formerly given to all soft, 
 roundish, highly vascular organs, with or without excretory ducts. 
 They are organs of the most different sizes, which take away 
 certain substances from the blood, for the purpose of conducting 
 them (as such or metamorphosed) either immediately to the sur- 
 face of the body, or first into cavities, where they become mixed 
 with their contents. They are therefore divided into membranous 
 and vascular glands. 
 
 1. Membranous, or glands of mucous membranes, possess a 
 
36 GENERAL ANATOMY. 
 
 cavity which constantly, or at times, is in communication by 
 canals or immediately with the surface of the body. The most 
 simple are round vesicles (cells) clear as water, of O'Ol to 0*03 
 of a line diam., formed of a structureless membrane, with granu- 
 lar contents and closed, lying in the substance of the mucous 
 membrane, without elevating it. Similar, but larger, are the gl. 
 tartaricse of the gums, gl. agminatss and solitaries of the small 
 intestines and the egg in the ovary. They open at times. We 
 therefore distinguish simple (gl. simplices, cryptse) and compound 
 glands (gl. compositse), and among these gl. conglomerate, which 
 form a mass, with one or few excretory ducts, and gl. aggregate, 
 which only lie close together, and possess separate excretory 
 ducts. Forms of glands : 
 
 a. Glands like blind sacs consist of a series of vesicles opening into one 
 another, the first of which is closed, whilst the last opens upon the mucous 
 membrane or into an excretory duct. The shortest are the glands of Lie- 
 berkuhn in the small intestines, filled with viscous granular contents; they 
 are longer upon the large, particularly in the rectum. More in clusters, but 
 unarranged, appear the gl. pylorica (gastric fluid glands), the gl. Meibomiance. 
 of the eyelids, and the glands of the caruncula lacrymalis. Wound up like a 
 ball of thread, convoluted: sweat glands of the skin and the ceruminous of 
 the ear. 
 
 b. Glands in the form of a bunch of currants, racemose; are so composed, 
 that single vesicles are united into one lobule with a common excretory duct. 
 The primary lobules are associated together by uniting tissue into larger 
 secondary, and these into tertiary, which all communicate by the common 
 trunk of the entire gland only. The whole gland possesses a more or less 
 condensed covering of uniting tissue, never a serous. These racemose glands 
 are distinguished from one another, only, by their mass, size, and the rami- 
 fications of their excretory ducts. The lacrymal, mammary, and prostate 
 glands are remarkable, since in them a common excretory duct is wanting, 
 and the mass of several gland lobules appears joined together. Besides these 
 ?uid the accumulated (gl. conglobatce) Tonsillae, to this class belong the small 
 mucous glands of the lips and cheeks, of the palate, tongue, and oesophagus; 
 of the Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, gl. Brwuneriavuz of the small intestines, the 
 mucous glands of the Vagina ; the salivary glands, the Pancreas ; gl. Cowperi 
 and BartholiniancE. 
 
 c. Reteform glands consisting of tubes (therefore gl. tubulosce'), which, like 
 the blood-vessels, are united by anastomoses into a network, and never or 
 rarely terminate blindly, being, besides, many times convoluted. Their 
 excretory ducts open into bladder-like receptacles for the secretions (as in 
 the liver). To this class belong the kidneys and testicles. They are sur- 
 rounded by a fibrous membrane, which in the last sends septae inwards, so 
 that the lobules may be distinguished. 
 
 The vessels of the glands are very numerous. In the Liver, Kidneys, and 
 Testicles they pass in and out at the Hilus; in the rest of the glands they 
 are distributed from different points upon the surface, since they follow the 
 uniting tissue between the lobes, lobules, and tubules. 
 
 Nerves form plexuses upon the arteries, and accompany these into the in- 
 terior of the glands. 
 
SPECIAL ANATOMY. 37 
 
 2. Vascular glands. These are the Thyroid and Thymus 
 glands, Spleen and Caps, supra renales. They are soft, round, 
 or lobulated, pale or dark red, without excretory ducts. In the 
 thyroid and thymus glands small cavities are found filled with a 
 milky fluid. The parenchyma consists, in all, of granules which 
 fill up the spaces between the vessels. They are, proportionably, 
 not superabundantly, provided with blood and lymph vessels. 
 In the spleen and supra renal capsules the vessels quickly pass 
 into capillary ramifications, without marked anastomoses. In 
 the supra renal capsules a greater abundance of nerves prevails. 
 It is pretended that their function consists in producing a change 
 in the composition of the blood ; of what kind is unknown. 
 
 With these may be classed the Lymphatic glands, which 
 consist of a convoluted arrangement of Lymphatic vessels passing 
 uninterruptedly through them (vasa afferentia and efferentia). 
 The alteration effected in the blood and lymph as they pass through 
 them is even still doubtful. 
 
 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 38. General cutaneous covering of the body. 
 
 The external surface of the body is invested by a compound 
 membrane, which, at the openings of the internal surface, turns 
 inwards, and lines the open cavities, as mucous membrane. 
 
 39. I. External skin, cutis. 
 
 It invests the whole of the outer surface of the body, is itself 
 covered externally with the epidermis (see Epithelium), internally 
 with loose uniting tissue, and consists of a very filamentous, 
 interwoven uniting tissue, with glands, nerves, and vessels : this 
 is the Corium. 
 
 1. Epidermis, cuticle, is a connected, nowhere perforated, more or less 
 strong layer of pavement epithelium. Its usual thickness measures one- 
 twentieth of a line, but in the palm of the hand and under the sole of the 
 foot equals to 1 line. In life colourless and diaphanous, it becomes in death 
 white and transparent : is little elastic, but brittle, curling up together when 
 detached from the cutis, peels off, especially in cutaneous eruptions, and rises 
 in blisters on the application of heat It does not decompose ; it is coloured, 
 by sulphuric acid, brown, by nitric, yellow, by hyd. chloric, not at all, by ni- 
 trate of silver, first milky white, then greyish blue, by hyd. chlor. of gold, pur- 
 plish red. Caustic alkalies dissolve it. Elements : keratin equal to O94, 
 gelatin equal to 0'5, lactic acid, sulphate, phosphate of potash and lime. 
 
38 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 The unevenness of the epidermis depends upon that of the corium which is 
 found underneath it. There are elevations, grooves and fossae, from the last 
 of which hair, sweat or fat, with which the cuticle is constantly saturated, ap- 
 pears. By boiling, the epidermis easily separates, especially in the palm of 
 the hand or sole of the foot, into an external and an internal layer. The in- 
 ternal layer (rete Malpighii), improperly regarded as a peculiar membrane, is 
 softer, but not essentially different from the external layer, into which, by de- 
 grees, it passes ; its reteform appearance arises from rearing out the nervous 
 papillae of the corium, otherwise it is granular, whilst the external layer ap- 
 pears striated. In the Negro the rete Malpighii is, likewise, nothing else but 
 this internal layer with black pigment adherent to it. 
 
 2. Corium, true skin, is a soft, at the same time strong, dense, and very ex- 
 tensible organ, of a red colour and variable strength ; thickest in the surfaces 
 of the foot and hand, stronger in the male than in the female, and very deli- 
 cate on the eyelid and the glans penis. Upon its external free surface we 
 observe folds, especially in places which are subject to extension (in the palm 
 of the hand, upon the dorsum of the fingers, on the foreskin). Other folds 
 are formed by means of the muscles, which act upon the skin (e. g., on the 
 forehead). These, in time, remain constantly (as wrinkles), like the folds 
 which arise upon the abdomen, in consequence of the greater extension, after 
 pregnancy and dropsy ; in old age they arise from the loss of the fat. 
 
 The skin is moveable by proper cutaneous muscles (in man on 
 the face and in the hand only) ; by a very fatty, as well as ex- 
 panded uniting tissue in the form of a membrane (fascia super- 
 faialis). See Myology. 
 
 The external skin is both an organ of touch and of secretion, 
 by means of the tactile papillae, arranged in rows, upon the linear 
 elevations, the sweat and sebaceous glands, and the glandules of 
 the hair follicles found in the depressions between them. 
 
 a. Tactile, sensitive papillae, Papilla corii, consist of closely compressed 
 fasciculi of uniting tissue, in the interior of which a vascular and nervous loop 
 passes. (The nerves do not terminate like a hair-pencil or club, but are re- 
 flected, and return to the surface of the skin.) The Papillae lie in the upper- 
 most layer of the Corium, covered by the Epidermis, which fills up, partly or 
 entirely, the depressions between them, and therefore gives to the skin either 
 a grooved or even appearance. We distinguish filamentous and club-shaped 
 papillae. The finer they are, so much the more crowded they stand, and the 
 more sensitive is the skin (e. g.. on the inner surfaces of the fingers, in the 
 sole of the foot, on the nipple, the lips, glans penis, and clitoris). 
 
 b. Sebaceous follicles, folliculi sebacei, spread over the whole surface of the 
 body (with the exception of the palm and sole), found especially at the points 
 of transition of the external skin into the mucous membrane. The larger 
 open immediately upon the skin, namely in places devoid of hair (e. g., the 
 glans penis, the nyrnphse) ; they do not consist, probably, of simple follicles. 
 but must be enumerated with the racemose glands ; the smallest lie in pairs 
 on either side of a hair follicle, and open immediately into it. These last 
 consist of small fat cells which lie dispersed in round heaps of 0*007 of a 
 line in diameter. They contain an oil, the grease of the skin, sebum cutaneum, 
 which makes the skin and hair pliable. To the glands of the hair follicles 
 belong also, probably, Eichhorn's lymph spaces of the cutis. 
 
SPECIAL ANATOMY. 39 
 
 c. Perspiratory glands, organa sudoripara, consist of a blind tube, which 
 reaches downwards deeply into the cutis as far as the layer of fat (where it 
 is convoluted), and opens with a spiral excretory duct, which is lined with 
 pavement epithelium, like a funnel upon the surface of the skin. Their 
 openings (pores) are placed in the grooves between the Papillae. [On the 
 ridges. TRANS.] They secrete a fluid filled with mucous corpuscles and epi- 
 dermis scales. Similar in structure are the Ceruminous glands of the ear, the 
 cells and contents of which, however, are different ; their secretion contains 
 lat vesicles. 
 
 40. II. Mucous membrane, Membrana mucosa. 
 
 It lines the internal cavities, since it penetrates, as the immediate 
 continuation of the Cutis, at the external openings into the in- 
 terior, passes through the whole digestive canal, and covers the 
 respiratory organs, glands, urinary and genital organs. It is soft, 
 like velvet, plentifully supplied with vessels and nerves, thicker 
 or thinner, according to situation, greyish white or red, and par- 
 ticularly strongly developed at the external openings. It consists, 
 like the Cutis, of Epithelium and a peculiar membrane of uniting 
 tissue, which is connected to a muscular layer by more or less 
 strongly developed uniting tissue (tunica nervea). One or more 
 of these layers are lost as they proceed. The epithelium is thin- 
 ner and more slimy (as the so-called rete Malpighii occupies the 
 surface), the uniting tissue is more delicate, e. g., in the intestines, 
 unites with the fibrous periosteum, where the mucous membrane 
 lies upon bones (when the muscular layer is lost) ; or is remarka- 
 ble for elastic fibres in the Trachaea and the Bronchi. 
 
 Like the external skin, it is beset with projections (folds, valves, 
 villi, and papillae) and depressions (sulci and fossae). 
 
 a. The folds are for the purpose of increasing the superficies in the interior 
 of canals and cavities, where absorption, secretion, or sensation is the object ; 
 and may. after removing the muscular coat, be drawn out (plica Kerkring. in 
 the intestines, columna rugarum in the Vagina, &c.). 
 
 b. The papillae are also present, especially in places which are designedly 
 very sensitive to touch, e. g., the lips, gums, tongue, palate, labia externa, 
 vagina. 
 
 c. The villi are present upon the mucous membrane of the small intestines 
 only; they resemble the filamentous papillae, but contain (instead of vascular 
 and nervous loops), lymphatic rete, which have vascular rete spun all round 
 them. 
 
 d. The fossae are the openings of the mucous glandules, folliculi rmtcosi. 
 The simple mucous glandules are not always closed follicles (gl. solitaries and 
 Peyeriana), over which the mucous membrane, with its villi, passes. When 
 open, they appear to be inversions of the mucous membrane. To the class of 
 glands with blind sacs belong the dispersed gl. solitaria, the amassed gl. Pey- 
 triancR, gl. LieberkuhniantB in the small intestines, the closed gL tartariccE in the 
 gums, and the glands for secreting the gastric juice in the pylorus ; to the 
 
40 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 racemose, the glands of the lips, cheeks, tongue, (Esophagus, larynx, &c., gl. 
 Brunneriana of the small intestines, &c. 
 
 We may distinguish three separated tracks of the raucous mem- 
 brane. 
 
 1. The digestive and respiratory mucous membrane commences 
 in common at the mouth, continues into the excretory ducts of 
 the salivary glands, upon the nose, through the lacrymal canals, 
 and punctae upon the fibrous coat of the eye, through the tuba 
 Eustachii upon the cavity of the tympanum ; it then passes on 
 the one hand from the Pharynx through the Larynx to the Tra- 
 chea and Lungs, on the other through the resophagus to the 
 stomach and intestines. 
 
 2. The mucous membrane of the genital and urinary organs is 
 more separated in the female than in the male. The urinary 
 mucous membrane, commencing from the external opening of the 
 genitals, terminates in the excretory ducts of the kidneys, and 
 continues in the male through those of the Prostate, into the semi- 
 nal vesicles, ducts, and testicles. In the female the genital mucous 
 membrane goes from the Vagina into the Uterus and tubes, and 
 opens freely into the abdomen, where the serous cavity of the 
 peritoneum communicates with it. 
 
 3. The mucous membrane of the mammary gland commences 
 at the nipple, and terminates in the closed extremities of the milk 
 ducts. 
 
 Division of Special Anatomy. 
 
 1. Osteology treats of the bones. 
 
 2. Arthrologia (syndesmologia), of the connection of the bones. 
 
 3. Myologia, of the muscles. 
 
 4. Splanchnologia, of the viscera and organs of the senses. 
 
 5. Angiologia, of the vessels. 
 
 6. Neurologia, of the nerves. 
 
OF THE BONES. 
 
 OSTEOLOGIA. 
 
 " The frontispiece Represents Galen contemplating the skeleton of a robber 
 who, being killed by a traveller, had his bones picked in two days by vul- 
 tures. This opportunity he mentions as a piece of good fortune, though he 
 had seen another skeleton which was accidentally washed out of a burying 
 place, by the overflowing of a river, besides one which was shown in a public 
 school at Alexandria, which he thought was worth the trouble of any one to 
 go on purpose to study" CHESELDEX. Osteographia. 
 
THE BONES. 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 Minute Structure : 
 Art. " Bone" in Cyclopaedia of Anat. and Phys.. at the end of which references 
 
 are given. 
 Anton. V. Leeuvenhoek. Microscopical Observations made about milk, bones. 
 
 the brain, &c. Philos. Trans., Year 1674, p. 121 128. Observations on 
 
 the structure of teeth and other bones. Ibid. 1678, p. 1002 1720, p. 
 
 9194. 
 Clapton Havers. Osteologia Nova, or some new observations of the bones, &c. 
 
 Lond. 1691. 
 Goodsir, J. $ H. Anat. and Path. Obs., p. 64. Edinburgh, 1845. 
 
 Osteogenesis : 
 Mutter's Physiology, vol. i. 
 /. Howship. Exp. and Obs. in order to ascertain the means employed by the 
 
 animal economy in the formation of a bone. Med. Chir. Trans., vol. vi. 
 
 1815. 
 
 Reparation : 
 B. B. Cooper. Experimental inquiry on the reparation after simple fracture 
 
 of bones. Guy's Hosp. Rep., vol. ii. p. 179. Plates. 
 Paget. Influence of Madder, &c. Med. Gazette, vol. xxv. 
 
 Descriptive Anatomy : 
 
 B. B. Cooper, F. R. S. Lectures on Osteology, &c., in one volume. 1844. 
 J. F. South. A short Description of the Bones. 1825. There is a new 
 
 edition. 
 
 Ward, F. 0. Outlines of Human Osteology. 
 Alex. Monro. The Anatomy of the Human Bones, &c. 3d edit. 1741. and 
 
 after editions. 
 
 Will. Cheselden. Osteographia, or the Anatomy of the Bones. Fol. 1733. 
 John Bell. The Anatomy of the Bones, &c. 1793. 
 
 T. W. King. On the Episternal Bones in Man. Guy's Hosp. Rep., vol. v. 
 B. B. Cooper. Changes effected by Age in Neck of Femur. See a paper, 
 
 Guy's Hosp. Rep., vol. iii., 2d series, p. 211. 
 Bell, Sir C. Animal Mechanics. Lib. of Useful Knowledge. 
 Boyer. On the Bones. Farrell. \ 807. 
 
43 
 
 41. THE BONES, OSSrf, 
 
 are hard, dry bodies, of various shapes. United into a moveable 
 framework, which serves as a point of support to the rest of the 
 organs of the body, they form, on the one hand, cavities for their 
 protection, and, on the other, levers to approximate separate 
 organs towards one another, which are set in motion by peculiar 
 contractile organs, the muscles. 
 
 Chemical analysis resolves the osseous mass into the following^ 
 constituents, abstractedly of the fat, the vessels, &c., found in 
 bone: 
 
 1. Cartilage, the essential, organic part of bone tissue. It consists of cells, 
 contains cavities and tubules, and is only distinguished from permanent car- 
 tilage by the fact that the bone earth is deposited in it, and condenses it. It 
 is obtained by macerating bone in dilute hydrochloric acid. It is soft, flexible, 
 elastic, soluble in a warm solution of Potash, and converted into gelatin by 
 hot water. 
 
 2. Bone earth, which is especially phosphate and carbonate of lime, with 
 some Magnesia and Fluoride of Calcium. 
 
 The proportion of cartilage is about 0-33 ; of the bone earth, O67. The 
 relative proportions differ, however, according to age, health, and the bones 
 themselves. 
 
 Figure of the bones. Three forms are described: 
 
 1. Long, or cylindrical ; 2. Flat; 3. Short, or thick bones. 
 
 1. Long bones, ossa cylindrica, possess a large cavity, occupied 
 by a few cells, and filled with fat and vessels. Externally they 
 are surrounded by compact substance, and they generally serve 
 as levers. The centre part is called body, diophysis ; the ex- 
 tremities, apophyses, are covered with cartilage, and are of the 
 same construction as the short bones. 
 
 2. Short bones, consisting of a spongy mass, formed of deli- 
 cate osseous laminae connected together: subs, spongiosa, which 
 on the surface is closely compressed, and thus surrounded by a 
 smooth but thin osseous layer, the cortical portion (subs, corti- 
 calis) ; as the bones of the carpal and tarsal articulations. 
 
 3. Flat bones enclose a thin layer of spongy substance, diploe, 
 between two closely approximating planes of solid cortical sub- 
 stance. They form cavities. 
 
 42. Texture of the Bones. 
 
 The spongy and cortical substances consist of narrow cylindri- 
 cal canaliculi, medullary canals [canals of Havers], which form a 
 network, and when they take a determinate course give a fibrous 
 appearance to the bone. They open on one side upon the exter- 
 nal surface, on the other side into the cavity of the bone or the 
 
44 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 cell-shaped interspaces (medullary cells) of the spongy substance, 
 and contain a loose, vascular areola tissue with numerous fat cells, 
 the marrow of the bone, medulla ossium. The narrowest, from 
 0.005 to 0*002 of an inch in diameter, lie immediately upon the 
 external surface of the bone. The medullary canals are surround- 
 ed by from four to twelve concentric 
 
 Osseous plates, lamella, which take a wavy course, and are perforated by 
 short fibres, or by rectangular, narrow canaliculi, the calcigerous tubes. Be- 
 tween the lamellae in the homogeneous basement tissue of the osseous car- 
 tilage, clear spots, or corpuscles having dark edges, are disposed ; these are the 
 
 Bone corpuscles, lacunae, oval, disc-like cavities, filled with granular matter, 
 from which, in a stellate manner, there pass off on all sides the 
 
 Calcigerous canals, extremely delicate tubules, with numerous ramifications, 
 in which the osseous matter or lime is found as a fine white precipitate. 
 
 Membrane of Bones. The external surface of bones is covered by Perios- 
 teum, and this again by Epithelium, in the cavities of the nose ciliated; but 
 the articular extremities terminated by cartilage are uncovered, and therefore 
 uneven. Here the medullary canals terminate in blind extremities. 
 
 Internal membrane of Bones, Memb. Medullaris, is nothing but the outer sur- 
 face of the delicate areolar tissue which attaches the medullary matter loosely 
 to the internal surface of the osseous tubes. 
 
 Vessels. In the periosteum a close vascular rete is placed, the fine (arte- 
 rial) ramusculi of which enter the medullary canaliculi by the innumerable 
 openings in the cortical substance, again interlace with one another, and 
 anastomose with the vascular rete of the cavity of the bone or medullary 
 cells. This receives its blood from larger vessels, art. nutritive, one of which 
 enters through a large foramen nutritium about the middle of each (tubular) 
 bone. The first nourish the substance of the bone; the last the medulla. 
 The venous blood is returned partly by vencE nutrition which accompany, at 
 least, the large art. nutrit. partly through peculiar canals, which are found in 
 the diploe of the flat bones. From these canals the thin-walled, valveless 
 veins pass out into the periosteum. They cannot be injected from the ar- 
 teries. 
 
 Lymphatics are demonstrated in the medulla, but not yet, with certainty, 
 in bone. 
 
 The existence of nerves is upheld by the sensation accompanying inflam- 
 mation of the medulla. The bone substance itself is without sensation. 
 
 [The periosteum is supplied, plentifully, with nerves. TRANS.] 
 
 43. Development of bone, Osteogenesis. 
 
 In the embryo a solid cartilage at first appears, cartilago for- 
 mativa, seu ossescens, which consists of a mass of homogeneous 
 cells, in the centre of which are formed the medullary canaliculi, 
 surrounded by capillary vessels. In the parietes of the canaliculi, 
 and in the lamellae, the lacunae, and calcigerous canaliculi ap- 
 pear, and after that the deposit of lime commences, at first in 
 the cartilaginous substance, next in the canaliculi ; but it is unde- 
 cided whether or not the earthy matter is chemically united with 
 
THE BONES. 45 
 
 the cartilage. Ossification commences in the cylindrical and in 
 the flat bones which appear in pairs, from the centre spreading 
 outwards towards the extremities and surfaces ; in the azygos 
 and short bones, vertebrae, e. g., in two or several symmetrical 
 points, puncta ossijicationis. It is earliest in the clavicle, se- 
 cond month of the embryo, and jaws, latest in the os pisiforme, 
 sixth to twelfth year. Sutures arise by the meeting together of 
 ossified parts which, as cartilage, were separated, e. g., in the 
 skull. Many foramina and canals are in the commencement 
 bounded by several separate pieces, e. g., foram. magnum 
 canal, spinalis. The extremities of the cylindrical bones are in 
 the cartilaginous state separate from the central portion for some 
 time after birth, and unite at last into one bone. 
 
 Abnormal osseous development frequently appears in tendons and cartilages, 
 in the ovary, on the sternum, on the bones much used, &c. 
 
 44. Particular parts of the Bones. 
 
 The skeleton is but a system of vertebrae ; the bones must there- 
 fore be regarded as more or less perfect or metamorphosed ver- 
 tebrae. As in these, so in other bones, we find a body and con- 
 necting parts ; the former, serving generally for the attachment of 
 muscles and ligaments, encloses cavities and passages ; the latter, 
 particularly assisting in the formation of joints. 
 
 1. Articular portions, a. Elevations, smooth, covered with 
 
 cartilage : 
 
 1. Head, caput, capitulum, a segment of a sphere upon a small neck (cotfwwi). 
 
 2. Condyle, condylus, semi-oval. Hereto also belongs the processus, process 
 (pr. obliquus). 
 
 b. Depressions ; smooth, covered with cartilage : 
 
 1. Glenoid cavity, a smooth fossa (e. g., of the Scapula). 
 
 12. Cotyloid cavity, cup-like, deep, circular (e. g., of the hip bone). 
 
 2. Elevations for the attachment of muscles and ligaments: 
 
 1. Projections, tuber, tuberositas, protuberaniia, tuberculum, zygoma, trochanter. 
 
 2. Spine (sharp-pointed), spina (spina tibia, ilei, processus spinosus). 
 
 3. Crest, arista, broad, long. 
 
 4. Lines, linea (long, narrow), e. g., linea semicircularis, 1. aspera. 
 
 5. Process, procesms, e. g., pr. Mastoideus, styloid, pterygaid, transvergus. 
 
 6. Branch, ramus (thick, long). 
 
 3. Depressions, not assisting in the formation of joints: 
 
 1. Fossa, fovea (flat); the entrance wider than the floor; e. g., /. parietalis 
 lacrymalis. 
 
46 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 2. Inlet, sinus, a cavity with a narrow opening, e. g., sinus Maxillaris ; cells, 
 celhda, similar, but smaller. 
 
 3. Grooves, sulcus. 
 
 4. Incision, incisura, notch (on the edges). 
 
 5. Impression, impressio. 
 
 4. Perforations: 
 
 1. Hole, foramen ; hiatus (small). 
 
 2. Fissures, fissura (long and narrow). 
 
 3. Canals, canalis, ductus. 
 
 45, Conjunction of the Bones. 
 
 I. Immoveable conjunction, synarthrosis. The edges of the 
 bones rest against each other, and are joined by sutures. The 
 edges grasping one another from opposite sides by indentations, 
 form a true, but when merely overlying each other, a false suture. 
 
 a. True suture, sutura vera. We distinguish : 
 
 1. S. dentata, where the indentations are simple, long and vertical, like 
 teeth ; e. g., the sagittal suture. 
 
 2. 8. serrata, when they are simple but oblique, like a saw; e. g., the 
 coronal suture. 
 
 3. S. limbosa, when the principal indentations are provided with small 
 lateral ones ; e. g., the lambdoidal suture. 
 
 b. False suture, sutura spuria. 
 
 \ . S. Squamosa, scale suture ; the rough edge of one bone overlying that 
 
 of the other. 
 
 2. Harmonia ; the rough edges merely meeting together. 
 Gompkosis is that conjunction in which the teeth extend in a wedge-like 
 manner into the cavities of the indented edge. 
 
 II. Moveable conjunction. 
 
 a. Close conjunction amphiarthrosis. The bones coming immediately in 
 contact or connected by ligaments, can only glide a little on one another, e. g., 
 the carpal and tarsal bones. The junction at the pubes, called symphysis, is 
 effected by cartilage and ligaments ; the union of the hip bones, synchondrosis, 
 by the interposition of cartilage alone. 
 
 b. Peculiar articular conjunction, diarthrosis, articulatio. 
 
 1. Hinge, angular joint, ginglymus. Formed by two (long) bones placed 
 at an angle, the one describing with the other an obtuse, right, or acute 
 angle. 
 
 2. Rolling or rotatory joint, rotatio, s. trockoides. One bone moving upon a 
 surface lying parallel to it in a semicircle or less, e. g., radius and atlas. 
 
 3. Ball and socket joint, enarthrosis. The movement is free in all di- 
 rections, circular ; e. g., hip joint. 
 
 4. Free joint, arthrodia. The articular head is not deeply fixed in the 
 articular cavity, as in the one above, but moves upon the articular sur- 
 face ; e. g., shoulder joint, thumb. 
 
THE BONES. 47 
 
 46. I. THE HEAD, caput. 
 
 The twenty-two bones of the head may be divided into two 
 classes ; the bones of the cranium, of the skull, ossa cranii, 7, 
 and the bones of the face, ossafaciei, 15. 
 
 A. Bones of the skull, ossa cranii. 
 a. The Azygos bones, in the central line. 
 Os basilare, the foundation bone, consists of: 
 
 47. 1. Os occipitalis, the occipital bone. 
 
 Position : at the posterior, inferior part of the head, immediately 
 above the vertebral column. 
 
 Figure : a shallow shell placed vertically, with a horizontal 
 portion, united by a ring. 
 
 Portions: pars occipitalis; 2 partt. condyloidese; p. basilaris. 
 
 Between which, for. occ. magnum. 
 
 Junctions : with six bones : two parietal, above ; two temporal, 
 laterally and below ; one sphenoid, before ; and Atlas, beneath. 
 
 a. Pars occipitalis, the upright shell ; below, passing into the condyloid por- 
 tions, is itself limited by the foramen magnum, and united above to the parietal 
 bones, sut. lambdoidalis, below, to the mastoid portions of the temporal bones, 
 additamentum sut. lamb. 
 
 1. The external or posterior surface; convex, presents, extending from the 
 foramen magnum upwards, the crista and spina occipitalis externa (for the Kg. 
 NuchtE) ; laterally, from the crest, the linea semicircularis inferior (for the muse, 
 rectus capitis post, may., obliquus sup.), and superior (for the m. occipital, et tra- 
 peziits"). 
 
 2. The internal, anterior surface; concave; divided into four fossae, two 
 superior, fosses cerebri; two inferior, fossa cerebelli. In the centre, the protube- 
 rantia (spina), interna sen cruciata(ibi torcula Herophili) ; perpendicular; crista 
 inter na (for falx cerebelli^ to the foramen magnum; horizontal: linea transversee 
 (for tentorium cerebelli), with the sulcus transversus (for the sinus transversus). 
 Above the protuberance ascends the sulcus longitudinalis superior, generally on 
 the right side. 
 
 b. Paries condyloidetz, articular portions ; on either side of the for. magnum 
 anteriorly. 
 
 1. Inferior surface; convex, elliptical, smooth; rests upon the processus obliq. 
 super, of the Jltlas. Behind, the condylus. fossa condyloidea post., frequently 
 perforated by the for. poster, for an emissar. Santorini; laterally ; fossa cond. ant. 
 with the foram. cond. ant., (for the lingual or hypoglossal nerve); externally; 
 the processus, (for the rect. capt. laieralis muse.), and incisura jugularis, which 
 forms with the petrous bone the for. jugulare, the opening for the commence- 
 ment of the jugular vein. 
 
 2. Superior, cerebral surface; concave; exhibits the processus anonymus; 
 foram. condyl. ant. et post., their internal openings; and a part of the sulcus 
 transversus. 
 
 c. Pars basilaris, base or cuneiform process; azygos, in the centre before the 
 for. magnum, behind the sphenoid bone and united with these. 
 
48 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 1. Inferior surface, slightly ascending forwards, rough (for attachments of 
 muse. red. cap. ant. major et minor), forms the bony roof of the pharynx; pre- 
 sents the spina basilaris seu pharyngea (for the m. constrict, pharyng. superior). 
 
 2. Superior surface, ascends obliquely forwards and upwards; smooth; 
 forms fossa basilaris, for medulla oblongata ; at the sides, narrow grooves for the 
 sinus petrosi inferiora. 
 
 3. Anterior surface, joins with the sphenoid bone ; the posterior sharp sur- 
 face forms the anterior boundary of the for. magn. / the lateral borders are in 
 contact with the petrous bone. 
 
 Borders and Angles. The two superior borders form, with the posterior of 
 the Parietal bones, the Lambdoidal suture ; instead of the obtuse angles in 
 which they unite, in the new-born child we find the lesser fontanelle, fonliculus 
 triangularis ; in the place where the Occipital, Parietal, and Mastoid portion of 
 temporal meet together the posterior lateral Fontanelle, later the ossa Worm- 
 iana; generally about one inch lower, the for. masloideum (for emissar. San- 
 torini). 
 
 Texture. The internal osseous table is very fragile, particu- 
 larly thin and translucent at the inferior part in ihefossze cerebelli. 
 In the condyloid and basilar portions the spongy tissue predomi- 
 nates. 
 
 Development. Four points of ossification; one for the shell, 
 which appears first; two for the articular, one for the basilar 
 portion. 
 
 Foramen magnum occipitale, the great occipital foramen, 
 serves for the passage of the spinal cord with its membranes, the 
 vertebral and spinal arteries, and the accessory nerves of Willis. 
 
 48. 2. Os Sphenoideum, sphenoid bone. 
 
 Position : in the anterior and middle part of the base of the 
 skull. 
 
 Figure: irregular, something like a flying bat; formed of a 
 central portion, body, with four horizontal large and small wings, 
 and two vertical processes directed downwards. 
 
 Junction: with all the cranial bones, and with the following 
 bones of the face : Vomer, ossa zygomatica, palatina, and 
 maxillaria superiora. 
 
 A. Body the most central, cuboid portion, containing two cavities separated 
 by a partition, sinus sphenoidales, which are closed in front by two triangular 
 bones, ossicula seu cornua Bertini, and only connected by one small opening 
 with the posterior Ethmoidal cells. The body presents 6 surfaces: 
 
 a,. Superior, cerebral surface, Sella turcica, s. equina, s. ephippium, Turkish 
 saddle. From before to behind: 
 
 1. A slight depression for the Nerv. Olfactorii. 
 
 2. A transverse groove leading to the foramina Optica, (for the Chiasma or 
 commissura Nerv. Optica.) 
 
 3. A four-sided fossa, fossa pituitaria (for the Hypophysis cerebri), properly the 
 sella turcica. 
 
 4. Process, chnoidd medii, on the anterior, posteriores, on the posterior border of 
 the saddle. 
 
THE BONES. 49 
 
 5. Clivits. the back of the posterior border of the saddle (for POTM- Varolti}. 
 
 (3 2 lateral surfaces, with Sulcus Caroticus (for the internal carotid 
 artery) ; Alae Magnae. 
 
 y. Anterior, with crista sphenoidal (for the lamina perpendic. of the 
 Ethmoid bone). 
 
 J. Inferior, with rostrum sphenaidak (for the Vomer), and commence- 
 ment of the canal, pterygopalatinus. 
 
 i. Posterior, unites with pars basilar. occipit. orifice of Vidian canal. 
 
 b. Small wings, alee parwe s. Processus ensiformes, triangular, flat, narrow, 
 transverse processes springing from the anterior superior surfaces of the 
 body with two roots. Connected with pars orbitalis ossis frontis. 
 Superior surface is covered by the termination of the anterior cerebral lobe. 
 Posterior border separates the anterior lateral cranial fossa from the mid- 
 dle. 
 
 Processus cKnoid. anter.: foramen opticum (for the optic nerve and ophthalmic 
 
 artery). 
 Fixsura orbitalis superior, the fissure between the great and small wings 
 
 (for the nerv. oculomotor, trochlearis, ophthabnicus, abducens, and for the 
 
 Vena ophthalmica cerebralis a.n.dfacialis'). 
 
 c. Great wings, alee magnet, quadrangular, broad processes projecting from the 
 
 sides of the body, with three surfaces and borders. 
 Surfaces: 
 
 1. Internal, superficies cerebralis, concave, forms with the temporal bone the 
 centre fossa of the Basis Cranii. From before to behind we see ; foram. ro- 
 iundum (for nerv. maxillar. sup.), for. ovak (for nerv. maxillar. inf.), for. spino- 
 sum, (for art. meningea media.) 
 
 2. External, superficies temporaRs, divided by a transverse crest into two por- 
 tions, a superior, the temporal fossa (for the muse, temporalis), and an inferior, 
 
 fossa zygomatica (for the muse, pterygoideus extern-US'). On the last the inferior 
 opening of the foram. ovale and spinosum; Process, spinosus s. spina angularis 
 (for m. malleus ext.). 
 
 3. Anterior, superf. orbitalis, a quadrangular plate, forms the largest portion 
 of the external wall of the orbit. The superior edge unites with the frontal 
 bone ; between the inferior border and the upper jaw the fissura orbital 
 inferior (for Ven. ophthalmica facial., nerv. infra-orbital and subcutaneous maJce). 
 
 Borders. The three surfaces meet together in a superior broad margin, 
 which unites with the frontal bone. The orbital and cerebral surfaces unite 
 in a sharp, free, internal border, which assists in forming the fissura orbital 
 super. The orbital and temporal surfaces in the anterior superior which joins 
 with the malar bone, and in the anterior inferior which, free and sharp, 
 assists in forming the fissura orbital, infer. The temporal and cerebral sur- 
 faces form the posterior superior border which unites with the squamous por- 
 tion of the temporal bone, and the oblique posterior inferior border which ter- 
 minates with the spina angularis behind the foram. spinosum. 
 
 d. Processus Pterygoidei, palatine wings, descend perpendicularly from the 
 body, one on either side, lying in the upper half free behind, and in the in- 
 ferior close to the upper jaw and palate bones. Above in their root the hori- 
 zontal Canalis Vidianus. On the anterior convex surface a furrow (sulcus 
 pterygoideus), which forms, with one upon the Palate bone, the Canal pterugo 
 palatinus. The posterior surface concave bounded by two wings ; jSla externa 
 (for the muscle pterygoideus ext emus'), Ala inter na with a hook, hamulus pteryg. 
 (for the circumflexus palati mollis). Between the wings, above the ossa pteryg. 
 
 4 
 
50 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 {for the muse, pteryg. intern.'), below the Incisura pteryg. (for the reception of 
 the processus pyramidalis of the palate bones). Sometimes there is a sinus 
 pteryg. where the ala extern, and internet meet together with the Corpus sphenoid., 
 and it is connected with the Simts sphenoidal. (Mayer.) 
 
 Foramen pterygo-spinosum (seu interruptum, Fitsebeck) is formed by a 
 lamella of bone, or a ligament between the proc. spinos. alee magnte and the 
 ala externa proc. pteryg. (for the ganglion oticum of Arnold). 
 
 Texture of the Sphenoid. The compact osseous tissue pre- 
 dominates. The cavities in the commencement consist of spongy 
 bone, which, by degrees, is absorbed. 
 
 Development. In the foetus the small wings and a portion of 
 the body are separated, even up to the ninth month, from the rest 
 of the bone (in lower animals during life, the anterior and posterior 
 sphenoids). 
 
 Eight points of ossification. Deposit of bone first commences 
 in the large wings from the fortieth to the forty-eighth day. The 
 Cornua Bertini unite with the body of the sphenoid about the 
 fifteenth to the eighteenth year, the basilar portion in the eighteenth 
 to the twenty-fifth year. 
 
 49. 3. Os Ethmoideum, s. cribriforme, sieve bone. 
 
 Situation : in the central line of the anterior part of the base of 
 the skull, before the sphenoid, between the frontal bones, or rather 
 the orbital plates of the frontal bone, and behind the nasal bones. 
 
 Figure : that of a cube, consisting of thin bony plates. 
 
 Portions : 1. Central, lamina cribrosa with the lamina perpen- 
 dicularis. 
 
 2. Lateral, two labyrinthi. 
 
 1. Lamina cribrosa, perforated plate, horizontal, quadrangular. 
 
 - a. Superior surface, looks into the skull; from its centre a narrow, trian- 
 gular process ascends perpendicularly, the Crista Galli (for the falx cerebn), 
 with two projections on its anterior border (process, a/ares); here is the 
 foramen-cacum. On the sides and behind the crista, the numerous foramina 
 cribrosa (for the nerves of smell); a groove on either side, sulcus pro nerv. 
 olfactorio. 
 
 b. Inferior surface, the uppermost wall of the nasal cavity, which is divided 
 into two by the vertically descending lamina perpendicularis. The vertical 
 plate anteriorly lies against the nasal spine of the frontal bone and the nasal 
 bones ; behind upon the crista sphenoidal., below upon the Vorner and nasal 
 cartilage. 
 
 Borders: a. The anterior border of the cribriform plate unites with the 
 frontal bone.. 
 
 b. The posterior, with the crista sphenoidalis. 
 
 2. Labyrinthus, the lateral portions extend directly downwards from the 
 cribriform plate, one on either side of the septum nasi, appear externally as 
 a thin plate (lamina papyracea^ in the orbits, internally in the nasal cavity 
 (lamina nasalis). Between the two plates lie the cells (sinus Ethmoidaks). 
 
THE BONES. / ^ 51 
 
 a. The papyraceous plate, bounded above by the frontal bone, indsura 
 ethmoidaks (foramina orbitalia) ; before by the lacrymal bones, below by the 
 upper jaw, behind by the palate and sphenoid. 
 
 b. The nasal plate is divided by a horizontal fissure into a superior (poste- 
 rior) shell (concha Morgagni), and a central (concha media), and larger. Both 
 externally concave. Sometimes there are three shells or conchae. 
 
 c. Sinus seu cettula ethmoidales, with a transverse septum passing through. 
 
 a. Anterior, cell, lachrymaks, opening with the frontal sinuses, below the 
 middle concha (Jnfundibulum, meatus nasalis medvus). Larger and more 
 numerous than 
 
 b. Posterior, cell. palatiruK; opening, with the sphenoidal cells, below the 
 superior concha ; they are separated from the sphenoid bone by the Cornua 
 Bertini. The cells are lined with a delicate periosteum and ciliated epithe- 
 lium, not mucous membrane. 
 
 From the anterior cells, on the inferior anterior border of the papyraceous 
 plate, a hook passes off, Process, uncinatus, which unites with the concha in- 
 ferior. 
 
 Conjunctions of the ethmoid with thirteen bones : frontal, 
 sphenoid, the inferior turbinate, upper jaw, nasal, lacrymal, palate 
 bones, and Vomer. 
 
 Development. Ossification commences at the fifth month, first in the papy- 
 raceous plates, then in the conchae ; in the sixth to the twelfth month after 
 birth, in the Crista Galli and lamina perpendicularis, the most anterior part of 
 which, septum mobile of the nose, remains during life cartilaginous. The 
 cribriform plate is first completely ossified in the second to the third year, 
 the cells are first developed completely in the fifth to the sixth year ; in the 
 mature foetus the external and internal lateral walls lie close to one another. 
 
 50, 4. Os frontale, s. coronate, forehead bone. 
 
 Situation. At the most anterior part of the skull over the face. 
 
 Shape : of a shell ; the superior, larger and vaulted portion, p. 
 frontalis, vertical, the inferior, paries orbit ales, horizontal. 
 
 Conjunctions with twelve bones ; two parietal, one sphenoid, 
 one ethmoid, two nasal, two malar, two lacrymal, two superior 
 maxillary bones. 
 
 a. Pars frontalis, forming the forehead, perpendicular and gently vaulted, 
 unites at its superior border (m. coronalis) with the parietal bones, in the 
 coronal suture ; the inferior edge limits the horizontal part anteriorly. Two 
 surfaces. 
 
 1. External, convex, with the frontal suture in the first year, a frontal 
 prominence, tuber frontak, the centre of ossification on either side ; under this 
 the arch of the eyebrow, arcus superciliares (for the muse, corrugator supercilu) ; 
 between them the triangular smooth surface Glabetta, and below them mar- 
 gines supraorbitales, superior border of the orbit (for the m. orbiculares palpebra- 
 rum), with Indsura or foramen supraorbitale (for the nerv. art. and ven. wpra- 
 orbitaks), and externally Process, zygomaticus (uniting with the malar bone), 
 above Crista frontalis, and in continuation linea semicircularis (for the muse. 
 temporalis~). 
 
 2. Internal, concave surface ; besides the elevations and depressions for the 
 
52 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 convolutions of the brain and the Pacchionian glands, the Suld arteriosi (for 
 Arteria meningea anterior) ; in the central line : crista frontalis interna, the 
 commencement of the sulcus longitudinalis (for sinus long, superior), and foramen 
 ccBcum, a blind, sometimes open hole (for falx cerebn). 
 
 Conjunctions : above with the Parietal bones, below with the great wings 
 of the Sphenoid, laterally with the malar bones. 
 
 b. Paries orbitales, orbital portions, horizontal, the superior walls of the 
 orbits, separated by the Incisura ethmoidalis, in which the Ethmoid lies. 
 
 1. Inferior surface, triangular, concave, in the orbit. Towards the nose ; 
 fossa or spina trochkaris (for muse, obliq. superior) externally fovea lacrymalis 
 
 (for the lacrymal gland). 
 
 2. Superior surface, convex, uneven, in the cranial cavity, supporting the 
 inferior surface of the anterior cerebral lobes. 
 
 3. Borders. The internal forms with the annexed Ethmoid bone, foramina 
 ethmoidalia (for Nerv. Art. et Ven. ethmoid?), and lies anteriorly upon the Lacry- 
 mal bone ; the external unites with the malar bone, laterally ; with the great 
 wing of the Sphenoid, behind. 
 
 c. Pars nasalis, nasal portion, short, thick, immediately below the Glabella, 
 between the orbital portions, beneath excavated in a horse-shoe shape into an 
 Incisura nasalis with a projecting spine, spina nasalis (for the nasal bones and 
 upper jaws), on the sides of which are the openings of the frontal cavities, 
 sinus frontales. 
 
 The frontal sinuses, only completely developed after the age of 
 puberty, lie between the two tables of the frontal portion, from 
 the inferior margin of which they ascend to the frontal eminences ; 
 they are divided by a septum into two, sometimes several unequal 
 spaces, and open with the anterior ethmoidal cells immediately 
 below the middle nasal turbinate bone. They are lined with 
 periosteum and ciliated epithelium. 
 
 Development. It begins in the second month of foetal life with two lateral 
 centres of ossification, in the arcus superciliaris, which in the first year are 
 associated by a suture (sutura frontalis), which for some years continues dimi- 
 nishing. It sometimes exists during the whole life. The cavities appear in 
 the first year, and by degrees enlarge even up to old age. 
 
 b. The cranial bones occurring in pairs. 
 51. 5. Ossa parietalia, s. bregmatis, vertex bone. 
 
 Two quadrangular, flat, externally convex, internally concave 
 bones ; broader before than behind ; united together by the. sagit- 
 tal suture; forming the highest part of the cranial vault; one on 
 either side of the central line, two surfaces, four borders, four 
 angles. 
 
 Surfaces : 
 
 1. External, convex, smooth, vaulted in the centre, tuber parietale, the centre 
 of ossification ; terminal point of the greatest transverse diameter ; below 
 this the linea semicircularis, the concave boundary line of the planum 
 semicircularis, which is above convex (for the muse. temp, and fascia tem- 
 poral). 
 
THE BONES. 53 
 
 2. Internal, concave, with elevations (juga cerebralia). impressiones digit at a 
 and sulci arteriosi (for the arteria meningea media), passing from the inferior 
 angle. In the centre fossa parietalis. 
 
 Borders : 
 
 1. The superior mar go sagittate, the longest, very thick, dentated; presents 
 upon the concave surface a half groove which forms with the other half 
 groove upon its fellow bone the Sulcus longitudinalis. Foramen parietale (/. 
 emissarium Santorini). 
 
 2. The inferior, mar go squamosus, the shortest, concave, sharpened off, 
 unites with the squamous portion of the temporal bone (Sut. Squamosa). 
 
 3. The anterior, m. corona/is, toothed, forms with the frontal bone the 
 coronal suture. 
 
 4. The posterior, m. lambdoideus, long indentations, unites with the occipital 
 bone. 
 
 Angles: The two superior are right (ang. frontalis and ocdpitalis). 
 
 The anterior inferior, ang. sphenoidalis, pointed, long, with the sulc. arte- 
 riasus. 
 
 The posterior inferior, ang. mastoideus, obtuse, with sulcus lateralis s. trans- 
 verms (for the transverse sinus). 
 
 The two parietal bones unite anteriorly in an extended, poste- 
 riorly in a right angle. 
 
 Conjunctions, with: os parietale, frontis, occipitis,temporum, 
 sphenoideum. 
 
 Texture. On the external and internal surfaces, compact, bony tissue, 
 between the two, diploe. The thickness of the parietal bones diminishes 
 from above to below. In the diploe there are many veins. (Hence danger 
 from fractures.) 
 
 Development. Ossification commences in the tuber parietale, at first in the 
 twelfth week; the angles are developed the last (hence the fontanelles). 
 
 52. 6. Ossa temporum, temple-bones. 
 
 Situation: one on either side of the skull, below the parietal, 
 before the occipital, behind the sphenoid, at the base and at the 
 sides of the cranium. 
 
 Shape: irregular. Parts from behind forwards. Mastoid, squa- 
 mous and petrous portions. 
 
 Conjunctions with 5: 3 cranial, 2 facial bones, parietal, occipi- 
 tal, sphenoid, superior and inferior maxillary bones. 
 
 I. Pars squamosa, scale-like, the anterior, superior, shell-formed portions of 
 the bone, the thinnest of the whole cranium, on its outer side. 
 
 a. External surface, convex, with grooves (for Art. temporal, profund.), and 
 the temporal fossa (for muse, temp.). Processus zygomaticus s. ansa capitis (for 
 muse, masseter), forms the zygomatic arch with the process of the (os mala); 
 between its two roots, the cavitas gknoidalis (the articular cavity for the head 
 of the lower jaw) ; the superior, two-armed, associated with the inferior in 
 the tuberculum articulare (for the ligam. lateral, extern.). The proper anterior 
 articular cavity is separated from the posterior by the fissura Glaseri {Chorda 
 tympani, Muse, malleus externus, Art. et Yen. tympanica). 
 
54 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 b. Internal surface, at the superior part a distinct horizontal sulcus arte- 
 rialis. 
 
 c. Circumference. Three-fourths of a circle, free, above, upright ; the in- 
 ternal border behind cut off obliquely, where it unites with the cranial bone; 
 before united with the Sphenoid. 
 
 2. Pars Mastoidea, nipple-like portion behind the squamous, and deeper, 
 separated from it above by a deep .incision, incisura parietalis ; below by the 
 petrous portion (with the external auditory meatus). In the thickness of the 
 bone are placed the sinus s. cellules mastoidece, into which we may pass from 
 the cavity of the tympanum. They are covered with delicate periosteum and 
 pavement epithelium, not mucous membrane. 
 
 a. External surface, convex, rough, presents below and before the proc. 
 mastoideus (for the muse, sternocleido-mast., splenius capitis, retrahentes auri- 
 cula) ; hence inwards, incisura mastoidece (for the muse, digastricus) ; still 
 deeper and parallel a small incision (for muse, trachelo-mastoid.) ; backwards, 
 far. mastoideum (for emissarium Santorini), and sometimes Jlrt. meningea pos- 
 teriora. 
 
 b. Internal surface, concave, with the broadest portion of the fossa sig- 
 moidea (continuation of the sulcus transversus), the internal opening of the 
 for am. mastoideum. 
 
 c. Circumference very thick; dentated; anteriorly, united in the pointed 
 Incisura parietalia with the parietal ; behind, thick and uneven, with the 
 occipital bone. 
 
 3. Pars Petrosa, s. os petrosum, petrous bone, pyramidal, trilateral, lies 
 obliquely from without inwards and from behind forwards, looking with the 
 base outwards, with the apex towards the cranial cavity. Very solid, but 
 brittle ; it encloses the organ of hearing. 
 
 a. Basis, between proc. zygomatic. and mastoid. presents Meatus auditorius 
 externus, the external auditory canal, behind the cavit. glenoidalis, oval, in the 
 centre narrower than at its extremities (in the fostus, instead of it, a ring, 
 annulus tympani). 
 
 b. Apex, obtuse, the exit of the Canalis caroticus and part of the foram. 
 lacerum anterius; externally, tuba Eustachii; above that, canal, tensoris tym- 
 pani. 
 
 c. Surfaces. Inferior, from without to within; Processus styloideus, twelve 
 to fifteen lines long, sometimes moveable, always in animals; backwards, 
 foramen stylo-mastoideum (for facial nerve and stylo-mastoid artery), the inferior 
 opening of the Canal. Falkpice. Inwards from the styloid process; fossa 
 
 Jugularis (for the bulbus Ven. jugularis) ; the anterior half of the for am. jugular. 
 s. lacerum posterius (for the Nervi glossopharyngeus, vagus et accessorius, ram. 
 jugularis Nervi sympathici et Vena jugularis interna), with the Vallecula s. fos- 
 sida petrosa (for the Ganglion petrosum, Nervi glossopharyngei) ; in which the 
 inferior opening of the Can. tympanicus ; before the fossa jugularis the en- 
 trance to the Canalis Caro'icus (for the Carotis interna et ramus caroticus nerv. 
 sympathici) ; [from the Carotid Canal, foramina lead into the Tympanum.^ 
 Upon the septum, between fossa jugularis et canal, caroticus, the narrow en- 
 trance to the Jlquaductus Cochlea. 
 
 d. Anterior (internal) surface. This is the posterior wall of the central 
 cranial fossa, with Hiatus Canalis Fallapia (for the Nerv. Vidianus supcrfi- 
 cialis) in the centre; anteriorly and externally to this the superior opening 
 of the canal, tympanicus; posteriorly, eminentia arcuata of the superior semi- 
 circular canal of the Labyrinth of the ear. A groove (for the sinus petrosus 
 
THE BONES. 55 
 
 superior') upon the upper edge, margo petrosus ; at the apex a semilunar 
 depression (for the gangl. Gasseri). 
 
 e. Posterior surface. This is the anterior wall of the posterior cranial fossa. 
 Here, we see the Meatus auditorius internus ; it is short, three lines long, directed 
 obliquely forwards and outwards; at the base divided by two cross lines into 
 four portions; in the superior anterior, apertura intern, canal. Fallopia (for nerv. 
 facialis); above and behind, the funnel-shaped, fossa vestibuli superior; below 
 and behind, the fossa vestib. inferior; below and before, fossa cochlea; these 
 three, with their lamina cribrosce (for the nerv. acusticus and vasa audit oria 
 interna). Immediately above the meatus a fissure or blind foramen for the 
 reception of the Dura mater ; an eminence of the inferior semicircular canal 
 of the Labyrinth; half an inch posterior, the aquceductus vestibuli concealed 
 behind an osseous lamella. 
 
 f. Borders. The superior (vide d.) ; the inferior and internal extends from 
 the apex to the Incisura parietalis, where it blends with the superior, unites 
 with the pars basilaris of the sphenoid and with the os occipitis. The inferior 
 external lies close to and unites with the great wing of the Sphenoid. The 
 anterior and free border forms the posterior half of the foram. lacerum anterius 
 (which is an interval between the Petrous, Sphenoid, and Occipital bones 
 filled up in the fresh state with fibro-cartilage). 
 
 Canalis FallopitB (for the nerv. facialis'), leads from the internal auditory 
 meatus over the Vestibule transversely outwards, turns (geniculuni) at the 
 Hiatus canalis Fallopii backwards, passes horizontally over the fenestra ovalis 
 beneath the horizontal semicircular canal to the posterior wall of the tym- 
 panum, curves itself once more, and descending vertically, makes its exit at 
 the foram. stylomastoideum. With the tympanum it is connected by the canal, 
 chord, tympani, by the canal of the eminentia papillaris which, like the canalic. 
 mastoideus, passes oft' from the vertical portion. 
 
 Canaliculus Mastoideus (for ram. auricularus nerv. Vagi) commences with two 
 small openings in the fissure between the external auditory meatus and mas- 
 toid process, and terminates, singly, close to the canal, chorda tymp. in the canal. 
 FallopieE. 
 
 Canalis tympanicus (for the nerv. tympanicus of the gangl petrosum) runs from 
 the vattecula upon the floor of the tympanum, continues as a groove upon the 
 promontory, and again opens as a canal between can. Fallopii and can. tensor 
 tympani, close to the hiatus upon the anterior surface of the Petrous bone. 
 
 Development Five points of ossification ; the first in the squamous portion 
 in the second month of embryonic existence; the second in the pyramid; the 
 third is the ring around the tympanum, annulus tympani, which in many 
 animals continues as a distinct bone during life, in the embryo lies at the com- 
 mencement almost horizontally, and is open above; the fourth in the mastoid 
 portion; the fifth in the Styloid process. The zygoma, at birth, is little, the 
 external auditory canal not all developed, the articular cavity therefore almost 
 flat; the mastoid process also is not developed until late; the Labyrinth and 
 ossicula auditus are completely formed. 
 
 53. Of the Cranium in general. 
 
 By the union of the seven bones, now described, with one another 
 by means of peculiar sutures, a tolerably closed shell is formed 
 of an egg shape above, but somewhat flattened below and upon 
 the sides. In it the Brain is contained. 
 
56 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 54. 1. Sutures, Suturse Cranii. 
 
 In a newly born infant a suture passes in the central line of the skull from 
 the superior angle of the occipital, to the root of the nose on the frontal bone. 
 This is 
 
 1. The Sagittal, s. sagittalis, between the Parietal bones, with which in the 
 adult, 
 
 2. The frontal, s. frontalis, unites. This long suture is anteriorly, upon the 
 crown of the head, crossed by a transverse suture, the 
 
 3. Coronal, s. coronales, w r hich unites the parietal with the frontal bones, 
 and is behind bounded by the 
 
 4. Occipital, s. lambdoidea, which joins the parietal and occipital tones 
 together. To this last is added the almost rectangular 
 
 5. Mastoid suture [additamentum suturce lambdoidalis], uniting the Occipital 
 and Parietal bone, a portion of it, with the mastoid portion of the temporal. 
 From this (from the Incisura parietalis), anteriorly, proceeds the arched 
 
 6. Squamous, s. squamosa, between the parietal and squamous portion of the 
 temporal bone. Lastly, below the frontal bone an irregular transverse suture 
 passes, the 
 
 7. Transverse, s. transversa, connecting together the cranial and facial 
 bones. 
 
 These sutures, which unite the edges of those portions of the bones which 
 become ossified at a later period, continue incomplete even for some time 
 after birth, and therefore present at the angles, where most of the borders meet 
 together, unossified intervals, which are not completely closed until the fourth 
 year, the 
 
 55. 2. Fontanelles,/onft'cw/i. 
 
 In the middle line of the skull : 
 
 1. Fonticulus Major, the large quadrangular fontanelle between the superior 
 angles of the Frontal arid Parietal bones. 
 
 2. Fonticul. Minor, the smaller fontanelle, triangular, with the base directed 
 towards the occipital; the apex towards the parietal bones, where the Lamb- 
 doidal impinges upon the Sagittal suture. 
 
 On either side of the skull lies a fontanelle, fontic. lateral, above and behind 
 the mastoid .process of the temporal bone, in that place where at a later period 
 the parietal meets with the temporal and occipital bones. In this place we 
 frequently meet with the so-called Wormian bones, ossa triquetra; the number, 
 size, and position of which are never constant; they must be regarded as iso- 
 lated, unessential points of ossification. Sometimes a triangular bone is found 
 at the superior angle of the lambdoidal suture, representing even the apex of 
 the occipital bone itself. 
 
 56. . 3. Form and Measurement. 
 
 The shape varies with the Diameter of the skull, both according to age, 
 sex, and varieties in the Race. 
 
 1 . Longitudinal Diameter; from the for. cacum to the occipital protuberance = 5 
 inches. 
 
 2. Transverse Diameter between the bases of the two petrous bones = 4$ 
 inches. 
 
THE BONES. 57 
 
 3. Vertical Diameter from the anterior border of the for. magnum to the cen- 
 tre of the s. sagittalis = 3^ inches. 
 
 The circumference is in children proportionably greater than in adults ; in 
 the male sex and in the Caucasian Race larger than in the female and other 
 Races. 
 
 The circumference of the skull stands in an inverse relation with that of 
 the face. 'Vide the facial angle of Camper. 
 
 57. 4. The Cranial cavity, cavum cranii. 
 
 a. Basis ; rests upon the Atlas ; contains three terrace-like gently descending 
 fossae, fossa cranii. 
 
 1. Anterior, most elevated, but the smallest, supports the anterior cerebral 
 lobes, is formed of: 
 
 Ethmoid, Frontal, and the lesser wings of the Sphenoid bone : 
 
 Presents, anteriorly, for. caecum, Crista Gatti, and c. frontalis interna (for Falx 
 cerebn). 
 
 In the centre, foramina cribrosa (for olfactory nerv-*) : posteriorly, for. Optica 
 (for Optic nerve and Ophthalmic artery') Proc. chnoid. anter. 
 
 The sharp posterior border, before the fossa Sylvii and sinus Ophthalmicus. 
 
 2. Central, supporting the middle cerebral lobes and base of the great brain, 
 formed by the greater wings and the body of the sphenoid, by the squamous 
 and the petrous portions of the temporal bones: posterior limit: Jlnguli Petrosi 
 and the posterior edge of the Sella Turcica : 
 
 Presents, in the centre, the Sella turcica (for the Hypophysis, [pituitary 
 gland], Infundibnlum, circular sinus of Ridley : with, proc. clinoid. medii (for 
 the commissure of the Optic nerve) ; proc. clinoid. poster, (for the corpora mam- 
 rnillaria) ; next the sulcus caroticus (sinus cavernos., carotis) : for. lacerum an- 
 terius. 
 
 At the sides, anteriorly, Fissura orbitale svperius (for nerv. oculomotor, troch- 
 learis, ram. ophthalmic, n. trigemini, n. abducens, ven. ophthalmica). 
 
 Farmer backwards, for. rotundum (for nerv. maxillar. superior'). 
 
 Externally, for. ovale (for n. maxillar. inferior^ 
 
 for. spinosum (for art. meningea med.~) ; and 
 hiatus canal Fallopice, and for. tynipanicum. 
 
 3. Posterior, the lowest, but largest (for the cerebellum and MeduU. Oblon- 
 gata). 
 
 Formed, by the Petrous and Mastoid portions of the Temporal bones and 
 by the Os occipitis ; 
 
 Bounded, before by the anguli petrosi, behind by the sulcus transversus : 
 presents in the middle line, anteriorly, fossa basilaris (for Pom Varolii, medulla 
 oblongata) ; has therein, forarn. magnum (for Spinal cord and n. access. Wittisii, 
 the art. spinal, and vertebral), foram. condyloidea anteriora (for nerv. Hypogloss.); 
 
 Posteriorly, spina and crista occipit. int. (for Falx cerebetti, torcula Herophili); 
 
 At the sides, anteriorly, for. jitgiilare (for the nerv. glosso-pharyng. vagus, 
 accessorius Will., and venajugularis}, witli the termination of the sulc. trans- 
 versus (for sinus transversus) ; 
 
 More externally and above, meat us auditorius intern, (for nerv. facialis and 
 acusficus, and Aquxduct. Vestibuli) 
 
 Lastly ; linese trantversae (for tentorium Cerebelli), with sulcus transversus. 
 
 b. The Cranial arch, fornix, the smooth roof above the convex surface of 
 the brain ; formed of frontal, parietal, and occipital bones. 
 
58 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Presents, in the central line, Salcus longitudinalis (for the longitudinal 
 sinus), extending from the Spina frontalis internet to the Eminentia cruciata. 
 On the sides the sulci arteriosi and cerebral impressions. Here, as upon the 
 external surface, the sutures, already mentioned, may be seen. The brittle, 
 hard, bony tissue on the internal surface of the fornix is called the vitreous 
 table, lamina vitrea. 
 
 4. External surface of the skull ; it is covered with pericranium (perios- 
 teum) ; presents (the sutures, ut sup.). Besides these: 
 
 a. Vault ; linea semicircularis, one upon either side, from the central frontal 
 eminence to the spina occipital, externa. 
 
 Tubera frontalia, parietalia. 
 
 b. On the basis : 
 
 1. Anterior half: Pars nasalis, process, or bit ales, ocdpitales ; 
 
 2. Posterior half: Spina and Crist a occipit. extern., Proc. condyloid., Pars 
 basilaris. Lin. semicircular, inferior, Occiput, Fussa cundyloid. poster., Fora- 
 men lacerum posterius s. jugulare , Foramen lacerunt anleriufi, with Su/cus 
 carotic. and Tuba Eustackii, to which point all the sutures of the posterior 
 half of the basis Cranii proceed. 
 
 More externally and posteriorly : Proc. mastoid., Proc. styloid., For. stylo- 
 mastoid., and the inferior opening of the Canalis caroticus. 
 
 c. At the sides : the mastoid region, foram. mastoid., meatus auditor, ex- 
 tern., cavitas glenoidea, root of the Proc. zygomatic., os temp. 
 
 Fossa temporalis, temporal fossa, is the name given to the space between 
 the lateral part of the skull and the zygoma, which below passes into the 
 zygomatic fossa, is occupied by the temporal muscle and formed by the tem- 
 poral bone, akt magna of sphenoid, malar, superior maxillary, and frontal 
 bones, and bounded below by the zygomatic arch ; above, by the I'm. semicir- 
 cular is. 
 
 58. B. Ossafaciei, Bones of the face, 14. 
 
 a. Those occurring in pairs. 
 
 59. 1. Ossa maxillx superioris, 2. Upper jaw-bones. 
 
 Position : anteriorly in the face, below the orbits. 
 Shape : irregular, almost cubical, short; Body with 4 processes. 
 Conjunctions with: Frontal, Ethmoid, and Sphenoid bones, and 
 with all the bones of the face except the lower jaw. 
 
 1. Body, hollow, bounded by four surfaces. , 
 
 a. Anterior, facial surface, planum faciale, is bounded above by : Margo 
 infraorbitalis, the inferior border of the orbit, for m. orbicul. palpebrarum and 
 levator lab'd superioris ; underneath this, foramen infraorbitale for nerv. art. 
 and ten. infraorbitale ; within this the ant. alveolar foramen for ant. dental 
 nerve ; and fovea maxillaris s. caninus, for m. lev. anguli oris. 
 
 b. Posterior, temporal surface, arched, with: Tuber maxillare ; foram. al- 
 veolar, poster., leading to a canal running along the floor of the antrum, for 
 nerv. art. and ven. alv. post. 
 
 c. Superior; orbital surface triangular, with: Sulcus and canalis infraor- 
 bitalis, for nerv. art. and ven. infraorbitalis, which opens upon the facial sur- 
 
THE BONES. 59 
 
 face ; margo externus, posterior, free ; between it and the larger wings of the 
 sphenoid bone -fissura orb. inferior. 
 
 d. Internal, nasal surface, with the opening of the antrum Highmori, before 
 it Crist a turbinalis inferior, for the inferior concha in the formation of the lacry- 
 mal canal ; sulcus pterygo-palat., helping to form canal, ptery.-pal, at the pos- 
 terior part. 
 
 Sinus maxittaris s. antrum Highmori, pyramid-shaped, with very thin supe- 
 rior, orbitar, and inferior walls, particularly over the sockets of the Canine 
 and first Bicuspid teeth, connected with the sin. pterygoid. and jugal. Its ir- 
 regular opening contracted by the inferior nasal concha, Palate and Ethmoid 
 bones to a small foramen opening beneath the inferior turbinate bone. It is 
 lined with a delicate periosteum and ciliated epithelium, not mucous mem- 
 brane. (Henle.) 
 
 2. Processes: a. Proc. nasalis s. frontalis, internal, superior process, with an 
 external surface, for m. levator lab. super, alceque nasi; and an internal, con- 
 cave, on which are linece turbinatce s. transverste, for the middle and inferior 
 nasal concha ; farther, the anterior border unites with the nasal bone, the pos- 
 terior thick border with a groove, sulcus lacrymalis, which continues into the 
 Canal, lacrymal. The apex lies in the fissure of the frontal bone. 
 
 b. Proc. zygomaticus, external superior process unites with the malar bone. 
 
 c. Proc. alveolaris. the process for the sockets of the teeth, that is, the infe- 
 rior thick border of the upper jaw, contains eight cells for teeth, alveoli, with 
 projections and depressions ; at the point of union of the two upper jaws, 
 Spina nasalis anterior ; behind that, the Canalis incisivus, for the nerv. naso- 
 palatin. Scarpee, and arteria sphenopalatin., leads from the nasal into the buccal 
 cavity; the foram. incisivum is sometimes double. 
 
 d. Proc. palatinus, palate process ; this, the horizontal roof of the mouth and 
 the floor of the nose, unites internally with the palate process of the other 
 side, behind with the horizontal portion of the palate bone ; thence arise the 
 sutura palatina and cruciata, and Crista nasalis, for the Vomer upon the upper 
 surface. 
 
 Tissue of the upper jaw. Spongy substance is only present 
 in the alveolar and malar processes. The entire bone is very 
 light. 
 
 Development. The first point of ossification appears from the 
 35th to the 55th day of embryonic existence in the alveolar pro- 
 cess. A centre of ossification is probably found in the position 
 of the intermaxillary bone of mammalia, Os incisivum (Hare 
 lip an arrest of the development of this bone) ; likewise one for 
 canal is infra-orbitalis. 
 
 At birth the upper jaw is very small; nevertheless the antrum 
 of Highmore is already present. 
 
 60. 2. Ossa Palatina, Palate bones, 2. 
 
 Situation, at the posterior part of the nasal cavity, and behind 
 the palate processes of the upper jaw, beforehand in, the Ptery- 
 goid processes of the Sphenoid. 
 
60 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Figure : a right angle, consisting of a horizontal palate por- 
 tion, and a narrow vertical plate. 
 
 Conjunctions: with one another and with the upper jaws, the 
 sphenoid bone, the inf. Turbinate and the Vomer. 
 
 1. Pars horizontalis ; a. Superior surface, which forms the floor of the nasal 
 cavity, with the Crista nasalis for the Vomer. 
 
 b. Inferior surface, which forms the buccal cavity ; hard palate, with spina 
 nasalis posterior, for m. Icvatores uvula. The internal border forms the sutura 
 Palatina, the anterior, sut. cruciata. 
 
 2. Pars ascendens, thin, quadrilateral, longer and broader than the plate 
 before described, from the external border of which it ascends on the nasal 
 wall of the upper jaw, even to the orbit. 
 
 1. Internal surface presents, the linea transvers. s. crista turbinalis media and 
 inferior, for the inferior and middle turbinate bones. 
 
 2. External surface lies anteriorly on the upper jaw, behind on the pterygoid 
 process; presents Sulcus palatinus, a part of the Canal pterygo-palatinus, for 
 art. and nerv. 
 
 3. Processes : a. Proc. pyramidalis, triangular, external and posterior, lies in 
 the incisur a pterygoid. of the Sphenoid. On it two canals; Can. palalinus extern. 
 and intern, between fossa spheno-maxittar. and palate, for nerv. and art. palatin. 
 Above: 
 
 b. Proc. orbitalis ; triangular, looks with its superior surface into the orbit, 
 lies with the external, behind on the upper jaw, with the internal on the pa- 
 pyraceous plate of the Ethmoid. Behind it, inclining backwards : 
 
 c. Proc. sphenoidaliSi to the Body and the cornua of the sphenoid. 
 Between the processes b and c, and the body of the sphenoid, the Foram. 
 
 sphenopalatinum, for the nervi nasales, art. et ven. spheno-palatina, leads from 
 ihe fossa spkeno-maxillar into the nose. 
 
 Development. The first osseous nucleus appears about the 
 40th to the 50th day at the point of junction of the processes. 
 The orbital process is yet wanting at birth. 
 
 61. 3. Ossa Malaria s. jugalia, s. zygomatica, Malar, 
 Cheek bones, 2. 
 
 Situation : at the superior lateral parts of the face, externally 
 upon the upper jaws. 
 
 Shape : an irregular quadrangle, consisting of a body and three 
 processes. 
 
 Conjunctions with: Frontal, sphenoid, sup. maxillary and tem- 
 poral bones. 
 
 1. Body, with 3 surfaces and 3 borders; contains sometimes a cavity, the 
 size of a bean, sinus jugalis (Mayer), especially in Mongolians and Malays, 
 which is connected with the Antrum of Highmore. 
 
 a. External, facial surface, convex, for muse, orbicularis palpelrarurn^zygo- 
 maticus major et minor ; it presents foramen zygomatic. anlerius, sometimes 
 several ; this is the commencement of the canal, zygomat. anter. 
 
 b. Internal, orbital surface; this is the anterior part of the orbit; externally 
 
THE BONES. 61 
 
 it presents, for. zygnmatic. anter., which is the end of the Canal, zygom. 
 anter.,for the n. subcutaneous malae ; a groove leading to fur.zygomat. poster., 
 the commencement of the Canal, zygoma* poster. 
 
 c. Posterior, temporal surface, hollowed out for muse, temporalis, presents 
 the end of the canal, zygomat. poster., namely, the for. zygomat. poster, for the 
 n. zygomaticus s. temporalis. 
 
 2. Processes: 
 
 a. Pr. frontalis, the superior, unites with the Frontal, and behind with the 
 Sphenoid bone. 
 
 b. Pr. temporali*, unites with the process of the temporal bone to form the 
 zygomatic arch arcus zygomaiicus, for the muse, masseter. 
 
 c. Pr. maxillaris, triangular, broad, and little projecting, unites with the Pr. 
 zygomat. of the upper jaw. 
 
 Formation. The malar bone consists almost entirely of com- 
 pact bony tissue ; spongy tissue is only found at the anterior 
 inferior border. 
 
 Development begins early from one central point about the 
 50th day of foetal life. At birth the orbital margin is sharp, and 
 it is not rounded until later. 
 
 62. 3. Ossa Nasalia, Nasal bones, 2 
 
 Situation : next to one another, sometimes united, beneath the 
 frontal, between the two nasal processes of the sup. maxillary 
 bones ; oblique from above and behind, to below and before. 
 
 Shape : a long quadrangle, above, narrow and thick, below, 
 broad and thin. 
 
 Conjunctions: with Frontal, Superior Maxillary, Ethmoid 
 bones and Nasal cartilages. 
 
 1. External, cutaneous surface, covered by the muse, pyramidalis nasi, flat, 
 somewhat convex, with a large, and several smaller foramina for the Vasa 
 nutritia. 
 
 2. Internal surface, the anterior portion of the nasal cavity, presents grooves 
 for vessels and nerves, the nerv. Ethmoidalis. 
 
 3. Borders, a. Superior, fitting into the incisura nasatis of the Frontal 
 bone. 
 
 b. Inferior, supporting the lateral cartilages of the nose, between them a 
 foramen for a nerve filament and arterial twig, nerv. Ethmoidalis. 
 
 c. Internal, forms with the bone of the other side the crista nasalis, for the 
 lamina perpendicularis of the Ethmoid, and above for the spina nasalis, of the 
 Frontal bone. , 
 
 d. External, longer than the last described, unites with the nasal process of 
 the upper jaw bone. 
 
 Development : from one osseous centre, commencing at the end 
 of the 2d month of foetal life. The nasal bones are completely 
 formed at birth, but not the cartilages. 
 
62 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 63. 4. Ossa lacrymalia s. unguis, 
 
 Lacrymal bones, 2. 
 
 Situation: at the anterior part of the nn^al wall of the orbit, 
 between the nasal process and the orbital surface of the superior 
 maxillary before the os planum of the Ethmoid, beneath the 
 frontal bone. 
 
 Shape : quadrangular, flat, small, like a finger-nail ; translucent, 
 thin. 
 
 Conjunctions : with the Superior Maxillary, the Ethmoid, 
 Frontal and Inferior Turbinate bones. 
 
 1. External, orbital surface, divided by the crista lacrymalis with the 
 hamulus lacrymalis, into an anterior grooved half, which forms a part of the 
 fossa lacrymalis with the groove on the proc. nasalis of the superior maxilla, 
 and a posterior half. 
 
 2. Internal surface, presents a groove which forms a portion of the middle 
 nasal chamber; and covers behind the cellulte ethmoidales anterwres. 
 
 Structure. The most brittle of the bones ; consisting of com- 
 pact substance. 
 
 .Development. One osseous centre at the 4th month. At 
 birth most completely formed. 
 
 64. 5. Ossa Turbinata s. Conchss inferiores, 
 
 Inferior Turbinate bones, 2. 
 
 Situation : at the lowest part, on the external wall of the nasal 
 cavity, beneath the Ethmoid bone. 
 
 Figure: twisted, shell-like. More pointed behind than before. 
 
 Conjunctions: with the Superior Maxillary, Palate, Ethmoid 
 and Lacrymal bones. 
 
 1. Internal surface, convex, looks towards the septum of the nasal cavity, 
 and sometimes touches it. 
 
 2. External surface, concave, looks towards the Superior Maxillary bone, 
 arid forms a portion of the inferior nasal chamber. 
 
 3. Borders: a. The superior, unites with the nasal process of the Sup. 
 Maxillary bone ; behind with the Palate bone. It presents from before to 
 behind. 
 
 1. Proc. lacrymalis, united at the apex with the Lacrymal, at the sides with 
 the upper jaw bone; forms, with the proc. nasal, of the Sup. Maxillary bone, 
 the can. lacrymalis. 
 
 2. Proc. Maxillaris s. auricularis^ hooked, contracts the opening of the 
 Antrum Highmori, to the inferior border of which it is attached. Behind this 
 a small border, for the Palate bone. 
 
 3. Proc. Ethmoidalis, unites with the Proc. iwcinnatus of the Ethmoid. 
 
 b. The Inferior free border, in the centre thicker than at the extremities,' is 
 more or less distant from the nasal septum. 
 
THE BONES. 63 
 
 Structure : compact bony tissue, but porous ; many canals for 
 nerves and veins. 
 
 Development: one ossific nucleus in the centre, about the 5th 
 month after birth. 
 
 65. b. Azygos Bones of the Face. 
 6. Vomer, Ploughshare bone. 
 
 Situation: in the centre of the nasal cavity, forming the poste- 
 rior part of the septum. 
 
 Figure : flat, angular. Portions : 2 surfaces, 4 borders. 
 
 Conjunctions with: Sphenoid, Ethmoid, both Superior Max- 
 illary and Palate bones, and the cartilage of the nasal septum. 
 
 1. Surfaces, with small grooves for vessels and nerves, covered with mucous 
 membrane. 
 
 2. Borders: a. Superior, margo sphenoidalis, short, thick, with a deep groove 
 and two lips, aUe vomeris, for the reception of the rostrum sphenoidale. 
 
 b. Inferior, palatinus, maxillary, the longest, unites with the arista nasalis of 
 Sup. Maxillary and Palate bones. 
 
 c. Anterior, m. ethmoidaKs, unites with the lamina perpendic. of the Ethmoid, 
 below with the cartilage. 
 
 d. Posterior, m. gutturalis, free, thin, sharp, inclining from above and be- 
 hind to below and before, separates the posterior openings of the nasal cavity, 
 choaruE. 
 
 Structure : the Vomer consists of 2 very thin plates of compact 
 bone, the upper separated more than the lower. 
 
 Development: begins below, with the 3d month of fetal life, 
 and is only completed in the 12th year. Ossification proceeds 
 from without inwards, so that for a long time a groove exists 
 between both plates for the reception of the Sphenoid and Ethmoid 
 bones. 
 
 66. 7. Maxilla inferior, Mandibula, Inferior, lower 
 
 or under jaw. 
 
 Situation : at the inferior region of the face. 
 Shape : of a horse-shoe, parabolic. 
 
 Portions: a central horizontal body; 2 lateral vertical ascend- 
 ing rami. 
 
 Conjunction: with the temporal bones. 
 
 1. Body, curved like an arch, consists originally of two pieces of bone 
 which unite anteriorly in the central line, to form an arch, the chin, mentum, 
 
 vtm. 
 
 NOTE. In many animals a suture exists in this place ; in Serpents a muve- 
 able articulation. The chin of animals never forms an arch, but always an 
 angle, 
 
64 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 a. External surface, presents : Spina mentalis externa. To the outer side of 
 this foramen mentale, which is the exit from the Canal, alveolaris, for Nerv. Art. 
 et Ven. alveol. inferior. 
 
 b. Internal surface, presents: in the centre, Spina mentalis interna, on 
 either side processus geni, four tubercles, sometimes surfaces, the two superior 
 for the genio glossi, the two inferior for the Genio-Hyoidei muscles, and a 
 ridge the Mylo-hyoid for the mylo-hyoideus muscle ; above this a superficial 
 fossa corresponding to the Sublingua/, and one below to the Submaxillary 
 gland. In the centre also a nutritious foramen. 
 
 c. Superior border, limbus alveolaris inferior, behind, thicker than before, 
 presents : sixteen sockets, alveoli, for sixteen teeth with elevations, Juga alve- 
 olaria, for the levator menti and indsivi muscles. 
 
 d. Inferior border, base, thick with an anterior lip for the muse, triangular., 
 quadratus menti et platysmamyoides, and two posterior surfaces for the ante- 
 rior bellies of the m. digaslricus. 
 
 2. Kami, ascend at a right angle, in the adult, angulus maxill. infer., from 
 the body, and terminate in the temporal fossa by two processes. 
 
 a. Surfaces. 1. External, flat, rough, for muse, masseter, anterior to which, 
 sometimes, a very slight groove, for art. facial is. 2. Internal, also rough, for 
 m. Pterygoid. intern., with foram. maxillar. poster., for inferior maxillary or 
 dental nerve. To the borders of the foramen is attached the lig. lateral, intern., 
 and close to it is the Sulcus mylohyoideus, for the nerv. mylohyoid. 
 
 b. Borders: posterior, for Parotid, and below for attachment of Stylo max- 
 illary ligament. Anterior, grooved ; the ridge or continuation of the linea 
 obliq. extern, et intern. 
 
 c. Processes : 
 
 1. Anterior, Proc. coronoideus, triangular, the apex free, for muse. Tem- 
 poralis. 
 
 2. Posterior, Proc. condyloideus, articular process, unites in the Glenoid 
 cavity with the os Temporum. It presents the neck, Col/um Condyli and the 
 fossa for the muse. Pterygoid. extern. Between the two processes : Incisura 
 semilunaris seu sigmoidea, for nerves and vessels. 
 
 Structure. Compact, bony tissue, on the surfaces, in the inte- 
 rior Diploe. The canal for the nerves and vessels of the teeth 
 follows the linea obliq. interna, communicates in this course by 
 one foramen, two, with the alveoli, divides in the region of the 
 Bicuspides teeth into two short canals, one of which opens at the 
 foram. mentale, the other passes as far forwards as the first 
 incisor tooth. Lying at the inferior border, before the appear- 
 ance of the teeth, they are associated together, and the canal, alv. 
 inf. always moves upwards as age advances, or, rather bone is 
 developed beneath it, and thus it appears to ascend. 
 
 Development. Next to the clavicle the earliest perfectly formed 
 bone ; in mammals, it presents even in the 2d month one osseous 
 centre upon either side for the body. Soon after birth the two 
 halves unite together. In the new-born infant the lower jaw is 
 very small, the angle still obtuse, the alveolar processes broad. 
 In old age the alveolar processes disappearing after the teeth have 
 fallen out, the lower jaw becomes smooth, thick, and again small. 
 
THE BONES. 65 
 
 67. Appendage. Os Hyoideum, s. linguale, tongue bone. 
 
 Position: free in the neck, above and before, between the 
 tongue and the larynx, horizontal. 
 
 Shape ; a Parabola like the Greek letter upsilon v. 
 
 Conjunctions ; by ligaments with the temporal bones and the 
 thyroid cartilage. Parts : 1 body, 4 cornua. 
 
 1. Body, basis, the horizontal, anteriorly convex, central portion, is upon the 
 
 a. Anterior surface, divided by a cruciform projection, a trace of the tongue 
 bones of animals, into a superior and inferior half. 
 
 b. Posterior surface, excavated, concave, separated by fibrous tissue from the 
 epiglottis. 
 
 c. Inferior border, for muse. Hyo-thyreoideus. 
 
 d. Superior border, for ligam. suspensar. lingua and lig. flavum s. hyo-thy- 
 reoideum. 
 
 Terminations, covered with cartilage, for the reception of the great Cornua. 
 
 Attachment of muscles; to the Transverse lines, Mylo-hyoideus, above that 
 genio-hyoideus to the Superior half: digastricus, hyoglossus, stylo-hyoideus to the 
 inferior half; sterno-hyoideus, omo-hyoideus, and the thyreo-hyoideus. 
 
 2. Great Cornua, longer than the body, ascend from before backwards and 
 upwards, for Kerato- (Hyo-) glossus, Kerato-pharyngeus (part of middle con- 
 strictor) ; capitulum, for ligam. hyothyreoideum laterale, at the apex. 
 
 3. Lesser Cornua, or corpuscula triticea, like a grain of wheat, situated ob- 
 liquely upwards and outwards at the point of junction of the great Cornua 
 with the Body, for the muse. Chondro-glossus (part of Hyo-glossus) and Chondro- 
 pharyngeus (a portion of Constric. Med.); unites with the Proc. Styloideus by 
 the ligam. suspensorium, sometimes ossified; it is connected with the great 
 cornua and the body. 
 
 Development: proceeds slowly from five ossific points, from 
 the termination of foetal life ; it commences in the great cornua. 
 
 The Cavities of the Facial region. 
 
 68. 1. Orbitae. Orbital cavities, 2. ; for the organs of sight 
 
 and lacrymation. 
 
 Figure : an obtuse, quadrilateral pyramid, the base directed 
 forwards and outwards, the apex backwards and inwards ; the 
 axes of both would cross behind the sella turcica. 
 
 1. Base, formed by four borders, with four angles, Frontal, Nasal, Temporal, 
 Malar. 
 
 a. Margo supraorbitalis, with foram. sometimes Sulcus supraorb., formed 
 by Frontal bone; 
 
 b. M. orbitalis extemus, with foram. zygomatic., by malar bone, and malar 
 or external angular process of frontal, 
 
 c. M. infraorbitalis, with for. infraorbitale and anterior dental foramen, by 
 the malar and sup. Maxillary bones ; 
 
 5 
 
66. SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 d. M. orbilalis internus, by nasal process of super. Maxillary and internal 
 angular process of Frontal bone ; immediately behind is the little Lacrymal 
 bone. The circumference is narrower than the cavity behind it. 
 
 2. The Walls, covered with periosteum, Periorbita, formed of seven bones. 
 
 a. Superior, the roof, formed before by the frontal, behind by the lesser 
 wing of the Sphenoid bone, presents: an external angle, fovea lacrymal., for 
 the lacrymal gland ,' an internal, fovea, s. Spina Trochlearis, for the tendon of 
 the tn. obliq. superior ; posteriorly, the suture between the Frontal and Sphe- 
 noid bones. 
 
 b. Inferior, floor, inclined outwards and downwards, formed by marg. orbi- 
 tale of the malar, fades orbit, of the upper jaw, and behind by the Proc. orbi- 
 tal, of the Palate bone; with, Canal, injraor bit alls ; bounded externally by the 
 fismr. orbital, inferior. 
 
 c. External wall, formed by the great wing of the Sphenoid and the Malar 
 bones, with : Fissura orbit ale inferior below, fissura orbit, superior behind, and 
 an oblique groove upon the malar bone leading to the superior or posterior 
 malar canal, for the temporal twigs of the nerve. 
 
 d. Internal, ibrmed by Lacrymal, Ethmoid, and the small wing of the 
 Sphenoid bone. On this wall there are two vertical sutures ; Fossa lacry- 
 malis, and entrance to the Canalis lacrymalis, Foram. Ethmoidalia, Spina s. 
 fuvea Trochlearis, for the cartilaginous loop through which the tendon of the 
 W. obliq. superior passes. 
 
 3. Apex, above, and internal, foramen opticum; below, the Fissura supra 
 and infra orbitalis and fossa Spheno-maxillaris meet together. 
 
 Connected with: 1. The cranial cavity, by the foram. opticum, 
 Fissur. orbital, superior and foram. ethmoid, post. 
 
 2. The nasal cavity, by the foram. ethmoidalis ant. and ca- 
 nalis lacrymalis. 
 
 3. The Temporal and Pterygo-palatine fossa by the Jissur. 
 orbital, inferior and canalis zygomat. superior s. posterior. 
 
 69. 2. Cavitas nasi, nasal cavity, 
 
 consists of two principal cavities lying close together, and sepa- 
 rated by a septum or partition, situated between and below the 
 two orbits, and bounded above by the horizontal plate of the 
 ethmoid ; below, by the united superior maxillary and palate 
 bones, open before and behind, and covered with a mucous mem- 
 brane, Membr. Schneideri. It is formed of fourteen bones. 
 
 1. Anterior opening, pear-shaped, Apertura pyriformis, formed by the supe- 
 rior maxillary, and nasal bones, which have attached to them the lateral nasal 
 cartilages. 
 
 2. Posterior opening, Choanas narium, quadrangular, rather longer than 
 broad, divided by the Vomer; formed, laterally, by the Pterygoid processes,- 
 above by the Sphenoid and Palate bones; below by the Palate bones; looks 
 towards the Pharynx. 
 
 3. Central division, septum narium, formed by the vertical plate of the 
 Ethmoid, by the Vomer, crista nasalis of the Frontal, crista of the Nasal, Sup. 
 
THE BONES. 67 
 
 maxillary, and Palate bones, with the continuation of the cartilaginous sep- 
 tum Mobile,- is generally curved or twisted; forms the internal wall. 
 
 4. Walls : a. superior, concave, formed by the Nasal bones, the nasal spine 
 of the os frontis, by the Ethmoid, with foramina Cribrosa, in the centre ; by 
 the Sphenoid behind. 
 
 b. Inferior wall, broader, not so long, posteriorly deeper ; formed by the 
 Proc. palatin. of the Sup. Max., and the horizontal portion of the Palate bones ; 
 presents, canal, incisivus. 
 
 c. External wall, very irregular, formed by : Ethmoid, Lacrymal, Palate, 
 Sup. Maxillary and the Inf. Turbinate bones ; presents from above to below. 
 
 1. The superior Turbinate bone or Concha ; 
 
 2. The superior nasal chamber, and on its posterior part the 
 
 3. Foramen spheno-palatinum, and the openings of the superior Ethmoidal 
 and Sphenoidal cells. 
 
 4. The middle Turbinate bone or Concha, and middle chamber with the 
 opening of the sin. maxittaris, and the anterior Ethmoidal and frontal cells. 
 
 5. The inferior Turbinate bone and the inferior chamber, with the open- 
 ing 
 
 6. of the Canalis Nasalis. 
 
 Connection: with the Frontal, Ethmoid, Sphenoid, Superior 
 Maxillary, Orbital, Buccal, and Cranial cavities ; the last by the 
 foramina Cribrosa. 
 
 70. 3. Cavitas oris; Buccal cavity, mouth, 
 
 formed by the Superior Maxillary, and Palate bones, the Sphe- 
 noid and Inf. Maxillary; contains the tongue, teeth, glands, and 
 buccal mucous membrane. 
 
 1. Superior wall, palatal vault, palatum durum; formed by: the Sup. 
 Maxillary bones, proc. palatini, the Palate bones, proc. horizontal ; and Sphe- 
 noid, proc. Pterygoid; presents : sutura cruciata, with the point, where 5 bones 
 meet together, namely, 2 Superior Maxillary, 2 Palate bones, 1 Vomer ; fora- 
 men Incisivum ; the openings of the can. pterygo-palatinus and the 2 Pala- 
 tini; Sulcus Palatinus close to the alveolar border, for the posterior palatine 
 nerves and vessels. 
 
 2. Anterior and lateral walls ; formed by : the Alveolar processes with the 
 teeth of the jaw bones ; presents : on lower jaw, Spina mentalis interna, 
 proc. geni, for muse, genio-hyoidei and genio glossi , linea obliqua, or mylo- 
 kyoidea, under this, the fovea pro gland, submaxill., over it, fovea pro gland. 
 sublingual. ,- sulcus mylo-hyoideus and foram. maxillare internum. 
 
 Connections : with the nasal canal by the can. incisivus, with 
 fossa spheno-maxillaris by canales palatini. 
 
 71. 4. Malar fossa, fossa zygomatica. 
 
 Situation : below the zygomatic arch, separated from the fossa 
 temporalis by the crista transversa of the Sphenoid bone. 
 Formed by : Sphenoid, Superior and inferior maxillary bones. 
 
 1. Superior wall, formed by the inferior surface of the Ala Magna of the 
 Sphenoid bone. 
 
68 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 2. Anterior, by the tuber maxillar. sup. 
 
 3. Internal, by the ala extern, proc. pterygoid. 
 
 4. External, by the ram. maxillaris inferior. 
 
 5. Posterior and inferior walls are deficient. 
 
 On either side, in the depth between the Superior maxillary, pars perpen- 
 dicular, of the palate and proc. pterygoideus of the Sphenoid bone, belonging 
 to the above described fossa, is situated, the 
 
 72. Fossa Spheno-maxillaris s. pterygo-palatina, 
 
 the Ptery go-palatine fossa. 
 
 Position: behind the Orbital, beneath the Cranial, above the 
 Buccal, close to the Nasal cavities ; internal to the fossa zygo- 
 matica. Contains : arteria maxillaris interna, and the 2d division 
 of the 5th nerve, and MeckeVs Ganglion. Five foramina lead to 
 this fossa; 
 
 a. Above and behind : foram. rotunda Vidianum, pterygo-palatinum / 
 
 b. Internally ; foram. spheno-palalinum / 
 
 c. Below ; the superior opening of the Can. palatin. post. 
 
 Connection with: the orbit, byjissur. orb. infer.; the nose, by 
 for. spheno-palat.; the mouth, by canal, pterygo-palat. and pala- 
 tini; the cranial cavity, by foram. rotund, and Vidianum. 
 
 73. Facial angle. 
 
 Angulus fadalis Camperi is formed, by drawing a perpendicular line from 
 the inferior Incisor teeth, in the middle line, to the most prominent portion 
 of the Frontal bone, and an oblique from the same place to the external 
 auditory meatus. It measures in Europeans 80 to 85, in Negroes 70. The 
 more pointed the angle proves, so much the more the animal conformation 
 preponderates. 
 
 74. Vertebral column, back-bone, columna, s. spina verte- 
 
 brarum s. rachis. 
 
 Extends from close beneath the cranium as low down as the 
 os coccyx which forms its inferior extremity; contributes to form 
 the Thoracic, Ventral, and Pelvic cavities ; is gently curved, of an 
 undulating figure, and contains an osseous canal, for the spinal 
 marrow. 
 
 Constituent parts : a. True vertebrae, 24 ; Cervical portion, 7 ; 
 Thoracic or Dorsal, 12; Abdominal or Lumbar, 5. 
 
 b. Sacrum, 5 false vertebras blended together. 
 
 c. Coccygis, 4 false vertebras blended together. These two 
 together form the Pelvic portion. 
 
 75. 1. True vertebras, vertebras verse. 
 
 7 Cervical vertebrae, v. cervicales ; 12 Thoracic or Dorsal, v. 
 dorsales; 5 Ventral or Lumbar, v. lumbales. 
 
THE BONES. 
 
 69 
 
 Figure : ring-shaped. Parts : Body, Arches, Processes ; 1 Spi- 
 nous, 2 Transverse, 4 Articular. 
 
 Connection; the 1st cervical vertebra with the skull, and with 
 the 2d cervical vertebra, the 2d with the 3d, and so forth ; the 
 5th Lumbar vertebra with the Sacrum ; the 12 Dorsal, besides, 
 with the ribs. 
 
 Position : one above the other. 
 
 a. Body, corpus, centrum, is the anterior, thickest, and most essential part of a 
 vertebra ; it presents above and below slightly concave surfaces covered with 
 cartilage, for its junction with the vertebral body lying above and below it, 
 is anteriorly convex; on the sides, evenly excavated and grooved; behind, 
 concave and perforated by foramina, for vessels. This posterior surface forms 
 with the 
 
 b. Arch, crews [neural arch (Owen)], which springs from its posterior lateral 
 parts, the vertebral foramen, foram. spinale s. medullare, which is triangular in 
 almost all Vertebrae, and serves as a passage for the spinal marrow. The 
 notches, incisurce, on the superior and inferior borders of every arch, form, the 
 two together, an inter vertebral foramen, foram. intervertebrale, for art. and nerv. 
 spinal upon each side. 
 
 c. Processes, processus, seven in number. 
 
 1. Muscular processes, proc. musculares, three to each vertebra: 
 
 a. Processus Spinosus, one Spinal process [Neural spine, (Owen)], behind in 
 the centre of the arch; its root almost forked; its point, apex, freely projecting 
 into the back, for the lig. inierspinos. apicum, and the Extensor muscles of the 
 trunk. 
 
 b. Processus transversi, two transverse processes, horizontal, one on each 
 side between the body and arch projecting outwards, for lig. intertransversalia,- 
 and the obliquely ascending or descending cervical and dorsal muscles. 
 
 2. Articular processes, proc. articulares s. obliqui,two superior, two inferior, 
 spring laterally from the arch, behind the transverse processes, project out 
 above the plane of the vertebral body ; are tipped with cartilage, and associated, 
 the two of the one, with the two of the other vertebra. 
 
 76. Differences between the Vertebrae of the three regions. 
 
 
 Cervical. 
 
 Dorsal. 
 
 Lumbar. 
 
 Body 
 
 Small, insignificant ; 
 
 Larger, higher; su-j As large again as the 
 
 
 the superior sur- 
 
 perior and inferior) cervical, about one- 
 
 
 face concave from 
 
 surface flat, heart- 
 
 third larger than 
 
 
 without to within. 
 
 shaped; upon either 
 
 the dorsal ; supe- 
 
 
 laterally provided 
 
 side two half articu- 
 
 rior surface concave, 
 
 
 with elevated mar- 
 
 lar surfaces for the! oval. 
 
 
 gins, which fit into 
 
 head, capitulum, of) 
 
 
 corresponding de- 
 
 the ribs; on the ele-| 
 
 
 pressions upon the 
 
 venth and twelfth 
 
 
 
 si Jes of the body of 
 
 one whole one only. 
 
 
 
 the vertebra imme- 
 
 
 
 
 diately above; infe- 
 
 
 
 
 rior surface slightly 
 
 
 
 
 convex. 
 
 
 
70 
 
 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 
 Cervical. 
 
 Dorsal. 
 
 Lumbar. 
 
 Foramen 
 
 One, very wide, tri- 
 
 Narrow,more wedge- 
 
 Broad, triangular. 
 
 Spinale 
 
 angular. 
 
 shaped. 
 
 
 Incisura in- 
 
 Superior and inferior. 
 
 The same. 
 
 The same. 
 
 tervertebra- 
 
 The inferior deeper 
 
 
 
 lis 
 
 than the superior. 
 
 
 
 Proc. spino- 
 
 Short, thick, forked at 
 
 Long ; apex blunt, 
 
 On the sides flat; the 
 
 sus 
 
 the point ; inferior 
 
 tuberculous; direct- 
 
 apex expanded into 
 
 
 surface grooved, for 
 
 ed downwards, and 
 
 a crescentic enlarge- 
 
 
 the vertebra imme- 
 
 overlaying one an- 
 
 ment ; horizontal 
 
 
 diately below, dur- 
 
 other in an imbri- 
 
 behind. 
 
 
 ing extension, al- 
 
 cated manner. 
 
 
 
 most horizontal. 
 
 
 
 Proc. obliqui 
 
 Short, oval, flat; the 
 
 Small ; the superior 
 
 Strong ; quite per- 
 
 
 superior oblique,4 5 
 
 directed backwards 
 
 pendicular; the su- 
 
 
 directed upwards 
 
 and outwards, the 
 
 perior concave di- 
 
 *. 
 
 and backwards, the 
 
 inferior inwards and 
 
 rected inwards and 
 
 
 inferior downwards 
 
 forwards ; almost 
 
 backwards; the in- 
 
 
 and forwards. 
 
 perpendicular. 
 
 ferior convex out- 
 
 
 
 
 wards and forwards. 
 
 Proc. trans- 
 
 Broad; at the base 
 
 Stronger ; longer ; 
 
 Thin ; narrow ; flat 
 
 versi 
 
 perforated byforam. 
 
 horizontal; directed 
 
 from before to be- 
 
 
 vertebrate, for the 
 
 backwards) termi- 
 
 hind; on the same 
 
 
 art. vert., above 
 
 nating roundly, and 
 
 plane as the ribs; 
 
 
 grooved, for the v. 
 
 with an articular 
 
 hence, proc. costi- 
 
 
 cervicales. 
 
 fossa, for tuberculum 
 costse. 
 
 formis. 
 
 The most particular characters by which to recognize the different vertebras, 
 immediately, are : 
 
 1. Cervical vert. Foram. vertebrale; the extremity of the proc. Spinosus. 
 
 2. Dorsal vert. Articular surface upon the body,' articular fossa on the 
 proc. transversus. 
 
 3. Lumbar vert. The want of those characters peculiar to the cervical 
 and dorsal vertebrae. By the transverse processes we can most easily 
 distinguish the vertebrae of one region from those of another. 
 
 77. Separate Vertebrae. 
 
 I. Atlas, first cervical, lies like a ring at the circumference of the foramen 
 Magnum, close to the skull, which it supports; consists of an anterior and a 
 posterior segment. Arcits anterior, in the place of the vertebral body, is flat, 
 convex anteriorly with a tubercle, tuberculum anterius, and on the concave 
 posterior surface provided with a flat, egg-shaped, articular fossa for the 
 odontoid process of the second cerv. vertebra. The lateral portions, massse 
 laterales, are strong, present above the concave fossae condyloidese, correspond- 
 ing to the superior oblique processes, for the proc. condi/loid. occipitis ; below 
 the round, flat, proc. obliqui inferioreti, for the Epistropheus ; upon the internal 
 surfaces of either side a tubercle, tuberculum laterule, for the ligam. trans- 
 versum. Arcus posterior, the largest part of the Atlas, consists of two narrow 
 plates, which meet together at an angle and terminate with the tuberculum 
 
THE BONES. 71 
 
 postic., instead of the proc. spinosus. Proc. transversi arise from the lateral 
 portions, are strong and provided with an eminence, for the oblique muscles of 
 the head. Incisurce vertebrales lie behind the proc. obhqui, are deep, and form, 
 almost alone, forcan. intervert ebral. ; the superior, 'for art.,ven., vertebral., and n. 
 cervical, 1., forms with the/oram. vertebrale a canal, often closed, which is at the 
 commencement vertical, then perpendicular. Foramen spinale wider than that 
 of the other vertebrae. 
 
 II. Epistropheufi, axis, dentatus, the second cervical vertebra, is particularly- 
 distinguished by its odontoid process, which projects six lines from the ante- 
 rior superior part of the body; it has a broad basis, a contracted (brittle) 
 portion, collum, and the extremity terminates in a tubercle, apex, for the Kg. 
 odontoid. Its spinous process is very long and strong, its foram. spinale cordi- 
 form and wide, its transverse process neither grooved nor bifid, the vertebral 
 foramen passing obliquely outwards, and the superior articulating surfaces 
 are nearly horizontal. 
 
 III. Vertebra prominens, seventh cervical. The spinous process projects 
 strongly backwards, and has only one tubercle at the apex. Foram. verte- 
 brale, sometimes wanting, is frequently very narrow. On the body there 
 often is a semiarticular fossa, for the first rib. 
 
 IV. First dorsal vertebra. On the body the projecting lateral borders as on 
 the cervical vertebrae ; besides, one whole articular surface for the first rib 
 and half a one for the second rib. 
 
 V. Eleventh dorsal vertebras. A complete articular fossa for the eleventh 
 rib ; instead of the transverse process, a tubercle. The twelfth dorsal ver- 
 tebra is distinguished from the eleventh by the curved surface of the inferior 
 articular processes, and their great projection in a vertical direction, down- 
 wards. 
 
 VI. Fifth lumbar vertebra. The transverse processes are much larger than 
 those of the rest of the lumbar ; the inferior articular processes are more 
 widely separated, look directly forwards, are flat, not convex. 
 
 At the limits of any two regions, the characters of the vertebra more 
 nearly assimilate. 
 
 78. False Vertebrae, Vert, spurise. 
 
 There are nine pieces, which in the adult are united together 
 into two bones. 
 
 19. 1. Os Sacrum, 
 
 originally consisting of five vertebras, lies at the posterior, central 
 part of the Pelvis, behind its point of junction with the thigh 
 bones ; above, it unites with the last lumbar vertebra, below with 
 the coccyx, right and left with the hip bones. 
 
 Direction : oblique from before to behind, and from above to 
 below, forming with the lumbar vertebras an obtuse angle, Pro- 
 montorium s. angul. sacro-vertebralis. 
 
 Figure : a quadrangular pyramid with a blunt apex, the base 
 above. 
 
 Muscles: glutaeus. max.; ilio-costalis, s. Sacro-lumbalis ; 
 latissim. dor si ; pyriformis; multifidus spinse. 
 
72 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Base presents: a superior, oval articular surface, turned towards the infe- 
 rior surface of the body of the last Lumbar vertebra; behind this, a triangular 
 opening, formed of two planes, behind, a spinous process; two triangular 
 lateral surfaces, which help to form the great pelvis; notches to form the last 
 intervertebral foramina; two superior oblique processes. 
 
 Apex; blunt, with a transversely lying articular surface for the coccyx, 
 behind the termination of the sulcus of the sacrum, two sacral cornua, which 
 are the most inferior articular processes. 
 
 Surfaces : 
 
 a. Anterior, concave, with four elevated transverse lines, marking the 
 points of junction of the vertebrae spur. , on either side four anterior sacral 
 foramina, for nerves and vessels. In this curvature lies the Rectum,- m. 
 pyriformis arises external to and between these foramina. 
 
 b. Posterior, close beneath the skin in the centre, convex; in the middle 
 line the Crista Sacralis, a continuation of the Spinous processes, which, par- 
 tially divided, has close to it, laterally, two flat furrows and four foram. sacral, 
 post., for the nervi sacr. posterior. Besides, the united oblique processes pro- 
 jecting more strongly outwards, and the transverse processes, alas sacral, in one 
 piece. 
 
 c. Lateral surfaces: triangular, above broad, below narrow, oblique from 
 before to behind, and from without inwards. Anteriorly a semilunar arti- 
 cular surface, fades auricularis, for the Hip bone,- behind it rough elevations 
 for the post, sacro-iliac ligaments. Below on the indented borders the Sacro- 
 Jschiatic ligaments. 
 
 Canalis sacralis is the termination of the can. spinalis triangular, above 
 broad, below narrow, and terminating in a groove. Into it the anterior and 
 posterior sacral foramina open ; out of it the Sacral nerves come forth. 
 
 80. 2. Os coccygis, fundament, tail bone, 
 
 consists of four united flat tubercles, the size of which diminishes 
 downwards ; is flat, triangular, above, broad at the extremity of 
 the Sacrum, below, pointed and free. 
 
 Direction : usually that of the sacrum, forming, sometimes with 
 this bone a right, indeed, even an acute angle. Important in 
 obstetricy. 
 
 Muscles : glutseus maxim., coccygeus, levator et sphincter ani. 
 
 Basis, the most superior piece, often united to the os sacrum. Behind two 
 cornua stand upwards from it; externally two notches, for the fifth pair of 
 Sacral nerves. 
 
 Apex sometimes forked, or aside from the middle line. For the levator 
 Ani. 
 
 Surfaces : Anterior. Before it lies the rectum. 
 
 Posterior, close beneath the skin, serves for the attachment of the 
 
 m. glutseus Max. 
 
 Sides, narrow, indented, rough, for Sacro-lschiatic ligaments. 
 Canalis Spinalis, Canal for the Spinal cord, is formed by the foramina spi- 
 nalia lying over one another; it follows all the curvatures of the vertebral 
 column, the diameters of which, however, differ from those of the canal. 
 Commencement: at the great Occipital foramen. 
 Termination: in the sacrum. 
 
THE BONES. 73 
 
 The largeness of the canal accommodates itself to the mobility of the par- 
 ticular regions of the vertebral column, and to those portions of the spinal 
 cord whence the greatest number of nerve filaments passes off. In the cervical 
 and lumbar regions the column is most moveable, the nerves forming the 
 Brachial and Lumbar plexuses very numerous, the canal the widest ; in the 
 dorsal and pelvic portions the reverse. 
 
 The anterior wall of the canal is formed by the vertebral bodies lying 
 close over one another, merely separated by the intervertebral ligaments, the 
 posterior by the vertebral arches, the interspaces between which are closed 
 by short extensible ligamentous masses, ligament, flava. 
 
 On both sides the foram. intervertebralia open into it. 
 
 Cdnnlis vertebrulis, vertebral canal, on ekher side of the neck is formed by 
 the over-lying fftram. vertebralia of the tramverte processes ; it contains arteria 
 et vena vertebra/is. 
 
 81. The Tissue of Vertebral Bodies, 
 
 consists almost entirely of spongy substance with large meshes, covered ex- 
 ternally with a thin layer of compact tissue. A great portion of the processes, 
 and the whole of the arches, consist of the last mentioned. 
 
 The vertebrae are very richly supplied with blood-vessels. For mis pur- 
 pose we find on the dorsal surface of each vertebral body a horizontal canal, 
 which divides into several and always smaller branches in the spongy sub- 
 stance, all of which are lined with a thin layer of compact bone and per- 
 forated by innumerable smaller foramina. 
 
 82. Development of the Vertebral Column. 
 
 In the first months of foetal life the vertebral column forms the entire 
 length of the trunk, at birth three-fifths, and in the adult only two-fifths of 
 the length of the body. 
 
 In the first period of development the curvatures of the Vertebral column 
 are wanting, later it becomes curved in the form of a wavy line, the convex 
 surface in the neck is directed forwards, in the dorsal region backwards, in 
 the lumbar region, again, forwards, and in the pelvic strongly backwards. 
 The smallest deviation from the curvature in one of the above named parts 
 produces corresponding deviations in the other parts. 
 
 Besides these there exists in the region of the 4th and 5th dorsal vertebra 1 , 
 in the region of the Aortic arch, a lateral inclination ; the concavity to the left, 
 convexity to the right. 
 
 Abnormal curvatures, forwards, backwards, and laterally by wasting or de- 
 struction of the vertebrae, or by inactivity of the muscles of one side and pre- 
 ponderating activity of those of the other, occur. 
 
 In old age the vertebral column curved forwards frequently exhibits a 
 union of several dorsal or lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 The height of the column differs according to age, increasing to about the 
 twenty -fifth year, and decreasing upon the advance of old age. Its average 
 vertical diameter measures 2 feet 2 inches. 
 
 The separate vertebrae are developed from three centres of ossification, at 
 first on the lateral boundaries of the spinal canal, as a defence for the spinal 
 cord, and vertebral body. Five other points of ossification are presented, only 
 later, for the processes. 
 
74 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Ossification commences with the fortieth day of foetal life ; a year after 
 birth the two lateral portions first unite together, in the arch, and only in the 
 third to the fourth year with the body ; the ossifying points of the transverse 
 and spinous processes are first united in the twentieth to the twenty-fifth 
 year. 
 
 In the Sacrum and Coccyx ossification commences, first in the body, in the 
 second to the third month ; the junction of the many ossifying points takes 
 place very late, sometimes not at all. From the fortieth to the sixtieth year 
 the coccyx usually unites with the Sacrum, but it is generally more slow in 
 females than in males. 
 
 83. Thoracic cavity, chesty thorax s. pectus. 
 
 Situation : between the seventh cervical and first lumbar verte- 
 brae, below the clavicle. 
 
 Figure : conical, the base below, the obtuse apex turned to- 
 wards the neck, flat from before to behind. 
 
 Parts: 1. Dorsal vertebrae, vertebrae dorsales, twelve; 2. 
 Breast bone, sternum; 3. Ribs, costse s. pleurse, twenty-four. 
 
 84. I. Sternum s. os pectoris, Breast bone. 
 
 Position : anterior, central part of the chest. 
 
 Shape: flat, sword-shaped, above broad, one and a half to two 
 inches, below, narrow, rounded; before, somewhat convex; be- 
 hind, rather concave. Length, from five and a half to seven arid 
 a half inches; thickness, above, six lines; below, three lines. 
 
 1. Manubrium Sterni, handle, the most superior piece, for m. sterno-hyoidei, 
 thyreoidei, mastoidei. 
 
 a. The superior border, concave, called incisura semilunaris, s. Furcula 
 (Vogel) ; on either side Incisura cluvicularis, an oblong articular surface for 
 the clavicle. 
 
 b. Lateral borders, longer; with FOVCSB articulares for the first and second 
 ribs. 
 
 c. Inferior limit, a transverse line, the commencement of the body, where 
 the second rib attaches. 
 
 2. Corpus, s. Macro, middle piece, for m. triangularis and pectoral, major, 
 the longest portion. Fovese articulares, for 3 to 7 ribs. Transverse line. 
 
 3. Processes ensiformis, s. xyphoides, ensiform process, termination of the 
 breast bone, for m. rectus abdom., Diaphragm, flat, blunt pointed or forked at 
 the end, generally cartilaginous, with one, sometimes two holes, for art. mam- 
 mar, intern. 
 
 Structure: within, spongy; without, compact substance, cov- 
 ered with membr. propria sterni. 
 
 Development : Ossification commences late in the manubrium, 
 about the fifth to the sixth foetal month, in the spaces between 
 the extremities of the ribs. In the fifteenth to the sixteenth year 
 there are five to six, later only three pieces to be seen. Ossicula 
 episternalia, according to Breschet, rudimentary ribs, are some- 
 
THE BONES. 75 
 
 times present at the superior border of the sternum, one upon 
 either side ; they are generally rather larger than the Pisiform 
 bone. 
 
 85. II. Costae, Ribs, twenty-four. 
 
 Position : between the vertebral column and sternum ; twelve 
 upon either side. 
 
 Figure : flat, narrow, long, thin, elliptically curved, and directed 
 from behind forwards, from above downwards. 
 
 Breadth : From three to six lines ; thickness : one line. 
 
 Division: Costae verae, 7; Costx spurias, false ribs, 5 upon 
 either side. 
 
 Portions of each rib : Body, posterior and anterior termination. 
 
 Connection : with the twelve dorsal vertebrae, with the cartilages 
 of the ribs and the sternum, with the last bone by means of the 
 cartilages of the seven superior, or true ribs. 
 
 1. Posterior extremity, Head, presents: Capitulum with two semi-articular 
 surfaces, uniting with bodies of the dorsal vertebrae, from the second to the 
 tenth rib between the two vertebra?, on the eleventh and twelfth rib in the 
 centre of the body [on the eleventh above the centre]. Neck, the thinnest 
 part rough, in relation with the transverse proc. of the vertebra above it ; 
 Tuberculum, tubercle, the infernal portion, for the transverse process of the 
 vertebra below / the external for ligaments ; the termination of the neck of 
 the rib. 
 
 2. Body, central portion, with the Angulus cosfae not far from the Tubercle ,- 
 has an external convex, rough, and an internal, concave, smooth surface, a 
 thick superior, a sharp inferior border. On the last, within : Sulcus costalis, 
 for the art., ven., and nerv. intercostalis. 
 
 3. Anterior extremity, with oval articular surfaces [fossae] for the cartilages ; 
 at the last an obtuse angle. 
 
 The true ribs unite by their cartilages, immediately, with the 
 sternum at an acute angle ; increasing in length from above to 
 below. 
 
 The false ribs, c. spurise, five, decrease from above to below in 
 length ; as well as their cartilages. 
 
 Particular ribs. 1. First rib, the smallest and broadest, with short and 
 thick cartilage almost immoveable. The external surface ; for ven. subclavia, 
 before, for art. subclavia, behind m. scalenus anterius and subclavius, looks 
 upwards, the superior border inwar'ds. On the Capitulum one articular sur- 
 face ; Collum, long, cylindrical ; Tuberculum, projecting, angular ; anterior 
 extremity broad. 
 
 2. Second rib, as long again as the first, may lie horizontal, the angle very 
 indistinct. External surface, above, for m. serratus post, sup., scalenus med. et 
 post. Internal surface obliquely downwards, with a very superficial groove. 
 
 3. Third rib, much larger, more arched below and before : angle more 
 marked. 
 
76 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 4. The eleventh and twelfth ribs, Cusfas fluctuant es very moveable ; 
 marked curve. Col/urn, Tubercu/um, et Sulcus, wanting. On the Capitulum 
 only one flat articular surface. Anterior extremity very thin and pointed. 
 The eleventh is longer. 
 
 The costal cartilages are flat like the ribs, chiefly formed as these, and ossi- 
 fying easily upon the surface. They are twenty-four, sometimes twenty-six, 
 or only twenty-two. 
 
 The external extremity lies in the fossa at the anterior termination of the 
 rib, the internal is either immediately united with the Sternum, in the true 
 ribs, or with the inferior border of the rib above, as the eighth to the tenth 
 costal cartilages, or extends freely into the abdominal walls, eleventh to the 
 twelfth. The borders of the fifth to the seventh ribs are united together. The 
 three superior are straight; the rest curve outwards. Length: the first rib 
 is very short and thick, often ossified ; the following to the seventh always 
 longer ; from the eighth to the twelfth always shorter ; the twelfth only a few 
 lines long. In general, the length of the cartilage measures one-fifth of that 
 of the entire rib. 
 
 Structure of the ribs : it is similar to that of the flat bones generally. 
 
 Development: Ossification commences with the second month 
 of foetal life, from the body outwards. The osseous nuclei in the 
 capitulum and tuberculum appear only in the sixteenth year, and 
 completely united in the twenty-fifth year. 
 
 86. External surfaces of the Chest. 
 
 1. Anterior region, much broader below than above, inclining from behind 
 forwards, from above downwards. In the centre sternum, laterally the 
 costal cartilages with the intercostal spaces; externally on either side the 
 linea chondro-sternalis, behind this the limit, namely the line of the anterior 
 angles. 
 
 2. Lateral regions, more convex behind than before, presents the central 
 piece and the interspaces of the ribs. Intercostal spaces : these decrease in 
 breadth from above downwards ; however, the two last are broader than 
 those in the centre ; and the space between the anterior is broader than be- 
 tween the posterior extremities of the ribs. 
 
 3. Posterior region, between the posterior angles. In the centre : 12 Proc. 
 spinosi dorsal ; close to these the sulci vtrtebralis ; 12 Proc. transversi ; the 
 articular connections with the tubercles. 
 
 87. Cavity of the Chest, Cavitas thoracis. 
 
 Anterior wall ; concave, breast bone : costal cartilages. Posterior wall ; in 
 the centre : the projecting column of the vertebral bodies ; at the excavated 
 sides, fossss pulmonales, for the convex posterior surfaces of the lungs ; pos- 
 terior terminations of the ribs. 
 
 Lateral parieties, formed by the ribs. 
 
 Inferior wall, formed by the diaphragm. 
 
 Superior wall wanting; in place of it, an oblique opening inclining from 
 above and behind downwards, for Trachea, (Esophagus, ductus thoracicus, 
 the great cervical and brachial vessels, nerv. vagus and phrenicus, the apex of 
 the lungs, several muscles. 
 
THE BONES. 77 
 
 The arex of the cavity is almost immoveable , the rest of the part, and 
 particularly of the basis, by means of the ribs, very moveable. It is expanded 
 in inspiration, contracted during expiration. 
 
 In the foetus are: 1. The diameters from before to behind 
 greater than the transverse diameter, the Sternum projects, on 
 account of the size of the heart and the thymus gland. 
 
 2. The vertical diameter shorter, since the diaphragm projects 
 high upwards. 
 
 3. The ribs slightly curved, the fossae pulmonales not yet 
 developed, as the lungs have not yet respired. 
 
 4. The inferior opening larger in all directions, on account of 
 the large size of the Liver. 
 
 88. The Pelvis, 
 
 formed of 1. The Sacrum and Coccyx ; 
 
 2. The hip, or unnamed bones, ossa coxarum, s. innominata, 
 two. 
 
 It lies below the fifth lumbar vertebra, at the side and before 
 the inferior parts of the vertebral column ; contains a portion of 
 the intestinal canal, and especially the organs of procreation [with 
 those of micturition]. 
 
 89. Os coxae, Hip bones, 
 
 occupy the anterior sides of the Pelvis, are flat, and consist, be- 
 fore the age of puberty, of three separate bones, the Ilium, 
 Ischium, and Pubes, which are united together by their thickest 
 parts in the Acetabulum. 
 
 Connection : behind with the os sacrum, before and below 
 with each other, laterally with the thigh bones. 
 
 90. 1. Os Ilium, 
 
 is the largest and broadest piece ; the most superior, and forms 
 the lateral wall of the Pelvis ; extends from the Sacrum to the 
 superior third of the Acetabulum : 
 
 a. External surface; undulating, with 1 to 2 tineas arcuatae externa^ for 
 glutaeus medius and minimus; and a few foramina for vessels. 
 
 b. Internal surface; with linea arcuata intema, the limit between the 
 superior part, for m. Iliacus internus, which is the lateral wall of the great 
 pelvis, and the inferior portion, that of the lesser pelvis. Behind: tuber 
 Ilium and fades auricularis, the articular surface for the Sacrum. 
 
 c. Crest of the hip, Crista llii, is the superior S-shaped border, for m. 
 latissimus dorsi, and quadraius lumborum; with, 1. labiurn exlernum, for 
 obliq. externus; 2. lab. intemum, for m. transvers. abdom.; 3. linea interme- 
 dia, for m. obliq. internus. 
 
 d. Anterior border, descending at an obtuse angle with the Spina Ilei ant. 
 
78 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 sup., for m. sartorivs, tensor fasciae lotas, and inferior, for m. rectus femoris; 
 between the two spines and below the spina inferior, a notch, for m. lliacus, 
 terminates in the anterior horizontal ramus of the pubes, where is the emi- 
 nentia ileo-pectinaea. 
 
 e. Posterior border, with Spina ilei post. sup. / inferior ; Incisura semi- 
 lunaris. 
 
 f. Inferior border, from the Spina poster, infer., presents . Incisura ischia- 
 dica major, for m. pyriformis, art. and nerv. glutseua, iachiadicus, and pudend. 
 communiy. 
 
 91. 2. Os ischii, seat bone, for m. levator ani. 
 The most inferior portion ; below and behind the Ilium. 
 
 a. Corpus, the inferior portion of the acetabulum. Internal surface smooth, 
 forms the inferior portion of the small pelvis. Posterior border with Spina 
 ischii, the limit between Incisura ischiadica major arid minor, for m. gemellus 
 super., coccygeus and Ligam. spinoso-sacrum. Anterior border, commence- 
 ment of the obturator foramen. 
 
 b. Ramus descendens, short and thick. Posterior border forms the Incisura 
 ischiadica minor, for m. obturator internus, art., ven., nerv. pudendus commu- 
 nis, from Spina ischii to Tuber ischii, for m. geme/lus infer., quadratus femo~ 
 ris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps, transversus perinea/, Ligam. 
 tuoeroso-sacrum. Anterior border, sharp, assists in forming obturator foramen. 
 
 c. Ramus ascendens ascends from Tuber ischii forwards and inwards, for 
 m. ischio-cavernosus. Internal border forms the internal part of the obturator 
 foramen. External border a part of the Pubic arch. 
 
 92. 3. Os pubis s. pectinis, 
 in the anterior region of the pelvis. 
 
 a. Corpus the inner third portion of the acetabulum with Eminentia ileo 
 pectincea, for crural artery above the Acetabulum. 
 
 b. Ramus horizontalis, for m. red. abdom., pyrarnidalis above. Superior 
 border, sharp, Pecten s. Crista pubis, for Pectinteus m., a continuation of line a 
 arcuata, terminates in Spina pubis, for ligam. Pouparti. Inferior border, the 
 superior part of the obturator foramen. 
 
 c. Ramus descendens for m. adduct., gracilis, descends from the Spina pubis, 
 to meet the ram. ascend, of the Ischium. External border forms the internal 
 of the obturator foramen; internal border, with that of the other side, the 
 pubic symphysis, over this angulus pubis, superior; beneath it the superior 
 portion of the pubic arch. 
 
 Acetabulum, the hemispherical, hollow surface, in which the body of the 
 three bony pieces meet together, lies on the external side of the pelvis ob- 
 liquely oiitwards and downwardsj and is destined for the reception of the 
 thigh bones. Its crescentic, sharp edge, supercilium, has below and internally 
 a deep Incisura acetabuli, for the vessels of the joint to enter, and is still more 
 deepened by a tendinous ring, labrum cartilagineum. Move is a horizontal 
 groove, for Undo rectifemor., beneath a deeper, for tendo obturator externi. The 
 whole external surface is covered with cartilage, that is the fades lunata, to the 
 small Fovea for the attachment of the ligam. teres. The internal surface 
 turned towards the small pelvis is rather curved downwards arid backwards. 
 
THE BONES. 79 
 
 passing to the spina ischii. Important at the time of labour on account of the 
 turning of the foetal head. 
 
 The Obturator foramina, 2, foramen obturatorium, s. wait, formed by the 
 ischium and pubis, lies at the anterior region of the pelvis. At the superior 
 external wall a groove, for art., ven., nerv. obturatorius ; otherwise entirely 
 closed by the memb. obturatoria. External boundary for the m. obtur. extern.,- 
 internal for m. obtur. intern. 
 
 Symphysis ossium pubis, in the central line of the body at the anterior re- 
 gion of the Pelvis, formed by the internal vertical borders of the two a 
 pubis, 15 to 20 lines in height, higher in the male than the female. The arti- 
 cular surfaces are oval, flat, but directed obliquely from behind and internally 
 to before and externally. There is a triangular space, with the apex behind, 
 between them, which is filled with an elastic, strong, Ligamentum interos- 
 seum pubis. Besides this, three ligamenta pubica serve to unite the pubes, 
 the most important of which, triangulare, assists in forming the pubic arch. 
 
 The Pubic arch, Arcus pubis, angular in the male, round in the female, is 
 formed by the ascending rand of the Ischia on either side, by the inferii/r 
 lx>rder of the Ram. descend, os pubis, and the ligam. triangulare s. arcuatum. 
 Superior transverse diameter one inch, inferior three inches. 
 
 The Sacro- Iliac symphysis unites the ossa innominata behind with the 
 sacrum, superficies auriculares, making a double angle, first vertical, then from 
 behind to before. This articulation is also moveable, although not to the 
 same extent as the Symph. pubis. 
 
 93. Cavity of the Pelvis, cavitas pelvis, 
 
 contains, a portion of the small intestines, the rectum, the urinary 
 bladder, the internal organs of generation, vascular and nervous 
 trunks. 
 
 1. Pelvis major, the great Pelvis; open before and behind, 
 (closed behind, if we consider with the Obstetricians, that the 
 fifth Lumbar vertebra forms a part of the pelvis,) formed by the 
 alae, of the Ilia, fossae iliacae, for m. Iliacus intern., and the 
 small intestine; is below narrower where the linea arcuata di- 
 vides it from the small pelvis. Anterior transverse diameter 
 between the Spinss anter. sup. Eight to nine inches. 
 
 Linea arcuata, a crescentic raised line, passing from the centre 
 of the superior border of the Sacrum; over this, the Ilium and 
 the os pubis to the anterior spine of the pubis. 
 
 Promontorium angle of the fifth lumbar vertebra with the 
 sacrum. 
 
 2. Pelvis minor, the small pelvis at the superior and inferior 
 outlet narrower than in the centre. 
 
 a. Apertura superior, elliptical or oval, with three diameters: 
 
 1. Straight diam., conjugata [antero-posterior] = 4 inches, from Promon- 
 tory to superior border of symphysis pubis. 
 
 2. Transverse diam. = 5 inches from the centre of the linea arcuata of the 
 one to that of the opposite side. 
 
 3. Oblique diam., Diam. Deventeri, two, = 4 inches from sacro-iliac sym- 
 
80 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 physis of the one side to the ileo-pectineal eminence at the superior border of 
 the Acetabulum of the other. 
 
 b. Cavum pelvis minoris, formed, behind, by the Sacrum and Coccyx, the 
 cavity of which is 4 inches 6 lines, and depth 10 to 12 lines; anteriorly by the 
 si/mphysis and ossa pubis with foram. obturator,' laterally by oss. Ischii. 
 Diameter. 
 
 1. Straight diameter [ant. posterior] = 4 inches from the centre between 
 the second and third pieces of the Sacrum to the Symphysis pubis. 
 
 2. Transverse diam. = 4 inches between the Spina ischii, before and above 
 them. 
 
 c. Apertura inferior, pelvic outlet, formed by the apex of the coccyx, the 
 Tuber Ischii, and Arcus pubis,- has three notches; arcus pubis and Incisurse 
 ischiadicse. 
 
 1 . Straight diam. [ant. post.] = 3 to 4 inches from the apex of the coccyx 
 to the crown of the pubic arch. 
 
 2. Transverse diam. = 4 inches from internal border of one Tuber Ischii to 
 the other. 
 
 3. Oblique diam., two, = 4 inches from the centre of the ligam. sacro-ischi- 
 adic of one to the Tuber Ischii of the other side. 
 
 The axis of the small pelvis, that is, a perpendicular drawn through the 
 centre of the straight diameter, passes above obliquely backwards, below ob- 
 liquely forwards. Inclination. The Promontory lies 3^ to 4 inches higher 
 than the superior border of the Symphysis pubis, and the Conjugata therefore 
 makes with a horizontal line an angle of 60. The apex of coccyx lies ^ to 
 1 inch higher than the inferior border of the Symphysis pubis. 
 
 Development of the Bones of the Pelvis. 
 
 Ossification commences in the acetabulum, first, that is, in the 
 body of the Ilium, in the fourth month of the foetus. At the age 
 of puberty the inferior border of the Ischium and the crista Illi 
 first ossify, and the last only unites with the rest of the bone at 
 the twentieth to the twenty-fifth year. 
 
 In young children, and even more in the unborn, the pelvis is 
 relatively much more narrow, and strongly inclined, so that the 
 urinary bladder lies with its whole anterior surface on the abdo- 
 minal parietes, instead of in the lesser pelvis. Characters of the 
 female pelvis, vide 109. 
 
 Bones of the Extremities, Ossa extremitatum. 
 
 A. Thoracic extremities, arms, extremitates superiores, s. tho- 
 racicae, Brachia. 
 
 94. I. Shoulder, Humerus, 
 
 consists of the shoulder-blade and collar-bone. 
 
 1. Scapula, Omoplata, Shoulder-blade. 
 
 Position : behind on the Thorax, behind the second to the 
 seventh ribs on either side of the vertebral column, very move- 
 able. 
 
THE BONES. 81 
 
 Shape : triangular, shield-like, flat. 
 
 Portions : 2 surfaces, 3 borders and angles. 
 
 Connection : with the Clavicle and Humerus. 
 
 a. Anterior surface, turned towards the ribs, concave ; this is Fossa sub- 
 scapularis, for m. subscapular^ lying close to the surface of the back ; Scapulx 
 alatas stand off from it. 
 
 tx Posterior surface, divided into the smaller superior fossa supraspinata, 
 for m. supraspinatus, and a larger inferior fossa infraspinata, for m. infra- 
 spinatus, by the ridge, Spina scapulae, for trapezius, deltoid : this is triangular, 
 presents a superior and inferior surface, an external short, and a posterior 
 thick border, close beneath the skin, with a triangular surface, for the m. 
 Trapezius; passes forwards, upwards and outwards, to the top of the shoulder, 
 Acromion, which, triangular and flat, projects over the shoulder, protects the 
 articulation above and behind, and possesses at the superior border a small 
 articular surface for the Clavicle. 
 
 c. Borders: 1. Internal, Vertebral border, Basis scapulae, the longest, with 
 an external lip, for m. rhomboideae, and an internal, for m. serratua antic, 
 major. 
 
 2. External border, the thickest, inclined downwards and forwards towards 
 the arm the axillary border], for m. teretes et anconaeus longus [long head of 
 the Triceps], above. 
 
 3. Superior border, sharp, small, for m. omohyoideus with Incisurae scapulas a. 
 lunata, formed into a foramen by ligam. tran&versum, for nerv. suprascapular f 
 it passes into the coracoid process. 
 
 d. Angles : 1. Internal, almost a right angle, for m. lev. anguli scapulae. 
 
 2. Inferior, very pointed, m. Serratus magnus, attached to it, separated from 
 the skin by m. latissimus dorsi. 
 
 3. External, is the oval, vertical Condylus scap. with the surface Cavitas 
 glenoidalis, the articular fossa for the head of the humerus, supported by a 
 Collum scapulas under which the Incisum colli, the junction of the fossae supra 
 et infra spinata, over which the Process, coracoideus projects, for the short 
 head of the biceps, at the apex m. coraco-brackialis, pectoral, minor, farther 
 above, ligam. coraco-clavicularia, acromiale. Proc. coracoid. bends under the 
 clavicle, forwards and outwards over the shoulder joint, and protects it from 
 before. 
 
 Development : ossification commences in the centre, at the end 
 of the second month of the foetus. In advanced childhood the 
 coracoid and acromion are still cartilaginous; they contain, like 
 the posterior border and inferior angle, but not the spina, special 
 osseous nuclei. The acromion has two, but later. The P. 
 coracoid unites with the body of the bone in the fifteenth to the 
 sixteenth year, the remaining points, especially the inferior border, 
 only after full growth. 
 
 95. 2. Clavicula, furcula, Collar-bones, 2. 
 
 Position : before and above the first rib, between shoulder- 
 blade and breast-bone, horizontal. 
 
 Direction : both converge forwards and rather downwards, to 
 the Sternum. 
 6 
 
82 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Figure : cylindrical, sigmoidal, at the internal extremity thick 
 and round, external flat. 
 
 Curvatures : convex, anteriorly, in the sternal, posteriorly, in 
 the acromial half. 
 
 Connection: with the breast bone, the shoulder-blade, and 
 often, with the first rib. 
 
 a. Body, middle piece, almost immediately under the skin, is frequently 
 fractured, with Tubcrculum for m. Cleido-mastuid. Inferior surface, exter- 
 nally broad, with a rough line, for m. Subclavius ; with an articular surface 
 internally, for the first rib ; in the middle third corresponding to the first in- 
 tercostal space, for Plex. brachialis et Vasa axilluria the outer third, united 
 with Proc. coracoid, by the ligam. Conoid, et Trapezoid. Posterior border, 
 two-thirds concave, one-third convex, externally. Lies on Subclavian vein ; 
 behind that Art. et Plexus brachialis. 
 
 b. External termination, extrernitas acromialis, for m. trapezius et deltoideus, 
 flat, weak, and easily broken ; with an articular surface for Acromion. 
 
 c. Internal termination, extremitas sternalis, enlarged, angular, covered with 
 cartilage, projects over the articular surface of the Manubrium sterni into the 
 incisura clavicularis of which, it is received ; for m. sterno-cleido-mastoid., and 
 pedoralis major. 
 
 Varieties. In the female the Clavicle is more slender, less curved, and 
 more horizontal. Structure : The medullary canal in the interior of the 
 Clavicle is very small ; the extremities consist of more Spongy tissue. 
 
 Development, at a very early period, at the thirtieth to the 
 thirty-fifth day from one osseous nucleus in the centre. In the 
 fifteenth to the eighteenth year an osseous nucleus appears as a 
 thin disc at the sternal end. In mature childhood the humerus 
 is only about |, in adults larger than the clavicle. 
 
 The shoulder is placed before and behind close to the Thorax, 
 but stands out from it, and the space thereby formed forms the 
 superior part of the cavity of the axilla. 
 
 96. II. Os humeri s. brachii, Bone of the upper arm. 
 
 Position : between shoulder and fore-arm, on the sides of the 
 chest. 
 
 Length : reaching downwards to the second Lumbar vertebra, 
 farther in Negroes. 
 
 Direction: parallel with the axis of the trunk, yet rather 
 oblique from above downwards, and without inwards. 
 
 Figure : tubular, cylindrical. 
 
 Connection : with the shoulder-blade and the fore-arm. 
 
 a. Superior extremity with: 1. Caput humeri, a segment of a sphere, 
 about 5 lies in the Cavit. glenoid. scapulae, is surrounded by a circular flat 
 groove, the Collum humeri of Anatomists, and forms an obtuse angle with 
 
THE BONES. 83 
 
 the axis of the shaft of the bone. 2. Tuberculum majus, on the outer side, 
 with three surfaces, for m. supra-, infraspinatus, et Teres minor. 3. Tuber- 
 culum minus, anterior, for m. subscapularis. 4. Sulcus longitudinalis, be- 
 tween the two tubercles, for the tendon of the Caput long, bicipitis. 5. Spina 
 tuberc. major \ for m. peel. maj. et deltoid. 6. Spina tuberc. mm., for m. teres 
 maj., latiss. dorsi, et coraco-brachial. 7. Collum humeri chirurgorum at the 
 superior sixth of the humerus and the point of transition into 
 
 b. The middle piece, the body. Superior half cylindrical, inferior, triangu- 
 lar, prismatic. 
 
 1. Surfaces: external, below the superior third a V shaped depression, for 
 m. Deltoideus. Internal anterior surface, for m. brachialis internus, oblique 
 from above, downwards, and from before, inwards, the course of the Art. 
 brachiaKs, presents : Foram. nutritium. Posterior surface below very broad, 
 for m. triceps. 
 
 2. Edges, angles. Anterior, roundish, rough, the commencement of spina 
 tuber, major. External, above indistinct, below, sharp, before curved, for cap. 
 intern, tricip. et supinator longus. More obliquely below, likewise, sharp 
 from Spina tuberc. minoris for cap. intern, tricip. 
 
 c. Inferior extremity flat, broad; presents, from without inwards: 1. Condy- 
 lus externus, for the extensor and supinator muscles. 2. Eminentia capitata s. ro- 
 tula, the small articular head, unites with the Radius of the fore-arm. 3. 
 Trochlea, it receives the Ulna. Above it we find Fossa ant. maj. for Proc. 
 coronoideus ulna, minor, for the radius ; posterior, for Olecranon. 4. Condylus 
 internug, for the flexor muscles, pronator teres, and palmar, long., behind with a 
 flat groove, for nerv. ulnaris. 
 
 Structure. At the extremities spongy tissue, in the body compact substance 
 and medullary cavitiy. 
 
 Development commences early, second month, in the centre ; 
 both extremities still remain cartilaginous in the second year; then 
 at the superior extremity, for caput and tuberc* majus et minus, 
 three osseous nuclei appear; lastly, at the inferior extremity four 
 osseous centres. In the eighteenth to the twentieth year the ex- 
 tremities first unite with the centre piece, the inferior soonest. 
 
 97. III. Ossa antibrachii. Bones of the fore-arm. 
 1. Ulna s. cubitus, Elbow. 
 
 Position: on the inside of the radius, between upper arm and 
 hand, on the same side as the little finger. 
 
 Shape : prismatic, triangular, rather twisted ; above thicker than 
 below ; longer than the radius. 
 
 Direction : rather oblique from above, downwards and out- 
 wards. 
 
 Connection: with the upper arm, the radius and cuneiform 
 bone by the ligam. capsulare sacciforme. 
 
 a. Superior extremity, behind, has the hook-like process, Proc. anconaug s. 
 Olecranon, for the dnconeus muscle, the extremity of which moves in the fossa 
 olecrani post. anteriorly, Proc. coronoideus, for m. BrachiaKs internus, the point 
 
84 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 of which moves in the Fovea anterior ; the Basis in which the Olecranon and 
 Coronoid processes meet together, is thin and brittle; between the two : Fossa 
 sigmoidea maj.', for the Trochlea of the upper arm ; minor on the outer border 
 of the Coronoid process for capitulum radii ; under that a rough, deep, triangular 
 surface, for m. supinator brevis. 
 
 b. Centre piece, shaft, 1. Surfaces ; Anterior, Vblar above broad, with/oram. 
 nutritium. Muscles : flex, digit, et pollic. long., carpi ulnaris. Posterior surface : 
 somewhat convex, divided by a longitudinal line. Internal surface : abov e 
 very broad ; below narrow, and close beneath the skin, smooth. 
 
 2. Borders. External, crista, the sharpest, particularly in the centre, dimin- 
 ishes below for abduct, long, et extern, brevis. pollic., ligam. interrosseum. Anterior 
 or internal, obtuse, for flex, digitor. comm., pronator quad. Posterior : commences 
 below the Olecranon, and is lost on the inferior fourth ; perceptible through 
 the skin. 
 
 c. Inferior extremity, for M. pronator quadratus. Capitulum s. condylus ulna 
 unites with the inferior extremity of the Radius and the cuneiform bone. In- 
 ternal to the small head, Proc. styloideus, for ligam. laterale intern, of the hand 
 and fore-arm -; between the two a hollow, for ligam. triangulare. 
 
 Structure. Compact in the centre, spongy at both extremities, particularly 
 at the elbow. Olecranon sometimes forms a special bone. 
 
 Development: three osseous nuclei. The first appears in the 
 body at the thirty-fifth to the fortieth day of the foetus. The ex- 
 tremities only ossify with the sixth year, and the inferior first. 
 In the fifteenth to the sixteenth year the middle unites with the 
 superior, in the eighteenth to the twentieth year with the inferior 
 extremity. 
 
 98. 2. Radius. 
 
 Position : on the outer side of the Ulna, on the same border as 
 the thumb, radial border. 
 
 Shape: prismatic and triangular, above thin, below thick; in 
 the centre slightly curved. 
 
 Connection: with the upper arm, rotula proc. cubital., Ulna, 
 the wrist, os lunare, naviculare. 
 
 a. Superior extremity. 1. Capitulum radii, with a lateral, annular, articular 
 surface, circumferent. articular., for the fossa sigmoid. minor, and a superior, for 
 the rotula. 
 
 2. Collum, five to six lines long, inferior limit of which : 
 
 3. Tuberositas radii, for m. biceps, the tendon- behind, rough ; before, smooth. 
 
 b. Central piece, shaft, slightly curved, internally concave. 1. Borders: an- 
 terior, blunt, commences from the tuberosity, passes obliquely outwards, and 
 terminates below, before the Proc. styloideus ; posterior, above and below 
 slightly marked ; external, for ligam. interosseivm, Crista, from the tuberosity to 
 a small articular surface below and internal. 
 
 2. Surfaces: Anterior; above, narrow ; below, broad; withybrcww. Nutritium, 
 for m. supinator brevis, flex, pollicis long., digitor. commun. sublimis. External 
 surface, convex, lor m. Pronator teres. Posterior surface, rather hollow, for 
 m. abduct, pollicis longus. 
 
 b. Inferior extremity, thick, quadrangular, for m. pronator quadratus, with 
 
THE BONES. 85 
 
 an inferior, concave, divided, articular surface, 1. Cavitas glenoidalis, for os navi- 
 culare, on the outside, os limatum on the inside. 2. Externally : proc. styloideus, 
 for supinat. longus, between the anterior and external border, a groove, for m. 
 abduct, long, and extens. brevis poUicis. On the circumference upon the dorsal 
 aspect 3. Two grooves, for the tendons of the extens. carpi radial, long, and 
 brevior; anteriorly, for those of the extens. digit, comm., and behind, pollic. long. 
 Jncisura semilunaris, in which the Capitulum Ulnae, moves. 
 
 Development proceeds from three osseous points, first in the 
 central piece ; in the inferior extremity, towards the third year, 
 in the superior towards the ninth ; the last unites with the shaft 
 in the twelfth year ; the first in the eighteenth to the twentieth. 
 
 99. IV. Ossa manus, Bones of the hand. 
 
 1. Carpus, root of the hand, wrist, about an inch long, 2 2 
 broad, consists of eight short bones, lying close together in two 
 rows, one above the other, and four bones in each. The wrist is 
 united above, with the fore-arm ; below, with the metacarpal 
 bones ; concave upon its anterior or palmar surface, hollow of 
 the hand, it forms with the ligam. carp, volare prop., a ring for 
 the tendons of the flexor muscles ; convex on the posterior, dor- 
 sal surface. It presents an Ulnar and Radial border, Vola, pal- 
 mar Dor sum manus, dorsal surface, back of the hand. 
 
 EminentisR carpi are two projections on either border of the 
 palmar surface. 
 
 At the ulnar border: 1. the superior, 05 pisiforme ; 2. the 
 inferior, the hooked process of the unciform bone. 
 
 At the radial: 1. the superior, os naviculare ; 2. the inferior, 
 os trapezium. 
 
 a. Bones of the superior row passing from the Radial to the 
 Ulnar border. 
 
 1. Os naviculare s. Scapkoideum lies below the radius, above three bones of 
 the second row, with a deep, articular fossa, for os Maguum. with a convex, . 
 articular surface, for oss. trapezium et trapezoid., the largest bone of the first 
 row. 
 
 2. Os lunatum, semilunare, lunar bone, lies below the radius above the os 
 magnum, between 1. and 3. 
 
 3. On [cune/forme] triquttrum, pyramidal bone, below the Ulna, above the 
 unciform bone. 
 
 These three bones, when united, are convex above, concave below. They 
 are connected with the fore-arm. 
 
 4. Os pisiforme, pea-like bone, for flex, carpi ulnar!*, abduct, digiti 5, lies 
 free in the hollow of the hand, only united with the pyramidal bone [cunei- 
 form] at the ulnar border. 
 
 b. Bones of the inferior row from the radial to the ulnar border. 
 
86 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 1. Os [Trapezium] multangulum majus, for opponens, abductor brevis pol- 
 licis, below the navicular, above the first metacarpal bone ; with a groove in 
 its palmar surface, for the tendon of the flexor, carp. rod. 
 
 2. Os [Trapezoides], multangulum minus, s. pyramidale, for flex, pollicis 
 brevis, below the navicular, above the second Os Metacarpi. Ossa multangula 
 form a concave, articular surface, for os naviculare. 
 
 3. Os [magnum"], capitatum, for adductor, and flex, brevis pollicis, below the 
 scaphoid and semilunar bones, above the third metacarpal bones ; with Capi- 
 tulum. The largest bone of the second row. 
 
 4. Os [unciforme'], hamatum, hooked bone, below the cuneiform, above the 
 oss. metacarp. iv. and v. Its hook, proc. uncinatus, for m. flex, brevis et op- 
 ponens digiti 5, lies close to the pisiform bone. 
 
 Os capitatum et hamatum form an articular head, for the articular fossa of 
 the first row. The Middle bones have four, the external only three articular 
 surfaces. 
 
 Structure, The carpal bones consist of a spongy, bony mass, covered ex- 
 ternally with compact tissue. Ossification commences after birth ; at the end 
 of the first year in the magnum and the unciform bone ; between the third and 
 fourth years in the cuneiform ; between the fourth and fifth in the trapezium 
 and semilunar; between the eighth and ninth in os naviculare and trapezoid; 
 between the twelfth and fifteenth in os pisiforme, which is generally the latest 
 perfected of all the bones. 
 
 100. 2. Metacarpus, Middle hand, 
 
 consists of five parallel, columnar bones, which, united together 
 like a grating, are connected with the carpal bones and phalanges 
 of the fingers. 
 
 a. Superior carpal end, Basis; enlarged, rather hollowed out, for the recep- 
 tion of the carpal bones; tri- or quadrangular, with two small lateral surfaces 
 to receive the lateral metacarpal bones. 
 
 Basis, oss. Metacarp. 
 
 I. For abduct, poll, long., unites with os trapezium. 
 
 II. Yorflex. et extens. carp. rad. longior., with os [Trapezium], Trapezoid, and 
 [Magnuni], 
 
 III. For extens. carp. rad. brev., with os magnum. 
 
 IV. With os [magnum'] and unciforme. 
 
 V. For extens. carpi ulnaris., with os unciforme. 
 
 b. Central part, for in. interossei, roundish, triangular, rather concave on the 
 palmar aspect. 
 
 c. Inferior, digital end, capitulum, with two tubercula and one sinus on either 
 side. 
 
 Capitul. oss. metacarpi : I. for m. opponens, abduct, brev. pottic. 
 
 V. for m. opp. minimi digit. 
 
 I., The metacarpal bone of the thumb, is shorter and thicker than the rest; 
 has no lateral articular surfaces, and is moveable in a free joint, Jlrthrodia. 
 
 II. is the longest, has on its base only one lateral articular surface. A little 
 shorter, but thicker, is 
 
 III., with two lateral articular surfaces. 
 
 IV. is shorter, and V. shorter still. The last has only one articular surface, 
 but a tubercle on the base, for m. extens. carp, ulnaris. 
 
THE BONES. 87 
 
 Structure, as in the long bones, spongy substance at the ends, compact in 
 the centre, medullary canal, but narrow, in the interior. 
 
 Development ; from two osseous points, one for the centre and 
 superior, one for the inferior extremity. The I. metacarpal at 
 the superior end like the phalanges, which it also resembles. At 
 birth the central piece is almost entirely ossified ; at the extre- 
 mities ossification commences between the second and third year, 
 and is only completed with the eighteenth to the twentieth year. 
 
 10L 3. Digiti, fingers. 
 
 On either hand there are five articulated pyramids, each of 
 which unites with one of the five metacarpal bones. 
 
 I. Finger, thumb, has two, the rest three members, phalanges. 
 The first of the three, or two members, is united with the end of 
 the metacarpal bone, the third (second) is free, as the ungual. 
 Each phalanx has a superior, hollowed extremity, for the recep- 
 tion of the bone lying above it, an anterior concave body, and an 
 inferior roller-like end, for its junction with the phalanx below ; 
 only the ungual member, phalanx unguicularis, terminates in a 
 semilunar end. 
 
 I. Thumb, pottex ; in it the centre Phalanx is wanting ; on the base of the 
 first, at the metacarpal end in the hollow of the hand, lies an os sesamoideum 
 externum, for m. flexor pollicis brevis, and internum, for m. abductor pollicis. 
 
 1. Phalanx sup. Extremity, for extern, et abd. brevis. 
 
 2. for flex, et extens. long. 
 
 II. Index finger. 
 
 1. Phalanx, Radial side, for m. lumbriccUis /., Interosseus. 
 
 2. for m.flex. comm. subl., extens. comm. 
 
 3. for m. flex. comm. prof., extens. prop. 
 
 III. Middle finger, digitus med., muscles as in II. ; the last excepted. 
 
 IV. Ring finger, dig. anmdaris. as in III. 
 V. Ear finger, dig. auricularis s. minimus. 
 
 1. Phalanx, for abduct, et flex, brevis. 
 
 2. for flex. comm. subl., opponens. 
 
 3. for flex. comm. profundus. 
 
 Development. Each of the phalanges is ossified from two 
 points, the body and the inferior extremity, in the third foetal 
 month. The extremity first unites with the body between the 
 eighteenth and twentieth year after birth. 
 
 Abdominal Extremities. 
 B. Extremitates inferiores s. abdominales. 
 102. I. Osfemoris, Thigh-bone. 
 
 Position: close to and beneath the Pelvis, above the leg. 
 Shape: long, cylindrical, with thick extremities: the longest 
 bone in the body. 
 
88 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Direction: from above to below, and from without to within, 
 particularly in the female. 
 
 Connection : with the acetabulum of the pelvis and the shin- 
 bone. 
 
 a. Superior extremity taking a course from the shaft or centre piece 
 from without, inwards and upwards. On it, 
 
 1. Caput femoris, head of the thigh bone, almost two-thirds of a sphere with 
 fovea, for ligam. teres. 
 
 2. CoUum, neck of the thigh bone ; forms with the central piece an obtuse 
 angle ; fiat. Anterior surface short, posterior longer and rather concave. 
 Behind it 
 
 3. Trochanter Major, above and externally in a plane with the corpus femo- 
 ris, for m. glutaus med. and minimus, pyriformis, quadratus femoris, with : Fossa 
 trochanterica, for m. gemelli et obturatores. 
 
 4. Trochanter Minor, below and internally from the base of the neck, for 
 the tendon of the m. Psoas et iliacus. 
 
 5. Linea intertrochanterica anterior, for m. cruralis, posterior, [part] for m. 
 quadratus femoris. 
 
 b. Centre piece, body. Anterior surface rather convex, inferior broader 
 than above, for m. cruralis. Internal surface, flat, below broader and directed 
 backwards, indicating course of art. femoralis. External surface, narrow, in 
 the longitudinal direction rather concave ; the external and internal borders 
 are roundish. Posterior border, sharp and rough, the Linea aspera; above and 
 hslow divided. Above, the external angle terminates in the Trochant. major, 
 the internal, the more feeble, in Troch. minor. 
 
 Internal angle, for m. pectineus adductor brews, vastus intern. 
 
 External angle, for m. Glutaus max., adductor magnus, vastus externus, Caput 
 breve bidpitis. 
 
 Centre, the linea aspera, for m. adductor longus et magnus, with : Foramen 
 nutritium. Below, the Linea aspera terminates in the two condyles, for the 
 m. gastrocnemii, between which is a triangular space, the superior part of the 
 fossa poplitcea, for art. ven., et nerv. poplitceus. 
 
 c. Inferior extremity broad, flat from before to behind ; with 
 
 1. Condylus externus, for m. Poplitceus, plantaris, Cap. extern, m. gastroc. upon 
 a plane with the corp. femoris. 
 
 2. Condylus intern, projects very much inwards from the axis, for Cap. 
 intern, m. gastroc. 
 
 On the articular head : 
 
 1. Inferior articular surface, for the tibia and patella. 
 
 2. Tuberositas interna projects greatly; over it a surface, for m. adduct. mag- 
 nus ; externa, less marked, with a tubercle. Both for ligamenta crudata. 
 
 Between them : 
 
 3. Posterior Fossa intercondyloidea, forms the fossa of the knee. 
 
 4. Anterior Trochlea femoris, corresponds to the Patella. 
 Structure : type of the long bones. 
 
 Development: five osseous centres: one, for the body, one for 
 each extremity, one for each Trochanter. The first appears in 
 the body, between the fortieth and fiftieth days; the second in the 
 inferior extremity, regularly, in short, before the maturity of the 
 foetus ; the third in the middle of the head at the end of the first 
 
THE BONES. 89 
 
 year. The neck ossifies by extension from the body. The Tro- 
 chanter major ossifies in the fourth year, minor in the thirteenth 
 or fourteenth. Both are first united to the head towards the 
 twenty-eighth year, the other parts soon after puberty. 
 
 103. II. Ossa cruris, Bones of the leg. 
 
 1 . Tibia, shin-bone. 
 
 Position : below the thigh-bone, above the foot, on the inside 
 of the Fibula, on the same border asv great toe, Tibial. 
 
 Direction : vertical. 
 
 Shape: three-sided, prismatic; above and below enlarged. 
 The strongest and longest bone next to the femur. 
 
 Connection: with osfemoris, Fibula (immoveable) ; Astraga- 
 lus ; the Patella by ligam. Patellae. 
 
 a. Superior extremity, caput tibice, broad, much stronger than the inferior 
 extremity. 
 
 1. Cavitas glenoidalis internet, longer and deeper than externa. Both oval, 
 concave, for Condyli femoris : divided by 
 
 2. Eminentia intermedia, pyramidal, rather posterior, for ligam. cruciata ; sup- 
 ported by 
 
 3. Condylus interims, behind with a horizontal groove, for the Tendon of 
 Scmimembranosiis, and by Condylus extern., a slight enlargement with the small 
 external superficies peroncea, for the head of the fibula. Posteriorly between 
 the condyles a deeper notch, incifura poplitea; before a triangular surface 
 with several foramina, and under that, 
 
 4. Spina tibia, rough, for tendo communis recti, crural, vasti, externally and 
 above a tubercle, for m. tibiaL anticus. 
 
 b. Central piece; three-sided, thick, M'eakest in the inferior third. 
 Internal surface, above, covered by an Aponeurosis, pes anserinm, below 
 
 only by the external skin, above broad and oblique from before inwards, infe- 
 rior fourth narrow and directed directly in wards. 
 
 External surface, for m. tibiaL ant. et extens. digit, comm., above concave, 
 below directed forwards. 
 
 Posterior surface, for m. tibialis posticus and flex, digit, comm., above broad ; 
 with Linea obliqua, for m. Soleus, and a triangular surface, for m. popliteus 
 Foramen nutritium. 
 
 Anterior border, Crista tibia, close under the skin, sharp, rounded in the 
 inferior fourth : continuation of Spina. 
 
 External border, for ligam. inteross., divided below. 
 
 Internal border, obtuse, for rn. sartor., gracilis et semitendinosMS. 
 
 c. Inferior extremity, basis, almost four-sided, broad ; before convex, for the 
 Extensor tendons; behind, even with a slight fossa, for tendo m. flex, halhtcis 
 long. externally, a triangular fossa, Incisiira fibularis, for the Fibula ; inter- 
 nally, the thick four-sided MaUeolus internus. springing strongly forwards. The 
 posterior border of the internal malleolus presents an oblique fossa descending 
 from without inwards, for the tendons of tibial. post. e\ flex, digit, long. The 
 external surface assists in forming the inferior articular surface. This last, 
 fossa glenoidalis, is four-sided, broader externally, divided by an elevation into 
 
 two lateral halves, and it unites with the jlstragalus. 
 
90 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Structure. The spongy mass of the Extremities is perforated by numerous 
 vascular foramina. 
 
 Development. Three osseous points. In the body the first 
 appears between the thirty-fifth and fortieth days ; in the superior 
 extremity with the conclusion of the first year ; in the inferior 
 extremity in the course of the second. The union of the three 
 portions commences at the inferior extremity, and is only perfect 
 when the growth is complete, between the eighteenth and the 
 twenty-fifth year. 
 
 104. 2. Fibula s. Perone. 
 
 Position: upon the outer, as well as above, upon the posterior 
 side of the shin bone, on the same side as the little toe of the foot, 
 Fibula border. 
 
 Direction : vertical, below a little external. 
 
 Figure: thin, long, like the tibia, twisted. 
 
 Connection : with the tibia, the astragalus ; and with the os 
 femoris by the ligam. lateralia. 
 
 a. Superior extremity, capitulum with : superficies tibialis superior, the con- 
 cave articular surface of the Tibia ; externally, flat fossae for ligam. lateralia 
 extern, et m. biceps behind; and above the point, apex seu proc. styloideus, for 
 M. biceps. 
 
 b. Central piece, three-sided, prismatic. External surface, grooved, for m. 
 perorueus long, et brevis, inferiorly one-fifth directed backwards. 
 
 Internal surface, divided by a Crista, for lig. interosseum into two halves, for 
 Tibial postic., peron&us tertius, and extens. hallucis longus ; below turned for- 
 wards. 
 
 Posterior surface, above narrow, below broad and directed inwards, with 
 Foram. nutritium, Muscles: soleus, flex, hallucis longus. The borders are 
 sharp ; the internal, for ligam. interosseum inclines forwards, the anterior out- 
 wards, the external backwards. 
 
 c. Inferior extremity, projects beyond the articular surface of the Tibia, is 
 longer and thicker than the inferior extremity of the last. Malleolus externus : 
 external surface convex, lies close beneath the skin ; internal surface forms 
 the articular fossa for the astragalus and unites with the Tibia; with Twber- 
 cidum anticum et posticum, for the ligam. tibiofibularia ; posterior surface, 
 grooved for the tendons of the two peron&i, with fossa malleoli externa, for ligam. 
 jibulare tali post. 
 
 Structure. The medullary canal in the centre is very narrow ; the extre- 
 mities are spongy. 
 
 Development. Three osseous nuclei ; the first, in the centre 
 piece, appears between the fortieth and fiftieth days, foetal; the 
 second, in the inferior extremity only, in the second year ; the 
 third, at the superior extremity, in the fifth year. The inferior 
 extremity first unites with the body, between the twentieth and 
 the twenty-fifth year. 
 
THE BONES. 91 
 
 105. 3. Patella s. Rotula, Knee-pan. 
 
 Position : between femur and tibia, before the knee. The 
 largest os sesamoideum. 
 
 Figure : flat, roundish, triangular, however very variable ; above 
 broad, below pointed. 
 
 Connection: with the femur and tibia. 
 
 a. Anterior surface, convex, covered by a thick fibrous tissue, beneath the 
 skin. 
 
 b. Posterior surface, fits close upon the Trochlea of the inferior extremity 01 
 the femur; is covered with cartilage, and presents : 
 
 1. Crista, from above, downwards and inwards. 
 
 2 Fossa articular, externa, broad, and interna, narrow. 
 
 c. Circumference. Superior border, basis, thick, for the tendons of the 
 extensors of the leg. Lateral borders, for lig. capsulare. Point, apex, lies 
 towards the Spina tibia [for ligam. Patettte]. 
 
 In flexion of the leg upon the thigh the Patella remains fixed and pfo- 
 jects, in extension it is moveable and serves as a roller for the Extensor 
 muscles. 
 
 Structure. Entirely spongy, only covered upon the anterior surface with a 
 thin layer of compact tissue which, as an exception in these short bones, con- 
 sists of longitudinal fibres. 
 
 Development. From one osseous centre in the third year. 
 
 III. Ossa pedis, Bones of the feet. 
 
 106. 1 . Tarsus, root of the foot, instep, 
 
 consists of seven bones, placed unequally in two rows; arched 
 above, hollow below. 
 
 a. Posterior row, consists of the two largest bones of the 
 Tarsus. 
 
 1. Astragalus s. Talus, knuckle bone. Situation and connection: below the 
 Tibia, above the Colds, internal to Malleolus externus, fibulae, behind the navicular 
 bone. Figure irregularly cubical. Six surfaces. Body and head. 
 
 a. Body. Superior surface, a half trochha for the tibia; Lateral surfaces 
 flat enclosed by the malleoli. Inferior surface, for calcaneus, concave. Poste- 
 rior surface with a groove, for flex, halluc. long. 
 
 b. Head, for os naviculare, united to the body by the Collum astrag., has 
 above, a broad notch, before, an articular surface, for os naviculare, below, a fossa 
 which forms with another on the Proc. anterior Calcanei, the Sinus tarsi; lies 
 on the anterior surface of the astragalus. 
 
 2. Calcaneus, heel bone, the largest of the tarsal bones. Position : below 
 the Astragalus, behind the Cuboid. Figure: longitudinal 5 a body and pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 a. Body. Posterior termination, proc. poster, s. calx, heel, for the tendo* 
 Jlchillis; inferior, narrow surface, with two tubercles; superior surface, with 
 two convex articular surfaces, for the Astragalus ; external surface, only covered 
 
92 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 by skin, with two grooves, for the tendons of peron&i, and a tubercle before 
 and above, important in a Surgical point of view, as a guide in exarticulatio 
 ped. Chopart. Internal surface, deeply concave, forms with 
 
 b. Process, intern, s. minor, a blunt hook, projecting forwards and upwards, 
 and having an articular surface, for proc. anter. astrag., the Sinus tarsi, for the 
 tendons, vessels, and nerves of the sole of the foot. Below it a sulcus, for the 
 tendon flex, halluc. long. 
 
 c. Process, ant. s. magnus, represents the anterior surface of the Corp. Cal- 
 canei; has anterioly an articular surface, for os cuboid; is externally rough, for 
 abduct, digit. 5, and extens. brevis; internally a small process projects, sustenta- 
 culum tali. 
 
 b. Anterior row, consists of five bones, namely : 
 
 3. Os naviculare s. scaphoideum. Position: on the same side as the great 
 toe, before the talus, behind the three cuneiform bones, internal to the Cuboid. 
 Figure: longitudinal, flat. Posterior surface, concave, for Talus; anterior, 
 convex for the three cuneiform bones; superior, convex, free upon the back of 
 the foot; at the internal extremity, tubei". oss. navicularis, for attachment of m. 
 Tibialis posticus, perceptible through the skin; at the external termination a 
 small articular surface, for the os cuboideum. 
 
 4, 5, 6. Ossa civneiformia, three small, four-sided bones. Position: between 
 Navicular and the three internal metatarsal bones. 
 
 I. Os cuneiforme, at the side of the foot, the largest; internal surface, beneath 
 the skin; external, angular, for the second cuneiform and two metatarsal bones; 
 posterior concave, for the navicular; anterior rather convex, for the first meta- 
 tarsal; inferior, with tuberculum, for m. tibialis anticus. 
 
 II. Os cuneiforme lies between I. and II. ; is the smallest, for the second os 
 metatarsi. 
 
 III. Os cuneiforme, between II. and the cuboid bone, for the third os metatarsi, 
 m. adductor, halluc. 
 
 7. Os cuboideum, Cube bone. Position: before the calcis, behind the fourth 
 and fifth metatarsal bones, outside the navicular and os cuneiforme III.; on the 
 outer, little toe, border. Superior surface, with sulcus oss. cub., for the tendon 
 of m. peronceus long, on the outer border. Inferior surface, with the eminentia 
 obliqua, for ligam. calcan.-cuboid. 
 
 Development, Calcis and Astragalus ossify even in the sixth 
 month of foetal existence ; the rest only in the first year after birth ; 
 but Tuber calcanei only in the tenth year. 
 
 107. 2. Metatarsus, middle foot, 
 
 consists of five columnar, parallel bones united like a grating with 
 four interstitia interossea. Position : horizontal between tarsus 
 and toes. Connection : behind with the three cuneiform and the 
 cuboid bones; before with the first phalanges of the toes; with 
 one another. Structure : the same as the long bones. 
 
 a. Posterior extremity. .Basis, from the first to third metatarsal bone, cor- 
 responds with the three cuneiform bones ; that of the fourth and fifth with the 
 cuboid ; with one posterior, for the tarsus, and two or one lateral articular sur- 
 faces for the metatarsus. 
 
THE BONES. 93 
 
 I. Os metatarsi, for m. tibial. antic., flex, brevis, abduct, halktcis, on the great 
 toe border; very strong; the posterior, articular surface, for the first cuneiform 
 bone, longitudinally concave, both lateral surfaces wanting; on the Plantar 
 border, tuberculum plantare, for tendon of Peronceus long. 
 
 II. Os metatarsi, with three articular surfaces for the three cuneiform bones 
 [two lateral, one posterior], and one for the third os metatarsi. 
 
 III. Os metatarsi; three articular surfaces, namely, one behind for third 
 cuneiform, two lateral for second and third os metatarsi. III. and IV. for m. 
 adductor hattucis. 
 
 V. Os metatarsi, for peronaus 3, flex, brevis digiti 5, with only one lateral 
 articular surface for the IV. os metatarsi ; and tuberositas on the free outer 
 border, for m. peronaus brevis s. Proc. triangularis and abductor digiti 5, pro- 
 jects backwards and outwards, important in exarticulatio metatarsi. 
 
 b. Middle portion, diaphysis, for m. interossei; three-sided. Superior surface 
 rather convex ; internal and external meet below in the concave, plantar sur- 
 face, at an acute angle. L II., os metatars., are the longest and strongest V., 
 flat and thick. 
 
 c. Anterior extremity, capitidum, with anterior, convex, articular surface, 
 which is largest in the sole ; and two lateral fossa?, sinus, and two tuber- 
 cula, for ligam. lateralia. 
 
 The first os metatars. projects into the sole of the foot, ball ; and has two 
 grooves, for ossa sesamoidea. IV. and V., for caput breve m. transversal, pedis. 
 
 Development of the metatarsus begins in the third foetal month 
 with one osseous nucleus in the centre piece, and with another at 
 the anterior (in the first os. metatars. at the posterior) extremity 
 in the second year, but only in the eighteenth year are the pieces 
 completely united together. 
 
 108. Digiti Pedis, Toes, 
 
 five on each foot, each consisting of three, the great toe of two 
 members, phalanges. 
 
 Phalanx I. the largest Ph. II. small and short. Ph. III. Ungual, the 
 smallest, flat The posterior extremity, basis, of each phalanx is even, con- 
 cave, for capitul. metatarsi, with tubercula on either side. The anterior ex- 
 tremity roller shaped, convex, with a sinus on either side ; that of the third 
 Ph. free, semilunar. 
 
 1 . Hallux, great toe ; two members ; thick and large, less moveable than 
 the fingers, on account of its strong ligament To the plantar surface, flexor 
 brevis, to the basis the first Phalanx. 
 
 2. Ossa sesamoidea, for abducior and adductor hallucis; Dorsal surface of 
 first Phalanx, for m. extensor hall, brevis. To the basis the second Phalanx 
 one os sesamoideum: Plantar surface, for flex. hall. long. Dorsal surface, for 
 extens. hall, l&ngus. 
 
 Second to fifth toes are always smaller. First Ph., for m. lumbricales. Se- 
 cond Ph., for flex. comm. brevis. Third Ph., basis, for flex. comm. long. Dor- 
 sal surface of all three, for extens. comm. long, and brevis. 
 
 Fifth small toe, Digitus minimus. First Ph., basis, for flex. brev. and abduct, 
 digiti 5. 
 
94 
 
 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Development. Two osseous nuclei, a. in the centre piece, at 
 the end of the third foetal month; b. in the posterior end, ext. 
 halluc. The second phalanx ossifies last. At birth the apex of 
 the ungual phalanx is ossified. 
 
 109. 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 of the Male and 
 
 Bones: stronger, larger, heavier, and 
 more rough. 
 
 Head and extremities preponderating 
 over the trunk. 
 
 Thorax: more elevated: anterior flat- 
 tened ; dorsal vertebrae higher ; the 
 ribs passing more obliquely down- 
 wards, .... 
 
 Sternum: longer and flatter. 
 
 Clavicles : more strongly curved, long- 
 
 - er, inclined outwards; the angle 
 with the sternum obtuse. 
 
 Abdominal vertebra: shorter; and 
 therefore the space, ventral cavity, 
 between them and the chest is 
 likewise shorter. 
 
 Pelvis: narrower, higher. Proinon- 
 torium more pointed. Crista lliaca 
 more sigmoidal and curved, drcus 
 pubis, angular. The acetabula 
 closer to the axis of the body, 
 therefore the gait less rolling. 
 
 Sacrum : narrower ; Coccyx broader. 
 
 Extremities: longer, the inferior less 
 converging. 
 
 Cranial and facial cavities, with ex- 
 ception of orbits, larger. 
 Canalis spinalis, narrower. 
 
 of the Female Skeleton. 
 
 Shorter, thinner, lighter, and more 
 smooth. 
 
 Trunk relatively larger than head 
 and extremities. 
 
 Chest smaller, more barrel-like, far- 
 ther removed from the pelvis; 
 before roundish; dorsal vertebrae 
 and ribs shorter; the last more 
 horizontal. 
 
 Sternum shorter. 
 
 Clavicles straighter, more inclining 
 outwards; the angle with the 
 sternum almost a right angle. 
 
 Higher. Abdominal cavity more 
 spacious. 
 
 Wider and shorter. Hip bones flat- 
 ter, superior border standing more 
 erect. Symphysis less elevated. 
 Distance between it and the Tu- 
 bcrosit. Ischii greater; between it 
 and the acetabula, arcus pubis, 
 vaulted. Foramen obturator, tri- 
 angular. 
 
 Broader; Coccyx narrower, more 
 moveable, less projecting. 
 
 Shorter, the inferior converging to the 
 knees; the Trochanters broad and 
 more separated. 
 
 Mouth and nose, together with orbits, 
 smaller; teeth smaller. 
 
 Canalis spinalis more spacious. 
 
ARTHROLOGIA. 
 
 OF THE ARTICULAR EXTREMITIES OF THE BONES, AND THEIR 
 CONNECTION BY MEANS OF LIGAMENTS, FORMING JOINTS. 
 
 SYNDESMOLOG1A. 
 
 " In proportion indeed as we comprehend the principles of mechanics, or 
 of hydraulics, as applicable to the animal machinery, we shall be satisfied of 
 the perfection of the design." The Hand. Sir C. BELI. 
 
ARTHROLOGIA. 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 General Anatomy. 
 
 Art. " Articulation," in Cycl. of Anat. and Phys. 
 Cartilage. Toynbee, Mem. on the Non- vascular Tissues. Phil. Trans., 1841, 
 
 and separately. 
 Works on General Anatomy. 
 Cyc. of Anat. and Phys., art " Cartilage." 
 
 Descriptive Anatomy. 
 B. B. Cooper. A Treatise on Ligaments, 1827, 4to., with plates, and in the 
 
 "Lectures," &c. 
 
 Works on Descriptive Anatomy. 
 
 Sell, Sir C. " On the Hand." Bridgewater Treatise. 
 Mtmro. "On the Bursae Mucosae." Fol. 17881783. 
 
97 
 
 UO. OF THE LIGAMENTS. 
 
 In the union of the articular surfaces of bones three kinds of 
 accessory organs are present which, in Syndesmology, are treated 
 of in common, namely ligaments, synovial capsules, articular car- 
 tilage. 
 
 For a description of the manner in which the bones form joints, 
 and the modes of their association, refer to page 30. 
 
 a. Ligaments of bones, ligamenta, aw&fapoi, formed of firm 
 and flexible fibrous tissue, consist of white and yellow fasciculi or 
 cords which are not extensible and little sensitive, of a flat, longi- 
 tudinal, oval, also annular or angular figure ; they lie either between 
 the bones, or on their external circumference, almost inseparably 
 attached to the extremities which they unite together. We dis- 
 tinguish the following forms: 
 
 1. Proper ligaments, ligamenta fibrosa accessoria, flat cords. 
 
 2. Fibrous capsules. Kgg. capsularia, which are tendinous cylinders, attached 
 by their openings to the bones, enclosing th.3 Synovial capsules together 
 with the Cartilages. 
 
 Yellow ligaments, ligg. flava, assigned to a particular purpose, do not belong 
 to these tissues. 
 
 b. Synovial capsules, capsulse s. membranse synoviales, arlicu- 
 lares, thin, translucent, closed sacs of serous uniting tissue between 
 the articular extremities of the bones, connected externally with 
 the surrounding ligaments, secreting inside a thin, serous fluid, or 
 a thick, albuminous Synovia, drawing out into threads, which 
 prevents the attrition of the bones upon one another. Folds 
 which have lying between them small masses of fat, form inter- 
 nally the falsely so-called Glandulse Haversianse. The synovia 
 is not secreted by them, but from innumerable blood-vessels, 
 especially upon the lateral parts. 
 
 c. Articular cartilage, carlilagines arliculares, are elastic discs 
 of cartilage tissue which are present in all cases where joints 
 exist, for the purpose of obviating or equalising the pressure of 
 the bones upon one another. They are so -much the thicker, the 
 more moveable the articulation, particularly at the circumference 
 of the articular cavity, but, in the centre upon convex surfaces. 
 We distinguish: 
 
 1. Cartilage connected with the bones, which it is extremely difficult to 
 separate from them, and the free surface of which looks into the articular 
 cavity, and 
 
 2. Free articular cartilage, cartilagg. interariiculares, which on one of the 
 two surfaces is connected with the articular end of the bones, is covered by 
 the synovial sao, and connected on the borders with the fibrous capsule. They 
 are from to f of a line thick, and are only present in very moveable articu- 
 
 7 
 
98 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 lations. They are named Menisci, fjwn, from their Biconcavity. The carti- 
 lage may waste away by attrition. 
 
 3. Fibrous cartilages of the osseous joints, are generally disc-shaped, united 
 closely with the Periosteum ; for example, symphysis pubis, or annular labra 
 glenaidea attached to the borders of the articular fossse. 
 
 111. Connections of the Vertebrae with each other, Jlrticulatio 
 vertebrarum. 
 
 a. The vertebral bodies are united with each other by a close 
 articulation, amphiarthrosis. The articular surfaces which are 
 
 .the superior and inferior surfaces of each vertebral body, are 
 rather concave, do not immediately touch, but lie upon one another 
 by means of: 
 
 1. The ligg. (cartilagines) intervertebralia, twenty three strong lenticular discs, 
 consisting of concentric fibrous rings which, closer in the periphery, are sepa- 
 rated towards the centre, the interspaces being filled by a yellow jelly, which, 
 in the central point, becomes hardened into an elastic osseous nucleus. Their 
 vertical diameter varies ; it may, for example, diminish after standing long 
 in the erect posture. In youth the gelatinous masses are softer and whiter 
 than in old age, and on this account the vertebral column is less moveable in 
 
 ,the latter than in the former. The vertebral bodies are further surrounded 
 with a fibrous sheath, the 
 
 2. Lig. longitudinale anterius, on the anterior surface, from the Tuberculum 
 atlantis aniicum to the upper part of the os Sarrum ; above narrow, below 
 
 broad; white, membranous, thicker on the dorsal than upon the cervical and 
 lumbar vertebrae; consists of two lateral portions, which are separated in the 
 centre by a series of openings, for vessels. Below it mingles with the fibres 
 of the crura of the Diaphragm and the Aponeurosis of the m.psoas; above 
 with the tendons of the m. long, colli and rectus. 
 
 3. Lig. longihtd. postering, on the posterior surface, on the anterior of the 
 Canal, spinalis, thicker and narrower than 2, commences upon the internal 
 surface of the pars basil, occip.; the superior portion, from the third cervical 
 vertebra, is particularly distinguished as apparatus ligamentosus, terminates in 
 the Canal. Sacralis. The posterior surface is connected by processes with 
 Dura Mater, the anterior with the ligam. intervertebralia. On the borders, 
 passes sinus venosi, in the centre, between the ligament and the vertebral body, 
 the vence vertebrales. It extends, like the anterior, upon the intervertebral car- 
 tilages, and attaches itself firmly to them. 
 
 b. Connection of the Processus obliqui, Jlrthrodia. The 
 articular surfaces are covered with cartilage, provided with a 
 synovial sac, and united together by ligg- capsularia. 
 
 c. Ligaments of the Vertebral arches : 
 
 Ligg. flava s. intercruralia, filling up the intervals between the arches, are, 
 really, higher than these, thicker in the lumbar vertebra, thickest in the region 
 of the Proc. spinosi. Attachment: to the inferior and superior border of two 
 vertebrae, as the one lies upon the other. Anterior surface smooth, separated 
 from the Dura Mater by areolar tissue and Vv. spinales. Structure: thick, 
 vertical, elastic but strong fibres. Use : to assist the Dorsal muscles in main- 
 .taining the erect posture of the body. 
 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. 
 
 99 
 
 d. Ligaments of the Spinous processes : 
 
 1. Ligg. interspinalia, fill tlie spaces between the Proc. spinosi, are wanting 
 in the neck, muscles existing there, are triangular on the Dorsal, thick and 
 quadrangular on the Lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 2. Ligg. apicum, roundish, from the apex of the one to that of the next, 
 Proc. spinosus ; wanting in the neck. 
 
 3. Lig. nuchce, cervical ligament, triangular, continuation of the Ligg. apic. 
 upwards, from the seventh cervical vertebra to the Spina Occipit. extern., re- 
 ceiving vertical elongations from the fissure between the proc spinosi of the 
 superior cervical vertebrae. 
 
 e. Ligaments of the transverse processes, ligg. intertransver- 
 salia, are thin strips between the apices of the transverse pro- 
 cesses, generally only on the Dorsal vert., placed here for the m. 
 levatores costarum et multif. spinse; very often double. 
 
 Movements of the Vertebral column: 1. Forwards [flexion]; 
 2. Backwards [extension]; 3. Inclination sideways; 4. Rotation. 
 The cervical portion is the most, the dorsal the least moveable. 
 
 112. Connection of the Vertebral column with the Cranium, 
 Jlrticulatio capitis. 
 
 a. The Atlas with the Occiput: 
 
 1. Articular connection Ginglymus between Proc. condyl- 
 oidei occipitis and Proc. obliq. super, atlantis, for the movements 
 of the head, forwards and backwards, is maintained by : 
 . Ligg. capsularia, particularly strong anteriorly and externally, broad, yel- 
 lowish circles around the articular processes, between which a wide loose 
 synovial capsule. 
 
 2. Ligaments: 
 
 a. Ligam. obturatarium s. latum anterius, strong and elastic, extends between 
 the superior border of the Atlas and the pars, basilar. occipit.; before it in the 
 centre lies 
 
 0. Lig. rectum s. lacertus (Weitbrechti) medius, a thick band, from tubercul. 
 antic, atlant. to the Proc. basilaris occipitis, strengthening the before mentioned 
 
 y. Lig. obturatorium posterius, thin, broad, and slack, from the posterior arch 
 of the Atlas to the posterior circumference of the foram. magn., laterally per- 
 forated by the Art. vertebralis. 
 
 *. Lig. laterale, cord-like, from the basis of the Proc. transvers. atlant. to the 
 proc. jugular, occipit., forms with a similar from the petrous bone, a ring, for 
 vena jugular, intern., Carotis intern., n. Hypoglossus, vagus, glossopharyng., access. 
 Willisii. 
 
 b. The proc. dentiformis with the occipital bone, only by liga- 
 ments. 
 
 1. Ligg. lateralia proc. dentiformi* s. alaria Maucharti, very strong and short, 
 from the sides of the apex of the odontoid process outwards to a fossa on the 
 inner side of each Condyle. They prevent too great lateral movement of the 
 head. 
 
 2. Lig. suspensorium dentis, from the centre of the apex to the anterior border 
 of the great foramen, it thus forms a figure like an inverted letter , is quad- 
 rangular, and affixed to the Odontoid process. 
 
100 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 113. c. The Atlas with the Epistropheus, or vert, dentata. 
 
 1. Rotary articulation trochoides between the anterior arch 
 of the Atlas and the Odontoid process which last describes on 
 each side within a ring, anteriorly osseous, posteriorly ligamentous 
 (Lig. transvers.), the fourth part of a circle, and prevents every 
 other movement but rotation which is performed by the proc. 
 obliq. inferr. atlant. and superr. epistroph., as the atlas and cra- 
 nium move thereon as one piece. 
 
 2. Between proc. obliqui atlant. and epistrophei a free articu- 
 lation arthrodia since the circular surfaces of both planes lie 
 horizontal, and are provided with a wide articular and synovial 
 capsule. 
 
 3. Lig. transversvm atlantis, very thick and dense, flat, extending horizon- 
 tally behind the Odontoid process, from one lateral mass of the atlas lo the 
 other. The anterior concave surface is in apposition with the posterior surface 
 of the Odontoid process, which is covered with cartilage. [In the centre of 
 this transverse ligament there is a portion of cartilage, and a very delicate 
 synovial capsule is attached around the articular surfaces.] From the supe- 
 rior border an appendix passes upwards to the anterior border of the foram. 
 magnum ; a similar from the inferior border to the posterior surface of the 
 Corpus episirophei; thence arises a ligam. crudatum. 
 
 114. Articulation of the lower jaw, articulalw maxillaris, a 
 free joint, formed 
 
 1. By the elongated proc. condyloid. of each half of the lower 
 jaw, covered with cartilage, which is directed rather obliquely 
 from without to within from before to behind ; and 
 
 2. By the deep and capacious/ossa glenoidalis of the temporal 
 bones, the anterior part of which, to ihejissura Glaseri, is alone 
 covered with cartilage, and is an articular cavity. The anterior 
 wall forms the convex transverse root of the proc. zygomalic., 
 and upon it the proc. condyloid. ,\ikew\se convex, rolls backwards 
 and forwards. 
 
 Between the articular surface lies a free 
 
 1. Menifcus [or interarticular cartilage], firmly attached below, to the Con- 
 dyle, behind, to the glenoid cavity, dividing the articular cavity into a superior 
 and inferior space. 
 
 2. Ligam. capsulare extends from the border of the fossa glenoid. to the cir- 
 cumference of the Condyle. Above and below the cartilage lies a rynovial 
 capsule; the superior is wider, and proceeds from the boundary of the Cavit. 
 glenoidal. and tuberc. articulare, the inferior from <:oUum condyli. 
 
 3. Lig. later ale exlernum, from the tubercle at the root of the Proc. zygomat. 
 to the outer fide of the Collum Condyli, triangular and broad ; it covers the 
 outer side of the joint. 
 
 4 . Lig. lateraleinlernurn, from Spina angularis of the Sphenoid bone to the osseus 
 lam?ll(^ on the inner side of the foram. tnaxill. post., separates the dental vessels 
 arid nerves from \bemusr. plerygoid., is thin and broad, contributing little to the 
 strength of the joint; likewise the so-called Lig. s^ylo-maxillare, merely fascia. 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. 101 
 
 Movements of the lower jaw; a. downwards. The condyles, 
 together with the menisci, roll from behind, forwards ; Ligam. 
 later, extern, is stretched; Lig. lat. intern, remains unchanged. 
 /Drawing down the lower jaw too strongly, as for example in gap- 
 f ing, may produce luxation, that is, a slipping of the condyle out 
 of the f ass. glenoidal. into the zygomatic fossa. 
 b. Upwards, that is, in closing the mouth. The movements of 
 the condyle the reverse of a. Luxation backwards is prevented 
 by the anterior wall of the auditory meatus, to which point the 
 condyles may roll, for example, in edentulous old age. 
 
 c. Forwards (and backwards) horizontally: the articular head 
 comes below the transverse root of the proc. zygomat. But it 
 must be preceded by the movement downwards. AH the liga- 
 ments are stretched. In too great extension the coronoid process 
 
 ^i is opposed by the upper jaw, and farther luxation rendered iin- 
 .1 possible. 
 
 d. From side to side. The condyle of one side passes side- 
 ^ ways from its cavity, stretching its ligaments ; that of the other 
 
 j sinks more deeply into its articular cavity, where a luxation in- 
 wards is prevented by proc. styloideus and its sheath, as well as 
 by proc spinosus. 
 
 The movements c and d are more limited than a and b. 
 
 115. Connections of the Thoracic cavity, Chest. 
 I. Vertebrae with the ribs, Jlrticul. costo-vertebralis. 
 
 a. Capitulum costse has a divided articular surface, which lies 
 J in \\iefoveas costales, formed by the bodies of two dorsal vertebrae, 
 
 unites with the car/if. mterverfebr.,zm\ forms a free articulation, 
 enarthrosis, not ginglymus. Its synovial capsule is single on 
 the first, eleventh and twelfth ribs, double on the rest; articular 
 capsule incomplete. Instead of it : 
 
 1. Lig. capituli anlerius s. radialunt, stellate on the anterior surface of the 
 joint 
 
 2. Lig. capifuli inferarliculare, on the second and to the tenth ribs, from 
 the crisiu of capituli to the carliL inlerarlic. / flat, oval, and separating the 
 two synovial capsules. 
 
 b. Tuberculum costae has a convex articular surface which 
 unites with one concave, on the proc. transvers. in a close joint. 
 Moreover, ligaments pass from collum costse to the proc. trans- 
 versi. 
 
 1. Synovial capsule. 
 
 2. Lig. tubcrculi s. transversariurn posterius, quadrangular, behind the 
 joint ; from the apex of the proc. tran&vers. to the posterior surface of tne 
 Tu'iercul. CDS' as of the first to the tenth ribs inclusive. 
 
 3. Lig. transversarium-intermedium, from the anterior surface of the proc. 
 transv. to the postarior of the collum costee ; very strong. 
 
102 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 4. Lig. transversarium internum, rhombic, from the inferior border of the 
 proc. trans, of the vertebra next above to the superior border of the Cottum, 
 wanting on the twelfth rib ; divides the posterior and anterior branches of the 
 Intercostal nerves. 
 
 5. Lig. transversarium intern., triangular, weak, descends from the root of 
 the proc. transvers. of the vertebra next above to the posterior surface of the 
 collum costce, close to the capitulum ; it is wanting on the first, eleventh, and 
 twelfth ribs. 
 
 116. II. The ribs with the sternum, articulatio sterno-costalis, + 
 Amphiarthrosis. The cartilages of the ribs which are firmly con- j> 
 nected with the bone, and possess no farther external means of * 
 union than the common Periosteum, Perichondrium, are inti- ^ 
 mately attached in the incisura. costal, sterni by Synovial cap- 
 sules and stellate ligaments, from the second to the seventh rib. 
 The fifth to the ninth ribs have, at their place of contact, delicate ^ 
 synovial capsules. The first rib cartilage is, generally, closely ^ 
 united with the sternum. 
 
 Ligaments : 1 . Lig. interarticulare, of the second to the fifth ribs, divides 
 the double synovial capsules. 
 
 2. Lig. radiatum externum, proceeds from a true rib cartilage of one side to 
 
 the one next above of the other, crosses also upon the centre of the Sternum, *" 
 and loses itself in the Periosteum and the tendinous expansion of the great 
 pectoral muscles. In a like manner is arranged the less strong Lig. rad. intern. 
 upon the posterior surface of the Sternum. 
 
 3. Ligg. coruscantia, brilliant bundles of fibres between the third to the 
 tenth rib cartilages, to fill up the spaces between the cartilages of the ribs. 
 Vide m. intercostales. 
 
 4. Ligg. proccssus ensiformis, proceed from the inferior border of the sixth and 
 seventh rib cartilages over the centre of the ensiform process and attach it to 
 them. 
 
 5. Membrana sterni propria, covers the external and internal surface of the 
 Sternum, and consists of the fibres of Periosteum crossing each other. 
 
 Movements of the chest. 
 
 1 . Expansion, upon inspiration, by elevation of the ribs, whereby the an- 
 terior extremities of the ribs move forwards, the lateral outwards, and the - 
 diameter of the thorax is increased from before to behind and transversely. 
 
 In forcible inspiration the Sternum also is elevated. The first rib remains 
 immoveable. 
 
 2. Contraction, upon expiration, depends upon the falling back of the ribs 
 and these parts, from their weight, and the elasticity of the cartilage, as well 
 as in consequence of the direct action of the expiratory muscles. 
 
 117, Connections of the Pelvis. 
 
 a. The Ossa coxarum with each other. Symphysis ossium 
 pubis. Pubic symphysis with : 
 
 1. Lig. (s. cartilago) interosseum pubis, a prismatic, fibro-cartilage, as on the 
 bodies of the vertebrae, half an inch broad in front, covered by crossed fibres 
 and by Lig. pubis, s. arcuatum, supcrius, transversely from one tuberculum pubis 
 to the other. 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. 103 
 
 2. Lig. annttlare, consisting of transverse fibres, the rings passing round the 
 borders of the articular surfaces. 
 
 3. Lig. arcuatum inferius s. triangulare or sub-pubic, beneath the symphysis, 
 triangular, continuation of the Lig. inteross., forms the superior border of th6 
 pubic arch; proceeds from one ramus descend, pub. to the other. 
 
 b. The ram. coxarum with the vertebral column, symphysi* 
 sacro-iliaca. 
 
 The articular surfaces of the Sacrum and Ilium, superficies 
 auriculares, covered with cartilage and with a thin Synovial cap- 
 sule, which in children and pregnant women is more distinct, are 
 united by a slight layer of fibro-cartilage with gelatinous sub- 
 stance, and form an amphiarthrosis. Contributing to strengthen 
 the articulation there are : 
 
 1. Ligg. sacro-iliaca vaga anteriora, short, transverse and oblique from the 
 superior surface of the Sacrum to the internal of the Ilium, they blend with 
 the menib. oss. sacri propria. 
 
 2. Ligg. sacro-iliaca vaga posteriora, short, crossed, filling up the fossa be- 
 tween the posterior surface of the Sacrum and tuber oss. ilium. 
 
 3. Ligg. pelvis, s. ileo-sacra postica, two; thick, on the posterior side of the 
 pelvis ,longum arising from spina ilei poster, super. breve arising from spina 
 Ueipost. infer. Both are attached to the proc. transversus of the third and fourth 
 sacral vertebrae. Sometimes three lateral bundles pass from the hip-bone to 
 the proc. transfers, of the first and second sacral piece. 
 
 4. Lig. ilco-lumbalia s. pelvis anterior; lies over the sacro-Uiac symphysisj 
 springs from proc. transv. of the fifth or fourth lumbar vertebra. Lig. superius 
 is fixed to the posterior part of the crista Ilei. Lig. inferius is attached broad 
 upon the superior surface of the Sacrum and the internal of the Ilium, close 
 to the spina ilei poster, super. 
 
 c. Of the sacrum and coccyx a symphysis, which often ossi- 
 fies ; in very moveable coccyges, a synovial capsule. Between 
 the articular surfaces a delicate layer of fibro-cartilage. Liga- 
 ments. 
 
 1. Ligg. sacro-coccygea postica longa. from the border of the exit of the Co- 
 nalis tacralis, which they close, diminishing upon the posterior surface of the 
 coccyx, for m. gluten maximi. 
 
 2. Ligg. sacro-coccygea post, brevia, below the last, passing from the cornua 
 of the Sacrum to that of the coccyx ; are often ossified. 
 
 3. Ligg. sacro-coccygea antica, from the apex of the sacrum to that of the 
 coccyx, in front; often wanting. 
 
 4. Membr. ossis sacri propria, covers the anterior surface of the Sacrum, & 
 above covered by lig. hngitudinale anterius. 
 
 d. Ligaments for the purpose of limiting the pelvic cavity. 
 
 1. Lig. obturatorium, consists of aponeurotic bundles which cross in all di- 
 rections, closing an egg-shaped opening ; it is perforated at its superior margin 
 by a foramen for art^ ven^ nerv. obturator, and serves to give attachment to the 
 m. obturatores extertius et internus. 
 
 2. Ligg. sacro-ischiadica majus et minus. 
 
 a. Majus s. post. s. tuberoso-sacrum arises from the internal lip of the tuber 
 
104 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 isckti, and with a sickle-shaped extension, folx ligamentosa, from ramus ascendens 
 oss. ischii, by which arises a groove for art., ven,, et nerv. pudend. commun., and 
 thus prevents pressure in the sitting posture ; passes obliquely upwards and 
 backwards, and is attached broad to the margin of the sacral, even to the most 
 superior of the coccygeal, pieces; serves for the attachment of the glufeeus 
 maximus. 
 
 b. Minus s. ant. s. spinoso-sacrum, lies before a, springs from spina Ischii, 
 I>asses inwards and backwards and blends with a- serves for the attachment 
 of the muscles levator ani, coccygeus. From the manner in which the Ligg. 
 ischiad. limit the incisurce ischiadicce below, two foramina arise, of which 
 
 1. The superior, incirura major, large, almost triangular, is in great part 
 closed by the mm. pyriformis et coccygeus, together with areola or uniting tissue, 
 and allows the passage through it of the Nervi et vasa ischiadica, glutaea et 
 pudenda ; 
 
 2. The inferior, incisura minor, small, between spina et tuber Ischii, for m. 
 obturator internus. Nerv. et vasa pudenda also pass through it. 
 
 118. Connections of the Superior Extremities. 
 
 I. The Shoulder-bones. 
 A. Of the Clavicle with the Sternum, Jlrticul. Sterno-clavicularis. 
 
 Arthrodia. The articular surface of the clavicle extends, be- 
 fore and behind, beyond that of the sternum, and the last, inci- 
 sura clavicularis manubrii, likewise inwards and outwards over 
 the clavicle. This bone is also firmly united with the first rib. 
 
 1. Lig. capsulare, round about the circumference of the two articular sur- 
 faces; before loose, therefore on this side displacement is more easy than 
 behind; contains: an interarticular cartilage with an external loose and an 
 internal synovial capsule, below, connected with the cartilage of the first rib, 
 above and behind, with the clavicula. 
 
 2. Lig. interclaviculare, unites the internal extremity of one clavicle with 
 that of the other, as it passes transversely over the incisura semilunarismanubrii, 
 and indeed, lies rather behind it. 
 
 3. Lig. costo-claviculare s. Rhomboideum, a dense fibrous bundle ; proceeds, 
 obliquely backwards and upwards, from the superior margin of the first rib 
 cartilage to the inferior and sternal end of the clavicula. An articular surface 
 for the reception of the clavicula is, generally, present on the first costal 
 cartilage. 
 
 The movements of the shoulder depend upon these articular 
 connections. 
 
 a. Movement of the shoulder upwards. In this the sternal 
 surface of the clavicula glides downwards, upon the articular sur- 
 face of the sternum, the Lig. inter dav. is relaxed ; the cartilage 
 of the first rib prevents the escape of the clavicula downwards. 
 
 b. Downwards. The sternal end of the clavicula glides up- 
 wards ; the articular surfaces of the clavicle and first rib are 
 strongly pressed upon one another, whereby the art. subclavia is 
 compressed. 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. 105 
 
 c. Backwards. The sternal extremity of the clavicula glides 
 forwards; the anterior portion of the Lig. capsulare is stretched, 
 often even to laceration, and then luxation of the clavicle takes 
 place forwards. 
 
 d. Forwards. The sternal end of the clavicula glides back- 
 wards ; the posterior portion of the Lig. capsulare and of the 
 Lig. inter clavicul. stretched. 
 
 e. In circumduclion the movement is very limited, and it is 
 resigned to the upper arm. 
 
 119. B. Of the clavicula with the scapula, Artie, acromio- 
 
 davicularis. 
 
 Amphiar thro sis. The articular surfaces are elliptical, even, 
 and lie obliquely to one another; that of the clavicle looks rather 
 downwards and outwards, that of the acromion upwards and 
 inwards; above, between them, but not always, we find a free 
 cartilage, and a synovial capsule. 
 
 1. Lig. capsulare (externum) is attached closely with the following. 
 
 2. Lig. claviculo-acromiale, proceeds from the surface and the posterior bor- 
 der of the acromion to that of the external extremity of the clavicula ; is above 
 very strong. 
 
 Ligaments between proc. coracoideus and clavicula artic. 
 coraco-clavicularis. 
 
 3. Lig. posierius s. conoideum, triangular, vertical from the root of the coracoid 
 process, expanding as it ascends to the tubercle upon the posterior border of the 
 external termination of the Clavicula. 
 
 4. Lig. anterius s. trapezoideum, oblique from the inferior border of the 
 root of the Proc. coracoid y to the inferior surface of the acromial extremity of 
 the Clavicle; close before 3.; both of them are loose. $!:> 
 
 Ligaments of the shoulder-blade. 
 
 1. Lig. Coraco-acromiale, is attached broad to the external border of the 
 Proc. coracoid, and by an apex to the anterior blunt point of the Jlcromion, 
 filling up the space between the two, and forming a roof over the upper 
 arm. 
 
 2. Lig. transvcrsum, thin, flat, passes from the root of the Proc. coracoid, 
 across the incisura scapula, with which it forms a foramen, for nero. suprascapu- 
 laris et ven. trans, scap. 
 
 120. II. Connection of Scapula with Humerus, Artie. Scapu- 
 
 lo-humeralis s. Artic. humeri, Shoulder-joint, 
 
 is the most free of the whole body, the type of Enarthrosis. 
 a. Articular surfaces. 
 1 . Fossa glenoidalis, superficial, concave, oval, directed outwards. 
 
106 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 2. Caput humeri = of a sphere, the axis of which forms a 
 very oblique angle with the Corpus Humeri. Both are covered 
 with cartilage. 
 
 b. Lig. s. labrum glenoideum, a ring on the margin of, and for the purpose of 
 deepening, the articular cavity which however does not enclose the entire 
 articular head ; consists of fibrous tissue. Vide Interarticular Cartilages. 
 
 c. Lig. capsulare humeri, from the margin of the articular cavity to the 
 Collum humeri and the two Tubercula, forming a bridge over the groove be- 
 tween them and the tendon of the biceps; a loose spacious capsule which 
 above has one to two openings, by which a communication is established be- 
 tween the synovial capsule of this joint and the bursee of the mm. infraspinal. 
 and subscapular. Is protected, below, in the axilla, by the areolar tissue be- 
 tween the tendons of the mm. subscapular. and teres minor ; above and exter- 
 nally by the tendons of the in. supraspinatus ; before, by the m. subscapularis ; 
 behind, bv the tendons of the mm. supra-, infra-spinatus, teres minor above, 
 even strengthened by a Lig. accessorium of the Proc. cora(oid, and by the ten- 
 don of the long liead of the Biceps on the anterior aspect ; lastly, by the 
 
 d. Arch or vault, which is formed over the joint by the acromion, Proc. 
 coracoid., Lig. coraco-ucrotniale, and m. delloideus. 
 
 Movements : 
 
 1. Forwards and backwards. The head of the humerus rolls 
 upon its own axis. The escape of the head anteriorly is pre- 
 vented by the coracoid process. The scapula performs at the 
 same time a movement of rotation. 
 
 2. Outwards, abduction. The head of the humerus glides 
 from above downwards, and presses upon the inferior portion of 
 the capsule, the upper arm may even be conveyed to the skull ; 
 the scapula remains immoveable. 
 
 3. Inwards* adduction. The arms crossed over the chest. 
 
 4. Rotation outwards and backwards, inwards and forwards is 
 of -lit tie extent. 
 
 121. Connection of the Upper with the Fore-arm, Artizul. 
 cubito-humeralis. Hinge-joint. 
 
 Articular surfaces. 
 
 a. Of the Humerus : 
 
 J. Trochlea. 
 
 2. Rotula. 
 
 3. Fossa cubital, post., for Olecranon. 
 
 4. ant., forjoroc. Coronoid. 
 
 b. Of the Fore-arm : 
 
 1. Fossa sigmoid. ulnse, for the trochlea. 
 
 2. Cavitas glenoid. radii, for rolula. 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. 107 
 
 Ligaments : 
 
 1. Lig. capmlare cubiti from the inferior extremity of the Humerus to the 
 Olecranon, the fossa sigmoid. ma/or, proc. coronoid., and Kg. annidare radii; 
 loose and wide, behind and on the sides weaker than before ; behind, the ten- 
 don of the Triceps muscle. 
 
 2. Lig. laterale internum, three portions from the internal condyle of the hu~ 
 merits to a point below the Coronoid process of the Ulna on the inner side. 
 
 3. Lig. laterale externum, triangular, from the external condyle to the lig. an- 
 nulare radii, below the tendon of the Supinator brevis. The Synovial Capsule 
 lies behind the anterior wall of the capsular ligament, reflected from the fossa 
 anterior to the fossa posterior, where it is the widest ; it terminates below in 
 a blind prolongation on the inner margin of the lig. annulare radii. 
 
 Movements : 
 
 1. Flexion, JJexio. The entire fore-arm moves upon the 
 Trochlea and rotula humeri from behind, forwards, so that the 
 finger-points may touch the mouth. Proc. coronoid. lies in the 
 
 fossa anterior, and prevents farther flexion. 
 
 2. Extension, extensio. The reverse of the preceding, from 
 before backwards, until the axes of the fore-arm and humerus lie 
 in the same line. Proc. olecrani lies in the fossa posterior, and 
 prevents farther extension. 
 
 19.9.. Connections of the Ulna with the Radius. 
 
 A. Articulatio radio-cubit alis superior. Rotatio. 
 Articular surfaces : 
 
 1. On the Radius, circumferentia articularis capituli. 
 
 2. On the Ulna, fossa sigmoidea minor, elongated from before 
 to behind, forms the osseous portion of the ring in which Capitul. 
 radii rolls. 
 
 Ligaments: 1. Lig. annulare radii, strong, dense, three-fourths of a ring, 
 surrounds a synovial capsule and capitul. radii; attaches itself to the anterior 
 and posterior extremity of the fosssa sigmoid. minor and unites externally with 
 lig. laterale externum; above, with lig. capsulare cubiti; is anteriorly much 
 thinner, and therefore easily lacerates. 
 
 2. Lig. teres s. chorda transversalis cubiti, Weitbrecht, passes obliquely from 
 below, outwards, from the most external aspect of the Proc. Coronoid. to the 
 inferior portion of the Tuberost. (bicipit.') radii; compensates for the lig. inter- 
 osseum at the superior part. 
 
 19.9. hi*. B. Articulatio radio-cub italis inferior. Rotatio. 
 Articular surfaces : 
 
 1. On the radius: incisura ulnaris. 
 
 2. On the ulna: capitulum, of the external circumference. 
 
 Ligaments : 1. Lig. capsulare sacciforme, broad and loose, proceeds from the 
 
108 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 boundary of the incisura semilunaris to that of the Capitulum Ulna and the 
 Carlilago triangularis ; lies beneath lig. capsulare carpi et antibrachii. 
 
 2. Cartilago-triangularis lies with its apex in the angle between Capitul. et 
 Proc. styloidem ulnce, with its base on the inferior border of the incisura semi- 
 lunaris, and fills up the interval between the two bones; its apex, lig. subcru- 
 entum, unites with the proc. styloid. Ulnce ; over it a syriovial capsule. 
 
 Appendant : 3. Lig. interosseum. A membrane in the space between the 
 central pieces of the radius and the ulna, from the Crista radii to the Crista 
 ulna ; serves for attachment of muscles, extensor brevis, abductor and flexor 
 longus pollicis, extensor indicis proprius, flexor digit, comm. profund. ; has above 
 and below spaces through which the interossea.1 vessels and nerves perforate, 
 and for m. supinator brevis. The fibres of the ligament cross from the radius 
 inwards and downwards. 
 
 Movements : 
 
 Rotation ; the radius alone moves. 1. Forwards, pronation. 
 a. At the superior radio-ulnar articulation. The internal portion 
 of the capitul. radii rolls from before backwards; its escape is 
 prevented by the small projection on the foss. sigmoid. min.; 
 but, however, it sometimes happens, particularly in children while 
 falling, at the same time that the hand is held. b. At the inferior 
 radio-ulna art. The fossa semilunaris radii rolls backwards and 
 forwards; should the capsular ligament lacerate, the capitulum 
 ulnse passes out backwards. 
 
 2. Backwards, Supination. a. At the superior articulation: 
 The capit. radii rolls from behind, forwards, and comes in contact 
 with the anterior projection of the Fossa sigmoidea minor. 
 Luxation is very rare. b. At the inferior articulation : Fossa 
 semilunaris radii rolls from before, backwards; the capitulum 
 ulnae may escape forwards, if the capsular ligament is lacerated. 
 
 In pronation the once parallel body of the radius is drawn 
 over the ulna, and crosses it, since the superior extremity remains 
 on the outer side, and the inferior passes to the inner. The in- 
 terosseous ligament is relaxed. 
 
 In supination the radius returns back again into its parallel 
 position, with respect to the ulna, and the ligam. interosseum is 
 stretched. 
 
 123. V. Connection of the Fore-arm with the Hand, 
 Jirticulatio carpi. 
 
 The wrist-joint, articulalio carpi, forms a free, ball and socket 
 joint. 
 
 Articular surfaces: 1. Of the radius and ulna, concave, elon- 
 gated transversely. 2. Of the carpus os. naviculare, lunatum, 
 et cuneiforme forming a head. 
 
 That portion of the articular surface, belonging to the Ulna, 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. 109 
 
 contributes only | to the whole, and nnites with the os. cuneiforms 
 by the cartilago-triangular (vide ante), but not immediately. On 
 both sides of the articular surface of the fore-arm we find proc. 
 styloidei. 
 
 Ligaments : 1. Lig. capsulare anlibrnchio-carpalis, Gunther, before much 
 stronger than behind, covers the Kg. capsul. saccifnrme (vide antt). Attach- 
 ments : the Dorsal surface of the radius and Carfif. frianyul. The Dorsal 
 surfaces of the three carpal bones. This is strengthened by lig. rhoml>oideum 
 s. radio-limato-hamutum dursale ,- on the palmar surface completed by liga- 
 ments, which pass from the radius to os lunatum, naviculare, and proc. sly- 
 loid. u/nae. 
 
 2. Lig. faferale externiim, from the apex of the Proc. sly hid. radii, broad 
 to the outer border of the Os navicultire ; strengthens the capsular ligament. 
 
 3. Lig. laterale internum, from the apex of the Proc. slyluid. ulnx, round- 
 ish, with one portion for the Os jiisiforme, the other for the os friqnefru'n. 
 
 The synovial capsule is loose posteriorly. Of the interarticular cartilage 
 or lig. triangulure, vide ante. 
 
 Movements: 1. Flexion. The three carpal bones glide from 
 before, backwards; the posterior capsular ligament and the ten- 
 dons of the extensor muscles are stretched. 
 
 2. Extension. The three carpal bones glide from behind 
 forwards. The anterior capsular ligament and the Ligg. late- 
 ralia are stretched, and prevent loo great extension. 
 
 3. .Abduction. The radial border of the hand is directed 
 towards that of the fore-arm ; Proc. Styloid. et extern, oss. 
 navicul. prevents farther movement. 
 
 4. Adduction. The Ulna border of the hand inclines to that 
 of the fore-arrn ; Proc. styloid. u/nse upon os triquelrum. Luxa- 
 tion is difficult and, always, only incomplete. 
 
 124. VI. Connection of the Carpal Bones, Jlmphiar thro sis. 
 
 The articular surfaces of the carpal bones of the first row are 
 oblique, those of the second row vertical. 
 
 Ligaments : a. Ligg. inlertmea. 1. Those of the first row are small fibrous 
 bundles between the articular surfaces ; of a reddish color. 2. Of the 
 second row, thicker and closer, on the entire surface of the bones. 
 
 b. Ligg. wtluria, thi :ker than 
 
 c. Li^g. dorsalia. Both pass transversely or obliquely from the one carpal 
 bone to the other. 
 
 0* puiifiirntc is united by l!g. capsulare and two ligg. laleralia, with the os 
 cnnti for me by the lig. inferius externum with Proc. unciform. oss. humati, by 
 lig. inferius internum with os ntetacarpi V. 
 
 125. VII. Connection of the two rows of the Carpal Bones, 
 
 Jirlicul. carpo-carpalis. 
 
 Os capifafum and Os hamatum of the second row form toge- 
 ther an articular head, which sinks into an articular cavity formed 
 by 
 
110 
 
 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Os naviculare, lunatum et cuneiforme of the first row, thus 
 forming a Ginglymus joint. 
 
 Ligaments: 1. Lig. capsulare commune, passes from the first row, os 
 phi forme excepted, to the second row ; is more dense before than behind. 
 
 2. Lig. volare from os Cuneiforme and Naviculare to Os capital, or Magnum 
 and Trapezium. 
 
 3. Lig. dormle from the first row, os pisiforme excepted, to the whole of 
 the second row. 
 
 4. Lig. laterale externum s. radiale, from os naviculare to os trapezium. 
 
 5. .L?g. laterale internum s. ulnare, from os cuneiforme to os unciforme. 
 
 A single synovial capsule lies between the two rows of carpal bones, with 
 two superior and three inferior small blind extensions in the spaces between 
 the separate bones. 
 
 \_Ligg. Glenoid. (Cruveilhier) increase the depth of the articular cavities.] 
 
 Movements. The separate bones move scarcely, or not at all, 
 upon one another ; but between the first and second row the 
 following movements exist : 
 
 1. Extension, tolerably limited, as the strong anterior ligaments 
 prevent it. 
 
 2. Flexion, and indeed to such an extent, that the os magnum 
 may be dislocated backwards ; flexion of the hand takes place in 
 great degree through this articulation, more than by the artic. 
 carpo-radialis. 
 
 126. VIII. Connection of the Carpal with the Metacarpal 
 Bones, Jlrlicul. carpo-metacarpea. 
 
 The inferior surfaces of the second to the fourth carpal bones 
 of the second row, and the superior of the second to the fifth 
 metacarpal bones, are attached angularly to one another, and thus 
 form an immoveable articulation, whilst the os I. metacarpi, 
 thumb, is united in a free articulation, moving in all directions, 
 with the os trapezium. Ligaments : upon the dorsal and palmar 
 surfaces are short and strong. 
 
 1. Os metacarpi II. has three ligg. 
 dorsalia; a. externum to os trape- 
 zium: b. medium to os irapezoid; 
 c. internum to os magnum. 
 
 2. Os metacarp. III. has two ligg. 
 dorsalia : a. rectum to os magnum ; 
 b. obliquum to os unciforme. 
 
 3. Os metacarp. IV. has one lig. dor- 
 sale to os trapezium / longer and 
 looser than 1. and 2. 
 
 4. Os metacarp. I., thumb, has lig. 
 capsulare, a loose, large ligament, 
 which passes from os trapezium to 
 
 1. Ligg. volaria 2. sublimi et pro- 
 fundum to trapezium. 
 
 2. Ligg. vol. 3. exlernum to os tra- 
 pezium ; medium to os magnum : 
 internum to os unciforme. 
 
 3. Lig. vol. 1., to os unciforme. 
 
 4. Os metacarpi V. has lig. capsulare, 
 incomplete, much stronger before 
 than behind, where the tendon of 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. 
 
 os metacarp. /., a synovial capsule 
 to itself, behind, assisted by m. ex- 
 tens, poll., outside, by m. abduct, 
 long., inside, m. interos?ei and art. 
 rad. ; has close to it anteriorly m. 
 poUic. minores. 
 
 m. extern, ulna protects it, and 
 unites with os unciforme. Its. sy- 
 novial capsule belongs equally to 
 the os metacarp. IV. 
 
 NOTE. Gunther (d. Handgelenk, &c.) enumerates ninety ligaments in the 
 articulations of the hand. 
 
 Movements: of os metacarpi I.: 1. Flexion, obliquely in- 
 wards and forwards, approximates the thumb to thejiflh os meta- 
 carpi (oppositio], and may cause luxation backwards. 
 
 2. Extension, goes so far, that upon the outer side almost a 
 right angle is formed between os. metacarp. I. and the radius ; 
 luxation is prevented by the dense posterior portion of the capsu- 
 lar ligament. 
 
 3. Abduction, the thumb is removed directly outwards from 
 os. metacarp. II. : it may give rise to luxation inwards. 
 
 4. Adduction is limited by os metacarp. II. 
 
 127. - IX. The heads of the Metacarpal Bones, 
 
 of the second to the fifth are united together by Kg. transversum, 
 (volare,) which passes from one to another like a bridge, lying 
 below the tendinous sheaths of the m. flexor digit., and serving 
 for the attachment of the m. lumbricales. The central portions 
 of the ossa metacarp. are maintained in their situation by Kgg. 
 interossea. 
 
 128. X. Connections of the Fingers. 
 
 A. With the metacarpal bones. Free, ball and socket articu- 
 lation ; that of the thumb, Ginglymus. Articular surfaces : on 
 the metacarpus even, like a head, oval from behind, forwards. 
 On the first phalanx smooth fossa, oval transversely. 
 
 Ligaments: 1. Lig. anterius s. transversum, very strong and dense on the 
 palmar surfaces of the second to the fifth fingers, filling up the articular cavity; 
 connected with the tendinous sheaths of the mm. flexores, above very loose on 
 the Collum capituli oss. metacarpi. 
 
 2. Ligg. lateralia, very strong, passing obliquely from behind forwards, and 
 from above downwards, from tubercul. oss. metacarpi to the Kg. anterius of either 
 side. On the dorsal surface the tendinous sheath of the m. extensor, takes the 
 place of ligament. [There is, however, a thin delicate capsule.] In the lig. 
 anterius oss. metacarp. I. are placed two ossa sesamoidea. 
 
 Movements: 1. Flexion the most marked, especially in the 
 first, fourth, and fifth joint. The finger can describe a right angle 
 with the centre of the hand. Flexion is limited by the posterior 
 fibres of the lig. lateralia. 
 
112 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 2. Extension, to the extent of an obtuse angle, is restrained by 
 the ring which Lig. anterius and the anterior fibres of Ligg. 
 later alia form. In too violent extension the Capitul. os. meta- 
 carp. passes over the ring or tears it, and dislocation of the finger 
 backwards arises, which can only be reduced, if the ring is actu- 
 ally lacerated, but is prevented if it is pushed between the articu- 
 lar surfaces. 
 
 3. Abduction and Adduction. 
 
 B. The phalanges with each other Ginglymus. Articular 
 surfaces : a. At the inferior extremity of the I. phalanx a troch- 
 lea with two small condyles. b. At the superior extremity of 
 phalanx I. and II., two small fossae. 
 
 Ligaments: 1. Ligg. capsularia, on the dorsal surface loose and thin, and 
 formed even here of the fibres of the tendinous sheaths of mm. extensor., the 
 rest like the Kg. ant., as in A. 
 
 2. Ligg. laleralia ext. et. int., as in A. 
 
 3. Capsulce synoviales, in A and B are, especially on the dorsal surface, 
 very loose, not connected with the tendons, stretch in flexion, and fold up in 
 extension. 
 
 Movements: Flexion. That of the second phalanx is more 
 marked than that of the third. 
 
 Extension is much more restrained than in the metacarpo-pha- 
 langeal articulation. Lateral motion is not possible. 
 
 129. Connections of the Inferior Extremities. 
 
 1. Of the Thigh with the Pelvis, Jlrticulalio coxx, hip-joint. 
 
 Articular surfaces : Head of the femur and acetabulum, united 
 in a ball and socket joint, not admitting air, less moveable, but 
 stronger than the shoulder joint. 
 
 Ligaments: 1. Labrum cartilagineum acetabuli, a fibrous ring, of four lines 
 thick, encircling the edge of the acetabulum, which it deepens, passes over 
 the incisura ace'abuli below and before, as lig. transfers, acelabuli, and thus forms 
 theforam. acelabuli, for the vessels of the joint; is thicker above and behind; 
 narrower at its free than at its attached border. Consists entirely of fibrous 
 tissue. See Inter articular Cartilage. 
 
 2. Ligam. capsulare femorls, passes from the border of the bony acetabulum 
 in front, to the linea intertrochanter. anter. ; behind, as far downwards as the 
 centre of the neck of the femur; is of a dull white hue, composed of crossed 
 fibres, two lines thick, strong, solid, and looser at the sides; above and exter- 
 nally, beneath the tendon of the m. recius femoris, thicker; is strengthened by a 
 bundle of fibres, the Z.f>na orbicularis seu lig. anterius suj>erius, which passes 
 obli jueiy from Spina ilei anler. infer, to the inner part of the basis colli jemoris, 
 around this anteriorly and back to the Spina. Anteriorly, the fibres of the m. 
 Psoas and lliacus, and tlu-ir synovial sheaths are attached to it. Internally 
 are situate:! the m. obturator extern, el pedinaus; externally glut tens nri/iimus ; 
 behind quadratus femor. bigemini, pyramidalis obturator inter nus. 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. H3 
 
 3. Lig. tercs femoris, one inch long, passes ftom the fovea pro. tig. terete upon 
 the head of the femur, becoming broader in its course and dividing to be 
 attached to the fovea acetabuli. It lies between the two articular surfaces, is 
 sometimes very thin and even wanting. 
 
 The synovial capsule lies inside the lig. capsidare, lines it, the neck of the 
 femur, the articular surfaces, the lig. teres, and is generally in connection on 
 the inner side of the Zona orbic., perforating the capsular ligament, with the 
 bursa iKaca, which is the bursal sac of the flexor femoris. 
 
 Movements : 1 . Flexion, the thigh brought forwards : the head 
 of the femur rolls from before backwards in the acetabulura. In 
 consequence of the oblique position of the neck of the femur, it 
 is possible for the knee to touch the shoulder. 
 
 2. Extension : this backward movement is limited by the pos- 
 terior portion of the neck of the femur striking against the edge 
 of the acetabulum, and the head is supported in its movement 
 forwards by the Zona orbicularis and m. psoas et iliacus. 
 
 3. Abduction, the limb directed outwards. The head presses 
 against the internal relaxed portion of the Lig. capsttl.; and this, 
 the lig. teres, and the meeting of the upper part of the neck of 
 the femur, and the edge of the acetabulum, prevents its escape. 
 
 4. Adduction: one thigh approaches the other, and may cross 
 it with the assistance of slight flexion. The depth of the ace- 
 tabulum and the strength of the capsular ligament above and 
 externally prevent the escape of the head upon this side. The 
 Lig. teres stretches ; it is torn in the dislocation of the thigh, so 
 frequent in this situation, from a fall upon the knee, &c. 
 
 5. Rotation: The internal portion of the head of the thigh 
 moves horizontally forwards, the anterior of the shaft outwards; 
 and the reverse. Rotation is impossible in fracture of the neck 
 of the femur. 
 
 130. II. Of the Thigh with the Leg Bone, ArticuLatio genu, 
 Knee-joint. 
 
 Ginglymus. Articular surfaces : 1. On the femur, two roller- 
 like condyles, between which is a deep fossa; 2. On the tibia, 
 in the centre the eminentia media, on the sides fossae, for the 
 condyles ; 3. Patella, in the centre a vertical elevation, which 
 lies anteriorly in the Incissura inter-condyloidea oss.femor. All 
 the articular surfaces are smooth and covered with cartilage. In 
 addition : 
 
 Cartilagines semilunares, two sickle-shaped cartilages, "which lie between 
 the Condyl. oss. femoris et tibia, and are connected together by a delicate Kg. 
 transvers. Their external border is thick, the internal sharp, tlie anterior and 
 posterior cornua thin; by these the fossae, close to the eminentia tibiae, are 
 deepened. The external, smaller, almost crescentic cartilage, nearly covers 
 the entire fossa* Its cornua are attached between the two tubercles of the 
 
 8 
 
]jl4 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 trpimntia media. Posteriorly a thick fibrous band passes from it around the 
 lig. cruciat. postic., and is attached behind this to the condyl extern, femoris. 
 The internal cartilage is larger, does not so much cover the fossa; attaches 
 itself by the cornua before and behind the projections of the eminent, media; 
 the posterior cornu is covered by the lig. cruciat. postic. 
 
 , Ligaments: 1. Lig. capsulare genu, large and loose, weakest in front and at 
 the sides, behind united with lig. poplitawm ; passes off from the superior bor- 
 ders of the Condyli femar. to the circumference of the articular surfaces of the 
 Xibia and the posterior of the Patella, behind lig. Patella. 
 
 2. Lig. poplitcEum [the posterior ligament of Winslow], oblique from Condyl. 
 extern, femoris to the internal border of the Condyl. internus tibia; strong, flat. 
 
 3. Lig. Patella, a portion of tendo comm. extensorius, thick, almost triangular, 
 broad at the apex of the Patella, narrower at the inferior part, the tuberosit. 
 tibia. 
 
 4. Ligg. lateralia genu. a. externum, round, tendon like, lies before and be- 
 tween the two heads of the m. biceps fern. ; from condyl. extern, fem. to the 
 outer portion of the capitul. fibula ; extern, breve lies behind a, and is attached 
 higher up to capit.fib. b. internum, broad and thin, from the posterior portion 
 of condyl. intern, femor. to the condyl. intern, tibia, is below covered by the ten- 
 dons of thePes anserinus (see Myology),and connected with the Cartil. semilunar. 
 intern. Both lie rather posteriorly behind the centre of motion of the joint, are 
 slackened in flexion and limit extension. 
 
 5. Ligg. cruciata s. interossea, crossed like the capital letter X between the 
 articular surfaces of oss. femor. et tibia, in the Incisura intercondyloidea. 
 
 a. Lig. cruciat. anticum. passes from the posterior internal surface of the 
 Condyl. extern, to the most anterior portion of the eminentia media tibia; be- 
 hind it the longer and thicker (b), lig. cruciat. posticum; from the anterior inner 
 surface of Condyl. intern, to the posterior extremity of the eminentia media. It 
 is connected with the Cartil. semilun. externa; it slackens under extension, 
 and stretches in flexion of the joint, whilst the Lig. antic, is slackened in 
 flexion. 
 
 A synovial capsule is very distinct; a shut sac lies above between tendo 
 extensor et femur; at the sides of the patella, on the inner side especially, 
 beneath the m. vastus internus, the ligg. alaria which blend behind with a 
 fibrous fold, Lig. mucosum s. adiposum. It invests the whole internal surface 
 of the capsular ligament, the two surfaces of the Cartilagg. semilunares, and 
 envelopes the lig. cruciata. Between it and the lig. patella much fat is found, 
 as well as about the ligg. cruciata, and chiefly in the incis. intercondyl. 
 
 Movements: 1. Flexion. The heel may touch the thigh. 
 The posterior, lateral, and posterior crucial ligaments are relaxed, 
 the ligament of the patella is stretched, and the bone is fixed, in 
 front of the space between the femur and tibia. 
 
 2. Extension. The articular surfaces of the tibia with the 
 cartiL semilunar. roll from behind forwards, until the thigh and 
 leg lie in the same line. Lig. patellse and cruciat. anticum are 
 relaxed, the rest become stretched. The Patella may be dis- 
 placed. 
 
 3. Rotation, inwards and outwards, is very limited, and is only 
 performed by the condylus internus. It is effected, outwards, 
 by the action of the m. biceps fem. ; inwards, by the m. pop- 
 htmu. 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. 115 
 
 131. Connection of the Tibia and Fibula. 
 
 A. Superior, Articul. tibio-fibularis superior is immove- 
 able. The articular surface of the tibia, at the posterior part of 
 the Condyl. extern, tibise, looks downwards and outwards; that 
 of the Jwttla at the internal part of the superior extremity, up- 
 wards and inwards. 
 
 Ligaments: 1. Lig. capsulare capit. fibula, passes obliquely outwards and 
 downwards from the border of the articular surface of the Condyl. extern, lib. 
 to the Capit ul. fibula ; it is short and strong. 
 
 B. Inferior, Articul. tibio-fibular. inferior likewise immove- 
 able. The articular surfaces are only in part grasped by one 
 another, and in other parts a strong interosseous ligament fills the 
 space between them. The synovial capsule belongs partly to the 
 tarsal joint. 
 
 Malleolar ligaments: 1. Lig. tibio-fibul. anticum, between the anterior 
 tubercle of the Incis. peroncea tibia, and that of the Matteolus extern, (fibula). 
 
 2. Lig. tibio-fibul. post., between the posterior tubercles of the same parts. 
 
 Both divide into a superior and inferior fasciculus, pass obliquely from 
 above to below, and from within to without, and project beyond the articular 
 surfaces. 
 
 C. Central, Membrana interossea cruris, stretched in the inter- 
 space between the tibia and fibula, it separates the anterior from 
 the posterior muscles of the leg; above it is broader than below; 
 externally and above, it has an opening for the Vasa tibial. an- 
 tica; below, it is perforated by the Vasa peronxalia. Its fibres 
 are directed obliquely from within, outwards and downwards. 
 Anteriorly are attached to it : mm. extensores hallucis et digitor 
 commun. longus; behind, m. tibialis posticus, flex, digit, com- 
 mun. longus. 
 
 132. Connection of the Foot with the Leg, Artie, pedis 
 s. tibio-tarsalis. 
 
 The ankle joint is a ginglymus ; that is to say, it consists of a 
 roller which moves forwards and backwards in a depression on 
 the tibia. 
 
 Articular surfaces: 1. On the leg (tibia and fibula), a fossa 
 divided into two halves by a projection, bounded laterally by the 
 malleoli. 2. On the foot (talus), a roller, with lateral articular 
 surfaces, for the malleoli. 
 
 Ligaments: a. Ligg. lateralia externa s. fibularia, three, passing from the 
 fibula either to the Talus or Calcaneus. 
 
 1. Fibulare calcanei s. perpendiculare medium, roundish, under the sheaths of 
 the peronaei muscles, passes from the apex of the Malleolus extern, to the outer 
 side of the os calds. 
 
116 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 2. Fibulare astragali anticum, very short, from the anterior border of the 
 Mall, extern, to the Astragalus, below broader. 
 
 3. Fibulare astragali posticum, close upon the capsule, almost horizontal, 
 from the fossa within and behind on the malleolus to the posterior border of 
 the Talus or Astragalus. 
 
 b. Lig. laterale internum s. tibiale, stronger than the anterior, consisting of 
 two layers; 
 
 1. Superficiale s. deltoideum, from the apex and the anterior and posterior 
 border of the malleolus intern, to the calcaneus and lig. calcaneo-naviculare ; the 
 most anterior fibres, that is, lig. later, iniern. anterius, a thin layer, passes 
 directly forwards to the collum astragal, and os navicul. 
 
 2. Profundum, below this, stronger, outwards and downwards ; from the 
 apex and the borders of the malleolus to the internal part of the Talus, below 
 the articular surface. 
 
 The Synovial capsule is very loose anteriorly, and covered with fat. 
 
 Movements: 1. Flexion. The Talus glides from before, back- 
 wards; the Collum tali meets the anterior border of the articular 
 fossa, so that dislocation is scarcely possible. The dorsum of the 
 foot moves upwards and backwards. 
 
 2. Extension: Talus glides from behind, forwards. Displace- 
 ment is rare. The dorsum of the foot moves downwards and for- 
 wards. Lateral motion does not take place in this, but in the 
 tarsal joints. 
 
 133. Connection of the Tarsus, Artie., tarsi. 
 
 1. The first row, that is. Talus and Calcaneus, are united in a 
 limited Artkrodia, by which the lateral movements of the foot are 
 performed. 
 
 Articular surfaces : On the inferior surfaces of the Talus an 
 anterior convex and a posterior concave. On the superior surface 
 of the calcaneus, a posterior convex and an anterior concave. 
 
 Ligaments: 1. Lig. inteross. (s. Jlpparat. ligamentosus sinus tarsi), strong. 
 
 2. Lig. capsulare astragalo-calcaneum (Synovial capsule), thin; internally 
 8trengthened by the fibrous sheaths for the tendons of the M. tibialis post., flex, 
 digitor. comm., and propr. hallucis; anteriorly and posteriorly, by small bundles 
 of fibres. 
 
 134. II. The second row, namely, 
 
 Ossa cumiformia, three in number, naviculare and cuboideum, 
 are united in close articulations, umphiarthroses, with one another. 
 
 a. Os naviculare unites anteriorly with the three cuneiform 
 bones by an articular surface divided into three facettes, each of 
 which is triangular. The ligaments are: 
 
 1. Lig. dorsalia, two for the Os cuneifor-me /., straight from before to behind; 
 one for each of the two others, passing obliquely forwards and outwar Js. 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. 117 
 
 2. Ligg. plantaria. Those of the second and third cuneiform bones are 
 indistinct ; on the contrary, that of the first very strong, from tuberc. oss. navicul. 
 to that of the cuneiforme I. ; losing itself in the tendon of the m. tibialis anticus, 
 which is extended to the Os cuneiforme HI. and Os metatars. III., and forms 
 hg. tarsi inferius. 
 
 b. Ossa cuneiformia are united together by very firm trans- 
 verse 
 
 1. Ligg. dorsalia ; connected above with the mm. extensores digitar.; below, 
 with the periosteum. 
 
 2. Ligg. interossea, very strong, and firmly attached. 
 
 c. Os cuneiforme III. and os cuboideum are united by very 
 strong transverse 
 
 1. Lig. dor sale. 
 
 2. Lig. interossewn, around the articular surface. 
 
 3. Lig. plantare, thin. 
 
 d. Os naviculare and os cuboideum united by 
 
 1. Ar oblique Lig. dorsale. 
 
 2. Lig. interosseum. 
 
 3. Lig. plantare, very thick, transverse from tuber, oss. navicul. to the o* 
 cuboideum. 
 
 135. III. Connection of the first with the second row. 
 
 a. Talus and os naviculare. The fossa of the navicular 
 bone, in which the head of the talus is received, is deepened by 
 
 1. Lig. calcaneo-naviculare inferius (plantare); it forms the internal portion, 
 and lies in the triangular space between proc. minor, calcan. and os naviculare; 
 consists sometimes of an internal and external portion, the last round and 
 cartilaginous; is sometimes represented by a thin, osseous plate from the 
 calcis, so that the Calcaneus and os naviculare come into immediate contact. 
 
 2. Lig. Calcaneo-naviculare superius (dorsale), from the internal side of the 
 anterior extremity of the Calcaneus to the external of the os naviculare ; in the 
 deep hollow on the outside of the Talus, which is filled with fat. 
 
 The talus is also firmly united with the os naviculare, by 
 means of the calcaneus only, but it may, by strong concussion, 
 escape from its connection. Its own ligament is weak, namely : 
 
 3. Lig. astragalo-naviculare superius, from Collum tali to the circumference of 
 the articular surface of Os naviculare; above, covered by m. extens. digitor. 
 brevis; semicircular. 
 
 b. Calcaneus and os cuboideum, the articular surfaces recipro- 
 cally coincide. Tubercle on the Calcaneus, important in Ampu- 
 tation. 
 
 Ligaments: 1. Lig. calcaneo-cuboideum plantare, the strongest of the tarsal 
 ligaments; passing from the entire inferior surface of the Calcan. to the po- 
 terior of the Os cuboid., it may be divided into a superficial and deep. 
 
 2. Lig. calc.-cub. internum, short, narrow, strong, in the fossa between tahu 
 
118 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 and calcaneus, describing with the lig. calcan. navicul. mperius a figure like the 
 capital letter Y ; after their division, the two rows of tarsal bones separate 
 from each other. 
 
 3. Lig. calc.-cub. superius, thin, small, from Calcaneus to os cuboideum. 
 
 Movements: Adduction and Abduction, 'whereby the sole of 
 
 the foot is turned inwards or outwards, arising by talus and 
 
 calcaneus on one, os naviculare and cuboideum on the other 
 
 .side, assisted by slight lateral movement between talus and 
 
 calcaneus. 
 
 136. Connection of the Metatarsal Bones, 
 
 Artie, metatarsi. 
 
 These bones are united with those of the tarsus and with one 
 another by close articulations. 
 
 137. A. With the tarsus. 1. The tarsal extremity angular, 
 with even articular surfaces. That of the third metatarsal bone 
 makes an angle, forwards, with the line of the rest. 
 
 a. Os metatarsi I. 1. Lig. plantare, stronger than the Lig. dorsak, with 
 synovial capsule. 2. Aponeurosis of the tendon of m. peronaus long, to the 
 os cuneiforme L 3. Aponeurosis of the tendon of m. tibialis anticus to the Os 
 metatarsi L 
 
 b. Os metatars. II. 1. Lig. plantaria, two from the second cuneiform, the 
 third from first cuneiform bone, lateral. 2. Lig. dorsalia, three; a. internum 
 from first cuneiform ; 0. externum from third cuneiform, thin ; y. medium from 
 .second cuneiform. 
 
 c. Os metatars. III. 1 . Lig. dorsak from third cuneiform. 2. Lig. plantare, 
 very thin ; instead, the tendon of m. peronteus long. 3. Lig. laterak extern, seu 
 interosseum. 
 
 d. and e. Oss. metatars. IV. and V. 1. Lig. interossea, very strong. 2. 
 Lig. dorsak and lig. obliquum, on oss. metatars. V., very loose. Instead of Lig. 
 plantare, the tendon of the muscles peron. long, and tibial. posticus. 
 
 138. B. The posterior extremities with each other. Ligg. 
 baseos ossium metatarsi. 
 
 1. Ligg. dorsalia. 2. plantaria, stronger. Transverse from the one to the 
 other bone. 
 
 3. Ligg. interossea, strong, short, and thick, between the rough, lateral sur- 
 faces, are wanting between the first and second os metatars. 
 
 139. C. The anterior extremities. No articular surfaces, but 
 synovial capsules ; rather moveable on one another. 
 
 1. Lig. transversum s. capitulorum oss. metatarsi, on the sole between the 
 heads, below the sheaths of the tendons of the flexor muscles ; loose. 
 
 Movement: indistinct. Os Metatars. I., of great toe, is not 
 more moveable than the rest. 
 
THE LIGAMENTS. H9 
 
 140. Connection of the toes, Artie, digitorum pedis. 
 
 a. Of the metatarsal bones with the toes, by ball articulation ; 
 b. Of the phalanges with each other, by Ginglymus. On the 
 first phalanx of the great toe a double pulley with ossa sesa- 
 moidea. 
 
 1. Lig. capsularia, very thick, cartilaginous in the sole, where is a groove 
 for mm. flexares, very thin on dorsum, strengthened by tendons of extensor 
 muscles, beneath which is a loose synovial capsule. 
 
 2. Ligg. later alia, very strong, from the capsular ligaments obliquely to the 
 tubercula behind the head of the oss. metatarsi, and ossa sesamaidea, and the 
 Phalanges. 
 
 Movements : Flexion limited by the lateral ligaments and ex- 
 tensor tendons. Extension restrained by the inferior portion of 
 the capsular ligament. Both these more marked than abduction 
 and adduction which, moreover, only occur between the meta- 
 tarsal bones and first phalanges. The great toe is far less move- 
 able than the thumb. 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 MYOLOGIA. 
 
 " The application of muscles in an animal body is either to produce a 
 quantity of motion equal to the quantity of contraction of the muscle ; or, by 
 the application of levers, to give a greater motion than could be produced by 
 the single contraction of the muscle. This, in general, is not the case in ma- 
 chines composed by art; for in art the principal reason for the introduction of 
 mechanics is to acquire power in the effect, which obliges us to increase the 
 velocity in the moving cause, as in levers and pulleys." 
 
 HUNTEK. Croonian Lectures, No. IIL 
 
MUSCLES. 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 Minute Structure: 
 Ant. v. Leeuvenhoeck. Some Microscopical Observations upon Muscles, &c. 
 
 Philos. Trans., vol. xxvii., 1712; and in vol. xi., 1677; vol. xxix., 1714; 
 
 vol. xxxi., 1720; vol. xxxii., 1722. 
 F . Fontana. Traite sur le Venin de la Vipere. A translation into English, 
 
 2 vols., under the title " Fontana on the Venom of the Viper," &c. 2 
 
 vols. 1787. 
 Bowman. Philos. Trans., 1840-41, and his article in Cyclopaedia of Anat. 
 
 At the end of which is a long list of works. 
 Carpenter. Manual of Physiology. 1846. 
 Goodfellow. Some Remarks on the Internal Structure of Voluntary Muscle. 
 
 London Phys. Journal, 1844. 
 
 Hunter, John. Croonian Lectures ; Palmer's edit, of his Works, vol. iv. 
 Homer, W. E. Lessons in Prac. Anat. Philadelphia, 1827; for Tensor 
 
 Tarsi Muscle, and "Description of a small Muscle at the intern. Com- 
 missure of the Eyelids." Phil., 1824. 
 Jllbinus. Tab. Muse. Corp. Humani, fol. 1749. 
 Gimbernat. On Femoral Hernia. Trans. 1795. 
 King, T. W. Anal Muscles. Guy's Hosp. Reports, 1843. 
 
123 
 
 141. MUSCLES, MUSCULI, 
 
 form the soft fibrous organs, the substance of which is known by 
 the name of flesh, and which, by the capacity they enjoy of con- 
 tracting, produce, in an especial manner, the movement which is 
 permitted by the articular connection of the bones and the mo- 
 bility of the soft parts. They consist, independently of fibro- 
 cellular tissue, vessels and nerves which enter into their formation, 
 of a peculiar tissue which is closely related to that of the con- 
 tractile coat of vessels. 
 
 142. a. Tissue of muscles. 
 
 Every muscle is composed of a number of bundles of fibres, each of which 
 again consists of filaments which are even once more divisible ; so that we 
 may distinguish primary, secondary, and tertiary divisions. All are united 
 together by a general fibrous envelope, perimysium, as well as each being sur- 
 rounded by its own particular investment, which connects it with the sheath. 
 The tertiary bundles are three-sided, prismatic, about 2'" broad, and consist of 
 the flat secondary divisions, lying longitudinally to one another, | to %" broad, 
 which on their side are formed of the red or pale, flat, fine primary divisions, 
 0-005'" in diameter. 
 
 In the primary bundles we observe under the microscope many, 10 to 500, 
 longitudinal striae, which also display many delicate filaments, fibrilla?, primi- 
 tive filaments, lying parallel to one another, appearing of a yellowish red, and 
 perforated by transverse striae, or even only little points, whereby an angular, 
 articulated appearance is produced. Whether a canal exists in the axis of 
 the primary bundle, filled with a gelatinous substance, as in the Embryo, ac- 
 cording to Valentin, is still doubtful. The longitudinal stria?, even the primi- 
 tive filaments also, and transverse striae, are not found in all muscles. 
 
 Hence we distinguish, transversely striped, striated [compound] (varicose, 
 articulated), and unstriped [simple] organic muscular fibres. 
 
 1. To the striated belong all the so-called animal, or muscles of voluntary 
 movement, and of the heart. 
 
 2. To the unstriped all the so-called organic, or muscles of involuntary 
 movement, with exception of the heart. 
 
 143. b. Characteristics of muscular tissue. 
 
 1. Chemical. It is little changed by water and spirits of wine ; very easily 
 decomposes, and at last breaks up by means of Gastric juice into globules, but 
 yields on boiling only very little gelatin (from the sheaths). Primitive fibres 
 and sheaths are soluble in concentrated, are rendered transparent and soft by 
 dilute acetic acid ; by Potass, carb. firm, in consequence of which the wave- 
 like and cylindrical form of the fibres shows very distinctly. 
 
 Chemical constituents: much water (0-77), Albumen, and Hs-matin, Al- 
 coholic and watery extract, with some phosphorus, soda, and lime, and lactic 
 acid ; lastly, fibrin, fat, and gelatin. 
 
 2. Physical Characters. The red colour of the muscles is not dependent 
 
124 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 upon the capillary vessels ramifying throughout, but upon a peculiarity in the 
 colouring matter united with them. The fibres are soft, but firm, and during 
 life with difficulty torn ; their elasticity is trifling. After death they become 
 stiff (from seven to ten minutes), as the fibrin coagulates, which is the rigid- 
 ity of death, rigor mortis. 
 
 3. Physiological Characters. Muscles are endowed with the faculty of 
 contracting in the direction of their fibres. In consequence, those parts be- 
 tween which they are attached approach more closely together. The con- 
 traction, by means of which the fibres shorten, become closer and harder, oc- 
 curs in consequence of the sudden bending together of the fibres, from the 
 extremities towards the centre, or curling up in a zigzag form, in the trans- 
 verse striae (crispalio), and is the result of an influence, which the will, the 
 blood, and certain external irritations, exercise upon the numerous interlaced 
 (motor) nerve fibres in the muscles. The irritability (irritabilitas Hatteri) of 
 the muscles (produced by galvanism, cold, &c.) is only extinct some time after 
 death. Also, the slight shortening maintained during life (tension, tonus) ter 
 minates immediately with death, or by palsy of the nerves. Whilst at rest 
 the muscles possess their greatest power (Schwann). During every con- 
 tinued movement a small quantity of Plasma is effused which, becoming meta- 
 morphosed into the substance of the muscle, accounts for their increase of 
 size. Muscles act (generally) as the power in levers of the third order, that 
 is to a disadvantage, since the power is broken between the fulcrum and the 
 weight. 
 
 144. c. Vessels and nerves of muscles. 
 
 Arteries. They generally enter on the inner side of the middle part of the 
 muscle, dividing between the larger bundles into large branches, from which 
 smaller pass off between the smaller bundles, until they finally go into a long 
 capillary network which encompasses the primitive fibres, and discharges into 
 the veins which follow the course of the arteries. 
 
 Nerves correspond in number and size (not always) to that of the muscles. 
 The nerves of motion principally prevail over those of sensation, in muscles, 
 with which their trifling degree of sensation corresponds. They generally 
 enter the muscle at the posterior part of the superior fourth, take a course 
 like the arteries, but form loops at the ends, from which delicate filaments 
 pass off and encompass the primary bundles of fibres. 
 
 145. d. Classification of muscles. 
 
 In each muscle we may distinguish the fleshy central portion 
 (belly) ; the origin, the fixed point, head ; the insertion, the mov- 
 ing point, tail. Both the last are provided with tendinous fibres. 
 
 1. According to the structure we distinguish animal and organic muscles. 
 (See before.) 
 
 a. The animal muscles are striated, generally dark red, attached especially 
 to bones, and lie on the external boundary of the body ; they are connected 
 by tendons, and have antagonist muscles; they are generally thick, cylindrical, 
 sometimes even expanded like a membrane ; lastly, they are stimulated to 
 motion by the will. To this class belong the muscles of the trunk [and ex- 
 tremities] and of the commencement of internal canals. 
 
 8. The inorganic muscles are unstriped, generally pale red, lie in the inte- 
 
THE MUSCLES. 125 
 
 rior of cavities (chest and abdomen), expanded in a manner resembling and 
 between membranes, without tendons and antagonist muscles. They are not 
 under the influence of the will. To this class belong: the muscular coats of 
 the intestines and excretory ducts ; and the fibres of the heart which, how- 
 ever, belong to it, only in relation to their involuntary movement 
 
 2. According to their actions we distinguish 
 
 . Antagonising muscles, antagonistic; for example, flexor and extensor 
 muscles. 
 
 /?. Assosiated, soa'i, which act simultaneously to produce a certain effect. 
 
 y. Flexors, flexores, and Extensors, extensores. 
 
 Al> and Adductors, ab- and adductores, which remove parts from, or 
 bring them to, the middle line of the body. 
 
 t. Rotators, rotatores, which roll a part upon its axis, inwards (jrronatores) or 
 outwards (svpinatores) . 
 
 3. According to their shape, voluntary muscles are distinguished, as 
 
 . Long muscles, which arise either with one, two, or several heads or 
 dentations from a fixed point, form one or more thick central portions 
 (belly), and are attached either with a single or divided ends (tail) to the 
 moveable point 
 
 0. Flat, broad muscles, are thin, tri- or quadrangular, like a membrane, lie 
 on the parietes of cavities, and terminate with Aponeuroses ; e. g., the abdo- 
 minal muscles. 
 
 y. Closing, circular muscles, sphincteres, with circular, encompassing primi- 
 tive fibres, lying round about natural openings; e. g., Sphincter Ani. 
 
 We likewise find, among the class of involuntary muscles, layers of longi- 
 tudinal and circular fibres, with others, crossing each other in various ways 
 (hollow muscles). 
 
 146. e. Auxiliary organs of muscles. 
 
 1. Tendons. Their fibres are not continuations of the mus- 
 cular, but are only embraced by them, so that the two are sepa- 
 rated by boiling; even the capillary vessels of the muscles do 
 not pass into them. Sinews, tetidines, are the cord-like tendons 
 which form the prolongations of the muscles, and often extend to 
 considerable length. When the muscular fibres are continued 
 upon both sides, the so-called penniform muscles arise, when only 
 on one side the semi-penniform. 
 
 a. Aponeuroses are flat expansions of the tendons, which occur with flat 
 muscles, and which are generally unitad, as they lie on the same plane, e. g., 
 on the skull. 
 
 b. Fascia (also called aponeuroses), tendinous envelopes for the muscles, 
 surrounding an 1 isolating separate muscles anil groups of muscles, maintain- 
 ing them in their situation, and even serving for their attachment, since they 
 send oft", in many places, processes to the bones (ligg. intermuscularia) ; also 
 the sinews with peculiarly long sheaths (vaginae tendinium fibros;p). or pro- 
 vided with narrow restraining bands (retinacula), to prevent displacement. 
 
 Fascia superficLalis is such an envelope, which lies close beneath the 
 corium, and surrounds all superficial muscles. It consists of fibrous laminae 
 crossing each othar. and interwoven with elastic fibres, between which lie fat, 
 superficial nerves and vessels. 
 
126 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 147 2. Fibro-cartilaginous portions, pulleys, (trochlese), and 
 grooves, on which the tendons in several places glide, to prevent 
 i'riction, firmly attached by both extremities to the bones. 
 
 148. 3. Serous structures on the tendons, to assist their free 
 movement over bones, cartilages, &c. There are : 
 
 a. Mucous sacs, bursce mucosce, 1. synoviales, generally closed sacs, which 
 lie between the muscles and bones, and connected with both, particularly over 
 joints, into which they frequently open ; e. g., on the m. subscapular of the 
 shoulder joint. 
 
 b. Mucous sheaths, vagina mucosa s. synoviales, long (closed) sacs, through 
 which a canal passes for a free tendon, with which it is connected ; e. g., Keeps 
 brachii. 
 
 I. Muscles on the Head. 
 
 A. Muscles of the Cranium, Occipito-frontalis s. Epicranius. 
 
 149. 1. Occipitalis, Occipital muscle. 
 
 Shape: obliquely four-sided, weak. Position: close beneath 
 the skin of the occipital region. Origin from linea semicircular, 
 superior, extending from close to the middle line to the base of 
 proc. mastoid. Insertion : Galea aponeurotica. Action : draws 
 the skin of the head backwards, rendering the forehead smooth. 
 
 Nerves : supraorbital, supra and infra trochleat ., rr. temporal, n. facialis. 
 
 150. 2. Frontalis, Frontal muscle. 
 
 Shape: obliquely four-sided, above arched, flat. Position: close 
 beneath the skin of the forehead, from the root of the nose to the 
 frontal eminence. Before the Glabella the internal borders of 
 both meet together. Origin : root of nose and arcus superci- 
 liaris. Insertion: Galea aponeurotica. Action: elevates the 
 skin of the forehead and eyebrows (making transverse wrinkles), 
 stretches the skin of the back of the nose (by means of the so- 
 called procerus nasi). 
 
 Nerves : occipital major, and min. auricular, post. 
 
 Galea aponeurotica, that is, the tendinous cap which lies be- 
 tween the two occipital and frontal muscles, formed of their tend- 
 ons, attached besides to the root of the proc. mastoid. to the 
 zygomatic arch as far as the external angle of the eye, intimately 
 united with the skin of the head (less with the periosteum), co- 
 vered with fat (in which are many nerves and vessels). Behind 
 it is thick and brilliantly white, on the sides thinner. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 127 
 
 B. Muscles of the external Ears. 
 
 151. 1 . Attollens auriculae, elevator of the ear. 
 
 Shape: triangular, thin. Position: close beneath the skin of 
 the temporal fossa above the ear. Origin: Galea aponeurotica. 
 Insertion : broad, on the posterior surface (between the divisions) 
 of the anthdix. Action: raises the auricle. 
 
 152. 2. Protrahens s. auricularis anterior. 
 
 Figure: small, thin. Position: above the zygoma, beneath he 
 skin; covers art. and ven. temporalis and fascia temporal. Origin : 
 Galea aponeurotica. Insertion: in front of the helix. Action: 
 draws the auricle forwards and upwards. 
 
 Nerves: temporal superfic. {auricular, anter) subcutan., tempor. facial. 
 
 153. 3. Retrahentes, 2 retractors of the auricle. 
 
 Figure: roundish, flat, small. Position: above the origin of 
 the Sterno-mastoid muscle. Origin : proc. mastoideus. Inser- 
 tion: the external convex surface of the auricle. Action: they 
 draw the upper portion of the auricle backwards. 
 
 Nerves : auricular, post, vagi, occipital, minor. 
 
 154. 4. Muscles which may serve for the movement of indi- 
 vidual parts, but however are only perceptible as exceptions. 
 Helids major and minor, Tragicus, Jlntitragicus, Transversus 
 auricula, Dilator conchas (see Ear). Hyrtl describes a m. stylo- 
 auricularis, which passes from proc. styloideus to the inferior sur- 
 face of the cartilaginous meatus audit orius, but generally repre- 
 sented by a tendinous cord. 
 
 C. Muscles of the Eyelids. 
 
 155. 1. Orbicularis s. sphincter palpebrarum. 
 
 Figure: flat, rather thin, consisting of an external and an in- 
 ternal layer. From the internal angle of the eyes a four-sided 
 fasciculus passes, m. Horneri s. Tensor tarsi s. sacci lacrymalis, 
 which goes behind the tarsal ligament around the lacrymal canal 
 to the crista of the lacrymal bone. Position : beneath the skin of 
 the lids and borders of the orbits. The internal layer arched from 
 Kg. palpebrar. intern, to externum., and from the borders of the 
 orbits to the tarsal cartilages, covers the roots of the cilia. The 
 
128 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 external (red) layer upon the borders of the orbits covers corrugafor 
 super til. parts of frontalis, temporal., zygomaticus and levator 
 labii alseq. nasi. Origin: the internal angle of the eyes, lig. 
 palpebrale internum. Insertion : the same, only rather farther 
 towards the nose. The internal layers of the superior and the 
 inferior eyelids are separated from one another. Action : the in- 
 ternal layer closes the eye and presses the bulb a little backwards. 
 The external shortens at the same time the fissure between the 
 lids, and corrugates the skin at the internal angle. Horner's 
 muscles merely draw the puncta lacrymalia deeper inwards; they 
 may also compress the lacrymal sacs. 
 
 Nerves : palpebraks from supra-, infra-orbital. : and trochkar., lacrymal., sub- 
 cutan. mal., rr. temporal, n. fadalis. 
 
 156. 2. Corrugator supercilii. 
 
 Figure: arched, narrow, flat. Position: upon the arcus super- 
 ciliaris, covered by frontalis and sphinct. palpebr. Origin: the 
 root of the nose. Insertion : to the superciliary arch as far as the 
 temple. Action : draws the brow inwards and downwards, there- 
 by corrugating the skin over the root of the nose lengthwise. 
 
 Nerves: as frontalis. 
 
 157. 3. Levator palpebras superioris. 
 
 Figure: long, flat, and narrow. Position: between the roof of 
 the orbits and the rectus bulbi sup.; above it, passes n. frontalis 
 (trigem.). Origin: close above the optic foramen from alaparva 
 of the sphenoid bone and sheath of nerv. opticus. Insertion : 
 with a broad aponeurosis to the superior border of the tarsus. 
 Action : draws back the superior lid upwards, particularly on ele- 
 vation of the globe. 
 
 Nerves: oculo-motorius. 
 
 D. Muscles of the Nose. 
 
 158. 1. Depressor alas nasi. 
 
 Position: close upon the upper jaw, covered by sphinct. oris 
 and levat. labii alxq. nasi. Origin: before the roots of the two 
 incisor and the canine teeth. Insertion: the posterior part of the 
 septum mobile and the alas. nasi. Action: draws the inferior 
 part of the nose downwards and backwards (sulcus naso-fabialis 
 becomes deeper.) Fibres from it penetrate the upper lip; these 
 are m. Incisivus (Cowperi) superior. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 129 
 
 159. 2. Compressor narium s. transversus nasi. 
 
 Figure : below, narrow (fleshy), above, broad, three-sided (ten- 
 dinous). Position : arched upon the cartilaginous part of the nose, 
 where both meet together. Origin : between the roots of the 
 canine and first molar teeth, in the sulcus naso-labialis. Inser- 
 tion : the back of the nose below the bony portion. Action: 
 rather to compress the nose, drawing the skin downwards, and 
 widening the nasal openings. 
 
 Nerves: infraorbital. and elhmoidalis. 
 
 160. 3. Dilatator narium posterior. 
 
 Fig.: small. Pos.: at the posterior part of the alae nasi, covered 
 by depressor and compressor. Or.: the border of the proc. ascend. 
 of the upper jaw. Ins. : below to the skin of the posterior half 
 of the nasal openings.? Act. : widens behind the nasal openings. 
 
 161. 4. Dilatator narium anterior. 
 
 Pos. : on the alae close to the back of the nose. Or. : the supe- 
 rior border of the alar cartilages of the nose. Ins. : the skin of 
 the anterior part of the border of the nasal openings. Act. : 
 draws the anterior portion of the alas nasi outwards. 
 
 Nerves : infraorbital and fadalis. 
 
 Remarks. The rest of the nasal muscles are not independent, but continu- 
 ations of neighboring muscles; viz. 
 
 a. Procerus (s. pyramidaKs) a continuation of frontatis, upon the dorsum of 
 the nose. Act. : draws the skin of the back of the nose upwards, stretching it. 
 
 b. Depressor septi mobilis a portion of sphincter oris, in the fossa of the upper 
 lip. Act: draws the point of the nose upwards; contracting the nasal 
 openings. 
 
 c. Pyramidalis s. Levator labii superioris alaqui nasi. 
 
 E. Muscles of the Lips, the Cheeks, and the Chin. 
 
 162. 1. Orbicularis s. sphincter oris, the muscle closing 
 
 the mouth. 
 
 Pos.: round about the oral fissure in the lips, between the 
 mucous membrane and the external skin ; connected on the ex- 
 ternal circumference with the rest of the labial muscles (whose 
 continuation it forms). Or. and Ins.: septum mobile nasi. Act. : 
 closes, points, and presses the lips against the teeth (m. osculato- 
 rius]. 
 
 Nerves: infraorbit., mental., buecinat., facial. 
 
130 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 163. 2. Buccinator, cheek muscles. 
 
 Fig 1 .: oblong, broad, flat. Pos.: between upper and lower jaw; 
 behind covered by the ramus of the lower jaw, masseter and tem- 
 poralis ; before by zygomatici, risorius ; perforated by duct. 
 Stenonian. (opposite the three superior molar teeth) ; covered in- 
 ternally by the buccal mucous membrane. Or. : 1. Over the last 
 molar tooth. 2. Hamulus of proc. pterygoid. 3. Mveolus of 
 the upper and lower jaws. Ins.: sphincter oris. Act.: draws 
 the angles of the mouth outwards; contracts the buccal cavity (in 
 whistling, blowing). 
 
 Nerves: buccinator, buccalcs, facialis. 
 
 164. 3. Levator labii superioris alseque nasi, 
 
 (Pyramidalis of Theile.) 
 
 Fig. : flat, divided below. Pos. : on the side of the nose, some- 
 what covered above, by sphincter palpebr., then, below, by the 
 skin, above, compressor and depressor alas nasi. Or. : proc. frontal. 
 of upper jaw to lig. palpebr. intern. Ins. : the stronger portion 
 to sphincter oris, the weaker to the ala nasi. Act. : elevates the 
 ala nasi, corrugates the nasal membrane, and raises the upper lip 
 at the same time. 
 
 165. 4. Levator labii superioris proprius s. Incisorius. 
 
 Fig. : flat, four-sided, broader above. Pos. : covered above by 
 sphinct. palpebr., then only by the skin on the external border of 
 this muscle, on the inner of the zygomatic minor, with which it 
 is united below. Or. : above foram. infraorbitale. Ins. : sphincter 
 oris and skin of upper lip. Act. : elevates the upper lip. 
 
 166. 5. Levator anguli oris (s. Caninus). 
 
 Pos. : vertical ; external to the one last described ; covered by 
 it, below free. Or. : half an inch below 'foram. infraorb., broad. 
 Ins. : sphincter oris, depressor labii inferior. Act. : raises the 
 angle of the mouth somewhat inwards. 
 
 167. 6. Zygomaticus minor, small zygomatic muscle, 
 
 sometimes wanting. 
 
 Pos. : oblique, at commencement covered by orbic. palpebr., 
 upon the last described, free beneath the skin. Or.: os zygo- 
 matic. Ins. : the upper lip ; mingling with levator labii prop. 
 Act. : raises the upper lip and draws it somewhat outwards. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 
 
 168. 7. Zygomaticus major, greater zygomatic muscle. 
 
 Pos. : oblique ; external and below the last described ; covered 
 below by the fat of the cheek, above by orbicular palpebr. Or.: 
 05 zygomatic. Ins. : the angle of the mouth. Act. : draws the 
 angle of the mouth outwards and upwards. 
 
 169. 8. Depressor anguli oris (s. triangularis menti). 
 
 Pos. : beneath the skin at the sides of the chin ; covers the qua- 
 drat, menti internally, the buccinator externally. Or.: broad, 
 from basis maxill. infer. Ins. : pointed, to the angle of the mouth 
 (levator anguli and zygomatic. major]. Act. : draws the angle 
 of the mouth outwards and downwards (physiognomy of the sim- 
 ple). 
 
 170. 9. Risorius (Santorini), laughter muscle, thin, three- 
 
 sided. 
 
 in the fat of the cheeks, upon m. platysmam. Or.: fascia mas- 
 seter. Ins.: m. zygomatic. major. Act.: draws the inferior 
 internal part of the cheeks outwards and upwards, so that (in 
 laughing) a small fossa is formed in the skin. 
 
 171. 10. Depressor labii inferioris (s. quadratus menti). 
 
 Pos. : close beneath the skin of the chin, covers the sphincter 
 oris and. lev. menti. Or.: the inferior border of the chin. Ins.: 
 the under lip. Act. : draws the under lip downwards, both to- 
 gether stretch it. 
 
 172. 11. Levator menti. 
 
 Pos. : in the chin, bounded above by the sphincter oris, covered 
 externally by quadratus; in the centre the fibres of both sides pass 
 over, above, in an arched manner, into one another; below, they 
 are united by firm fibro-cellular tissue, and free. Or.: below the 
 corner tooth of the lower jaw. Ins.: skin and fat of the chin. 
 Act.: draws the skin of the chin upwards, corrugates it, and 
 pushes up the lower lip. Its most superior fibres (m. incisivus 
 inferior) penetrate the under lip, and are said to compress it 
 against the gums. 
 
 173. 12. Transversalis menti, wanting in feeble subjects. 
 
 Pos. : transverse below the free border of the chin, upon m. pla- 
 tysmam. Or.: continuation of triangularis menti. Ins.: the 
 internal angle of both mm. triangular -es. Act.: stretches the 
 skin on the chin. 
 
 Nerves: (for three to twelve) facialis ; for the superior muscles; infra 
 orbital, and subcutan., for the inferior; mentaUs. 
 
132 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 F. Muscles of the Lower Jaw, of mastication, 
 mansores s. manducatores. 
 
 174. 1. Masseter, masticating muscle; external and internal 
 
 portion. 
 
 Pos. : before and upon the ramus maxill. infer., between arcus 
 zygomat. and angulus maxill.; above, covered by zygomatic 
 major; behind, by the Parotis. Close to its anterior border be- 
 low : art. maxillar. extern. Or. : the inferior border of the zygoma. 
 Ins. : angle and external surface of ram. maxill. infer. Act. : 
 draws the lower jaw (very strongly) upwards. 
 
 175. 2. Temporalis (s. crotaphites), temporal muscle. 
 
 Pos.: fills up the temporal fossa; covers m. pterygoid. extern., 
 buccinator (somewhat), art. maxillar. intern, and vasa temporall. 
 proff. Or. : linea semicircularis and the walls of the temporal 
 fossa. Ins.: process, coronoid. of the lower jaw. Act.: draws 
 the lower jaw upwards, and the condyl. maxill. backwards into 
 the articular fossa. 
 
 176. 3. Pterygoideus internus (s. major) thick, four-sided, 
 
 (masseter internus). 
 
 Pos.: in the fossa zygomat., along the inner surface of the 
 ramus maxill. infer., separated from it by nn. denial., lingual., 
 art. and ven. denial, infer., and lig. laterale intern. External to 
 m,. circumflex, palali, gland. submaxiUar. and pharynx. Or. : 
 fossa pterygoidea. Ins.: angulus maxilla? (internal surfaces). 
 Act.: draws the lower jaw strongly upwards, as well as rather in- 
 wards. 
 
 177. 4. Pterygoideus externus (s. minor), short and thick. 
 
 Pos.: horizontal between ala externa proc. pteryg. and collum 
 maxill. infer.; on the outer side of pterygoid. intern., inside of 
 ram. maxill. and m. temporalis. Or. : by two heads (which fre- 
 quently embrace art. maxill. intern.)', a. from the external surface 
 of ala extern, proc. pterygoid. and proc. pyramid, oss. palati. b. 
 from the crista and spina alse m.agnse of the sphenoid bone, be- 
 tween fossa temporal, and zygomatica. Ins. : the depression 
 before the collum condyli maxill., and the circumference of the 
 interarticular cartilage. Act.: draws the lower jaw forwards and 
 pushes it to the other side; both acting together draw it directly 
 forwards. 
 
 Nerves: (for one to four) ramus 3 trigemini. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 133 
 
 Fasciae of the Head. 
 
 178. 1. Galea capitis. See before. 
 
 179. 2. F. temporalis, is covered at the upper part by the 
 Galea, but is not even connected, where free, with the external 
 skin. It covers the temporal muscle, dividing inferiorly into a 
 superficial delicate layer which is attached to the superior border, 
 and a deep one, to the internal surface of the zygomatic arch; 
 between the two there is fat and a branch of the art. temporalis; 
 between it and the temporal muscle likewise much fat. It is very 
 dense. (Pus does not readily penetrate it, but it gravitates towards 
 the malar-maxillary fossa.) 
 
 180. 3. F. buccalis: a. Superficial layer, that is, F. parofi- 
 dsea, very dense, especially on the external surface of the Parotis, 
 covering'it like a sheath (pus does not penetrate it and the skin 
 easily); continuing as F. masseterica, where behind it appears to 
 divide, covering the m. masseter and ductus Stenonianus, above 
 and in front losing itself in fibro-cellular tissue. (Pus behind it 
 sinks towards the neck, that before it comes to the skin.) 
 
 181. b. Deep layer, F. bucco-pharyngea, covers m. buccina- 
 tor, serving anteriorly for the attachment of this, posteriorly much 
 thicker, for that of the m. constrictor pharyngis super., since it 
 passes away behind m. pterygoid. intern., and, like a, is con- 
 nected with the F. cervicalis. It separates the muscles from the 
 buccal mucous membrane. (Pus does not easily find its way 
 through these fasciae towards the mouth and the reverse.) 
 
 II. Muscles of the Neck. 
 A. Superficial cervical muscles. 
 
 182. 1. Platysma-myoides (s.latissimuss. subcutaneous colli). 
 
 Pos. : broad, close behind the skin, below firmly, above, united 
 with it by fat, on the sides of the neck, before ihefasc. cervicalis. 
 The two diverge from above downwards. Or. : the anterior supe- 
 rior part of the chest (two to three ribs) before m. pectoralis major. 
 Ins. : Basis maxill. infer., angle of mouth, Masseter, skin of the 
 face. Act. : draws the skin of the neck, somewhat the lower jaw 
 and under lip, downwards. 
 
 Nerves : subcutanti, colli supraclaviculares. 
 
 183. 2. Sterno-cleido-mastoideus. 
 
 Pos. : above at the sides, below on the anterior surface of the 
 neck; covered by the skin, by m. platysma my old., separated 
 
134 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 from the last by Vena jugular, extern, and Plex. nerv. cervical, 
 superfic. Behind it, 1. Mm. sterno-hyoideus, thyreoid., omo- 
 hyoid., splenius, digastricus, scaleni. 2. Nn. vagus and acces- 
 sor., sympathicus, hypoglossus, cervicales. 3. Carotis commu- 
 nis, Vena jugular, intern. On the anterior border above, Parotis. 
 The two diverge from below upwards. The posterior border 
 forms with the Clavicula an acute angle, with these and the M. 
 trapezius a triangle. Or.: two portions. 1. Cleido-mast. from 
 the internal extremity of the Clavicula. 2. Sterno-mast. from 
 manubrium sterni. Ins. : external surface of Proc. mastoid. oss. 
 temporis and linea semicircular, superior oss. occipitis. Act. : 
 both together draw the head directly forwards and downwards, 
 bowing it; one alone acting draws it in such a direction that the 
 face looks towards the opposite side. 
 
 Nerves : accessor. Willis., plexus cervical. 
 
 a. Below the Os Hyoides. 
 
 184. 3. Sterno-hyoideus (often double). 
 
 Pos. : vertical in the centre of the neck ; covered by M. platys- 
 mam., sterno-cleidom. and fascia cervicalis, before the deep cervi- 
 cal muscles and Art. thyreoidea superior. The inner borders 
 meet together. Fig.: flat, riband-like, thin. Or.: the posterior 
 surfaces of the Sternal ends of the Clavicula (frequently the 
 Manubrium sterni}. Ins.: the inferior border of the body of os 
 hyoides, close to the middle line, to the inside of M. brachyoideus. 
 Act. : draws the os hyoid. downwards. 
 
 185. 4. Omo-hyoideus (sometimes wanting). 
 
 Pos. : oblique on the side of the neck, commencing parallel 
 with the Clavicula, then forming an obtuse angle upwards and 
 inwards ; covered by trapezius, subclavius, platysmam., sterno- 
 cleido-mast. ; it crosses Mm. scaleni, the Plex. brack., Ven. jugu- 
 lar, intern., Carotis comm., near m. sterno-hyoideus. Or. : Sca- 
 pula (the superior border) behind the Incisura scapulae. Ins. : 
 external and close to the before-described muscle. Fig. : two- 
 bellied, in the centre tendinous, angular. Act.: the superior 
 belly draws the hyoid bone downwards. The posterior belly is 
 said to stretch thefasc. cervic. which attaches it to the clavicle. 
 
 [Coraco-cervicalis (Krause), a small m. before m. omo-hyoideus, 
 arises from Proc. coracoid., and is attached to the fascia cervi- 
 calis, which it stretches.] 
 
THE MUSCLES. 135 
 
 186. 5. Sterno-thyreoideus. 
 
 Pos. : behind sterno-hyoid, diverging from below upwards, 
 before the thyroid gland. On the outer border: V. jugular 
 intern.; behind that Carot. comm.; on the inner border: V. thy- 
 reoid media. Or.: broad from Manubrium sterni (posterior 
 surface) and first rib cartilage. Ins. : Lima obliqua of thyroid 
 cartilage. Act. : draws the larynx downwards, shortening the 
 trachea. 
 
 Nerves : (three to five) hypoglossi ram. descendens. 
 
 187. 6. Thyro-hyoideus. 
 
 Pos. : behind the m. sterno-hyoideus, vertical before the memb. 
 thyreoidea. Or. : os hyoides (the inferior border of the body 
 and root of great cornua). Ins. : Thyroid cartilage (linea 
 obliqua). Act. : approximates hyoid bone and larynx; assists 
 in throwing the epiglottis backwards. 
 
 \_Thyreoideus is a prolongation of the thyroid gland upwards; 
 it contains no muscular fibres.] 
 
 Nerves : laryngeus superior and hypoglossus. 
 
 b. Above the Os Hyoides. 
 
 188. 7. Digastricus (s. biventer maxillae inferioris). 
 
 Pos. : in the semicircle between the temporal, hyoid bone and 
 centre of lower jaw, below the angle of the last; covered by M. 
 platysma myoides; behind by the Parotis and Gland, submaxill. 
 Internally to it lie Carotis interna and N. hypogloss. ; the pos- 
 terior belly perforates on the hyoid bone, the M. stylo-hyoidcus . 
 Or.: 1. Post, belly: from Incisura mastoidea, covered by M. 
 sterno-cleido-mastoid. 2. Anterior belly : from os hyoides. Ins. : 
 1. Os hyoides. 2. Lower jaw (base). Act.: the anterior belly 
 elevates the hyoid bone towards the lower jaw, the post, draws 
 it backwards and upwards. 
 
 Nerves: post belly, facialis ; [ant. beHy, trigenrinus.] 
 
 189. 8. Stylo-hyoideus. 
 
 Pos. : between temporal and hyoid bones, covered externally 
 by the posterior belly of the digastric muscle by which it is per- 
 forated shortly before its point of insertion. Or. : Proc. styloideus 
 (the centre of the external surface). Ins.: the Os hyoides^ at the 
 union of its great cornu with the body. Use : to draw the hyoid 
 
136 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 bone obliquely backwards and upwards ; elevates the root of the 
 tongue, and contracts the isthm. faucium. 
 Nerves : facialis. 
 
 190. 9. Mylo-hyoideus (s. transversus mandibulse}. 
 
 Pos. : extended like a partition from the lower jaw to the hyoid 
 bone; above M. digastric, (ant. belly) and Gland, submaxil- 
 lar.; beneath Mm. genio-hyoid., hyo-, stylo- glossus, Nn. lin- 
 gualis and hypo- glossus, Gland, subling. and oral mucous memb. 
 Or.: broad from the entire Lin. obliq. interna of the lower jaw. 
 Ins. : pointed to the centre of the body of the hyoid bone. 
 [Meets its fellow in the middle line of the body.] Use: draws 
 the hyoid bone upwards, or the lower jaw downwards. 
 
 Nerves: trigeminus. 
 
 191. 10. Genio-hyoideus. 
 
 Pos. : above the last 771., beneath m. genio- glossus, between 
 chin and hyoid bone, below and behind. Or. : the chin (spina 
 tnentalis interna). Ins. : Hyoid bone (the superior anterior part 
 of the centre). Use : draws the hyoid bone forwards and upwards, 
 or the lower jaw downwards. 
 
 Nerves : hypoglossus. 
 
 B. Muscles of the Tongue, of the Pharynx, and Palate. 
 
 192. 1. Linguales, Tongue muscle. 
 
 a. Longitudinalis superior, anteriorly beneath the thick mem- 
 brane of the tongue, behind beneath the glandular layer, along 
 the entire dorsum of the tongue. Use: to shorten the tongue, 
 curving the apex upwards and backwards. 
 
 b. Longitudinalis inferior (especially the lingualis], spindle- 
 shaped on the under surface close to the middle line, between 
 genio- and hyo-glossi. Use: to shorten the tongue, curving the 
 point downwards. 
 
 2. Transversus, springs from the fibrous septum in the centre 
 of the tongue; its fibres cross each other; lies between the two 
 longitudinales. Use: to narrow, elongate, and point the tongue. 
 
 193. 2. Stylo- glossus. 
 
 Pos. : obliquely inwards, downwards, and forwards, partly on 
 the borders, partly transverse in the tongue. Externally lie : M. 
 stylo-hyoideus, Parotis, M. pterygoid. intern., Gland, sublin- 
 gual, N. lingualis, mucous membrane of the tongue. Internally : 
 Lig. stylo-hyoid., Tonsilla,M. constrictor pharyng. super., hyo- 
 
THE MUSCLES. 137 
 
 glossus. Or.: Proc. styloideus (apex). Ins.: double in M. 
 lingualis. Use: to draw the tongue upwards and to its own 
 side. Both acting together draw it upwards and backwards, 
 making it appear broad. 
 
 Nerves: hypoglossus. 
 
 194. 2. Hyo-glossus (Basic-, Kerato-, Chondro- glossus}. 
 Pos. : vertical, above M. mylo-hyoideus. Externally : M. 
 
 stylo-gloss., digastricus, Gland, subling., Nn. hypogloss. and 
 lingualis. Internally : Art. lingual., M. geniogloss, constrict, 
 med. Or.: three-fold from the hyoid bone; 1. from body; 2. 
 from greater; 3. from lesser cornu. Ins.: root of tongue (m. 
 lingualis). Use: to draw the tongue downwards and back- 
 wards ; both acting, draw it down and narrow it. 
 
 195. 4. Genio-glossus \_Genio-hyo-glossus~]. 
 
 Pos. : close above M. genio-hyoideus, horizontal, beneath the 
 oral mucous membrane and the tongue. On the inside both 
 meet together. Outside : Gland, subling., N. hypogl., and the 
 muscles before mentioned. Fig. : thick, three-sided, large. Or. : 
 chin (spina interna). Ins.: tongue. The posterior fibres pass 
 to the hyoid bone, the anterior curved from the root to the apex 
 of the tongue to the m. lingualis. Use: both extend the tongue 
 forwards, draw it again backwards, and press it together to form 
 a furrow. 
 
 Xerves: (three to four) lingual, trigenrini, glosso-pharyng. and hypoglossus. 
 
 196. 5. Constrictores pharyngis, three constrictors of the 
 
 pharynx, 
 
 form the posterior, muscular parietes of the pharynx, in the 
 centre of which they meet together in a white line [raphe] formed 
 of fibro-celhilar tissue. From behind we first see : 
 
 a. Constrictor pharyngis inferior, the strongest of the three 
 muscles, extending the lowest downwards. Its fibres pass from 
 the raphe downwards, outwards, and forwards, blending imme- 
 diately with those of the O3sophagus (see Splanchnol.), and 
 reaching above to the constrictor superior. Inferior attachments : 
 1. Cartilago cricoidea (thence, crico-pharyngeus}. 2. C. thy- 
 reoidea (M. thyreo-pharyngeus). 3. Lig* hyo-thyreoideum 
 later ale (M. syndesmo-pharyngeus). Superior attachments : 
 raphe. 
 
 b. Constrictor pharyngis medius. Inf. attach.: 1. Cornu 
 maj. oss. hyoid ei (thence, M. cerato-pharyngeus). 2. Cornu 
 minus oss. hyoidei (thence, M. chondro-pharyngeus). Superior 
 attach.: 1. raphe. 2. Oss. occipitis pars basilaris. 
 
138 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 c. Constrictor pharyngis superior. Inf. attach. : 1. Mucous 
 membrane of pharynx.' 2. M. stylo-pharyngeus with horizontal 
 fibres ; terminating on the thyroid cartilage covered by Constr. 
 inf. Superior attach.: 1. Proc. pterygoideus-hamulus and ala 
 internet (therefore, pterygo-pharyngeus). 2. M. buccinator 
 (bucco-pharyngeus). 3. Linea obliq. maxill. inf. (therefore, 
 mylo-pharyngeus). 4. M. genio glossus (therefore, genio- and 
 glosso-pharyngeus). Use: to press the posterior walls of the 
 pharynx together and to contract it. 
 
 Nerves : glosso-pharyngeus and vagus. 
 
 197. 6. Stylo-pharyngeus (s. levator pharyngis). 
 
 Pos. : oblique from above, downwards and inwards, between 
 m. stylo-hyoid and digastricus (behind) and m. stylo-glossus 
 (before). Externally lie, m. stylo gloss., carotis externa and 
 parotis ; internally, carols intern, and V. jugular, int.; along 
 the outer side, n. glosso-pharyngeus. Or. : round, from Proc. 
 styloideus (inner surface). Ins. : between the fibres of mm. con- 
 strictor sup. and med., the last of which covers it. Use: to 
 raise and widen the pharynx above the hyoid bone. 
 
 Nerves : glosso-pharyngeus. 
 
 198. 7. Levator palati mollis (s. peristaphylinus internus 
 
 s . p etro-salpingo-stap hylinus). 
 
 Pos.: obliquely inwards, forwards, and downwards on the ala 
 interna of Proc. pterygoideus. Or. : the petrous bone (apex) 
 and cartilaginous portion of tuba Eustachii. Ins. : between the 
 layers of the soft palate, behind m. pharyngo-palatinus. Use : 
 to draw the velum pendulum palati upwards towards the poste- 
 rior nasal openings, by which these are contracted, and the pas- 
 sage of the fauces widened. 
 
 199. 8. Circumflexus s. tensor palati mollis (s. perista- 
 phylinus externus, spheno-salpingo-staphylinus). 
 
 Pos. : close to the outer side of the last, separated by the ala 
 interna Proc. pteryg.; the tendon passes away below the Ha- 
 mul. Proc. pterygoid. inwards, at a right angle. Or. : Proc. 
 spinosus of sphenoid bone, tuba Eustachii (cartilage). Ins. : 
 before the last, with a thinner aponeurosis. ' Use : both draw the 
 velum-palati in a transverse direction, outwards. Whether it 
 serves this purpose, or for widening the posterior nasal openings 
 and the tuba JSustachii, is doubtful. 
 
 200. 9. Jlzygos uvulae (s. palato-staphylinus [s. levator es 
 
 uvult.~]) 
 Pos. : vertical in the uvula, below the last. Or. : spina 
 
THE MUSCLES. 139 
 
 nasalis posterior. Ins. : raucous membrane of uvula. Use : 
 to raise, shorten, and also curve the uvula. 
 
 201. 10. Glosso-palatinus (s. constrictor isthmi faucium.) 
 Pos. : in the anterior palatine arch [or pillar of the fauces], 
 between the palate and tongue, small and narrow. Or. : the sides 
 of the root of the tongue (m. stylo glossus). Ins.: the soft palate 
 (blending with m. phatyngo-palatin). Use: to approximate the 
 palate and tongue, and thereby contract the fauces. 
 
 202t 11. Pharyngo-palatinus (s. constrictor isthmi faucium 
 superior). 
 
 Pos. : in the posterior palatine arch, below, m. levator palati 
 (above) ; internal to the other palatine muscles, covered by the 
 mucous membrane. Or. : from the posterior border of the thy- 
 roid cartilage ascending behind the tonsil glands. Ins. : the soft 
 palate (m. levator and circumflexus palati). Use: to draw the 
 soft palate down, or the posterior wall of the pharynx upwards 
 (as in swallowing). 
 
 C. Deep Cervical Muscles, 
 a. Anterior. 
 
 203. 1. Longus colli. 
 
 Pos.: on the anterior lateral surfaces of the vertebra, behind: 
 Pharynx, (Esophagus, Art. carotis and Ven. jugular intern., 
 nn. vagus and sympathicus. Or. : from the ninth to the sixth 
 vertebral body and transverse processes with an inferior and 
 superior portion. 
 
 Ins. : the anterior surface of the fifth to the first vertebral body 
 (tuberculum atlantis anticum). Use : to flex the neck (and head)* 
 if both act ; one alone acting draws it in such a direction that the 
 face looks to the opposite side. 
 
 204. 2. Rectus capitis anticus major. 
 
 Pos. : close, external to and above the last muscle, before m. 
 rect. capt. ant. minor. Or. : from the front of the Proc. trans- 
 vers. vertebr. from the third to the sixth. Ins. : close in front 
 of for. magn. occipit. Use: to flex and rotate the head some- 
 what sideways. 
 
 205. 3. Rectus capitis anticus minor. 
 
 Pos. : oblique, behind and next to the last muscle, behind the 
 Ganglion I. cervic. n. sympathici ; in front of the articulation of 
 the atlas with the occipital bone. Or. : Mas (radix, anter.proc. 
 
140 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 transversi). Ins. : Pars basilaris occipitis. Use : to bend the 
 head somewhat to the side and forwards. 
 
 b. Lateral. 
 
 206. 4. Rectus capitis later alls. 
 
 Pos. : vertical (behind, V. jugularis, before, Art. vertebral.}-, 
 behind the pharynx, before obliq. capit super., to the inside of 
 biventer maxilliE. Or. : Proc. transvers. Atlantis, outside the 
 last muscle. Ins.: os occipitis; between for am. jugular e and 
 stylo-mastoid. Use : bends the head to the side. 
 
 207. 5. Scalenus anticus. 
 
 Pos. : below and behind Muse, and Ven. subdavia, above and 
 behind m. sterno-mastoid, Omo-hyoid., n. phrenicus, art. cerv. 
 trans, and ascend.; before, a triangular space, at the base of 
 which, below, Art. subdavia; in the apex: Plexus brachialis. 
 Internally, Art. vertebr. and m. longus colli ; externally, scalen. 
 med.; rests upon the apex of the pleura. Or. : Proc. trans, vertebr. 
 3 to 6. Ins. : Costa I. (superior border) even to the centre. Fig. : 
 conical, the apex above. Act. : bends the neck forwards ; or 
 raises the first rib. 
 
 208. 6. Scalenus medius (the strongest of the three 
 
 supporters of the ribs). 
 
 Pos. : behind the last muscle, Art. subdavia and Plex. bra- 
 chialis ; upon it lie : omo-hyoid, and above, the m. Sterno-deido- 
 mast. Or.: Proc. transv. Vv. 1 to 7 (the anterior tubercles). 
 Ins. : Costa I. (superior border, outside the last muscle), and Costa 
 II. Use : to raise the first and second rib ; to incline the neck 
 laterally ; both fix the neck. 
 
 209. 7. Scalenus posticus. 
 
 Pos.: behind and outside the last muscle, before, cervical, 
 descendens. Or. : Proc. transv. Vv. 5 to 7. Ins. : Costa II. 
 (behind the centre). Use : bends the neck sideways, or raises 
 the second rib. 
 
 Nerves : (1 7) rr. anteriorr. n. cervicall. 
 
 210. Fascia cervicalis. 
 
 Arises from the anterior belly of digastric, as far as the chin, 
 from the os. hyoides, from the lower jaw, below gland, submaxil- 
 lar., to the angle between it and Parotis ; from proc. styloid. and 
 its muscles. Insertion : the superior border of the chest. Posi- 
 tion : covered by platysmam. and jugularis extern. ; upon the 
 
THE MUSCLES. 141 
 
 muscles of the hyoid bone and larynx, between, upon, behind 
 and external to the Sterno-cleido-mastoidei. We distinguish: 
 
 a. Superficial layer, fixed to the lig. inter davicul., manubr. 
 sterni. 
 
 b. Deep Iny^r, passing away behind the sterno-deido-mast.; 
 it forms a sheath for jugular, inlerna and carotis commun., 
 enveloping and attaching the omo-hyoid to the superior border of 
 the first rib; and uniting itself with the fibro-cellular tissue upon 
 the scaleni and levator scapulse, which is : 
 
 9.11 c. Fascise prsevertebralis, which surrounds the longus 
 colli and reef, capitis. antic, major, contains below much fat 
 and fills up the fossa supraclavicularis . It attaches itself to the 
 superior part of the clavicle as far forward as the acromion, and 
 forms a boundary between t\\e fossa super davicul. and the cavity 
 of the axilla; behind, it embraces the cucullares [Trapezius m.]. 
 Anteriorly it is covered by Trachea, pharynx, and oesophagus. 
 
 III. Muscles of the Chest, Regio thoracica. 
 9.1?.. 1. Pectoralis major, great pectoral muscle. 
 
 Pos. : beneath the skin and mammae, on the anterior surface of 
 the thorax and before the axilla; covering the subdavius and 
 pect. minor. Or.: 1. Clavicula (one-third to one-half of the 
 anterior border). 2. Sternum. 3. Cartilagines Costar., 2 to 7. 
 Ins. : Humerus (spina tubercul. major) ; between biceps (cap. 
 breve) and triceps, with a tendon two inches broad, under that of 
 the Deltoideus. Use : to draw the arms inwards, so that they 
 may be crossed over the chest; fixing the humeri, to draw the 
 ribs outwards and expand the thoracic cavity (as in inspiration). 
 
 213. 2. Pectoralis minor (s. serralus anticus minor). 
 
 Pos. : behind the last muscle, and the Nervi and Vasa thorac.; 
 its superior border separated from the Clavicula by a triangular 
 space, behind which, Art. axillaris, separated from Pectoral, 
 major and serratus by fat. Or.: Costa III. to V. (superior 
 border and external surface). Ins. : Proc. coracoideus (internal 
 border and apex). Use: to draw the shoulder forwards, inwards 
 and downwards ; if this is fixed, to elevate the third to the fifth 
 ribs (m. inspirator). 
 
 Nerves : (1 2) thoradci, intercostal., supradavicular. 
 
 214. 3. Subdavius (costa-davicularis). 
 
 Pos.: along the inferior surface and behind the Clavicula, 
 above the Vasa axillaria, Plex. brachial. and first rib. Or. : 
 
142 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 first rib. cartilage. Ins. : Clavicula (the external end of the in- 
 ferior surface). Use: to draw the acromial end of the clavicle 
 downwards, and press the sternal end against the sternum, on 
 which account in fracture of the clavicle the outer end projects 
 over the inner. Elevates also the first rib (m. inspiratorius), the 
 Clavicula being fixed. 
 Nerves: pectoral anterr. 
 
 215. 4. Serratus anticus major (costo-scapularis). 
 
 Pos. : on the side of the thorax, covered, above, by pectorales, 
 below, by latissim. dorsi and the skin, behind, by subscapularis. 
 Or.: Costae 1 to 8, external surface (with nine or ten dentations). 
 Ins.: Basis scapulse (inner lip), above and below very thick; 
 united with rhomboidei and subscapular. by strong fibro-cellular 
 tissue. Use: to draw the scapula forwards and outwards; or 
 the first to the eighth ribs upwards and inwards. 
 
 Nerves : thoracici, intercostales. 
 
 216. 5. Intercostales externi and interni. 
 
 Pos.: in the intercostal spaces. The fibres of the external 
 pass forwards and downwards, those of the internal backwards 
 and downwards. Or. : the inferior border of each rib. Ins. : 
 the superior border of the following inferior rib. Mm. externi 
 reach from the neck of the rib to the cartilage. Mm. interni 
 commence at the angle, terminate at the sternum. Use : both the 
 same. They approximate the ribs, either upwards in fixing the 
 first rib (by means of Mm. scaleni) inspiration or downwards 
 in fixing the twelfth rib (by m. quadratics lumb.), exspiratio. 
 
 Nerves: intercostales. 
 
 217. 6. Infracostales, 
 
 variable in number and direction, lying on the internal wall of 
 the chest between ribs and diaphragm, vertical or oblique in 
 shorter or longer striae; and serving to assist the Mm. inter- 
 costales. 
 
 218. 7. Triangularis sterni. 
 
 Pos.: behind the sternum, before the diaphragm; separated 
 from the rib cartilages by Vasa mammaria. Or. : Corp. sterni 
 (the external border) and Proc. ensiform. Ins. : Costse, two to 
 five, together with the cartilages (the inferior border). Use: to 
 draw the second to the fifth ribs downwards. 
 
 Nerves: intercostales. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 143 
 
 219. Fasciae perforates. 
 
 1. The intercostal muscles, a fascia cover externally, which is 
 behind the continuations of the Mm. externi, before those of the 
 interni; in the thorax they are separated by a serous layer from 
 the diaphragm. 
 
 2. F. coraco-clavicularis (see f. Humeri) invests m. sub da- 
 mns and pectoralis minor. 
 
 3. F. superficial the m. pectoralis major, and the inferior 
 part of serratus antic, major. 
 
 220. IV. Muscles of the Neck and Back. 
 
 We may distinguish from the skin of the back, forwards, five 
 layers of muscles. 
 
 A. First layer. 
 Two muscles. Origins : Proc. spinosi. 
 
 221. 1. Cucullaris s. trapezius. 
 
 Pos. : on the neck and back : meets along the inner border 
 (proc. spin.) with the corresponding muscle of the other side. Its 
 external superior border bounds the interstit. supra-clavicular e. 
 Covers above, the splenii, in the centre, the Rhomboidei, supra- 
 spinatus and levator scapul., then a portion of the extensor spinx 
 and latissim. dorsi. Or. : 1. Proc. spinosi of the dorsal vertebra 
 and Kg. nuchse; 2. Spina occipital, ext. and Lin. semicirc. 
 super, (the inner third). Ins.: Spina Scapulse, Jlcromion, Cla- 
 vicula (the outer third). Fig. : triangular, the base turned to- 
 wards Proc. spin. ; both together quadrangular. Use : to draw 
 the shoulder backwards and inwards ; the superior portion draws 
 it upwards, the inferior downwards. 
 
 Nerves : accessor. Willis., cervical, and dorsalis. 
 
 9.9.9. 2. Latissimus dorsi. 
 
 Pos. : below in the lumbar and sacral region ; above and exter- 
 nally behind the cavity of the axilla. Or.: 1. From external 
 ramus of cristi ilei, tendinous. 2. From the aponeur. lumbo- 
 dorsal. between crista ilei and the twelfth dorsal vetebra, fleshy. 
 
 3. From proc. spinosi of the sixteenth to the nineteenth vertebrae. 
 
 4. Fasciculi from the ninth to the twelfth ribs. All the fasciculi 
 converge towards the axillary fossa. Ins. : Spina tuberculi 
 minor, oss. humeri (2" broad), above the tendon of m. pectoral, 
 maj.; behind teres major, united with it. Use: to draw the 
 
144 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 shoulder down, rolling the arm inwards and behind (m. aniscalp- 
 tor) ; draws the arm, when raised, downwards, or the trunk to- 
 wards it, or expands the thorax. 
 
 Nerves : dorsales, lumbales, and sacrales. 
 
 B. Second layer. 
 
 223. Seven muscles ; some covering others. Origin : Proc. 
 spinosi (except m. levator ariguli scapulse). Direction of fibres 
 from within, outwards. 
 
 224. 1. Splenius capitis. 
 
 Pos. : oblique upwards and outwards, covered by m. cucullaris 
 and sterno-cleido-mast. Above, before it: trachelo-mastoid., 
 complexus, biventer from without, inwards. Or. : Lig. nuchx 
 (third to the sixth vert.) ; proc. spin. (vv. seventh to the eighth). 
 Ins. : Proc. mastoideus below m. sterno-cleido-mast. ; and be- 
 low Linea semicircular, superior. Use : to rotate the head, so 
 that the face looks towards the same side; both acting together 
 draw it directly backwards. 
 
 225. 2. Splenius colli. 
 
 Pos. : close to the outer side of the last muscle ; covered by 
 cucullar. and serrat. post. sup. Or.: Vv. 10 to 12 proc. spin.; 
 connected with the last muscle. Ins. : Vv. first to third proc. 
 transv. Use : to draw the neck (also atlas and head) towards its 
 own side ; both extend the neck. 
 
 226. 3. Levator anguli scapulas. 
 
 Pos. : outside the last ; above, covered by sterno-cleido'm,ast. 
 besides by trapezius. Or. : Vv. 1 to 4 proc. transv. (3 to 4 
 heads) external to the splenius colli, behind the scalen. post. 
 Ins. : Scapulas angulus superior (between rhomboidei and serrat. 
 magn). Use : to elevate the internal superior angle of the scapula 
 (to shrug the shoulders). 
 
 227. 4. Rhomboideus superior s. minor. 
 
 Pos. : transverse between vertebras and scapula. 
 
 Or. : Vv. 6 to 7 proc. spinosi (lig. nuchse}. Ins. : Bas. sea- 
 pulse labium externum (the superior part). Use : to draw the 
 scapula inwards and upwards. 
 
 228. 5. Rhomboideus inferior s. major. 
 
 Pos. : below the last m. in a similar direction. Or. : Vv. 11 
 to 13 proc. spinosi. Ins.: Bas. scapulas lab. extern, (the infe- 
 
THE MUSCLES. 145 
 
 rior part). Use: to draw the scapula (particularly the inf. angle) 
 inwards, whereby the shoulder (humeral end) sinks. 
 
 229. 6. Serratus posticus superior. 
 
 Pos. : covered by the two preceding muscles, meeting anteriorly 
 in the m. scalen. post. Or.: Vv. seventh to the tenth proc. 
 spinos. Ins. : Costae second to the fifth (superior border, in the 
 neighbourhood of the angulus). Use : to draw the second to the 
 fifth rib upwards (m. inspirat.). 
 
 230. 7. Serratus posticus inferior. 
 
 Pos. : in the lumbar region, anterior to the m. latissim. dorsi, 
 united with its tendon. Or. : Vv. eighteenth to the twenty-second 
 proc. spinos. Ins.: Costx ninth to the twelfth (the inferior 
 border). Use: to draw the ninth to the twelfth ribs backwards 
 and downwards, and to fix them. 
 
 Nerves : (first to the seventh) rr. posterr. nn, spinalium. 
 
 231. C. Third layer. 
 
 Pos. : in the posterior fossa of the vertebral column, between 
 proc. spinosi and transversi, or anguli costarum, separated from 
 the layers 1 and 2 by fasc. lumbo-dorsal. Or. : Proc. transversi. 
 
 232. 1. Biventer cervicis. 
 
 Pos. : covered above by diaphragm, below by splenii and 
 serrat. sup.; lies upon semi-spinal cervic. and complezus. Or.: 
 Vv. ninth to the fourteenth proc. transvers. (Apex). Ins.: Linea 
 semicircular, superior, (in the centre), united with m. complex, 
 cervic. The tendon between separates the superior and inferior 
 belly. Use : to draw the head backwards and rotate it a little ; 
 both extend it. 
 
 233. 2. Complexus cervicis. 
 
 Pos. : outside, close to the last m., covered by it, the splenii 
 and trachelo-mast. Or. : 1. Vv. eighth to the tenth proc. transv. 
 2. Vv. third to the seventh proc. obliqui. Ins. : below linea semi- 
 circular, superior, between trachelom. and the central line. Use: 
 to draw the head backwards and rotate it more strongly than the 
 last. 
 
 234. 3. Trachelo-mastoideus. 
 
 Pos.: external to the last, and before it; below covered by 
 splenii and lev. scapulae. Or. : 1 Vv. seventh to the eleventh 
 proc. transv. 2. Vv. fourth to the sixth proc. obliq. with seven 
 fasciculi. Ins. : Proc. Mastoid. (posterior part). Use : to draw 
 the head backwards and sideways. 
 10 
 
146 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 235. 4. Transversalis cervicis. 
 
 Pos.: external to and (above) before the last; united below 
 with m. longissimus dorsi. Or. : Vv. eighth to the fourteenth 
 proc. transv. Vv. fourth to the seventh proc. obliq., with seven 
 fasciculi. Ins. : Vv. second to the sixth proc. transv. Use : to 
 incline the neck sideways. 
 
 236. 5. Cervicalis descendens. 
 
 Pos. : lateral in the neck, before the last muscle, and behind 
 muse, scalen. post. Or. : Vv. fourth to the sixth proc. transv. 
 Ins. : costse third to the sixth (the superior border, opposite the 
 angle). Use: to draw the neck sideways; or raise the third to 
 the sixth ribs. 
 
 Nerves : rr. posterr. nn. cervicall. (from the first to the fifth). 
 
 237. 6. Longissimus dorsi. 
 
 Fig. : three-sided, below thick. Pos.: external to spinal, dorsi, 
 internal to ilio-costalis, behind multifid., semispinalis, levator. 
 costar., covered byfasc. ilio-dorsal and serrati postici, along the 
 vertebral column, the neck excepted. Or. : tendinous from proc. 
 spin, of Sacrum and the three inferior lumbar vertebrae, fleshy 
 from the posterior part of fossa ovalis oss. ilei. Ins.: a. internal 
 fasciculi to the lumbar vertebrae and proc. transv. of all the dor- 
 sal; b. external fasciculi to the proc. transv. of all the lumbar 
 vertebrae and to the twelfth to the second ribs (the lower border). 
 Use : to extend the lumbar and dorsal portions of the vertebral 
 column, drawing the chest downwards. 
 
 238. 7. Ilio-costalis (s. sacro-lumbalis). 
 
 Fig. : long. Pos. : upon the longiss. dors, external to it, on 
 the lumbar vertebrae and behind the ribs, ascending internally to 
 angul. cost.; covered posteriorly byfasc. lumbo-dorsal. and 
 serrati postic. Or.: a. labium extern, crist. ilei; b. from the 
 origin of longiss. dorsi on the third to fifth lumbar vertebrae ; c. 
 from the sixth to the seventh inferior ribs (superior border). Ins. : 
 first to twelfth ribs (inf. border of angle). Use : to draw the ribs 
 downwards. The continuation forms cervical, descendens. [The 
 origins, c, pass, also, under the name of musculi accessorii ad 
 sacro-lumbalem.~] 
 
 Nerves : (sixth to the seventh) rr. postt. nn. intercostt. and lumball. 
 
 D. Fourth layer. 
 Origins : proc. spinos. or transv. Ins. : proc. spinosi. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 147 
 
 239. 1. Spinalis dor si. 
 
 Pos. : between proc. spin, and longiss. dor si ; upon multi- 
 fidus, covered by serrati post. Or. : Vv. seventeenth to the 
 twenty-first proc. spin. Ins. : Vv. fifteenth to the ninth proc. 
 spinos. Use : to extend the back. 
 
 240. 2. Spinalis cervicis. 
 
 Pos. : in the neck, close to proc. spin. Or. : Vv. eighth to 
 the ninth proc. spin. Ins. : Vv. third to the second proc. spin. 
 Use : to extend the neck. 
 
 241. 3. Semispinalis dorsi. 
 
 Pos. before m. longissim. ; behind multifid.; below and in- 
 ternal: spinal, dorsi; above and external: semispinal. and bi- 
 venter cervicis. Or. : Vv. thirteenth to the eighteenth proc. trans. 
 Ins. : Vv. tenth to the fifth proc. spin. Use: to draw the back 
 obliquely backwards. 
 
 242. 4. Semispinalis cervicis (s. colli). 
 
 Pos.: before m. biventer, behind multifidus. Or.: Vv. eighth 
 to twelfth proc. transv. Ins. : Vv. fifth to the second proc. spin. 
 Use : to draw the neck obliquely downwards and backwards. 
 
 243. 5. Levatores costarum s. supracostales. 
 
 a. breves, twelve. 
 
 Pos. : before m. longiss. dors, and ilio-costal., and cervic. de- 
 scend., behind the diaphragm in the post, part of the intercostal 
 spaces. Or. : Vv. seventh to the eighteenth proc. transv. Ins. : 
 Costse, first to the twelfth (the superior border of the posterior 
 part). Use : to draw the ribs backwards and upwards. 
 
 b. longi, four. 
 
 Or. : Seventh to the tenth proc. transv. Ins. : ninth to the 
 twelfth ribs. 
 
 Nerves: rr. postt. nn. cervical!, and dorsatt. (from first to the fifth). 
 
 E. Fifth layer, 
 
 close upon the vertebral column in the spaces between the pro- 
 cesses. Small muscles. 
 
 244. 1. Rectus capitis post, major. 
 
 Pos. : before complexus upon the post, arch of the Mas. Or. : 
 Proc. spin, epistroph. (dentatus). Ins.: Linea semicircular, 
 infer. 1" broad, near the middle line. Use : to extend the head. 
 
148 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 245. 2. Rectus capitis posticus minor. 
 
 Pos. : internal and close to the last, before and covered by it. 
 Or. : Atlas (tuberc. post.). Ins. : Linea semicircular, inferior. 
 [In the fossa below this.] Use : to extend the head. 
 
 246. 3. Obliquus capitis superior s. minor. 
 
 Pos. : external and close to the last muscles, oblique. Or. : 
 Atlas (proc. transv.). Ins. : Os occiput (between the lin. semic. 
 infer, and superior,) behind proc. mastoid. Use : to draw the 
 head backwards, or rotate it towards the opposite side. 
 
 247. 4. Obliquus capitis inferior s. major. 
 
 Pos. : oblique, outwards and upwards, covered by complex. 
 and trachelo-mast. Or. : Epistropheus (on the side of proc. 
 spinos.). Ins.: Atlas (proc. transv.). Use: to rotate the Atlas 
 (with the head and face) towards its own side. 
 
 248. 5. Multifidus spines. 
 
 Pos. : between the spinous and transverse processes of the 
 entire vertebral column ; immediately upon the vertebrae (and ro- 
 tatores dorsi; covered by longiss., spinalis dorsi, semispin. dorsi 
 and cervicis, complexus. Or.: Lateral parts of the Sacrum; 
 proc. transv. (inferior vertebras) and obliqui (in the neck). Ins. : 
 proc. spinosi (superior vert.). Use : the separate fasciculi rotate 
 the vertebras ; the entire muscle extends the column. 
 
 249. 6. Inter spinal es. 
 
 In the spaces between the Proc. spinosi, of the cervical (second 
 to the seventh) and lumbar vertebrae. Use: to extend the verte- 
 bral column. 
 
 250. 7. Intertransversales. 
 
 In the spaces between Proc. transversi ; in the neck : externi 
 and interni (generally wanting in the back). Use : to draw the 
 vertebras, and consequently the column, sideways. 
 
 251. 8. Rotator es dorsi. 
 
 Pos. : covered by multifidus spinse, on the dorsal vertebras, 
 transverse. Or. : proc. transversi (superior border). Ins. : Arch 
 of the vert, next above. 
 
 Nerves: rr. posterr. nn. tpinalium (from the first to the eighth). 
 
THE MUSCLES. 149 
 
 Fasciae. 
 
 252. 1. Fascia nuchae, between the first and second layer of 
 cervical muscles, blends before with the cucullar. in the fasc. 
 cervical., behind in the lig nuchae. 2. F. lumbo-dorsalis. a. 
 Superficial posterior layer, connected above with the last men- 
 tioned, descends from the spinous process of the tenth vertebrae 
 to the last Sacral, attaching itself externally and below to the 
 Crista Ilei, externally and above to the angul. post, scapulae; is 
 covered above by Mm. cucullaris, rhomboideus and latissim. 
 dorsi, below only by the skin of the back. b. Deep, anterior 
 layer, between the twelfth rib and cristailei, forms between Proc. 
 transv. vertebrae lumbalis and the twelfth rib a tendinous cres- 
 centic margin, and with the superficial layer a triangular sheath 
 for the third and fourth layers of muscles. 
 
 V. Abdominal Muscles, Mm. abdominales. 
 
 253. 1. Obliquus abdominis externus s. descendens. 
 
 Pos. in front and on the side of the abdomen, close behind the 
 skin, broad and four-sided, oblique ; before the following muscles, 
 the anterior portion of the seventh and eighth last ribs; covered 
 on the posterior border by latissim. dorsi. Or.: Fifth to the 
 twelfth ribs (with seven to eight attachments forming dentations 
 with M. Serratus magnus) 2 to 3" broad from the inferior border, 
 fleshy. Ins.: 1. the crest of the Ilium (lab. extern.); 2. the 
 linea alba, with a wide aponeurosis. Direction of the fibres from 
 above downwards and from behind forwards. Use: 1. contracts 
 the abdominal cavity ; 2. draws the ribs downwards, and thereby 
 flexes the thorax; or, 3. if this is fixed, the pelvis (m. exspira- 
 torius). 
 
 254. 2. Obliquus abdominis internus s. ascendens. 
 
 Pos. : behind the last m. covering the following ; before broader 
 than behind, where it reaches to the spinous processes ; the fleshy 
 part at the side of the abdomen. Or. : fleshy from the anterior 
 third of the crista ilei and lig. Poupartii. Ins. : Tenth to the 
 twelfth rib cartilages (the inferior border) ; and internally, Linea 
 alba, with a broad tendon. Use: the same as the preceding 
 muscle. 
 
 255. 3. Transversus abdominis. 
 
 Pos. : transverse around the abdomen, from proc. msiform. as 
 ar as symphysis pubis, on the lumbar vertebras between ilio- 
 costal. and quadrat, lumborum, separated from the diaphragm 
 behind it by fascia trans versalis. The fibres pass directly from 
 
150 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 within outwards, connected above with the diaphragm and tri- 
 angularis sterni. Or.: 1. Cartil. costae, seventh to the twelfth 
 (the internal surface) ; 2. Crista ilei labium internum (two-thirds) 
 and Lig. Poupartii; 3. Proc. transversi of the lumbar vert. 
 Ins. ; fleshy above to proc. ensiform., tendinous to linea alba. 
 Use : to contract the abdominal cavity (in defecation and expira- 
 tion) stronger than the two preceding muscles. 
 
 256. rfrcus cruralis, s. ligamentum Poupartii, s. Fallopise. 
 The inferior sharp border, reflected backwards, of the tendon 
 
 of obliq. extern., which passes obliquely from without and above, 
 inwards and downwards between Spina ilei ant. sup. and sym- 
 physis pubis, for two inches in width from Spina Ilei, firmly 
 attached to the. fasc. iliaca, and extended like a pillar, bounds 
 anteriorly a triangular space, the posterior limit of which is formed 
 by the os ilei and pubis. This space is filled up commencing 
 on the outside, with": M. Psoas and iliacus, Nerv., Art. Fen., 
 cruralis, m. pectineus. 
 
 The fascia femoris is attached to the inferior sharp border; the 
 free border of the reflected portion is firmly connected externally 
 to the fascia iliaca, internally to the fasc. transv. Between the 
 two borders lies a channel above concave, which is the floor of 
 the Canal, inguinalis. It first commences on the internal border 
 of 77i. psoas. Before the attachment to the Symphysis pubis, 
 the lig. Poupart. divides into two crura or pillars, between which 
 the triangular abdominal ring (annulus abdominalis) serves as an 
 entrance into the inguinal canal. The superior, internal pillar, 
 crus internum, broader and longer, passes away over the Sym- 
 physis pubis by the Spina, and then decussates with similar 
 fibres from the other side. The inferior pillar, crus externum, 
 is roundish, attaches itself to Spina pubis of its own side, and is 
 connected with the crista pubis by means of: 
 
 257. Lig. Gimbernati, a triangular, horizontal, tendinous 
 band (about half an inch long), the external, concave, almost 
 sharp border of which forms the internal boundary of the annu- 
 lus cruralis. From its superior surface a tendinous band passes 
 to the fascia femoris. 
 
 258. JLnnulus abdominalis and inguinalis externus, abdomi- 
 nal, external inguinal ring, between the crura of Lig. Poupartii 
 on the Symphysis pubis, oval or triangular, the apex directed 
 upwards and outwards, covered anteriorly by the delicate fasc. 
 superficialis [fascia spermatica extern.^, formed behind of fibres 
 from obliq. intern, transversalis, and fasc. transv., is the ex- 
 ternal opening of: 
 
 259. Canalis inguinalis (for the spermatic cord of the male, 
 
THE MUSCLES. 151 
 
 the round ligament in the female), which perforates the anterior 
 abdominal parietes formed of the three preceding muscles, is lj 
 to 2" long, and passes in the direction of lig. Poupartii, obliquely 
 from above, outwards and backwards, downwards, inwards and 
 forwards. M. obliq. extern, forms its inferior and anterior wall, 
 its posterior the fasc. transv. and tendinous fibres of obliq. intern. 
 and transv. (towards the annul, abdominal.) ; its superior, the 
 inferior borders of mm. obliq. intern, and transv. The interior 
 of the canal is lined by fasc. trans, [fasc. spermatica intern^], 
 which continues down into the scrotum as a common envelope of 
 the spermatic cord and testicle. Behind it opens into the abdo- 
 minal cavity by means of the irregular 
 
 260. Jinnwut inguinalis internus (at a distance of 2" from 
 the spina ilei sup.), on the internal semilimar sharp border of 
 which (plica semilunaris of the fasc. transv.) the Art. epigas- 
 trica passes upwards and inwards. Through this ring, in the 
 mature foetus, the testicle, together with the spermatic cord, passes 
 out from the abdominal cavity into the inguinal canal, and thence, 
 into the scrotum. At birth the annul, inguinal, intern, and 
 extern, lie close behind one another. 
 
 261. Linea alba is the white stripe found in the central line of 
 the abdominal parietes, in which the aponeuroses of the lateral 
 abdominal muscles are associated together (or decussate, Velpeau), 
 which passes downwards from Proc. ensiform. as far as Symph. 
 pubis, between the mm. recti, above the umbilicus 3 to 2'", at it 
 ", below it 1'" broad. The navel ring, annulus umbilicalis, is 
 a large (rhombic, Velpeau) opening in about [below] the centre, 
 through which in the (new-born) infant the umbilical vessels (fre- 
 quently also portions of intestine) pass. On the anterior surface 
 the white line is stretched by the m. pyramidalis; on the pos- 
 terior surface it is strengthened by the lig. triangulare s. admini-' 
 culum lin. albas, the apex upwards. 
 
 Nerves: (first to the third) intercostaks, lumbaks, iliohypogastricus. 
 
 262. 4. Rectus abdominis. 
 
 Pos. : close to [the outer side of] the linea alba [on the inside 
 of linea semilunaris, a curved tendinous line, extending from the 
 cartilage of the eighth rib to the tuberosity of the os pubis], in 
 the very strong vagina recto-abdominalis. Fig. : elongated, flat, 
 with two to six tendinous transverse striaB, inscriptiones tendinse. 
 Or. : Symph. oss. pubis (with two tendons). Ins. : fifth to seventh 
 rib cartilages (anterior surfaces), Proc. ensiformis. Use : to 
 compress the abdominal viscera ; to draw the sternum and the 
 fifth to seventh ribs downwards (exspiratio), or, to flex the pelvis. 
 
152 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 263. 5. Pyramidalis abdominis. 
 
 Pos. : before the inferior extremity of the preceding muscle, 
 close to the linea alba, covered by the anterior layer of its sheath. 
 Or. : Symphys. pubis (the superior border) ; broad. Ins. : Linea 
 alba, between umbilicus andsymphysis; pointed. Use: to stretch 
 linea alba. 
 
 Nerves : (fourth to fifth) iliohypogastricus. 
 
 264. 6. Cremaster s. tunica erythroides. 
 
 Pos. : in front and on the side of the spermatic cord (in the 
 canal inguinalis) ; thin, long. Or. : Spina pubis and M. obliq. 
 intern. Ins.: Tunica vaginal, commun.funical. sperm, et tes- 
 ticuli. Use : to draw the testicle upwards, pressing the spermatic 
 cord. 
 
 265. 7. Quadratus lumborum. 
 
 Pos. : along the lumbar vertebrae, in a strong tendinous sheath, 
 behind the kidneys, the colon, psoas and diaphragm muscles ; 
 between the Ilium and last rib ; covered behind by the tendon 
 of trans versalis. Or.: 1. Crista ilei labium intern, (the posterior 
 part); 2" broad; 2. Lig. ileo-lumbale; 3. Proc. transv. of the 
 lumbar vertebrae. Ins. : twelfth rib the inferior border of the 
 posterior extremity. Use : to draw the twelfth rib downwards 
 (exspiratio) ; inclining the vertebral column sideways, or the 
 pelvis. 
 
 Nerves: lumbaks. 
 
 266. 8. Diaphragma. 
 
 This is the transverse, muscular, dome-shaped, vaulted partition 
 which separates the thoracic from the ventral cavity. It is ten- 
 dinous in the centre (pars tendinea), fleshy in the periphery (p. 
 carnosa), which is attached to the ribs (p. costal.) and to the 
 lumbar vertebrae (p. lumbal.). 
 
 Attachments : a. the bodies of the second to the fourth lumbar 
 vertebrae (anterior surface). 
 
 b. Sternum and Proc. ensiform.; cartilage of the seventh to 
 the twelfth ribs (posterior surface). 
 
 a. Pars lumbalis consists of six (three on each side) crura. 
 
 a. Crura internet, strong, arise from the third to the fourth lumbar vertebrae ; 
 between them lies: 
 
 act. Hiatus aorticus (for aorta, ductus thoracicus, vena azygos), 3" long, \" 
 broad, rather to the left of the central line. 
 
 The internal crura cross each other before the parts above mentioned, and 
 in this way form the 
 
 &B. Foramen ccsophageum for the (oesophagus, nn. vagi, and continuation of 
 
THE MUSCLES. 153 
 
 the pleura), 2" long, 3 to 4"' broad. The crura then pass into the tendinous 
 centre. 
 
 B. Crura Media arising from the sides of the second lumbar vertebra, or 
 from lig. intervertebrale, uniting above with the internal and external crura, 
 passing into the centr. tendin. become perforated by N. splanchnicus minor. 
 Between the central and internal crura pass through : Nn. splanchnid maj. 
 between the central and external: Nn. sympatkici, Vena hemiazygos upon the 
 left and Vena azygos sometimes upon the right side. 
 
 y. Crura externa, very short, arise from the first lumbar vert, (side of the 
 body) ; are united with lig. vertebro-costale before m. psoas, and quadrat, lumb^ 
 losing themselves in the Centr. tendineum. 
 
 b. Pars costalis (and sternalis), see under "Attachments." 
 Upon either side six fleshy heads from the rib cartilages and two 
 from the Proc. ensiformis pass inwards towards the Cent, ten- 
 dineum, which on the four inferior ribs are connected with m. 
 transv. abdom. Quite in front is found a small triangular inter- 
 space in which the Pleura and Peritonaeum come in contact. 
 
 c. Centrum tendineum s. speculum Helmontii, the central ten- 
 dinous portion, in shape like a trefoil leaf, is the most elevated 
 portion of the diaphragm, on a level with the fifth rib (at the 
 sternum), on the right side (over the liver) arched. In it, to the 
 right of the central line, we find the/oram. quadriloterum (I to 
 l" diam.), through which aperture the V. cava inferior ascends 
 from the liver to the right ventricle of the heart, and the pleura 
 and peritonaeum come in contact. 
 
 The superior (thoracic) surface, which in the fo3tus is much 
 more vaulted than after birth, when the lungs have fairly respired, 
 is covered by Pleura and Pericardium, and serves for the support 
 of the lungs and heart. 
 
 The inferior surface is covered by peritonaeum, except at the 
 point corresponding to the obtuse border of the liver (lig. coronar. 
 hepat.}. On the right lies the liver, left the spleen and fundus of 
 the stomach. 
 
 Use: the diaphragm, as it contracts, widens the thoracic and 
 diminishes the abdominal cavity. Thus in inspiration and in the 
 evacuation of the contents of the intestines. 
 
 Nerves : phrenicus, branches of Vagus, lumbal^ intercostal^ sympathicus. 
 
 Fasciae Jlbdominales. 
 
 267. 1. Fascia superficialis abdominis covers the anterior 
 surface of the abdominal muscles, is thin upon the fleshy parts, 
 firmly attached and thick upon the tendinous, particularly below 
 the navel, consists of fibre-cellular tissue interwoven with tendi- 
 nous and elastic fibres ; passing before the annul, abdomin. over 
 the spermatic cord into the Scrotum, it goes to join the fasc. 
 femor. superficialis. 
 
154 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 268. 2. Fasc. transv. abdominis mounts upwards from lig. 
 Poupartii between the abdominal muscles and peritonaeum; is 
 below, particularly at the lig. Gimbernati, the strongest where a 
 posterior layer (from the spina pubis as far as the internal bound- 
 ary of the internal inguinal ring) ascends almost vertically, whilst 
 an anterior layer passes obliquely outwards and upwards, and 
 forms the external boundary of the internal inguinal ring. (On 
 account of the strength of this fascia internal [direct] inguinal 
 herniae are rare.) 
 
 269. 3. Vagina m. recti, passes outwards from the linea 
 alba, encloses both recti abdom., splits at their external border, 
 receives between the divisions the mm,, obliq. extern., intern., 
 :md transv., and passes over intofasc. transv ersalis. The pos- 
 terior layer above (before the rib cartilages) and below becomes 
 somewhat separated, and terminates in the- centre between the 
 navel and symphysis, with a border concave below, linea semi- 
 circular. Douglasii. 
 
 VI. Muscles of Anus and Perineum. 
 Mm. ano-perinseales. 
 
 270. 1. Sphincter ani (externus et internus}. 
 
 Pos. : oval, round about the inferior extremity of the rectum ; 
 about one inch high. Sphincter ani internus is nothing but the 
 last (white) circle of the muscular fibres of the rectum. Or. : 
 1. The lowest circle, that is externus before the coccyx from the 
 fibro-cellular tissue beneath the skin; 2. The superior circle from 
 the fibrous membrane at the apex of the coccyx. Ins.: 1. In 
 the subcutaneous fibro-cellular tissue, pointed. 2. The fibrous 
 raphe on the anterior boundary of the rectum. Use : closes the 
 anus, and assists the urethra, compressing it behind. 
 
 271. 2. Transversus perin&i (superjicialis et profundus). 
 Pos. : nearly transverse before the anus, close above the skin, 
 
 behind levator ani; forms the posterior border of a triangle the 
 external border of which is m. ischio-, the internal bulbo-cavern- 
 osus. It covers the bulbus urethra above. Perin. superfic. is 
 the posterior; profundus the anterior portion. Or.: tuber Ischii 
 (internal surface close below iscliio-cavernosus}. Ins.: tuber 
 Ischii, the other side connected with sphincter ani and bulbo- 
 cavernosus. Use: presses the anterior wall of the rectum to- 
 wards the posterior, as in defaecation. 
 
 272. 3. Coccygeus s. ischio-coccygeus. 
 
 Pos. : flat, triangular at the inferior extremity of the pelvis ; 
 covered by M. glutseus max. at the post, border of the m. leva- 
 
THE MUSCLES. 155 
 
 tor am, with which it forms the floor of the pelvis. Or. : ten- 
 dinous from Spina Ischii and lig. spinos o-sacrum. Ins. : Os 
 coccygis (border and anterior surface), Os sacrum (apex). Use: 
 assists in bending the coccyx forwards ; both acting together fix 
 it (in ejection of the semen). 
 
 273. 4. Curvator coccygis. 
 
 Pos. : upon the anterior surface of the coccyx, mostly tendi- 
 nous. Or. : from the sides of the apex of the os sacrum. Ins.: 
 apex of coccyx. Use : to bend the coccyx. 
 
 274. 5. Extensor coccygis. 
 
 Pos. : upon the posterior surface of the coccyx, mostly tendi- 
 nous. Or. : from the apex of os sacrum spin, ilei poster, infer. 
 Use : to draw the coccyx backwards. 
 
 275. 6. Lev at or Jlni. 
 
 Pos. : before the preceding muscle, anteriorly narrow, behind 
 broad ; four-sided ; covered by fascia pelvis ; below, by sphincter 
 anij and behind by M. glutseus max. ; before, by M. obturator 
 intern. Between the anterior borders of the two decussating 
 muscles and the pubic arch a longitudinal fissure remains, through 
 which the urinary and genital organs pass out. Or. : 1. ramus 
 descend, pubis (internal surface), as far as, 2. Spina Ischii. 
 Ins.: 1. the sides of the Prostata, urinary bladder, and the 
 Rectum. 2. the apex of the coccyx as far as sphincter ani. M. 
 pub o-urethr alis, a thin fasciculus which passes to the urethra. 
 Use : draws the anus backwards and upwards, expands it (in the 
 act of defecation), likewise the coccyx, contracting the pelvic 
 outlet. [Or. : from a fibrous cord extending from the body of 
 the Pubis to the spine of the Ischium.~] 
 
 276. 7. Ischio-cavernosus, s. erector penis, s. clitoridis. 
 Pos.: close to the ram. ascendens oss. ischii; covered below 
 
 by fibro-cellular tissue, above by corp. cavernosum; internally 
 lies M. bulbo-cavernosus, separated from it by a triangular space. 
 Or. : tuber ischii and ram. ascendens. Ins. : Corp. cavernosum 
 penis; to the entire length of the Crus. Use: presses the root 
 of the Penis against the bones, maintaining the already erect organ 
 in a direction forwards ; does not compress, but widens the root 
 of Corp. cavernosum penis. 
 
 277. 8. Bulbo-cavernosus s. accelerator urinx [s. ejaculator 
 
 seminis']. 
 Pos. : before the anus, below and along the bulbus and the 
 
156 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 portio spongiosa of the urethra, which it surrounds like a kind 
 of sheath, below covered by the skin of the perinaeum. The in- 
 ternal borders of the two muscles meet together. Or. : lig. perin. 
 triangular., sides of bulbus and cor/?, cavern, urethrse, and penis. 
 Ins.: Corp. cavernosum urethras; pubo-cavernosus s. levator 
 penis, anterior portion of bulbo-cavernosus ; sometimes appears, 
 isolated, between the lig. suspensor penis and the perinaeal mus- 
 cles. 
 
 [The fibres of the larger portion of this muscle form a canal through which 
 the bulbus corp. spong. and a portion of corp. spongiosum urethrsB pass. The 
 origin of this portion of the muscle is the tendinous layer between Corp. 
 spongiosum and the under surface of corpora cavernosa, whence the fibres de- 
 scend, embracing the sides of the spongy body and bulb, and unite below in 
 the central line or raphe, which posteriorly consists of very condensed tissue. 
 The fibres of the smaller portion arise from the pubes by the sides of the lig. 
 suspensor penis, and, descending upon the outer borders of the crura penis, 
 from which likewise a few fibres arise, they unite in the middle line of, and 
 beneath, the corp. spongiosum urethra anterior to the fibres of the larger por- 
 tion. The posterior extremity of the muscular tube is applied to the anterior 
 surface of the deep perinaeal fascia. TRANS/] 
 
 Use: to compress the bulb, urethrse and corp. cavernosum 
 urethrse, to contract the canal of the urethra, urging forward the 
 urine or semen by jerks, or restraining their passage. 
 
 278. 9. Constrictor cunni s. vaginas. 
 
 Pos. : circular around the entrance into the Vagina. Or. : M. 
 sphincter ani and transv. perinsei. Ins.: Crura clitoridis (in- 
 ferior surface). Use: to contract the Vagina. [Or.: from the 
 under surface of crura clitoridis meeting below, after having em- 
 braced the sides of the vagina and nymphsR.~] 
 
 279. 10. Constrictor urethrse. 
 
 Pos.: below lig. perinssale about the pars memb. urethras. 
 Between it and transv. perin. (profund.), the glands of Cowper. 
 Or.: os Ischii (ram. ascendens). Ins.: isthmus urethras (sides). 
 Use : to compress, and shorten the membranous portion of the 
 urethra. 
 
 280. 11. Vesicalis s. depressor vesicse. 
 
 Pos.: at the inferior part of the urinary bladder. Or.: a. lig. 
 pubo-vesicale ; b. lig. ischio-prostaticum. Ins. : close above the 
 Prostate on the anterior and lateral surfaces of the bladder. Use : 
 to draw the bladder downwards (for example, while making water 
 in recumbent position). 
 
 Nerves of anal and perinaeal muscles : pudend. common, and fuemorrkoid. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 157 
 
 281. Fascia perinaei. 
 
 The general subcutaneous fascia is connected before with Tu- 
 nica dartos (or the fibro-cellular tissue of the labia), behind with 
 the sphincter ani and coccyx ; is near the anus membranous, 
 contains fat, and is placed over the fossa perinxi. 
 
 282. a. The proper perinaeal fascia (f. p. superficial.} has an 
 anterior and a posterior segment. 
 
 1. Anterior segment (aponeur. ischio-pubica), from arcus pubis 
 of the Ischium and pubis as far as tuber ischii, covers in the 
 male : m. transv. (superf.), ischio-cavern., and bulbo-cavernos., 
 and passes over anteriorly upon the Penis ; in the female it di- 
 vides anteriorly, covers with the internal layer the constrictor 
 vaginx, reaches in the labium min. as far as the clitoris; the ex- 
 ternal lies in the entire length of the labia majora. 
 
 2. Posterior segment (apon. ischio-rectalis) connected in front 
 with, 1. ; covers the fossa perinsei ; the internal layer covers the 
 external surface of the lev. and sphincter ani; the external the 
 posterior part of the obturator intern., and confined below to the 
 tuber ischii, lig. tuberoso-sacrum and glut&us maximus. 
 
 Fossa perinaei [Ischio-rectal fossa], a conical fossa, the base of 
 which corresponds with the skin, is formed, anteriorly, by transv. 
 perin., behind by the inferior border of glutseus maximus, inter- 
 nally by levator ani, externally by tuber Ischii. It is filled up 
 with fat and fibrous stria?. 
 
 283. b. Lig. perinseale, s. fascia perinsei profunda, a three- 
 sided ligament ; closes the anterior portion of the pelvic outlet (as, 
 levat. ani the posterior), is perforated by the urethra; arises from 
 os Pubis and Ischium, between lig. arcuatum (in front) and m. 
 ischio-cavernos. (behind) ; below nerv. and art. penis. The an- 
 terior portion, covered with venous plexuses, lies above and at the 
 sides of pars membran. urethrse (presenting an obstruction in 
 catheterism) ; the posterior portion lies below the urethra. ; 
 
 284. c. Fascia pelvis lines the cavity of the small pelvis. 
 Or. : close before arcus pubis ligamentous (lig. pubo-vesicale), 
 inch from that of the other side, so that an oval fossa remains 
 between the ligaments and collum vesicse, where they unite ; far- 
 ther, from pars horizontal, of os pubis; at the superior angle of 
 
 for. obturator, an opening remains (for nerv. and vasa obtura- 
 tor.) ; then from linea arcuata as far as to symphys. sacro-iliaca. 
 Ins.: as far as the origin of lev. ani single; it then divides ; the 
 anterior portion passing on the side of the urinary bladder, Pros- 
 tate (vagina), and rectum; the posterior, behind the rectum, to 
 the middle line, as far as the os coccygis. 
 
158 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 VII. Muscles of the Upper Extremity. 
 A. On the Scapula. 
 
 285. 1. Deltoideus, Jlttollens humeri. 
 
 Pos. : envelopes like a cap the head of the upper arm and its 
 superior third ; beneath the skin ; anterior, external to and behind 
 the shoulder joint, separated from it by a tendinous layer; covers 
 the tendons of pectoral, major and minor, coraco-brachialis, 
 biceps, infraspinatus, teres minor, triceps brachii, Vasa et Nn. 
 circumflexi humeri. The anterior border is separated from the 
 external border of pectoral, major by Vena cephalica. Or. : 
 Spina scapulas, Jlcromion, Pars acromialis claviculse (as M. 
 cucullaris]. Ins.: with three tendons to the extremity of Spina 
 tuberc. majoris oss. humeri, almost in its centre. Use: 1. the 
 central fibres raise the arm directly outwards and upwards ; 2. 
 the anterior forwards; 3. the posterior backwards. The arms 
 being fixed (as in climbing), it draws the scapulae towards them. 
 Antagonist: m. cucullaris. 
 Nerves: axittaris [drcumflexus]. 
 
 286. 2. Supraspinatus. 
 
 Pos. : in ihe fossa supraspinata, below lig. coraco-acromiale, 
 over the roof of the shoulder joint, covered by M. trapezius ; 
 above Vasa and Nn. supra scapular es. Or. : fossa supraspinata 
 (the two internal thirds). Ins. : tuber culum majus (at the highest 
 point). The tendon is connected with the articular capsule, sepa- 
 rated from that of m. subscapularis by cap. long, bicipitis. Use. : 
 assists in elevation of the arm and rotation outwards. 
 
 Nerves : suprascapularis. 
 
 287. 3. Infraspinatus. 
 
 Pos. : below the spine on the posterior surface of the scapula, 
 covered by latissimus dor si, cucullaris, and deltoid., and a strong 
 fascia. Or. : fossa infraspinata (the entire surface). Ins. : 1u- 
 berculum majus (the central fossa) ; connected with supraspin. 
 and teres minor. Use : to rotate the arm outwards. 
 
 Nerves: suprascapular. 
 
 288. 4. Teres Minor. 
 
 Pos. : on the external border of the scapula, behind the Cap. 
 long. m. tricipitis, before Vasa and Nn. scapular, super, above 
 upon the capsule of the shoulder, covered by deltoid. Or. : mar go 
 
THE MUSCLES. 159 
 
 externus scapula (behind), united with the preceding muscle. 
 Ins. : tuberculum majus (inferior fossa) ; vertical, strong tendon, 
 1" broad. Use : like the preceding ; to draw the arm backwards, 
 and lower it, if raised ; prevents the escape of the head of the hu- 
 merus backwards. 
 
 Nerves: axittaris [circumflexus], 
 
 289. 5. Teres Major. 
 
 Pos. : at the inferior external border of the preceding muscle, 
 before Cap. long, tricipitis ; assists in forming the posterior border 
 of the axillary fossa. Or. : Margo extern, and Angul. inferius 
 Scapulse, united with latissimus dorsi. Ins. : Spina tuberculi 
 minoris ; two inches broad, behind the tendon of latissimus. 
 Use : to rotate the arm inwards, drawing it backwards towards 
 the central line (like ani sculptor). 
 
 Nerves: axillar. and suprascapularis. 
 
 290. 6. Subscapularis. 
 
 Pos. : on the anterior surface of Scapula, between the external 
 third of which and it; cellular tissue and Vasa and Nn. subsca- 
 pulares. Before it: M. serratus ant. magn., Vasa and Nn. axil- 
 lares, Mm. coraco-brachial. and deltoides. Or. : fossa scapularis 
 (two-thirds of the surface). Ins. : tuberculum minus oss. humeri. 
 Its tendon glides in the concavity of Proc. coracoid., between 
 the tendons of M. biceps and coraco-brachialis, as in a pulley. 
 Use : to rotate the arm inwards, drawing it downwards. 
 
 Nerves: subscapulares. 
 
 Fasciae Scapulae. 
 
 291. 1. F. supraspinata, is firmly attached to the borders 
 of the fossa supraspinata, encloses the muscle, and loses itself 
 externally beneath rfcromion and Proc. coracoideus. 
 
 2. F. infraspinata, fixed to the borders of fossa infraspin., 
 covers and separates the Mm. infraspinal., teres minor and 
 major ; loses itself externally in the/, brachialis, since a super- 
 ficial layer covers M. deltoideus, a deep, the tendon of M. infra- 
 spinatus, and attaches itself to the tendon of Caput breve m. bici- 
 pitis. 
 
 3. F. subscapularis ; covers the muscle of the same name, 
 and is connected on the borders of fossa subscapularis with the 
 preceding and with/, lumbo-dorsalis. 
 
160 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 B. Muscles of the Upper Arm. 
 a. Regio humeri anterior. 
 
 292. 1. iceps brachii (flexor radii). 
 
 Position : on the anterior internal surface of the upper arm ; the 
 heads on the outer side of the axilla, betwoen pectoral, major and 
 deltoid before, latissim. dor si and teres major behind ; the long 
 head before m. subscapular. Behind its belly : Nerv. musculo- 
 cutan., M. coraco-brachial., brachial. internus; along the internal 
 border: Art., Vv. brachiales, Nerv. medianus. Or.: 1. Caput 
 longum cavit. glenoid. scapul. (at the upper edge). 2. Cap. 
 breve Proc. coracoideus (apex). Ins.: tuberositas radii; the 
 tendon is surrounded by Supinator brevis; an aponeurosis 
 passes over from it into the fascia cubiti. Use : to flex and 
 draw the fore-arm rather inwards ; stretches the fascia anti- 
 brachii. 
 
 293. 2. Brachialis internus, flexor of the elbow. 
 
 Pos. : behind the last muscle ; upon the inner border : N. Me- 
 dian., Art. brachial., below M. pronator teres; on the outer 
 border: 'N. radialis and M. supinator longus. 
 
 Or. : Os humeri (inner surface) ; surrounding the insertion of 
 M. deltoideus. Ins. : Proc. coronoideus ulnae. 
 
 Use : flexes the fore-arm, and draws it rather outwards. 
 
 294. 3. Coraco-brachialis (s. perforatus Casserii}. 
 
 Pos. : above, under deltoideus, in the centre between pectoral, 
 maj. and latissim. dorsi, below at a similar elevation as the ten- 
 don of deltoideus ; covers above, Art. axillar. and brachial., Nn. 
 medianus and musculo-cut., lies below to the outer side of Art. 
 brachialis. Or. : Proc. coracoideus (apex). Ins. : Os humeri 
 (inner border and centre) between anconxus quartus [short head 
 of triceps] and brachial. internus. Use: presses the scapula and 
 humerus towards one another ; assists in drawing the arm to the 
 chest. Antagonist to the rotators. 
 
 Nerves : (first to third) musculo cutaneus. 
 
 b. Regio humeri posterior. 
 
 295. 4. Triceps (s. brachialis externus, s. anconseus magnus). 
 
 Pos. : on the posterior external surface of the upper arm, sepa- 
 rated from the skin byfasc. brachialis, covers the nerv. radialis 
 
THE MUSCLES. 161 
 
 and art. humeri profunda. The long head lies before M. deltoid. 
 and teres minor, behind M. subscapularis, teres major, latissim. 
 dor si. Or. : 1. Caput longum from external border of Scapula, 
 close beneath the articular fossa ; between teres major and minor. 
 2. Cap. externum from the external border of humerus to below 
 the centre. 3. Cap. internum from the internal border ; as far 
 almost .as the condyle. Ins.: Olecranon (posterior surface and 
 lateral borders). Use : to extend the fore-arm. 
 Nerves : axillar., radialis. 
 
 296. 5. Ancon&us parvus. 
 
 Pos. : behind the elbow, short, triangular, continuation of Cap. 
 extern., M. tricipitis. Or. : close behind Condylus externus 
 humeri. Ins. : the superior external third of the Ulna. Use : 
 to extend the fore-arm. 
 
 Nerves: radialis. 
 
 297. 6. Subanconseus (of Theile). 
 
 A thin muscular fasciculus. Or.: above the fossa inter condyl. 
 poster. Ins. : Capsule of the elbow articulation. Use : to stretch 
 the capsule. 
 
 298. Fascia brachialis s. humeri, arises, above, from Clavi- 
 cula, Jlcromion, and Spina scapulse, internally, from the tendons 
 of pect. major, and latissim. dor si and the uniting tissue of the 
 axilla, envelopes the arm and terminates at the articulation of the 
 elbow. It consists almost entirely of circular fibres. The exter- 
 nal surface is separated from the skin by vessels and nerves which 
 the fascia provides with sheaths. 
 
 From the internal surface two septa (ligg. intermuscularia) 
 pass off, which separate the flexor from the extensor muscles 
 (anconaei), and are attached to the external and internal angles of 
 the upper arm. 
 
 299. Lig. intermuscul. externum arises from the anterior 
 border of the bicipital groove, and from the tendon of Deltoideus, 
 separating the brachialis intern, from the triceps; is perforated 
 by nerv. radialis and art brachial. profunda, which, at their 
 commencement, run in the posterior, then in the anterior region 
 of the arm. Lig. intermuscul. intern, by nerv. ulnaris, which 
 runs first before, then behind it. The particular sheaths which 
 pass off from these two large ones are : 
 
 1. For M. deltoideus, arises from the posterior border of bi- 
 cipital groove below teres major, and from the tendon of coraco- 
 brachialis; is thicker and triangular. 2. Sheath between M. 
 biceps and brachialis intern. 3. Canalis brachialis, for Vasa 
 11 
 
162 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 brachialia and nerv. medianus, forming on the inner side, below 
 the centre of the upper arm a semihmar fissure, receives Ven. 
 basilica and Nn. ulnaris and cutaneus intern., and connects the 
 uniting tissue of the axilla with that at the bend of the elbow. 
 4. Sheath for caput long. m. tricipitis at the superior half. It 
 is stretched by m. pectoral, maj. and latissim. dorsi. 
 
 B. Muscles of the Fore-arm. 
 
 a. On the anterior or flexor surface. 
 
 a. First layer. 
 
 300. 1. Pronator radii teres. 
 
 Pos. : oblique from above to below, from within to without; 
 external to M. palmar, long, and flex. carp, radialis ; covered 
 by N. median, and Art. ulnaris. Or. : Condylus internus hu- 
 meri and ulnar border of coronoid process] ; externally M. bra- 
 chialis intern, and biceps. Ins. : Centre of the radius (in front 
 and on outside) covered by M. supinator longus. Use : rotates 
 the radius inwards. [Nerv. median, perforates the muscle.] 
 
 Nerves : medianus. 
 
 301. 2. Flexor carpi radialis (s. radialis internus). 
 
 Pos. : next to the last described muscle, internally ; with a 
 strong tendon projecting out beneath the skin, on its external bor- 
 der the Art. radialis (Pulse). Or.: Condyl. intern, humeri ; 
 internal to M. pronat. teres. Ins. : Basis of os. metacarp. II. 
 Use: to flex the hand towards the radial side. 
 
 Nerves: medianus. 
 
 302. 3. Palmaris longus (sometimes wanting). 
 
 Pos. : the spindle-shaped belly in a groove upon flex, digitor. 
 sublim., and close to the last muscle, internally, with a long su- 
 perficial tendon in a strong sheath. Or. : Condyl. intern, humeri. 
 Ins. : Aponeurosis palmaris. Use : stretches the aponeurosis 
 palmaris and flexes the hand. 
 
 Nerves : medianus. 
 
 303. 4. Flexor carpi ulnaris (s. ulnaris internus). 
 
 Pos. : on the inner border of the Ulna. Art. ulnaris at first 
 beneath it, then along the outer border of its tendon. Or. : Condyl. 
 intern, humeri, and Olecranon (internal border ; beneath it nerv. 
 ulnaris). Ins.: Os pisiforme. Use: to flex the hand towards 
 the ulnar side. 
 
 Nerves: ulnaris. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 163 
 
 0. Second layer. 
 
 304 5. Flexor digitorum communis sublimis (s. perforatus). 
 
 Pos.: beneath the four muscles last described. Covers the 
 following muscle and nerv. medianus ; passes under Lig. carpi 
 volar. propr. The four tendons are perforated in the region of 
 the first phalanx by those of the following muscle. Or. : 1 . 
 Condyl. intern, hum. 2. Inner side of Proc. coronoid. Ulnss. 
 3. interior border of Radius. Ins. : Lateral surfaces of Pha- 
 lanx II. of the second to the fifth finger. Use : to flex the 
 second phalanx of the second to the fifth finger. 
 
 y. Third layer. 
 
 305. 6. Flexor digitorum communis profundus (s.perforans). 
 Pos.: beneath the before mentioned muscles, covering the 
 
 Ulna, in the palm of the hand, the Mm. interossei and adductor 
 pollicis. Or.: 1. Jlngulus intern. Ulnae (above and internally). 
 2. Lig. interosseum (two-thirds). Ins. : Basis Phalang. III. 
 of the second to the fifth finger. Use : to flex the ungual pha- 
 lanx of the second to the fifth finger. 
 Nerves : (5) medianus, (6) median, [et ttlnaris]. 
 
 306. 7. Flexor Pollicis longus. 
 
 Pos. : external and close to the last muscle ; covers the radius 
 and lig. inteross. Or. : 1. Mar go intern. Radii (three-fourths). 
 2. Lig. interosseum: Ins, : Basis Phalang. II. of the thumb. 
 Use : to flex the ungual phalanx of thumb. 
 
 Nerves : interosseous internus. 
 
 S. Fourth layer. 
 
 307. 8. Pronator quadratus. 
 
 Pos. : at the inferior extremity of the anterior surface of the 
 forearm, close upon the bones, beneath Jlrtt. radialis and ulnaris. 
 Or. : Angul. intern. Ulnx (the lower fourth). Ins. : angul. 
 anticus et Marg. intern. Radii. Use : rotates the inferior ex- 
 tremity of the radius upon the ulna, thus pronates the hand. 
 
 Nerves : interosseous internus. 
 
 b. Muscles upon the outer surface of the fore-arm. 
 
 308. 9. Supinator longus s. brachio-radialis. 
 
 Pos. : between the volar and dorsal surface of the arm ; in the 
 upper arm, internal and close to it, brachial. intern., separated 
 by nerv. radial., then upon it ; covered by the skin, upon pronat. 
 teres,flex. pollic. long., along the inner border, upon the fore- 
 
164 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 arm, Art. radial., which commences beneath it. Or.: \.Marg. 
 extern, oss. humeri (inferior one-fourth). 2. Li g. inter muscular. 
 and Condyl. extern. Ins. : Basis proc. styloid. Radii. Use : 
 rotates the radius outwards until, at last, it rather flexes the fore- 
 arm. 
 
 Nerves : radialis, inteross. extern. 
 
 309. 10. Extensor carpi radialis longus (s. radialis 
 
 externus longus). 
 
 Pos. : For two-thirds of its length covered above by the last 
 muscle, above and upon the carpus by M. abductor and extensor 
 pollic. long., on its inner edge passes Art. radial. Or. : Angul. 
 externus humeri Lig. inter musculare externum. Ins. : Os 
 Metacarpi II. (Basis, dorsal surface). 
 
 310. 11. Extensor carpi radialis brevis. 
 
 Pos. : beneath the last muscle, covers the outer surface of the 
 Radius; to the inner side of m. extensor digit, commun. Or. : 
 1. Condylus extern, humeri. 2. Fascia cubiti. Ins. : Os me- 
 tacarpi HI. (Basis, dorsal surface). Use : to extend, like the 
 former muscle, the hand, and draw it towards the radial side 
 (that is, it abducts it). 
 
 Nerves : (tenth and eleventh) radial, superfic. and profound. 
 
 311. 12. Supinator brevis. 
 
 Pos. : broad, on the superior half of the radius, winding around 
 it, obliquely from above downwards ; beneath anconseus parvus, 
 extensor digit, commun. and carpi ulnar. Or. : 1 . Lig. laterale 
 extern. 2. Margo extern. Ulnse (below fossa sigmoid.). Ins.: 
 Radius (anterior inner surface one half). Use : rotates the upper 
 half of the radius outwards. 
 
 Nerves: inteross. extern. [This muscle is perforated by a branch of the 
 radio-spiral nerve.] 
 
 c. Muscles upon the dorsal surface, 
 a. Superficial layer. 
 
 312. 13. Extensor digitorum communis. 
 
 Pos. : between m. extens. carpi radial, breve and ulnaris, 
 covers M. supinat. brevis, abduct, long, and brevis, extensor 
 long, pollicis, extens. indicis, the back of the carpus, the meta- 
 carpus, and fingers. Or. : Condyl. extern, humeri. Ins. : Pha- 
 lang. II. and III. of the second to the fifth finger ; four tendons, 
 each of which divides into three portions. The tendon of the 
 second finger is more free than the rest. Use : to extend the 
 second, third, fourth, and fifth fingers. 
 
 Nerves : inteross. extern, and radial, dorsal. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 165 
 
 313. 14. Extensor digiti minimi proprius. 
 
 Pos. : internal and close to the former, to the outer side of the 
 following muscle. Or.: united with the former muscle from 
 Condyl. extern. Ins. : united with the tendon of the M. extens. 
 commun. on the fifth finger. Use : assists in extending the fifth 
 finger. This muscle is often wanting. 
 
 314. 15. Extensor carpi ulnaris (s. ulnaris externus}. 
 
 Pos. : on the ulnar border, covers the Ulna, M. supinat. brevis, 
 and the deep layer. Or. : Condylus externus humeri and the 
 Ulna (the central third of the posterior border). Ins. : Basis 
 oss. metacarpi V. Use : to extend the metacarpus and draw 
 (adduct) it rather inwards. 
 
 /3. Deep layer. 
 
 315. 16. Abductor pollicis longus [Extens. primi internodii}. 
 Pos. : the most external, covered by extens. com., upon lig. 
 
 inteross., Radius, the tendons of Mm. extens. radial, and the 
 outer side of the carpus. Or. : 1. Crista ulnse (below supinator 
 brevis) on the second fourth. 2. Lig. inteross. and Radius (pos- 
 terior surface). Ins. : Basis oss. metacarp. I., the free tendon in 
 a sheath. Use : to draw the thumb from the other fingers ; assists 
 in extending the hand and drawing it backwards. 
 
 316. 17. Extensor.pollicis brevis [Ext. secundi internodii^. 
 Pos. : internal, and close to the former muscle, only separated 
 
 from it by a tendinous sheath. Or. : 1. Jlngulus extern. Ulnse. [?] 
 2. Lig. inteross. and Radius. Ins. : Basis Phalang. I. pol- 
 licis. Use : to extend the first phalanx, and then abduct the Os 
 metacarpi I. 
 
 317. 18. Extensor pollicis longus [Ext. tertii internodii}. 
 Pos. : between abduct, longus and extens. brevis pollic. Its 
 
 tendon crosses over extens. radiall. (tendons), and is, on the car- 
 pus, separated from the tendon of abductor longus by a fossa. 
 Or. : Ulna (external surface, inferior half) and lig. inteross. Ins. : 
 Basis phalang. II. pollicis. Use : extends the ungual phalanx 
 of the thumb. 
 
 318. 19. Extensor indicis proprius. 
 
 Pos. : along the inner border of the former muscle, below it 
 and m. extens. carpi ulnar. and digit, commun. Or. : Ulna (ex- 
 ternal angle, middle) and lig. inteross. Ins. : the inner side of 
 the tendon of extens. comm. of second finger, on the second and 
 third phalanx. Use : to extend the index finger. 
 
 Nerv. (fourteenth to nineteenth) interosseus externus. 
 
166 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 319. Fascia antibrachii s. vagina cubiti, passes off from the 
 f. brachii, enveloping the entire fore-arm as far as the Crista ulnss, 
 
 serving at the upper part more especially for the attachment of 
 muscles. Fibrous striae serve to strengthen it which come off 
 behind, from the triceps, on the outside, from brachial intern., 
 and in front and internally from biceps, as well as those from the 
 condyles of the Humerus. Aponeurosis bicipitis passes over 
 pronator ter.es like a bridge at the bend of the arm, from the outer 
 border and the anterior surface of Biceps tendon, inwards and 
 downwards ; covering art. brachialis. Besides several vascular 
 and nervous openings, one should be observed in the fascia anti- 
 brachii at the bend of the arm (on the outer border of aponeurosis 
 bicipitis), through which the uniting tissue beneath the skin com- 
 municates with that under the fascia, and which leads to a fossa 
 in which the following parts are situated : Tendon of m. biceps, 
 Art. brachialis, commencement of Art. radial., Nerv, medianus. 
 The fossa is formed : on the outside by supinator long., extensores 
 carpi radial., flexor sublimis; on the inside by pronator teres; 
 and communicates above with the canal of the Art. brachial., 
 below with those of the Art. radial., ulnaris, interossea, and 
 Nerv. medianus. In consequence of the attachment of the f. 
 antibrachii to the internal angle of Radius and the internal sur- 
 face of Ulna, a sheath arises from the muscles of the Volar and 
 another for those of the Dorsal surface, and besides, by inversions, 
 sheaths for the individual muscles. -At the Carpal articulation it 
 forms, 
 
 320. a. Lig. carpi volare; arises internally, 1. from Os pisi- 
 forme, 2. from Os hamatum, and continues externally, as it passes 
 
 over befor the Volar surface of the carpus, to the Os naviculare 
 and Trapezium. Behind it lie, with one (or two) synovial cap- 
 sules, the nine tendons of the flexor muscles and nerv. medianus 
 in one bundle. Its superficial layer, lig. carpi volare commune, 
 is thin, its deep layer, lig. carpi volare proprium, strong. From 
 both the aponeurosis palmaris springs. 
 
 321. b. Lig. carpi dorsale commune, very fibrous, passes 
 obliquely from crista radii over the radio-ulnar articulation to 
 the os triquetrum and the basis of the five metacarpal bones, and 
 then passes into thefasc. manus dorsalis. Prolongations which 
 pass off from the internal surface of Lig. dors, form the following 
 tendinous sheaths, from without inwards: 1. for abductor long. 
 and extens. brevis pollicis. 2. and 3. for extens. carp, radiates 
 and extens. pollicis longus (associated together below in one 
 sheath). 4. for extensor digitor. commun. and indicator. 5. 
 extens. digiti V. proprius. 6. for extensor carpi ulnaris. Each 
 tendon enjoys its own synovial capsule. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 167 
 
 D. Muscles on the Hand. 
 321.' u - a. Muscles of the ball of the Thumb (thenar). 
 
 a. Attached to the outer side of Os Metacarpi I. or Phalanx I. 
 
 322. 1. Abductor pollicis brevis. 
 
 Pos. : the most superficial on the outer border of os metacarp. 
 /., separated from opponens beneath it, by a fascia. Or. : Lig. 
 carpi volare propr. (radial side) Tuber Trapezii. lns.:-asis 
 of /. phalanx. Use. : abducts the thumb from the index finger. 
 
 323. 2. Opponens pollicis. 
 
 Pos. : beneath the former muscle ; internal portion only covered 
 with skin ; above flex, pollicis brevis and tendon of the longus. 
 Or. : like the former muscle. Ins. : Radial border of os metacarp. 
 /. Use : to draw the thumb inwards and forwards (towards the 
 little finger). 
 
 324. 3. flexor pollicis brevis. 
 
 Pos. : oblique downwards and outwards, on the external border 
 covered by abduct, brevis, on the internal united with adduct. 
 pollicis. Or. : the same as before, and from the tendinous sheath 
 of flexor radial carpi. Ins.: Os sesamoideum externum and 
 Phalanx /. (covered externally by the tendon of adduct. pollicis). 
 Use: to draw the phalanx inwards and forwards (M. opponens 
 internus). 
 
 )3. Attached to the Ulnar side of the first phalanx of the 
 Thumb. 
 
 325. 4. Adductor pollicis. 
 
 Pos. : triangular, between Os metacarpi 7. and //., covered by 
 the tendons of flexor dig. prof, and lumbricales. The deep 
 portion (Cap. prof und. M. flex. poll, brev.) close to the former 
 muscle; the superficial close beneath the skin. Or.: 1. Os meta- 
 carpi III. (the entire anterior border). 2. Os trapezium (anterior 
 superior part). Ins. : Os sesamoideum internum and Phalanx I. 
 Use : to draw the thumb towards the index finger. 
 
 Nerves: (first to the fourth) medianus and ulnaris. 
 
 b. Muscles on the ball of the little finger (hypothenar.). At- 
 tached to the ulnar side. 
 
 328. 5. Abductor digiti minimi. 
 
 Pos.: on the internal (ulnar) border of Os metacarpi F., 
 covers oppon. dig. V. Or. : Os pisiforme and aponeurosis of 
 
168 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 M.flex. ulnar. carpi. Ins.: Basis phalang. I. digiti V. Use: 
 to draw the little finger inwards (that is to say, from the fourth 
 finger). 
 
 327. 6. Flexor digiti V. brevis. 
 
 Pos. : on the outer border of the last muscle, separated from it 
 by Vasa and Nn. ulnares. Or. : Os hamatum (the process, unci- 
 form.) and lig. carp. vol. propr. Ins. : Basis phalang. I. digiti 
 V. Use : to flex a little thejirst phalanx of the fifth finger. 
 
 328. 7. Opponens digiti V. 
 
 Pos. : covered by the last muscles, above the interosseus and 
 the tendon of flex, digit, comm. of the fifth finger. Or. : Os 
 Hamatum (the process). Ins.: capitulum and the whole ulnar 
 side of os metacarpi V. Use : to draw the fifth metacarpal bone 
 outwards and forwards (that is, towards the thumb in making the 
 hand hollow). 
 
 Nerves : (fifth to the seventh) ulnaris r. profund. volaris. 
 
 c. Muscles in the middle of the palm of the Hand. 
 
 329. 8. Palmaris brevis, Cutaneous muscle of hand. 
 Pos.: close beneath the skin, in the fat over the muscles of the 
 
 little finger and Art. and Nerv. ulnaris; transverse, one inch 
 broad and long. Or. : Jlponeurosis palmar, media. Ins. : the 
 skin of the ulnar border, from os pisiforme onwards. Use: 
 wrinkles the skin on the ball of the little finger. 
 Nerves : ulnaris r. sublimis volar. 
 
 330. 9. Lumbricales. 
 
 Pos. : beneath Jlponeurosis palmaris on the four tendons of 
 the flexor digit, profundus, in the hollow of the hand. Or. : the 
 radial side of the three tendons of flex, profund. Ins. : the 
 radial side of first phalanx of the second to the fifth finger; 
 blending with the tendons of extens. digitor. communis. Use: 
 flexes the first phalanx of the second, third, fourth, and fifth 
 fingers. 
 
 Nerves : medianus, for the fourth ulnaris r. superfic. 
 
 331. 10. Interossei volares s. interni, 3. 
 
 Pos. : in the spaces] between Ossa metacarpi, second to fifth, 
 in the palm, covered before by the flexors, behind by the m. in- 
 teross. dorsales. Or. : sides of os metacarpi (two-thirds of the 
 anterior surface) //., IV., V. Ins. : Phalanx I. of second (ulnar 
 side), fourth, and fifth (radial side) fingers, and the tendon of m. 
 extens. digitor. communis. Use, to draw the second, fourth, and 
 fifth fingers towards the middle finger. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 169 
 
 332. 11. Interossei dorsales s. bicipites, 4. 
 
 Pos. : in the spaces between Oss. metacarpi I. to V., to be seen 
 from the back and palm of the hand. Or. : sides of Ossa meta- 
 carpi II. to V., with two heads, which Art. perforans separates. 
 Ins. : 1. on the radial side of Phalanx I. of index finger; 2. the 
 same on the middle finger ; 3. on the Ulnar side of the middle 
 finger; 4. the same on the ring finger. Use: draws the Index 
 from the Middle finger, the Middle finger from the Ring and In- 
 dex, the Ring finger from the Middle ; they spread out the second 
 and the fourth from the middle finger. 
 
 Nerves : ulnaris r. profund. volar. 
 
 333. 1. Aponeurosis palmaris, close beneath the skin of the 
 hollow of the hand, it forms a sheath for all its muscles. The 
 central portion is triangular and strong, arises from the anterior 
 surface and the inferior border of Lig. carpi volar e and the ten- 
 don of palmaris longus (between the two points Art. ulnaris 
 enters into the palm of the hand) ; it divides in the region of the 
 Capitul. oss. metacarpi into eight parts for the second to the fifth 
 fingers, and is strengthened by transverse fibres. By this four 
 arches arise for the tendons of Mm. flexor es, and three between 
 them for Vasa and Nn. collaterals of the fingers and Mm. lum- 
 bricales. Loose uniting tissue separates the middle part from the 
 subjacent structures: Jircus arterios. superficial. vol& ; Nn. 
 median, and ulnaris tendin. mm. flexor. Externally, as a con- 
 tinuation of the tendon of abductor pollicis longus, the external 
 portion of the Jlponeur. palm, envelopes the muscles of the ball 
 of the thumb ; internally, as a process of the tendon of flexor 
 carpi ulnaris, the inner portion, the muscles of the ball of the 
 little finger ; here the m. palmaris brevis is connected. It loses 
 itself on the first phalanx in the sheaths of flexor digit, and ligg. 
 capit. os. metacarpi. 
 
 334. 2. F. dorsalis manus. ; a. the superficial is a thin layer, 
 covering the tendons of extens. digitor. comm., and attached to 
 the second and fifth metacarpal bones ; b. the deep, covers the 
 interrossei, and attaches itself to all the metacarpal bones, con- 
 sisting of loose elastic uniting tissue, which serves instead of 
 synovial capsules. 
 
 335. 3. Pulleys (trochleae} of \heflex. digitor. comm.; con- 
 sist of fibre-cartilaginous portions with transverse fibres, lying 
 transversely before all three phalangeal articulations of the second 
 to the fifth fingers. On the first joint they form a connected flat 
 surface (one inch long), to which the aponeurosis palmar, is at- 
 tached. 
 
170 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 336. Tendinous sheaths of the flexors on the fingers ; they 
 consist of separate ligaments, as : 
 
 1. Transverse ligaments, annuli, narrow, passing before each 
 joint transversely in front of the tendons, attached to the basis 
 phalang. and the pulley. 
 
 2. Ligamentous sheaths ; broader, transverse before the bodies 
 of the first and second phalanx. 
 
 3. Crucial ligaments, ligg. cruciata, before the first and second 
 phalanx, descending obliquely from the edges of the body to the 
 capitulum of the phalanx. 
 
 VIII. Muscles of the Inferior Extremity. 
 A. Muscles of the Thigh. 
 
 337. 1. Flexor Femoris. 
 
 a. Psoas Magnus (Internal Head). 
 
 Figure : at commencement flat, then round and spindle-shaped. 
 Pos. : on the sides of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae, between 
 the external and central crura of the diaphragm, before plex. lum- 
 balis, quadratus lumborum, behind the kidneys, then on the 
 boundary between the great and small pelvis, covered by perito- 
 naeum ; on the outer side nerv. cruralis passes. Behind it meets 
 with quadratus lumborum. Or. : first to the fifth lumbar verte- 
 brae (lateral surface of bodies). Ins.: Trochanter minor. The 
 tendon passes in front of the hip-joint (with a synovial capsule). 
 
 338. b. Iliacus (External Head). 
 
 Fig. : broad, three-sided. Pos. : fills up the whole venter Ilii, 
 covered by a fascia, fat and peritonaeum. Passes out from the 
 pelvis, united with psoas, in a groove between spina ilei anter. 
 infer, and eminent, pectin., underneath lig. Poupart. Upon it, 
 to the right, are placed the csecum and the termination of the 
 small intestines ; to the left, the colon. Or.: Fossa Iliaca and 
 lig. ileo-lumbale. Ins. : Trochanter minor. 
 
 On the thigh they lie, both united together, behind n. cruralis 
 (in one sheath), internal to Sartorius and rectusfemoris, external 
 to the adductores and art. cruralis. Use : to elevate (flex) the 
 thigh towards the trunk, or to bend the trunk forwards over the 
 thigh. 
 
 Nerves : cruralis and pkxus lumbalis. 
 
 339. 2. Psoas Minor (often wanting). 
 
 Pos. : on the internal border and before the lumbar portion of 
 the former muscle, the tendon on the inner edge of fascia iliaca, 
 crossing the Psoas major. Or. : bodies of last dorsal and first 
 
THE MUSCLES. 17] 
 
 lumbar vertebrae. Ins. : Fascia iliaca at the posterior part of 
 linea arcuata. Use: stretches the fuse. Iliaca; may flex the 
 pelvis towards the trunk (as in climbing), or draw the trunk side- 
 ways. 
 
 340. 3. Glutseus maximus. 
 
 Pos. : one inch thick, close beneath the skin of the buttocks ; 
 broad, four-sided ; covers glut, med., pyriform., gemelli, obturat. 
 intern., quadrat, femor., incisttra ischiad. maj., tuber ischii, 
 Mm. semitendin. and membranes., cap. long, bicipit.; tro- 
 chanter major, adductor magn., Nn. et vasa glutsea, ischiadic., 
 pudenda interna. Or.: 1. posterior surface of Ilium, behind lin. 
 semicircul. poster. 2. spina ilei poster, super, as far as cornu 
 sacrale. Ins. : Linea aspera, the external crus, close under tro~ 
 chanter major femoris, and fascia lata. Use : extends the thigh 
 backwards, draws and rotates it outwards ; or draws (when stand- 
 ing upon one leg), the pelvic half of the other side, backwards ; 
 stretches the fascia lata, and maintains the os. coccygis in its 
 situation. 
 
 Nerves : glutteus infer. 
 
 341. 4. Glutseus medius. 
 
 Pos. : behind the last, covered' before and above by fat and skin, 
 and rather by m. fasciae latse. Along the posterior border, m. 
 pyriform. ; on the outside, Vasa and nerv. Glutsei. 
 
 Or. : fossa Iliaca externa ; the anterior portion from Spina 
 oss. Ilei anter sup. and (three fourths) Crista ilei : the posterior 
 from linea semicircula superior. Ins. : trochanter major (from 
 the apex to the base). Use : extends and abducts the thigh ; the 
 anterior portion rotates it inwards (and helps to flex it). 
 Nerves: glutceus superior. 
 
 342. 5. Glutseus minimus. 
 
 Pos. : Three-sided ; covered behind, slightly, by pyriformis, 
 above by vasa glut sea, entirely by glutseus med., meets anteriorly 
 with tensor fasciae, covers the upper part of the capsule of the 
 hip joint. Or. : fossa iliaca externa below linea semicircul. in- 
 fer.; Crista Iliaca (anterior portion), incisuraischiadica (external 
 portion). Ins. : trochanter major (anterior surface). Use : draws 
 the thigh directly outwards ; the anterior portion rotates it in- 
 wards, the posterior outwards. 
 
 343. 6. Pyriformis. 
 
 Pos. : covered by glut, med., in the incisura ischiadica major, 
 almost horizontal along the lower border of glut. med. ; in the 
 
172 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 pelvis, behind the rectum, Plex. ischiadic, Vasa hypogastrica. ; 
 outside, behind the hip joint; at the superior border, Vasa and 
 Nn. glutdRi. 
 
 NOTE. The superior border commonly reaches the top of the 
 incisura ischiad. ; between it and the bone the hernia ischiad. 
 passes through. 
 
 At the inferior border, Vasa and Nn. ischiatici. Or.: 1. Os 
 sacrum (anterior lateral surface, close to foramina sacral, ant. 
 second and third, the n. ischiad.). 2. Lig. sacro-tuberos. 
 (anterior surface). 3. Incisura ischiadica, superior part. Ins. : 
 Trochanter major (superior edge of the fossa). 
 
 Nerves : glutceus superior and ischiadicus. 
 
 344. 7. Obturator internus. 
 
 Pos. : triangular, in the pelvis, behind membrana obturatoria, 
 covered before byfasc. pelvis and levator ani ; passes through 
 incis. ischiad, min. around os ischii and horizontally outwards, 
 in the groove between gemelli, behind the neck of the femur, 
 covered by glutssus max. Or.: membr. obturatoria and the 
 whole circumference offoram. obturatorium. Ins. : trochanter 
 major, the lin. intertrochant. post., below pyriformis. 
 
 Nerves: Ischiadicus. 
 
 345. 8. Gemellus superior. 
 
 Pos. : above the tendon of the last muscle, horizontally out- 
 wards. Frequently wanting. Glutaeus max. covers both gemelli. 
 Or. : Spina Ischii (inferior border, external surface). Ins.: like 
 the last muscle. 
 
 346. 9. Gemellus inferior. 
 
 Pos. : stronger, below the tendon of obturator intern. Some- 
 times double. Or. ; Tuber ischii (quite above lig. tuber oso-sacr.) 
 Ins. : like the last muscle. Uses : (of 6. to 9.), they rotate the 
 thigh outwards. 
 
 Nerves: ischiadicus, for 8. and 9. 
 
 347. 10. Quadratusfemoris. 
 
 Pos. : transverse, immediately below 9. ; covers before obtu- 
 rator extern, and trochanter minor ; between tuber Ischii and 
 trochanter major, covered by Glutseus max. Or. : tuber ischii 
 (external border) covered by semi-membranos., adductor magnus. 
 Ins. : the vertical line between basis trochant. major and linea 
 aspera. Use: rotates (even the flexed) thigh outwards; rotates 
 (when standing upon one leg) the trunk to the other side. 
 
 Nerves: ischiadicus. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 173 
 
 348. 11. Obturator externus. 
 
 Pos. : behind the last muscle and pectinseus, adductor brevis, 
 psoas and iliacus; before, for am. obturator, and collumfemoris; 
 meets above and externally, gemellus infer. Or. : foram. obtu- 
 rator (anterior circumference). Ins.: fossa of trochant. major 
 (the lowest part). Use : rotates the thigh outwards ; assists in 
 flexing the trunk. 
 
 Nerves: obturator. 
 
 349. Fascia iliaca, s. lumbo-iliaca, 
 
 envelopes mm. psoas and iliacus, arises from the lumbar portion 
 of the diaphragm above, from the bodies of the lumbar vertebra 
 internally, from labium intern. o ilium and the linea arcuata of 
 the pelvic cavity outwards as far as crista pubis. a. The ex- 
 ternal portion divides between spina ilei ant. superior, and the 
 outer angle of the femoral ring into an anterior and posterior layer 
 (between which the Vasa circuinflexa ilei pass). 1. The ante- 
 rior layer turns upon the posterior surface of the abdominal 
 muscles, and above passes into ihefasc. transv. 2. The posterior 
 layer unites with the outer portion of lig. Poupartii (that is,fasc. 
 ilio-pubica}. b. The internal portion descends over the m. psoas- 
 iliacus upon the thigh, and unites externally \viihfasc.femoris. 
 
 B. Muscles of the Thigh. 
 a. On the posterior surface. 
 
 350. 1. Biceps femo ris s. flexor fibularis. 
 
 Pos.: on the outer part of the thigh; its longhead covered 
 above by Glutseus max. and skin ; lies upon the short head, ad- 
 ductor magnus, and behind semi-tendinosus ; the short head on 
 vastus externus, in the lower half of the thigh, then behind the 
 popliteal vessels. Forms the outer border of the popliteal space. 
 Or. : 1 . Caput long, from tuber. Ischii. 2. Caput breve from linea 
 aspera oss. femor. Ins. : Capitulum Jibulse (and condylus ex- 
 ternus tibise}. Use : flexes the leg, and accordingly by means of 
 the long head it extends the thigh. The short head rotates the 
 leg outwards. 
 
 351. 2. Semitendinosus. 
 
 Pos.': covers the following muscle between it and cap. long, 
 bicip.; its long tendon is, at the commencement, behind, then 
 between the following muscle and gastrocnem. internus. The 
 tendon commences four or five finger breadths above the knee- 
 joint, winds around the condyl. intern, tibise. forwards, behind the 
 tendo sartor., on the inferior border of tendo gracilis ("pes anse- 
 
174 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 rinus" tendinosus). Or. : tuber ischii (united with biceps). Ins. : 
 spina tibiae, (internal surface of superior extremity) and fasc. 
 cruris. Use : like the last muscle : in semiflexion it rotates the 
 thigh a little inwards. 
 
 352. Semimembranosus. 
 
 Pos. : before the last muscle, behind adduct. magn., gastrocnem. 
 intern., art. and ven. poplitsea. Along the outer border, art., ven. 
 poplitssa, nerv. ischiadicus; on the internal border, gracilis. 
 Or.: tuber ischii (the highest, external part, before biceps and 
 semitendinosus). Ins.: Condyl. intern, tibise. Use: like the 
 last muscle. 
 
 Nerves : (first to third) ischiadicus. 
 
 REMARK. Between semimembranosus (within) and biceps, fern, (without) a 
 longitudinal space exists along the whole posterior surface of the thigh, in 
 which the uniting tissue of the pelvis, by means of the incisura ischiad. major., 
 communicates with that of the popliteal region. 
 
 b. Upon the outer surface. 
 
 353. 4. Tensor fas cise latse (Fascialis). 
 
 Pos. : in the upper third ; inside the thick envelope of the 
 thigh, on the outer border of Sartorius and rect. femor.; covers 
 glut, med., minim., and vastus extern. Or. : Spina ilei anter. 
 super, as far downwards as spina ilei infer. Ins. : fascia lata 
 femor. This is attached to the coridyl. extern, and Spina tibix. 
 Use : maintains vastus ext. in its situation; rotates inwards, and 
 abducts the thigh. 
 
 [Nerve: Glutceus superior^ 
 
 c. On the anterior surface. 
 
 354. 5. Sartorius (s. longus, because the longest muscle in 
 
 the body). 
 
 Pos. : the longest muscle, Sigmoidal, from the outer side of the 
 thigh to the inner of the knee, under the skin ; forms at the supe- 
 rior third of the thigh with pectinseus an isosceles triangle (base, 
 above), in the centre of which lies Art. cruralis. In the second 
 third Art. cruralis at first passes on the internal edge, then on 
 the posterior surface, and lastly on the external edge. In the 
 last third it lies between gracilis and vastus internus ; under the 
 anterior edge the n. saphenus passes forth, on the posterior Ven. 
 saphena (near the knee-joint). Above between tensor fascise and 
 iliacus, then upon rect. femor., adduct. long., vast, intern, and 
 gracilis. Or.: Spina ilei anter. super, (and rather below this). 
 Ins. : Crista tibise labium internum (below Kg. patellse, before 
 tendd. mm. semitendin. and gracilis}. Use : flexes at the same 
 
THE MUSCLES. 175 
 
 time thigh and leg (in squatting) or both alone. It only slightly 
 assists in crossing the legs (the position of tailors when at work). 
 
 Nerves: cruralis. 
 
 355. 6. Extensor cruris. 
 
 Or. : see a. to d. Ins. : the tendinous expansion around the 
 patella; tendo extenso cruris. Use: to extend the leg or thigh 
 (when the one or the other is fixed, as in rising from the sitting 
 to the standing posture). 
 
 [REMARK. To examine the insertion accurately, make a vertical section of 
 the tendon, patella, and ligam. patella in the centre. TRANS.] 
 
 a. Rectusfemoris. 
 
 Pos. : vertical in the centre of the thigh, between Spina ilei 
 anter. super, and patella; above rather covered by Sartorius, in 
 general by the skin. Covers above the flexor, below the three 
 following muscles. Or.: from superior border of acetabulum; 
 from Spina ilei anter. infer. 
 
 b. Vastus externus. 
 
 Pos. : behind the last, externally covered by skin, before cru- 
 ralis. Or. : trochanter-major and labium externum linese asperx 
 (superior half). 
 
 c. Vastus internus. 
 
 Pos. : on the inner part of the thigh, grooved ; behind, the 
 inferior extremities of the adductores lie upon it. Or.: from 
 labium intern, lin. asperse, before m. adductores (from tro- 
 chanter minor] as far as the inferior fourth of the thigh. 
 
 d. Cruralis. 
 
 Pos.: close upon osfemoris, surrounded as if in a capsule by 
 vastus externus and internus. Or. : os femor., close under 
 vastus intern., as far as above condylus intern, femoris. The 
 lowest fasciculi have been named Subcruralis. 
 
 Nerves of extensor fern. : cruralis (for vast, intern.), besides, nerv. obturatorius. 
 
 d. Internal surface. 
 
 356. 7. Gradlis. 
 
 Pos.: close under the skin, directly downwards; covers the 
 adductores, below semitendinos. ; at the inferior extremity of the 
 internal surface crossed by Ven. saphena interna. Or.: from 
 Spina pubis ram. ascend, oss. ischii. Ins. : Crista tibise (within 
 and above), below tendo Sartorii and above tend, semitendinosi. 
 
176 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 The long tendon winds around the condyl. intern, femoris (and 
 tibiae). Use : flexes the leg, and draws it inwards. 
 
 Nerves: obturatorius (for the seventh to the tenth). [Except the eighth. 
 TRANS.] 
 
 357. 8. Pectinseus (adductor superficialis /.). 
 
 Pos. : on the upper, anterior and inner part of the femur, on 
 the inner border of flex, femoris (and Jlrt. cruralis), at the ex- 
 ternal border of adductor longus ; before the for am. obturator, 
 m. obturator extern. ( Vasa obturatoria) and articular capsule ; 
 covered by fascia cruralis and Vasa cruralia. Or. : Crista 
 vubis (and a portion of the fascia below lig. Gimbernati). Ins. : 
 linea aspera (two inches below trochanter minor). 
 
 [Nerve : Cruralis. TRANS.] 
 
 358. 9. Adductor longus (superficialis II. , Caput longum 
 
 tricipitis). 
 
 Pos. : covered externally by the last muscle, above by the skin, 
 below by Sartorius, before adductor brevis and ma gnus ; sepa- 
 rated from Sartorius by art. and ven. cruralis. Or. : os pubis 
 (between symphysis and crista). Ins.: centre of linea aspera. 
 
 359. 10. Adductor brevis (caput breve tricipitis). 
 
 Pos. : covered by the last muscle ; at the commencement un- 
 covered by, then behind pectinseus. Or.: ram. descend, oss. 
 pubis (outside of gracilis). Ins.: linea aspera (superior third). 
 
 360. 11. Adductor magnus (caput. magnum tricipitis), 
 
 great adductor. 
 
 Pos. : behind the two muscles last described (forms almost 
 alone the thick flesh on the inner part of the thigh), before semi- 
 tend., biceps, semimembran., glutseus maximus. On the inter- 
 nal border above, gracilis; below, Sartorius. At the superior 
 border internally, obturator extern.; externally, quadrat, fern. 
 At the inferior extremity perforated by art. and ven. cruralis. 
 Or.: from tuber ischii to symphysis pubis. Ins.: the whole 
 labium extern, lin. asperse to condylus internus femor. Use: 
 eighth to eleventh draw the thigh inwards (especially in riding 
 on horseback) ; eighth to tenth also flex it a little. 
 
 Nerve: Obturator. 
 
 Fascist femoris s. lata, 
 arises from the whole circumference of the outer surface of the N 
 Ilium, envelopes the Glutseus maximus (fascia glut sea), the 
 anterior and posterior surfaces of the thigh ; consists on the ante- 
 rior surface, of very dense fibres descending from spina anter. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 177 
 
 super, (that is, proper/as da lata), divides, at the internal border 
 of gracilis, into a superficial and deep layer, and unites with 
 fibres which are attached to osfemoris. These are, a. the superior 
 layer between ra. rectus and tensor fascix ; it passes from the 
 anterior border of os Hei, anteriorly above the hip-joint and neck 
 of the femur like a ligament, and continues wiih fascia lata below 
 the trochanter major, b. The external intermuscular ligament 
 on the linea aspera, from trochanter major downwards to con- 
 dylus externus, separates the flexor from the extensor muscles 
 on the outer side. c. The internal reaches from trochanter minor 
 as far as condylus intern, femoris, is not so strongly marked, 
 separates vastus internus from adductores. 
 
 362. Separate sheaths : 1 . for the femoral vessels, vagina 
 vasor. crur., a three-sided sheath, between the anterior and in- 
 ternal muscular sheaths ; they help to form the femoral canal. 
 
 363. 2. The three great muscular sheaths : 
 
 a. The posterior, common to m. biceps, semi tendinosus and 
 semi-membranosus. 
 
 b. The anterior divides into the following sheaths: 1. For 
 Sartorius. 2. For rectus femoris. 3. For vast, extern, and 
 intern. 4. For tensor fasciae. 
 
 c. The internal divides : 1. For gracilis. 2. For pectin&us and 
 adductor longus. 3. For adductor brevis and obturator externus. 
 
 364. 3. The femoral ring, annulus cruralis, this is, the 
 three-sided opening, an inch and a half broad, through which the 
 crural vessels pass out, behind ligam. Poupartii, from the abdo- 
 minal cavity upon the anterior surface of the thigh. Directed 
 obliquely from above downwards and from behind forwards, it is 
 bounded before, by the femoral arch (which supports the sper- 
 matic cord, or round ligament), behind, by the horizontal 
 ramus of the pubes (with m. pectin, and the deep layer of fascia 
 lata), externally, by the sheath of m. psoas and iliacus ; here the 
 vasa epigastrica ascend. Its posterior angle corresponds to 
 eminent, ileo-pectinasa ; between flexor femor. and pectineus. 
 Its external angle arises from the junction of the lig. Poupartii 
 with the sheath of the Psoas, in which lies nerv. cruralis. The 
 lig. Gimbernati forms the internal ; it is obtuse, in the normal 
 course of the art. obturator free from vessels, but between V. 
 cruralis and lig. Gimbernati a large, deep inguinal gland lies. 
 (Hernia cruralis passes out at this point.) Towards the abdo- 
 minal cavity the crural ring is covered by loose uniting tissue 
 (septum crur ale}. 
 
 365. 4. Femoral canal, canalis cruralis, is the excavated 
 12 
 
178 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 space, which reaches from the femoral ring as far as to the spot 
 where the anterior layer of the three-sided sheath of the Vasa 
 cruralia commences ; it consists of a three-sided fossa (fossa 
 ileo-pectinea), between m. pectinem (internally) and psoas (ex- 
 ternally), which by an incomplete anterior wall, the tendinous 
 proc. falciformis, is formed into a canal. It goes downwards 
 and inwards, is on the outer side an inch and a half, on the inner 
 half an inch long. The superior border of proc. falciform. 
 attaches itself to Kg. Poupartii, and reaches as far as lig. Gim- 
 bernati ; here, at the free, crescentic, internal border of proc. 
 falciform, is a large anterior interval, oval fossa (fossa ovalis), 
 through which V. saphena interna (and the place at which the 
 hernia cruralis generally) passes ; it is covered by the superficial 
 layer of fasc. superfic. (here lamina cribrosa, on account of the 
 numerous openings for vessels, nerves, and lymphatic glands), 
 superficial inguinal glands, and skin. The femoral canal termi- 
 nates below in a small opening, at the entrance to the sheath of the 
 vasa cruralia. 
 
 C. Muscles of the Leg. 
 a. On the anterior surface. 
 
 366. 1. Tibialis anticus s. hippicus. 
 
 Pos. : beneath the skin, along the outer surface of the tibia; 
 close to it on the outer side : extens. digitor. ped. commun. and 
 (below) propr. hallucis (separated from Vasa and Nn. tibiales 
 antici). Or. : the two upper-thirds of the outer surface of the 
 tibia; the ligam. interosseum. Ins.: Os cuneiforms I. and 
 basis oss. I. metatarsi (internal surface) ; projecting strongly. 
 The tendon passes over the inferior extremity of the tibia to- 
 wards the inner side of the foot. Use : flexes the foot, that is to 
 say, approximates the back of the foot to the leg, and rather 
 raises the inner border of the foot. 
 
 367. 2. Extensor hallucis longus. 
 
 Pos. : between 1. and 2. ; external to tibial. antic. , separated 
 from it behind by Vasa and N. tibial ant. ; on the outer side of 
 its tendon : art. pedisea. Or. : internal to and behind the last 
 muscle, from the centre of the inner surface of the fibula and 
 from Kg. interosseum. Ins. : Basis Phalangis II. hallucis. 
 The tendon passes at a right angle over the dorsum of the foot 
 upon the first metatarsal bone. Use : extends both phalanges of 
 the great toe, flexes and raises the inner border of the foot a little. 
 
 368. 3. Extensor digitorum communis longus. 
 
 Pos. : beneath the skin, between tibial ant. and extens. halluc. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 179 
 
 long, (internally), and peronseus long., and brevis (without), 
 covers \hefibula, lig. inteross., artic. tibio-tarsalis, m. pediasus, 
 and the toes. Or. : condylus externus tibiae : inner surface of 
 fibula, (four-fifths ;) lig. mterosseum. Ins. : Phalanx II. and 
 ///. of the second to the fifth toe. Each of the four tendons is 
 fissured into three portions, the two lateral of which go to the 
 third phalanx, the central to the basis of the second phalanx. 
 Use : extends the third phalanx of the second, third, fourth, and 
 fifth toes. 
 
 3. Peronseus anticus s. tertius. 
 
 Pos. : on the outer side of the anterior surface of the leg (infe- 
 rior third) ; between 3. and peronseus brevis. Or. : inferior half 
 of fibula (anterior internal surface). Ins.: Basis oss. V. meta- 
 tarsi. The tendon passes obliquely outwards under lig. crucial., 
 over the back of the foot. Use : to flex the foot, and raise it 
 rather outwards. 
 
 Nerves for 1. to 4. : peroneus proftmdus [tibialis ant.]. 
 
 b. On the outer surface. 
 
 370. 5. Peronseus longus (s. primus). 
 
 Pos.: under the skin of the peronaeal region, along the fibula; 
 in front, separated by a fascia from extens. digitor. longus, be- 
 hind and above from soleus, below from flex, halluc. long.; 
 covers peronsens brevis externally. In the foot the tendon lies 
 between skin and os calcanei, in the sole it is covered by the soft 
 parts. Or. : capitulum and superior third of external surface of 
 fibula (by two heads) ; the inferior as low as the inferior fourth. 
 Ins. : Basis oss. I. metatarsi. Its tendon passes round the ex- 
 ternal malleolus, in a groove (also with the following muscle), 
 curves forwards and downwards to the outer border of calcaneus, 
 and passes once again curved in the groove of the os cuboid, ob- 
 liquely forwards and inwards into the sole of the foot, to the first 
 cuneiform and first bone of metatarsus. Use : extends the foot and 
 draws the external border outwards and upwards. (In fractures 
 of the fibula the talus therefore passes inwards the outer mal- 
 leolus more prominently outwards dislocation inwards.) 
 
 371. 6. Peronseus brevis (s. secundus). 
 
 Pos. : under the last muscle, covers fibula above, on the ante- 
 rior, below, on the posterior angle, in the centre upon the outer 
 surface. Before it peron. 3., behind it peron. long, and flexor* 
 hallucis long. Or. : external surface of the fibula (inferior third). 
 Ins. : the tendon passes forwards in the groove of the external 
 malleolus upon the calcaneus, over tendo. peron. longi and o* 
 
180 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 cuboid, to the dorsal surface and tubercul. metatarsi 5. Use : 
 extends and draws the foot outwards; abducts somewhat the 
 little toe. 
 
 Nerves for 5. to 6.: peron&us. 
 
 C. On the posterior surface, 
 a. Superficial layer. 
 
 372. 7. Gastrocnemius s. gemetti surse. 
 
 Pos. : above, by its two heads, it bounds the popliteal region, 
 .forms the posterior thick flesh of the calf, close under the skin; 
 the external head covered by biceps, the internal by semitendinos. 
 Or. : 1. The external head from condylmfemor. extern, (gemell. 
 extern.} 2. The internal head from condylus intern, (gemellus 
 intern, stronger.) Both heads unite in the form of the letter V. 
 Ins. : Undo Jlchillis (to tuber calcanei). Use : to extend the foot, 
 rather flexing the leg. 
 
 373. 8. Plantaris (in man rudimentary, often wanting). 
 Pos. : above and to the inner side of the external head of the 
 
 last muscle passing between soleus and gemell. intern. Its long 
 tendon first between Gastroc. and Soleus lies on the inner side 
 of tendo JLchillis. Or. : condylus externus femoris (from cap- 
 sular ligament), connected with gemell. extern. Ins.: tuber 
 calcanei (before or close to the tend. ^.chill.). 
 
 374. 9. Soleus. 
 
 Pos. : covered, particularly, by gemell. intern, behind ; before 
 \)jjlex. digit commun. and hallucis propr., tibial postic., Vasa 
 and Nn. tibial. postic. and Jibulares. Or.: 1. tibiae lin. obliq. 
 poster, (under poplit&us). 2. Capitul.fibulse (posterior surface). 
 Ins.: tendo ^.chillis. This arises from the junction of the ten- 
 dons of 7., 8., and 9.; is one and a half to two inches long, is 
 fixed broad to the posterior surface of tuberc. calcanei, and lies 
 in a double sheath ; the external is thick and red, the internal, 
 thin, colourless, and more tense. Use: 7. to 9. extend the foot; 
 8. extends, in the lower animals, the fascia plantaris. 
 
 b. Deep layer. 
 
 375. 10. Poplitseus. 
 
 Pos. : small, thin, triangular, oblique from without, downwards 
 and inwards upon the knee joint, covered by plantaris and gas- 
 trocnemius, separated by Vasa poplit. and n. poplit. intern 
 Or.: fossa behind [at the side of] condyl. extern, femoris (under 
 m. gemellus. extern.). Ins.: the triangular, posterior (and supe- 
 
THE MUSCLES. 181 
 
 rior) surface of tibia. Use : to flex the leg and roll it somewhat 
 inwards. 
 
 376. 11. Tibialis posticus s. nauticus. 
 
 Pos. : the deepest, between tibia and fibula upon Kg. inter- 
 osseum, covered by flexor commun. long., hallitc. propr. and 
 soleus. Its tendon in front of that of the flex. comm. longus, 
 goes under the internal malleolus. Or.: tibia (posterior surface), 
 fibula (internal angle), lig. interosseum. Ins. : tuber oss. navi- 
 cularis (inner border) ; and with aponeurotic appendages to oss. 
 cuneiform. 2. and 3. Use : extends the foot, rotates the sole 
 inwards. 
 
 377. 12. Flexor digitorum communis long. s. perforans. 
 Pos.: the most internal, along the posterior surface of the tibia 
 
 and sole of the foot, penniform ; between tibial. post, and tibia, 
 covered above by soleus, behind Vasa and Nn. tibiales postici. 
 Or.': linea obliq. tibise (under m. poplit. and soleus}, and three- 
 fifths of the centre of the Tibia (posterior surface). Ins. : Basis 
 phalang. III. of the second to the fifth toe (plantar surface). 
 The tendon lies : on the internal malleolus behind that of the 
 tibial post., on the inner border of the foot rather externally; 
 passes between colds and abductor, halluc. long, into the sole 
 of the foot: in the metatarsus upon the inter ossei. Use : flexes 
 the four outer toes, and after that extends the foot. 
 
 REMARK. Pulleys and tendinous sheaths like the flexors of the fingers. 
 
 378. 13. Flexor halluds longus. 
 
 Pos.: the most external and strongest, covered behind by soleus 
 and tendo Acli. behind fibula, tibial. post, and Art. peronsea, 
 (below) lig. inteross. On the outer border: peron. long, and 
 brev. ; on its inner border : flex, communis Ion g. The tendon 
 curves towards the sole, passing obliquely over ihefiex. commun. 
 long. Or. : fibula (posterior internal surface from the two in- 
 ferior thirds). Ins.: Basis phalang. II. halluds (plantar sur- 
 face) united (by fascia) with the last muscle. Use : to flex the 
 second phalanx of the great toe ; assists (when the foot is raised) 
 to extend the foot. 
 
 pn the sole of the foot the tendon of this muscle is connected, by a ten- 
 dinous slip, with that of the last.] 
 
 Nerves for 7. to 13. : tibialis. . 
 
 379. Fasda s. vagina cruris. 
 
 Invests only those parts of the leg covered by muscles, is con- 
 nected above and behind with the fascia femoris, strengthened 
 by tendinous expansions from the biceps, sartorius, gradlis, 
 
182 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 semitendinosus ; above and before, in front of the Patella, like- 
 wise with the fasc. femoris, below with the ligaments of the bend 
 of the ankle. Its external, cutaneous surface forms a sheath for 
 vena and nerv. saphsen. extern. ; the internal attaches itself to 
 the crista tibiae and fibulae, and forms three principal sheaths for 
 the anterior, external and posterior muscles, and several second- 
 ary sheaths (e. g., between the superficial and deep layer on the 
 posterior surface). On the malleoli it forms the following liga- 
 ments : 
 
 380. 1. Lig. transversum, an inch and a half broad, passes 
 from the anterior angle of the tibia to that of the fibula, and 
 covers the inferior portion of the muscles. 
 
 381. 2. Lig. cruciatum tarsi, consists of striae one half to one 
 inch broad, crossing over the tarsal joint, a. The superior passes 
 from the internal malleolus to the superior and outer surfaces of 
 proc. anter. calcanei, developes two tendinous sheaths, an internal 
 (for tibial. antic.), an external (for extens. digit, comm. long. 
 and peron.), and a central, incomplete, for extens. halluc. long. 
 and Vasa and Nn. tibiales antici.) Retzius describes underneath 
 a sling-shaped ligament, lig. fundiforme tarsi, which lies in a 
 crescentic form over the tendon of extens. commun. long, and 
 peronseus tertius. b. The inferior, from the external malleolus 
 to the internal border of the foot, continues into the aponeurosis 
 plantar, (interna), and forms, likewise, upon the back of the 
 foot, sheaths for the before-described muscles. 
 
 382. 3. Lig. laciniatum tarsi intern., from the inner malleo- 
 lus to the inner side of Calcaneus, forms four sheaths : a. for 
 art., ven., and n. tibial. post, (the most superficial) ; b. for m. 
 tibial postic. (the anterior) ; c. m. fiex. digit, comm. long, (the 
 posterior). Both behind the malleolus intern. ; d. for m. fiex. 
 hallucis long, (the most inferior). 
 
 383. 4. Lig. laciniatum tarsi externum, from the external 
 malleolus to the calcaneus, forms at the commencement a common 
 sheath, afterwards divided into two, for m. peronseus longus and 
 brevis. 
 
 D. Muscles on the Foot, 
 a. Upon the dorsum of the foot. 
 
 384. 1. Extensor digitorum brevis s. pediseus. 
 
 Pos. : oblique from without, inwards, and from behind, for- 
 wards, under the tendons of the long extensor of the toes, over 
 the anterior row of the tarsal and metatarsal bones. On the inner 
 border: Art. pedisea. [extens. hallucis brevis is the strongest]. 
 Or.: Proc. anterior calcanei (external surface). Ins.: Phalanx I. 
 of the first to the fourth toe, on the external border of the long 
 
THE MUSCLES. 183 
 
 extensor of the toes and the extern, hattuds. Use : extends the 
 first phalanx of the four inner toes. 
 Nerves : peronaus profumdus [tibial. ant.~\. 
 
 b. On the internal region of the sole of the foot. 
 
 a. Attached to the inner surface of the first phalanx of the 
 
 great toe. 
 
 385. 2. Abductor hallucis. 
 
 Pos. : on the internal border of the foot, beneath the skin, 
 under the flexor muscles of the great toe, on the outer border of 
 flex, halluc. and communis brevis. Or. : 1. The long (posterior) 
 head from the posterior and inner surface of the tuber calcanei. 
 2. The short head from os cuneiforme I. and fasc. plantaris. 
 Ins. : Os sesamoideum on the basis of first phalanx of great toe. 
 Use : to draw the great toe from the second, and flex it. 
 
 386. 3. Flexor hallucis brevis. 
 
 Pos.: on the first os metatarsi, between abductor and ad- 
 ductor. Or. : Os cuboideum and os cuneiforme III. Ins. : Os 
 sesamoideum internum. Use : flexes the first phalanx of great toe. 
 
 /3. Attached to the external surface of the first phalanx of the 
 great toe. 
 
 387. Adductor hallucis. 
 
 Pos. : strong, triangular, in the concavity between the second 
 and fifth os metatarsi, above flexor longus, lumbricales, under 
 interossei and Jirt. plantar, externa; on its inner border: tendo 
 peronsei longi and flex, halluc. brevis. Or.: 1. Os cuboideum 
 \viih flex, hallucis brevis. 2. Tendo peronsei longi, oblique to 
 the insertion: into Os sesamoideum externum. Use: draws the 
 great toe outwards towards the centre of the foot, and flexes it. 
 
 388. 5. Tr ansver salis pedis (s. adductor transversus). 
 Pos. : small, and transverse between os metatars. IV. and 
 
 hallux in the anterior part of the concavity of the metatarsus, 
 above lumbricales, under interossei; is the anterior short head 
 of the last muscle. Or. : Capitul. oss. metat. IV. and V. Ins. : 
 Os sesamoideum externum. Use : approximates the great to the 
 little toe, making the sole hollow (like 771771. opponentes of hand). 
 
 c. On the outer region of the sole of the foot. 
 
 389. 6. Mductor digiti minimi. 
 
 Pos. : close above fasc. plantar, extern., under the following 
 muscle ; on the outer edge of the foot. Or. : tuber, extern, cal- 
 canei and aponeur. plantar, ext. Ins. : Basis phalang. I. of the 
 
184 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 fifth toe (outer side). Use: draws the fifth toe from the fourth, 
 and rather flexes it. 
 
 390. 7. Flexor brevis digiti minimi (s. interosseus V.}. 
 
 Pos. : on the outer border of os metatars. V., above the ten- 
 don of the last. Or. : 1. Lig. calcaneo-cuboid. 2. Basis oss. 
 metatars. V. Ins. : Basis Phalang. I. of fifth toe (plantar sur- 
 face). Use : draws the outer border of the foot downwards and 
 inwards ; rather flexes the first phalanx of the fifth toe. 
 
 d. In the centre of the sole of the foot. 
 
 391. 8. Flexor digitorum brevis s. perforatus. 
 
 Pos. : close above fascia plantar., under Vasa and Nn. plan- 
 tar., tendo flex, long., muse, accessor., lumbrical. Or. : from 
 tuber intern, calcanei, and fasc. plantar, (centre). Ins. : each 
 of the four tendons (perforated by flexor long.} passes divided to 
 the borders of the second phalanx of the second to the fifth toe. 
 Use : to flex the second phalanx of the second, third, fourth, and 
 fifth toes. 
 
 392. 9. Quadratus plant as s. Caro quadrat a Sylvii s. 
 
 musculus accessorius. 
 
 Pos. : above the last muscle, the vessels and nerves of the sole 
 of the foot ; under Calcaneus and Kg. calcaneo-cuboid. infer. 
 Or. : 1. Groove upon the under surface of Calcaneus. 2. Lig. 
 calcaneo-cuboideum. Ins. : the external border and the inferior 
 surface of the tendon of m. flexor, comm. longus. Use: assists 
 in flexion, and draws the tendons of flexor longus outwards. 
 
 393. 10. Lumbricales IV. 
 
 Pos.: on the inner border of the tendons of flexor digitor. 
 longus. Or. : the angle of division of the tendons of flexor 
 digit, long, (inner edge). Ins. : Basis phalang. I. of second to 
 the fifth toe. Use : to flex the first phalanx of the second, third, 
 fourth, and fifth toes. 
 
 394. 11. Inter ossei interni plantar es, 4. 
 
 Pos. : between the metatarsal bones of the first to the fifth 
 toe ; covered by the following muscles. Or. : the internal (tibial) 
 side of the second to the fifth os metatars. Ins. : first phalanx 
 of the second to the fifth toe (tibial side). Use : to draw the four 
 outer toes inwards towards the first. 
 
 395. 12. Interossei externi s. dorsales, 3. 
 
 Pos. : between the metatarsal bones of the second to the fifth 
 toe ; perforated at the posterior extremity by Jlrtt. perforantes. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 185 
 
 Or. : by two heads from the surfaces of two metatarsal bones as 
 they are turned to one another. Ins. : the fibula (external) bor- 
 der of the second to the fourth toe. Use: to draw the four 
 outer toes from the great toe. 
 Nerves for 2. to 12.: plant aris extern, et internus. 
 
 396. Fasciae musculares pedis. z.fasc. dorsalis, a thin mem- 
 brane which, commencing behind from the fascia cruris, covers 
 the back of the foot, in front on the first phalanx of the toes 
 passing over into the sheaths of these, and at the sides into the 
 fascia plantaris ; a superficial layer covers the tendons of extens. 
 digit, longus ; a central the extens. digit, brevis (before) ; a deep 
 the interossei. b. Aponeurosis plantains, a thick, shining mem- 
 brane, which commences behind on the tuber Calcanei, at first 
 narrow, then broader, terminating in the region of the anterior 
 extremities of the metatarsal bones in four lappets, laciniss plan- 
 tares, which are divided, and form four sheaths for the tendons 
 of the flexor muscles of the second and four outer toes. These 
 sheaths are separated by three arches, under which the mm. lum- 
 bricales and interossei and the plantar vessels and nerves pass 
 away. The borders curve round from above and below, sur- 
 round the flexor digitor. brevis, and form septa between the 
 muscles of the centre and the outer and inner region of the sole 
 of the foot. Externally an apon. plantaris externa (attachment 
 of M. abduct, digiti minimi} passes off, which is attached in 
 front to the basis oss. metatarsi V., and forms a sheath for ab- 
 ductor zndfiexor brevis digiti V. Internally a thinner, f. plan- 
 tar, intern., which commences behind between Malleolus intern. 
 and Calcaneus, is attached to the inner border of the Tarsus, and 
 forms a tendinous sheath for flexor and abductor brevis hallucis, 
 and art. and ven. plantar, intern. The central sheath encloses : 
 M. flexor digitor. brevis, tendo m. flexor digitor. and hallucis 
 longus, Caro quadrata Sylvii, lumbricales, adductor hattuc. and 
 transversal, pedis, Vasa and nerv. plantares externi. Mm. inter- 
 ossei lie in separate sheaths. 
 
 c. The ligaments and sheaths of the toes are analogous to those 
 of the fingers. 
 
 Summary of the Actions of the Muscles. 
 I. Head. 
 
 397. A. The whole head, the neck being fixed, moves : 
 
 a. Forwards (flexion) : Sterno-cleido-mast., rectus capitis an- 
 ticus of both sides. 
 
 b. Backwards (extension) : cucullaris, splenius capit., biv enter 
 
186 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 and complexu,s cervicis, trachelo-mastoid., rectus postic. and 
 obliq. sup. of both sides. 
 
 c. Sideways : sterno-cleido-mast., rectus capit. lateralis, sple- 
 nius capit., trachelo-mast., obliq. capitis super, of one side. 
 
 d. The head rotates sideways at the same time with the At- 
 las : splenius capitis, trachelo-mast., obliq. cap. infer, of the one 
 and sterno-deido-mast. of the other side. 
 
 398. B. The skin moves upon the skull: 
 
 a. Forwards : frontales, which at the same time put the skin 
 of the forehead into transverse wrinkles. 
 
 b. Backwards : occipitales, which at the same time make the 
 skin of the forehead smooth. 
 
 399. C. The ear is drawn: 
 
 a. Upwards : attollens ; forwards : attrahens ; backwards : re- 
 trahentes. 
 
 400. D. The eye: 
 
 a. The eyebrow is drawn inwards and downwards with lon- 
 gitudinal wrinkles : corrugator superc. 
 
 b. The fissure between the lids contracted and closed by: 
 sphincter palpebr. 
 
 c. The upper lid raised : lev ator palpebr. super., by which the 
 skin passes backwards. 
 
 d. The globe of the eye is directed outwards, inwards, up- 
 wards, downwards : recti. 
 
 e. The same is rotated upwards and inwards : obliq. super. ; 
 downwards and outwards : obliq. infer. ; upwards and outwards : 
 obliq. infer, and rect. extern, together. 
 
 401. E. The nose: 
 
 a. Is drawn down and the nasal openings contracted by : de- 
 pressor alas and compressor. 
 
 b. Drawn outwards and widened by : dilatator posterior and 
 anterior. 
 
 c. Turned up by: levator al% et labii (s. pyramidalis). 
 
 402. F. The mouth: 
 
 a. The fissure of the mouth is shortened and closed: by 
 sphincter oris. 
 
 b. The angle of the mouth is drawn downwards and back- 
 wards, by which the cheeks are pressed against the rows of teeth 
 (as in mastication) and the cheeks are expanded (as in blowing 
 and whistling) : buccinator. 
 
 Upwards by : lev. anguli oris and zygomat. major. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 187 
 
 Downwards (it is pretended) by: triangular^ with transv. 
 menti. 
 
 c. The upper lip is raised by : levator labii, alx nasi et labii 
 super., zygomatic. minor. 
 
 d. The under lip drawn downwards and everted by : quadra- 
 tus menti. It is raised, when the skin of the chin is stretched, 
 by : levator menti. 
 
 403. G. The lower jaw is : 
 
 a. Drawn downwards by: digastric, maxill., mylo-, genio- 
 hyoidei. 
 
 b. Drawn upwards by : masseter^tevnporalis^pterygoideus in- 
 ternus. 
 
 c. Pushed forwards and to the opposite side by : pterygoideus 
 externus. 
 
 404. H. The soft palate is: 
 
 a. Raised and stretched transversely by : levator palati mollis ; 
 
 b. Depressed (thereby elongated and stretched) by : pharyngo- 
 palatin., glosso-palatinus. 
 
 c. Shortened (the uvula thereby elevated and curved back- 
 wards) by: azygos [J,evatores~] uvulse. 
 
 d. Stretched (it is pretended) by: circumflex, palati mollis. 
 
 405. I. The Pharynx is : 
 
 a. Contracted by : three constrictores pharyngis. 
 
 b. Raised and widened by: stylo-pharyng., salpingo-pharyn- 
 geus. 
 
 406. K. The os hyoides is : 
 
 a. Raised forwards by: digastricus (anterior belly), mylo- 
 hyoideus, genio-hyoideus. 
 
 b. Backwards by: stylo-hyoid., digastricus (posterior belly). 
 
 c. Drawn downwards by : o?no-, sterno-hyoideus, hyo-thyreoi- 
 deus. 
 
 407. L. The tongue is : 
 
 a. Compressed against the floor of the mouth by: genio-, hyo- 
 glossi. 
 
 b. Base and borders raised backwards by : stylo-glossi. 
 
 c. Shortened, and the apex curved upwards and backwards, 
 by: lingualis superfic.; shortened, and the apex curved down- 
 wards, by: lingual inferior; diminished, elongated, and rounded 
 at the apex, by : lingual transversus. 
 
 408. M. The larynx is: 
 
 a. Drawn downwards (trachasa shortened) by : sterno-thyreoi- 
 deus. 
 
188 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 b. Drawn upwards, towards the os hyoides (Epiglottis curved 
 backwards), by : hyo-thyreoid. 
 
 c. The epiglottis bent back (and the entrance shut) by : reflect- 
 or epiglottidis. 
 
 d. The vocal cords removed from one another, and the entrance 
 widened by : crico-arytaenoideus posticus. 
 
 II. Trunk. 
 
 409. A. The neck is : 
 
 a. Flexed by: longus colli and scaleni (3) of both sides. 
 
 b. Extended by: splenius colli, transversal, (and spinales, 
 semi-, inter-spinales, multifidi). 
 
 c. Drawn sideways by : transversal., cervical, descend., spinalis 
 and semispinalis cervicis, obliq. capit. infer, (on the atlas), in- 
 tertransv. and multifid., scalenus med. afid post, of one side. 
 Rotated by: splen. colli., transversal., cervicalis of the other. 
 The skin of the neck is moved by : platysmamyoides. 
 
 410. B. Thorax. 1. The thoracic portion of the vertebral 
 column is: 
 
 a. Flexed by: recti, obliq. and pyramidales abdominis. 
 
 b. Extended by: multifidi, inter spinal es, spinales and semi- 
 spinal, dorsi, sacro-lumbales and longissim. dorsi. 
 
 c. Drawn sideways by : multifidus on one side ; rotated by : 
 rotatores dorsi and multifidus of one side. 
 
 411. 2. The ribs are: 
 
 a. Elevated and the chest widened as the lungs expand, and 
 the diaphragm contracts downwards (descends) by: intercostales, 
 levatores costarum, scaleni (they fix the first ribs), serratus pos- 
 ticus superior. As in inspiration. 
 
 NOTE. Deep inspiration is effected by sterno-cleidomast., subdavius, pectorales, 
 serratus anticus, latissim. dorsi, cervicalis descend. The intercostales (and infra- 
 costales) approximate the ribs, since they draw them up wards (inspiration) or 
 downwards (expiration). 
 
 b. Drawn downwards by : intercostales, serratus post, inferior, 
 triangularis sterni, quadratus lumborum (fixes the twelfth rib), 
 abdominal muscles. As in expiration. 
 
 412. 3. The sternum is : 
 
 a. Drawn up by: s'terno-cleido-mast., sterno-hyoidd. 
 
 b. Downwards by : recti abdominis. 
 
 413. C. The lumbar portion of the vertebral column is : 
 
 a. Flexed by: psoas major et minor of both sides. 
 
 b. Extended by : longissim. dorsi, ileolumbalis. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 189 
 
 c. Inclined sideways by: quadrat, lumbor., multifidus and 
 inter-transversarii of one side. 
 
 414. D. The coccyx is : 
 
 a. Flexed by : sacro-coccygeus anticus, coccygeus; levator ani. 
 
 b. Extended by : sacro-coccygeus posticus. 
 
 415. E. The pelvis is drawn and rotated forwards, back- 
 wards, and sideways by the flexors, extensors, and rotators of the 
 thigh. 
 
 a. The anus is closed by : Sphincter ani ; anus and prostate 
 elevated by : levator ani. 
 
 b. The urethra is compressed by : constrict, isthmi urethr. ; 
 the corp. cavernosa by : erector penis ; the bulb by : bulbo-caver- 
 nosus. 
 
 c- The bladder is drawn down by: the vesicalis ; the vagina 
 contracted by : constrictor vaginas. 
 
 d. The testes raised towards the external abdominal ring by : 
 cremaster. 
 
 III. Superior Extremity. 
 
 416. A. The clavicle is : 
 
 a. Raised by : cucullaris, cleido-mastoideus. 
 
 b. Drawn down by : subclavius, pectoral, major, deltoideus. 
 
 417. B. The scapula is drawn : 
 
 a. Upwards by : lev. anguli scap., and cucullaris. 
 
 b. Forwards, inwards, and downwards by : pectoral, minor, 
 coraco-brachialis. 
 
 c. Forwards and outwards by : serratus ant. major. 
 
 d. Backwards by : rhomboidei, cucullaris. 
 [The shoulder is rotated by : cerratus ant. major. 
 
 418. C. The humerus is: 
 
 a. Abducted by ; deltoideus, coraco-brachial, supra-spinalus. 
 
 b. Adducted by : pectoral, major., latissim. dorsi, teres major. 
 
 c. Rotated outwards by : infra- and supra-spinatus, teres 
 minor ; inwards by : subscapularis and teres major. 
 
 419. D. The fore-arm is : 
 
 a. Flexed by : biceps and brachialis internus. 
 
 b. Extended by : triceps and anconxus. 
 
 c. Proned by : pronator teres and quadratus. 
 
 d. Supined by : supinator longus and brevis. 
 
 420. E. The hand is : 
 
 a. Flexed by: flexor carpi radial, and ulnaris,palmaris longus. 
 
190 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 b. Extended by ; extensores carpi radiales and ulnaris. 
 
 c. Adducted, that is, moved towards the ulnar border of the 
 arm by : flex, and extern, carpi ulnaris ; abducted (towards the 
 radial border) by : extens. and flexor radiales carpi ; Proned 
 and supined, see D. 
 
 421. F. The fingers are : 
 
 a. Flexed by : flexor digitor. (sublimis second phalanx of the 
 second, third fourth, and fifth fingers) ; by flexor digitor. pro- 
 
 fundus (third phalanx of the same fingers ; by lumbricales (first 
 phalanx of the same fingers) ; first phalanx of thumb, by flexor 
 pollicis brevis, second phalanx by fl. poll, longus ; of little finger, 
 byfl. digiti minimi. 
 
 b. Extended by : extens. comm. (second, third, fourth, and 
 fifth fingers); the thumb by: extens. pollic. long., brevis and 
 abductor longus ; the index finger by : extens. indicis ; the fifth 
 finger by : extens. dig. minimi propr. 
 
 c. Adducted (towards the middle finger) by: interossei and 
 adduct. pollicis. 
 
 d. Abducted by : interossei, abduct, pollic. and digiti minimi, 
 
 e. The thumb and little finger approximated by: opponens 
 pollic. and digit, min., whereby the hand is made hollow. 
 
 422. IV. Inferior Extremity. 
 A. The thigh is : 
 
 a. Flexed by : psoas and iliacus [and pectineus']. 
 
 b. Extended and abducted by : gluttei (3). 
 
 c. Adducted by : adductor es (3) and pectinseus. 
 
 d. Rotated outwards by: pyriformis, gemelli, obturatores, 
 quadratus femoris . 
 
 e. Rotated inwards by : tensor, fasciae lat., and the anterior 
 part of glutseus med. and minimus. 
 
 423. B. The leg is : 
 
 a. Flexed by : biceps, semitendinosus, semimembranosus,pop- 
 litseus, sartorius gracilis. 
 
 b. Extended by : vastus externus and internus, cruralis and 
 rectus femoris. These muscles assist at the same time to flex 
 the pelvis upon the thighs. 
 
 c. Rotated, outwards, by: biceps; inwards, by: sartorius, 
 gracilis, semitendinosus, poplitxus. 
 
 424. C. The foot is : 
 
 a. Extended by : gastrocnemius, solxus, plantaris longus ; 
 tibialis posticus and peronei long, and brevis ; assisted by the 
 flexors of the toes. 
 
THE MUSCLES. 191 
 
 b. Flexed by: tibialis anticus andperonseus tertius; assisted 
 by the extensors of the toes. 
 
 c. Adducted by : tibialis anticus and posticus. 
 
 d. Abducted by : peronsei (3). Neither pronators nor supina- 
 tors are found on these bones. 
 
 425. D. The toes are : 
 
 a. Extended by: extens. digitor. comm. long, and brevis 
 (second, third, fourth, and fifth toes), extens. halluc. longus. 
 
 b. Flexed by: lumbricales (first phalanx) -,flex. comm. brevis 
 (second phal.), comm. long, (third phal.) and caro quadrata; the 
 great toe by flex, halluc. prop. long, (second phal.), brevis (first 
 phal.). 
 
 c. Adducted by : interossei interni, adduct. hallucis. 
 
 d. Abducted by : interossei externi, abduct, hallucis and digiti 
 minimi. 
 
SPLANCHNOLOGIA. 
 
 OF THE VISCERA. 
 
 " The best means of avoiding the errors which have now been referred to, 
 (viz., the construction of hypothetical theories, or the assumption of principles 
 which are altogether gratuitous and imaginary, and the deduction of general 
 principles or conclusions from a limited number of facts,) will probably be, 
 to keep in mind the important principle, that the object of physical science is, 
 'to ascertain the universality of a fact.' A considerable number of medical 
 doctrines, there is reason to apprehend, will come out of the examination in 
 rather an unsatisfactory manner, if we apply to them the tests which this rule 
 would furnish, namely are they facts, and are these facts universal 1 ?" ABEH- 
 CROMBIE. Path, and Pract. Researches on the Diseases of the Stomach, 4r., 
 Preface. 
 
 13 
 
THE VISCERA. 
 
 LITERATURE : 
 
 Organs of Digestion : 
 
 Todd, R. B., M. D. Croonian Lectures. Med. Gaz. 1839, 1840. 
 
 King, T. W. Obs. on the Stomach. Guy's Hosp. Rep., vol. vii., and the suc- 
 ceeding. 
 
 Goodsir, J. 4- H. Anat. and Path. Obs. :" The Structure and Functions of 
 the Intestinal Villi," p. 4. Also, the Serous Membranes, p. 41. 
 
 Nasymth. Researches on the Devel., Struct., &c. of the Teeth, and Med. 
 Chir. Trans., 1839. 
 
 Goodsir, J. Origin and Development of the Teeth. Edin. Med. and Surg. 
 Journal, 1839. 
 
 Wharton. " Adenographia." 1656. 
 
 Houston. " On the Muc. Memb. of the Rectum." Dubl. Hosp. Rep., vol. v. 
 
 Bell, Thomas, F. R. S. On Anat., Phys., &c. of the Teeth. 
 
 Kiernan. Philos. Trans., 1833. 
 
 Sudd. Anatomy of Liver. Diseases of. 1845. 
 
 Leeuvenhoek. Microscop. Obs. on the Blood-vessels and Memb. of the Intes- 
 tines. Phil. Trans., 1706. 
 
 Lieberkuhn. Diss. Anat.-phys. de Fabrica et Actione Villorum Intestinorum 
 tenium Hominis. 1745. 
 
 Peyer, J. Conrad. De Gland. Intestinorum. 1677. 
 
 Bnmner, J. Conrad. Novarum Glandul. Intestinalium Descriptio. 1686. And 
 Exercitatio Anat.-med. de Gland, in Intestine Duod. Horn, detectis. 1688. 
 Organs of Respiration :- 
 
 King, T. W. Notes by Sir A. Cooper. Obs. on the Thyroid Gland. Guy's 
 Hosp. Rep., vol. i. p. 429. 
 
 /. Hilton. On the Sacculus Laryngis. Guy's Hosp. Rep., vol. ii. 
 
 Jonas King. On the Forms of the Cartilages which keep open the principal 
 Div. of the Bronch. Tubes. Guy's Hosp. Rep., vol. v. 
 
 Cooper, Sir A. Anatomy of the Thy mus Gland. 1832. 
 
 Simon, John. Anat. of the Thymus Gland. 
 
 Pearson, G. On the Coloring Matter of the Black Bronchial Glands. Phil. 
 Trans., 1813. 
 
 Organs of Generation: 
 
 Curling, T. B. "Structure of the Gubernaculum, and Descent of the Tes- 
 ticle." Lancet, vol. ii. 1840, 1841, and his work on the Diseases of the 
 Testicle. 
 
 Cooper, Sir A. On the Testis. 4to. 1830. 
 
 On the Anatomy of the Breast. 4to. 1840. 
 
 Hunter, Dr. W. Anat. Descrip. of the Human gravid Uterus. 4to. 1794. 
 
 Jones, T. Wharton. Report on the Ovum. Brit, and For. Med. Rev., vol. xvi. 
 p. 513. 
 
 Organs of Micturition: 
 
 Santorini. "Obs. Anatomicse," and for plates, "Septemdecim Tab." 1724. 
 
 Colles. Surgical Anatomy, 1811, for Perinaeal Fascia. 
 
 Wilson. Med. Chir. Trans., vol. i., for "Wilson's Muscles." 
 
 Guthrie. Anat. and Descrip. of the Neck of the Bladder and Urethra, 1834, 
 for "Guthrie's Muscles." And Anat. and Dis. of the Urinary and Sexual 
 Organs. 1843. 
 
195 
 
 426. THE VISCERA, 
 
 are very compound organs, consisting of various tissues, several 
 of which together form a system destined to the performance of 
 some particular function. Belonging to this division we have the 
 Organs of Digestion, Respiration, Generation, Micturition, and 
 the Senses. 
 
 427. A. Organs of Digestion, Organa digestionis, 
 
 consist of one canal, which extends from the opening of the 
 mouth to that of the anus, and several appendages (as : oral and 
 salivary glands, liver, ventral salivary glands, spleen). 
 
 a. Parts above the Diaphragm. 
 
 428. 1. Cavity of the Mouth, together with its appendages. 
 
 Cavum oris, mouth, is situated at the inferior part of the face 
 between the two jaws and the cheeks, behind the lips and before 
 the pharynx. Its roof forms in front the hard palate, behind the 
 soft; its floor the tongue and mm. genio-, hyo-glossi, genio- and 
 mylo-hyodei. Before, it opens externally between the lips ; be- 
 hind, through the fauces, isthmus faucium, into the pharynx. 
 The anterior, or buccal cavity, is the space between the cheeks 
 and the dental alveoli; the proper mouth, the space between the 
 dental alveoli and the fauces. 
 
 The Lips, labia, form the moveable anterior wall of the cavity of the 
 mouth, separated by the transverse oral fissure, os, into the upper and under 
 lips, placed (in man) vertically over one another, before the alveoli and the 
 teeth. Their thick, everted, red edges, prolabia, are bounded laterally by the 
 angle of the mouth, angulus oris. On the anterior surface covered by the ex- 
 ternal skin, the upper lip is bounded by the skin of the cheek at the projecting 
 internal border of m. levator labii super, alaque nasi, the under lip at the inner 
 border of m. triangularis. The linea naso-labialis (s. abdominalis) thence arising 
 (the strongly-marked furrow of intestinal disorder), commences at the ake of 
 the nose, and terminates at the sides of the chin. On the upper lip we ob- 
 serve : the mustachios, mystax; in the centre a longitudinal furrow, phitirum; 
 on the under lip : the beard, pappus; upon the transverse groove or the bound- 
 ary between the under lip and chin, sulcus mento-labialis. The posterior (in- 
 ternal) surface of the lips is covered with mucous membrane, which applied 
 to the gums, is beset with glands, glanduke salivates labiaks, and in the centre, 
 particularly of the upper lip, forms a fold, frenulum. Between the external 
 skin and the mucous membrane is placed the proper foundation of the lips, 
 namely, m. orbicularis oris (see before), together with fibres from the muscles 
 bordering it. 
 
 Vessels of the lips. Arteries: 1. Artt. coronaria from art. fadalis. 2. Jhrtt. 
 buccales, infraorbitales, alveolares for the upper lip, from Art. maxillar. interna, 
 mentaks for the under lip from art. fadalis. Veins : plexus labialis, opens 
 
196 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 into Ven. facialis anterior. Lymphatics : open into the glands at the base of 
 the chin. 
 
 Nerves: first division of fifth and seventh cerebral nerves, from pkxw in- 
 fraorbitalis and mentalis. 
 
 Uses of the lips : Sucking, Speech, &c., expression of the affections. The 
 under lip more especially prevents the efflux of saliva. 
 
 Cheeks, bucca, gence, bounded above, by the Basis orbitce, below, by the basis 
 and externally by the posterior border of the lower jaw, consist of the follow- 
 ing parts : 
 
 Skin, very vascular, delicate, particularly in the region of eminentia malaris 
 (malar bone), where it is firmly fixed; beset with the whiskers, julus. A de- 
 posit of fat, thick irUhe central region, between m. masseter and buccinator. 
 
 Muscles: 1. M. masseter. and risorius in the regio masseterica. 2. Muse, or- 
 bicularis palpebr. in the regio malaris. 3. M. buccinator, zygomat. major and 
 minor in the reg. buccalis. 
 
 Salivary glands : glandulce, buccales, between the muscles and the mucous 
 membrane opening upon the last; two larger, gl. molares, lie betweeen m. buc- 
 cinator arid masseter, and open in the region of the last molar teeth. 
 
 The mucous membrane is perforated in the region of the first and second 
 superior molar teeth by ductus Stenonianus. Ductus Stenonianus, accompanied 
 by nerv. buccal. med., below art. transv. faciei, curves inwards at the anterior 
 border of m. masseter, perforates the fat which covers the m. buccinat. and the 
 muscle itself at a distance of five lines from m. masseter and four from the in- 
 ferior border of os. zygomat. 
 
 Vessels. Arteries : 1. Branches of art. maxillar. externa and transversa faciei. 
 2. Branches of art. maxillaris interna, as: infraorbitalis, dentalis infer., buccalis, 
 masseter., alveolaris. Veins : plexus buccalis, which opens into the v. facialis an- 
 terior. Lymphatics : they pass into the glands in the parotis and of the neck. 
 
 Nerves: 1. Branches Of N. facialis, buccales, and malares. 2. Branches of 
 N. trigeminus, rami bucdnatorius, massetericus, infraorbitalis, mentalis. 
 
 Uses: Chewing. Sucking, Speech, &c. 
 
 The Palate, palatum durum, is formed by the processus palatini of the upper 
 ja'w and the horizontal of the palate bones, covered by a spongy thick mem- 
 brane, perforated by vessels, nerves, and glands, membrana pulposa palati, 
 which, especially anteriorly, in the rough places, is firmly connected with the 
 periosteum. It is vaulted, presents in the middle line a suture, and at the 
 anterior termination of this the opening of canalis incisivus (for nerv. naso- 
 palatinus} . 
 
 Salivary glands : glanduke palatines are particularly numerous at the pos- 
 terior extremity of the raphe. 
 
 Vessels. Jlrt. et ven : Branches of the spheno- and pterygo-palatina. 
 
 Nerves : naso-palatinus Scarpce. and palatinus anterior. 
 
 The soft palate, palatum molle s. mobile, velum palatinum, velum pendulum, 
 palati, is the membrano-muscular valve which separates the oral from the 
 nasal cavities and pharynx. It hangs downwards in a curvilinear form from 
 the posterior border of the hard palate, in swallowing (during the passage of 
 food) horizontal ; it presents an inferior concave and a superior convex sur- 
 face which elongates the floor of the nasal fossae. From the centre of the in- 
 ferior border, the uvula is dependent, the apex of which may sometimes rest 
 upon the basis of the tongue, a few lines before the opening of the larynx, 
 and sometimes it is fissured. The lateral borders of the velum, between the 
 
THE VISCERA. 197 
 
 posterior extremity of the superior and that of the inferior alveolus, correspond 
 to the anterior border of the m. pterygoid. interims, consisting, to a great extent 
 (especially behind the last inferior molar tooth), of a series of glands. From 
 the Uvula two folds pass downwards on either side, the palatine arches, and 
 form the Isthmus faucium. 
 
 1. Jlrcus palatinus anterior s. glosso-palatinus, the anterior palatine arch, 
 arises from the base of the uvula, is connected at the borders of the tongue, 
 in the region of the anterior extremities of the papilla calcince, which are 
 arranged in the figure of the letter V with these, and contains the mm. glosso- 
 palatini, 
 
 2. Jlrcus palatinus posterior s. pharyngo-palatinus arises from the apex of the 
 uvula, passes obliquely downwards, backwards and outwards to the sides of 
 the pharynx, is smaller, but reaches farther inwards ; it contains the mm. pha- 
 ryngo-palatini, and is uneven in consequence of a circle of glands. Between 
 the two arches are situated on either side in a depression, one of the 
 
 3. Tonsils, tonsilla, amygdalae, that is, a group of mucous follicles, com- 
 pound glands, which, directed obliquely downwards and forwards, is turned 
 towards the internal (free) surface of the perforated mucous membrane, co- 
 vered externally by the fascia pharyngea and the angle of the lower jaw. 
 The tonsils consist chiefly of uniting tissue disposed in channels in which 
 the numerous vessels pass, and between which the granular glandular mass 
 is placed with many excretory ducts. Arteries come from art. labialis, pha- 
 ryng. inferior, lingual., palatina infer, and superior. Veins: plexus tonsiUaris 
 from plexus pharyngeits. Nerves : are branches of N. lingual, and glosso-pha- 
 ryngeus, on the outer border. Function : to secrete mucus which lubricates 
 the fauces. 
 
 4. Isthmus faucium. the fauces, that is, the opening between the palatine 
 arches, which may be contracted by the tonsils and by the play of the 
 muscles. 
 
 The mucous membrane of the soft palate is covered with little glands (g/. 
 salivares), at the free extremity more delicate. The numerous arteries come 
 from Art. palatina, ascendens and descendcus. Veins : of the same name. 
 Nerves : branches of rami palatini from Ganglion 'Meckelii and n. glosso-pharyn- 
 geus. (The uvula contains much loose uniting tissue, which is easily infil- 
 trated with blood or serurn). Muscles (see before). 
 
 Uses of the soft palate : in deglutition, speech and singing. 
 
 429. 1. The Tongue, Lingua, yXw 
 
 the muscular organ for taste, is situated above, before and at the 
 sides, free and moveable, in the cavity of the mouth, attached by 
 ligaments to the hyoid, bone and by muscles to this, to the Proc. 
 styloidei and lower jaw ; before horizontal, then curved and to- 
 wards the hyoid bone almost perpendicular. Here at the root, 
 radix s. basis linguse, it is also connected with the epiglottis. 
 Its point, apex, is placed close behind the incisor teeth. The 
 superior free surface, dor sum linguae, divided by a groove into 
 two lateral halves, is rough, covered with numerous mucous 
 glands and lingual papilla? ; the inferior surface is free in the an- 
 terior third only ; it presents in the centre a groove, at the sides 
 of which the Fv. raninse and Mm. linguales, and ihefrenulum, 
 
198 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 that is, a fold of the oral mucous membrane, which, abstractedly 
 of the muscles, attaches the tongue to the floor of the mouth. On 
 either side of the frenulum behind the excretory ducts of the 
 salivary glands bursae mucosx are placed (according to Fleisch- 
 mann the seat of ranula). 
 
 a. The substance of the tongue, caro lingua, consists for the most part of 
 m. lingualis, which forms, on the superior and inferior surfaces, a longitudinal 
 layer extending from the hyoid bone to the apex of the m. stylo-glossi, the 
 internal fibres of which are transverse, and mm. genio-glossi, the fibres of 
 which, curved above, pass vertically, and mm. hyo-glossi, which likewise enter 
 the tongue vertically between m. lingualis and stylo-glossi. In the centre of 
 the root, attached to the anterior surface of the Basis oss. hyoidei, a thin 
 lamina of cartilage is found, the inferior border of which lies between mm. 
 genio-glossi. 
 
 b. The lingual membrane, involucrum s. cutis lingua, thicker than the mu- 
 cous membrane of the mouth, and firmly attached to the places where it is 
 beset with papillae, is covered with Epithelium (periglottis}. It forms besides 
 the frenulum lingua, 3 ligg. glosso-epiglottica, from the root of the tongue to the 
 Epiglottis, and several triangular folds, fimbria lingua, under the borders of 
 the tongue. 
 
 c. Lingual, or gustatory papillae, papilla lingua, are small elevations upon 
 the back and edges of the tongue, composed of condensed uniting tissue, and 
 provided with capillary vessels and delicate nerve filaments. 
 
 1. Papillae, vallatce, s. truncate s. calirince, 7 16 20, in the form of a 
 capital V (the apex behind the last called foramen ccecum s. Meibomii) at the 
 root of the tongue, like an inverted cone, surrounded all round with a fossa 
 and a wall. 
 
 2. Pap. conicte, filiformes, the smallest and most numerous, lying on the 
 apex and the anterior part of the back of the tongue, in an oblique direction 
 from before, backwards. 
 
 3. Pap. knticulares s. fungiformes, which, shaped like a club, are found dis- 
 persed between the Pap. conicee. At the edges obliquely inwards towards 
 the root of the tongue, we find four or five parallel fissures beset with nervous 
 papillae; these are ruga transverse jUrnoldi (s. pap. lingualis foliata, Mayer). 
 
 Uniting and adipose tissue is dispersed particularly at the posterior part of 
 the tongue. 
 
 Vessels : Jirtt. and Ven. linguales, palatinte and pharyngea inferiores. 
 Nerves: 1. Hypoglossus. 2. Ram. lingualis N. quinti. 3. Glosso^pharyngea. 
 Movements : (see Muscles, before.) 
 
 430. 2. Salivary glands of the mouth, glandulx salivales oris. 
 
 a. The parotid, gl. parotis, is larger than the other salivary glands, irregular 
 in shape, and placed before and below the auricle of the ear. 
 
 Basis, or external surface : broad, oblong, covered by fascia parotidea, m. 
 risorius, and skin. 
 
 Anterior surface : concave, surrounds the posterior border of ramus maxillar. 
 infer., separated from it by uniting tissue ; behind m. pterygoideus intern., lig. 
 stylo-maxillare, m. masseter, from the external surface of which it is separated 
 by rami n.farialis, loose uniting tissue, and art. transversa faciei. 
 
 Posterior surface, likewise concave, lies against the cartilage of the external 
 
- 
 THE VISCERA. 199 
 
 auditory meatus, firmly united to it, before Proc. mastoideus, Mm. Stemo-cleido- 
 mast. and digastric, (post, belly.) 
 
 The internal edge is bounded by Proc. Styloideus and the muscles arising 
 from it. Between mis and m. pterygoideus internus we find a prolongation, 
 with a groove for Art. carotis externa. The superior border lies under Arcus 
 zygomat. and Artie. temporo-maxiUar. The inferior extremity fills the space 
 between angulus maxittar. inf. and m. sterno-cleido-mast. separated from the gl. 
 submaxiUaris by a fibrous septum. 
 
 Withinside the gland are situated, Artt. temporalis, transv. faciei, auriculares 
 anterr.; V. facial, posterior ; N. facialis and its plexus anserinus N. auricular. 
 from plexus cervicalis, but superficial ; (red) lymphatic glands. 
 
 Structure. Single acini are united into lobuli, which are held together by 
 the dense general envelope of the gl. parotis. 
 
 The Excretory duct, ductus Stenonianus, arising from the associated ducts of 
 all the acini, passes out from the centre of the anterior border of the gland, 
 crosses horizontally forwards (below art. transv. faciei) five or six lines under 
 the zygoma, over the external surface, to the anterior border of the m. mas- 
 seter, curves at this point around a mass of fat, perforates it and m. buccinator 
 vertically, and passes for some lines between it and the mucous membrane, 
 until it opens in the region of the first and second molar teeth. It is thicker 
 at the anterior than at the posterior extremity; it consists of an internal (mu- 
 cous) and an external coat, and is rather extensible. At the posterior ex- 
 tremity a small lobule is sometimes attached, parotis accessoria. 
 
 The vessels of the Parotis are numerous : Artt. are branches of the temporal., 
 transvers. and auricularis. Vv., like the nerves, form a plexus parotideus, and 
 fall into V. facial, posterior. Vas. lymph, enter the lymphatic glands at the 
 angul. maxitt. and those before the external auditory meatus. 
 
 Nerves: they are branches ofplex. anserinus and N. auricular, anter. 
 
 b. The submaxillary gland, glandula submaxillaris, oblong, flat, bipartite, 
 placed, partly, on the internal surface of the basis max. inf., covered externally 
 and below by fasc. cervical., v. facial, ant., m. platysma myoides, and skin ; in- 
 ternally, by nerv. lingualis and hypoglossus and m. hyo-glassus, with a groove 
 (behind) for Art. maxiUar. externa ; meets behind with the post, belly of m. 
 digastricus ; surrounds in front the posterior border of m. mylo-hyoideus ; and 
 connected, above the last, with gl. subling., it gives off at this point its excre- 
 tory duct, the 
 
 Ductus Whartonianus, shorter, more delicately membranous, but wider than 
 the d. Stenon., passes obliquely from below upwards, and from without in- 
 wards, parallel with n. hypogloss. and lingualis, at the commencement be- 
 tween m. mylo-hyoideus (above this) and hyo-glossus, then between m. genio- 
 glossus and gl. sublingualis, on its internal surface, always close beneath the 
 mucous membrane, and opens at the sides of frenulum lingua in the papilla 
 caruncula sublingualis, behind the inferior incisor teeth. 
 
 Vessels : Artt. are branches of maxillar. externa., Vv. pass into the ven. facia- 
 lis anter. 
 
 Nerves: they come from the gangl. maxillare nerv. lingualis. 
 
 c. The sublingual glands, glandula sublingualis, small, oblong, flat, in a fossa 
 of the lower jaw close to Spina internamenti, projects inwards into the cavity 
 of the mouth, covered at this spot with mucous membrane only, close to the 
 frenulum they rest upon m. mylo-hyoideus (between the two gangl. sublinguale) ; 
 the internal surface is directed towards m. genio-glossus and separated from 
 the last by N. lingualis, ductus Wharton., V. ranina. The anterior extremity of 
 
200 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 one sublingual gland meets that of the other ; the posterior extremity and the 
 inferior border surround the nerv. lingualis. 
 
 The excretory ducts : 1, d. Bartholinianus opens upon the caruncula sub- 
 lingualis, or unites with the duct. Whartonianus. 2. d. Riviani; from seven 
 to twelve small ducts open along the frenulum upon the mucous membrane of 
 the mouth, or are associated with the ductus Bartholin. 
 
 Vessels: Artt. and Vv. are branches of sublingualis. 
 
 Nerves : branches of ram. lingualis trigemini with gang, sublinguak. 
 
 431. 3. The teeth, denies, mordices, are bone-like bodies, 
 fixed (per gomphosiri) into the alveoli of the jaws, thirty-two in 
 number (in the full-grown adult), consisting of a soft nucleus sur- 
 rounded by a hard, brittle, osseous substance (dentine) and the 
 enamel. The crown, corona dentis, projects freely into the mouth, 
 covered with enamel; the neck, collum,is a smaller portion sur- 
 rounded by the gums ; the root, radix, is fixed into the alveolus 
 (socket). Both the alveoli and the roots of the teeth are covered 
 with a delicate, highly vascular periosteum, which enters the 
 cavity in the interior of the tooth through a fine foramen at the 
 extremity of the root, and surrounds the nucleus. 
 
 a. Incisor teeth, d. indsivi s. primores, 
 
 4 superior, 
 
 4 inferior, 
 
 in the centre, at the anterior part of the arcus alveolar es. The crown is chisel- 
 shaped, convex in front, concave behind, the free edge sharp and broader 
 than the basis, which is thicker; the root is single (rarely double), conical, flat 
 at the sides, obtuse at the point. The superior incisors are stronger than the 
 inferior, the central (superior) stronger than the external. The superior 
 converge downwards ; the external inferior diverge upwards. 
 
 b. Corner, canine teeth, d. canini s. cuspidati, 
 
 2 superior (eye teeth), 
 
 2 inferior, 
 
 the one by the side of the external incisors, are the longest, especially the 
 superior. The crown thick, irregular, conical, triangular, pointed; the root 
 longer (especially the superior) and thicker than the rest of the teeth, single. 
 The inferior canine teeth are received (when the teeth are closed) between 
 the superior canine and external incisors. 
 
 c. Back, masticating teeth, d. molares. 
 
 10 superior, 
 10 inferior, 
 
 five upon each side, next to the canine tooth. The crown is short, almost 
 cubical, the free extremity quadrangular and uneven; root compound. 
 
 We distinguish: 1. dent, molares minores ; these are the two anterior next 
 the corner teeth. Their crown is small, with two tubercles (bicuspidati') ; 
 
 4 superior, 
 4 inferior; 
 
THE VISCERA. 201 
 
 their root single, flat, or (rarely) slightly bifurcated. The superior are 
 stronger; the root of the second superior bicuspis is usually bifurcated. 
 
 2. D. molares majores, the three posterior back teeth (the last called dens 
 sapientice). have a low broad crown with three or four tubercles (<ri, quadri- 
 cuspidati.) and two, three, or four at one time parallel, at another diverging, 
 or hooked, curved roots ; those of the wisdom teeth are united into a single 
 root. Lent, molar, major. 
 
 6 superior, 
 6 inferior, 
 
 [Dental formula: 
 
 I 
 
 'ft 
 I 
 
 "Z 
 3 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 I 
 
 jj 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 ~ i' 
 
 r' 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I I 
 
 J 1 
 
 | 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 2 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 2 
 
 9 
 
 4 i__i 55 
 
 Incisors Canines Molars =32. TRAXS.] 
 
 4 i_i 55 
 
 Elements of the teeth. 
 
 1. Dentine, substantia ossea s. ebur, forms the principal mass and the founda- 
 tion of the teeth, is marrowless and non-vascular, formed of layers not of 
 canals, harder and more transparent than the (common) substance of the 
 bones, of which a thin layer covers the external and internal surfaces of the 
 root of the tooth. It is yellowish white, iridescent, consisting of concentric 
 layers and parallel longitudinal fibres and especially rich in Chondrin. This 
 last is wanting in 
 
 2. The Enamel, subst. vitrea s. corticalis, which covers the crown, is bluish 
 white, very hard (resisting the file) and heavy, presents horizontal fibres, 
 and is said to be deposited from a peculiar organ, membrana adamantina 
 (Purkinje). 
 
 1. Subst. ossea. 2. Subst. vitrea. 
 
 Phosphate of lime - - 61 '95 
 
 magnesia - - ]-05 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 5-30 
 
 Fluoride of calcium - - 2*10 
 
 Soda and common salt - - 1*40 
 
 Cartilage and water - - 28-00 
 
 Phosphate of lime - - 85-3 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 8'0 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia - - 1'5 
 
 Membranes, soda and water - 02 
 
202 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 3. The nucleus, germ of the tooth, nucleus s. pulpa dentis, lies in the cavity 
 of the tooth, cavum dentis, the shape of it being determined by that of the 
 cavity; it is a reddish body, consisting of uniting tissue, capillary vessels and 
 nerves, surromuled by a thin and very sensitive membrane. The arteries 
 come from Art. maxillar. internet. (Artt. alveolar, anter., poster., and infer.') ; the 
 veins open into Ven. fadalis ant. and post. ; the nerves are branches of ram. 
 maxillar. super, and inferior (N. alveolar, ant., poster, and inferior}. 
 
 432. The tissue of the gums, gingiva (oi&ov), thicker and 
 more firm than the mucous membrane of the mouth, the continu- 
 ation of which it is, covers the alveolar processes of the jaws, 
 and is connected with the periosteum by a very vascular, loose 
 uniting tissue. It turns over the free edge of the alveolus for 
 about a line broad, and then passes into the periosteum of the 
 alveoli. It is provided with the glandul. tartaricdK, mucous 
 glands, which deposit the so-called tartar; little sensitive when 
 cut, more when pressed; becomes hard like cartilage after the 
 teeth have fallen out, when it covers over the alveoli. Arteries : 
 coronar. super., submental., sublingual. Nerves: from n. 
 quintus. 
 
 433. Development of the Teeth. 
 
 a. Before their eruption. The jaws of a two to three months' fetus pre 
 sent a broad and deep fossa, which is divided by thin septa into cells, and 
 closed upon the free border by a whitish and firm fibrous tissue (dental car- 
 tilage). 
 
 At the time when the dental sacculi form, prolongations of the dental car- 
 tilage go to the floor of each cell, line it from without, and leave a small 
 opening, only, for the entrance of the vessels and nerves. 
 
 The dental sacculi, folliculi dentium, are closed membranes, filled with a 
 reddish, viscous fluid, four of which appear in the middle of the third month, 
 and six in the fourth month, in each jaw. 
 
 The tooth germ, pulpa dentis, elevates itself at first in the fourth month, 
 from the flood of the sacculus, as a papilla-shaped body, the thin pedicle of 
 which forms the dental vessels and nerves, increases by degrees into the sac- 
 culus, it becomes the nucleus about which the tooth (the crown first) forms. 
 In the fifth month ossification commences, that is to say, thin elastic discs of 
 dentine are deposited upon the surface of the pulpa, and indeed, so many as 
 the tooth at a later period is said to have tubercles. At a later period they 
 coalesce and become strengthened by new discs annexed to them from within. 
 But the enamel is not deposited from the pulpa, nor even from the reddish 
 fluid which washes round it, but from the lamina of the dental sacculus turned 
 towards the cell, and, indeed, from an enlargement at the top of the crown 
 to which last it is applied, at first (even in the mature foetus) as a soft and 
 moist mass. 
 
 In the fifth month the central, then the external, incisor teeth form and 
 become ossified; in the sixth month, the first molar, the canine, the second 
 molar teeth. 
 
 b. Eruption of the (milk) teeth, dentition, eruptio dentium, dentitio prima> 
 When after the birth of the child the roots of the teeth have reached the 
 floor of the dental cells, the gum, in consequence of their farther growth, is 
 pressed upon, inflames, and thence becomes perforated. 
 
THE VISCERA. 203 
 
 It happens in the following order. At the seventh month the central in- 
 ferior, after them the remaining (generally, the central superior, first) incisor 
 teeth ; at the end of the first year the first molars ; in the middle of the second 
 year the inferior canine, later the superior, and, at the end of the second year, 
 the second molars ; in the whole twenty teeth. 
 
 [Formula: incisors -; canine - -; molars - - = 20. TRANS.] 
 4 1 I & <s> 
 
 These milk temporary teeth, d. lactanies s. temporarily remain until the or 
 seventh year, when they make room for the permanent, d. permanentes. The 
 milk teeth are smaller and narrower, the crown and root do not pass gradually 
 into one another, but are separated by a kind of circle ; the (superior) first 
 temporary molar has three roots (the permanent only one) ; the (inferior) 
 first temporary molar, a crown with several and sharp points, and a double 
 root; the second temporary molar a broad crown and five points, with a 
 double or three-fold root. 
 
 c. The change of teeth, mutatio dentium, dentitio secunda. The (thirty-two) 
 permanent teeth are also developed from dental sacculi, of which those which 
 ought to occupy the places of the twenty temporary teeth are situated in the 
 same cell with them, the twelve to be newly added in their own proper cells. 
 The germs form in the following order: in the fifth month of embryonic 
 life the germ of the third molar tooth arises, in the eighth month that for the 
 remaining incisor teeth, at the end of the first year that for the canine, and 
 rather later that for the fourth molar; in the eighth month after birth the 
 germ for the first and second ; in the fourth year that for the last molar. 
 
 The decadence of the temporary teeth is preceded by a diminution of the 
 artery which passes to each, whereby the root of the tooth is first absorbed, 
 and the bony canal of the artery contracted ; then, in the ninth year, quite 
 closed. 
 
 The eruption of the permanent teeth takes place in the following order : 
 
 C The middle pair of the superior, later, that of 
 In the seventh year appear < the inferior Incisors. 
 The three Molar teeth. 
 
 In the eighth year - T te SUpe r 
 
 The Canine. 
 
 In the ninth year The first and second Molars (below and above). 
 
 In the twelfth to the thir- 
 
 teenth year 
 
 In the fourteenth or later The fourth Molar, and 
 Between the twentieth and > , . , 
 
 thirtieth 5 The last f Wlsd m teeth ' 
 
 d. The decadence of the teeth in old age is normal, and appears to be 
 effected by the pulp of the tooth, by degrees, ossifying, and the nourishing 
 vessels becoming obstructed. The cells also in which the teeth are seated 
 fill with bone earth (the teeth become apparently longer), their edges become 
 absorbed, and, in consequence, the jaws lower, the gum, after the decadence 
 of the teeth, draws over the free surface, and becomes cartilaginous (as it was 
 before in the suckling). The decay of the teeth appears also to be in con- 
 nection with the grinding away and loosening of the enamel ; the crown is 
 already worn even before the teeth are completely perfect 
 
 Anomalies in the number of the teeth. Most frequently the wisdom, 
 
204 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 sometimes the first molar, rarely the external incisor teeth, remain unde- 
 veloped. Occasionally some molar teeth exceed the number (more frequently 
 in Negroes). With many children the eruption of the milk teeth takes place 
 before birth. A third mutation sometimes occurs with the posterior molar 
 and the incisor teeth. 
 
 434. 5. The Pharynx, 
 
 a funnel-shaped muscular semi-canal behind the nasal and oral 
 cavities and the larynx, in the central line before the five superior 
 cervical vertebrae, at the superior part called the fauces, is closed 
 above, behind and at the sides, but before and below (where it 
 passes into the oesophagus) open. Narrower than the mouth, but 
 wider than the (Esophagus, its breadth measures above (between 
 the posterior borders of the internal wings of the P. pterygoidei) 
 about one inch, farther down (between the posterior extremities 
 of the alveoli) two inches [during contraction of the muscles only 
 one inch], still deeper (between the inferior cornua of the thyroid 
 cartilage) rather above one inch [to almost complete closure 
 during contraction of the muscles]. Length : four to four and a 
 half inches [may be elongated to about five and a half, shortened 
 to two and a half inches]. 
 
 The external surface is formed of a muscular coat, behind, 
 united with the fascia cervicalis (profunda) by loose uniting tis- 
 sue, and is situated before mm. recti capit. antic., and longus 
 colli; is at the sides separated from m. pterygoideus intern, by 
 a triangular (below broad) space, in which are found: Carotis 
 interna, V. jugular, intern., Nn. vagus, glosso-pharyng., hypo- 
 glossus, accessor. Willis., farther down many lymphatic glands 
 and Carotis externa. Above (the roof) it is attached to the pars 
 basilar. ossis occipitis. 
 
 The internal surface is covered with mucous membrane. The 
 anterior wall is wanting; instead, we see: 1. The two posterior 
 nasal openings. 2. The superior surface of velum palatinum, 
 above which the fluid from the nose flows into the posterior part 
 of the mouth. 3. The semicircular isthmus faucium. 4. The 
 superior opening of the larynx closed by the epiglottis. 5. The 
 posterior surface of the larynx. The posterior wall is even 
 broader above than below. The lateral parietes with the open- 
 ing for the tuba Eustachii (at the same elevation as the posterior 
 extremities of the inferior turbinate bones). 
 
 The limit between the pharynx and oesophagus is indicated 
 by: the narrowness of the tube, the paleness and the altered 
 direction of the muscular fibres of the latter. 
 
 Muscles (see Myology). Fasciae: 1. F. pharyngea posterior arises from the 
 inferior surface of pars basilaris, tuba Eustachii, and serves for the attachment 
 
THE VISCERA. 205 
 
 of the mm. constrictor pharyng. 2. F. pkaryngea lateralis arises from os 
 pctrosum (at the internal border of the inferior opening of canal. caroticusY 
 passes to the lateral wall of the Pharynx, attaches itself in the fossa pterygoid. 
 between m. pterygoid. intern, and circumflex, palati, with a process to the m. 
 buccinatorius, covers the tonsils, and attaches itself to the superior border of os 
 hyoideum. 
 
 Vessels : Branches of Art. pharyngea ascendens, thyreoidea super, and infer., 
 palatina ascend, and pterygo-palatina. 
 
 Veins : they form plex. pharyngeus. 
 
 Nerves: plex. pharyngeus superior and inferior (from N. vagus, glosso-pha- 
 ryngeus, accessor. Willis, and sympathicits^ and ganglion spheno-palatinum. 
 
 435. 6. The (Esophagus, 
 
 a flat, extensible, muscular canal, from eight to nine inches long, 
 reaches from the fifth cervical vertebra as far as the tenth dorsal, 
 that is, from the inferior opening of the pharynx to the superior 
 of the stomach ; narrowest in the cervical region, widest at the 
 inferior extremity ; and closed in the remaining portion, since the 
 anterior comes in contact with the posterior wall. 
 
 a. Cervical portion : 1. covered in front by the trachaea, to the 
 left (as the oesophagus deviates to the left) by m. sterno-thyreoid- 
 eus (sinister), the thyroid gland, N. recurrens (sinist.), Art. and 
 Ven. thyreoidea infer. ^ connected above by condensed uniting 
 tissue with the trach&a; 2. behind, attached by loose uniting 
 tissue to the vertebral column; N. recurrens dexter; 3. at the 
 sides: the thyroid gland, Carotis communis, Ven. jitgularis in- 
 terna. 
 
 b. The thoracic portion passes along the posterior mediastinum. 
 1. Before it are placed: the trachaea, and farther down the 
 bronchus sinister, arcus aortas, and lastly the pericardium (with 
 the basis and posterior surface of the heart) ; below n. vagus 
 sinister. 2. Behind it: the vertebral column ; separated from it 
 by uniting tissue, lymphatic glands, Ven. azygos and ductus 
 thoracicus (above) ; quite below: Aorta thoracica and N. vagus 
 dexter. 3. At the sides: the lungs, separated from it by the 
 middle mediastinum ; the whole length of N. vagus; to the 
 right (from the fourth dorsal vertebra) on ven. azygos, duct, 
 thorac.; to the left: Jlorta thoracica. In the thoracic portion 
 the (esophagus projects in a more marked manner to the right. 
 
 c. The abdominal portion, very short (rarely an inch), passes 
 through foram. cesophageum of the diaphragm, and is immedi- 
 ately enveloped by peritonaeum before and to the right of the left 
 lobe of the liver, behind embraced by lobulus Spigelii. 
 
 Structure. 1. Muscular coat, tunica externa, thick, above red, below paler: 
 consists of an external layer of longitudinal fibres, which descend from the 
 posterior surface of Cartilago cricoidea, and are lost in the first layer of the 
 
206 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 muscular coat of the stomach ; and of an internal layer of circular fibres, 
 which are lost in the third layer of the muscular coat of the same organ. 
 
 2. Mucous membrane, tunica internet, is connected with the last by a thin 
 layer of uniting tissue (tun. propria s. nerved) of a whitish and wrinkled 
 (rugous) appearance, with long folds beset with oblong mucous glands and 
 pavement epithelium. The oesophagus is surrounded externally by lymphatic 
 glands (gland, mediastince postic.}. 
 
 Vessels : Artt. cesophagea come to the cervical portion from thyreaid. infer. 
 to the thoracic : 1, direct from the Aorta ; 2, from bronchiales; 3, from inter- 
 cost ales (sometimes mammaria inierna ; to the abdominal portion: from 
 coronar. ventric. and phrenica inferior. 
 
 Veins correspond to the arteries, and open besides into Ven. cava. sup. and 
 azygos. Lymphatic vessels enter the numerous glands around the (Esophagus. 
 
 Nerves: vagus and ganglia thoracica of nerv. sympathicus ; form plexuses 
 before and behind the assophagus. 
 
 b. Parts below the Diaphragm. 
 436. 1. The Stomach, ventriculus, stomachus, 
 
 a membranous, curved sac, the shape of a flattened cone, which 
 is situated transversely in the superior region of the abdomen, 
 below the diaphragm, filling up the left regio hypochondriaca, 
 and extending as far as the right (passing through the reg. epigas- 
 trica). Direction: oblique from above downwards, and from 
 left to right. In this position it is maintained by (Esophagus, 
 Duodenum, and a fold of Peritoneum which attaches it to the 
 Liver and Spleen. 
 
 Parts of the Stomach: 1. Anterior wall; this is directed for- 
 wards and somewhat upwards, covered above by the heart, to the 
 left by the six last ribs, separated by the Diaphragm, to the right 
 by lobul. quadrat, of the liver, and before by the anterior ab- 
 dominal parietes (reg. epigastrica). 
 
 2. The posterior wall looks downwards and backwards, is 
 placed above the Colon transversum, before the Duodenum and 
 Pancreas; and rests upon Mesocolon transvers. * 
 
 3. Curvatura Major, that is, the inferior convex border which, 
 in the distended stomach, looks forwards, and to which the two 
 anterior laminae of the great omentum are attached (at this point 
 Jlrtt. gastro-epiploicse). 
 
 4. Curvatura Minor, that is, the superior concave border be- 
 tween Cardia and Pylorus. In the full stomach it looks upwards 
 and backwards, separated from the vertebral column by the Aorta, 
 and Diaphragm ; surrounds the small lobes of the liver, the tripus 
 cxliacus (Halleri) [caeliac axis] and plexus Solaris; to it is 
 attached the small omentum. 
 
 5. Fundus ventriculi, base of the stomach. This includes 
 the entire portion of the stomach situated to the left of the Cardia, 
 
THE VISCERA. 207 
 
 and terminating in a cul-de-sac. It is round, large in circum- 
 ference, separated by the Diaphragm above, from the lungs, be- 
 fore, from the six last ribs, applied, outwards, against the spleen 
 (thence portio splenica), and united with it by Lig. gastro-spleni- 
 cum and Vasa breria ; behind, against the Pancreas, left Kid- 
 ney, and Caps, supra-renalis. 
 
 6. Pars pylorica, at the right extremity of the stomach, is 
 bounded at its junction with the wider central portion of the 
 organ by a slight contraction, but at its union with the Duodenum, 
 in which it terminates, by a stronger ; before which, at the dis- 
 tance of one inch from the stomach, it takes a considerable curve 
 (upwards), and forms a small blind sac ; it looks to the right, 
 backwards and upwards ; lies under the liver and the small omen- 
 turn, above the great, before the Pancreas, behind the abdominal 
 walls between reg. epigastrica and hypochondriaca dextra ; not 
 uncommonly close to the gall-bladder. Pylorus s. ostium duo- 
 denale is situated behind the lobulus quadratus of the liver, leads 
 into the Duodenum, from which it is shut out (inwardly) by a 
 valve, valvula pylori. 
 
 7. Cardia s. ostium cesophageum, the mouth of the stomach, 
 lies at the left superior portion of the stomach between Curvatura 
 minor and Fundus ventriculi, close under foram. cesophag. of 
 the Diaphragm (with lig. phrenico-gastricum), embraced in front 
 by the left border of the liver, behind by the lobulus Spigelii 
 (behind the so-called cardiac fossa; yet not always). The 
 width of Pylorus and of Cardia measures about one inch. 
 
 Structure of the Stomach. 
 
 a. The mucous membrane, villous coat, a continuation of that of the ceso- 
 phagus, forms the most internal coat of the stomach. Very thin and exten- 
 sible, thicker and more solid than in the pars pylorica; it presents on its internal 
 free surface, covered with thin epithelium, a number of delicate linear eleva- 
 tions, villi, and between them innumerable openings of gastric juice glands 
 (surrounded by pentangular or hexangular vascular meshes), which are par- 
 ticularly strongly developed in the pars pylorica : on the Cardia the laminated 
 glandul. lenticulares. which do not open upon the surface. Besides numerous 
 folds which pass from the Cardia towards the Pylorus longitudinally, in straight 
 or wavy lines, intersected by others in an oblique direction, and which serve 
 for the enlargement of the stomach. A similar circular fold of mucous mem- 
 brane, between the layers of which the m. sphincter pylori lies, forms the Val- 
 vula pylori. 
 
 Besides the gastric juice, it secretes the common mucus. 
 
 b. T. vasculosa s. nervea is connected very firmly with the following, and 
 only loosely with the mucous membrane. 
 
 c. T. musculosa consists of three layers of pale red muscular fibres : 
 
 1. The external layer, formed of longitudinal fibres, which spread them- 
 selves out from the (Esophagus upon the cardia, and thence, in a radiated form, 
 upon fundus and curvatura major, arranged along the curvatura minor like a 
 band, are thicker and coarser at the pylorus, and pass over upon the duodenum. 
 
208 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 2. The middle, strongest layer, consists of circular fibres, which pass from 
 the (Esophagus to the valvula pylori, and terminate in the last with a thick ring, 
 as m. sphincter pylori. 
 
 3. The internal layer consists of oblique fibres (continuations of the circular 
 fibres of the oesophagus), which pass with a parabolic curve from the cardia, 
 and surround, especially, the fundus. 
 
 c. Serosa, the most external coat, is firmly attached, at some 
 distance from the curvatures, to the muscular coat ; it consists of 
 two layers of peritoneum, which pass from the liver to the sto- 
 mach at the curvatur. minor, cover its anterior and posterior 
 surfaces, unite again at the curvatur. major, and form at this 
 point the great omentum (see Peritoneum). Ligaments : omen- 
 turn minus (gastro-hepatic.), lig. phrenico-gastricum, splenico- 
 gastricum. 
 
 Vessels. 1. Art. at the small curvature: coronaria ventric. sinistra (from 
 A. aeliaca) ; coron. ventr. dextra (from hepatica) ; on the great curvature : gastro- 
 epiploicce (from hepatica and lienalis) ; at the fundus .- Artr. breves (from A. 
 lienalis) ; at the pyloric end : gastro-duodenalis. 2. Veins, the same names 
 taking a like course, collect in V. lienalis and coronar. ventr. dextra and open 
 into the V. porta. Lymphatics : pass into the glands along both curvatures. 
 
 Nerves. 1. N. vagus sinister, forms a plexus gastricus on the ant. surface; 
 nerv. vagus dexter, a similar on the posterior surface of the stomach ; shortly 
 (both) around the Cardia, and they are lost in the muscular coat. 2. Plexus 
 cceliac, formed by Nerv. sympathicus. 
 
 Development. In the foetus the fundus is small, the whole stomach directed 
 vertically ; in old age the pyloric portion, and especially m. pylori, is greatly 
 developed. 
 
 Function. Chymification, that is, the metamorphosis of the food into Chyme, 
 by means of the acid of the gastric juice (see Pepsin). 
 
 437. 2. Intestinal canal, canalis s. ductus intestinalis, 
 
 a tubular, membranous, greatly convoluted conduit, reaching from 
 the Pylorus to the Anus, and filling up the largest portion of the 
 lower belly. It is divided into a superior, longer, and at the same 
 time narrow portion (small intestines), and an inferior and also 
 wider (large intestines). Their coats are, from within outwards. 
 1. Mucous membrane. 2. Tunica propria s. nervea, a thin, 
 brilliant, white uniting tissue, firmly connected to the mucous 
 membrane and the interposed uniting tissue of the muscles, and 
 on this account is not generally expressly mentioned. 3. The 
 muscular coat, consisting of an internal layer of delicate circular, 
 and an external of longitudinal fibres (according to Mussy four 
 layers). 4. The serous coat or peritoneal investment. 
 
 438. a. The small intestine, intestinum tenue s. angustum, 
 
 extends from the regio umbilicalis and hypogastrica, through the 
 reg. lumbalis as far as reg. iliaca dextra, where it enters the 
 
THE VISCERA. 209 
 
 commencement of the large intestine (ca?cwm), and is separated 
 from it by a valve (valvula Bauhini} [Ileo-csecal and Ileo-colic]. 
 We divide it into : Duodenum [equal to the breadth of twelve 
 fingers] and mesenteric intestine (that is, Jejunum and Ileum as- 
 sociated together). The small intestine is distinguished by its 
 greater length (fourfold), its narrowness, and its structure, from 
 the large. 
 
 The mucous membrane of the small intestine is paler than that of the sto- 
 mach, and presents on its internal free surface, valvula conniventes, villi, and 
 glands. 
 
 1. Valvula conniventes Kerkringii consist of folds of the mucous membrane, 
 inside of which loose uniting tissue, vessels and nerves only are found. They 
 are placed vertically to the axis of the intestine, form one-half, two-thirds, or 
 three-fourths of a circle, are broadest in the centre (two to three lines), and 
 lie more or less parallel, close to, or in, the empty intestine, in an imbricated 
 manner over one another. They commence one to two inches below the 
 Pylorus, increase in number to about two-fifths of the mesenteric intestines, 
 and then decrease, until at the termination of the last they are altogether 
 wanting. The superficies of the intestine is said to be increased by their 
 presence about two, three, or even six fold. 
 
 2. Villi (papilla) cover the entire small intestine, the valv. conniventes as 
 well as the depressions between them. Number: undetermined; 4000 upon 
 one square inch. Length = 0-2 to 0*8 of a line. Shape: foliaceous (in man), 
 filiform (in the dog, cat) ; different in other animals. Structure: each villus 
 consists of uniting tissue, like the papillae of the corium and tongue, extending 
 into a sheath of Epithelium (Henle) ; but containing, instead of nervous plex- 
 uses, a minute ramification from the lymphatic rete, surrounded by capillary 
 vessels (according to Lieberkxihn a cavity, ampulla, at the basis, and an open- 
 ing at the point, from which the Chyle- vessels proceed). The absorption of 
 the Chyle in all probability takes place without an opening in the villus. 
 
 3. Glands: a. Gland, solitaria, simple mucous follicles, are dispersed 
 through the whole of the small intestine ; they are the size of a millet seed, 
 push forward the mucous membrane beset with papillae, are hollow, (gene- 
 rally), closed, but surrounded by a coronet of obliquely placed open tubules 
 (gland. Lieberkuhnianaj?), which are said to communicate with their cavity 
 (Krause). They contain a clear, white, or granular substance, and are some- 
 times open, in a congested condition, appearing then as inversions of the Mu- 
 cosa (Henle). 
 
 b. Gland. Peyeriante are distinguished from the solitary, merely by their 
 occurring in masses (gl. agminatce), and possessing thinner walls which, like 
 those of the latter, are also structureless. These accumulations of glands are 
 elliptical, lying in the longitudinal axis (of the small intestines) on the convex 
 border, opposite to the attachment of the mesentery; particularly abundant at 
 the termination of the Ileum, decreasing in number towards the Duodenum. 
 They are also surrounded by a coronet of tubules, and are sometimes open. 
 
 c. Gland. Brunnerianee (pancreas secundarium) are flat, oval, lenticular, 
 racemose glands, divided into lobules (gl. acinorum composite), which project 
 more outwardly than towards the mucous membrane. Disseminated in 
 masses they are found in the pars horizont. super, of the duodenum, but only 
 singly. They open with wide mouths. 
 
 14 
 
210 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 d. Gland, s. cryptte Lieberkuhniana are very small eversions of the mucous 
 membrane externally, which give to the last a cribriform appearance, lie be- 
 tween the basis of the villi, and are said to contain the commencements of 
 the lymphatics. 
 
 439. a. Duodenum, the bile intestine, equal in length to 
 about the breadth of twelve fingers (eight to eleven inches), com- 
 mences at the Valvula pylori and terminates without any definite 
 boundary line to the left of the lumbar vertebrae, behind the art. 
 and ven. mesenterica superior. Figure : in the form of a horse- 
 shoe, with the concavity directed to the left, in which we find 
 the head of the Pancreas. 
 
 1. The superior portion, pars horizontalis superior, about two 
 inches long, passes to the right and backwards, from the pylorus 
 to the neck of the gall bladder, which lies over it and is attached 
 to it by a fold of peritonaeum. It is more moveable than the fol- 
 lowing parts. Before it lie the lig. gastro-colic. and the abdom. 
 ivalls. Behind it, Vasa hepatica and lig. gastro-hepatic. 
 
 2. The descending portion, p. descendens (s. renalis], two to 
 two and a half inches long, describes above, with the last portion, 
 an acute angle, descends vertically rather to the left (of first to 
 fourth lumbar vert.), behind the right extremity of the Colon 
 transv., crossing with it, before the concave border of the right 
 kidney, close to Ven. cava and duct, choledochus. Below the 
 centre of the posterior internal surface the duct, choledoc. and 
 pancreat. open into it. On its right side, Colon ascendens; on 
 
 the left, the head of the Pancreas. 
 
 3. The inferior portion, p. horizontalis inferior, passes off at 
 a right angle with the last portion backwards and to the left, 
 separated, before, from the stomach by a layer of omentum ; be- 
 hind, from the vertebral column by the Jlorta, V. cava, and the 
 crura of the Diaphragm ; along its superior border, Pancreas ; at 
 the inferior border, meso-colon transversum. 
 
 Structure, a. The mucous membrane of the Duodenum is distinguished 
 from that of the rest of the small intestines by : 
 
 1. In the pars horizontal, sup., the valv. conniventes are wanting. 
 
 2. The villi are cup-shaped, or in the form of a chaplet. 
 
 3. Gland. Brunner. predominate, especially in the superior half, and are 
 lost at the inferior extremity, where they pass as gland, solitarice over the rest 
 of the small intestines. 
 
 4. Gland. Peycriante are (almost) entirely wanting. 
 
 5. On the posterior internal wall (at the inferior extremity) we find the 
 opening of duct, choledochus and pancreaticus united together or separate (diverti- 
 culum Vateri). 
 
 b. The muscular coat is thicker in the Duodenum than in the remainder of 
 the small intestine. 
 
 c. The serous (Peritonfeurn) covers the p. horizontal, super., above and 
 below only, and passes, in front, into the large, behind, into the small omen- 
 
THE VISCERA. 211 
 
 turn; the descending and inferior portions are only covered by it in front, 
 their posterior surface being attached by uniting tissue to the parts lying be- 
 hind. The Duodenum is therefore little moveable. 
 
 Vessels : Art. and Ven. gastro-dttodenalis (from the Hepatica) for the superior 
 portion, Art. mesenterica super, for the inferior. Lymphatics : they pass into 
 the glands above the Pancreas. 
 
 Nerves : they come from Plex. ccdiacus and hepatic. 
 
 Function of the Duodenum : the metamorphosis of the Chyme into Chyle by 
 the bile and the succus pancreaticus. 
 
 440. b. The Jejunum (the empty) and fleum (the convo- 
 luted) mesenteric intestine, the most moveable, attached by a fold 
 of peritoneum (mesenterium) to the vertebral column and the 
 longest portion of the small intestine, passes from the termination 
 of the duodenum at first backwards and forwards and from right 
 to left, winds in many convolutions (gyri) through the reg. umbi- 
 licalis and hypogastrica into the small pelvis, whence it ascends, 
 lying between rectum and bladder, transversely from left to right, 
 and (before m. psoas), to enter vertically the large intestine. 
 Commencement: to the left of the second lumbar vertebra; 
 termination : in the fossa iliaca dextra. The interval between 
 the two points being four inches in length. The length of the 
 mesenteric intestine measures nineteen feet; the width in the 
 superior part = 6 4 inches, in the centre = 4 2, at the terminal 
 portion = 3 5, and at the termination itself = 4 5. The greater 
 the width the more deficient in length. Shape : cylindrical. To 
 the posterior concave border the mesenterium is attached. The 
 anterior convex border is separated from the abdominal parietes 
 by the great omentum. Each convolution is almost entirely 
 circular. It is not uncommon to find at the inferior part of the 
 mesenteric intestines finger-shaped appendages (diverticula), two 
 to three inches long, which occasion hernix (hernias Littricse). 
 
 Structure, a. The mucous membrane is distinguished by : 
 
 1. Valv. conniventes Kerk. 
 
 2. Glandul. Peyeriame, on the anterior intestinal wall. 
 
 3. Valvula Bauhini s. Fallopia s. Tulpii s. Ileo-cacal consists of a fold of 
 mucous membrane which projects into the large intestine at the termination 
 of the small, becomes reflected, and passes over upon the caecum. Between 
 the two layers of the fold (valve) lie circular muscular fibres. The ends of 
 the valve are called Frenula Morgagni. 
 
 [Another fold projects towards the colon, V. Heo-colicJ] 
 
 b. The muscular coat is thinner at the commencement than farther down. 
 
 c. The serous coat (Peritonaeum) completely covers the mesenteric intes- 
 tine, except a small stripe at the part to which the two layers of the mesen- 
 tery are attached. 
 
 Vessels : Art. inlestinales from the a. mesenterica super. Veins : they open 
 in the V. mesenterica major (branch of Ven. portaf) the Lymphatics are the 
 Lacteals, and go into the glands of the mesentery. 
 
 Nerves : from plexus mesentericus. 
 
 Function of the mesenteric intestine : absorption of the Chyle. 
 
212 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 441. c. The large intestine, inteslinum crassum s. amplum, 
 
 extends from the Valvula Bauhini as far as the Anus, surround- 
 ing the small intestine almost like a ring, since it ascends from the 
 inferior part of reg, iliaca dextra into the r. hypochondriac a dextra 
 as high as the liver, passes from this point with a sudden turn 
 transversely across, below the stomach, to the left side as far as the 
 spleen, curves once more and descends vertically as far as the reg. 
 iliaca sinistra, whence it sinks down into the small pelvis forming 
 the sigmoid flexure, and terminates with the rectum. Its length 
 measures four to five feet, its width varies (see below). 
 Shape : tubular with irregular surfaces. 
 
 Structure : 1. Mucous membrane, whiter, thicker, and coarser than that of 
 the small intestine, contains no villi, but, instead, irregularly arranged folds, 
 between which numerous mucous glands open (gl. Lieberkuhn.} no valvula 
 conniventes, but, instead, crescentic transverse and longitudinal folds. 
 
 2. The muscular coat is stronger than in the small intestine. 
 
 3. Serous coat (Peritonauni) less complete than in the mesenteric intestine ; 
 the Colon transvers. alone has a complete mesentery. It forms in several 
 places, especially on the Colon, semi-circular, depending folds, beset with fat 
 (appendices adiposa s. epiploicte), which wind around and tie together the in- 
 testine. 
 
 Function : For the formation, keeping, and expulsion of the faecal matter. 
 In the foetus the large intestine is filled up with meconium. 
 
 442. a. The Caecum, 
 
 is the most superior portion of the large intestine, ending in a 
 cul-de-sac. It lies in the fossa iliaca dextra, covered on the an- 
 terior surface only by peritonaeum, and therefore little moveable ; 
 (it nevertheless sometimes sinks down into the pelvis, and con- 
 tributes to form hernias;) generally in a vertical direction (that is, 
 in the same as Colon ascendens',] next to the stomach the thickest 
 part of the alimentary canal ; of an oblong, sacciform, and irregular 
 shape, provided below (behind and to the left) a few lines beneath 
 the valv. Bauhini and above its terminal cul-de-sac, with a pro- 
 cess, proc. s. appendix vermiformis (one to six lines long), about 
 as thick as a goose-quill, and terminated by a closed end, which is 
 attached by a triangular fold of peritonaeum (mesenteriolum ap- 
 pendicis], and is frequently pushed between colon ascend, and 
 kidney. 
 
 In front the caecum touches the abdominal parietes. (The small 
 intestine often passes between them.) 
 
 Behind it rests upon M. iliacus intern., separated from it by 
 fasc. iliac o-lumb alis, and from this by loose uniting tissue. 
 
 Internally the Caecum receives the small intestine at an obtuse 
 angle above. 
 
THE VISCERA. 213 
 
 Structure. The mucous membrane presents : 1. Pocket-like recesses which 
 correspond to the elevations, and transverse folds corresponding to the inden- 
 tations on the outer surface of the intestine. 
 
 2. Valvula Bauhini s. iko-c&calis (see small intestine). The fold which 
 passes from the Caecum, has entirely the characters of its mucous membrane. 
 ^Depressions, or alveoli, are seen on the surface of the m. membrane of 
 Caecum.] 
 
 3. The opening of the vermiform process. 
 
 4. The muscular coat consists of longitudinal fibres, which are bound up 
 in three flat stripes (tera'<z) as broad as a finger, and with transverse circular 
 fibres, by which the vesicular and cellular elevations (cellula, loculamenta) are 
 formed. 
 
 5 Serous coat (jteriton<eum) is wanting on (upper part) the posterior surface 
 of the intestine. 
 
 Vessels: branches of Jlrt. and Ven. Heo-colica (appendicularis, c.), from me- 
 aenter. superior. 
 
 Nerves : come from plexus mesenteric. sup. 
 
 443. b. The Colon, 
 
 encircles the mesenteric intestine in the shape of a horse-shoe, 
 commencing without any distinct boundary line in the reg. iliaca 
 dextra, making a first curvature in the reg. hypochondriaca dex- 
 tra, a second in the reg. hypochond. sinistra, and a third in the 
 r. iliaca sinistra, in which it terminates with a sigmoid flexure. 
 Hence four portions arise. 
 
 1. Colon ascendens s. dextrum bounded below by the Caecum, 
 terminates as high as the gall bladder; is covered before by the 
 peritonaeum and the abdominal walls (from which it is sometimes 
 separated by the small intestine), behind by M. quadrat, lumb. 
 and the right kidney (without peritonaeum and only fixed to the 
 uniting tissue). On the inner side lie small intestines (as on the 
 external), m. psoas and p. transv. duodeni. 
 
 2. Colon transversum passes off at a right angle from the last, 
 below the stomach to a point under the spleen, is convex before, 
 concave behind, and very moveable (is often found in herniae). It 
 corresponds above with the liver and gall bladder, the stomach 
 and the inferior extremity of the spleen ; below, with the small 
 intestines ; before, with the abdominal walls (separated from it by 
 the two anterior layers of the great omentum) ; behind, with the 
 mesocolon transv. (mesentery, by which it is separated from 
 Doudenum and Pancreas). 
 
 3. Colon descendens s. sinistrum passes first backwards, then 
 forwards, on the posterior abdominal wall, before m. quadrat, 
 lumbor. and left kidney; commences rather deeper than 1., and 
 terminates in the 
 
 4. Sigmoid flexure, s.flexura iliaca, which lies in the fossa 
 iliaca sinistra, before, covered by the abdominal walls (in a state 
 
214 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 of distension), at the sides by the small intestines ; is attached, 
 behind, by mesocolon, and is very moveable. At the commence- 
 ment it rises somewhat upwards and backwards (to muse, iliac, 
 intern, sinist.), then descends vertically ; the termination curves 
 right or left, forwards or backwards as high as the basis oss. sacri, 
 where the rectum commences. 
 
 Structure. The external surface of the Colon presents, like that of the 
 Caecum, the tatnia, and loculamenta. On the Colon descend, and Sigmoid flexure 
 there are only two rows of elevations; these disappear lower down. 
 
 Mucous and muscular coat (see large intest). 
 
 Serous coat (peritonaurn) covers the colon ascendens and descendens on the 
 anterior wall, only, on which account the last is little moveable. On the con- 
 trary the Colon transfers., completely enveloped (inesocolon trans.), and, like 
 sigmoid flexure, is very moveable. 
 
 Vessels : For colon ascend, and right half of transv. branches of Art. mesente- 
 rica superior, Ven. mesent. major for the remainder of the Colon: Art. mesent. 
 infer, and Ven. mesent. minor. 
 
 Lymphatics : open into the glands on the attached border. 
 
 Nerves : Branches ofpkx. mesentericus sup. et inferior. 
 
 444. c. The Rectum, 
 
 the most inferior part of the intestinal canal, lies on the posterior 
 wall of the lesser pelvis in the curvature before the sacrum and 
 coccyx, commencing to the left of basis oss. sacri, and terminating 
 with the anal opening, anus, under fundus vesicse (or vagina in 
 the female), surrounded and attached all round by uniting tissue. 
 Curved, in front concave and behind convex, it inclines at the 
 apex of the coccyx rather backwards, and is removed from the 
 vagina (in the female) and from the urethra (in the male). Pos- 
 terior surface : above to the left, before the Symphys. sacro-iliaca 
 sinistra, separated by m. pyramidalis, plex. sacral, and vasa 
 hypogastrica, attached by mesorectum, below to the left of os 
 coccyg., covered by m. levator ani. From its middle (on three 
 false vertebrae of the sacrum) to its termination before the middle 
 line. The anterior surface (above free) corresponds in the male : 
 1. To the posterior surface of the urinary bladder (from which it 
 is separated, when filled up, by the small intestines), below to the 
 tindus vesicse (separated by the two vesicul. seminales). 2. The 
 Prostata, which projects over one of the two sides or both. 3. 
 The pars membran. urethras (separated by a triangle, the apex 
 backwards and upwards). In the female: 1. The superior free 
 portion, the lig. latum, Ovarium, tuba Fallopise sinistra, Uterus 
 and Vagina. 2. The inferior part close behind Vagina. 
 
 At the sides are situated, above, small Intestines, below, uniting 
 tissue. 
 
 Structure. 1. The mucous membrane is stronger and more red than in 
 
THE VISCERA. 215 
 
 the rest of the intestines ; it presents longitudinal folds (column* rugarum recti) 
 which disappear by distension; besides at the commencement and anus a 
 circular fold (plica annularis). 
 
 2. The muscular coat, like the mucous, is similar to that of the (Esophagus ; 
 it forms m. sphincter ani internus. 
 
 3. The serous coat (peritoneum) covers the anterior surface (of the supe- 
 rior half only). From the promontorium to the rectum there is a fold; this. is, 
 meso-rectum. 
 
 Vessels: A. heemorrhoidalis interna (from Jl. mesent. infer.'), hamorrh. med. 
 (from hypogast.), hcemorrh. inferior (from pudenda intern.}. Vv. form pkx. 
 hamorrh., from which arise Vv. hamorrh. (connection with Ven. portte). 
 Nerves : branches from plex. hypogastricus and sacralis (for voluntary motion), 
 and of N. sympathicus (for involuntary). 
 
 The JlnuS) Orificium 
 
 a narrow fissure, dilating in a circular form, lies in the central line at the pos- 
 terior part of the perinaeum, one inch in front of the coccyx, between the 
 tuberosities of the Ischia, and is generally closed. Its skin is brownish, rich 
 in sebaceous glands (in the male beset with hair), and passes in wrinkles into 
 the mucous membrane of the rectum. Muscles: see sphincter and lev. ani. 
 Arteries: branches of Hcemorrhoidales. Veins: very numerous, convoluted, 
 plexiform ; the most external roots of ven. portarum. Nerves : numerous from 
 plex. sacralis and sympathicus. 
 
 Meconium, a thick, viscous, scentless, dark green mass, fills the large intes- 
 tine of the foetus, and the younger the subject so much the more in quantity. 
 In the small intestine we find, instead of it, a thin, yellow, sometimes colour- 
 less mucous fluid. 
 
 445. Appendages. 1. The Liver, Hepar, Jecur. 
 
 The liver is a glandular organ, for the purpose of secreting bile. 
 Very large, oblong, quadrangular, it lies close under the dia- 
 phragm, enveloped by peritonaeum, protected externally by the 
 seventh and eighth last ribs, in reg. hypochond. dextra, and 
 reaches in a transverse and oblique direction as far as reg. hypo- 
 chond. sinistra. Weight : four to five pounds. Transverse diam. : 
 ten to twelve inches. Length (from behind forwards) : six to 
 seven inches. Thickness : four to five inches. Spec. grav. : 1*5. 
 
 a. Surfaces. 1. The superior surface, pars gibba, smooth, convex, to the 
 left more flat, lies close under the vault of the diaphragm, and before on the 
 abdominal walls, divided by lig. suspensorium into a larger right and a smaller 
 left portion (lobes). They are separated by the diaphragm from the concave 
 basis of the right lung, from the heart, and from the (seventh and eighth last) 
 ribs ; touches the abdominal walls in the reg. epigastr. and under the right 
 short ribs (where it comes forward, especially in sitting, when the body is 
 inclined forwards). 
 
 2. The inferior surface, pars sima, concave, directed backwards and out- 
 wards, lies over the right kidney, the flexura coli dextra, colon, transfers., pars 
 pylorica ventriculi, duodenum, and small omentum. It presents in the centre 
 two longitudinal grooves (fossae longitudinales), which are united by a trans- 
 verse groove (foss. transv. s. Porto), whereby an H-shaped excavation is formed, 
 
216 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 and the inferior surface is at the same time divided into four lobes, viz., a left, 
 an anterior central, a posterior central, and a right lobe. 
 
 REMARK. Many anatomists distinguish only a right (six times larger than 
 left) and a left inferior lobe, the boundary between them being the left longi- 
 tudinal fissure. 
 
 a a. The lobes. 1. The left lobe of the liver, lobus hepaticus sinister, smaller 
 (also on the superior surface) than the right, lies on the left side of the H, is 
 before concave (for the convexity of the stomach), as well as behind (for the 
 lobul. Spigelii, which the small omentum separates from it). It reaches 
 sometimes as far as the Spleen. 
 
 2. Anterior central, lobulus quadratus, before the transverse fissure, in the 
 centre of the H, quadrangular, small, terminates behind (frequently), nipple- 
 shaped. 
 
 2. Posterior central lobe, lobulus Spigelii s. caudatus, behind the transverse 
 fissure, between the posterior part of the right and left lobes of the liver, to 
 the right of the Cardia, on the Curvatura minor ; flat, crescentic, convex on 
 the free inferior border, which corresponds to the superior border of the 
 Pancreas; in the centre provided with a tubercle, tuberculum papillare s. 
 triangulare, surrounded by an anterior vascular ring (jt. coronar.ventric., hepatic., 
 spknicd) ; a small longitudinal projection (tuberc. caudatum) passes on the an- 
 terior part, obliquely, from the Porta to the right lobe, forwards, and separates 
 the impressio renalis from the impress, colica. 
 
 4. Right lobe of the liver, lobus dexter, smaller than upon the superior 
 surface, to the right of the two last described, separated from it by the right 
 longitudinal fissure, thicker than the left lobe, presents behind an impressio 
 renalis, to which is applied the superior third or half of the right kidney, 
 and before an impressio colica, for the flexura coli dext., and sometimes the 
 duodenum. 
 
 bb. Fossae or fissures: 1. The transverse fossa, porta, porta s. sinus vena: 
 porta (hilus hepatis), lies rather behind the centre, between the two longitudi- 
 nal fossa?, and separates the lobulus quadratus from /. Spigelii; is fifteen to 
 eighteen lines long and deep. It contains: Vena portce, Art. hepatica, the roots 
 of ductus hepaticus, numerous lymphatics, pkx. hepaticus from Nerv. sympathi- 
 es, surrounded by uniting tissue, capsuli Glissonii. Here commences also the 
 lig. gastro-hepaticum. 
 
 2. The right longitudinal fossa : 
 
 a. Anterior half, fossa vesica felkte, lies between lobus dexter and 
 quadratus; is not deep, and does not reach so far as the anterior border 
 of the liver ; receives the gall bladder. 
 
 b. Posterior half, fossa ven. cava, is sometimes closed in the form 
 of a canal ; it contains the inferior Ven. cava, into which the hepatic veins 
 open. 
 
 3. The left longitudinal fissure : 
 
 a. Anterior half,/ossa umbilicalis, is sometimes closed up like a canal, 
 lies between lobus sinister and quadratus, and contains : the umbilical 
 vein of the Embryo (that is, lig. teres, after birth). 
 
 b. Posterior half,/ossa ductus venosi, between lobus sinister and Spigelii; 
 containing in the embryo the ductus venosus Jlrantii, which, connected with 
 the umbilical cord and the left branch of the ven. portce, the blood of which 
 it carries into the vena cava inf., sinks behind lob. Spigelii into Ven. cava 
 inferior. It is obliterated after birth. 
 

 THE VISCERA. 217 
 
 c. The Borders. 1. The anterior border is thin, sharp, oblique from below 
 upwards, and directed from right to left; it presents to the left a deep in- 
 cision, incisura interlobularis, where Kg. teres ( V. umbilicalis) lies ; farther to the 
 right a notch, at which point \he fundus vesicte fetteae is seen; it projects under 
 the cartilages of the seventh to the tenth ribs into the epigastrium. 
 
 2. The posterior border is short and obtuse, rounded, attached to the dia- 
 phragm, being connected by uniting tissue ; to it the lig. coronar. hepatis a'ttaches 
 itself from the diaphragm above and underneath. To the left a deeper notch, 
 for Ven. cava. infer. ; to the right, for ductus venosus Arantii. The right ex- 
 tremity of the liver is smooth, rounded, massive (with Kg. triangular, dexter.) ; 
 the left extremity terminates in an angular or obtuse process (with lig. triangul. 
 rinistrum'). 
 
 Structure. The proper substance (Parenchyma) of the liver is reddish or 
 yellow ; in other persons, darker (of a clouded colour, between olive green 
 and chamois) ; close and lacerable. It divides into lobes, lobules, and gland 
 granules, acini; these are accumulations of closed, yellow, nucleated cells, two 
 to three lines long, half a line thick. The acini are seated like vine leaves 
 upon pedicles, which are ramifications of the vena hepatica, which spreads 
 itself out in their axis like the veins of a leaf. The surface of the acini is 
 surrounded by a capillary network of the most delicate branches of vena 
 portee, "which are in connection with ven. hepatica. From the blood of the 
 ven. porta the elements of the bile pass, probably, into the closed nucleated 
 cells ; but the connection of these with the biliary passages (ducts) has hitherto 
 remained unexplained. The ducts are best considered, with Henle, as in- 
 tercellular passages, which at first appear between the acini. The lobes and 
 lobules are connected by uniting tissue, which enters in from the surface. 
 The particular elements of the liver are: 
 
 Membranes: 1. The serous covering (PeritoiuKwri) of the liver covers it as 
 far as that part of the posterior border which is attached to the diaphragm, 
 and to the floor of the grooves. From it the following folds pass off: lig. 
 coronarium and suspensorium, lig. hepatico-gastricum, duodenale, and renale. 
 
 2. A fibrous investment covers the entire liver; is connected on its exter- 
 nal surface with the serous coat; in the interior, with the parenchyma. It 
 shows itself most distinctly in the porta, where it forms sheaths for the 
 vessels, that is, Capsula Glissonii, and cells for the lobes and lobules, since 
 prolongations extend from it into the interior of the organ. 
 
 Vessels: 1. Vena portte forms a trunk in the Porta, from which, after the 
 manner of arteries, right and left branches pass off, which ramify through all 
 parts of the interior of the liver, dividing at acute angles, but not dichoto- 
 mously, in a transverse direction, and are surrounded by sheaths of the 
 Capsula Glissonii. Its capillary rete surrounds the acini, and passes over into 
 the commencement of the hepatic veins. 
 
 2. Art. hepatica, a (small) branch of art. caeliaca, passes with the portal vein 
 and the biliary canals. Its capillary rete spreads out upon the parietes of the 
 vessels and biliary ducts almost exclusively, and unites with the rete of the 
 portal vein. 
 
 3. Vena hepatica:, which arise in all points of the liver as Venute centrales, 
 pass (in opposite directions from the lobes 1,2, and 4) backwards towards 
 Ven. cava infer., to which they convey the blood from the portal vein, and 
 from Art. hepatica. (They are without sheaths, and therefore remain patent 
 when divided transversely.) 
 
 4. The biliary passages, ductus biKferi, are narrow canals, which terminate 
 in a cul-de sac (?), spreading, like the branches of a tree, through the liver, 
 
218 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 are surrounded by a network of the capillaries of the ven. porta and hepatic 
 artery, and pass together into two large ducts (which, coming from the right 
 and left hepatic lobes, and covered in the porta by sheaths of the Capsula 
 Glissonii, unite together). According to E. H. Weber's latest researches, they 
 form, like the blood-vessels, an uninterrupted and just as close rete, the inter- 
 spaces being filled up with the vessels, so that the two together produce the 
 hepatic parenchyma; in the porta, blindly ending vasa aberrantia of the liver 
 are present. 
 
 5. Lymphatics: very numerous ; first discovered in the liver; they open, 
 partly, directly into the ductus thoracicus. 
 
 Nerves: 1. Branches of Vagus. 2. Plexus hepaticus N. sympath. 
 
 446. Apparatus for the excretion of the Bile. 
 
 a. The bile duct, ductus hepaticus s. excretorius hepatis, 
 
 arises by the association of the two biliary ducts before mentioned, 
 is from one to one inch and a half long, and from two to two and 
 a half lines thick. It passes out from the Porta behind the right 
 branch of Art. Hepatica, passes downwards and backwards in the 
 lig. gastro-hepatic., and divides into two ducts, one of which, the 
 left, ductus cysticus, leads into the gall bladder, the right, ductus 
 choledochus, into the Duodenum. Situation : to the right of art. 
 hepatic., to the left of ductus cysticus; before ven. portse. 
 
 447. b. The gall-bladder cystis s. vesica fellea, is a pear- 
 shaped sac, three to four inches long, situated on the inferior 
 surface of the liver, in the fossa cystica, it extends obliquely from 
 before backwards, from below upwards, and from right to left, 
 contains about eight to nine drachms. 
 
 We distinguish : 
 
 a. The fundus, the closed globular extremity which projects 
 at the anterior border of the liver, touching, in that place, the 
 abdominal walls (to the outer border of m. rectus, close to the 
 anterior extremity of the tenth rib). Behind, the fundus of the 
 gall bladder passes into the conical. 
 
 b. Body, corpus. This rests below upon the pars super, 
 duodeni and the right extremity of the colon, transv. (not un- 
 commonly also upon the right kidney or upon the pylorus). 
 Above it is attached by loose uniting tissue to the liver. 
 
 c. The neck, collum, is twisted like a screw. It lies, generally, 
 to the left, and passes under the Porta into the ductus cysticus, 
 at which point a contraction marks the limit between them, as 
 occurs* also, at its junction with the body. 
 
 Membranes. 1. A serous membrane (Peritonaum) covers the inferior sur- 
 face, only, of the gall bladder. 
 
THE VISCERA. 219 
 
 2. A fibrous (muscular) coat, consisting of an internal stronger layer of 
 longitudinal fibres, and an external of circular, similar to that of the vessels, 
 is united with the serous by areolar tissue, is little extensible, and connected 
 with the muscular coat of the intestinal canal. 
 
 3. Mucous membrane, villous, with short irregularly crossing folds (like a 
 net), beset with tn'tfi, greyish white, coloured yellow by the bile, presents at 
 the neck (where externally we remark the screw-like appearance) two small 
 valves, but which assist neither the entrance nor the exit of the bile. (The 
 space between the two is sometimes expanded like a sac, where gall-stones 
 men form.) The internal surface is covered with cylindrical Epithelium. 
 
 Vessels: jlrt. cystica from ram. dext. art. hepaticce. Ven. cystica passes into 
 the right branch of Ven. porta. Lymphatics: very numerous, sometimes 
 coloured yellow, pass into plex. portarum and gland, cceliacce. Nerves: from 
 plexus hepaticus. 
 
 Function: The gall bladder preserves the bile brought to it through ductvs 
 hepaticus and cysticus for a time, and is again emptied through ductus cysticus 
 and choledockus. 
 
 Bile (see 10). 
 
 448. c. The duct of the gall-bladder, ductus cysticus, 
 
 the continuation of the neck of the gall bladder, from which it 
 passes downwards and to the left, is thinner and shorter than the 
 hepatic duct, passes downwards upon the right side of ductus 
 hepaticus, and unites with this at a very acute angle in the d. 
 choledochus. Situation: in the lig. hepatico-duodenale, before 
 ven. cava inferior, to the right of art. cystica, 
 
 449. d. The common bile duct, ductus communis choledochus, 
 
 formed by the united ductus cysticus and hepaticus, passes in 
 the same direction as the last, obliquely downwards, rather back- 
 wards and to the right, has a thickness equal to a moderate goose- 
 quill, and a length of from two to two inches and a half. At the 
 superior part it lies in the lig. hepatico-duodenale, before ven. 
 portse, below art. hepatica, along the right side of art. gastro- 
 epiploica dextra, surrounded by uniting tissue and lymphatic 
 glands ; then behind and on the internal border of the pars descend, 
 duodeni in a groove on the head of the Pancreas; lastly, it per- 
 forates very obliquely the muscular coat of pars descend, duodeni 
 at its centre, passes six or seven lines between the muscular and 
 mucous coat, on the right side of duct, pancreaticus, perforates 
 the mucous membrane on the internal wall of the inferior portion 
 of the pars desc. duodeni with a round opening (so that a retro- 
 grade course of the bile, &c., is impossible), after having received, 
 shortly before, the duct, pancreatic. 
 
 Structure. It is like the duct of the gall bladder. 
 
220 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 450. 2. Abdominal salivary gland, Pancreas. 
 
 This is a long, flat, greyish white gland, which is placed trans- 
 versely behind the greater curvature of the stomach, before the 
 twelfth dorsal and first lumbar vertebra, and extends from the con- 
 cavity of the duodenum as far as the spleen. In length: seven 
 to eight inches; thickness: half to one inch; breadth: one and a 
 half to two inches and three quarters; weight: three to four 
 ounces. The right extremity (caput, extremitas duodenalis), 
 thick and broad, lies coiled in the curvature of the duodenum 
 (and on the ductus choledochus) ; partly before the P. horizontalis 
 inferior duodeni, close before the art. and ven. mesenterica, aorta 
 and v. cava infer.; it is called, when separated from the rest, Pan- 
 creas parvum Winslowii. 
 
 The left, splenic extremity (cauda) is narrow, and lies on the 
 internal surface of the spleen. 
 
 The superior thick border has a groove for art. lienalis, and 
 looks towards the pars super, duodeni, lobul. Spigelii and art. 
 cceliaca. The inferior border lies along the p. horizontalis duoden. 
 infer., separated to the left by art. and ven. mesenterica superior. 
 
 The anterior convex surface, covered by the peritonaeum, looks 
 towards the posterior wall of the stomach, the commencement of 
 the duodenum and iheflexur. coli dextra. 
 
 The posterior concave surface is not covered by peritonaeum ; 
 separated from the vertebra by V. lienalis, mesenterica superior, 
 and commencement of Ven. portx, crurre of the diaphragm, V. 
 cava inf. (on the right), Aorta (to the left). To the left of the 
 vertebral column it rests upon the caps, supra renales, renal ves- 
 sels and nerves. The Pancreas follows the movements of the 
 Duodenum. 
 
 The excretory duct, duct, pancreaticus seu Wirsungianus, arises in the splenic 
 end, by the conjunction of several canaliculi which come from the lobules of 
 the gland, always becoming wider, as all the canaliculi open directly into it, 
 and passing in the central part of the gland to the right extremity, where it 
 makes its exit, lying to the left of the ductus choledochus, which it perforates, 
 and opens in common with it in the pars descend, duodeni. Its walls are very 
 thin, extensible, milk-white, and inwardly smooth. Two pancreatic ducts 
 are frequently present, one of which opens in an isolated manner into the 
 duodenum. 
 
 Structure: The Pancreas consists, like the salivary glands, of conglomerated 
 lobules connected together by uniting tissue, these again of vesicles (acini), in 
 which the canaliculi commence. 
 
 Vessels: Art et Ven. are branches of lienalis, pancreatico-duodenalis, and 
 mesenterica superior. 
 
 Nerves : They come from plexus lienalis, gastricus, mesentericus superior. 
 
 Function : Secretion and excretion of succus pancreaticus (that is, a colour- 
 less, transparent, and viscous mucus, in which we find soda, common salt, 
 phosphate of lime). 
 
THE VISCERA. 221 
 
 451. 3. The Spleen, lien, spleen, 
 
 a spongy organ very rich in blood (blood gland) which lies deep 
 in the reg. hypochondr. sinistra, behind and to the left of the 
 fundus of the stomach, above the left kidney, in a fold of the 
 peritonaeum, and becomes displaced by the movements of the 
 diaphragm and stomach. Figure : semi-oval (also prismatic). 
 Colour: bluish or brownish red or even pale grey, by long 
 exposure to the air, rosy red. Weight: two to eight ounces 
 (in hypertrophy = ten to thirty pounds) ; specific grav. : 1*16. 
 Length : four to five inches ; breadth : two and a half to three 
 and a half; thickness : one to one and two-thirds. 
 
 The external, convex, smooth surface, separated by the dia- 
 phragm from the ninth to the eleventh ribs, looks upwards and 
 backwards. 
 
 The internal concave surface looks obliquely forwards towards 
 the Pancreas and fundus of the stomach, and presents, in about 
 the centre, a superficial oblong excavation, hilus lienalis, where 
 the splenic vessels enter and pass out, and lig. gastro-lienale is 
 attached. Before, the hilus is in contact with the fundus of the 
 stomach; behind that, the left kidney and caps. sup. renales and 
 the tail of the Pancreas. 
 
 The superior thick extremity lies under the diaphragm ; the 
 inferior pointed extremity rests upon the angle of the colon 
 (transv. and descend.). The borders are sometimes deeply in- 
 dented, and thus present traces of a second spleen (lien, succentu- 
 riatus) or several, which in the foetus and children are frequently 
 observed. The posterior border, thick above, is adjacent to the 
 kidney, the anterior is applied to the stomach. 
 
 Structure : 1. The proper substance of the spleen is a pultaceous, reddish 
 brown, granular mass, pulpa lienis, which consists of pencillate tuils of capil- 
 lary vessels, out of which veins pass, and which lies like a sponge in the 
 whitish cells of a fibrous membrane. 
 
 2. The fibrous coat, tunica allntginea, forms the frame- work of the organ, 
 since it covers it externally, and sends prolongations into the Parenchyma, 
 like a net, especially at the hilus, where it forms sheaths for the vessels, and 
 accompanies their ramifications, so that the whole acquires a spongy 
 structure. 
 
 White splenic corpuscles, corpuscula lienis Malpighi (not to be confounded 
 with the liquefying vesicles of Herbivarcf), lie, according to J. Muller, inside 
 the red granules of the pulpa, and are seated upon the white sheaths of the 
 arterial branches, of which they are merely sprouts (according to Heusinger 
 blastema, formative matter). 
 
 3. The serous tunic (peritonaeum) envelopes the whole spleen, even to the 
 Hilus, where the lig. gastro-lienale comes over from the fundus of the stomach. 
 Lig . phrenico-lienak goes from the superior extremity of the spleen to the pos- 
 terior portion of the inferior surface of the diaphragm. Its internal surface is 
 firmly connected to the external of t. albuginea. 
 
222 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 4. Vessels: a. Art. lienalis, branches of cadiaca, divides into four or five 
 twigs, each of which supplies one or the other independent parts of the spleen. 
 b. Ven. lienalis, the principal branch of the ven. porta, four or five times larger 
 than the JLrt., without valves, c. Lymphatics : they go into the glands along 
 the hilus, between the layers of lig. gastro-lienale. 
 
 5. Nerves : come immediately from plex. licsialis, as well as from pi. solans. 
 Function: The preservation or alteration of the blood or the lymph (?), 
 
 according to Cruveilhier, makes up the chief substance of the spleen, as that 
 terminates in cells. 
 
 452. The Peritonaeum, 
 
 is a serous, (in the male) entirely closed sack, (in the female open 
 at the extremities of the Fallopian tubes,) which on the one hand 
 lines the abdominal walls, on the other partially invests the or- 
 gans which lie within them. These last are the organs of diges- 
 tion (below the diaphragm) and the female organs of generation. 
 But they do not lie within the cavity of the sac, but in folds on 
 the external surface of it. Quite unfolded, the sac would pre- 
 sent the appearance of a bladder, divided into a larger and smaller 
 (by a constriction), but which are connected together by an 
 opening at the place of constriction, and of which, the smaller 
 (saccus epiploicus, because it forms the omentum, epiploa) is 
 inverted into the larger. The place of constriction surrounds a 
 semicircular (or triangular) space (foramen Winslowii),one inch 
 in size, which is bounded before by the gall-ducts, behind by ven. 
 cava infer., below by duodenum, above by the neck of the gall 
 bladder, and is situated under the lobulus Spigelii. As the peri- 
 tonaeum passes upon the organs contained in the abdominal cavity 
 there become formed: 1. Folds (ligaments), e. g., such as lie 
 between two different viscera. 2. Mesenteries ; these are inver- 
 sions from the posterior abdominal walls which always consist of 
 two layers. 3. Omenta ; these are prolongations of laminae over 
 the organs. 
 
 As the peritonaeum forms a closed sac, the description of it may 
 be commenced at any point. 
 
 453. A. Peritonaeum obdominale. 
 
 The walls of the abdominal cavity are lined all round by the 
 peritonaeum as with a sac, with the exception of those places on 
 the dorsal wall, at which inversions take place into the interior of 
 this sac, for the purpose of surrounding the viscera with a par- 
 ticular envelope (compare Pleura), and thus to form the Peri- 
 tonaeum viscerate. The internal surface of this parietal layer 
 looks into the cavity of the sac, is smooth and slippery like the 
 visceral layer, which is turned to it. The external surface is 
 rough, loosely attached by uniting tissue to the internal surface of 
 
THE VISCERA. 223 
 
 the walls of the abdominal cavity. It is, according to the walls, 
 divided into : 
 
 1. Anterior wall, formed by the abdominal muscles. It covers the whole 
 posterior surface of the anterior and lateral abdominal muscles, separated 
 from it by fascite rectce and transversal. Of it four folds pass off from the 
 umbilicus. 
 
 a. Ligam. suspensorium hepatis, the so-called suspensory ligament of the 
 liver, upwards, which surrounds the lig. teres (the obliterated ven. umbilicalis) 
 at the sides and behind, and goes to the liver. 
 
 b. Lig. suspensorium vesica s. Plica urachi passes downwards in the middle 
 line from the umbilicus, on the obliterated Urachus to the superior border of 
 the urinary bladder. 
 
 c. Plicte pubfrwmbilicales, two lateral folds from the umbilicus to the ligg. 
 lateralia vesicas. 
 
 Between these folds two recesses arise behind and above the femoral arch 
 (Poupart's Ligament) on either side of the middle line, the external of which 
 is again divided by the obliquely ascending but little projecting vasa epigas.- 
 trica. On each side we therefore observe : 
 
 a. Fovea inguinalis interna between symphysis pubis and ven. iliaca (in the 
 crural ring) behind lig. Gimbernati. 
 
 b. Fovea inguinalis media between the sides of the lig. later. Vesicce and v. 
 epigastr. turned towards one another, above and behind the crural ring (im- 
 portant in crural as well as in direct inguinal hernia). 
 
 c. Fovea inguinalis externa, on the external side of vasa epigastrica (im- 
 portant in oblique inguinal hernia). 
 
 NOTE. b. and c. are together distinguished as fossa inguinalis externa. 
 
 2. The inferior or pelvic wall descends from the above described folds, and 
 the posterior surface of the ossa pubis backwards, into the small pelvis over 
 the superior and posterior surfaces of the urinary bladder, covers, in the 
 female, the uterus and the anterior surface of the rectum ; in the male, imme- 
 diately, the last Here it forms between bladder and uterus, which, together 
 with its tubes, ligg. rotunda and both the ovaries, it receives in a broad fold, a 
 fossa (excavatio vesico-uterina), the two broad ligaments (ligg. lota), and alee 
 vespertilionis ; between Uterus and Rectum the excavatio recto^uterina, between 
 the two plica Douglasii, which last, in the male, are situated between the 
 bladder and rectum. Into the fossae the convolutions of the small intestines 
 descend. Hence the peritonaeum ascends to the dorsal wall, as: 
 
 3. The posterior wall, situated before the mm. quadrati lumborum, the Kid- 
 ney.", Ureters, Aorta and ven. cava, nn. symphatici, w. azygos, hemiazygos and 
 duct, thoradcus, and forms, hence, the inversions or reflections for the viscera 
 (periton. viscerale), the access to which is concealed by uniting tissue. 
 
 4. The superior wall covers the inferior surface of the diaphragm, passing 
 over behind upon the Liver, Stomach, and Spleen, before upon the anterior 
 abdominal walls. 
 
 454. B. Peritonaeum viscerate, 
 
 the intestinal layer, consists of two large and several smaller 
 inversions from the posterior walls. The superior larger invests 
 the Liver, Stomach, Spleen, Colon transversum, covers the an- 
 terior surface of the Duodenum and Pancreas, and contains the 
 
224 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Omenta; the inferior larger envelopes the Jejunum and Ileum, 
 and forms the mesentery (mesentericum) ; the smaller contain : 
 Csecum, Colon ascendens and descendens and rectum, and form 
 their mesenteries. 
 
 455. Route, or course, of the Visceral layer. 
 [Reflections of the Peritonssum Viscerale.~] 
 
 1. From the inferior part of the pars tendinea of the diaphragm, 
 the Peritonaeum passes to the obtuse posterior border of the liver, 
 and forms Lig. coronarium hepatis, the right and left extremity 
 of which is considered as Lig. triangulare dextrum and sinis- 
 trum; continues to the superior extremity of the spleen, and 
 forms: Lig. phrenico-lienale; lastly, to the cardia of the sto- 
 mach, forming a right and left lig. phrenico-gastricum on the 
 sides of the cardia. 
 
 456. 2. From these places the Peritoneum passes : 
 
 a. over the superior surface of the liver to the inferior surface covering it 
 entirely, with the exception of lobulus Spigelii. 
 
 b. over the anterior wall of the Stomach as far as the great curvature. 
 
 c. over the whole Spleen, except its hilus; forming between its internal 
 surface and the fundus of the Stomach the lig. gastro-lienale, the posterior layer 
 of which passes from sacc. epiploicus. 
 
 457. 3. The Peritonaeum afterwards proceeds : 
 
 a. from the right portion of porta hepatis to the right kidney and the angle of 
 the Colon ascendens (forms lig. hepatico-renale s. colicum at the right border of 
 for am. Winslowii). 
 
 From the left anterior portion of the Porta (before ven. porta, vasa and duct, 
 hepatic, downwards) to the anterior wall of the duodenum, forming the lig. 
 hepatico-duodenale. 
 
 From the fossa ductus venosi towards the left, to the smaller curvature of the 
 stomach, forming the anterior layer of the small omentum, omentum minus s. 
 lig. hepatico-gastricum. 
 
 This attaches itself with its inferior concave border to the small curvature 
 of the stomach, with its superior to: 1. The porta hepatis. 2. The oesophagus 
 and the diaphragm ; bounded on the right by the hepatic vessels and gall ducts 
 (behind them foram. Winslowii), to the left by the (Esophagus. 
 
 b. From the spleen on the right into the great omentum, on the left to the 
 superior angle of the colon descendens. 
 
 c. From the stomach (over the anterior surface of the colon transv.) and 
 behind the anterior abdominal walls, before the small intestines, downwards 
 into the pelvis. Here it becomes reflected upon itself, and ascends to the 
 Pancreas (Arnold. According to others it goes immediately upon the superior 
 surface of colon, transv), [covering the posterior surface of the transverse arch 
 of the colon, and forming the post, layer of mesocolon trans.], and thus forms 
 the first [anterior] and fourth [posterior] layer of the great omentum. 
 
 Omentum (s. epiploon) majus, the great omentum, reaches in adults as low 
 as the femoral arch, is transparent and thin, in fat persons much beset with 
 
THE VISCERA. 225 
 
 adipose tissue, particularly around the vessels. It consists of four layers, the 
 two internal of which are formed by the saccus epiploicus. Its vessels (from 
 artt. and w. gastro-cpiploica dextra and sinistra) descend between the anterior 
 layers and ascend again between the posterior, anastomosing with those of 
 colon transv. Lymphatic glands on the curvature of the stomach and the 
 colon. Nerves from plex. Solaris, along with the arteries. 
 
 Sacats epiplaicus, the omental sac, is formed as the peritonaeum passes 
 through the for am. Winslowii from right to left, above the hbulus Spigelii [to 
 the transv. fissure of the liver, hence] to the lesser curvature (as posterior 
 layer of small omentum), on the posterior surface of the stomach, downwards 
 behind the anterior layer of the great omentum, becomes reflected [back- 
 wards] upon itself and ascends, before the posterior layer, covering the an- 
 terior surface of the Pancreas, and superior third of Duodenum [in front of 
 the anterior surface of the transv. colon, and forming the ant layer of trans, 
 mesocolon], and inclining to the right it passes out at the foramen of Win- 
 slow, [after ascending upon the crura of the diaphragm, being reflected upon 
 and covering the lobulus Spigelii, and entering the transverse fissure of the 
 liver]. 
 
 458. 4. The Peritonaeum forming the fourth layer [posterior] 
 of the great omentum was traced to the dorsal wall below the 
 Pancreas. Hence it again passes downwards and forwards, thus 
 forming the two layers of which mesocolon transv. consists, and 
 which lie transversely between jejunum and ileum, liver, sto- 
 mach, and spleen. 
 
 459. 5. Turning back (as inferior [posterior] layer of mesa- 
 colon trans.), it passes again downwards before the second and 
 third abdominal vertebrae [and the transverse third of the duo- 
 denum~] surrounding the numerous convolutions of the jejunum 
 and ileum, and again turning back to the vertebral column (as it 
 forms the root of the mesenterium), it thence descends to the 
 inferior (pelvic) wall before the rectum, &c. 
 
 Mesenterium. The mesentery consists of two curly-folded laminae which 
 lie close to one another, -pass down, vertically, on the left side of the vertebral 
 column [obliquely from the left side of the body of second lumbar vertebra 
 to the right sacro-iliac synchondrosis], receive between them the branches of 
 art. and ven. mesenterica superior, Chyle vessels and Lymphatic glands (gl. 
 mesaraiccK), and at the concave surface of the small intestines separate from 
 one another, for the purpose of enclosing these organs. 
 
 To the right, left, and below, we find, besides this large inferior inversion, 
 several smaller, which proceed from the dorsal wall and pass into the parts 
 described. They are the incomplete mesenteries for the colon ascendens and 
 descendens for the ccecum and sigmoid flexure, and for the rectum (mesorectum). 
 
 460. The organs of Respiration, Organa respirationis, 
 
 are the lungs, the thorax, the trachea, the larynx and pharynx, 
 and the nasal cavities. 
 15 
 
226 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 461. 1. The Larynx, larynx s. organon vocis, the most 
 superior portion of the trachea, is a moveable canal formed of 
 seven cartilages, in the centre of the anterior superior region of 
 the neck, under the os hyoides, before the inferior part of the 
 pharynx (between fourth and sixth vert.). 
 
 Shape : above, broader and three-cornered ; below, narrow and 
 cylindrical. 
 
 Elements : cartilage, ligaments, muscles. 
 
 a. Cartilages of the Larynx : Thyroid and Cricoid are true, 
 the rest, fibre-cartilages. 
 
 ! Thyroid cartilage, cartilago thyreoidea, occupies the greatest part 
 of the anterior and lateral walls, and consists of two oblong four-sided plates, 
 which are united at an acute angle, in the middle line, and the surfaces of 
 which are directed obliquely backwards and outwards. External surface. 
 In the male the angle projects more strongly forwards (Adam's apple) than 
 in the female, and before puberty, when it is more rounded. At the pos- 
 terior part of the external surface of each lateral plate we find above, a tu- 
 bercle, and below, a larger; between the two we perceive a linea obliqua, 
 before which m. thyro-hyoideus and behind which mm. constrictor infer, and 
 sterno-thyreoid. are situated; sometimes a foramen for Art. laryngea super. 
 Internal suri'ace : a. At the angle are attached the vocal cords and mm. thyro- 
 aryteenoidei. b. The sides project out over the cricoid cartilage. The superior 
 border is twisted, in the centre deeply excised, incisura thyreoidea, it looks 
 towards the hyoid bone and terminates at the sides with the great cornua. 
 Here is attached Membr. hyo-thyreoid. The inferior border, shorter than the 
 last, inclines towards the cricoid cartilage, serving for the attachment of m. 
 crico-thyreoid., in the centre the lig. crico-thyreoid. ; is bounded externally by the 
 lesser cornua. The posterior border, slightly twisted, serves for the attach- 
 ment of mm. stylo-pharyngeus and pharyngo-staphylinus, leans on the vertebral 
 column. The horns, cornua, are oval elongations of the posterior borders, 
 directed inwards and backwards. The larger superior are in connection 
 with the hyoid bone by ligaments, the less inferior with the cricoid cartilage. 
 
 2. The annular cartilage, cartil. cricoidea, thicker and more solid than the 
 other cartilages of the larynx, is circular, narrow before, broad behind (one 
 inch) and like an escutcheon, four-cornered. External surface. In front in 
 the centre under the skin; serves laterally for the attachment of mm. crico- 
 thyreoidei, presents an articular process for the thyroid cartilage; behind, in 
 the centre a projection for muscular fibres of the pharynx; laterally, a depres- 
 sion for m. crico-arytanoid. posterior. 
 
 The internal surface is covered with mucous membrane. The inferior 
 border is completely circular, connected with the trachea by lig. crico-tracheale. 
 The superior border is irregular, before low, with two articular surfaces (for 
 the arytcenoid cartilages), behind (on the shield) placed higher. The shield 
 forms the inferior half of the posterior wall of the larynx. 
 
 3. The arytaenoid cartilages, cartilagines arytcenoidce s. pyramidales are two 
 moveable cartilages, standing, close to one another, vertically, upon the shield 
 of the cricoid,and forming the superior part of the posterior wall of the larynx. 
 Below broacf, above pointed, the anterior surface convex, narrow, grooved, 
 with the superior vocal cord ; the posterior surface concave and broad (for m. 
 
THE VISCERA. 227 
 
 aryteenoideus'). Basis, articulated with the cricoid. cartilage, with the posterior 
 external tubercle (for m. crico-aryteenoid. lateral, and posticus) and an anterior 
 (for the inferior vocal cord). Apex with articular surface for the cornicula 
 Santorini. 
 
 4. Cartilagg. s. cornicula Santorini, two small round and three-cornered car- 
 tilages upon the apex of the arytaenoid. Cart. Wrisbergii, small cartilages 
 sometimes present in the ligg. ary-epiglottic. between epiglottis and cartt. San- 
 torini (in some animals more abundant). 
 
 5. The epiglottis, a thin, elastic, and yellow fibro-cartilaginous plate behind 
 the root of the tongue and before the entrance to the Larynx, is three-oornered, 
 heart-shaped, and curved like a saddle ; stands upright, directed rather back- 
 wards ; is applied, in swallowing, horizontally over the entrance to the larynx, 
 and is broader than it. The anterior surface is above and below concave, in 
 the centre convex, above free and projecting over the root of the tongue, it lies 
 below, behind the root of the tongue, the os hyoides and the thyroid cartilage 
 (with the strong lig. glosso-epiglotticum medium, containing muscular fibres, the 
 hyo-epiglotticum and gland, epiglottica, that is, fat, between epiglottis and thyroid 
 cartilage"). The posterior surface is quite free, looks into the larynx, is covered 
 with mucous membrane and perforated by numerous glandular openings 
 (gland, epiglotticte). In the centre it is concave. The superior border is broad 
 (Basis) slightly sloping, and passes with rounded angles into the lateral bor- 
 ders, from which on either side two folds (plica aryteeno-epiglott. and pharyngo- 
 epiglottica) go off, and to which the reflector is attached. The apex (pedicle) 
 is attached to the superior angle of the thyroid cartilage (behind pomum JLdami) 
 directly over the vocal cords, the lig. thyreo-epiglotticum. , 
 
 463. b. Connections of the Larynx : 
 
 1. With the os hyoides, by four ligaments: 
 
 a. Lig. thyreo-hyoideum medium, yellowish, broad, fills the space between 
 the superior border of the thyroid cartilage and the os hyoides is in the 
 (thick) centre covered by the skin, on the sides -by m. thyreo-hyoid., lies 
 before the Epiglottis (separated by fat) and the mucous membrane. 
 
 b. Ligg. thyreo-hyoidea later alia, small and narrow, between the greater 
 (superior) cornua of the thyroid cartilage and those of the os hyoides. A 
 Synovial capsule lies between the posterior surface of the corp. oss. hyoid. 
 and the superior of the thyroid cartilage. 
 
 c. Lig. hyo-epiglotticum, between the anterior surface of the epiglottis 
 and the posterior border of the os hyoides. 
 
 2. With the Trachea by lig. crico-tracheale, that is, a small fibrous band 
 which strengthens the membrane (on the anterior surface) between the cricoid 
 cartilage and the rings of the Trachea. 
 
 3. Connection of the Laryngeal cartilages with one another : 
 
 a. Lig. crico-thyreoideum medium s. conoideum, yellow, thick, broad, tri- 
 angular, the apex at the inferior border of the thyroid, the basis at the 
 superior border of the cricoid cartilage (before). 
 
 b. Ligg. crico-thyreoidea lateralia, strong, laterally from the bend of the 
 cricoid [inner lip of upper border] to the inferior cornua of the thyroid 
 cartilage [retreating angle of Thyroid cartilage], horizontally below the 
 inferior vocal cord. 
 
 [Articulation between the lesser cornua of the thyroid cartilage and the 
 
228 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 surfaces on the sides of the Cricoid surfaces plane. Ligament, capsular 
 with shining, parallel fibres -synovial capsule. The crico-thyroid articu- 
 lations are all Arthodial. T HASPS/) 
 
 c. Ligg, crico-arytcenoidea unite the arytanoid cartilages with the plate of 
 .the cricoid, at the posterior internal surface ; strong but loose. [Synovial 
 capsule.] The aryt<enoid cartilages are moveable in all directions, but 
 especially outwards and inwards. 
 
 . d. Ligg. aryt&no-epiglotticum, inside the folds of mucous membrane 
 from the anterior surface of the arytanoid cartilages to the borders of the 
 epiglottis. 
 
 4, Vocal cords, ligg. vocalia s. glottidis, s. thyreo-aryttenoidea, are four liga- 
 ments which extend between the angle of the thyroid (on the posterior sur- 
 face) and the anterior surface of the 'arytanoid cartilages, passing from before 
 to behind through the midst of the cavity of the larynx. There are, right and 
 left, a superior and an inferior. The triangular fissure between those on the 
 right and those on the left side is called the- glottis s. rima glottidis, is before 
 narrow, behind roundish, at that part formed by cartil. cricoid. and cartt. arytte- 
 noid.j and is not capable of being completely closed (Mayer). 
 
 a. Ligg. vocalia inferiora, are thick roundish cords attached before to the 
 angle of the thyroid, behind to the anterior tubercle of the arytanoid car- 
 tilages ; covered externally by m. thyro-arytanoideus, internally by closely- 
 applied mucous membrane, they meet below at the ligg. crico-thyreoid. 
 lateralia. 
 
 b. Ligg. vocalia superiora, less strong than the last, above them in the 
 middle of the larynx, under the Epiglottis, not quite horizontal. Below 
 them the mucous membrane forms a sac, ventriculus Myrgagni; above 
 they meet in lig. arytano-epiglotticum. 
 
 464. C. The muscles of the Larynx. The whole larynx is 
 moveable : Mm. sterno-, omo-, thyreo-hyoidei, sterno-thyreoidei, 
 &c. (see before); the separate cartilages, are moved by the fol- 
 lowing muscles : 
 
 1. Crico-thyreoidd, two short, thick, triangular muscles on the anterior sur- 
 face of the larynx, behind m. sterno-thyreoid and thyroid gland, in contact below 
 with the last, above m. crico-aryteenoid. later ; the internal borders separated by 
 a quadrangular space. Or. : the anterior surface of the cricoid cartilage. Ins. : 
 the inferior border and internal surface, and the anterior border of the inferior 
 Cornua of the thyroid cartilage. Use : to approximate the cricoid and thyroid 
 cartilages, elongating the glottis and stretching the vocal cords. 
 
 2. Crico-arytcenoidei postid, triangular, on the posterior surface of the cricoid, 
 covered before by this, behind by the mucous membrane of the Pharynx. Or. : 
 from the posterior surface of the cricoid cartil. Ins. : external angle of basis 
 cartil. arytten. Use : to separate, the two vocal cords of either side from one 
 another, widening the posterior part of the rima glottidis. 
 
 3. Crico-aryteenoidei laterales, two flat, rhomboidal-shaped muscles. Situ- 
 ation : on the posterior wall of the Larynx (internal surface), oblique upwards 
 and backwards ; closely connected internally with thyreo-arytten. Or. : the 
 lateral part of the superior border of the cricoid cartilage. Ins. : external.angle 
 of the aryt&noid cartilages. Use. : to draw the external angles of the arytanoid 
 cartilages forwards; the anterior angles with the vocal cords pass inwards, 
 and thus contract the rima glottidis. 
 
THE VISCERA. 229 
 
 4. Thyreo-arytcenoidei, two thin, longish processes of the last muscle. Situ- 
 ation : between thyroid cartilage and mucous membrane of the internal surface 
 of the Larynx, chiefly in the fold of the vocal cords. Or. : the angle (in- 
 ferior two thirds) of the thyroid cartilage. Ins. : the anterior angle of. the ex- 
 ternal border of the arytcenoid cartilages. Use: to draw the cartil. arytcenoid. 
 forwards, and shorten the rima glottidis ; extending at the same time the vocal 
 cords. 
 
 5. Jlrytcenoideus, short, thick, rhomboidal, lying in the concave posterior sur- 
 faces of the arytcenoid cartilages, and in the space which divides them ; con- 
 sists of a deep transverse layer, that is, aryt. transversus, and two crossing each 
 other obliquely, arytcenoidei obliqui. The inferior border touches the cricoid 
 cartilage: upon the superior lie glands, and a fold of mucous membrane 
 which separates the introitus laryng. from the Pharynx. Points of attach- 
 ment: the external angle and the posterior concave surface of cartt. ary- 
 tcenoidece. Use : to approximate the aryt&noid cartilages, and thus contract the 
 posterior part of the rima glottidis. 
 
 6. Reflector epiglottidis (Theile) ; in the fold of mucous membrane from the 
 lateral borders of the epiglottis to the cartitt. arytcenoid. and Santorini of either 
 side. Or.: from three places. 1. Posterior portion from the external angle of 
 cartil. arytcenoid. of the other side, crosses obliquely. 2. Central portion, from 
 the attachment of the superior vocal cords to the arytcenoid cartilages. 3. 
 Anterior portion, from the internal surface of the thyroid cart. Ins. : lateral 
 border of the epiglottis. Use : bends the epiglottis backwards, closing (and 
 contracting) the entrance to the larynx. 
 
 c. The mucous membrane of the larynx, a continuation of that of the 
 mouth and nose, passes from the root of the tongue upon the anterior surface 
 of the Epiglottis, as it forms three folds (ligg. glosso-epiglottica), then covers the 
 posterior surface and passes from its borders upon the cartil. arytcenoid., and 
 from these upon the posterior surface of the larynx (where this forms a por- 
 tion of the anterior wall of the Pharynx). At the lateral parts of the en- 
 trance to the larynx, above the rima glottidis. the mucous membrane forms two 
 folds {ligg. ary-epiglottica), covers the superior vocal cords, is loosely suspended 
 in the pocket-like hollows which the ventriculi Morgagni form, but firmly and 
 thin to the inferior vocal cords, from which it passes over upon the internal 
 surface of the cricoid cartilage, the memb. crico-thyreoid and the Trachea. 
 
 The mucous membrane is very thin, pale red, very sensitive (particularly 
 over the rima glottidis), and contains in the ligg. ary-epiglottica much (serous) 
 uniting tissue. 
 
 d. Glands: 1. Gland, epigbtticce, small, numerous, under the mucous mem- 
 brane, on the posterior surface of the larynx; they open towards the sides of 
 the larynx. 
 
 2. Gl. arytffnoidea (Morgagni"), lie in the Plica (ligam.') ary-epiglottica in the 
 shape of letter L, opening into the larynx. The vertical portion lies on 
 the anterior surface of the aryfcenoid cartilages, the horizontal on the superior 
 vocal cord. 
 
 e. Vessels: JLrtt. and Ten. laryngea super, and infer, (from thyreoid super. 
 and infer.'). Lymphatics pass into the glands above the hyoid bone (in the 
 neck). 
 
 f. Nerves: N. laryngeus superior and laryng. inferior (s. recurrent) from n. 
 vagus. 
 
230 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 465. The Thyroid Gland, Glandula thyreoidea, 
 
 a blood gland on the anterior part of the neck, between the in- 
 ferior half of the thyroid cartilage and the superior rings of the 
 trachea, lying in the shape of a crescent with the horns directed 
 upwards, varying in circumference (in the female larger than in 
 the male), and weight one ounce or more, heavy; of a bluish, in 
 the embryo more of a bright red, colour; consists of two lobes, 
 lobi, cornua, and a central, inferior, and flat portion, isthmus, 
 from which frequently a third lobe, cornu medium, ascends as 
 far as incisura thyreoidea. But the isthmus is also, frequently, 
 so small, that it appears to be entirely wanting ; or it reaches 
 down as far as the sternum. The isthmus is before convex, and 
 separated from the skin by mm. sterno-hyoid. and thyroideus 
 and fascia colli; behind concave, and lying before the rings of 
 the trachea. The lateral lobes are before convex and covered 
 by the m. sterno-thyreoid; internally concave, and surrounding 
 the inferior part of the thyroid cartilage, the lateral portion of 
 the trachea, the inferior of the pharynx, and the superior of the 
 (Esophagus; they are in relation with, behind, the vertebral co- 
 lumn (separated from it by Art. carotis commun., V. jugular 
 int. n. vagus and sympathicus). The apex of the cornu lies on 
 the outer side of Art. carotis, on the outer and posterior of the 
 thyroid cartilage, and sometimes reaches as far as its superior 
 border. The inferior extremity, thick and round, lies before the 
 fifth and seventh tracheal rings, between the trachea and the 
 carotis commun.; here the Art. thyreoid. infer, enters the in- 
 ferior convex border of the gland ; at the superior concave bor- 
 der the art. thyreoid. superior occurs. 
 
 The Parenchyma of the Thyroid gland consists of a spongy uniting tissue, 
 the cells of which are connected by openings with each other, without pos- 
 sessing any excretory duct; perforated by many vessels it contains a yellowish 
 white serum, the destination of which is not known. Externally the thyroid 
 gland is invested by a dense uniting tissue which is strengthened by fasc. cer~ 
 vicalis, M. thyroideus (see before). 
 
 Vessels: Jirtt. thyreoid. super, (from A. carotis) and inferior (from subdavia), 
 Vv. thyreoid sup. and med. (in V. jugular intern."), inferior (in V. anonyma~). 
 
 Nerves: N. laryngeus super, and infer, (from N. Vagus), and branches of 
 gang/, cervic. med. or infimum of N. sympathicus. 
 
 466. 2. The Windpipe, Trachea, arteria aspera, 
 
 is a moveable tube composed of cartilages and membranes, four 
 or five inches long, which, close under the cricoid cartilage, ex- 
 tends from the fifth cervical as low as the third dorsal vertebra, 
 in which region it divides into its two branches, bronchi. In 
 
THE VISCERA.. 231 
 
 front and at the sides cylindrical, it is formed of from seventeen 
 to twenty cartilages placed one above the other, and of the shape 
 of the letter O ; behind, flat and membranous. 
 
 Cervical portion. 1. Before and above, covered by isthmus 
 '. thyreoid., mm. sterno-thyreoidei and fasc. cervicalis, below 
 y much uniting tissue (Art. thyreoidea), and a little by Art. 
 anonyma. 2. At the sides: Gl. thyreoidea, A. carotis comm., 
 n. vagus, lymphatic glands. 3. On the posterior surface : oeso- 
 phagus (which projects rather to the left), n. recurrens dexter 
 and sinister (which passes towards the left side). 
 
 Dorsal portion, in the mediastinum posticum. Before it lie, 
 from above downwards: Sternum and m. sterno-thyreoid, V. 
 subclavia sinist. and truncus anonymus, the posterior portion of 
 Jlrcus AortsR and Art. pulmonalis (bifurcation) ; behind it: (Eso- 
 phagus; on the sides: Pleura, Nn. vagus and recurrens (superior 
 part) ; a quantity of uniting tissue and lymphatic glands. 
 
 The Bronchi are the two branches of the trachea, into which it divides 
 before the third dorsal vertebra. The obtuse angle of division (bifurcation) 
 is filled up by a triangular ligament and the blackish bronchial glands. The 
 bronchus dexter, one inch long, about eight lines thick, consists of five to six 
 O shaped cartilaginous rings, divides into three branches with which it enters 
 into the right lung, and lies close under the bend of V. azygos, behind V. cava 
 superior and Art. pulmonalis dextra. Bronchus sinister, two inches long, about 
 five lines thick, consists of from ten to twelve O shaped cartilages, divides 
 into two branches fcr the two lobes of the left lung, lies under the arcus 
 Aortas and obliquely before the oesophagus, behind Art. pulmonal. sinistra and 
 before aorta descendens. Between each bronchus and Artt. pulmonaks we find 
 the Vc. pulmonales. The branches of the bronchi again ramify and always 
 dichotomously (bronchia) until at last they terminate in the pulmonary vesi- 
 cles. Vessels : Artt. bronchus come from the Aorta ; Vv. bronch. enter the V. 
 azygos (upon the right side), the v. inter cost, (upon the left). 
 
 Structure. 1. The cartilaginous rings are placed at tolerably equal inter- 
 vals, horizontally above one another, the interspaces filled up with fibrous 
 rings. Flexible and elastic in the young, they frequently ossify as age ad- 
 vances. Of unequal vertical diameter (l to 2 lines)-, several of them fre- 
 quently unite together. The vertical diameter of the first is the greatest. 
 The last, the longest, is turned downwards, has behind an acute angle where 
 the first Bronchial rings pjiss off. 2. The fibrous membrane (perichondrium) 
 commences at the inferior border of the cartilages to which it passes as lip. 
 crico-tracheale, covers both surfaces of the cartilages, fills the interspaces, and 
 assists (with the other membranes) to form the posterior flat wall of the 
 trachea and bronchi, which is attached by uniting tissue to the oesophagus. 3. 
 Transverse, smooth muscular fasciculi, between the posterior extremities of 
 the cartilages approximate these to one another. 4. Yellow, elastic bundles 
 of fibres, pass parallel to the long axis on the internal surface of the muscular 
 coat 5. The mucous membrane is thin, paler than in the larynx, firmly 
 attached (without folds), and perforated by numerous openings, which are the 
 openings of small, flat, oval glanduL tracheales, which are situated between the 
 mucous and muscular coats. 
 
232 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Vessels of the Trachea: 1. Jirtt. tracheales (from thyreoid. infer.) inferiores 
 (from the Aorta], 2. The veins of the spaces between the cartilages open 
 into the great trunks along the trachea (on the internal surface), and these 
 into the Vv. thyreoidea infer., mammar., and azygos. 3. The Lymphatics, very 
 numerous, pass into the great lymphatic glands at the bifurcation. 
 
 Nerves : Nh. tracheal. superior, (from ram. recurrens Vagi] ; inferiores (of 
 the trunk of plexus pulmonalis of N. Vagus). 
 
 467. 3. The Lungs, Pulmones, 
 
 are two soft bodies, between which lies the heart, and each of 
 which fills up the lateral half of the cavity of the thorax ; of. an 
 irregular, conical shape, internally deeply excavated, with the 
 base directed downwards. Colour: in the adult and aged, greyish 
 blue, traversed by dark blue vessels and bluish black spots, which 
 form polygons, on which account the surface appears marbled ; 
 the posterior surface (generally) a reddish brown. As age ad- 
 vances, the black spots which lie in the interposed uniting tissue, 
 increase. Weight: In the foetus the lungs, in relation to the body, 
 are as 1 : 60 ; in the adult, 1 : 30. Spec. gray, before birth and 
 respiration : heavier than water ; afterwards : lighter than water. 
 In the male, the lungs are heavier (3 pounds) than in the female 
 (2| pounds). 
 
 Each lung is invested by a serous membrane (pleura), and 
 presents : 1. An external, convex surface, which is separated from 
 the ribs by the pleura only, and by a deep fissure, incisura inter- 
 lobularis, into two and three lobes (lobi). The fissure commences 
 behind and above below the apex, and reaches downwards and 
 forwards to the anterior part of the basis of the lung. On the 
 right lung, a second fissure passes upwards and forwards before 
 the termination of the last. 
 
 2. The internal surface, above flat, below excavated, presents, 
 in the centre between basis and apex, and rather towards the pos- 
 terior border, a surface one inch high, a depression half an inch 
 broad (the root, radix, hilus), at which bronchi, arteries, and 
 nerves enter, and veins and lymphatics pass out. Behind the root 
 the internal surface looks towards the vertebral column ; and, on 
 the left side, towards aorta descendens [the lung has a correspond- 
 ing groove], and the superior part of Ductus thoracicus, on the 
 right side, towards V. azygos, oesophagus, and the inferior part 
 of the duct, thoracicus; before the root on the left lung, the left 
 border, the apex of the heart and Aorta descendens; on the right 
 lung, the right auricle of the heart and V. cava superior. 
 
 3. The anterior border is thin, and presents two notches : an in- 
 ferior (to the left for the apex, to the right for the auricle of the 
 heart) ; and a superior (to the left for Art. subclavia, the right for 
 V. cava superior). 
 
THE VISCERA. 233 
 
 4. The posterior border is broad, obtuse, and lies at the side of 
 the vertical column. 
 
 5. Basis is hollowed out, rests upon the (convex) diaphragm ; 
 its posterior border reaches deeper downwards than the anterior, 
 almost as far as the inferior surface of the liver. 
 
 6. Apex, is round, and projects (one inch) upwards above the 
 first rib. 
 
 The left lung is narrower and lighter, but longer than the right 
 (on account of the heart) ; has one fissure (incisura) and two 
 lobes, a larger superior, a smaller inferior. 
 
 The right lung is less (in the vertical diameter, on account of 
 the liver), but broader; has two indsurse and three lobes ; the 
 larger superior, the smaller inferior, and the smallest central lobe. 
 
 Parenchyma of the lungs. The spongy and soft tissue of the 
 lung is very strong, elastic, crepitates under the pressure of the 
 finger when respiration has been once performed, and consists of 
 the following parts : 
 
 a. Aeriferous vessels, vasa aerofera. After the Bronchi have divided 
 many times (always at an acute angle), the small branches (bronchia} lose 
 the regular structure of the larger 5 the cartilages on the anterior wall are no 
 longer in the shape of the letter C, but irregular, and are finally entirely 
 lost, like the muscular fibres, until at last vesicles with roundish corners, and 
 terminating in a cul-cle-sac, vesiculte pulmonaks s. cellulte aereee (of one-sixth to 
 one-sixteenth of a line), remain, which consist of mucous membrane and 
 thin longitudinal fasciculi of uniting tissue. The pulmonary vesicles open 
 into a common canal, to which they hang like berries upon their stalks 
 (as in glands), and form a pulmonary lobule (lobulns). The pulmonary 
 lobules are again associated in one great canal into a lobe (lobus), and are, 
 like these, isolated from one another by the serous membrane which forms 
 their envelope. 
 
 b. Pulmonary vessels, vasa pulmonalia. 1. Art. pulmonalis ramifies with 
 the branches of the bronchi, and surrounds the lobuli with a large circle of 
 capillary vessels, and the pulmonary vesicles with a smaller and more deli- 
 cate rete (of 0'02 to O'OG of a line diam.), between the meshes of which the 
 vesicles lie, so mat through the thin wall of both the inspired air (in the 
 vesicles) comes into immediate relation with the venous blood (in the arte- 
 ries) and changes it into bright red, arterial blood, which through : 2. Vv. 
 pulmonaks flows back again into the heart. Two pulmonary venous branches 
 (to each branch of the pulmonary artery) arise from the capillary rete of the 
 art. pulmonal. and bronchialis. 
 
 c. Bronchial vessels, vasa bronchialia. 1. Artt. bronchioles do not pass to 
 the pulmonary vesicles, but to the walls of the bronchia, art. pulmonalis, to the 
 Bronchial glands, to the uniting tissue between the lobules and the pleura; 
 they serve for the nourishment of. and for secretion in, these parts ; they arise 
 from the Aorta thoracica and mammaria interna, and frequently anastomose 
 with A. pulmonalis; passing into the commencements of w. bronchioles, but 
 also the m. pulmonaks. 2. Vv. bronchioles open inside the lung into the Vv. 
 pulmonaks; outside, upon the right side into ven. azygos, upon the left side 
 into Ven. intercostal, superior.. 
 
234 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 d. The lymphatics, superficial, are very numerous ; a trunk also passes out 
 from the interior of the lung at the root ; however, in their interior the re'te is 
 not yet sufficiently demonstrated ; they pass into the gl. bronchiales and tra- 
 cheales, which become black between the tenth and twentieth year. 
 
 e. Nerves : branches of N. vagus and (a few) of N. sympathicus form a plexus 
 pulmonalis anterior, which spread upon the bronchia in the interior, and a pos- 
 terior which go to the larger branches of the Bronchi. 
 
 f. Interlobular uniting tissue, consists of fine fibres which surround the 
 vesicles in thin, the lobules in rather thicker lamina?, containing no fat, but 
 with tune on the surface of the lung the colouring matter which produces the 
 black spotted appearance. 
 
 Function of the Lungs. The change of the venous into arterial 
 blood, effected by the inspiration of atmospherical air, and excre- 
 tion of carbonic acid, resulting from expiration. 
 
 468. 4. The Pleurse, Sacci pleurse, 
 
 are two closed serous sacs, one of which covers each lateral half 
 of the thoracic cavity, and then the lung. We distinguish: 
 
 a. Pleura costalis, that is, the part which loosely attached to 
 the internal surfaces of the ribs and mm. inter co stales, extends 
 from the border of the sternum to the sides of the dorsal vertebra, 
 covering before the vasa mammaria, behind (before the heads of 
 the ribs) the ganglia n. sympathici, and projecting above over 
 the first rib and the apex of the lung. 
 
 b. Pleura phrenica passes off below from the pi. costalis, 
 firmly attached to the superior surface of the diaphragm, and by 
 a triangular fold, Kg. pulmonis, with the posterior border of the 
 inferior lobes of the lungs, and with the pulmonary veins. 
 
 c. Mediastinum, is that part of the Pleura which is reflected 
 before from the borders of the Sternum, behind from the sides of 
 the dorsal vertebra upon the roots of the lungs, whereby a medi- 
 astinum anticum and posticum arises. The anterior mediastinum 
 is different on both sides; the right, for instance, commences 
 above from the right border of the manubrium; below from the 
 centre, indeed from the left border of corpus sterni; the left, from 
 the left border of manubrium sterni, and below from the external 
 extremity of the sixth and seventh rib cartilages. Between the 
 two anterior and the two posterior mediastina an X shaped space 
 remains, cavum mediastini, which is divided by the heart (or, as 
 the French describe it with greater accuracy, by the roots of the 
 lungs), into an anterior and posterior. 
 
 1. Cavum mediastini antici, is bounded before by the Sternum and the left 
 rib cartilages, laterally by the two anterior mediastini, behind by pericar> 
 dium, the great vessels, and above by the trachea. Above narrow and 
 vertical, below sloping and directed towards the left ; it contains : 
 
 the Thymus gland [or its remains], nn. phrenici, glandul. mediastini 
 
THE VISCERA. 235 
 
 antic., adipose and uniting tissue which is connected above with that 
 on the anterior part of the neck, below with that of the anterior ab- 
 dominal parietes. 
 
 2. Cavum mediastini postici, more spacious than the anterior, not oblique, 
 bounded before by the pericardium and roots of the lungs, behind by 
 the bodies of the dorsal vertebra, laterally by the posterior mediastini ; 
 contains: 
 
 aorta thoracica, oesophagus, nn. vagi, duct, thoracicus, w. azygos and henri- 
 azygos, uniting tissue, gland, mediast. post. 
 
 d. Pleura pulmonalis is formed by the mediastini of the roots 
 of the lungs, the vessels passing in and out of which they en- 
 velope, being reflected upon the internal surface of each lung, 
 and firmly attached covering the external surface ; also entering 
 between the lobes, and forming ligg. interlobularia. Thus also 
 there remains between Pleura pulmonalis and the other portions 
 of the Pleura a closed cavity, the smooth moist walls of which 
 frequently secrete a serous fluid, lie close together, and (frequently) 
 are in places united with each other. 
 
 Vessels are doubtful. Branches of the neighbouring intercostales, mammarus 
 internee, phrenicce superr., &c., form a capillary network which manifests itself 
 in inflammation, but only on the external surface of the Pleura. Lymphatics : 
 numerous, open into plex. mammar. and intercostalis. Nerves : not yet 
 found out. 
 
 469. Thymus Gland, Glandula thymus, 
 
 the sweetbread, a so-called blood gland, grows from the third 
 month of foetal life until the termination of the first year after 
 birth, then by degrees diminishes from below upwards, and en- 
 tirely disappears with the twelfth year. In its complete perfec- 
 tion it consists of two lateral lobes (only associated by uniting 
 tissue) so that properly we must admit two flat, three-cornered 
 thymus glands above and below pointed, which are situated in 
 the superior part of cavum mediastini antici, before the junction 
 of the vv. anonymse, behind the manubrium sterni, reach as far 
 upwards as the thyroid gland, and contain a large cavity filled 
 with white fluid (F. W. Becker), with which the cavities of the 
 lobules, the size of a pea, are connected. The cavity is not 
 bounded by a proper membrane. Astley Cooper maintained that 
 a large lymphatic vessel, which opens into the vena anonyma, 
 served as an excretory duct. 
 
 The Parenchyma is, like that of the thyroid gland, pale red. The lateral 
 lobes divide into three or four larger, and these again into a number of 
 smaller lobuli, which are associated together by uniting tissue, in which fat 
 cells are present. The corpuscles which exist in the lobules, resemble the 
 nuclei of the blood discs and the globules of demolished nerve substance 
 (Ehrenberg). 
 
 Vessels: Artt. thymica come from art. mammaria interna and subclavia, 
 
236 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 sometimes from thyreoidaa, carotis, or .arcus aortce. Veins open into: v. cava 
 sup., subclavia, thyreoid., mammaria internet,. 
 Function (see Blood glands). 
 
 The Urinary Organs, Organa uropoetica. 
 470. 1. The kidneys, renes, vf<j>pot, are two dense glands {gl. 
 tubulosse) in the reg. lumbalis, close to the sides of the first to 
 third lumbar vertebra, outside the peritoneum, surrounded by 
 uniting tissue with abundance of fat; generally .smooth on the 
 surface, sometimes (as in the foetus and several animals) grooved. 
 The right kidney lies rather lower than the left (on account of 
 the liver). Length: three and a half to four inches. Breadth: 
 two inches. Thickness : one inch. Weight : two to four ounces. 
 Colour: reddish brown. Figure: bean-shaped; the fissure 
 Hilus] directed inwards towards the vertebral column. Posi- 
 tion: upright. 
 
 a. The anterior surface looks rather outwards, is convex ; the 
 left covered by Colon descendens, above by the Spleen and caudu 
 pancreatis; the right by colon ascend., lobus dexter of the liver 
 and pars descend, duodeni. 
 
 b. The posterior surface looks inwards, is less convex ; behind 
 covered by m. quadratus lumborum; separated by the diaphragm 
 from the three last ribs, by m. psoas from the vertebral column. 
 
 The external, convex semi-elliptical border looks backwards ; 
 the internal border forwards, and is deeply notched (incisura s. 
 hilus renalis). This hilus is fifteen to eighteen lines in length; 
 behind we arrive at the pelvis of the kidney, before Vena renalis. 
 
 The superior border looks inwards, and is surrounded by the 
 suprarenal capsules; the inferior smaller border outwards, and it 
 projects down below the last rib. 
 
 Structure of the kidneys. 1. Between the fatty uniting tissue (capsula 
 adiposa) which surrounds the kidney and the Parenchyma we find a firmly 
 adherent fibrous tunic, prolonged over both surfaces (tunica propria s. albur 
 ginea~). 2. The tissue of the gland itself consists of a cortical and a medullary 
 substance. 
 
 a. The cortical, vascular substance, substantia corticalis s. vasculosa, [secret- 
 ing portion,] a thin, soft, red, sometimes yellow layer on the surface of the 
 kidney, which forms columnar processes within the following substance, and 
 thus, septa between the Malpighian pyramids. In it we find numerous 
 fasciculi of very serpentine canaliculi, which terminate in a cul-de-sac, or, 
 more probably, in a convoluted form [loops], tubuli, uriniferi corticales, which 
 pass into the tubular substance. Farther, a number of round red granules, 
 glomerulii s. acini Malpighii; they are small convolutions of vessels which 
 lie between the windings of the above mentioned canaliculi, which are 
 smaller than they are, and give off vasa efferentia, from which the capillary 
 network about the uriniferous tubes and the commencements of the renal 
 veins passes forth. 
 
THE VISCERA. 237 
 
 b. The tubular medullary substance, s. tubiilosa. s. medullaris [the excretory 
 portion], paler than the former, striated like muscular fibres, consists of 
 twelve to fourteen (twenty) conical lobes (pyramides Malpigtrii), which are 
 separated from one another by the cortical substance, and are covered by the 
 same also on the basis which is directed towards the surface of 'the kidney, 
 whilst the free apex terminates in the hilus like a nipple, as papilla renalis. 
 There are generally only ten to twelve papilla, because some have blended 
 together. Each Malpighian pyramid consists of several fasciculi (these are 
 pyramides Ferreinii} of parallel canaiiculi, tubuli uriniferi recti s. Belliniani, 
 which open with fine orifices on the renal papillae, or rather on the walls of 
 a fossa two or three lines deep, inside the papillae, that is, ductits papittar. 
 Ferrein. The uriniferous tubes consist of. a clear structureless memb. propria, 
 and have a diameter of 0-009 to 0-016 line. 
 
 (Renuli, s. bbi renis, is a name given to the Malpighian pyramids which in 
 early youth, in animals throughout the whole of life, are limited to the 
 surface of the kidney, so that the organ appears to consist of so many 
 small kidneys.) 
 
 The vessels for the . most part go into the cortical substance. The great 
 art. renalis divides in the hilus into two or three large branches, which again 
 divide at the boundary between the cortical and medullary substance, and 
 form a capillary network, the close meshes of which surround the basis of 
 each Malpighian pyramid, dispatch branches thence into the cortical sub- 
 stance, which divide in a forked manner, and pass along the undulating 
 tubuli into the red granules (acini iT/a/p.). Vena renalis passes out of the kiha 
 before the -artery, and sinks into the ven. cava inferior. The vessels of one 
 lobe do not communicate with those of another. Lymphatics : numerous, on 
 the surface. Nerves: numerous, from plexus Solaris, N. splanchnicus minor. 
 From plexus renalis, plexus spermaticus passes off. 
 
 Function of the kidneys : Secretion of the urine (in the urinary 
 canaiiculi). 
 
 471. 2. Excretory ducts of the kidneys. These are the 
 renal calyces, the pelvis renalis, and the ureters. 
 
 a. The Calyces renales, s. infundibiila, are small, membranous, sometimes 
 forked cylinders, which surround the basis of one or more renal papillae. 
 Their mucous membrane terminates blindly upon the papillae, but at the 
 same time blind processes pass into the substance of the latter, where the 
 urinary canaiiculi open. (Henle.) They are surrounded by the fat of the 
 hilus, are present in, indefinite number (seven to fourteen), and, arranged in 
 rows, they pass into three branches, which form again. 
 
 b. The pelvis of the kidney, pelvis renalis. This is funnel-shaped, flat 
 from before backwards, projects out behind art. and ven. renalis from the 
 inferior extremity of the hilus, is very extensible, and contracts as it proceeds 
 into: 
 
 c. The ureter, that is the long (ten or twelve inches) membranous tube 
 which descends on either side to the basis of the bladder. Generally of the . 
 thickness of a raven's or goose's quill ; the ureter may be, with its thin 
 whitish wall, considerably distended. We find sometimes two ureters on 
 one side if the renal calyces have not united into a single pelvis. Direction: 
 obliquely downwards and inwards to the sides of the basis oss. sacri, then 
 
238 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 downwards, forwards, and lastly inwards, where, arriving at the sides of the 
 fundus vesicce, it passes in this for about ten lines between the muscular and 
 mucous coats, and opens with a narrow mouth into the cavity of the urinary 
 bladder, at the posterior angle of Corp. trigonum. Position : as far as to Basis 
 oss. sacri, along the anterior border of m. psoas behind the peritoneum and 
 Vasa Spermatica (which cross obliquely with it) ; the right ureter (extern- 
 ally) close to V. cava inferior. At the basis oss. sacri the ureter crosses the 
 vasa lliaca (forwards and inwards) ; in the small pelvis: with Art. umbili- 
 calis, vasa obturatoria, Vas deferens (in the male) ; the superior and lateral 
 parts of the vagina (in the female). When within the bladder it lies behind 
 Collum uteri (hence retention of urine at child-birth, &c.). 
 
 Structure of the excretory ducts. 1. The mucous membrane is white, 
 smooth, and in folds, without valves, covered with pavement epithelium. 
 2. The middle coat, tunica propria. 3. The external coat is thick, consists 
 of smooth muscular tissue, the circular fibres of which (as in all excretory 
 ducts of glands) form the external, the longitudinal fibres, the internal thicker 
 layer. 
 
 472. 3. The urinary bladder, vesica urinaria s. cystis, 
 
 is a membranous, roundish sac (in the foetus pointed above), which 
 is situated in the cavity of the small pelvis close behind the bones 
 of the pubes, and is for the purpose of holding the urine. It is 
 held in its situation by fascia pelvis, and peritonaeum ; ligg. vesi- 
 calia lateralia (the obliterated artt. umbilicales) and medium 
 (the obliterated urachus) ; ligg. pubo-vesicalia (3) from the sym- 
 physis to the neck of the bladder in the female, or ligg. pubo- 
 prostatica in the male. The capacity of the bladder is different 
 according to the habits of individuals, &c., before birth propor- 
 tionably larger than afterwards, in the female likewise larger than 
 in the male, where it holds from 7 to 14 ounces of fluid. Direc- 
 tion of the axis : from above and before downwards and back- 
 wards. 
 
 Divisions : the top, vertex, is the superior, smallest ; body, 
 corpus, the central; basis, fundus, is the most inferior and broad- 
 est part of the bladder. 
 
 The external convex surface presents the following parts : 
 
 1. The anterior wall is situated close behind the symphysis, carp. oss. pubis, 
 and mm. obturat. intern., with loose, uniting tissue only interspersed, and with- 
 out peritoneum ; in the female (because the prostate is wanting), rather under 
 the Symphysis ; and above it, close behind the abdominal walls, when the 
 bladder is distended. 
 
 2. The posterior wall, quite covered by peritonaum, is situated before the 
 rectum (in the male) ; before the Uterus (in the female) ; nevertheless, small 
 intestines generally slip in between. 
 
 3. The lateral parietes, covered by peritoneum, close to Art. umbilicales 
 (s. lig. lateralis"), and Vasa deferentia (in the male). 
 
 4. The inferior wall, basis, a. In the male: above the vesicute seminales 
 and Vasa deferentia, and the triangular piece of the rectum between them, 
 
THE VISCERA. 239 
 
 , however, when the bladder is empty, is separated from it by the 
 peritonaeum. At the sides of the basis are situated : uniting tissue, and Mm. 
 levatores ani. b. In the female : firmly on and above the Vagina, and loosely 
 on the inferior half of collum uteri. 
 
 5. The superior wall, vertex, apex, is directed forwards and upwards, and 
 covered by the peritonaum. In an upright position the intestines rest upon 
 it. In front the urackus s. /<?. suspensorium passes off from it, ascending to 
 the umbilicus. This mern', -radons cord is the remains of a canal which, even 
 in the human embryo (in those of quadrupeds it is certain) up to the fourth 
 month, is said to pass through by the umbilical cord into the allantois. Com- 
 pare the history of development 
 
 6. The neck of the bladder, collum vesica, in the narrow part of the bladder, 
 at the most inferior region of the anterior vesical wall, which in the male is 
 surrounded by the prostate, and lies close behind the inferior border of the 
 symphys. pubis (in the female above the vagina). 
 
 Structure of the urinary bladder: 1. Mucous membrane, whitish and thin, 
 with a few mucous follicles (in the neighbourhood of the neck) ; strong 
 and sensitive, presents numerous folds, which disappear upon extension of 
 the bladder, and a columnar or network appearance, according as the fibres 
 of the muscular tunic project. Besides, the openings of the two ureters and 
 the urethra, between which arises a smooth triangle, corpus trigonum, bounded 
 by two slight folds, plica ureterictK, which are situated behind the neck of the 
 bladder, and before the fundus resica, frequently forming a pouch on either 
 side (sinus vesical.). 
 
 2. The muscular coat invests the mucous membrane, with which it is 
 united by a thin layer of uniting tissue (tunica propria) is externally thin, 
 and consists of 
 
 a. An external layer of longitudinal fibres, which ascend from the 
 neck of the bladder on the anterior and posterior wall to the vertex, and 
 pass as m. detrusor urintt. 
 
 b. An internal layer, which consists partly of regular or irregular cir- 
 cular fibres crossing each other (the first at the fundus, the last particu- 
 larly on the posterior wall), partly of fibres passing obliquely. 
 
 M. Sphincter J'esicee is just such a fasciculus of circular fibres, which 
 closes the orifice of the urethra into the bladder. 
 
 3. The peritoneum covers the vertex and the posterior surface of the bladder 
 only ; reaches in the male (excavat. ratfo-tesica/.) deeper downwards than in 
 the female (excav. vesico-uterina). 
 
 Vessels : Artt. vesicales, from the hypogastrica and its branches. Veins form 
 plexus vesical. about the neck of the bladder, and open into V. hypogastric. 
 Lymphatics : they mostly lie between peritoneum and the muscular coat, and 
 pass into plex. hypogastric. Nerves : branches of plexus hypogastricus lateralis 
 and sacralis (voluntary and involuntary). 
 
 Function of the bladder: to hold the urine which continually 
 and guttatim flows in through the ureters, and when contained in 
 sufficient quantity, the resistance of the sphincter vesic. is over- 
 come, and it flows out. 
 
240 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 473. 4. The Urethra, 
 
 is the narrow, cylindrical continuation of the neck of the bladder 
 which passes under the symphysis pubis and opens with an 
 external mouth, osteum cuianeum, on the external parts of gene- 
 ration. 
 
 a. The urethra of the male, urethra virilis, from five and a 
 half to nine inches long, four lines broad, passes obliquely for- 
 wards and downwards through the Prostate (pars prostat.) 
 curves, slightly arched downwards, in its course, under the Sym- 
 physis (pars membran.), and lies in a groove between the corpp. 
 cavern, on the inferior surface of the penis (pars cavernosa), 
 whence it passes forwards through the glans to its anterior mouth. 
 
 1. Pars prostatica perforates the prostate (or lies in a groove uncovered by 
 it above), is wider at its departure from the neck of the bladder than before, 
 and about ten lines to one inch long. On the posterior wall the mucous mem- 
 brane forms a narrow fold, caput gallinaginis (colliculus seminalis, veru monta- 
 wwm), upon which are found the two openings of the ductus ejaculatorii, and 
 on the sides of which are the excretory ducts of the Prostata, and several ra- 
 diating bands, frenula. Between Prostata and mucous membrane there is 
 placed, as in the urinary bladder, a layer of muscular fibres. 
 
 2. Pars membranaceee s. isthmus urethra, the narrowest part of the urethra 
 (one and a half to two lines diam.) is eight to nine lines long, formed only 
 of the mucous membrane and the m. constrictor urethra [Wilson's and 
 Outline's], surrounding it like a ring, lies curved under the Symphysis pubis, 
 separated from this by veins, above the rectum (between the two a triangular 
 space, the apex of which looks backwards and upwards). This portion per- 
 mits great distension. The muscular layer is surrounded by many veins. 
 [This portion perforates the two layers of the deep perineal fascia about one 
 inch below the angle of the pubes, three-fourths to a half below the subpubic 
 ligament. The bulb of corp. Spongiosum projects backwards upon its under 
 surface, being applied to the anterior surface of the deep fascia. J 
 
 3. Pars cavernosa s. spongiosa, the longest portion of the urethra, commences 
 with an enlargement, bulbus, which has a diameter of about three lines, is 
 placed in the apex of the pubic angle, is surrounded below by the corp. cavernos. 
 [spongiosum] urethra, which likewise forms a bulbus, and laterally by the mir. 
 bulbo-cavernosi and Cowper's glands, and looks forwards and upwards. From 
 the angles in which the roots of the corpus cavernos. unite, the urethra passes 
 on the inferior surface of the penis, at first above mm. bulbo-cavernosi, then close 
 above the skin to the glans ; is there enlarged (four lines wide, three-quarters 
 of a line long) into the (fossa navicularis s. Morgagni), passes through the 
 middle of the glans [rather, on its under surface], and terminates with a nar- 
 row, oval opening (two lines wide) at its point. This portion consists of a 
 fibrous sheath, a spongy body, and the mucous membrane, which here pre- 
 sents particular longitudinal folds, and the oblique mouths of Cowper's glands 
 directed forwards, and those of mucous glands (g/. Littrii) in larger depressions 
 (lacunae, s. sinus Morgagni). 
 
 Vessels of the urethra are numerous, especially in the fossa navicularis. 
 Nerves also from pudendo-hamorrhoidal. 
 
 b. The urethra of the female, urethra muliebris, about an inch 
 and a half long, and wider than that of the male; passes, only 
 
THE VISCERA. 241 
 
 slightly curved, under the symphysis pubis, from the neck of the 
 bladder forwards and downwards, contracts by degrees and opens 
 into vestibulum vaginse. Above a venous plexus surrounds it 
 and ligg.pubo vesicalia; under the symphysis: the angle of the 
 united crura of the Clitoris; below it rests firmly upon the an- 
 terior wall of the Vagina. The external mouth, surrounded by 
 a small enlargement, lies about one inch under the Clitoris above 
 the entrance to the Vagina. Its mucous membrane presents 
 longitudinal folds, and the veins passing longitudinally, also, a 
 few openings of mucous crypts ; the external coat consists of a 
 thin layer of erectile tissue (like corp. cavernosum urethrse 
 virilis) and a thicker of circular muscular fibres (pubo-urethralis). 
 
 474. The glandulx supra-renales, renes succenturiati, 
 
 are two small (one inch high, two inches broad), flat, semilunar 
 shaped and spongy blood glands, which in the foetus and child 
 are larger than in the adult, and surround the superior extremity 
 of the kidneys like a helmet. 
 
 The anterior surface of the right supra-renal capsule looks 
 towards the inferior surface of the liver, to the right of V. cava 
 inferior; that of the left touches the Pancreas and looks towards 
 thefundus of the stomach. The posterior surface is attached to 
 the superior part of the cms of the diaphragm, on a plane with 
 the tenth dorsal vertebra, and has the Nn. splanchnic, major and 
 gland, semilunare behind and close to it. The superior convex 
 border is thin, and looks upwards and inwards. The inferior 
 concave is thick and lies upon the kidney. The surface is sur- 
 rounded by a thin layer of adipose tissue (not by peritoneum) and 
 a fibrous coat. 
 
 Structure. We distinguish a thick, external cortical substance, of a yellow 
 striped appearance; and a pultaceous, chestnut brown, medullary substance, 
 in the interior, which is penetrated by numerous vessels (veins). The lobes 
 perceptible upon the surface, only, are formed by the furrows for vessels. 
 
 Vessels: very numerous; suprarenales, branches of phrenic, infer.; Aorta; 
 codiaca renalis. Veins : give rise to the idea of a cavity in the supra renal 
 capsules; they pass into F. cava infer, (the right) and renalis (the left). 
 
 Nerves : from plcx. renalis and Solaris. 
 
 Function of the supra renal capsules unknown. 
 
 475. The Genitals, Organs of Generation, Organa genitalia 
 
 s. sexualia. 
 
 I. Of the Male, Genitalia virilia, 
 
 serve for the preparation, preservation, and excretion of the semi- 
 nal fluid, and are placed for the most part outside the pelvic 
 cavity. 
 16 
 
242 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 476. 1. The Scrotum, o 
 
 is a pouch-like elongation of the external skin which hangs down 
 before the perinaeum between the legs, and encloses both the 
 testicles. 
 
 This skin is brownish, thin, and without adipose tissue, 
 wrinkled, loose, and large in warmth, dense, strong, and tightly 
 applied in the cold ; beset with delicate and curled (it is said ob- 
 liquely placed) hairs and many sebaceous glands. 
 
 In its centre a linear suture-like elevation, raphe, passes from 
 the anus to the root of the penis, which is bounded before by the 
 root of the penis [sometimes extends along it] behind by the 
 anus, and indicates the place where inside the Scrotum a vertical 
 septum passes off from the Dartos between the testicles tunica 
 dartos, is a red, dense, and very vascular membrane of contractile 
 uniting tissue, which is firmly applied to the internal surface of 
 the scrotum, and only loosely to the tun. vaginalis communis. 
 The uniting tissue between the last continues into the fascia 
 femor. and abdominal, superfic., and becomes changed by pres- 
 sure into a membrane (e. g., of water). The partition in the 
 central line, septum scroll, consists of fibrous and common uniting 
 tissue. The dartos above, close to the spermatic cords, is sup- 
 plied with uniting tissue containing much adipose, and it does 
 not pass into the fascia superficialis. 
 
 Vessels : Jirtt. and Vv. scrotales anteriores (branches of pudenda externa and 
 epigastrica) ; posteriores (branches of pudenda communis"). 
 
 Lymphatics: numerous; they enter into the inguinal glands. 
 
 Nerves : branches of the ileo-inguinal., spermatic, extern, pudendus and cutan. 
 femor. posterior communis. 
 
 477. 2. The testicles, testes, testiculi s. didymi, are two 
 oval glands lying under the penis, which until towards the end of 
 embryonic existence lie in the abdomen, but later, enveloped in 
 a peculiar and common vaginal membrane, inside the Scrotum, 
 and the left rather lower than the right. Length : two inches. 
 Breadth: one inch. Thickness: six lines. Weight: one half to 
 one ounce. Each testicle consists of two parts. 
 
 a. The proper testicle, testis, op^t'j, is egg-shaped, rather flat on 
 the sides, smooth, and yielding (about as much as the eye), of a 
 whiter hue (tunica albuginea). Its superior extremity looks 
 forwards, the inferior backwards ; the anterior border downwards, 
 the posterior with the epididymis, upwards. 
 
 Structure. The parenchyma (pulpa testis) is soft, doughy, yellowish red ; 
 it consists, principally, like that of the kidney, of numerous and many times 
 convoluted tubules, tubuli scmiferi, which, surrounded by capillary and nervous 
 rete, are associated by uniting tissue into longitudinal lobules, and are sur- 
 rounded as a whole by a fibrous capsule (tunica albuginea s.propria), which 
 
THE VISCERA. 243 
 
 last again involves itself in a serous sac (tun. vaginalis propria testis). The 
 tubuli semiferi commence in blind (or looped T) extremities, at the periphery 
 of the testicle, and form, by means of their many short convolutions, a dense 
 cortical layer, which consists of from one to two hundred lobules (which un- 
 folded measure about from one thousand to one thousand two hundred feet 
 long). The lobules are supported by processes from the tunica albuginea, 
 which at the posterior border of the testicle forms a triangular space, corpus 
 Highmori, and continues inwards. From this carp. Highmori the tubuli pass 
 almost directly straight, when they have passed away from the lobules, and 
 then unite at an acute angle into a rete, rete vasculosum Halleri. From these 
 arise from nine to thirty vasa efferentia testis, which perforate the superior- 
 extremity of the Corpus Highm., and pass into the head of the Epididymis. 
 They are many times convoluted, present (each) a conical cord, conus vascu- 
 losus Halleri, the point of which is directed downwards, and they finally unite 
 to form the Canal of the epididymis. 
 
 The seminal tubules consist (like the urinary) of a structureless membrane, 
 have a diameter of 0- 1 1 to O24 of a line, and contain the Spermatic filaments 
 (spermatozoa') and the other elements of the Semen. 
 
 b. The Epididymis s. parastata cirsoides, is the vermiform 
 appendix, two and a half to three inches long, which is placed 
 along the posterior border of the testicle somewhat externally, of 
 a brownish red, and flattened from above to below. Its thicker 
 and broader superior extremity, caput epididymis, rests with its 
 concave surface close upon the superior extremity of the testicle ; 
 the central part, corpus, is surrounded all round by tun. vaginal. ; 
 the inferior thinner and narrower portion, cauda, is again situated 
 close on the inferior extremity of the testicle, and continues, 
 curved downwards, into the vas deferens. 
 
 Structure. The epididymis consists of a single tube, O12 to O33 lines in 
 diameter, and so often convoluted that its length measures thirty-two feet 
 (Monro), and is a continuation of the ront vasculosi. which coalesce in the caput 
 epididymis. Vasculwn aberrans Halleri is a still more minute canal than that 
 of the epididymis, which passes upwards from the tail of the last to the vas 
 deferens, and is then lost; it arises from the departure of a few seminal vessels 
 in the endeavour to form a second epididymis,- according to Weber similar 
 blind canals are sometimes present in the duct, hepatic, and pancreatic. 
 
 Vessels of the testicle: Art. and V. spermatica inter na; the veins arise from 
 the plexus pampiniformis. 
 
 Lymphatics : plexus spermaticus. 
 
 Nerves : plexus spermaticus (from plex. renalis n. sympatici). 
 
 Tunica vaginalis propria testis, the serous envelope (Perito- 
 naeum) of the testicle, is a completely closed sac, in which it is 
 involved (like the lungs in the pleura), so that the one (internal) 
 layer (t. serosa testis or visceral) is connected firmly with the 
 testicle (t. adnata), the other (external) surrounds it loosely [t. 
 vaginalis reflexa or parietal], and a cavity is found between the 
 two, in which a serous fluid is exhaled. The reflection of the 
 external layer upon the testicle takes place at its posterior border, 
 at the corpus Highmori. The epididymis is separated from the 
 
244 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 superior border of the testicle, externally by a kind of mesentery, 
 lig. epididymidis s. mesorchium, and internally it is covered 
 higher up. 
 
 The development of the vaginal membrane into a closed sac is 
 closely connected with the descent of the testicle. 
 
 Descensus tesliculi. In the tenth to twelfth week of foetal life we see a 
 small elongated testicle, in a mesentery which passes off from the peritonaeum 
 of the posterior abdominal wall, below the kidney. In the fissure which 
 leads to it from the posterior abdominal wall, the vasa testiculi are situated, 
 in the centre the vas deferens, below, a fibrous thicker cord projects from it 
 into the short straight inguinal canal. 
 
 The leading string, gubernaculwn Hunteri, which is widely fixed to the 
 Scrotum. The testicle increases by degrees, not so the gubernaculum, which 
 becomes shortened in proportion to the other parts, and draws down the 
 testicle out of the mesenteric fold, so that the immediately investing and 
 closely attached portion, only (the subsequent tun. serosa testis),of the testicle, 
 accompanies it. 
 
 hi its passage through the inguinal canal, the testicle draws down with it 
 that portion of the peritonaeum which is connected with its covering; a cavity 
 appears therefore inside the scrotum, on the external surface of which the 
 testicle, with its vessels, &c., is situated, and which is separated from the 
 cavity of the peritoneum by a constriction only, the vaginal canal, canalis 
 vaginalis. (Intestines pass through this canal, in hernia congenita ; thus they 
 are only separated from the Parenchyma of the testicle [the tunica albuginea] 
 by the serous investment of each other, whilst in hernia acquesita, two folds of 
 peritonceum, namely, the hernial sac and tunica vaginalis testis [reftexa], lie 
 there between them). 
 
 So soon as the testicle has arrived at the fundus of the scrotum, the obli- 
 teration of the vaginal canal commences, as the tunica becomes converted into 
 a ligamentous band of uniting tissue, habercula, between the internal inguinal 
 ring and the superior extremity of the testicle. 
 
 These filaments even sometimes disappear. The obliteration commences 
 above or below, or from both points at the same time, towards the termination 
 of foetal life ; at birth the canal is frequently open, and intestines fall into it, 
 forming a hernia (hernia inguinalis congenita). Serum collecting in it forms 
 a Hydrocde. 
 
 478. 3. The vas s. ductus defer ens, 
 
 the continuation of the epididymis, commences at the cauda of 
 the last, ascends through the inguinal canal, together with the 
 remaining parts of the spermatic cord into the abdomen, and 
 terminates before the vesiculse seminales, associated with the 
 excretory duct, of which it forms the ductus ejaculatorius. In 
 its course we distinguish four parts. 
 
 a. Pars testicularis passes in a serpentine form from behind 
 forwards and from below upwards along the inner side of the art. 
 ven. and spermatica and the epididymis. 
 
 b. Pars funicularis, ascends in a proper sheath behind art. 
 and ven. spermat., directly as far as the inguinal canal, inside of 
 the spermatic cord. 
 
THE VISCERA. 245 
 
 c. Pars inguinalis, passes through the inguinal canal, inclin- 
 ing from below, upwards, from within, outwards and from before, 
 backwards, continues over the curvature of the art. epigastrica 
 forming a part of the spermatic cord. 
 
 d. Pars vesicalis sinks downwards, at its exit from the inguinal 
 canal and the cord directly into the pelvis, over Vasa epigastricse, 
 at first on the side, then on the posterior surface of the urinary 
 bladder, where it crosses obliquely the Art. umbiliccdis, and be- 
 takes itself inwards and downwards to the fundus vesicx before 
 the ureter, then passes transversely inwards to the inner side of 
 the vesicidse seminales, where both vasa defer entia almost meet 
 together, and join behind the prostata, with the anterior extremi- 
 ties of the seminal vesicles at an acute angle. Two inches above 
 the vesiculx seminales it is thinner and wider. 
 
 Structure. Cylindrical, with thick walls, hard, narrow, and only at its 
 inferior extremity expanded; this canal presents an extremely delicate, 
 white, and folded mucous membrane, surrounded by a compact contractile 
 coat, and an external uniting tissue. Muscular fibres exist in large animals 
 (horses) indubitably. Arter.: spermaticaititernaa.n<lvesicaL; very numerous 
 inwards towards the seminal vesicles. 
 
 The spermatic cord, funiculus spermaticus, a looser cord at 
 the posterior part of the testicle, which, passing with and into the 
 testicle, through the inguinal canal as far as the internal ring, is 
 composed of the following parts, viz. : 
 
 1. Vas deferens (with Jlrt. and Ven. sperniatica deferens, from vesicalis in- 
 ferior: only sometimes) ; at the internal posterior part. 
 
 2. Art. sperniatica inter via, on the anterior and external side of the vas de- 
 ferens. 
 
 3. Ven. spermatic, interna, with plexus pampiniformis. 
 
 4. Plexus spermatic, lymphaticus. 
 
 5. Nerv. spermaticus extern, (branches of genito-cruralis\ Plcx. spermatic, (n. 
 symphaticus). 
 
 6. Habercula (the obliterated tunica propria testis), and sometimes 
 
 7. Vasculum aberrans Halleri. 
 
 The above mentioned parts are united by an adipose uniting tissue (tun. 
 propria funwuli), and they are held firmly together by the 
 
 Tunica vaginalis communis testiculi et funiculi. This last 
 is a fibrous membrane, covered by m. cremaster, which surrounds 
 the tunica propria of the testicle, and is connected through the 
 inguinal canal with the uniting tissue between fascia trans^ersa- 
 lis and peritoneum. (It becomes thicker and stronger from pres- 
 sure, e. g., of fluid.) 
 
 479. 4. Vesiculss seminales s. spermaticse, 
 
 two longish, flattened, irregular sacs, between the rectum and 
 bladder, along the external side of the vasa deferentia, lying at 
 the anterior extremity close to one another and diverging back- 
 
246 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 wards. Length : from two to two inches and a half. Breadth : 
 six lines. Depth : from two to three lines. The internal surface 
 consists of a cavity divided into from ten to fifteen compartments 
 (of about six to eight lines long), is striated and in folds, like the 
 vas deferens, the external coat of which, however, is thicker. 
 They contain a yellowish brown viscous fluid. The anterior 
 pointed extremity of each seminal vesicle, which is surrounded 
 by the Prostata, forms the excretory duct which, united with the 
 vas defer ens of each side, passes into the ductus ejaculatorius, the 
 ejaculatory duct for the semen, which, likewise, very short, but 
 with thin walls, oblique from above, downwards and inwards 
 through the basis prostatse, opens upon the veru montanum of 
 the urethra, with a narrow mouth, whilst its posterior extremity 
 is wider. 
 
 Function of the testicle. It is to secrete the semen, which, 
 preserved in the seminal vesicles, is carried through the ductus 
 ejaculatorius into the urethra, and there mixes with the fluids of 
 the Prostate, and the glands of Cowper. 
 
 480. 5. The prostate gland, glandula prostata, 
 a whitish conical gland, blunted in front, twelve lines thick, fifteen 
 long and eighteen broad, placed behind and below the Symphys. 
 pubis, before the neck of the bladder and the rectum, rather ob- 
 liquely from above and behind to below and before ; and is per- 
 forated by the urethra and the ductus ejaculatorii. Its inferior 
 surface rests upon the anterior surface of the rectum, attached by 
 uniting tissue, is flat, and in the centre separated by a longitudinal 
 groove into two equal parts. 
 
 The superior surface lies under the ligg. pubo-prostatica, and 
 some lines below the pubic angle. The sides are surrounded by 
 M. levator ani. The basis, that is, the posterior extremity, pre- 
 sents two larger lateral lobes and a central, bean-shaped, hidden 
 between the two, surrounding the neck of the bladder, and farther 
 backwards the narrow portion of the seminal vesicles. The blunt 
 apex directed forwards and downwards terminates behind the pars 
 membran. urethras. The canal for the urethra is situated rather 
 above the centre, is often open above, and placed in rare cases on 
 the inferior surface of the Prostata. 
 
 Structure. The Parenchyma of the Prostate, which consists of lobule?* 
 forms roundish glandular cells of fibrous tissue, surrounded by vascular rete. 
 The cells, closely compressed together, are connected with one another by 
 small canals, from the junction of which from twelve to fifteen excretory 
 ducts are formed, which pass obliquely from behind forwards in the gland, 
 and open close to the veru montanum, with very fine orifices, into the urethra, 
 lor the purpose of discharging a whitish viscous fluid, liquor prcataticus. The 
 fibrous envelope of the prostate gives to it its external firmness, whilst the 
 
THE VISCERA. 247 
 
 substance itself is easily lacerable. M. transfers, prostata only exists in 
 muscular men. 
 
 Am. they come from A. vesical., fuemorrhoid., media or vesicales. The veins 
 are numerous ; its plexus is connected with pi. vesical. and htemorrhoidalis. 
 
 Nerves : they are branches of pi. hypogast. nerv. sympathici. 
 
 481. 6. Cowper's glands, glandulas Cowperi, 
 
 are two irregular glands, the size of a pea and yellowish red, the 
 lobes of which, consisting of small fossae, open into two or three 
 excretory ducts, common to them all, which, after a passage of 
 one and a half to two inches on the inferior 'wall of the urethra, 
 penetrate, obliquely, the mucous membrane at the commencement 
 of pars, cavernos. urethras. They lie close before the prostate, 
 under the bulbus urethras [rather behind it] between the two in. 
 constrict, isthmi urethras, surrounded by m. bulbo-cavernosi ; 
 and secrete a yellowish mucus. 
 
 482. 7. The male organ, membrum virile, penis, virga, coles, 
 
 is a cylindrical, spongy body, in a state of erection three-cornered 
 (and then eight inches long), on the inferior surface of which the 
 pars cavernosa \_spongiosa~] urethras is applied. Its posterior 
 extremity, radix s. crura penis, is thicker and attached on either 
 side to the pelvis ; its anterior extremity, nut, glans, pointed and 
 rounded ; its superior surface, dor sum, flattened and presenting a 
 longitudinal sulcus for vasa dor s alia penis ; its inferior surface is 
 convex, and presents the urethrae in a deep groove. 
 
 The penis consists of the corp. cavernosum penis, the pars 
 cavernosa urethrae with its corpus cavernosum [spongiosum~], 
 the glans and muscles (which see). 
 
 a. Corpus cavernosum (s. corpora cavernosa] penis, is a roundish body, spring- 
 ing with two roots from the internal surfaces of the rami ascend, oss. Ischii 
 (close above the tuber Ischii], which passes away from under the symphysis 
 pubis, where its roots lie close together, as far as the glans, into which its an- 
 terior rounded and smaller extremity projects, without communicating with 
 it. On its superior surface the vasa dorsalia penis pass, in its inferior deep 
 groove, the pars cavernosa of the urethra. A fibrous vertical partition, septum 
 penis, separates the two halves of the corpus cavernosum (hence the appella- 
 tion two corpp. cavernosa], which, however, are more or less connected together, 
 since the veins of the one pass over into those of the other side. 
 
 Structure. The cavernous bodies consist of, 1. a thick, strong, and exten- 
 sible fibrous envelope, albuginea, from which a septum passes off in the cen- 
 tre; 2. of an erectile tissue, tela erectilis, which consists of cylindrical fasciculi 
 of uniting tissue, which cross each other very frequently ; contain a blood- 
 vessel and form, with the processes (bands, trabecula) passing off from the 
 albuginta, cellular spaces. The small cells communicate with one another. 
 In them is placed a very convoluted vascular rete, the principal mass of 
 which is formed of veins which consist of tunica vasorum cotwnunis, only. They 
 
248 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 pass very much convolved into their plexus cavernosus, and still even present 
 enlargements, sinus venosi, although unusually large. A portion of the arteries 
 (Artt. helicincR Mutter}, which contribute towards erection, are said to open di- 
 rectly into these sinuses. 
 
 b. Corpus cavernosum urethra, the spongy body of the urethra, which it sur- 
 rounds like a sheath, and extends from the symphysis, where it is surrounded 
 by m. bulbo-cavernosus, and swells out like a bulb (bulbus cavernosus) [spon- 
 giosum], to the inferior surface of the penis, as far as the glans, without com- 
 municating with the corpus cavernosum penis, but with the glans. Its struc- 
 ture is just the same as the last, only the septum is wanting. 
 
 c. The nut, glans penis, aX*vo?, the anterior blunted, conical extremity of 
 the member, is perforated by the urethra, the elongated opening of which it 
 presents at its apex. The excavated basis of the glans projects over the corp. 
 cavern, penis, which lies within it, so that an enlarged border, distinctly beset 
 with nervous papillae, corona glandis, appears. The superior convex surface 
 is smooth, the inferior flat surface smaller, and divided by a longitudinal sulcus 
 into two tubercles, between which, as far inwards as the corona, the cord. 
 (frenulum praputii) is attached, which is a fold of the prepuce. The paren- 
 chyma of the glans is of the same character as that of the spongy body, only 
 more closely compressed. It is connected with the corp. cavernos. urethra. 
 
 d. The external coverings of the penis. 
 
 1. Fascia penis, a continuation of /. perinai, forms the lig. pubo-prostaticum, 
 which extends from the roots of the corp. cavern, penis to the lig. arcuatum, and 
 is perforated by the urethra ; covers upon the dorsum of the penis the Vasa 
 dorsalia, and reaches as far as the glans. 
 
 2. The external skin, attached by loose uniting tissue, destitute of fat, to the 
 fascia, is very thin, brownish, hairless, and moveable, and by these circum- 
 stances is distinguished from the skin above and behind the root of the penis, 
 on the pubes, mons veneris. Behind the corona glandis the skin, instead of 
 passing over directly upon it, leaves the glans, passes away as far as over the 
 orifice of the urethra, is then reflected, and goes as far back as the posterior 
 lx>rder of the glans ; very delicate, vascular, and firmly attached to the last 
 and to the mucous membrane of the urethra. Thus the foreskin (praputium) 
 arises, a free sheath, consisting of two layers, the internal of which is attached 
 as frenulum prceputii to the inferior surface of the glans, and behind corona 
 glandis is beset with numerous sebaceous glands, glandula praputiales s. odori- 
 fera TysoniancE, and secretes the smegma prapulii. The opening of the pre- 
 puce is frequently too much contracted, the frenulum too long, as it reaches as 
 far as the orifice of the urethra. 
 
 3. Lig. suspensorium penis, a triangular, yellow, elastic band in the central 
 line between Symphisis pubis and corp. cavernosum penis, serving to fasten it, is 
 a continuation of the decussation of lig. Pouparti. It does not possess mus- 
 cular fibres (m. pubo-cavernosus, sometimes; it is a portion of bulbo-cavernosus) . 
 
 The vessels of the Penis : Arter. profunda penis goes partly into the veins, 
 partly into the blindly terminating (Miiller) or looped Jlrt. helicina projecting 
 into the sinus of the veins; art. dor salts penis. Veins: dorsalis penis (forms a 
 sinus), only one, between two arteries. 
 
 Nerves : N. pudendus communis ; plexus cavernosus N. sympathici, most of the 
 branches to the glans. After division of the n. dorsalis penis, the corp. caver- 
 nosa collapse, become more vascular, but incapable of erection. 
 
THE VISCERA. 249 
 
 II. The Organs of Generation in the Female, 
 
 Genitalia muliebria. 
 They are situated, for the most part, within the pelvic cavity. 
 
 483. 1. The ovaries, ovaria s. testes, muliebres (Galen), are 
 two semioval whitish glands, flattened from before to behind, 
 transverse at the entrance of the small pelvis, one of which is 
 situated on either side of the uterus, behind and below the Fallo- 
 pian tube. The convex anterior and posterior surfaces and the 
 superior border are free (enveloped in peritonaeum) ; the straight 
 or concave inferior border, where the vessels and nerves pass in 
 (hilus ovam), is connected with the broad ligament of the uterus ; 
 the internal extremity by a fibrous cord, Kg. ovarii, with the 
 superior angle of the Uterus ; the external extremity with the 
 fringe of the tuba Fallopix. The surface of the ovaries is not 
 always irregular and uneven. 
 
 . In the virgin : Length : eighteen to twenty-three lines ; breadth : 
 nine to twelve lines ; thickness : four and a half to five lines ; 
 weight : eighty to a hundred and ten grains. 
 
 In women of thirty-five to forty years old : Length : twelve to 
 eighteen lines; breadth : six to seven; thickness: three to four; 
 weight: forty grains. 
 
 Position : in the fo?tus in the regio lumbalis (like the testicles); 
 during pregnancy in the abdominal cavity, also after delivery in 
 the fossse iliacse; and very frequently behind the Uterus. 
 
 Structure. The parenchyma of the ovary is immediately covered by 
 (fibrous) uniting tissue, tunica propria s. albuginea, which receives a serous 
 investment from the peritoneum, so that the fossa of the fnlus ovarii only 
 remains free. The parenchyma itself (strotna) consists of a loose, but yet 
 dense uniting tissue, penetrated by numerous blood-vessels, and containing 
 twelve to fifteen roundish, transparent vesicles, of one half to four lines 
 diam.; these are, foUindi s. vesiculee (ovula) Graafii, the largest of which lie 
 close to the periphery. In impregnation, a Graafian vesicle bursts after it 
 has filled with blood ; it is emptied of its contents, the blood changes colour, 
 and is metamorphosed into the cicatrizing matter, which is corpus luteum, the 
 yellow body. 
 
 484. The Graafian vesicle is to be regarded as a cell of the ovary. It 
 consists of a very vascular, dense tunica propria (theca, of Baer) which en- 
 closes a clear fluid, mixed with some fat globules and with elementary 
 granules only, and the ovum. Each granule forms a connected layer of cells 
 (inembrana granw/osa), which covers the internal surface of the vesicle, and 
 attaches the ovum to its wall, since it surrounds it above and below, like Epi- 
 thelium. 
 
 The egg, ovulum, appears to the unassisted eye as a white pnnctule, is still 
 covered on its exit from the Graafian vesicle by a remnant of the granular 
 layer (that is, discus proligerus of Baer), which is lost upon the entrance of 
 the egg into the Fallopian tube. It is 0-08 of a line in size, consists of a clear, 
 structureless, firm, and close envelope, chorion, and fluid contents, the yelk. 
 
250 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Ckorion, yelk membrane, is single, indivisible (a zona pellurida, that is to 
 say, a space filled with fluid between the yelk and the membrana granulosa 
 does not exist). The yelk contains a thick mass of whitish yellow, brilliant 
 granules and globules, the size of which equals the fat globules. Surrounded 
 by, and close beneath the Chorion, lies the 
 
 Germinal, or vesicle of Purkinje, vesicula germinativa. It is round, clear as 
 water, and so much the larger the smaller the egg, consists of a smooth, struc- 
 tureless membrane, and contains, besides, a very clear albuminous fluid, a 
 dark granule, the germinal spot (macula germinativa), 
 
 Vessels of the Ovary. Arter. : ovarica branches of the uterina. Veins and 
 lymphatics like the arteries. 
 
 Nerves: plex. spermat. intern, from sympathicus. 
 
 485. 2. The Fallopian tubes, tubas Fallopise, two membra- 
 nous tubes, four inches long, lying transversely between the 
 Uterus and the external wall of the pelvic entrance (one upon 
 etiher side), before and above the ovary, behind the round liga- 
 ment. The external extremity, extremitas abdominalis, consists 
 of thin, extensible walls, curves backwards and inwards towards 
 the external extremity of the ovary, and opens with an orifice a 
 line wide into the abdominal cavity, surrounded by fringed lobules, 
 Jimbrise latinise s. morsus diaboli. One of these lobules (the 
 innermost) is connected by means of a ligament with the Ovarium, 
 which it surrounds like a funnel, in consequence of the flow of 
 blood to it after conception. The inner extremity, extrem. ute- 
 rina, is firm, and not extensible, and opens into the cavity of the 
 Uterus at the superior angle with a very narrow orifice (one fourth 
 of a line) obliquely inwards and downwards. A (narrow) canal 
 consequently leads from the cavity of the Uterus directly into 
 the cavity of the abdomen. 
 
 Structure. The tuba consists of three coats: a. The serous coat (perito- 
 neum) ; a continuation of the Kg. uteri latum passes to the external orifice, 
 where it also passes on to the fringe and over into the mucous membrane 
 (the only instance of such a transition) ; the peritoneum is likewise open at 
 this point. 
 
 b. The central, very vascular coat, a continuation of the tissue of the 
 Uterus, contains, in the larger animals at least, muscular fibres ; the internal 
 fibres pass longitudinally ; the external transversely. 
 
 c. The innermost coat, mucous membrane, presents, especially at the ex- 
 ternal extremity, many longitudinal folds, rugae longitudinal., and passes into 
 the tunica serosa. Arteries ; from the uterina and spermat. interna. Veins ; in 
 the plex. pampiniform. and v. uterina. 
 
 Function : a. The conveyance of the male semen to the ovary 
 (?). b. The reception and conveyance of the ovum from the 
 ovary into the Uterus. 
 
 486. 3. The Womb, Uterus, 
 
 a pear-shaped bag, flattened from before to behind ; its broadest 
 closed extremity directed upwards, its narrow open extremity 
 
THE VISCERA. 251 
 
 downwards ; it lies in the centre of the small pelvis, between the 
 urinary bladder and rectum, above the Vagina, in a fold of the 
 peritoneum; very moveable. Direction: oblique from above 
 downwards, and from before backwards; sometimes, but gene- 
 rally in pregnancy, from above downwards, and from right to 
 left. Dimensions : in the mature virgin two and a half to three 
 inches deep, six lines thick, above sixteen to eighteen broad; at 
 the neck six lines broad; weight: six to ten drachms. 
 
 We distinguish the following parts: the base, fundus, the most 
 superior, broadest, and convex ; corpus, the central, longer; col/um, 
 the most inferior and narrowest portion, which passes obliquely 
 downwards and backwards, and projects with its rounded ex- 
 tremity freely into the Vagina. This vaginal portion, porlio 
 vaginalts, in front six, behind five lines long, presents upon its 
 inferior uneven surface, the so-called os lincae, a transverse fissure, 
 that is, the external opening of the Uterus, orificium uteri ex- 
 ternum, which is bounded before by a thick and long lip (labium 
 anterus), behind by a thinner and shorter lip (labium post erius), 
 which are smooth in the virgin, but otherwise indented. The 
 anterior surface a little convex, covered as far as the neck by 
 peritoneum, is attached from the neck downwards by loose uniting 
 tissue to the fundus of the urinary bladder. The posterior surface 
 convex, entirely covered by the peritoneum, lies on the anterior 
 wall of the rectum. The superior border convex, does not reach 
 as high as the pelvic inlet. The lateral borders form, with the 
 superior of either side, an angle, where the tuba opens ; and under 
 that the lig. rotundum is attached. Ligg. lata adhere to them. 
 
 The cavity, cavum uteri, is narrow ; and in the fundus and 
 corpus triangular; the apex leads into the cylindrical canal of the 
 neck through the internal mouth of the Uterus, orific. uteri in- 
 ternum. The walls are four to six lines thick, the thinnest (two 
 lines) at the place where the tubse are affixed. 
 
 Structure of the Uterus. The parenchyma is grayish-brown, very dense 
 and firm, and consists of several layers of a very thick fibrous tissue, which 
 in the gravid state and in animals is regarded as muscular substance. It is 
 penetrated by numerous vessels (veins). At the collum we see only circular 
 fibres crossing at acute angles ; on the body and fundus a superficial layer of 
 longitudinal and oblique fibres, which converge to the lateral borders, nd a 
 deep layer of circular fibres. In the unimpregnated uterus the fibres are 
 similar to the undeveloped of the Embryo. 
 
 2. The mucous membrane, which lines the cavity of the ufcrus, is a con- 
 tinuation of that of the Vagina, but very thin, and firmly attached, beset with 
 numerous mucous follicles, which, when filled, resemble vesicles (vesirula s. 
 ovula Nabothi), and, in consequence of their capillary vascular rete, have a 
 red appearance. In the neck it is whiter, thicker, and presents on the ante- 
 rior and posterior wall longitudinal folds, which, from their conjoined trans- 
 
252 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 verse folds, look like a palm leaf (plicae, palmatce, arbor vita uteri), and after 
 one pregnancy (not always) disappear. 
 
 3. The serous coat. The external surface of the uterus is covered by peri- 
 toneum, in front as far as the commencement, behind deeper downwards, to 
 the middle of the collum, which, from the urinary bladder to the uterus, forms 
 ligg- vesico-uterina, and, passing from this over upon the rectum, it forms ligg. 
 recto-uterina. On the sides of the Uterus the peritoneum forms two folds: 
 
 The broad ligaments of the uterus, ligg. uteri lata, which pass transversely 
 from the internal surface of the external pelvic wall (at the pelvic inlet) to 
 the Uterus, and each (of the two) consists of two layers, between which are 
 situated at the superior free border the tuba; under that the lig. ovarii; and 
 behind that the ovarium itself, whereby an expansion like a bat's wing arises, 
 ala vespertilionis. Before the broad ligaments an actual fibrous band lies on 
 either lateral border of the uterus : 
 
 Lig. uteri rotundum s. crus uteri, round ligament of the uterus, which goes 
 off from the uterus close under the tuba, consists, like this, of muscular tissue, 
 and is placed in a particular fold of the anterior layer of lig. uteri latum: as- 
 csnds externally to the internal inguinal ring, then passes forwards and down- 
 wards through the inguinal canal, covered by a serous sheath and muscular 
 fibres (like m. cremasler), to the mons veneris. It serves for the fixation of the 
 uterus (and, from its large supply of blood, to conduct it to this organ). 
 
 Vessels : Jlrt. uterina are branches of hypogast. or umbilicalis ; pass in a very 
 serpentine course, and often anastomose with spermatica intern. Veins : plex. 
 uierini open into the vv. uterinte and spermatica; they form sinuses in the sub- 
 stance of the mucous membrane. Lymphatics ; very numerous and strong, 
 especially upon the surface ; passing between the lig. lata, they open into the 
 plex. hypogastric. 
 
 Nerves : branches of plex. hypogastricus superior (of sympathic.), and lateralis 
 (of sympath. and sacral nerves) ; they enter the substance of the Uterus. 
 
 Function of the Uterus: 1. Formation of the embryo. 2. Se- 
 paration of the menstrual blood [probably from veins]. 
 
 487. 4. The Vagina, 
 
 a membranous cylinder from three to seven inches long, one inch 
 wide, flattened and curved from behind forwards, is situated 
 between the bladder and rectum, vulva and uterus, and forms 
 with the last a concave angle forwards. 
 
 The superior, widest portion, fundus s. fornix vaginse, sur- 
 rounds, intimately united to it, the vaginal portion of the neck of 
 the Uterus. The inferior, narrow extremity, surrounded by m. 
 constrictor vaginse, forms the entrance to the Vagina, introitus 
 vaginas, which is partly closed by a crescentic fold of mucous 
 membrane lying at the inferior border (the membrane of the virgin, 
 Hymen). (As the remains of the Hymen, torn during copulation, 
 we observe two to five small lobules, the so-called, carunculx 
 myrtiformes; according to Lauth they are, however, present close 
 to the Hymen. The Hymen is sometimes found, notwithstanding 
 the performance of coitus ; but it is sometimes wanting even in 
 the newly-born). The anterior wall rather concave, shorter than 
 
THE VISCERA. 253 
 
 the posterior, is placed behind the urethra and the base of the 
 bladder, which are firmly united with it. The posterior wall, 
 above convex, below concave, about half an inch longer, abuts 
 upon the rectum. At the sides, the ligg. lata are attached above, 
 the/0sc. pelvis and m. levator, below. 
 
 Structure. The vagina consists of a spongy, erectile, very vascular tissue 
 (like corpp. cavernosd), which is enclosed by an external very dense and 
 strong, and an internal less thick fibrous coat. The internal surface is lined 
 by a firmly attached reddish mucous membrane, through the thick Epithelium 
 of which numerous mucous follicles and villi are distinguishable. Transverse 
 columnar folds are placed on both sides of the middle line on the anterior and 
 posterior wall, these are columna rugarum, anterior and posterior. They dis- 
 appear at the superior part after delivery. The serous membrane (perito- 
 neum) at the posterior uppermost part. 
 
 Vessels : Jlrtt. vaginales, branches of the hypogastrica, the uterina, vesicates. 
 Veins : plexus vaginalis upon the anterior and posterior wall (containing fre- 
 quently phlebolithes) . 
 
 Nerves : Branches of plex. hypogastric. lateralis (of sympathicus ; 3 4. Sa- 
 cral nerves). 
 
 488. 5. The Vulva, 
 
 lies, in the regio pubis under the mons Veneris, about an inch 
 before the orificium ani, and consists of the large and small 
 pudendal lips, the clitoris and the vestibule. 
 
 a. The great or external lips, labiapudendi majora, the parallel 
 folds of skin, passing from above downwards and behind for- 
 wards, which are beset with hair and cushioned with fat (like 
 mons Veneris), which cover the rest of the pudendal parts, have 
 a longitudinal fissure, "n'raa? vulvse" between them. The 
 superior angle is designated commissura anterior, the inferior c. 
 posterior. At the inferior commissura a thin membranous fold, 
 frenulum labiorum, which in delivery is generally torn ; and the 
 
 space between the frenulum and the Hymen, the fossa navicu- 
 laris. The internal surface is smooth, like mucous membrane, 
 and passes into the internal lips. 
 
 Arter.: labiales post, (of pudenda intern.) ; labial, anterr. (of pudenda extern.) 
 Nerves : from ileo-hypogastric., spermatic, from the inguinal canal. 
 
 b. The internal or small pudendal lips, 1. p. minora s. nymphse, 
 the narrow folds of mucous membrane on the internal surface of 
 the great lips, having the vestibule between them. Above they 
 become broader and divide into two rami, the superior of which 
 blends, above the clitoris, with the prseputium clitoridis, the 
 inferior, losing itself in the clitoris, forms the frenulum clitoridis. 
 Between the layers of the fold an erectile tissue is found [which 
 presents an enlargement below ; in fact corresponds to, and is of 
 the same structure as the bulb of the Corp. Spongiosum of the 
 
254 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 male. TRANS.] At birth the internal lips are larger than the ex- 
 ternal; in women who have frequently given birth to children, and 
 are thin [even during pregnancy], they project out beyond the 
 great lips ; in the Hottentot women they form the so-called 
 " aprons." 
 
 c. The Clitoris an erectile organ, like the corpus cavernosum 
 penis lying close under, the anterior commissure between the 
 great lips, surrounded by fat and a fibrous sheath. Commonly 
 one inch long, three lines thick, it often becomes much larger, and 
 then might be taken for a penis, (but it is not perforated by the 
 urethra, and the corp. spongiosum urethras is wanting in it). It 
 arises with two roots, from the ram. adscendent. oss. ischii, which 
 are united below the symphysis pubes, and thus terminated, a few 
 lines before the symphysis, with a roundish extremity, glans 
 clitoridis; prepuce andfrenulum exist. Lig. suspensorium and 
 Mm. ischio-cavernosi, as in the penis. M. constrictor vaginas 
 (this corresponds with m. bulbo-cavernosus penis). Arter. : pro- 
 
 funda and dorsal, clitorid. from pudenda interna. 
 
 d. The vestibule, vestibulum Vaginae, that is, the floor of the 
 pudendal fissure, between the clitoris and the inferior commissure ; 
 bounded laterally by the nymphae. A superior opening is found 
 therein, the orificium urethras one inch [less] under the clitoris, 
 surrounded by a slight elevation and radiating folds ; and lower 
 down the entrance to the Vagina. Mucous follicles are found, 
 particularly in the region of the orifice of the urethra ; sebaceous 
 glands, which secrete a caseous substance of a peculiar smell upon 
 the nymphae. 
 
 e. Glandulss Bartholinianse, (again made known by Tiedemann 
 in 1840) s. Duverneianse s. Cowperi, two flat, almost bean shaped, 
 reddish white, hardish glands; of five to ten lines long, lie in a 
 considerable quantity of fat, at the sides of introitus vaginas (one 
 on either side) beneath the external skin of the inferior part of 
 labia majora and fill up the space, between the extremity of the 
 vagina, ram. ascend, ischii and crura and erector clitoridis, be- 
 fore the m. transvers. perinaei. 
 
 Structure. The glands consist of small, flat rounded, and conglomerate 
 lobules, in which arises a membranous excretory duct, from caecal vesicles, 
 eight lines long, which passes out at the anterior border of the superior part 
 of the glands, before m. constrictor vagince, passes behind the labia majora hori- 
 zontally, inwards and forwards, and opens with a wider orifice at the sides 
 of the vestibulum Vagince. 
 
 Arteries : these are branches of pudenda interna and vaginales. 
 
 Nerves : delicate twigs of n. pudendus. 
 
 489. 6. The breasts, mammary glands, mammae, 
 are two semi-globular or conical (in Spanish women) glands on 
 
THE VISCERA. 255 
 
 the anterior surface of the Thorax (before the third to the sixth 
 ribs) covered with fat and a delicate smooth skin, in the centre of 
 which rises the conical teat, or nipple, papilla mamma, surrounded 
 by a rosy or brownish halo, areola. The bosom, sinus, is the 
 space between the two mammae. 
 
 Structure. The gland, freed from fat, is flattish, round, and rests upon the 
 ra. pectoral maj., with its flat base, separated by fasc. superficialis. The sur- 
 face is irregular, because the gland chiefly consists of irregular lobules, which 
 are associated together by uniting and adipose tissue, but do not communicate 
 with one another. [They are placed in a fibrous tissse, a kind of proper 
 fascia, pointed out by Sir Astley Cooper, in his work on the Breast. THAXS.] 
 The lobules again consist of roundish vesicles arranged together, like a bunch 
 of grapes (acini, cellula, vesiculee), the white excretory ducts of which unite 
 together to form a large milk duct, ductus lactiferi, of which twelve to twenty 
 finally remain passing inwards towards the central point of the gland, and 
 open in the nipple, between the wrinkles of the skin, either singly, or two or 
 three united together. 
 
 The vesicles consist of fibrous tissue, which also unites the lobules and 
 Drives to the gland its firmness. The milk ducts are surrounded by erectile 
 tissue both in the areola, where they form enlargements, and in the nipple 
 itself, in consequence of which the nipple in suckling, or from physical 
 causes, becomes erect 
 
 In tlie male breast the vesicles and ducts are wanting. 
 
 Vessels: Branches of artt. mammariee extern^ very strong during suckling' 
 Veins: circulus venosus areola ; they open into Vv. mammar. extern. Lympha- 
 tics : they enter the axillary glands and plex. mammarius. 
 
 Nerves : Branches of nn. supraclaviculares from the fourth cervical nerve to the 
 skin; very delicate twigs probably enter the gland with the arteries. [Fila- 
 ments of nervi ititercostalesJ] 
 

 OF THE SENSES, 
 
 ORGANA SENSORIA. 
 
 " We observe in the eye many exquisite refinements of construction, by 
 which various defects, unavoidable in all optical instruments of human work- 
 manship, are remedied. Of this nature are those which render the organ 
 achromatic, which correct the spherical aberration, and which provide for the 
 adjustment of its refracting powers to the different distances of the objects 
 viewed ; not to speak of all the external apparatus for the protection, the 
 preservation, and the movements of the eyeball, and for contributing in every 
 way to the proper performance of its office. Are not all these irrefragable 
 proofs of the continuity of the same design ; and are they not calculated still 
 farther to exalt our ideas of the Divine Intelligence, of the elaborate perfec- 
 tion impressed upon His works, and of the comprehensive views of His 
 providence ?" ROGET. Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 32. 
 
 17 
 

 OF THE SENSES. 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 Organs of the Senses : 
 
 Dalrymple. Anatomy of the Human Eye. 1834. 
 Jacob. Art. " Eye 11 in Cycl. of Anat. and Phys. and Med. Chir. Trans. 
 
 vol. xii. 1823. Phil. Trans. 1819. 
 Porterfield. A Treatise on the Eye. 1769. 
 Valentin. On the Functions of the Nerves of the Orbit, transl. by J. F. 
 
 France. Lond. Med. Gaz. 1846. 
 
 Owen. Catal. of Hunt. Museum. Phys. Series, vol. iii. 
 Jones, Wharton. Med. Gazette, vol. xxi., and Mackenzie's Treatise on 
 
 Diseases of the Eye, for a Section of the Eye. 
 Carter, H. J. Med. Gazette. Jan. 1839. 
 Brewster. Philos. Trans. 18331836. 
 
 Ear: 
 
 Tod, D. Anat. and Phys. of the Organ of Hearing. 1832. 
 Art. " Organ of Hearing, 11 in Cycl. Anat. and Phys., with Bibliog. 
 Pitcher. On the Structure, &c. of the Ear. 1838. 
 Saunders. Anatomy of the Human Ear, &c. Plates. 1806. 
 
 Nose : 
 Paget. Art. "Nose" Cycl. of Anat. and Phys. 
 
259 
 
 OF THE SENSES, ORGANA SENSORIA. 
 
 490. 1 . The organ of Sight, the Eye, Organon visus, oculus. 
 
 The eye is placed in the orbit (see Osteology), and is moved, for 
 the complete performance of its functions, by six proper muscles, 
 (see Myology), protected by certain contrivances, and by others 
 maintained in a lubricated state. 
 
 A. Accessory Organs, Tutamina oculi. 
 
 491. 1. The eyebrows, supercilia, 
 
 two arched enlargements of the skin along the superior border of the 
 basis of the orbits, are beset with short, stiff hairs, directed towards 
 the temples, which are arranged more closely, inwards towards the 
 nose, and are, rarely only, continued over the root of the nose 
 (by intercilia). The skin is thick, lies firmly upon a muscular 
 layer of m.frontcdis, orbicular, and superciliaris ; is provided with 
 numerous nerves from n.facialis and trigeminus, and with vessels 
 from ophthalmicm and temporalis. Uses : The eyebrows protect 
 the eyes against too strong light, and from the perspiration flowing 
 down from the forehead ; they serve, besides, for the expression of 
 the face. 
 
 492. 2. The eyelids, palpebra, 
 
 two movable cutaneous curtains, which, passing off from the su- 
 perior and inferior border of the base of the orbits completely shut 
 up the eye when they are approximated. They consist of skin, 
 muscular fibres, cartilage and mucous membrane. The anterior 
 or cutaneous surface is convex, and folded across ; the posterior 
 surface turned towards the globe of the eye, concave and beset 
 with yellowish, vertical lines (glandul. Meibom.). The free bor- 
 ders are in the open eye curvilinear, and they bound an elliptical 
 space, in the closed eye rectilinear, and only leave a narrow fis- 
 sure, rima palpebrar.^ but not a triangular canal between them. 
 The anterior edge of the free borders is beset with three rows of 
 short, stiff and curved hairs, cilia, eyelashes, the points of which 
 diverge from one another ; the posterior edge presents a regular row 
 of (twenty-five to thirty) small openings (see Meibomian Glands, 
 493.) At the last [internal] one-sixth of the free border, it presents 
 a tubercle provided with an opening, the lacrymal punctum. From 
 this point inwards there are neither cilia nor openings any longer 
 
260 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 present. The free borders unite together, and form towards the 
 temples the external acute angle, commissura externa s. canthus 
 minor i which leads into a depression (of the conjunctiva) ; towards 
 the nose (at the posterior border of proc. ascendens maxilL super. \ 
 the internal rounded and wider angle, commissura interna s. can- 
 thus major. The superior eyelid is deeper than the inferior. 
 
 a. The cartilages of the eyelids, tarsi, tarsal cartilages, are thin fibro-car- 
 tilaginous plates, which are placed towards the free border of the eyelids ; the 
 superior four, the inferior two lines, deep. Their anterior convex surface is 
 covered by m. orbicularis ; the posterior is firmly united with the conjunc- 
 tiva ; the free border is thick, the attached thin, in the superior eyelid convex 
 (here is affixed the m. levator palpebr. super.), and it continues into a fibrous 
 membrane, which externally, very strong at the basis orbitce, internally loses 
 itself in uniting tissue. 
 
 The two tarsi do not reach to the angles of the eye, but become united to 
 them by the tarsai ligaments : 
 
 Lig. palpebrale internum, a flat ligament, with its surfaces directed up- 
 wards and downwards, its borders forwards and backwards, which 
 passes away transversely inwards, before the lacrymal sac, to the 
 place where the frontal and superior maxillary bones (proc. frontalis.) 
 unite together ; and 
 
 Lig. palpebrale externum, which passes off from the external extremity 
 of the tarsi (in a forked manner) protected by fibrous tissue, passes to 
 the proc. frontal, of the malar bone inside the orbit, and is attached to 
 its external angle. 
 
 b. The external skin of the eyelids is thin, rather transparent, attached by 
 loose but fatless uniting tissue to the pale internal portion of m. orbicularis, 
 connected firmly with the tarsi, and passes over on the free border of the 
 eyelids into 
 
 c. The uniting membrane of the eyelids, conjunctiva palpebrarum. It is a 
 soft, mucous membrane, covered with epithelium, provided with nerves and 
 vessels, which covers the free border and the posterior surface of the eyelids, 
 is reflected at the margins of the orbits from the lids upon the globe, forms 
 at the external angle of the eye a depression, at the internal (where is the 
 so-called lacus lacrymalis) a semilunar fold, concave towards the temples ; this 
 is, plica semilunaris (memb. nictitans, of animals). On the globe of the eye, 
 the anterior third of which it covers, the conjunctiva is only loosely connected 
 with the sclerotica, but the more intimately with the cornea. It enters into 
 the lacrymal canals at the puncta, and lines them. 
 
 Vessels and nerves of the eyelids. Artt. palpebrales (interna et externa) are 
 branches of art. ophthalmica, temporalis, infraorbitalis andfacialis; they form 
 an arcus palpebralis (s. tarseus} superior and inferior. The veins of the same 
 name open into Vv. angularis and temporalis (facial, anter. and posterior). 
 Conjunct, palpebrar. is plentifully supplied with bloodvessels, less so the conj. 
 sclerotica, not at all the conj. cornece, in which Arnold has found Lymphatics. 
 
THE SENSES. 261 
 
 Nerves: they are branches oftrigeminus (frontal., lacrymal., infraorbital., 
 infratrochlearis) ; facialis (to m. orbicular.) ; oculomotor ius (to levat. palpe- 
 brar.) 
 
 493. The glands of the eyelids. 
 
 a. The glands of Meibomius, gl. Meibomiance, lie in the substance of the 
 tarsal cartilages (twenty to twenty-five in the inferior, thirty in the superior), 
 are rather lower than the last, and open on the posterior edge of the free 
 border of the lid, in a row. Each gland consists of a convoluted tube, the 
 walls of which are cellular all round, so that it looks like a bunch composed 
 of berries united together without stalks, is formed of uniting tissue, filled 
 with flat cells and fat vesicles, and pours out a viscous fluid which prevents 
 the overflow of the tears (lema). The short excretory duct of one gland some- 
 times unites with that of another, or is fissured. 
 
 b. Caruncula lacrymalis, is a flesh-like corpuscle, the size of a grain of 
 rye at the internal canthus, internal to plica semilunaris , covered by the con- 
 junctiva ; it consists of an assemblage of glandules of the same kind as the 
 Meibomian, from which (seven or eight) minute openings proceed, and upon 
 which light, short, small hairs are seen. 
 
 494. 4. The lacrymal organs, organa lacrymalia. 
 
 a. The lacrymal gland, glandula lacrymalis (innominata), consists of two 
 parts, both of which are situated above the external canthus. 
 
 The superior or orbital portion, of the size of an oat grain, lies transversely 
 with the superior convex surface attached to ihefovea lacrymal. of the frontal 
 bone, with the inferior concave surface upon m. rectus externus ; its anterior 
 border close behind the superior external border of the orbit, and the upper 
 lid ; on its posterior border nerves and vessels enter. 
 
 The inferior or palpebral portion is smaller, thinner, situated, covered by 
 a fibrous membrane, upon the external side of the upper lid, and reaches 
 downwards almost to the superior border of the tarsus superior. The ten or 
 twelve excretory ducts of both parts open (almost invisibly) on the posterior 
 surface of the upper lid, one line above the cartilage, from the external angle 
 as far as the centre of the lid, in a row, and perforate the conjunctiva. Arter. : 
 art. lacrymalis. Nerves : a branch of sympathicus ; n. lacrymal. (trigemin.) 
 passes, nominally only, through it to the conjunctiva, like n. facialis in the 
 Parotis. 
 
 b. The puncta and lacrymal canals. The circular, constantly open punc- 
 tum lacrymali, is found at the apex of a small tubercle (papilla lacrymalis) on 
 the internal part of the free border of the eyelid. The superior looks down- 
 wards and backwards, the inferior upwards and backwards towards the 
 globe. Both lead into the lacrymal canaliculi, canaliculi lacrymales a. cornua 
 limacum. They pass at the commencement vertically, immediately bend at 
 a right angle, inside the free border of the eyelids, inwards and open, inde- 
 
262 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 pendently, in the anterior external part of the lacrymal sac, behind lig. pal- 
 pebrale internum. The commencement is somewhat wider than the remain- 
 ing part, in the whole a capillary tubule ; the walls thick and elastic, covered 
 before by fibres of m. orbicularis, behind by fibres of m. Horneri, consist of 
 mucous membrane. 
 
 Muse. Horneri [tensor tarsi] arises from the crista lacrymalis, passes 
 transversely outwards, is divided by lig. palpebr. intern., and attaches 
 itself to the internal angle of the eye, drawing the lids inwards, and 
 making the puncta deeper in the lacus lacrymalis, where they take up 
 the lacrymal moisture and carry it into 
 
 c. The lacrymal sac and duct. These two form one canal (canalis lacry- 
 malis oss. utiguis), which extends from the eye as far as the nose ; secretes a 
 mucous fluid, and carries this, together with the tears, into the nose. The 
 lacrymal sac, saccus lacrymal., an oblong but closed sac, formed of soft, red- 
 dish mucous membrane, united by areolar tissue on the inner side with the 
 fossa lacrymal. (os unguis and proc. nasalis of the upper ^aw) on the external 
 with a fibrous continuation of m. orbicularis ; it lies, close behind the internal 
 inferior angle of basis orbitce, behind and under the lig. palpebrale intern., 
 above which the caecal extremity of the sac, only, projects a little upwards. 
 On the external surface is placed m. Horneri. The lacrymal canaliculi open 
 close behind lig. palpebr. Below it continues into the 
 
 Lacrymal duct, ductus (naso-) lacrymalis a membranous canal flattened on 
 the sides, somewhat contracted in the centre, which, slightly curved forwards 
 and outwards, descends in the osseous canalis lacrymalis to the nasal cavity, 
 and opens into the inferior nasal chamber below the anterior part of the 
 inferior turbinate bone (sometimes in a fold of mucous membrane which 
 elongates the ducts a few lines). Internally it lies on the meatus narium and 
 concha inferior; externally on the thin wall of the antrum Highmori. 
 Arter. : branches of ophthalmica. Nerves: infra- and supra-trochlearis 
 (nerv. ophthalmici). 
 
 495. 5. The muscles of the eyes. 
 
 These are placed together inside the orbits, in the depth of 
 which they arise and form a circle around the N. opticus and the 
 nerves of motion. 
 
 a. M. lev. palpeb. superioris (see Myologia). 
 
 b. Mm. recti bulbi oculi, the four straight muscles of the eye. 
 
 Origins: round about the foramen opticum. Insertions: with a broader 
 aponeurosis to the Sclerotica, convex towards the Cornea and in its proximity. 
 Position: one surface turned towards the walls of the orbit, the other towards 
 the optic nerve and the globe of the eye ; separated from these by adipose 
 tissue and vessels ; in a straight direction from behind forwards, curved on 
 the globe. The opening in the capsule for reel, intern, is rather higher than 
 the internal, for reef, extern, on the same plane with the external angle of the 
 
THE SENSES. 263 
 
 eye, for rect. super, and infer, rather inwards of the vertical diameter (Wil- 
 brand). Use : each draws the globe towards its own side ; associated they 
 draw it inwards, with the exception of the rect. extern. [The rect. externus 
 has two origins, one as stated, the second from the margin of the spheroidal 
 fissure.] 
 
 Rectus superior s. superbus is the weakest; rect. inferior s. humilis: rect. 
 internets s. amatorius 8. bibitorius, the shortest and thickest ; rectus externus 
 s. indignatorius, antagonist of the two obliqui, the longest, is alone provided 
 by nerv. abducens, the others by 2V. oculo-motorius. 
 
 c. M. obliquus superior s. trochlearis s. patheticus. 
 
 Or. : between m. rectus sup. and intern, before the foram. opticum, from 
 the body of the Sphenoid bone. Ins. : at the superior part of the Sclerotica; 
 four lines broad, behind muse. rect. super. Figure : elongated, fusiform ; the 
 tendon curves backwards, downwards, and outwards. Position : at the 
 superior, internal angle of the orbits ; the tendon passes in the trochlea [a 
 small cartilage, five-sixths of a small ring] through a tendinous sheath. It 
 is alone provided by nerv. trochlearis. Use : to roll the globe inwards and 
 downwards. 
 
 d. M. obliquus inferior s. minor. 
 
 Or. : os maxilar super., between margo infer. orbit<B [sometimes from it] 
 and canal, lacrymal. ; often from the lacrymal sac. Ins. : the posterior ex- 
 ternal part of Sclerotic, six lines distant from the cornea, three from the optic 
 nerve, behind the attachment of rectus externus. Pos. : flat under the globe 
 of the eye (externally, above and behind) between the floor of the orbit and 
 TO. rectus inferior, enveloped in fat. Use: to roll the bulbus outwards and 
 upwards. Both muse, obliqui draw the globe forwards [?] . 
 
 496. B. The Globe of the Eye, Bulbus oculi, 
 
 an oblong globe formed of three circular membranous layers lying 
 over one another, which are filled with a transparent refracting ap- 
 paratus, being surrounded by the capsule of the eye arid an elastic 
 cushion of adipose tissue in the anterior parts of the orbits, and 
 projecting outwards at the external border of the basis beyond it. 
 Its longitudinal diameter is about one line longer (eleven lines) than 
 the transverse, as the anterior segment of the globe formed by the 
 cornea projects before that composed of the Sclerotica. 
 
 Capsula bulbi oculi (Bonnet and Ferrall), 
 
 a strong, fibrous membrane, firmly applied behind to the globe, and 
 passing, becoming thinner in its course, into the fibrous sheath of 
 the Optic nerve, before into the Perichondrium of the tarsi of both 
 eyelids. All the muscles of the globe lie behind and perforate it 
 
264 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 with their anterior extremities, in order to attach themselves to the 
 Sclerotica ; so that, in consequence of the thickness and strength 
 of the capsule, each passes away, as it were, over a trochlea.' 
 
 a. The most external of the coats of the eye. They determine 
 the shape of the organ. They are the stiff Sclerotica and the 
 transparent cornea. 
 
 497. 1. Sclerotica (s. tunica albuginea s. cornea opaca), 
 the white coat. 
 
 a strong, opaque membrane, forms a segment of a sphere, the anterior sixth 
 of which is represented by the transparent cornea. It consists of short fibrous 
 fasciculi interlacing with each other in every direction, is bluish, brilliant 
 (inwardly brown), provided with few vessels, and not at all with nerves. [?] 
 Rigid, and not extensible, it is thinnest anteriorly in the neighbourhood of the 
 Cornea, behind, where a foramen for the Optic nerve perforates it, thickest. 
 The foramen for the optic nerve lies rather internally to the axis of the globe. 
 The external surface of the Sclerotica is covered before by the conjunctiva 
 connected with it by loose uniting tissue, and by the tendons of the mus- 
 cles of the globe. The internal surface is wrinkled, brown, and connected 
 by delicate uniting tissue and the obliquely passing ciliary vessels with the 
 tun. Choroidea. The ciliary nerves pass from behind forwards between the 
 two coats. 
 
 The anterior border is circular, bevelled off on the internal surface ob- 
 liquely backwards (sulcus Sclerotica), for the reception of the corresponding 
 bevelled border of the Cornea. Both are firmly united together. Between 
 them and the ligam. ciliare, which is here, also, attached, we find (in animals) 
 sinus circularis venosus iridis s. canalis Fontana, a very narrow circular 
 canal which receives the veins and the blood of the iris, which is driven 
 out from these during enlargement of the pupil, and is said to give off vv. 
 ciliares anticce ; but in Man it is placed in the substance of the Cornea (as 
 canalis Schlemmit). 
 
 The Sclerotica is to be considered as a continuation of the dura Mater upon 
 the Optic nerve ; [?] the pia mater and arachnoidea do not pass into the eye. 
 At the foramen for n. options a lamina cribrosa was formerly described, that 
 is, a perforated plate which apparently arises from the manner in which the 
 neurilemma leaves the fasciculi of the n. Options at this place. 
 
 Vessels : a few arteries from artt. ciliares ; Veins more numerous, in con- 
 nexion with the canals of the Cornea ; Lymphatics are probably present. 
 Nerves not yet demonstrated. 
 
 498. 2. ( Tunica) Cornea, the transparent Cornea, 
 
 is a thick, transparent, strong, but elastic membrane, forming the segment of 
 a smaller (also more convex) sphere than the Sclerotic, and the anterior part 
 of the bulbus. Its anterior convex surface is covered by Epithelium, a conti- 
 
THE SENSES. 265 
 
 nuation of that of the conjunctiva (this is the firmly applied conjunctiva cor- 
 nea) ; the posterior concave surface forms the anterior wall of the anterior 
 chamber of the eye : its posterior border, bevelled obliquely on the external 
 surface, is extremely firmly united with the Sclerotica. (According to Va- 
 lentin, both membranes grasp one another by indentations of looped and re- 
 flected fibres.) 
 The cornea consists of four layers : 
 
 a. Epithelium on the anterior surface, forms after death a slimy covering, 
 which makes the cornea appear opaque (conjunctiva cornea). 
 
 b. The proper cornea is laminated, and consists of flat cell fibres which in- 
 terlace in all directions, becoming in boiling water a white jelly and dissolved. 
 
 c. The membrana Demoursii s. Descemetii, a firm cartilaginous, colourless, 
 and transparent thin membrane, which remains unchanged in boiling water; 
 does not pass over upon the Iris, but passes over to its external border and 
 terminates between sclerotica and lig. ciliare with a sharp border. 
 
 d. The pavement Epithelium on the posterior surface of the Demoursian 
 membrane reaches only as far as the external border of the Iris, and looks 
 into the anterior chamber of the eye (this is the so-called membr. humoris 
 aquei). The cornea is nourished mediately only, by the aqueous humour with 
 which it is saturated. In the foetus a capillary rete is found under the ante- 
 rior epithelium, the branches of which come from the vessels of the conjunc- 
 tiva scleroticce; in the adult the 
 
 Canalis Schlemmii (see before, $ 497), near to the border of the cornea, is 
 said to be a venous sinus, but it receives no branches from the cornea. 
 The layers, a, c, and d, possess no vessels ; in the inflammatory condition 
 of the eye such may be regarded as but only newly formed. Nerves : (disco- 
 vered by Schlemm in the eyes of animals) arise from the ciliary nerves on the 
 sclerotica, and are lost at the border of the cornea; Pappenheim has followed 
 them between the lamellae. 
 
 The cornea is more convex and thicker in the embryo and the newly born 
 than in the adult. Impinging rays of light passing through it become refracted 
 in a converging direction. 
 
 Weber has classed the cornea with the Epidermic formations. According 
 to Arnold its substance passes immediately into that of the (fibrous) Sclero- 
 tica, and it bears all the characters of a serous membrane, as: transparency, 
 secretion of serum, vascular canals, formation of bloodvessels, regeneration; 
 the laminated structure is only an artificial production. 
 
 Arnold admits of a second layer between sclerotica and choroidea ; this is 
 the 
 
 Arachnoidea oculi, which is said to form a closed serous sac, and has 
 been already observed by Zinn, Wardrop, and others, the external por- 
 tion of which has been designated lamina fusca sclerotica, the internal 
 membr. suprachoroidea. Cases of a morbid collection of fluid (by Riolan, 
 Weller, Scarpa) are said to support this acceptation. According to 
 
266 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Henle it does not exist ; but there is only to be found in this situation a 
 loose, delicate, uniting tissue with pigment cells. 
 
 b. The central, vascular, and coloured layer of the coats of the 
 eye. 
 
 499. 3. Choroidea s. tunica vasculosa, 
 
 a thin, very vascular tunic of the same extent as the sclerotica, to the internal 
 surface of which it is attached by a delicate, brown, uniting tissue (see Arach. 
 oculi). Both surfaces, but especially the internal, on which the Eetina lies, 
 are covered by a deposit of black pigment which consists of mosaic-like, 
 angular, or roundish cells, and is provided with innumerable convoluted longi- 
 tudinal striae which correspond to vessels. What has been described as lamina 
 fusca scleroticce, is probably identical with the pigment deposit on the external 
 surface of the choroid. Behind, this membrane is perforated by a circular 
 foramen for the passage of the optic nerve. The choroid has been artificially 
 divided into an external (venous) layer, and an internal (arterial, membran. 
 Ruyschiana) ; of which we may assume the former to form the ligam. ciliare, 
 the latter the corpus ciliare. Vessels : artt. ciliares post, upon the internal 
 surface ; vasa vorticosa (veins) upon the external surface, pass into vv. ciliar. 
 postt. Nerves ; a few ramify in it, most pass through it. (Pappenheim.) 
 
 a. Ligamentum ciliare s. orbicularis ciliaris, the ciliary ligament, a flat, gray 
 and delicate circle, from a line to a line and a half broad, the anterior, smaller 
 and thicker border of which abuts on the point of junction of the cornea and 
 sclerotica and unites with the external border of the iris, whilst the posterior, 
 thinner, and larger border meets the corpus ciliare, and receives the ciliary 
 nerves which divide in the ciliary ligament, going through it (Arnold) or rami- 
 fying in it (Pappenheim). Its external surface lies loosely on the anterior part 
 of the interior of the sclerotica, A vascular rete with large meshes in it, is 
 connected behind with that of the choroid, and passes anteriorly into the iris. 
 
 b. Corpus ciliare, the ciliary body, the internal lamina of the anterior bor- 
 der of the choroid, reaches farther backwards than a, is sharply bounded by a 
 toothed edge from the proper choroid, but which belongs to the zonula Zinnii, 
 turns up from the posterior body of the lig. cilia re inwards to the border of the 
 lens, and forms a flat circle which consists of the 
 
 Processus ciliares, seventy to eighty short folds. These become larger 
 from behind forwards, and they converge ; in the intervals between them cor- 
 responding folds of the zonula Zinnii are placed, whereby both are firmly 
 united with one another, and the ciliary body with the capsule of the lens ; 
 deprived of the pigment layer in their depressions, they appear white. It is 
 said that a circle of (muscular) fibres extends from their free circumference as 
 far as the capsule of the lens ; this is 
 
 Amman's orbiculus capsulo- ciliaris, but which belongs to the zonula Zinnii. 
 A proper membrana pigmenti is even admitted by some, which separates the 
 pigment layer on the posterior surface of the choroid from the Retina, is re- 
 
THE SENSES. 267 
 
 fleeted at the capsule of the lens over and upon the posterior surface of the 
 iris, to terminate at the margin of the pupil. 
 
 The pigment is so much the darker, the farther it lies internally ; it is some- 
 times entirely wanting (in Albinos); it sometimes presents deposits of salts 
 (the so-called ossifications). In ruminants, also the dog and cat, remarkably 
 brilliant, it is called tapetum. 
 
 500. 4. The Iris, 
 
 a thin disc-shaped membrane, becoming thicker from without inwards, con- 
 sisting of contractile tissue, forms a vertical septum, perforated by a foramen, 
 between the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye. The foramen (pupilla) 
 is not placed quite in the centre, but rather to the inner side, is bounded by 
 the internal or free border of the Iris, is dilated or contracted according as the 
 last contracts or relaxes, and is closed in the fetus by the membrana pupillaris. 
 The external, larger (ciliary) border of the Iris is loosely attached to the lig. 
 ciliare which on the anterior surface, and to the proc. ciliares, which on the 
 posterior surface project rather over it. The anterior surface of the Iris is 
 flat, speckled (blue, brown, &c.), striated, and forms the posterior wall of the 
 anterior chamber of the eye. Towards the pupillary margin the colour is 
 deeper than in the remaining two-thirds; we therefore distinguish a zona 
 iridis minor and major. The striae pass from the external towards the inner 
 margin, converge and cross each other ; they are in the contracted pupil 
 straight, in the dilated wavy, like the vessels through which they arise. 
 
 The posterior surface is covered with a thick layer of black pigment, on the 
 ciliary border by the proc. ciliares, and folded ; denuded of pigment, it is white 
 and smooth, like the Choroid, which, besides, is far thinner than the Iris. 
 
 Structure. The Iris probably consists of contractile uniting tissue, accord- 
 ing to the older, now also the opinion supported by Valentin, of simple mus- 
 cular fibres, which pass like a sphincter on the pupillary margin. (In the ox 
 there are distinct circular fibres.) 
 
 Vessels and Nerves: Art. ciliares anticce andpostica longos (see art. ophthal.) 
 form a circulus arteriosus iridis major on the ciliary border, from which arises 
 a circ. art. irid. minor, on the pupillary margin. 
 
 Veins : like the arteries ; some open into the canalis Fontance. 
 
 Nerves: N. ciliares, from ganglion ciliare, very numerous, pass through 
 lig. ciliare into the Iris. 
 
 There was formerly distinguished an anterior lamina, the proper Iris, and 
 a posterior, uvea. 
 
 c. The third layer of the coats of the globe of the eye. 
 
 501. The Retina s. tunica nervea the nervous coat, 
 
 a soft, yellowish white membrane, which is placed concentrically on the 
 internal surface of the Ckoroidea, covered with pigment, consists of several 
 layers, the most essential of which is a smooth expansion of the Optic nerve. 
 
268 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Its internal surface is applied loosely to the vitreous body; its anterior 
 extremity reaches as far as the posterior border of corpus ciliare (according to 
 the older view as far as the lens, before or behind the zonula Zinnii). At the 
 posterior extremity, where the rather projecting optic nerve enters (medullary 
 elevation), it presents in the axis of the eye, that is to say, on the external cir- 
 cumference of the optic nerve, a transparent spot (probably not perforated), 
 the so-called 
 
 Foramen centrale retinas, hidden behind a yellow transverse fold, macula 
 lutea. This last is found in man (and apes) only, and even here but for a time 
 after birth. Its object is unknown. 
 
 Structure : 
 
 1. The external layer of the Retina, which is connected with Choroid, and 
 is described as Tunica Jacobi, consists of the so-called rod-shaped corpuscles, 
 that is to say, closed cylinders, which are soft, flexible, easily torn, filled with 
 an oily material, and only loosely joined with one another. 
 
 2. The proper nervous layer arises from the manner in which the optic 
 nerve sends out nerve tubules in bundles from its place of entrance in all 
 directions, and forms long meshed plexus. Whether the nerve fibres termi- 
 nate freely, or are reflected in loops (Valentin), is yet uncertain. Likewise, 
 whether a proper (ganglion) globular layer exists on the internal nervous 
 layer. 
 
 3. This lies immediately within a dark granular layer, in which the vessels 
 pass, and which towards the vitreous body is bounded by a kind of large- 
 celled epithelium (vascular layer of the Retina). This last passes over the 
 processus ciliares, and extends over the zonula Zinnii as far as the capsule of 
 the lens (whilst the nervous and cylindrical layers do not reach the corp. cili- 
 are), and forms the so-called ciliary portion of the Retina (Henle). According 
 to Bidder, the layer of cylindrical cells does not reach to the zonula ciliaris. 
 His layer of ganglion globules (continuations of the gray substance) and the 
 stratum nerveum (continuation of the white substance) reaches as far as the 
 capsule of the lens. According to Langenbeck, jun., and Pappenheim, a 
 sinus passes on the internal surface in the anterior border of the retina, sinus 
 s. circulus venosus retince. 
 
 [Art. : See Angiology, Art. ophthal.] 
 
 Function of the Retina : it presents a susceptible nervous surface 
 towards the light, the sensation of which is transmitted by the optic 
 nerve to the cerebrum. 
 
 d. The transparent nucleus of the eye. 
 502. 1. Humor aqueus, the aqueous humour, 
 
 a transparent fluid, as clear as water, of spec. grav. 1-005, con- 
 tains most water and only a little common salt and albumen, fills 
 
THE SENSES. 269 
 
 up the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye, and is probably 
 secreted by the Iris and the corpus ciliare (according to others by 
 the vitreous body, &c.). 
 
 a. Camera oculi anterior is the space between cornea and Iris, measures in 
 the longest diameter from before backwards about one line, is at its circum- 
 ference encompassed by the anterior extremity of the lig. ciliare, and stands, 
 through the pupillary aperture, in connexion with : 
 
 b. Camera oculi posterior, that is, the small (one-third of a line) space be- 
 tween the posterior wall of the Iris and the anterior surface of the capsule of 
 the lens. The two chambers contain about five grains of fluid. The ante- 
 rior chamber is, in the foetus, shut out from the posterior by the pupillary 
 membrane. An aqueous membrane which lines the two chambers as a closed 
 sac, for which the membr. Descemetii is said to pass, is not to be found. 
 
 503. 2. Lens crystattina, the crystalline lens, 
 
 a round, biconvex, colourless, transparent body, is situated, narrowly enclosed 
 by its capsule, behind the pupUla, at the boundary of the anterior fourth of the 
 globe, and its axis in the axis of the pupil. 
 
 Its anterior surface is flatter, one line and a half distant from the cornea ; 
 the posterior more convex, four lines distant from the fundus of the eye. Its 
 margin is encompassed by the folds of the zonula Zinnii, and encircled by 
 canalis Petiti. 
 
 Structure. The substance of the lens contained in the capsule becomes 
 thicker from without inwards. The anterior portion, almost a thin fluid, the 
 so-called liquor Morgagni, contains cells, like the gelatinous portion found 
 behind it, with a very delicate membrane, which, when their water evapo- 
 rates, become dark and granular. Upon the cellular layer narrow, straight 
 fibres follow, which form layers, and lie close upon one another, like the 
 scales of an onion, inwards towards the middle thickened into a nucleus (of 
 a gummy consistency). Each lamina consists on the anterior surface of the 
 lens of three, on the posterior of four triangles, between which a space in the 
 form of a A or )=( remains, to which the fibres converge inwards, so that the 
 lens breaks up into three to four (or more) wedge-shaped pieces by the action 
 of an acid, boiling water, or even merely by heat. 
 
 The substance of the lens contains, more than the half, water, and much 
 albumen, (Globulin according to Berzelius; Casein, Fr. Simon.); it becomes 
 cloudy after death (whether by coagulation ?), and coagulates in sulphuric and 
 phosphoric acids, which last does not make it opaque. 
 
 The capsule of the lens, capsula lentis, a simple membrane, clear as water 
 (under the microscope a faint yellow), in adults non-vascular, is smooth, 
 strong, stiff, and distinctly thicker on the anterior wall than on the posterior. 
 Its anterior wall looks freely into the posterior chamber of the eye, lies quite 
 open when the pupil is widely dilated, and is firmly connected at the margin 
 with zonula Zinnii; its posterior wall lies in the fossa-hyaloidea of the vitre- 
 ous body. 
 
270 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 It is rendered neither cloudy nor soluble either by boiling water, or by alco- 
 hol and acids. Of nerves it also possesses, like the lens, a few ; and the ves- 
 sels which it shows in a morbid condition are only developed in an abnormal 
 manner. However, Walter has injected vessels on the posterior wall of the 
 capsule. 
 
 The very vascular capsule of the lens in the Embryo (membrana pupillaris, 
 and capsulo-pupillaris} is a closed, delicate membrane, formed of a capillary 
 rete, which at the commencement closely surrounds the lens and its non-vas- 
 cular capsule ; but later, when the eye grows, it becomes smaller in propor- 
 tion to the lens, and is applied to the Iris with its internal border ; the ante- 
 rior portion of the sac is removed from the lens and capsule, and now consists 
 of two halves, namely, the piece which reaches from the border of the lens to 
 the pupillary border of the Iris (membr. capsulo-pupillaris, J. Miiller), and the 
 piece which closes the pupil vertically (membr. pupillaris, Wachendorf). 
 From the seventh month the vessels are obliterated (on the pupillary mem- 
 brane from the centre towards the circumference), the membranes themselves 
 disappear, and the humor aqueus is produced ; in the fossa hyaloidea a few 
 vessels appear to continue in existence. 
 
 504, 3. Corpus vitreum, the vitreous humour, 
 
 a globular, completely transparent body, which consists of a viscous fluid and 
 a membrane (not anatomically demonstrable), filling up the posterior three- 
 fourths of the globe of the eye, is surrounded by the Retina, and receives on 
 its anterior surface, in a depression (fossa hyaloidea}, the posterior surface of 
 the lens. At the posterior boundary we find in the foetus an infundibular- 
 shaped fossa, area Martegiani, which arises from the Art . capsularis, passing 
 in its canal, drawing upwards the vitreous body during the obliteration of its 
 branches (or only arises after death, Arnold). 
 
 Humor vitreus, the vitreous humour, is colourless, and behaves, chemically, 
 exactly like the humor aqueus. It is (probably) placed in cells of the vitreous 
 membrane, which, by punctures, are individually emptied, but nevertheless, 
 perhaps, communicate with each other. In the Embryo it is nourished by 
 numerous vessels, of which, at a later period, the principal trunk only, pass- 
 ing to the fossa hyaloidea, art. capsularis, remains behind. 
 
 Membrana hyaloidea, the vitreous [or hyaloid] membrane, is only visible 
 under the microscope ; it is said to form the cells and the envelope of the 
 whole vitreous body. This envelope is said to divide at the anterior boun- 
 dary of the vitreous body into two lamina, one of which passes behind the 
 lens, and the other on its anterior surface, so that between the two the 
 
 Cdnalis Petiti, a triangular, circular, and closed canal, is formed, which 
 surrounds the border of the capsule of the lens like a projecting fold, and pro- 
 bably contains fluid. 
 
 The anterior lamina, strengthened by a fibrous layer of corpus ciliare (on 
 its posterior surface), forms the 
 
 Zonula Zinnii a. corona ciliaris (whether an independent structure or not is 
 
THE SENSES. 271 
 
 still doubtful). It lies like a circlet of folds before the vitreous body, around 
 the border of the lens, behind the corpus ciliare, and presents alternating 
 black and clear rays. The rays are longer than the proc. ciliares of the cho- 
 roid, and form depressions and folds which correspond to those of the last. 
 Its posterior border is undulating and indented (ora serrata), and impinges 
 upon the anterior boundary of the Retina ; its anterior border is firmly con- 
 nected to the border of the capsule of the lens (upon the anterior surface). 
 The corona ciliaris in the foetus is supplied plentifully with blood-vessels, 
 which anastomose with those of the very vascular capsule and Choroidea ; but 
 in the adult, like the hyaloid membrane, it is non-vascular. 
 
 505. II. The organ of Hearing. Organon auditus. 
 
 The ear, auris, consists of three parts. These are : The ex- 
 ternal, that is, the auricular cartilage and the external auditory 
 meatus. The central, that is, the tympanic cavity and the Eus- 
 tachian tube. The internal, that is, the Labyrinth. 
 
 A. The external part. 
 
 506. 1. The external ear, auriculus, the ear, an oval, elastic, 
 cartilaginous plate, many times curved, situated on, and firmly 
 attached by ligaments to, the lateral parietes of the head at an 
 angle of from 25 to 30, covered by the external integument. On 
 its outer surface the following parts may be observed : 
 
 a. Concha auris, a hollow, the shape of a muscle shell, at the anterior and 
 inferior part of which the external auditory canal commences, is bounded an- 
 teriorly by 
 
 1. Tragus, the anterior auricular valve, that is, a rounded, four-sided 
 plate, internally beset with hairs, which can close the external auditory 
 meatus in front. 
 
 2. Antitragus, a small triangular projection at the termination of the 
 anthelix. It lies rather deeper, opposite to the tragus, and between the 
 two we find : 
 
 incisura intertragica, a deeper and rounded excavation, above the 
 lobule of the auricle. Above and behind, the concha is bounded by : 
 
 3. Anthelix, that is. a curvilinear elevation, which commences above 
 the antitragus, passes upwards and forwards, and terminates with two 
 crura (a sharp inferior and a blunt superior), between which is situated a 
 shallow, triangular fossa, fossa innominata. 
 
 b. Helix, that is, the elevation which commences in the auditory concha, 
 separates it into a superior and inferior portion, then, parallel with the anlhe- 
 lix, forms the external anterior reflected border of the auricle, and ceases at 
 the auricular lobule. 
 
 Between helix and anthelix an oblong fossa, fossa navicularis s. scaphais 
 
272 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 situated, extending from the superior extremity of the auricle, almost as far 
 as the lobule. 
 
 The cartilage of the ear is elastic and flexible, covered with 
 Perichondrium. The external integument which, particularly on 
 the concha, is applied closely to it, is delicate and transparent, 
 beset with folliculi sebacei, particularly in the concha and fossa 
 innominata^ with little hairs (tragi) upon the tragus. On the 
 border of the helix it is applied more loosely, and forms at the 
 inferior extremity a fold, the lobule of the auricle (lobulus auri- 
 cula,) between the layers of which we find a deposit of adipose 
 tissue. 
 
 Ligaments : 
 
 a. Lig. auriculas posterius is thick, and extends from the posterior parts of 
 the concha to the superior ofproc. mastoideus. 
 
 b. Lig. anterius B. Valsalvce, triangular, broad, and strong, arises from a 
 nodule on the helix, close above tragus, and even from this, and attaches itself 
 to the root ofproc. zygomat. (oss. tempor.) 
 
 Muscles. (For those moving the whole auricle, see Myology.) They 
 should move the separate parts of the ear, but they are rudimentary; in 
 savages, besides, not more strongly developed. The four first lie on the ex- 
 ternal surface of the auricle. 
 
 a. M. helicis major, narrow, about half an inch long, thin, at the arched 
 superior and anterior part of the Helix, fibres vertical. 
 
 b. M. helicis minor, very small, at the arched inferior and posterior part. 
 
 c. Tragicus, three-cornered, tolerably thick, with vertical fibres ; upon the 
 tragus. 
 
 d. Antitragicus, narrow, short; passes from the antitragus to the anthelix. 
 
 e. Transversus auriculas, transverse on the posterior surface of the ear, from 
 the convexity of the concha to the external part of the anthelix. 
 
 f. Dilatator concha (Theile), from the anterior surface of the cartilaginous 
 meatus audit, on the anterior inferior part of the tragus. Use : to draw the 
 tragus forwards, and thus dilate the concha. 
 
 g. Obliquus auricula (Arnold), upon the internal surface of the ear, between 
 the elevations of fossa innominata and the concha. 
 
 Vessels and nerves. Arteries : art . auricularis posterior ; a branch perfo- 
 rates the helix,' and enters into the concha ; the rest curve round the edge of 
 the former. Art. auriculares anter. from temporalis. Veins : they open into 
 V.facialis posterior. 
 
 Nerves : nn. auriculares anterior, superior, magnus [to the skin (sensitive)] ; 
 posterior [to the muscles] ; and a ramus nerv. vagi. 
 
 507. 2. The external auditory canal, meatus auditorius 
 
 externus, 
 a semi-cartilaginous, semi-osseous canal, one inch long, is elliptical 
 
THE SENSES. 273 
 
 in the transverse section, and passes from the base of the auditory 
 concha horizontally to the membrana tympani, that is, from without 
 inwards and from behind forwards. Close to the entrance it makes 
 a bend, the curve upwards (whenever we wish to see to the end of 
 the auditory passage, the centre of the auricle must be drawn up- 
 wards and backwards). The entrance is oval beset with hairs, 
 bounded before by tragus, behind by the crescentic crista of the 
 concha. The internal opening circular, directed obliquely from 
 above downwards and from without inwards, and closed by the 
 tympanic membrane. The narrowest place is found at the bend, 
 the widest at the junction of the cartilaginous and osseous parts. 
 Superior wall, ten lines, inferior, thirteen, posterior, ten and a half, 
 anterior, twelve and one third long. 
 
 a. The osseous portion (seven to eight lines long) lies on the basis oss. 
 petrosi, is in' children made up by the annulus tympani, of which a groove 
 remains behind (sulcus tympani), and which is interrupted at the superior 
 boundary. 
 
 b. The cartilaginous portion (five lines long) is attached by fibrous uniting 
 tissue with the toothed border of the osseous portion, forming, besides, the 
 superior wall which is attached to the proc. zygomaticus. Its inferior longer 
 wall is properly a continuation of the tragus, from which, by incomplete 
 fissures (incisura Santorini), two C-shaped pieces are separated (like the 
 trachea), which are approximated by interposed muscular fibres. The poste- 
 rior wall is connected with the Concha. 
 
 The external integument, which is continued from the external ear upon the 
 interior of the auditory passage, is always more delicate, proceeding inwards, 
 is from the commencement beset with stiff, then with fine hairs and cerumin- 
 ous glands (gl. ceruminosae), and forms internally a closed cylinder, since it 
 terminates upon the tympanic membrane. The glandules are numerous, 
 especially in the centre (some thousands upon a square line.) 
 
 The cerumen is very bitter, partly soluble in water, containing a yellow oil, 
 albumen, and salts of lactic acid. It becomes thickened by the evaporation 
 of its watery elements. 
 
 Vessels: branches of Art. auricular, poster, and prof undo. 
 
 Nerves : branches ofauricul. anter. from ram. 3 trigemini and auricul. n. 
 vagi. 
 
 508. 3. The drum of the ear, membrana tympani, 
 
 a thin, elliptical, semi-transparent and elastic membrane, four and 
 a half lines in its vertical diameter, forming a partition between the 
 cavity of the tympanum and the external auditory meatus, with the 
 inferior wall of which it describes an angle of about 45. Its exter- 
 nal surface looks also obliquely outwards and downwards into the 
 
 18 
 
274 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 auditory passage ; its internal surface upwards and inwards into the 
 cavity of the tympanum, and presents in the centre an elevation 
 where the handle of the Malleus draws it inwards (on the external 
 surface a funnel-shaped excavation). Its margin lies in the sukus 
 tympani ; close to that, at the superior posterior part of the mem- 
 brana tympani, the short process of the malleus presses the last 
 outwards (umbo) ; at the posterior extremity of the horizontal 
 diameter it is perforated by the Chorda tympani. 
 
 The membrana tympani consists of three laminaB ; the external 
 is the sack-like extremity of the skin (cutis or epidermis) of the 
 auditory passage ; the internal is a prolongation of the thin mucous 
 membrane of the tympanic cavity ; the central the proper tympanic 
 membrane, is very strong, fi brous (according to Ev. Home muscular), 
 its fibres converge from the circumference towards the centre. The 
 vessels appear to belong exclusively to the internal lamina. They 
 form a close rete, circul. vasor. major and minor (as in the Iris). 
 
 Art. tympanica superior (from stylomastoid, s. auricular, poster.} and inferior 
 (from maxill. interna or externa). 
 
 Nerves: auricul. anterior (trigemini.) 
 
 The membrana tympani is strained and vibrates feebly under 
 strong, but is relaxed and vibrates strongly under feeble impres- 
 sions produced by the undulations of sound. 
 
 B. The central part of the Ear. 
 
 509. 1. The cavity of the tympanum, tympanum, cavitas 
 tympani, 
 
 an irregular, oblong, (four and a half lines) narrow (two lines) ca- 
 vity, situated at the anterior part of the basis oss. petrosi, between 
 the external auditory canal and the labyrinth. Anteriorly it is in 
 connexion by the tuba Eustachii with the Pharynx, behind and 
 above, where it is more spacious, with the cells ofproc. Mastoideus. 
 Its external wall is formed by the osseous plate in which the 
 memb. tympani is strained as well as by this itself; it is bounded 
 before byfissura Glaseri (for chorda tympani, art. tympan. infer. 
 and lig. mallei anterius). The internal wall [fundus] lies oppo- 
 site to the memb. tympani^ and presents : 
 
 a. Fenestra ovalis s. vestibuli, an oblong opening, directed obliquely down- 
 wards and forwards (H line long), at the superior part of the internal wall, 
 lying in a depression, bounded above by canal. Fallopice, below by promonto- 
 rium, is closed by the footpiece of the Stapes and a thin membrane. Under it, 
 
 b. Promontorium s. tuber cochleae, an elevation which corresponds to one 
 
THE SENSES. 275 
 
 turn of the cochlea, is covered with three grooves opening below into the canal, 
 fympanicus, and diverging upwards (for the anastomosis of Jacobson). 
 
 c. Eminentia papillaris, the pyramid, a small conical projection behind the 
 fenestra ovalis ; a fine orifice in its apex leads to a canal which passes away 
 under canal. Fallopia, and is connected with it ; this is canalis stapedii. 
 
 d. Fenestra rotunda, s. cochlea, behind the promontory in a depression 
 (which leads to the vestibule) is closed by a fibrous membrana tympani secun- 
 daria, and leads into the Scala tympani of the Cochlea. 
 
 At the anterior boundary the tympanic cavity contracts and runs 
 out into two canals, the superior of which, canalis temoris tym- 
 pani (for m. mallei internus) is separated by a thin osseous la- 
 mella from the inferior canal, that is, the osseous tuba Eustachii, 
 and is said to commence as a semi-canal (semicanal.) with a wide 
 open-mouthed lamina, proc. cochlearis. Above and behind the 
 great opening of the sinus mastoideus leads into the cells of proc. 
 mastoideus. These cells are filled with air and covered with Epi- 
 thelium. The superior boundary is vaulted, and the head of the 
 malleus and of incus are situated in it. 
 
 510. 2. The Bones (ossicles) of the Ear, Ossicula auditus. 
 
 These are (three to four) movable osseous pieces, associated at 
 angles into a chain, which are situated from without inwards be- 
 tween the memb. tympani and the fenestra ovalis. 
 
 a. The malleus lies immediately upon the memb. tympani. We observe on 
 it, Head, neck, handle, and two processes. 
 
 1. Head, an oval, smooth enlargement, situated in the superior part of the 
 tympanic cavity, above the memb. tympani, unites on its posterior concave 
 surface with the incus, and is placed upon 
 
 2. The neck, a narrow piece inclined from before outwards, which passes 
 into 
 
 3. The handle (manubrium). This passes off from the neck at an obtuse 
 angle, downwards and forwards, and terminates with a roundish point in 
 the centre of the memb. tympani between the internal and central laminae. 
 
 4. Processus brevis s. obtusus arises at the commencement of the manubrium, 
 on the outer side, and presses the superior part of the membr. tympani 
 (umbo) rather outwards in the ext. auditory meatus. 
 
 5. Processus longus (s. folianus) arises from the anterior part of the neck, 
 long and thin, and enters into the Jisgura Glaseri, where lig. mallei ante- 
 rius is applied. 
 
 b. The incus, the anvil, like a molar tooth, is situated behind and below 
 the malleus. Its body, that is, the most superior thick piece, has a concave 
 articular surface directed forwards for caput mallei. Its shorter, superior pro- 
 cess passes backwards, and attaches itself to the cells of the proc. mastoideus. 
 
276 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Its longer, thinner process, passes parallel with manubrium mallei internal to 
 and behind it (chorda tympani between the two). On its hooked apex, which 
 is bent backwards, we find the ossiculum lenticulare Sylvii, a tubercle, which 
 is almost always united with the incus. It is situated freely in the tympanic 
 cavity. From its apex passes inwards to thefenestra ovalis. 
 
 c. The Stirrup, stapes, horizontally, at a right angle. Its capitulum unites 
 with the ossicul. lenticulare ; from it passes off inwards an anterior and a pos- 
 terior crus (on the concave surfaces of which, turned to one another, we find a 
 groove, sulcus stapedis), which become associated by a thin plate, the foot 
 piece (basis stapedis). This basis passes directly into the fenestra ovalis, in 
 which it moves. 
 
 Muscles of the ossicula. So'mmerring admits four muscles, three of which 
 belong to the malleus, one to the stapes ; distinct muscular tissue is, however, 
 only found in the 
 
 M. tensor tympani s. mallei internus. Or. : from the superior wall of the 
 cartilaginous tuba Eustachii and from the Sphenoid bone (behind foram. 
 spinosum). Course : backwards in the osseous canal above the tuba, 
 enters into the cavity of the tympanum, where the tendon is reflected at, 
 almost, a right angle. Ins. : the anterior superior part oimanubr. mallei. 
 Use : to draw the malleus inwards, and stretch the memb. tympani. 
 To the ligaments of the ossicula belong therefore, besides the capsular liga- 
 ments between malleus and incus, and between os lenticulare and stapes : 
 
 1. Lig. mallei capiluli s. superius passing from the superior wall of the 
 tympanum to the head of the malleus. 
 
 2. Lig. mallei manubrii s. posterius (laxator tympani minor) ; passing from 
 the internal extremity of the auditory meatus, upwards and backwards, 
 to the manubrium. 
 
 3. Ligg. processus longi anterius s. mallei (laxator tympani major s. malleus 
 externus), passes from proc. spinos. (of the sphenoid bone) through fissura 
 Glaseri to the apex ofproc.folianus. 
 
 4. Lig. processus longi et brevis incudis come from the posterior and exter- 
 nal wall of the cavity of the tympanum. 
 
 5. Lig. stapedis (muse, stapedius) ; very thin; arises inside the eminentia 
 papillaris, passes out of it into the tympanum, passes forwards and down- 
 wards, and is attached behind to the capitulum of the stapes ; it is said to 
 draw the stapes backwards, and thereby to press the posterior part of its 
 basis deeper into the fenestra ovalis, whilst the anterior part is raised. 
 The same thing happens when the tensor tympani draws the head of the 
 malleus backwards, and imparts the movement to the remaining ossicula. 
 
 51L 3. The Trumpet of the Ear, Tuba Eustachii, 
 
 a straight canal, about two inches long, flattened at the sides, be- 
 tween the inferior anterior part of the tympanum and superior 
 lateral part of the pharynx, passing in an oblique direction from 
 
THE SENSES. 277 
 
 without inwards, from above downwards, and from behind for- 
 wards. It consists of an osseous and a cartilaginous portion, both 
 of which are covered with mucous membrane, which at the orifi- 
 cium pharyngeum is thicker than in the remaining parts, and at 
 the orificium tympanicum passes over into that of the tympanum. 
 Both openings (about two lines broad) are wider than the rest of 
 the canal (about one line broad). 
 
 a. The osseous tuba, seven to eight lines long, is situated in the angle be- 
 tween pars mastoidea and petrosa of the Temporal bone external to canal, 
 caroticus, vestibule and cochlea, below the canalis tensoris tympani. To its 
 rough border is attached : 
 
 b. The cartiiagino-membranous tuba, the internal half of which consists of 
 cartilage, whilst the external wall is formed of a fibrous coat which is attached 
 to the Sphenoid bone. It lies above the fossa pterygoidea at the inferior bor- 
 der of the ala magna of the Sphenoid bone. Its oval opening (four lines high, 
 two broad) is tumefied, sloped, situated close behind and rather above the 
 inferior nasal concha, at the superior part of the pharynx. The mucous mem- 
 brane covering it is looser, very vascular, and beset with numerous mucous 
 glands which are wanting in the osseous tuba. Through the tuba the external 
 air obtains admission to the tympanum. 
 
 Vessels and nerves for the central part of the organ of hearing. Arteries : 
 Artt. tympanica, stylomastoidea, farther branches from Art. meningea media, 
 pharyngea ascendens and carotis interna (for tuba Eustach.) 
 
 Veins : they open into the plexus pharyngeus and meningea media. 
 
 Nerves: they come from the fifth, seventh, and ninth cerebral nerves ; they 
 are : Chorda tympani ; passes from Canalis Fallopia in a canal peculiar to 
 itself, then into the tympanum (between manubr. mallei andproc. long, incudis), 
 and out through ihefissura Glaseri to ram. lingualis of the nerv. trigeminus ; 
 it gives off no branches in the tympanum. Anastomosis Jacobsonii gives two 
 filaments to the membrane in the region of ihefenest ra, and one filament to the 
 tuba (where by pressure of the vessels in sanguineous congestion violent pain 
 arises). 
 
 C. The internal part, the Labyrinth. 
 
 512. 1. The osseous labyrinth, labyrinthus osseus. 
 
 1. The vestibule, vestibulum, a small oval cavity (three lines 
 high, two broad, and one and a half deep) in the centre of the la- 
 byrinth, behind the Cochlea, before the semicircular canals, situ- 
 ated in the direction of the long axis of meatus auditorius inter- 
 nus, abutting externally on the tympanum, above, on the Canal. 
 Fallopice, below, on the foramen jugulare. We see in it 
 a. Seven larger openings : 
 
278 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 1. Fenestra ovalis on the external wall ; it is tightly closed by the basis 
 stapedis. 
 
 2. The five openings of the three semicircular canals. 
 
 3. Aditus ad cochleam, before and below the fenestra ovalis. 
 
 b. Four smaller openings : 
 
 1. Ostium aquceductus vestibuli, on the posterior wall, internal to the 
 common opening of the superior and inferior semicircular canals (leads 
 to the posterior, the cerebral surface of the petrous bone). 
 
 2. Maculcs cribrosce, three of many small holes on the perforated part of 
 the posterior wall, at the base of meatus auditorius internus, through 
 which vessels and nervous twigs enter; there is a superior, for n. sac- 
 cularis major ; an inferior for n. ampullaris inferior; and a hemisphfe- 
 rica for nerv. saccularis minor. 
 
 c. Depressions, on the floor of the Vestibule, nearer to the inner wall : 
 
 1. Recessus hemisphcericus, anterior, smaller fossa, situated inwards to- 
 wards the cochlea, opposite to fenestra ovalis. 
 
 2. Recessus hemiellipticus, oval, larger fossa, rather behind and above, at 
 the openings of the semicircular canals. Through the foramina on 
 their base the nerves pass. The two are separated from one another by 
 a crista pyramidalis. 
 
 513. 2. The semicircular canals, canales semicircular es, 
 
 three curved, rather elliptical cylinders, of half a line in diameter, 
 lying behind the vestibule, two vertically and one horizontally be- 
 tween them. They open with the two extremities, which are rather 
 wider than the rest of the canals, into the vestibule, as one extre- 
 mity is expanded like a flask (ampulla), but with only five orifices. 
 
 a. The superior (vertical) semicircular canal, about six lines long, at the 
 most superior part of the labyrinth, in the transverse diameter of oss. petrosi ; 
 is convex above, and projects rather below the superior surface of the petrous 
 bone. Its anterior crus expands and opens alone, on the superior wall of the 
 vestibule ; its posterior crus in common with the superior of the inferior semi- 
 circular canal, and without expanding on the superior and internal wall of the 
 vestibule. 
 
 b. The inferior (vertical) semicircular canal, seven lines long, narrower 
 than the other two, describes almost a complete circle, is situated parallel with 
 the posterior surface of the petrous bone, with its convexity directed back- 
 wards and outwards towards proc. mastoideus. Its superior crus opens in 
 common with a ; its inferior expanded crus, one line distant from that on the 
 inferior wall of the vestibule. 
 
 c. The external (horizontal) semicircular canal, four lines long, but wider than 
 the other two, also lies in the long diameter of the petrous bone, with the con- 
 vexity directed outwards. Its anterior expanded crus commences close above 
 the fenestra ovalis, below the crus of the superior semicircular canal; its pos- 
 
THE SENSES. 279 
 
 terior crus opens between the common orifice of the two vertical canals and 
 the inferior (ampulla) of the inferior semicircular canal. 
 
 514. 3. The Cochlea^ a twisted canal, like a snail-shell, of 
 four lines axial diameter, occupies the most anterior space of the 
 internal ear, is situated internally and before the tympanum with 
 its basis turned to the base ofmeatus auditorius internus, the apex 
 towards tuba Eustachii. The canal, canalis spiralis, consists of 
 two and a half spiral turns, the length of which together measures 
 one inch, commences with its wide basis behind the promontorium, 
 and contracts inwards towards the apex (cupola), under which it 
 terminates in a funnel-shaped cavity (scyphus). The spirals pass 
 in the right ear to the right, in the left towards the left. The ca- 
 vity of the canal is divided by a thin septum, spiral plate, from the 
 basis to the apex into a superior ladder (scala vestibuli), and into 
 an inferior (scala tympani). 
 
 The spiral plate (lamina spiralis) follows the windings about 
 the axis of the Cochlea, to which it is attached by its internal bor- 
 der, whilst the external border is attached to the circumference of 
 the Cochlea. It consists of an osseous portion zonula ossea, which 
 occupies the internal half attached to the axis and predominates in 
 the first turn, and of a membranous, external half, zona ValsalvcB. 
 The osseous lamina terminates in the third turn with a kind of 
 hook, hamulus s. rostrum [where tbe scala communicate, canalis 
 scalaris communis, Cassebohm ; Helicotrema, Breschet], and it- 
 self consists of two plates, between which many canaliculi for the 
 nerves of the Cochlea are found. 
 
 The axis, spindle, modiolus s. columella, is the porous mass of 
 bone which fills up the space in the axis of the Cochlea, bounded 
 by the concavity of the spirals. Its basis, perforated by many spi- 
 rally arranged foramina (tractus forami?iulentus, for the nerv. 
 Cochlece), rests upon the base of the meatus auditor, internus; 
 above the first turn the mass is rather thickened, and is then called 
 columella, and terminates as lamina terminalis, of a funnel shape 
 in the half turn. The external surface of the modiolus is provided 
 with two screw-like grooves which communicate through their nu- 
 merous foramina with the same number of canaliculi in the inte- 
 rior of the modiolus, the largest of which in the centre, canalis 
 centralis modioli, passes from the basis to the lamina terminalis. 
 
 The Scalae : 
 
 a. Scala vestlbuli, is wider than b, lies more anteriorly and 
 above and opens into the vestibule (aditus ad cochleam.) 
 
 b. Scala tympani, lies more towards the basis and opens through 
 the fenestra rotunda (clausa) into the tympanum. Both scalse 
 
280 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 communicate in the lamina terminalis through an opening in the 
 membrane which separates them (see before). 
 
 Aquceductus cochlea (Cotugno) opens into the scala tympani 
 close before fenestra rotunda, and opens on the other side on the 
 inferior border of the petrous bone close to fossa jugularis. 
 
 Both the aqueduct of the cochlea and vestibule are at last regarded as ca- 
 nals for small veins. Arnold, however, thinks still that they serve as vent 
 canals. The delicate membrane with which they are lined passes over into 
 the dura mater and the periosteum of the petrous bone. 
 
 515 3. The membranous labyrinth. 
 
 In the interior of the labyrinth, which is covered with a delicate 
 vascular membrane (choroidea labyrinthi, Arnold), we find a wa- 
 tery fluid (aqua Cotunnii, Perilympha), in which but only in 
 the vestibule and the semicircular canals a whitish, transparent 
 nervous membrane is suspended (labyrinihus membranaceus). 
 The last forms in the vestibule two, in the semicircular canals three 
 sacs filled with the aquula vitrea. Zona Valsalvce (see before) 
 separates the two scalez, the humor aqueus of which flows through 
 the opening at the lamina terminalis [helicotrema] from the one 
 into the other. 
 
 a. Canales semicirculares membranacei, far more narrow, but otherwise 
 similar to the osseous semicircular canals, in which they lie, they are ex- 
 panded in the internal crura (ampullae) and open with five orifices into the 
 
 b. Vestibulum membranaceum. This consists of two portions. 
 
 1. Sacculus oblongus (s. utriculus ventricularis) receives alone the five 
 semicircular canals, is larger than 2., lies in the recessus hemiellipticus, 
 separated from the Stapes only by the aq. Cotunnii. 
 
 2. Sacculus rotundus is much smaller, lies in the recessus hemisphericus 
 under the former without communicating with it, and the n. saccularis 
 minor spreads out in it. 
 
 c. Aquula vitrea (Scarpa) s. Endolympha; rather a thicker fluid than the 
 aq. Cotunnii, fills up the membranous tubes and sacs of the labyrinth and con- 
 tains a fine crystalline deposit. 
 
 Otoconia, sand of the ear, otolithi, stones of the ear ; these are smaller or 
 larger accumulations of six-sided columns consisting of carbonate of lime, and 
 an organic material (Huschke) which in the vestibule adhere opposite to the 
 expansion of the nerves, and serve for the strengthening of the sounds. 
 Larger and more distinct in the lower classes of animals (and in the embryo) 
 their structure, in man, in spite of the researches of Breschet, Krieger, and 
 others, is not yet determined. 
 
 Vessels and nerves of the labyrinth. Artt. cochleae and vestibuli are branches 
 of art. auditoria interna, and correspond to the 
 
THE SENSES. 281 
 
 Nerves : N. cochlea, the anterior stronger branch of n. acusticus enters 
 through the inferior anterior fossa of meat, auditor, internus at the basis of the 
 modiolus in its canals, and thence between the layers of the lamina spiralis, 
 where the most delicate fasciculi (in loops) spread out as far as the external 
 border. N. vestibuli, the posterior branch of the acusticus, divides at the 
 basis of meatus auditorius internus into three fasciculi, the strongest of which 
 goes to the sacculus oblongus and the Ampulla of the vertical superior and 
 horizontal semicircular canal; the central to the sacculus rotundus, and the 
 inferior smallest to the ampulla of the vertical inferior semicircular canal. 
 
 516. III. The Organ of Smell, Organon olfactus. 
 
 The nose, nasus, consists of an external portion projecting upon 
 the face and an internal covered with mucous membrane. 
 
 517. A. The external Nose, Nasus exlernus, 
 
 consists, above, of an osseous (ossa nasi and process, nasales) 
 below, of a cartilaginous skeleton, which are immediately covered 
 with periosteum and perichondrium, nearer the surface with 
 muscles (see Myology), and cutis, on the internal surface with 
 mucous membrane. Portions : The root of the nose, close under 
 the forehead, the back or dorsum of the nose, the point or tip 
 of the nose, the lateral parietes, alee s. pinnce nasi, openings 
 of the nose, nares, the partition, septum narium. 
 
 518. 1. The Nasal cartilages, five, Cartilagines nasi. 
 
 a. Cartilago lateralis, the lateral cartilages, are situated (one on either 
 side) at the most superior part of the cartilaginous nose ; triangular, 
 attached above and behind by fibrous uniting tissue with ossa nasi. 
 The internal borders of the two meet upon the dorsum nasi, where 
 they are also firmly attached to the cartilage of the septum. The infe- 
 rior border is convex, and meets anteriorly with b, behind with the 
 fibrous membrane of the aloe nasi. 
 
 b. Cartilago narium (s. spinalis), one on either side, is a more irregular 
 semi-elliptical cartilage, the external thinner arch is situated in the 
 groove above the alee nasi and point, whilst the internal reaches below 
 the septum mobile as far as the spina nasalis. A fibrous plate between 
 the pinnal cartilages and the inferior border of the lateral nasal carti- 
 lages forms the skeleton of the alee nasi, in which (generally) small flat 
 cartilaginous nuclei (cart, sesamoidece) exist. 
 
 c. Cartilago septi narium, the septal cartilage, thick, flat, and triangular, 
 meets with its superior posterior border, the lamina perpendicularis of 
 the Ethmoid bone ; its inferior border is placed between the two plates 
 of the Vomer; its anterior border unites upon the back of the nose with 
 the cartt. laterales, and below with the cartt. narium. Behind a pro- 
 
282 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 cess projects from it into the angle between lamina perpendicularis oss- 
 ethmoid. and Corner. It separates the two halves of the nasal cavity. 
 
 2. The muscles of the nose : levator Idbii alceq. nasi, compressor and dilata. 
 tores narium, depressor aloe nasi, pyramidalis and depressor septi mobilis (see 
 Myology). 
 
 3. The skin of the nose is very thick and strong on the ala nasi and below 
 the septum, and passes at the nares into the mucous membrane, the com- 
 mencement of which is beset with stiff hairs (vibrissce}. It is also furnished 
 with many folliculi sebacei, which frequently appear as black punctules. 
 
 4. Vessels and nerves. Arteries: branches of maxillaris externa, infra- 
 orbitalis, and ophthalmica. Veins form plexus nasalis. Nerves: branches of 
 plex. infraorbitalis and of N. ethmoidalis. 
 
 519. B. The Cavity of the Nose, Nasus internus. 
 
 The cavities of the nose,foss<z nasales, are covered with the nasal 
 mucous membrane, membrana pituitaria s. Schneideriana, the 
 proper seat of the sense of smell. This membrane is thick, soft, 
 rosy red, very vascular and largely supplied with nerves (in the 
 neighbouring cavities, sinus frontales, ethmoidal., sphenoidal., and 
 antrum Highmori, we find instead of it a delicate, fine periosteum 
 covered with ciliated epithelium.) Numerous mucous follicles cover 
 the free surface, whilst the external is firmly attached to the peri- 
 osteum and perichondrium. It continues upon the palate and pha- 
 rynx, the lacrymal canal, and Eustachian tube, the openings of 
 which, as well as those of the sinus, it generally covers like a veil. 
 [There is ciliated epithelium on the mucous membrane lining the 
 nose.] 
 
 We observe in it the meatus narium: 
 
 1. The superior nasal chamber, below the superior turbinate bones, with 
 the openings of the posterior ethmoidal and the sphenoidal cells. 
 
 2. The central nasal chamber, below the middle turbinate bones, with 
 the openings of the anterior ethmoidal cells, the sinus frontalis, and 
 antra Higlimori. 
 
 3. The inferior nasal chamber, below the inferior turbinate bones, with 
 the openings of the canal, lacrymal. 
 
 Vessels and Nerves : Art . sphenopalatina and ethmoidalis. Veins : form 
 very large plexuses, and pass into plex. pterygoid. and ven. maxillar. interna. 
 Lymphatics : form a very close superficial rete. 
 
 Nerves : Nn. olfactorii, ethmoidales, naso-palatini Scarpce, and nasales, 
 (Branches of Nerv. trigeminus'). 
 
ANGIOLOGIA. 
 
 VASCULAR SYSTEM. 
 
 " In the history of Physiology, I have shown that those who studied the 
 structure of animals were irresistibly led to the conviction that the parts of 
 this structure have each its end or purpose ; that each member and organ 
 not merely produces a certain effect or answers a certain use, but is so 
 framed as to impress us with the persuasion that it was constructed for thai 
 use ; that it was intended to produce the effect. It was there seen that this 
 persuasion was repeatedly expressed in the most emphatic manner by Galen ; 
 that it directed the researches and led to the discoveries of Harvey ; that it 
 has always been dwelt upon as a favourite contemplation, and followed as a 
 certain guide by the best anatomists ; and that it is inculcated by the physio- 
 logists of the profoundest views and most extensive knowledge of our own 
 time. All these persons have deemed it a most certain and important prin- 
 ciple of physiology, that in every organized structure, plant, or animal, each 
 intelligible part has its allotted office ; each organ is designed for its ap- 
 propriate function; that nature, in these cases, produces nothing in vain; 
 that, in short, each portion of the whole arrangemen thas its final cause; an 
 end to which it is adapted, and in this end the reason that it is where and 
 what it is." WHEWELL. Indications of the Creator, p. 75. 
 
ANGIOLOGIA. 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 Blood Vessels : 
 
 Reid, J. Art. " Heart" Cycl. of Anat. and Phys. 
 
 Chevers, N. The fibrous Structure of the subserous Membrane of the Aorta 
 Guy's Hosp. Rep. vol. v. 
 
 Structure of the Coronary Arteries of the Heart. Guy's Hosp. 
 
 Rep. vol. i. 2d series. 
 
 Davy, John. On the Vessels of the Brain. Edin. Med. and Surgical Jour- 
 nal, 1839. 
 
 King, T. W. Safety Valve Function of Human Heart. Guy's Hosp. Rep. 
 vol. ii. 
 
 On the Pulsation in the Veins. Med. Gaz. vol. xviii. 
 
 Harrison. Surgical Anatomy of the Arteries. Last edition. 
 
 Hart, J. Art. " Artery" Cycl. of Anat. and Phys. 
 
 Thomson, Allen. Art. " Circulation," in the same. 
 
 Lymphatics : 
 
 Cruikshank. Anat. of the Absorbent Vessels. 4to. 1790. 
 Lippi. On the Absorbents for Drawings. 1831. 
 Sheldon. Hist, of the Absorbent System. Figures. 1784. 
 T. W, King. On the Circulation in the Lymphatics. Guy's Hosp. Rep. 
 
 vol. v. 
 
 Hewson. His Works. Sydenham Society. 
 Bostock, /. Art. "Absorption," Cycl. of Anat. and Phys. 
 Lane, S. Art. " Lymphatic System," in the same. 
 
285 
 
 520. THE VASCULAR SYSTEM. 
 
 The nutritious fluid moves in closed flexible tubes, which tra- 
 verse the body in all directions. That division of these tubes, 
 through which the blood moves, has a contractile organ as the 
 central point, from which blood is impelled into the tubes, and to 
 which it returns from the tubes. 
 
 The other division, in which the Chyle and Lymph move, does 
 not possess in itself such a central point, but in the blood sys- 
 tem, to which it carries its contents, without being immediately 
 distributed from its orifice. 
 
 521. The System of Vessels carrying Blood. 
 
 Central organ the heart. From it vessels go off the arteries 
 (pulsating vessels). To it vessels lead back the veins (blood 
 vessels). Very delicate ramifications and transitions between the 
 two kinds of vessels. Capillary vessels. 
 
 522. Course. The vessels, vasa, are cylindrical tubes, the 
 largest trunks of which lie in the neighbourhood of the central 
 organs, and the branches of which, going off at an acute angle, 
 diminish in circumference towards the periphery. The effect of 
 this continued division however is, that the calibre of the branches 
 taken together is wider than that of the trunk from which they 
 came off. 
 
 Many branches divide from one trunk, and pass to another, 
 without diminishing in circumference, that is, they anastomose. 
 Their course is curved or in the form of an acute angle. If 
 they are numerous, and the interspace between them only small 
 in proportion to the organ, they are called Plexuses, which is 
 particularly remarkable in the venous trunks. When larger 
 branches suddenly divide into a number of smaller vessels united 
 together, without previous arborescent separation, the so-called 
 rete mirabile is formed, for example, in the lungs. The capil- 
 lary vessels also form a network, but which by gradual, always 
 more delicate, division, arises from large vessels. The more nar- 
 row and complicated the course through which the blood has to 
 circulate, so much the longer it is delayed therein. 
 
 Structure of the vessels. The parietes of the vessels consist of six mem- 
 branous layers, which are not, however, always present at the same time in 
 every vessel. 
 
 a. The innermost layer, which lies next to the cavity of the vessel, is a thin, 
 
286 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 granular membrane of pavement epithelium, which is also seen in the most 
 delicate capillaries. 
 
 b. The striated or fenestrated membrane is delicate, clear, fragile, and 
 rolls up at the corners. 
 
 c. The longitudinal, fibrous membrane is distinctly seen in large vessels. 
 It is, like a. and b., formed of oval cell nuclei or fibres, which are placed lon- 
 gitudinally, in which direction the membrane may be torn off; and it was 
 formerly considered, with a. and b. as the most internal layer of the vessels. 
 
 d. The circular, fibrous coat (so-called tunica med.} is thick, contracting 
 upon certain stimuli (falsely, tun. elastica)', consists of short parallel fibres, 
 which are soluble in acetic acid, and of dark striae, which are only rendered 
 transparent by the acid ; it is fragile, and tears off transversely. 
 
 e. The elastic coat is only present in the larger arteries and veins ; is 
 white, thinner than d. ; is neither soluble in, nor rendered transparent by ace- 
 tic acid ; tears off neither in the longitudinal nor transverse direction, and 
 consists of very branched, often reteform, fibres. 
 
 f. The external tunic (tun. adventitia) forms with e. the hitherto so-called 
 tunica externa; it consists of fibro-cellular tissue, with oval nuclei in a longi- 
 tudinal direction, and passes from the larger vessels into the surrounding 
 amorphous, fibro-cellular, or uniting tissue. 
 
 The nutrition of the larger vessels (above half a line diam.) is supplied by 
 small arterial twigs (vasa vasorum), which do not come immediately from the 
 cavity of the vessel for which they are destined, whilst the venous ramusculi 
 open into those veins, from the coats of which the blood collects. The vasa 
 vasorum themselves, as well as the capillary vessels, are nourished by the 
 blood circulating in them. 
 
 Nerves : (nervi vasorum) the vessels obtain their supply from the N. Sym- 
 pathicus. 
 
 523. I. Capillary vessels, vasa capillaria, 
 
 are the blood-vessels intermediate between the arteries and veins, the 
 branches of which form a net-work with each other, and tolerably equally- 
 sized meshes. In these meshes is placed the peculiar substance of the tissue, 
 and it receives its nutrition from the blood of the vessels (metamorphosis of 
 matter). The blood circulating in them is neither arterial nor venous ; in the 
 finest vessels it appears colourless ; it generally flows in a direction from the 
 arteries, which here terminate, to the veins, which commence at this point. 
 Ii is impossible to draw a definite limit between the terminations of the arte- 
 ries and the commencement of the veins. Structure. In the parietes of the 
 capillary vessels (which are not merely canals in the parenchyma of organs), 
 pavement epithelium, and, most externally, a tunic of areolar tissue, has been 
 ibund. 
 
 The forms of their network vary according to the diameters of the vessels 
 (the finest in the brain = O'OOS of a line ; the largest in the medulla of the 
 bones = O'OIO af a line) ; according to 4he breadth of the meshes, which is so 
 
THE VESSELS. 287 
 
 much the more minute, the larger the consumption of blood (the narrowest 
 network is in the lungs, the glands of the skin, the mucous membranes, &c.) 
 According to the shape of the space bounded by them, we may distinguish 
 roundish or oval (e. g. in the lungs, the corium, the glands), and longitudinal 
 or elongated meshes (in the nerves and muscles). Ball-shaped, convoluted 
 meshes are only found in the cortical substance of the kidneys (e. g. glomeruli 
 Malpighi). 
 
 Function. The capillary vessels impart, through their thin (not porous) 
 walls, the nutritious material of their blood to the organs, in which they 
 spread out and ramify, and on the other side they take up, likewise (in the 
 lungs), the inspired oxygen. Vasa exhalantia, exhaling vessels. 
 
 524. II. Pulsating vessels, arterice, 
 
 are the vessels, the trunks of which arise from the ventricles of the heart, and 
 which distribute the blood throughout the body. Their walls are thicker, 
 and more elastic than the rest of the vessels. The smaller arteries possess, 
 relatively, the strongest parietes ; the thinnest arteries are those of the cranial 
 cavity. They pulsate, that is, they extend in length and breadth, when the 
 ventricles of the heart contract (systole), and thereby force their blood into the 
 arteries, and they again become narrower and shorter, when the ventricles of 
 the heart dilate (diastole). The arteries are further distinguished by their 
 great elasticity and contractility. The first produces retraction when the ar- 
 teries are divided across ; the last a narrowing, but not collapse, as happens 
 in the veins. Of the coats, before all, we remark : 
 
 That consisting of circular fibres (the so-called middle, elastic coat). It is 
 thick, yellowish white, dry, and fragile, and the medium of contraction. It 
 is distinguished from the muscular tissue by its easy solubility in nitric, inso- 
 lubility in acetic acid, and by yielding gelatine on boiling ; from the fibro-cel- 
 lular or uniting tissue, by insolubility in boiling acetic acid, difficult solution 
 in mineral acids, caustic potash, and gastric juice. 
 
 The external, properly elastic coat of arteries, is firm, and stronger than in 
 the veins, and is remarkable for not dividing when an artery is included in a 
 ligature, which the internal coat does. 
 
 The inner coat, tun. vasorum comm., that is, the striated tunic (for the tunic 
 of longitudinal fibres is usually wanting), is only in a diseased condition as 
 thick as we are accustomed to find it, especially in old people, when it is BO 
 much the more fragile. 
 
 The arteries take a serpentine course, generally deeper than the veins and 
 lymphatics, the larger on the flexion side of the joints, and convey (the pul- 
 monary excepted) bright red blood. 
 
 525. III. Blood-vessels, vence, veins, 
 
 originate from the capillaries, and open into the auricles of the heart. Their 
 walls are thinner, and more lax, and when the vessel is empty, they fall toge- 
 .her, as the elastic coat is entirely wanting in them ; the contractile, circular, 
 
288 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 fibrous coat, much thinner, or only consisting of bundles of fibro-cellular tis- 
 sue, in place of which, on the superior and inferior cavce, and on the pulmo- 
 nary veins, muscular tissue is found. The tunic of longitudinal fibres (here 
 tunica interna) is always present in the larger veins; it does not easily lace- 
 rate. The striated tunic and epithelium line them inside, in thinner or thicker 
 layers. 
 
 Peculiar to the veins are their valves, valvulce, which are semilunar flaps of 
 fibrous tissue, the free concave border of which is directed towards the heart, 
 and which closes up the calibre of the vessel against the retrograde course of 
 the blood. In small vessels (of one line diam.), single, in larger, two or three 
 placed opposite each other, the valves are wanting in the abdominal, and 
 chiefly in those veins which are protected against the pressure of the column 
 of blood or the pressure of muscles on hard parts ; they are, on the contrary, 
 especially numerous in the inferior extremities. In the larger valves we'find 
 two layers, and fat. Moreover they are not duplicatures of the internal coat 
 (see Lymphatics). 
 
 The veins generally take a straight course, are wider, and form more fre- 
 quent anastomoses than the arteries, and carry (the pulmonary veins excepted) 
 dark red blood, rich in carbon. 
 
 526. IV. Lymphatics, vasa lymphatica s. resorbentia, 
 
 form a system of vessels which must be considered as an appendage to the 
 venous system. The tubes are narrow, thin-walled, flat, and provided with 
 numerous valves. The commencements of the lymphatics probably form a 
 rete, the tubes of which, like those of the capillaries, are of pretty equal size, 
 and which are to be sought upon the surface and in the parenchyma of all 
 organs. From the retethe minute tubules coalesce, generally pass in a straight 
 course with the blood-vessels, form Plexuses, here and there convoluted, 
 complicated ganglia, lymphatic glands, and lastly, one large trunk (or several), 
 which opens into a great vein. 
 
 Those lymphatics are called chyle vessels, which arise inside the intestinal 
 villi beneath the mucous membrane (of the small intestines), not with rete- 
 form, but with fine, club-shaped, closed tubes. 
 
 Structure. The walls of the lymphatics are transparent, more delicate, but 
 more extensible, and stronger than those of the blood-vessels. In the larger 
 trunks we also distinguish in them : a. an innermost layer of pavement epi- 
 thelium ; b. a coat of longitudinal fibres; c. a coat of circular fibres, with fas- 
 ciculi of areolar tissue, which blends with the surrounding uniting and adipose 
 tissues. 
 
 The numerous valves, generally arranged in pairs, consist of fibro-cellular 
 tissue, with fibrous unyielding rings attached to the walls of the lymphatics, 
 which produce contractions in the distended vessels, and therefore a knotted 
 appearance. 
 
 The function of the lymphatics consists in the reception of the Plasma 
 (Lymph) passing out of the blood-vessels, and of the nutritious fluid (Chyle) 
 formed in the intestinal canal. 
 
THE VESSELS. 289 
 
 They are, therefore, wanting in non-vascular parts, e. g. in the teeth, the 
 crystalline lens, &c. They are probably not wanting in the substance of the 
 brain, spinal cord, eye, internal ear, placenta, the membranes of the egg, and 
 the umbilical cord, although they have not been yet found in them. 
 
 Lymphatic glands, glandults lymphaticcs s. conglobatce, are oval, generally 
 flattened and reddish bodies, with a smooth, even surface, and one line to an 
 inch in diam., lying generally dispersed in groups, especially in the popliteal 
 and inguinal regions, the axillary fossa in the neck, at the roots of the lungs 
 (black), in the mesentery, and in the liver (yellow), but never in the substance 
 of organs. The larger are invested by a fibrous tunic, and contain (besides 
 the numerous convolutions and ramifications of the lymphatics, besides the 
 amorphous areolar tissue, blood-vessels and nerves) small cellular spaces, 
 with granules (acini), and thus form, perhaps, actual glands, like the spleen, 
 in which the lymph obtains a particular substance, which it prepares for the 
 change into blood. Almost every lymphatic vessel passes into one of these 
 glands and out again (vasa in- and efferentia). 
 
 A delicate capillary rete, investing the lymphatic glands and vessels very 
 abundantly, serves to nourish them. Nerve filaments have been at least 
 found in the lymphatic glands. 
 
 527. The heart, Cor, xap&a, 
 
 A. hollow conical muscle, lies, surrounded by a serous envelope 
 (pericardium), in the centre of the thorax, between the lungs, above 
 the diaphragm, behind the sternum and before the vertebral co- 
 lumn, in rather an oblique direction from above downwards, from 
 right to left, and from behind forwards. 
 
 It is composed of two halves, a right venous and a left arterial, 
 each of which is again separated by a septum into two commu- 
 nicating portions. The heart contains four cavities, viz. : 
 
 the auricle (atrium) and the ventricle (ventriculus) of the 
 
 right, and 
 the auricle and ventricle of the left side of the heart. 
 
 The cavities are lined by tunica vasorum communis [endocar- 
 dium], the outer surfaces receive a continuation from one of the 
 layers of the pericardium. 
 
 We have to observe of the Heart : a. the basis, that is, the 
 superior and posterior part, at which point the vessels enter and 
 from which they pass out, which lies behind the right border of 
 the Sternum, before the eighth to the sixth dorsal vertebra, and 
 is bounded by sulc. circularis. b. The apex, apex s. mucro, ob- 
 tuse and slightly curved backwards towards the space between the 
 sixth and seventh left ribs, presents a depression, vallecula, with 
 two elevations, c. The superior, convex surface looks towards 
 the sternum, the inferior flat rests upon the diaphragm, d. The 
 
 19 
 
290 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 rounded lateral edges point out the direction of the heart from 
 right to left. e. Sulcus longitudinalis, that is, a shallow groove 
 which passes downwards from the basis as far as the apex in a 
 curved course and indicates the septum between the right and left 
 half of the heart, f. Sulcus circularis, a deep transverse groove 
 which marks out the boundary between the auricles and ven- 
 tricles. 
 
 Measurements. Length =4| inches, 
 Breadth =3| inches, 
 Thickness=2 inches, 
 Capacity =32 cub. inches. 
 
 Weight. In male =9 ounces, 
 
 In female =8 ounces, 5 drachms. 
 After the thirtieth year it always rather increases. 
 
 1. The auricles, atria, are to be regarded as dilatations of the large veins, 
 the blood from which they receive, and pour it (through ostia venosa) into the 
 ventricles. They are situated at the most external portion of the basis cordis, 
 are nearly quadrangular, two inches high and broad, provided with thin walls, 
 and a blind, pocket-like appendage, auricle, auricula cordis, and separated 
 from one another by a partition (septum atriorum). 
 
 The anterior surface is concave, without a longitudinal groove, covered 
 by Aorta said Art. pulmonalis. 
 
 The posterior surface is convex, presents a longitudinal groove (near 
 it, to the right, the opening of the ven. cava infer., underneath, that of 
 the ven. magn. cordis [coronary vein] , and is separated by the aorta and 
 oesophagus only from the vertebral column. 
 
 The superior extremity looks backwards and to the right, lies under 
 the bifurcatio trachece, presents a longitudinal groove, to the right side of 
 which lies the opening of Ven. cava superior, to the left are seen the four 
 openings of the four pulmonary veins. 
 
 2. The ventricles, ventriculi cordis, give origin to their arteries, and force 
 the blood which they have received from the auricles into them. They are 
 situated below the sulcus transversus, form the middle and the apex of the 
 heart, and are provided with thick external walls, and a partition (septum 
 cordis}, which separates the one from the other. Their anterior surface, par- 
 ticularly the part which lies to the right of the longitudinal groove, looks to- 
 wards the sternum, and lies, in large hearts, immediately behind it. 
 
 528. The Cavities. 
 
 1. Atrium dextrum, right auricle, caval dilatation, lies behind the third to 
 the sixth costal cartilage and the body of the sternum, rather covered by the 
 anterior border of the right lung. From its superior angle the right appendix 
 passes inwards and upwards, covering the commencement of the aorta. Its 
 
THE VESSELS. 291 
 
 cavity is formed by three walls, an anterior convex, an internal (the septum), 
 and a larger posterior, concave. It presents in the adult three, in the fetus 
 four openings. 
 
 a. The crescentic opening of the superior cava, separated by a fasciculus of 
 muscle from the appendix on the left, from the inferior cava on the right, 
 without valves, looks downwards and rather backwards. 
 
 b. The crescentic opening of the inferior cava, larger than the former, close 
 to the septum, not vertical from below upwards, but directed obliquely (at a 
 right angle to the vein), with the half-rnoon-shaped valvula Eustachii on the 
 anterior border, which completely closes the opening in the embryo only. 
 The free concave border of the Eustachian valve looks upwards, the attached 
 convex downwards. 
 
 c. The opening of vena magna cordis [coronary vein] lies before the last 
 described, separated from it by the Eustachian valve ; is closed by a thin, 
 crescentic valve, valvula Thebesii, the superior extremity of which continues 
 into the inferior of the valv. Eustach. 
 
 Several small foramina Thebesii are found below the opening of the supe- 
 rior cava, but they are not to be considered as the openings of smaller cardiac 
 veins. 
 
 d. Foramen ovale, in the embryo, is a longitudinal opening in the posterior 
 inferior part of the septum between the auricles. At birth is already found 
 in its place a smooth or wrinkled, but thin layer, fossa ovalis, bordered above 
 and before by a crescentic, fleshy protuberance, isthmus Vieusstns, the inferior 
 extremity of which passes into the Valv. Eustachii. A depression with a 
 small foramen is frequently found in the oval fossa behind the isthmus, as the 
 remains of the oval foramen. 
 
 Valvula foramin. ovalis (of the foetus) is the membranous portion spread 
 out in the circle of Vieussens, the continuation of the inner coat of the left 
 circumference of ven. cava super'., whilst the valvula Eustachii proceeds from 
 the right circumference. 
 
 Tuberculum Loweri, the elevation at the upper part of stptum atriorum, 
 between the mouth of v. cava sup. and fossa ovalis, which directs the stream 
 of blood from v. cava sup. upon the posterior inferior circumference of the 
 right auricle, and that of v. cava infer, forwards, and to the right towards the 
 right appendix. 
 
 2. Right ventricle, ventriculus dexter., pulmonary ventricle, at the anterior 
 inferior part of the heart, directed obliquely to the left and downwards from 
 its auricle, does not reach the extreme apex. Its internal wall (septum ven- 
 tricular.,) is convex, and on its lower half like trellis-work. The anterior and 
 inferior walls are concave, thin and loose, and beset with an interlacement of 
 fleshy fasciculi (mm. papillares), as they are found, also, particularly deve- 
 loped in the cavities of the auricles. At its base the two following openings 
 are found : 
 
 a. Right auricular-ventricular opening, ostium venosum, at the posterior, 
 right part of the base of the ventricle, is elliptical (from before to behind), six- 
 
292 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 teen to eighteen lines long, twelve lines broad, and connects the auricle with 
 the ventricle. From a fibro-cartilaginous ring, which encircles it, the inner 
 membrane (endocardium) forms a three-curtained, annular valve, valvula tri- 
 cuspidalis, tfiy^o^tva, which projects with its smooth surface into the auricle, 
 with an uneven surface, produced by small tendinous cords, into the ventricle. 
 The cords are partly attached to the free border, partly to the surface of the 
 valve, and they are so arranged that the latter becomes stretched when their 
 muscular fasciculi contract. 
 
 b. Arterial opening, ostium arteriosum, is situated at the anterior, left part 
 of the base of the ventricle, is separated from the auricular opening by a 
 projecting edge of muscle ; it is circular, and surrounded by three semilunar 
 valves, valva, semilunares, sigmoidece, which above form open pouches, and 
 close the ventricle against the pulmonary artery, as they lie close to one ano- 
 ther, and nodulus Arantii (a thickening in the centre of the free C-shaped 
 margin of each pouch), also shutting the triangular space yet remaining open. 
 
 3. Left auricle, dilatation of the pulmonary veins, atrium si?iistrum, is 
 placed higher than the right, concealed behind Art. pulmonalis, Aorta, and 
 left lung. The left appendix, longer and smaller than the right, is placed on 
 the anterior surface, close to Art. pulmonalis, and its conical cavity opens 
 with a circular mouth into the auricle. The cavity of the left auricle is nar- 
 rower than the right, and presents, (besides the foramen ovale and the ostium 
 venosum) at its upper part the four mouths of the pulmonary veins, two on 
 either side. 
 
 4. Left ventricle, Aortic ventricle, ventriculus sinister, is situated further 
 behind than the right, towards the left and above, is conical (the right being 
 pyramidal), convex, its cavity oval; the apex reaches farther down; the 
 walls are three to four times thicker ; two openings. 
 
 a. Ostium venosum, between auricle and ventricle ; elliptical, large (quite 
 close to the following opening, external to it, so that the valves of the two 
 meet together), is closed by a two-curtained valve, Jiyxo%ivt;, valvula Mi- 
 tralis. The tendinous cords (chordae tetidineai) are attached to the borders of 
 the valve, and are stronger than in the right ventricle. 
 
 b. Ostium aorticum is of the same character as the arterial opening in the 
 right ventricle, closed by valvv. semilunares [more developed] . 
 
 Situation. The heart lies for the most part in the left half of the chest, 
 one inch to an inch and a half to the right, and three to three inches and a 
 half to the left of the central line (in the Embryo up to the third month verti- 
 cal); its highest point (the left auricle) corresponds to the fifth dorsal vertebra ; 
 its deepest part (the inferior border of the right heart) to the ninth to tenth 
 dorsal vertebra ; the apex to the space between the fifth and sixth rib carti- 
 lage ; the mouth of the pulmonary artery to the third, that of the Aorta to 
 the space between the third and fourth left rib cartilage, close to the border 
 of the Sternum. Behind the Sternum and the pericardium we meet in the 
 following order from before backwards with: 1. the right ventricle; 2. the 
 pulmonary artery ; 3. the right auricle ; 4. the left ventricle ; 5. the aorta ; 
 
THE VESSELS. 293 
 
 6. the left appendix; 7. the right auricle; 8. the superior cava; 9. the left 
 auricle ; 10. the pulmonary veins (Blandin). 
 
 Structure. The chief mass of the heart consists of round and flat muscular 
 bands (transversely striated fibres), which are throughout separated into two 
 halves, lying evenly close to one another on the outer surface, projecting 
 irregularly on the inside of the cavity, as they are either firmly attached at 
 both extremities (fleshy bands, trabecula carnece [musculi pectinati} ), or the 
 free pointed extremity is turned to the basis of the heart (mm. papillares [car- 
 no; columns] ). In the ventricles the muscular layer is as thick as eight lines ; 
 at places in the ventricles extremely thin. Fibro-cartilaginous filaments se- 
 parate the auricles as well as the ventricles (in the septa) from one another, 
 and the auricles from the ventricles (in the circular groove). The outer cover- 
 ing is formed from the internal layer of the pericardium, and attached by 
 fibro-cellular. containing adipose tissue. Fat is found, particularly in aged 
 (also in lean) individuals on both sides of the transverse groove, and along the 
 coronary vessels as far as the apex, especially on the right half of the heart. 
 The internal membrane, endocardium, the immediate continuation of the in- 
 ternal coat of the large venous trunks, lines the cavities of the auricles and 
 ventricles, forms folds at the passage into the latter and in the great arterial 
 trunks, between which two layers, areolar tissue, and fibro-cartilaginous fila- 
 ments, are found. 
 
 These folds projecting into the cavities are the 
 
 Valves, which are free in the mouths of the arteries (as valvv.semilunares), 
 in the mouths of the ventricles (as valv. bi- and tricuspidates), are connected 
 by tendinous filaments with the muse, pectin, and column, carnece. 
 
 The internal membrane of the heart is thickest in the auricles. 
 
 Thickness of the walls : 
 
 Left ventricle, in male, 5yy Par. lin. ; female, 4 
 
 Septum of ventricles 5 4i 
 
 Of right ventricle 2 IT 
 
 The cavities and openings of the right half of the heart are wider than those 
 of the left. 
 
 529. Vessels and nerves of the Heart. 
 
 Arteries : coronaria cordis dextra and sinislra from aorta ascendens. 
 
 Veins : coronaria cordis magna and media. 
 
 Lymphatics : accompany the arteries and pass into the lymphatic glands 
 
 above and behind the areas aortas. 
 Nerves : plexus coronarii accompany the arteries and are then lost in the 
 
 tissue of the heart, arising from plex. cardiacus magnus, and these from 
 
 Nn. cardiaci of N. Vagus and sympathicus. 
 
 530. The Pericardium, 
 
 is a fibro-serous, perfectly closed sac, in which the heart has been so inverted 
 that it is wrapped round as far as its base, and is covered with a serous mem- 
 
294 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 brane firmly attached to it. The heart lies also on the surface, not in the ca- 
 vity of the sac, and is loosely surrounded by the non-inverted portion of the 
 pericardium, so that it can move freely therein. The inverted, internal layer 
 of the pericardium passes over the base of the heart, since it leaves uncovered 
 a narrow stripe only of the left auricle, on the great vessels (ven. cava super., 
 aorta and Art. pulmonal.) into the free, external layer, and surrounds the ves- 
 sels like a sheath. To the external surface of the free layer we find a thin 
 fibrous lamina firmly attached, which at the anterior inferior part is united 
 with the tendon of the diaphragm (three and a half inches transversely, one 
 to two inches from before to behind, close to the Sternum) and also passes 
 over upon the vascular trunks. The cavity of the pericardium secretes a 
 humid vapour, which in disease, or after death, becomes fluid, as lig. Peri- 
 cardii; its walls are smooth. 
 
 The shape of the pericardium is a cone, the base of which lies upon the 
 speculum Helmoutii, of the diaphragm, the apex looking upwards (to the 
 great vessels). Its anterior surface is covered by pleura, and touches the 
 sternum with only a small rhomboidal piece covered by areolar tissue (cor- 
 responding to the right half of the heart). The posterior surface is separated 
 from the vertebral column by the mediastin. post, with oesophagus, Aorta, 
 duct, thoracic., &c. At the sides the Nn. phrenici and Artt. phrenic, sup. pass 
 between pericardium and pleura. 
 
 Vessels: Artt. pericardiacce , or branches of aorta descend., mammar. in- 
 tern., phreniccB super., bronchioles, thymicce and cesophagece. 
 
 Veins : pass with the arteries, and open partly into Ven. azygos. 
 
 Lymphatics : go to the glands on the V. cava superior, and into the due- 
 tus thoracicus. 
 
 Nerves : have not hitherto been found. 
 
 531. Circulation, course of the blood, Circulatio sanguinis, 
 
 differs according as to whether the lungs (after birth) effect the change of 
 the dark red blood into the bright red, or the placenta (before birth) is the 
 medium for the exchange of the consumed, for a blood containing nutritious 
 substances. 
 
 532. I. Circulation after birth. 
 
 It is divided into two sections : 
 
 1. Smaller circulation, course of the pulmonary blood. The venous blood 
 collects from the vv. cavce and coronarice cordis in the right auricle of the 
 heart, passes into the right ventricle, thence into the pulmonary artery and 
 lungs. From the capillary rete of the lungs it comes forth as arterial blood, 
 and returns through the pulmonary veins to the heart, but to the left 
 auricle. 
 
 2. Greater circulation, course of the blood through the body. Pressed by 
 the left auricle into the left ventricle, thence into the aorta, the bright red 
 blood streams through all arteries (with the exception of the pulmonary), 
 
THE VESSELS. 295 
 
 becomes changed into the dark red blood in the capillary rete of the body (in 
 opposition to the lungs), passes through the veins (with the exception of the 
 pulmonary) and returns through the vv. caves and coronaries cordis (see before) 
 to the right auricle. 
 
 533. II. Circulation of the mature foetus. 
 
 1. From the right auricle the blood passes out, a. of v. cava inf. through 
 the foram. ovale (partly) into the left auricle (partly into the right ventricle), 
 hence into the left ventricle, aorta ascendens, truncus anonymus, carotis and 
 subclavia; b. the blood of v. cava superior into the right ventricle, art. pul- 
 monalis and through the ductus arteriosus Botalli into the aorta descend, (in 
 great part) into two artt. umbilicales and in these through the umbilical cord 
 into the placenta. 
 
 2. From the Placenta the blood passes back through the vena umbilicalis 
 into the belly of the foetus ; goes along through a branch of v. umbilicalis to 
 the ven. porta, through another, ductus venosus Arantii, to the v. cava infer. 
 into which also the blood of the liver and of the inferior half of the body empties 
 itself. 
 
 534. A. The vessels of the small circulation, 
 
 namely, Art. pulmonalis, which carries the blood from the right 
 half of the heart (venous blood) into the lungs ; and 
 
 Vencz pulmonales, which carry back into the left half of the 
 heart the blood which having passed through the Art. pulmonalis 
 to the lungs has been changed into arterial blood by the influence 
 of the inspired air. 
 
 535. 1. The pulmonary artery, arteria pulmonalis s. venosa, 
 
 arises above and before from the right ventricle (thirty-one and a half to 
 twenty-nine and one third lines wide), is situated at the commencement be- 
 fore, then to the left of the aorta, since it inclines to the posterior and right 
 concave side of this, between the auricles of the heart, afterwards before the 
 left auricle, it finally divides after a course of one and a half to two inches into 
 two branches which embrace the arch of the aorta, enter into the lungs, and 
 after fine ramifications, anastomosing with the Artt. bronchioles, they form a 
 capillary rete round about the vesicles of the lungs, from which the pulmo- 
 nary veins arise. 
 
 a. The right branch, sixteen to eighteen lines long, and larger than the left, 
 passes away towards the right and behind aorta ascendens and V. cava supe- 
 rior, before the bronchus dexter, above the superior right pulmonary vein, and 
 enters with three branches into the three lobes of the right lung. 
 
 b. ThS left branch, one inch long and narrower, passes away to the left and 
 backwards, before the aorta descendens and bronchus sinister (separated from 
 the last, sometimes by art. branch.) ; above the left superior pulmonary vein 
 and enters with two branches into the tw r o lobes of the left lung, where the 
 pulmonary veins are situated before it. 
 
296 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 In the embryo, a canal, ductus arteriosus Botalii passes upwards obliquely 
 to the left from the place where the pulmonary artery divides into its two 
 branches, to the concavity ofarcus aortce, opposite to the art. subdavia sinis- 
 tra, which at a later period changes into the ligam. arteriosum (one to two 
 lines thick, four long). 
 
 536. II. Pulmonary veins, four, Vence pulmonales s. arteriosce, 
 
 arise from the capillary vessels of Art. pulmonalis and Artt. bronchioles, pass 
 out at the roots of the lungs before the arterial and bronchial branches, two, 
 as well as from the right (at the commencement three), as from the left lung, 
 and sink inside the pericardium behind F. cava super, on the right side and 
 Art. pulmonalis on the left, into the superior part of the left auricle. They 
 possess no valves. The capacity of all four together, is inferior to that of the 
 pulmonary arteries. 
 
 Vessels of the large circulation, Arteries. 
 
 537. Arteria Aorta, the great artery of the body, 
 
 arises above and before from the left ventricle (between septum 
 ventricul. and valv. mitralis), where its root (bulbus aortce) cor- 
 responds to the three semilunar valves, presents internally three 
 pouch-shaped expansions (sinus Valsalvce), and externally three 
 elevations (tubera). At the origin circular (in the male thirty- 
 one, in the female twenty-eight Paris lines wide), farther on ellip- 
 tical, anteriorly convex. 
 
 538. Course. It ascends from left to right (aorta ascendens), 
 at the same time a little curved, between Art. pulmon. and V. cava 
 superior. It now bends suddenly backwards, and passes almost 
 horizontally (above the ramus dext. art. pulmonal.) from right to 
 left, and from before backwards, to the left side of the third dorsal 
 vertebra (arcus aortce); whence it descends, after another curva- 
 ture, vertically on the left side of the vertebral column, through 
 the thorax (aorta descendens thoracica), and in the abdomen be- 
 fore the centre of the bodies of the vertebrae, as far as the fourth 
 lumbar vertebra (as aorta desc. abdominalis). Here it divides 
 into its two terminating branches, arterice iliacce. 
 
 539. Aorta ascendens, the ascending Aorta, 
 
 two to two and a half inches long. Position : surrounded by 
 the pericardium ; below, behind Art. pulmonalis, which winds 
 like a screw from before to the left ; behind : ramus dexter art. 
 pulmonalis ; to the right above : V. cava superior ; to the right 
 below : the right auricle. 
 
THE VESSELS. 297 
 
 Branches : 
 
 1. Small twigs for Art.pulmonalis and V. cava superior. 
 
 2. Art . coronaria cordis dextra cardiaca, the coronary artery, arises from 
 the anterior surface, close above the tuber anterius bulbus aortce ; is 
 thicker, passes away behind Art. pulmonal., in the sulcus transversus, 
 on the right half of the heart towards the right and behind, and then in 
 the longitudinal groove as far as the apex of the heart. Branches : for 
 the right half of the heart, bulbus aortas and Art. pulmon. 
 
 3. Art. coronaria. cordis sinistra, arises above tuber posterius ; passes off 
 into two branches. 
 
 a. ramus anterior s. descendens on the anterior surface of the heart in 
 the longitudinal sulcus, reaching downwards as far as the apex, and 
 sending branches to the right and left ventricles. 
 
 b. Ramus posterior s. circumflexus passes on the left to the posterior 
 surface of the heart in the sulcus transversus, and sends branches 
 to the left half of the heart. 
 
 540. Arcus Aorta, the arch of the Aorta. 
 
 Situation : oblique from before, backwards, and from right to 
 left (one and a half to one inch long). 
 
 1. On the anterior and left side: the left Pleura. Nn. Phre- 
 nicus and vagus. 
 
 2. Behind and to the right : the trachea, the commencement 
 of bronchus sinister, the oesophagus, ductus thoracicus N. recur- 
 rens, vertebral column and lymphatic glands. 
 
 3. The highest point of the convexity directed upwards is 
 situated about ten to twelve lines below manubrium sterni. 
 
 4. The concavity is placed above : ram. dext. Art. pulmonalis, 
 N. recurrens sinister, bronchus sinister, lymphatic glands. 
 
 Branches : from the concavity only very small branches to the 
 bronchi (bronch. superr.), pericardium, thymus ; from the con- 
 vexity : Art. anonyma [brachio-cepJialica~\, art. carotis and sub- 
 clavia sinistra. 
 
 1. Anonyma s. truncus anonymus [s. brackio-ceph.] , the common trunk of 
 Art. carotis and subclavia dextra, is thick and one inch (to two) long ; arises 
 the farthest upwards, to the right and before from the aortic arch ; is situated 
 behind the manubrium sterni and vv. jugular es communes, a little before, then 
 to the right of the trachea; it describes with the Carotis sinistra an acute an- 
 gle. Sometimes also the Carotis and subclavia sinistra, or even both carotides 
 and subclavice arise from a common trunk. 
 
 2. Carotis communis sinistra, arises from the centre of arcus aortce to the 
 
298 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 left and behind the anonyma, is longer than the Carotis communis dextra, and 
 passes obliquely before the trachea and to the left of it and the thyroid gland. 
 3. Subclavia sinistra, arises the farthest backwards and to the left, from the 
 arcus aortas, is longer, rather thicker, and ascends in a rather straighter direc- 
 tion than the subclavia dextra, to the left and externally. 
 
 541. A. Carotis communis, the common carotid artery. 
 
 Origin : the right arises from the A. anonymo, the left close to 
 A. subclav. dextra ; on the right close to the trachea. The left 
 from the centre of arcus aorta itself. Course : both carotids as- 
 cend obliquely upwards and outwards, from the chest into the 
 neck, and terminate at the- superior border of the larynx with 
 an enlargement, so that they diverge from below (where trachea 
 and oesophagus) upwards (where larynx and pharynx lie between 
 them). 
 
 Situation : 1. In the chest. 
 
 a. The right Carotis commences only very shortly before the 
 superior border of the Manubrium sterni, from which it is se- 
 parated by ven. jugular, comm. sinistra. 
 
 b. The left, about one inch before its exit, lies behind V. sub- 
 clavia sinistr., mm. sterno-hyoidei and thyreo'idei and sternum ; 
 before trachea and oesophagus, Artt. subclavia and vertebr. sinist. 
 
 "2. In the neck : in a sheath offasc. cervicalis ; the inferior half 
 of the anterior surface covered by mm. sterno-thyreoideus, sterno- 
 mastoideus ; the centre by the tendons and the superior belly of 
 m. omo-hyoideus ; the superior half in the trigonum cervicale su~ 
 perius only by platysma-myoides. The posterior surface is sepa- 
 rated from the vertebral column by mm. rectus capitis and long, 
 colli, and (below) Ven. thyreoidea inferior. Internally are situated : 
 trachea, (Esophagus, larynx, and thyroid gland. Externally : F. 
 jugularis interna. Between these and the Carotis: ram. descend. 
 N. hypoglossi (the farthest forwards), N. vagus (inwards), N. 
 Sympathicus (externally and behind). The first passes down- 
 wards only to the centre, the two last vertically along the entire 
 cervical portion of the carotis. 
 
 Branches pass off from the Carotis communis as exceptions 
 only, as : Art. thyreoid inf. (and media) ; but it divides into two 
 terminal branches, into Carotis externa and interna. 
 
 542. I. Carotis externa s.facialis. 
 
 Origin: on an elevation with the superior border of the larynx^ 
 internal to and before Carotis interna. Termination : at the neck 
 of Condylus mandibulce. Course : in adult slightly undulating ; 
 
THE VESSELS. 299 
 
 in the trigonum cervicale superius vertically as high as the m. di- 
 gastricus : then backwards and outwards as far as the angle of 
 the inferior jaw ; then again vertically along the posterior border 
 of ramus mandibulce. Circumference : inferior to that of the 
 carotis internet, (in children) ; length, two and a half to three and 
 a half inches. Situation : at the commencement covered by V. 
 facials commun.j and platysmam., only ; then behind mm. di- 
 gastricus (the posterior belly), and stylo-hyoideus (before m. stylo- 
 glossus], and n. hypoglossus ; lastly, within the Parotis (and quite 
 above between Parotis and lower jaw). 
 
 Collateral branches ; three anterior : A. thyeoidea super., lingua- 
 lis maxiUar. extern, s.facialis. 
 
 2 Posterior : Aa. occipitalis and auricularis. 
 
 1 Internal : A. pharyngea. 
 
 2 Terminal branches : Artt. temporalis and maxittar. interna. 
 The three anterior and the internal arise below the m. digastri- 
 
 cus ; the two posterior before the entrance into Parotis. 
 
 543. The anterior branches of the Carotis externa. 
 
 1. Thyreoidea superior, the superior thyroideal artery supplies the Larynx 
 and thyroid gland with blood. 
 
 Or. : close above (sometimes at) the point of division of the carol, commun. 
 Course : at first upwards, directly afterwards downwards, several times 
 curved to the superior cornu of the thyroid gland. Position : at first only 
 behind the skin, then behind mm. omo-, sterno-, kyoideus, and sterno-thy- 
 reoideus. 
 
 Branches : 
 
 a. Art. laryngea superior, the superior laryngeal artery, arises, sometimes, 
 from the carotis externa. Course : transverse between m. hyo-thyreoid. 
 and memb. hyo-thyreoid, perforates the last (with N. laryng. sup.} gives a 
 superior branch to the Epiglottis and a descending for m. thyreo-aryta- 
 noid, and the mucous membrane. 
 
 b. Art. laryngea inf. s. ram. cricothyreoideus (Cruveilhier), arises from the 
 internal terminal branch, passes transversely on the inferior border of the 
 thyroid cartilage, anastomoses with that of the other side, and ramifies on 
 the mucous membrane and the muscles of the larynx. 
 
 c. Ram. sterno-mastoideus, arises under a, and passes away downwards 
 over carotis communis on the posterior surface of m. sterno-cleido-mas- 
 toideus. 
 
 d. Rami thyreoidei, three terminal branches. The first passes between thy- 
 roid gland and trachea, the second along the external border, the third in 
 the central line before the thyroid gland. 
 
 2. Lingualis, the lingual artery. Origin : on a plane with the great cornu 
 
300 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 of the os hyoides. Course : obliquely upwards, then along the superior 
 border of the hyoid bone, forwards and inwards, and thence into muscles of 
 the tongue from behind forwards. Termination : at the tip of the tongue as 
 Art. ranina. Position : commences below m. digastricus, stylo-hyoid, and 
 n. hypoglossus; on the os hyoides between m. hyogloss. and constrictor pha- 
 ryng. medius; in the tongue between m. genioglossus and lingualis (close to 
 n. lingualis.) 
 
 Branches : 
 
 a. Earn, hyoideus, passes away transversely above the hyoid bone, anas- 
 tomoses with that of the other side, between m. genio-glossus and genio- 
 hyoideus. 
 
 b. Art. dorsalis lingua, small, arises on a plane with the cornu majus oss. 
 hyoid, passes upwards to the border of the tongue and to arcus glosso- 
 palatinus, forwards and inwards, always close under the mucous mem- 
 brane, gives branches to the epiglottis, mm. hyo-, aindstylo-glossus; lastly, 
 the skin in the region of papilla calyciformes. 
 
 c. Art. sublingualis, stronger than the former, passes between m. mylo- 
 hyoideus and the mucous membrane, upon the floor of the mouth forwards, 
 along the inferior border of glandul. sublingual., external to the duct. 
 Wliartonianus, supplies these parts, and terminates with a branch above 
 thefrenulum and a branch for the foramina incisiva at the chin. 
 
 d. Art. ranina s. profunda, the terminal branch, penetrates above into the 
 thickness of the tongue, between m. geniogloss. and lingualis (half an 
 inch distant from the back of the tongue), and runs along to the tip, as 
 it gives off internal, external, and superior branches for the muscles and 
 papillae. 
 
 3. Maxillaris externa, s. facialis. large. Or. : rather higher than lin- 
 gualis, covered by m. digastric, and stylohyoideus. Course : very serpentine ; 
 at first upwards to the angle of the lower jaw, then horizontally forwards in 
 the fossa on the outer surface of gland, submaxillaris; towards the middle of 
 the horizontal ramus of the lower jaw it turns over it into the face, passes ob- 
 liquely upwards to the mouth, nose, and internal angle of the eye, and anas- 
 tomoses with Artt. ophthalmica and infraorbitalis. Position: at first be- 
 tween gland, submaxill. andparotis, along the basis of the lower jaw: exter- 
 nally the skin and lymphatic glands, internally the gland, submaxillaris; in 
 the face on the anterior border of m. masseter, below covered by the skin 
 (with m. risorius), above the angle of the mouth by the zygomatici and leva- 
 tores labii, lastly, by much fat and skin. 
 
 544. Branches of the horizontal portion. 
 
 a. Art. Palatina ascendens (arises sometimes from Corot. externa or pha- 
 ryngea ascendens), ascends behind mm. styloidei, to the side of the pharynx, 
 ramifies in the Tonsils (Art. tonsillaris), the soft palate and its arches, anas- 
 tomoses with A. pharyngea ascendens. 
 
THE VESSELS. 301 
 
 b. Art. submentalis passes directly forwards, along the (internal) inferior 
 border of the lower jaw, between mm. mylohoid. and digastricus, inclines on 
 the external border of the last (vent, anter.) upwards, supplies the skin and 
 muscles of the chin, and anastomoses with branches of A. dentalis inferior 
 and sublingualis. 
 
 c. Kami glandulares, 3. and 4. small, supplies gl. submaxillar. 
 
 d. Ramus pterygoideus, small, for m. pteryg. internus. 
 
 Branches in the face. a. External, supplying the muscles and skin of the 
 cheek ; the most distinct are, ram. massetericus and buccinatorius. 
 b. Internal. 
 
 1. Art. coronaria 8. labialis inferior, arises close under the angle of the 
 mouth, passes between the muscular and glandular layer, not far from 
 the free edge of the under lip, and anastomoses with that of the other side. 
 
 2. Art. coronaria s. labialis superior, arises at the angle of the mouth, under 
 m. levator labii super., passes to the upper lip like 1., and gives off from 
 the middle line : 
 
 a. Art. septi mobilis nasi, which passes to the cartilaginous nasal sep- 
 tum, vertically upwards, and then horizontally under the sept, mobile. 
 
 b. Art. pinnalis s. alaris nasi, at the posterior border of the nasal open- 
 ings, anastomoses with : 
 
 3. Art. angularis B. nasalis lateralis, passes upwards from the angle of the 
 nose to the internal angle of the eye, and there unites with art. ophthal- 
 mica in the art.frontalis. It gives the following branches : 
 
 a. Rami pinnales, 1. at the superior, concave border of the nasal pinna; 
 2. enters into the nose. 
 
 b. Rami dorsales, on the back of the nose. 
 
 c. Rami palpeb rales, on the inferior eyelid. 
 
 The most remarkable anastomoses of Art. maxillaris externa are : a. with 
 A. dental, inferior; b. with A. maxillar. intern.; c. with A. ophthalmica. 
 
 545. The posterior branches of Carotis externa. 
 
 4. Occipitalis, the occipital artery, smaller than 1. and 3. Origin: Art. 
 maxillar. extern, or lingualis, opposite, sometimes close under, the Parotis; 
 covered by m. digastricus and IV. hypoglossus. Course : oblique upwards 
 and backwards, above proc. transv. atlantis, under incisura mastoid. horizon- 
 tally backwards, very tortuous. Position : deep, separated in front by m. 
 stylohyoid. from art. auricular, post, and carot. externa. The horizontal por- 
 tion between m. rectus lateral, and complexus, then between obliquus super. 
 and splenius. Divided under m. splenius into an external and an internal as- 
 cending branch. 
 
 Collateral branches : a. rami cervicales consist of: 1. for TO. sterno-cleidom.; 
 enters at the internal surface into the superior part of the muscle, turns round 
 the loop of the n. hypoglossus. 2. Earn, descendens, between m. splenius and 
 complexus, divides among the superior layers of the cervical muscles (m. splen., 
 
302 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 trachelomast., complex., biventer cervicis , cucullaris), and in the deeper (mm. 
 recti and obliqui). 
 
 b. Art. stylomastoidea (s. Art . auricular, post.} 
 
 c. Art. meningea posterior s, mastoidea, enters through foram. mastoideum 
 (or/, occipitale) for the posterior part of the dura mater. 
 
 d. Ram. parietalis frequently, enters through for. parietales to sin. longi- 
 tud. superior. The two ascending terminal branches reach as far forward as 
 the vertex, and are situated between galea aponeurotica and the skin. 
 
 5. Auricularis posterior, the posterior auricular artery, supplies the external 
 and internal ear, the Parotis, narrower than four, arises sometimes in common 
 with it or from it, generally one inch high above it. Course : upwards, in 
 the direction of and external to proc. styloid. at first behind and between m. 
 digastric, and parents; then covered by retrahentes auricula, and divides at 
 the anterior border oiproc. mastoideus into two branches, ram. mastoideus and 
 auricularis. 
 
 Collateral branches : a. Eamimusculares for sterno-cleidom., digastric., sty- 
 lo-hyoideus and glossus. 
 
 b. jK. glandulares for the Parotis. 
 
 c. Art. stylo-mastoidea, enters into the stylo-mastoid foramen, traverses 
 the canalis Fallopice, meets with a branch of Art. mening. media anastomosing 
 at hiatus can. Fallop., gives branches to : cellules mastoid., Tympanum (Art. 
 tympanica superior}, Memb. tympani (forming on this with a branch of Art. 
 temporalis the plexus tympanicus), and to the cochlea (through fenestra ro- 
 tunda). 
 
 Terminal branches. 
 
 d. Eamus occipitalis s. mastoideus ascends backwards beneath the skin, 
 passes with a horizontal branch inwards along the superior border of m. sterno- 
 cleidom. and splenius; with an ascending to the external border of m. occipitalis 
 as far as the vertex ; supplies mm. retrahentes and skin ; anastomoses with 
 art. temporal, and occipitalis. 
 
 e. Ram. auricularis s. anterior, passes upon the posterior surface of the ex- 
 ternal ear, with a superior and an inferior branch ; the last supplies the lobule 
 of the ear, passes in the groove between helix and anthelix, as it perforates 
 the concha. 
 
 6. Pharyngea adscendens, the ascending pharyngeal artery the smallest 
 branch ofcarotis externa. Or: from the posterior side of the carot. externa, 
 close above the place of division of carot. communis; or, on a plane with A. 
 lingual. Course and position : vertically upwards, at first between carotis 
 externa and interna, then behind the last in the triangular space between pha- 
 rynx and m. pterygoideus internus; divides into two branches, art. meningea 
 post, and ram. pharyngeus. Collateral branches : ram. pharyngeus inferior, 
 which passes transversely inwards, in ascending and descending branches, and 
 anastomoses with a. thyreoid inferior. 
 
THE VESSELS. 303 
 
 Terminal branches. 
 
 a. Art. meningea posterior, ramify in the gangl. suprem. N. sympathici, Nn. 
 vagus, glossopharyng., hypoglossus,Sind enters through fo ram. jugulare to the 
 dura mater in the fossa occipital, inferior; gives a branch which anastomoses 
 with Art. cervical, adscend. 
 
 b. Earn, pharyngeus, continuation ofpharyng. ascend. Course : before the 
 carotis interna, and divides at the basis cranii, behind the pharynx into seve- 
 ral branches, which are reflected and terminate on the tuba Eustachii, and in 
 the muscles of the pharynx. 
 
 546. Terminal branches of the Carotis externa. 
 
 7. Temporalis (superficialis), the temporal artery. Origin : behind collum 
 condyli of the lower jaw and before the external auditory meatus. Course : 
 directly upwards, before the ear, over the root of the process, zygomatic. of the 
 temporal bone, then in a serpentine direction as far as the centre of the tem- 
 poral region (or one inch above the zygoma} where it divides. Position : at 
 first upon the maxillary articulation covered by Parotis, then by the skin and 
 fasc. parotidea, only, above fascia temporalis. 
 
 Anterior collateral branches. 
 
 a. Transversafacei, arises (frequently from carotis external immediately at 
 the collum condyli, passes transversely over this and m. masseter, covered by 
 Parotis, underneath the zygoma (inch and a half) and above ductus Stenonia- 
 nus (parallel with it) on to the face ; sends a branch for the maxillary articu- 
 lation, for the duct. Stenon., several r. masseterici and ramifies on the ante- 
 rior border of m. masseter into cutaneous branches for the cheeks into muscular 
 branches for mm. zygomaticus major, orbicular, palebr., levat. labii super.; 
 anastomoses between artt. temporal, and buccalis, infraorbital. and max- 
 Ularis externa. 
 
 b. Nam. orbicularis, not always present, arises above the zygoma, placed 
 behind m. orbicularis, supplies these and anastomoses with art. palpebral. 
 super, (see Art. ophthalm.) 
 
 Posterior branch. 
 
 c. Auriculares anteriores; the inferior for the lobule of the ear ; the central 
 for the auditory meatus ; the superior for helix, m. attrahens and attollens au- 
 ricula. 
 
 Internal branch. 
 
 d. Art. temporalis media (a. prof undo,), arises close above the zygoma, enters 
 into the m. temporal, through the deep layer of fasc. temporal, and anastomoses 
 with the temporal artery of Art. maxillaris interna. 
 
 Terminal branches. 
 
 e. Earn, frontalis s. anterior passes in a curve towards the forehead, and 
 anastomoses with art. frontalis, supraorbital. and ram. frontal, of the other 
 side. 
 
304 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 f. Ram. occipitalis s. parietalis, larger, passes upwards to the vertex and 
 anastomoses with Artt. auricular., occipitalis and ram.frontalis. 
 
 8. Maxillaris interna (s. facialis pro/undo). Origin : behkid the collum 
 condyli of the lower jaw. Course : horizontally forwards, inwards and rather 
 upwards to the tuber, maxill. super., curves forwards and sinks into fossa 
 spheno-maxillaris, where it terminates as spheno-palatina. Position : at first 
 close behind the condylus and before proc. styloideus; between mm. pterygoid. 
 extern, and internus (external to n. dentalis and lingualis), then between 
 pterygoid. extern, and temporalis. 
 
 547. Collateral branches : A. Arising in the neighbourhood 
 of the Collum condyli. 
 
 a. Auricularis profunda ascends directly, divides into branches for the 
 maxillary articulation, the external auditory meatus (through some foramina 
 in the bones) and the inferior border of the memb. tympani. 
 
 b. Tympanica (inferior), the tympanic artery, frequently from Art. tempo- 
 ralis, small ; supplies the external auditory meatus, the maxill. articulation, 
 and enters through fissura Glaseri into the tympanum, on the anterior wall of 
 which and the memb. tympani it anastomoses with tympanica superior (s. 
 stylo-mastoid). 
 
 c. Meningea media s. spinosa, ascends vertically behind collum condyli and 
 m. pterygoid. extern, through foram. spinosum into the cranium, becomes 
 horizontal and is placed, divided into an anterior and posterior branch, be- 
 tween dura mater and the bones of the skull; the anterior ramus ascends from 
 the inferior angle towards the external angle of the fiss. orbital, super., and 
 thence as far upwards as the sagittal suture ; the posterior ramus ascends on 
 the pars mastoid. of the temporal bone as far as the posterior inferior angle of 
 the parietal bone, and as high as the sagittal suture. Small ramuli pass out 
 of the skull. 
 
 1. Eamul. petrosus, through hiatus into canal. Fallopia to the nerv. 
 facialis and Art. stylomastoid. 
 
 2. Ramuli for nerv. trigeminus. 
 
 3u Ramul. for m. mallei intern, through the semi-canal for this. 
 4. Rami temporales for the great wing of the sphenoid bone, anastomoses 
 with the Artt. temporales profundtB. 
 
 d. Dentalis s. alveolaris inferior, arises close to the last artery, passes down- 
 wards and between m. pterygoid. intern, (or rather lig. maxillare intern.) and 
 the ramus of the lower jaw through foram. maxillar. posterius, and passes 
 through the canal, alveolar, infer, as it gives off a twig in the interior of this 
 to each tooth, and many small ones for the diploe of each alveolus. Art. my- 
 lohyoidea passes from foram. max. post, to the inner surface of ramus maxillar. 
 in a groove with nerv. mylohyoid downwards to m. mylohyoid. Through foram. 
 mentale a larger branch passes out as art. mentalis from the canal, and anas- 
 tomoses with art. submentalis and coronar. inferior. 
 
 e. Temporalis profunda posterior passes between m. pterygoid. extern, and 
 
THE VESSELS. 305 
 
 temporal, upwards, to the posterior border of the last, and ramifies in these 
 and the periosteum ; anastomosing with Artt. temporal, profund. anter. and 
 media, and gives, sometimes, Artt. masseterica and buccinatoria. 
 
 f. Masseterica, small, passes over incisura semilunar. outwards to the mas- 
 seter m. 
 
 g. PterygoidecB for mm. pterygoidei; some from the Art. c. and e. ; ptery- 
 goid. extern, gives off, sometimes, a meningea parva through foram. ovale. 
 
 548. B. Arising in the neighbourhood of the tuber 
 Maxillce super'ioris. 
 
 h. Buccinatoria, small, passes in a serpentine course from behind forwards, 
 between the ramus of the lower jaw and m. plerygoid. intern., and is lost inm. 
 buccinatorius. 
 
 i. Temporalis profunda anterior, passes to the anterior border of m. tempo- 
 ralis (behind the malar -sphenoidal suture) upwards, is lost in the last, and 
 sends branches into the fat of the orbit. 
 
 k. Dentalis superior (posterior) passes downwards in a very serpentine 
 manner to the posterior surface of the upper jaw, below proc. zygomat. upon 
 the anterior surface of the former, gives branches to the gums, periosteum, 
 and the superior alveolus, and enters, divided into several branches, through 
 foramm. alveolaria postt. into the upper jaw for the (superior) molar teeth. 
 Separate branches pass to the mucous membrane of the antrum. 
 
 1. Infraorbitalis, arises behind fissura orbital, infer., and enters immedi- 
 ately into the canal, infraorbitalis, passes through it, and appears at its ante- 
 rior opening on the face, where the artery ramifies in branches for the exte- 
 rior and mucous membrane of the cheeks, gums, the corner and incisor teeth, 
 and for the nose, and anastomose with Artt. maxillaris externa and facialis 
 transversi. 
 
 Branches out ofcanalis infraorbitalis. 
 
 1. Earn, orbitalis, passes with a branch forwards to the inferior eyelid ; 
 with another inwards for ram. palpebral. infer, of art. ophthalm. 
 
 2. Ram. dentalis anterior, passes downwards between the plates of the 
 upper jaw (anterior wall) to the roots of the cuspids and incisor teeth. 
 
 549. C. Arising in \hefossa spheno-maxillaris. 
 m. Vidiana, passes backwards through canal Vidianus to the superior wall 
 of the pharynx and to the tuba Eustachii; arises also from the following (as 
 pharyngea supremo). 
 
 n. Pterygo-palatina s. palatina superior, internal and below the former, de- 
 scends through can. pterygo-palatinus behind the upper jaw, through and out 
 of foram. palati. anterius [postering] and passes in a serpentine course close 
 to the alveolus forwards on the inferior surface of the palatine vault, until, 
 forming a curve, it meets with the one of the other side at theomai. incisivut. 
 Quite above it gives off 
 
 1. Ramuli palatini; going through canales palatinipost. to the soft palate. 
 
 20 
 
306 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 2. Branches for the glands and mucous membrane of the palatine vault. 
 
 3. Ram. nasalis enters through can. palatinus anter. into the nasal cavity. 
 o. Art. spheno-palatina s. nasalis posterior, the terminal branch of Art. 
 
 maxill. intern., passes, curved, transversely inwards through foram. spheno-pa- 
 latinum into the nasal cavity, and divides behind the superior nasal chamber 
 into: 
 
 1. Art. septi narium 8. nasopalatina, which passing obliquely inwards, 
 downwards, and forwards, between the nasal septum and mucous mem- 
 brane, it divides into a superior and inferior branch, and anastomoses 
 with art. palat. super, in the canalis incisivus. 
 
 2. Art. nasalis posterior, enters behind the middle concha into the nose, 
 descends upon the internal surface of the palate bone forwards, perfo- 
 rates the inferior concha, and enters the inferior nasal chamber. 
 
 3. Art. pharyngea descendens passes in a canal (internal to vidian) at the 
 base of proc. pterygoid. backwards to the superior part of the nasal 
 cavity and the pharynx. 
 
 Art. maxillaris interna, thus sends branches : 
 
 1. To the organs of mastication, as : Artt. dentales, infraorbitalis; masse- 
 terica, temporal, profunda ant. and post, pterygoidea. 
 
 2. To the organs of deglutition : Artt. palatina super., vidiana, pha- 
 ryngea. 
 
 3. To the cavities of the nose : Artt. infraorbitalis, spheno-palatina. 
 
 4. To the organs of audition : Art. tympanica, auricularis prof., rami art. 
 meningece mediae. 
 
 5. To the face : Artt. buccinatoria, infraorbitalis, mentalis. 
 
 6. To the cranial cavity : Art. meningea media. 
 
 550. II. Carotis interna s. Cerebralis, the internal 
 Cranial Artery. 
 
 It supplies the anterior portion of the brain and the eye. Course : 
 from the point of separation of the carotis communis as high as 
 the m. digastricus (posterior belly), almost parallel with carotis 
 externa and a little curved ; "thence to the entrance into the canal, 
 caroticus deeper backwards and inwards, in a triangular space be- 
 tween pharynx and ram. maxill. infer. ; before the entrance ho- 
 rizontal. In the canal, caroticus it makes four curvatures, as at 
 first it ascends vertically, then passes (first curve) horizontally for- 
 wards and inwards as far as sinus cavernosus to the apex of the 
 temporal bone, comes forth and (second curve) ascends at a right 
 angle by the side of sella turcica, passes again horizontally (third 
 curve) as far as proc. clinoid. anter., and (fourth curve) perforates 
 the dura Mater obliquely upwards, backwards, and somewhat in- 
 wards, on the outer side of the optic nerves. Situation : in the 
 
THE VESSELS. 307 
 
 neck, behind mm. stylo-glossus and pharyngeus, separated by 
 these from carotis externa ; before m. longus colli and the verte- 
 bral column ; internally, bounded by the lateral wall of the pha- 
 rynx, art. pharyngea ascend, and gangl. -I. N. sympathici, exter- 
 nally by the ramus of the lower jaw, V.jugularis internet, and 
 Nn. vagus, glosso-pharyng., hypo-glossus (which lie behind it 
 above) ; in the canal, caroticus : surrounded by filaments from 
 ganglion cervicale supremum and by a thin sheath ; in the sinus 
 cavernosus : on the inner side of nerv. abducens, oculo-mot., pa- 
 thetic., and ram. ophthalm. of the fifth nerve. 
 
 Branches : As an exception, the Artt. pharyngea ascendens and 
 temporalis pass off from the cervical portion, otherwise none ; in- 
 side the canal, caroticus a small branch for the tympanum ; in 
 the sinus cavernosus several small branches for the basilar portion 
 of the dura mater, the walls of sinus petrosus infer., for the hy- 
 pophysis cerebri, N. trigeminus, and a connecting branch to the 
 Art. mening. media. Besides, anteriorly : Art. ophthalmica, and 
 the terminal branch of carotis interna ; these are, artt. communi- 
 cans, choroidea, corporis callosi, fossce Sylvii. 
 
 551. 1. Ophtkalmica. Origin: close behind proc. clinoid. anter. from 
 the convex anterior surface of the fourth curve of the carotis. Course : en- 
 ters immediately below the optic nerve, through the foram. opticum into the 
 orbit, passes at first on the outer and lower side of the optic nerve, between 
 muse, rectus super, and externus, then inwards above n. opticus as far as the 
 internal wall of the orbita ; lastly, directly forwards along the inferior border 
 of obliq. superior, and under the trochlea, and divides at the place of junction 
 of the upper jaw and frontal bone, into Art. nasalis andfrontalis. 
 
 Collateral branches : Arising on the outer side of the 
 Nervus Opticus. 
 
 a. Lacrymalis, the lacrymal artery, large, arises immediately as the Art. 
 ophthal. enter the orbita (or as it crosses the optic nerve), passes on the exter- 
 nal wall between periorbita and m. rect. extern., as far as the lacrymal gland, 
 ramifies here and gives off branches to the superior eyelid, m. rect. extern., 
 super., to Art. mening. med. (backwards), to the temporal (through for. zygo- 
 matic.) 
 
 b. Centralis retinas, thin ; penetrates into the centre at the inferior side of 
 the optic nerve, passes in its axis directly forwards, spreads out with three 
 diverging branches on the internal surface of the retina. A branch passes 
 from it in the axis of the eye ; this is, 
 
 Capsularis, through the vitreous body as far as the posterior wall of the 
 capsule of the lens, giving off on the way minute ramusculi. 
 
308 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Arising above the Optic Nerve. 
 
 c. Supraorbitalis, arises where the ophthalmic artery crosses the optic 
 nerve, passes between the roof of the orbita and m. levatorpalpebr. sup., passes 
 through foram. supraorbital., upwards, and divides into an external and in- 
 ternal branch, ascending upon the frontal bone, for corrugat. orbicular, and 
 frontalis and skin of the forehead. 
 
 d. Ciliares (for. choroidea, Corp. ciliare and iris'). 
 
 1. PosticcB s. breves, arise, often from a superior and inferior common trunk, 
 pass along the optic nerve in a tortuous manner, surrounding it in clusters, 
 perforate the sclerotica with it, and spread out in the choroidea and proc. 
 ciliares, with ten to twenty branches. 
 
 2. Media s. longce, an external and an internal ; they perforate the sclero- 
 tica rather farther from N. opticus, pass between sclerotica and choroidea 
 as far as lig. ciliare, where they divide, unite to form circulus iridis major, 
 out of which also the circulus iridis minor arises. 
 
 3. Anticce (six to twelve branches of the Artt. musculares, or lacrymalis 
 and supra-orbitalis), give some branches to the fascia, perforate the scle- 
 rotica not far from the cornea, and open into the circulus iridis major. 
 Their number is indefinite. 
 
 e. Eami musculares, a superior smaller (sometimes wanting), supplies mm. 
 levatorpalpebr., reclus and obliquus superior ; an inferior passes between n. 
 opticus, and m. rectus inferior supplies this, and rect. externus and obliq. infe- 
 rior; gives offciliar. anticce. 
 
 Arising on the inner side of the Optic Nerve. 
 
 f. Ethmoidales, a posterior and an anterior (larger), pass under m. obliq., 
 through the foram. ethmoidalia out of the orbit into the cranial cavity, divide 
 (each) upon the superior surface of the cribriform plate into two branches for 
 the dura mater and nasal cavities. The anterior gives ; 
 
 1. M.eningea antica, for thefalx cerebri, along the coronal suture. 
 
 2. Nasalis anterior, passes through an anterior foramen to the anterior part 
 of the labyrinth and the septum and anastomoses with branches of the 
 Spheno-palatina. 
 
 g. Palpebrales s. tarsece, arise close before the trochlea. The inferior passes 
 behind lig. palpebr. intern, downwards and outwards, and passes close to the 
 free border of the lid, between the cartilage and muscle of the inferior eyelid 
 as far as the outer angle, forming an arch (arcus tarsus infer.) and anastomos- 
 ing with the lacrymalis and infraorbitalis, where a branch for the mucous 
 membrane of the nasal canal then passes off. The artery of the superior eye- 
 lid descends to the superior lacrymal punctum, then passes outwards, like 
 the inferior (arcus tarseus superior), and anastomoses with the lacrymal, fron- 
 talis, temporal, superfa. 
 
 h. Nasalis (s. dorsalis nasi), terminal branch of ophtkalmica, on the internal 
 superior angle of the orbita, passes out of these over lig. palpebr. intern into 
 the face, and divides after it has once given off: 
 
THE VESSELS. 309 
 
 1. Art. tacci lacrymalis to the mucous membrane of the lacrymal sac, into 
 
 2. Angularis, which passes between m. pyramidalis nasi and levat. labii 
 sup., and anastomoses with the maxillar. externa. (See that artery.) 
 
 3. Dorsalis nasi, passes upon the back of the nose under the skin trans- 
 versely below the forehead, extends downwards, often to the middle of 
 the nose, and anastomoses on the nasal pinna with Art. alaris nasi. 
 
 i. Frontalis, the terminal branch of ophthalmica, smaller than h, passes 
 parallel with A. supraorbitalis upwards to the forehead, where it divides into 
 branches for the skin, the muscles, and the periosteum, and anastomoses with 
 art. temporalis. 
 
 552. 2. Art. cerebri anterior B. corporis callosi, passes away above n. 
 opticus, behind the root of olfactorius, (forwards) and inwards towards the 
 middle line, and in the fissure between the two anterior cerebral lobes on the 
 inferior surface of the brain ; here, a stronger, short (two lines) transverse 
 branch unites the two anterior cerebral arteries, ram. communicans anterior. 
 Each artery then turns round the anterior border of corp. callosum, passes upon 
 its superior surface to the posterior border, and terminates with a small branch 
 curved upwards in the neighbouring convolutions. Branches : to nn. opticus, 
 olfactorius, to ventriculus tertius, to the inferior and internal surface of the an- 
 terior cerebral lobes, to corp. callosum. 
 
 3. Art. cerebri media s. fossa Sylvii passes externally and internally into 
 fossa Sylvii, divides into three branches for the anterior and middle cerebral 
 lobes, and anastomoses with Art. cerebri anterior and posterior. Small 
 branches pass directly from below upwards to the corp. striatum. Is larger 
 than 2. and 4. 
 
 4. Art. s. ramus communicans (posterior}, arises from the posterior part of 
 carotis intern. ; passes under tractus n. optic, backwards (one half to three 
 quarters of an inch long), and forms with art. cerebri posterior (s. Art. verte- 
 bralis) the circulus arteriosus Willisii. 
 
 5. Art. choroidea arises above the former, passes outwards and backwards 
 with the tractus n. opticor. below the crus cerebri, enters into the lateral ven- 
 tricle, on the cornu ammonis around the thalamus, and ramifies in the vascular 
 plexus, plexus choroideus of the third [lateral] ventricle. 
 
 All the arteries of the brain take a very tortuous course. 
 
 553. B. Subclavia, the subclavian artery. 
 
 Origin : the right from the truncus anonymus ; the left from 
 the arcus aortce. (The right frequently arises below the left, at 
 the posterior inferior part of the arcus aortce, and betakes itself to 
 the right behind trachea and oesophagus, sometimes between the 
 two). Course: ascends as high as the apex of the lungs, curves 
 over the first rib, and passes between scalenus anticus and medius, 
 outwards and downwards to the axillary cavity. The right i 
 shorter, thicker, and inclines less upwards than outwards. Situa 
 tion : first portion, from the origin to m. scalenus anticus. 
 
310 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 The right is covered before by m. sterno-thyreoid., ven. anonyma, 
 n. vagus and phrenicus, m. deido-mastoid, behind, separated by 
 n. recurrens from m. longus colli ; bounded internally, only a 
 little, by v. cephalica, covered externally by the pleura; sur- 
 rounded all round by lymphatic glands, loose uniting tissue, and 
 plexus of n. sympathicus. 
 
 The left passes parallel with v. cephalica, lies immediately upon 
 longus colli ; and is covered to a ^greater extent by the pleura ; 
 otherwise like the right. 
 
 The second portion lies close above the centre of the first rib in 
 the space between the mm. scaleni ; below the two scaleni ; before 
 the plexus brachialis ; behind scalen. anticus, before which v. 
 subclavia lies. 
 
 The third portion reaches from the outer border of the scalenus 
 antic, to the clavicle, lies in the triangular^ossa supraclavicularis ; 
 behind ven. subclavia^ m. subclavius and clavicula ; before plexzts 
 brachialis ; under m. platysmam., skin [supra-clavicular, nerves], 
 and the obliquely crossing art. et ven. suprascapularis ; over the 
 first rib. 
 
 554. Superior branches of Art. subclavia. 
 
 1. Art. vertebralis, the vertebral artery, the largest branch of the subclavia, 
 supplies the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, the small and the posterior parts 
 of the great brain. Or: at the superior, posterior wall of the subclavia, at 
 the commencement from the arch. Course : vertically upwards and rather 
 backwards, it enters between proc. transvers. of the sixth cervical vertebra 
 into the canalis vertebralis, and ascends, slightly curved, to the second, turns 
 backwards between this and the atlas, more still between atlas and foramen 
 magnum behind proc. condyloid. occipit., and enters the skull through lig. 
 obturatorium and dura mater, round to the front of medulla oblongata, ascends 
 upon pars basilaris, and unites with the art. basilaris of the other side. Po- 
 sition : at first very deep between m. longus colli and scalenus antic., behind 
 art. thyreoid. inferior, then in canal, vertebralis, in the interspaces covered by 
 mm. intertransversarii and before the nn. cervicales ; the first curvature be- 
 tween m. trachelomastoid. and obliq. infr. ; the second between obliq. sup. 
 rectus capit. minor and lig. obluratorium ; in the cranial cavity : at the sides 
 and before medulla oblongata. 
 
 Branches. In the neck : 
 
 a. Rami spinales pass through the foram. intervertebral. to the spinal cord. 
 Several come from art . cervicalis and pharyngea ascendentes. 
 
 b. Rami dorsales pass to the deep cervical muscles above the transverse pro- 
 
^ THE VESSELS. 311 
 
 cess : anastomosing with art. occipitalis and cervical, profunda ; a larger 
 branch. 
 
 Art. meningea posterior enters through foram. magnum to the falx cere- 
 belli. 
 
 In the cranial cavity : 
 
 c. Art. spinalis posterior, arises at the sides of medull. oblong, and divides 
 into an ascending branch for the walls of the fourth cerebral ventricle, 
 and a descending which passes down on the posterior surface of the spinal 
 marrow, becomes enlarged by the rami spinales passing into it, and is thus 
 continued as far as the inferior extremity of the vertebral column. It 
 gives an anterior and posterior branch for the posterior roots of the nn. 
 spinales. 
 
 d. Art. spinales anterior, larger than the former, arises close under the art. 
 basilaris, associates with that of the other side, passes in a groove on the 
 anterior surface of the spinal cord, as art. mediana, as far downwards as 
 the os coccyx, continued by branches of cervical, ascendens, vertebralis, in- 
 tercostales and lumbales. 
 
 e. Art. cerebelli inferior posterior, arises on the outer wall of vertebral., 
 curves round before the roots of the vagus and hypoglossus, backwards 
 round the medulla oblong., passes forwards between the central and lateral 
 lobes of the cerebellum, and divides into an internal and external branch, 
 the last of which ramifies on the inferior surface of the cerebellum, and 
 anastomoses with art. cerebelli. 
 
 555- Art. s. truncus basilaris, the continuation of the two Artt. 
 vertebrates, commences in the sulcus between medull. oblong, and 
 Pons Varolii, and terminates on the anterior border of the last. 
 Its inferior wall rests upon the clivus ; its superior wall gives nu- 
 merous branches to the Pons Varolii ; from the lateral walls 
 arise : 
 
 f. Art. cerebelli inferior anterior arises in the middle of art. basilar., passes 
 outwards under nerv.facialis and acusticus to lobul. anterior cerebelli. 
 
 1. Auditiva interna passes off from it, or the basilaris itself, and goes 
 with nerv. acusticus to the cochlea and vestibule. 
 
 g. Art. cerebelli superior arises close to the anterior extremity of art. basila- 
 rig, behind n. oculo-motorius, turns round pedunculus cerebri upon the 
 superior surface of Pons Varolii, and supplies, divided into an external 
 and an internal branch, the borders and superior surface of the cerebellum. 
 
 h. Artt. cerebri posterior es s. prof unties, the two terminal branches of basilaris, 
 pass forwards, diverging, bend backwards upon the superior [inferior] 
 surface of pedunculi cerebri to the inferior of the posterior lobes of the 
 brain ; give, quite at the commencement, numerous branches to the sub- 
 slant, perforata grisea between the crura of the brain ; receive ramus com- 
 municans, which passes off from Carotis interna, and thus completes 
 the 
 
. 
 
 312 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 heptangular circulus arteriosus Willisii, which lies over the sella tur- 
 cica, and surrounds the hypophysis cerebri. It is formed : the anterior 
 transverse wall by ramus communkans anter., the anterior, central, and 
 posterior lateral walls by Artt. cerebri anter., communicant, posterr., 
 cerebri profundae. 
 
 556. 2. Art. thyreoidece inferior, in the child larger, is sometimes want- 
 ing. Origin: close and next to art. vertebr., rather external (frequently in 
 common with supra- scapularis, as thy reo- cervicalis). Course : first upwards 
 to the lateral border of the thyroid cartilage. Position : before the first curve, 
 carotis communis, ven. jugular, intern., n. Vagus, and sympathicus (ganglion 
 cervicale med.) ; before the second curve, nerv. recurrens ; behind it, art. 
 vertebral, andlongus colli ; oesophagus (to the left). Branches : to esophagus, 
 trachea, m. scalenus antic., and longus colli. Farther : 
 
 a. Cervicalis ascendens : ascends before scalen. antic., then between it and 
 rectus capit. antic, directly upwards to the basis cranii, gives rami mus- 
 culares, and especially rr. spinales, which anastomose with the vertebralis. 
 With it is generally united : 
 
 art. cervicalis superjicialis (into a common trunk ; thyreo-cervicalis). 
 Course : transversely outwards through the fovea supraclavicul., to the 
 border of cucullar. Position: before scalen. antic. ,plex. brachial., levator 
 scapul., and omo-hyoideus , one inch above the clavicle, higher than the 
 suprascapularis ; supplies cucull. scap., splenii, levator, &c. 
 
 b. Laryngea inferior (s. thyreoidea superior, see before). 
 
 c. Terminal branches, three; 1, at the inferior border; 2, at the sides of 
 the posterior surface of the thyroid gland ; 3, at the inferior border of 
 cartil. cricoidea. 
 
 Art. thyreoidea infima (Neubauer) is not always present : arises from arcus 
 aortce, carotis communis, or thyreoid. inferior ; passes before the trachea to 
 the gland. 
 
 557. Superior external branches of the Subclavia. 
 
 3. Scapularis posterior (s. transversa cervicis). Origin : generally outside 
 Scaleni (or inside, in common with thyreoidea infer. ; or between them, in 
 common with the suprascapular.). Course : transversely outwards through 
 plexus brachialis, curving backwards towards the superior posterior angle of 
 the scapula ; divides into : 
 
 a. Cervicalis suprema ; ascends under the cucullar., ramifying in it, levator 
 scap., and splenius. 
 
 b. Dorsalis scapula winds under the levator and the angle of the scapula, 
 descends along the spinal border to the inferior angle between rhomboid. 
 and serratus post., and anastomoses with suprascap. and scapul. inferior. 
 
 Situation : at first horizontally in the fossa supraclavicular., covered by 
 platysmamyoid., omohyoid., later by cucullaris and levator scapulae. 
 
 4. Suprascapularis s. transversa scapulae. Or. : below art. thyreoid . inferior 
 
THE VESSELS. 313 
 
 (in common with it and cervical, superjlc., when the last arises internal to 
 mm. scaleni). Course : obliquely outwards and downwards under cervical. 
 superficial., behind the clavicle, above the superior border of the scapula 
 (over lig. incisurce semilunaris) to the fossa supra- and infra- spinata. Situa- 
 tion: at first covered by sterno-cleidom., then by subclavius, before scalen. 
 anticus, art. subclavia, and plex. brachialis, above vtn. subclavia, afterwards 
 under trapezius ; on the scapula between the bone and supraspinatus. 
 Branches to subclavius, trapezius, supra- and infra- spinatus, and periosteum 
 of acromion. 
 
 5. Cervicalis profunda. Or. : the furthest outwards, in common with art. 
 intercostal, prima. Course : upwards and backwards, then outwards between 
 proc. transvers. of the seventh vertebra and the first rib, upwards upon multi- 
 fidus and semispin. cervicis as far as the atlas ; a branch descends to the mid- 
 dle of the back between longissimi dorsi. Situation : behind scaleni, then 
 deeper. Branches : to the deep layers of cervical muscles. 
 
 558. Inferior branches of the Subclavia. 
 
 6. Intercostalis prima, supplies the first and second (and third) intercostal 
 space. Or. : behind, under A. cervical, profunda. Course : passes before the 
 neck of the first rib, curving backwards and downwards on the outside of 
 gangl. dorsale, to the inferior border of the first (and second) ribs. Branches : 
 
 a. Samus dorsalis ; passes backwards, sends a ramus spinal, through 
 foram. intervertebr. 
 
 b. Bam. intercostalis passes forwards between mm. intercostales. 
 
 7. Mammaria (s. thoracica) interna, the internal mammary artery. Or. : in 
 front under Art. thyreoid. inferior. Course : vertically downwards behind the 
 sternal extremity of the clavicula and the cartilages of the first to the sixth 
 ribs, where it divides into an external and an internal branch. Situation : at 
 first behind m. scalenus antic, and n.phrenicus, then upon the inner side of the 
 last, a line and a half to two lines from the border of the sternum, before m. 
 triangular, sterni and pleura. 
 
 Branches. 1 . Posterior, in the chest. 
 
 a. Artt. thymicce, in children very large, to the Thymus. 
 
 b. Art. pkrenica superior, with N. phrenicus, passes between pericardium 
 and anterior mediastinum to the diaphragm. Branches to the pericardium, 
 Thymus. 
 
 2. External branches of the mammaria interna. 
 
 c. Artt. intercostales anteriores ; the two pass to the superior and inferior 
 borders of the first and second intercostal spaces ; supply mm. Intercast, 
 and pleura, anastomosing with artt. intercostales posterr. (see Aorta). 
 
 3. Anterior branches of mammaria interna. 
 
 d. Artt. mammarice externce (six to seven) pass directly from behind for- 
 
314 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 wards, perforate the mm. intercostales, and divide into muscular and cuta- 
 neous branches (for mm. pectoralis and intercostales) ; the superior pass to 
 the thoracic glands, and are very greatly developed in mammalia. Some 
 branches (r. sternales) go into the periosteum of the sternum ; others per- 
 forate the last. 
 
 559. The terminal branches of the mammaria internet,. 
 
 e. Musculo-phrenica passes obliquely outwards and downwards, behind the 
 seventh to the eleventh rib cartilage, before the diaphragm ; terminates in the 
 twelfth intercostal space, and gives besides, for the seventh to tenth, the artt- 
 intercostales anterr. Anteriorly : branches for the diaphragm and mm. obliqui 
 abdominis. 
 
 f. Epigastrica superior, smaller, passes out behind the seventh rib cartilage 
 from the chest ; passes behind and in the sheath of m. rectus as low as the 
 umbilicus, there ramifies, and anastomoses with the capillary rete of art. 
 epigastrica (inferior) ; a branch passes in the form of an arch upon the ante- 
 rior surface of process, xiphoideus. 
 
 560. Axillaris, the Axillary artery, 
 
 a continuation of the a. subclavia, reaches from the clavicle as far 
 as the inferior border of the m. pectoralis major, passing in the 
 oblique diameter of the axillary cavity. 
 
 Situation : surrounded by lymphatic glands and loose uniting 
 tissue behind : m. subclavius, pectoralis major and minor, lastly, 
 m. coracO'brachialis ; before : the uniting tissue between m. sub- 
 scapular, and serratus posticus major ; farther down before m. 
 tcres major and latissimiis dorsi. Internally, it rests, at first, upon 
 the first rib and first intercostal space, then at a distance from the 
 thorax, and is only covered by fascia and skin ; on the outer side 
 is situated : caput humeri (m. subscapular.). 
 
 Close under the clavicle we find ven. axillaris ; internally, vv. 
 cephalica and acromialis before art. axillaris ; plexus brachialis 
 externally, one n. thoracicus before it, farther down n. medianus 
 and cubitalis before, n. radialis behind it. We find the axillaris 
 at the superior external border of the growth of hair in the axillary 
 cavity. Branches : three thoracici, one subscapular, two circum- 
 flexa. 
 
 561. Above the pectoralis minor : 
 
 a. Thoracica 1. s. suprema arises from the inner side of a. axillaris; passes 
 over the superior border of m. pectoral minor downwards and inwards 
 between mm. pectoral, major and minor, and ramifies in them. Anasto- 
 moses with the sup. intercost. 
 
THE VESSELS. 315 
 
 b. Thoracica 11. 8. acromialis arises generally in common with a and divides 
 into : 
 
 1. Ram. deltoideus, which passes close to Ven. cephalica downwards in 
 a groove of uniting tissue between m. pectoralis and deltoid, and ter- 
 minates in the last. 
 
 2. Ram. acromialis passes away, covered by m. deltoideus, transversely 
 outwards, above proc. coracoid., lig. coraco-acromiale, and the exter- 
 nal extremity of the anterior border of the clavicula to the shoulder- 
 joint ; anastomoses with transfers, scapulae. 
 
 t 
 
 562. Below the pectoralis minor : 
 
 c. Thoracica 111., B. longa, s. inferior, s. mammaria externa, passes down- 
 wards and forwards on the side of the thorax between m. pectoral, major 
 and serratus magnus, then between this and the skin, terminating on 
 the sixth intercostal space ; it gives branches to the axillary and mam- 
 mary glands, the muscles of the second to the sixth intercostal spaces. 
 
 563. Branches of the axittaris at the coUum humeri. 
 
 d. Subscapularis. The largest branch of axillaris arises from the outer 
 side of it between N. radialis (within) and IV. medianus (without). 
 Course : curved outwards and downwards, parallel with m. teres major, 
 on the anterior (external) border of the scapula. Position : before m. 
 fcapularis. Branches : to m. scapularis, teres major, and two terminal 
 branches. 
 
 1. Art. tkoracico-dorsalis passes downwards along the anterior border 
 of the Scapula, behind Art. thoracica longa, between latissim. dorsi 
 and serratus anticus, and ramifies in them. 
 
 2. Art. circumflexa scapulce, before the long head of m. triceps, turns 
 round the attachment of this to the anterior border of the Scapula 
 backwards to the fossa infraspinata, covered by m. infraspin., sends 
 an anterior branch between fossa and m. sub scapular is, and anasto- 
 moses with art. transversa scapul. (above) and thoracico-dorsalis 
 (below). 
 
 e. Circumflexa humeri anterior, small, arises on the anterior outer side of 
 axillaris, often in common with the following. Course : transversely 
 outwards above the tendons of latissim. dorsi and teres major, around the 
 anterior surface of collum humeri backwards. Situation : behind coraco- 
 brachial. and biceps. Branches to collum humeri [and head, gives off the 
 epiphysial artery.] 
 
 f. Circumflexa humeri posterior; larger. Origin : at the posterior outer side 
 of axillaris, opposite to sub scapularis. Course : transversely backwards 
 and outwards round the posterior surface of collum humeri to the outside 
 of it ; terminates in m. deltoideus. Situation : close to Ven. circumfl. and 
 Art. axillaris, before cap. long. m. tricipitis, latissim. dorsi, above teres 
 
316 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 major, below teres minor, behind os humeri. Branches to the articular 
 capsule, periosteum, and m. deltoideus. 
 
 564. Brachialis, the Brachial artery. 
 Continuation of axittaris, reaches as far as the fore-arm, where 
 
 it bifurcates. Course: extends downwards first on the internal, 
 then on the anterior surface of the upper arm, so that it is situated 
 in front of the elbow-joint in the centre of the flexure. Situation : 
 
 565. 1. In the upper arm : * 
 
 covered in front and above by m. coraco-brachialis, then by the 
 internal border of m. biceps; behind and above by m. triceps, then 
 by brachialis internm ; internally by fascia brachialis and skin ; 
 externally accompanied by m. coraco-brachialis and the internal 
 surface of the Humerus ; in a common sheath with n. medianus. 
 Vv. brachiales lie on both sides; N. medianus above on the out- 
 side, in the middle in front, below on the inner side ; N. cubitalis 
 above on the inner side ; N. radialis behind the brachial artery. 
 
 566. 2. In the flexure of the arm : 
 
 separated before byv.mediana, aponeurosis bicipitis from the skin ; 
 behind by m. brachialis internus from the joint ; on the inside of 
 the tendon of m. biceps ; on the outside of the n. medianus and 
 in. pronator teres. 
 
 Branches sixteen to twenty ; external anterior for mm. coraco- 
 brachial., biceps, brachial. intern.^ and deltoid ; internal posterior 
 for m. brachial. internus. 
 
 Nutritia humeri arises from a muscular branch, or from profunda brachii, 
 enters into the foramen above the centre on the inner side of the humerus. 
 Also the following: 
 
 1. Profunda brachii. Or.: often in common with circumfl. poster., on the 
 inferior border of teres major. Course : downwards and backwards, close to 
 N. radial., round the posterior circumference of os humeri, in a groove which 
 it abandons under the attachment of m. deltoid., and divides into a deep and 
 superficial branch. Situation : between os humeri and m. triceps, then between 
 triceps and brachial intern. Branches : 
 
 a. Collateralis radialis profunda, accompanying the n. radialis, between 
 cap. intern, and extern, tricipitis ; supplies these ; anastomoses with 2. 
 
 b. Collateralis radialis superficialis passes directly downwards along the lig. 
 intermuscl. extern, behind the condyl. extern, and anastomoses with a. re- 
 currens radialis. 
 
 2. Collateralis ulnaris superior (prima), [s. profunda inferior] arises close 
 next to or from the profunda brachii, passes downwards on the inner side of 
 
THE VESSELS. 317 
 
 triceps, perforates the lig. intermusc. intern, (with n. cubital.), and reaches as 
 tar as the articulation, where it supplies the triceps and brachial. intern. 
 
 3. Collateralis ulnaris inferior [a. anastomodicd] , arises above the elbow, 
 passes obliquely downwards and inwards, towards condyl. hum. intern., and is 
 lost in rete articulare cubiti, m. brachialis and pronator teres. 
 
 The brachial artery bifurcates commonly (half an inch) below, 
 sometimes in, frequently also above the flexure of the arm into art. 
 radialis and ulnaris (at the inferior or superior third of the upper 
 arm, indeed, even in the axillary cavity. Cruveilhier.) 
 
 567. I. Radialis, the radial artery, 
 
 the external, smaller, and more superficial branch of art. brachialis, 
 passes directly downwards, and rather obliquely outwards, along 
 the internal border of the radius, as far as the articulation of the 
 hand, turns round the proc. stijloid radii and os naviculare upon 
 the dorsal surface of the carpus, and immediately again between 
 the first and second metacarpal bones forwards into the hollow of 
 the hand, and forms the arcus volaris profundus. Situation : 
 
 a. From the commencement to the carpus : behind the internal 
 border of m. supinator longus, below covered only by the fascia 
 and skin ; upon m. supinator brevis, pronator teres, flex, digit, 
 sublim., long, pollic., pronat. quadrat., then close upon the bone 
 on the inner side of the tendon of m. supinator longus and the n. 
 radialis. 
 
 b. On the carpus: covered obliquely by the tendons of abductor 
 pollic. long., flex, long., and brevis, close upon the bones. 
 
 c. In the hollow of the hand (see arcus volaris profundus.) 
 Variety. It frequently inclines to the back of the fore-arm at a 
 
 point higher up (two or three inches above the carpus.) 
 
 Besides many (forty) muscular branches and a transversa carpi 
 volaris to the rete carpeum volare, the radial artery yet gives off the 
 following branches : 
 
 1. Recurrens radialis. Origin: behind, close to the commencement of 
 art. radialis (also from the brachialis). Course : runs outwards and up- 
 wards to condylus externus. Situation : between supinat. long, and brevis 
 (above brachialis intern.). Anastomoses with profunda humeri. Branches: 
 from the convexity downwards and outwards to mm. supinatores and ra- 
 diales extern.; to the rete articulare cubiti. 
 
 2. Eamus volaris superficial^, s. radio-palmaris. Or. : above os naviculare 
 from the inner side of art. radialis. Course : passes over the origin of oi- 
 ductor pollic. brevis, on the external border under aponeurosis palmaris to 
 the arcus volar. sublimis. Branches to the muscles of the thumb, or even 
 to the outer side of the middle and the two sides of the index fingers. 
 
318 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 3. JRamus dorsalis, the termination of art. radialis upon the back of the 
 carpus (see above), gives off: 
 
 a. Transversa carpi dorsalis, passes transversely over the middle of 
 the back of the carpus, inwards, to the rete carpeum dorsale; anas- 
 tomoses with a. ulnaris, and gives off ascending and descending 
 branches. 
 
 b. Interossea IL s. metacarpi dorsalis, passes between the second and 
 third metacarpal bones, passes at the inferior extremity forwards to 
 the arc. volaris sublimis, where two branches are then given off: 
 
 1. Art. dorsalis radialis digiti medii, for the external border of the 
 middle finger. 
 
 2. Art. dors, ulnaris indicis, for the internal border of the thunr b. 
 
 c. Interossea 1., passes between the first and second metacarpal bone, 
 and gives off: 
 
 1. Art. dors. rad. indicis for the radial border of index finger. 
 
 2. Art. dors, ulnaris pollicis, for the ulnar border of thumb. 
 
 d. Princeps s. magna pollicis , passes between the muscles of the ball of 
 the thumb and the volar side of the first metacarpal bone to the first 
 phalanx on the radial side. 
 
 Rete articulare cubiti, the anastomosis about the elbow-joint, is 
 formed : 
 
 1. Above by collateralis radialis, ulnaris superior and inferior. 
 
 2. Below by recurrens radialis, ulnaris, and interossea (which 
 see.) 
 
 568. II. Ulnaris s. cubitalis, the ulnar artery, 
 
 the internal, larger branch of brachialis, at first slightly curved 
 upwards and backwards, it passes backwards and inwards, then 
 (three lines from the origin) extends downwards on the anterior 
 surface of the Ulna as far as the carpal articulation ; hence, on 
 the outer (radial) side of os pisiforme, above the lig. carpi volare 
 propr. to the hollow of the hand in the arcus volaris sublimis. 
 Position : at first deep behind mm. pronat. teres,flex. carp, radial, 
 palmar,, flex. dig. sublimis, and N. medianus, then superficially, 
 between the tendons of flex, sublim. (outside) and carpi ulnaris 
 (inside) ; upon m. brachial. intern., flex, profund., and pronator 
 quod., the ulna ; on the outer side of Nerv. ulnaris ; at first out- 
 side, then behind, at last inside JV. medianus. Branches to the 
 muscles ; also : 
 
 1. Recurrens ulnaris. -Origin : from the posterior wall, one inch from the 
 origin of the ulnaris. Course : deeply under the muscles towards the inside, 
 between condyl. internus and olecranon, upwards to the rete articulare cubiti. 
 
THE VESSELS. 319 
 
 Position : covered by pronator teres, flex, sublim., palmar long., flex. carp, 
 ulnar., passing before N. ulnaris. Branches : a. an anterior between pronator 
 teres and brachialis interims ; b. to N. ulnaris above. 
 
 2. Interossea. Origin : from the ulnaris behind, close under the last. 
 Course : directly backwards and downwards, to the centre of the fore-arm ; 
 it bifurcates into : 
 
 a. Interossea anterior (s. interna). Origin : above lig. interosseum. Course : 
 on the anterior surface of lig. interosseum, between flex, digit, profund. (in- 
 side), pollic. Z<mgtts"(outside), perforates under pron. quadrat, the lig. in- 
 teross., and passes upon the dorsal surface of the carpus into the rete dor- 
 sale. Branches : several artt. perforantes pass through lig. inteross. back- 
 wards to the deep muscles ; an anterior superior branch accompanies the 
 nerv. medianus as far as the hand ; an inferior passes behind pronat qua- 
 dratus downwards to the rete carpi volare. 
 
 b. Interossea posterior (s. externd) ; smaller than the last ; passes through 
 two inches below the articulation between ulna and radius upon the 
 dorsal region of the fore-arm, and divides immediately into: 
 
 1. Interossea recurrens (s. radial, poster.) ; ascends on the radial side 
 of the ulna, covered by anconeus parvus, to the rete cubitale. 
 
 2. Interossea descendens, descends, nearer to the ulna, upon the dorsal 
 side of lig. inteross. as far as the carpus. Branches to extens. com- 
 mun. digit. 5, carp, ulnaris and skin. 
 
 3. Art. nutritia ulnaris, a small branch, about the middle of the art. ulnaris, 
 passes through a/oram. nutritium in the ulna [from below upwards] ; some- 
 times also a branch to the radius (or even from the anterior circumference of 
 interossea anterior). 
 
 4. Eamus dorsalis, terminal branch of ulnaris, passes under the tendon of 
 m. flex . carpi ulnaris to the back of the carpus into the rete carpi dor sale ; 
 giving off in its passage the dorsal, ulnar. to the little finger. 
 
 5. Ramus volaris, terminal branch of the ulnaris, passes close to os pisi- 
 forme, and above os hamatum (hamulus) and lig. carp, propr., covered by 
 aponeurosis palmar, and m. palmar, brevis, into the hollow of the hand, gives 
 branches to the muscles of the ball of the little finger, and 
 
 a. Sam. subtimis, which externally passes into arc. volaris sublimis ; and, 
 
 b. Earn, profundus, which gives off an internal branch for the volar surface 
 of the little finger, and under the tendons of mm. flexor, digit, goes to form 
 arc. volar. profund. 
 
 569. The vascular arches of the hand. 
 
 1. Arcus (s. rete) carpi dorsalis, is situated upon the dorsal surface of the 
 metatarsus, covered by lig. carpi dorsale, and the tendons of the extensor 
 muscles ; is formed by ram. transvers. of art. radialis and ulnaris ; gives off: 
 
 a, Eamiascendentes, which pass opposite to branches of art. inteross. anter. 
 
 b. Eami descendentes, the short roots, anastomosing with artt. perforantt. 
 arcus volaris profundi of 
 
320 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Artt. interossece metacarpi dorsales. These are larger or smaller, going 
 along to the inferior extremity of spaces between the metacarp. 
 bones, or to the articulations of the first and second phalanx, pass 
 with branches of arcus volar. sublimis, and assist in forming art. digi- 
 tales. 
 
 2. Arcus volaris prof undus, lies close upon the palmar surface of the basis 
 ossium metacarpi, covered by the nerves, tendons, and muscles of the palm of 
 the hand, below slightly convex; principally formed of the transversely pass- 
 ing terminations of art. radialis ; gives off: 
 
 a. Kami ascendentes, very short branches for the carpus, which anastomos- 
 ing with branches of radialis and ulnaris (and interossea} form the rete 
 carpeum volar e. 
 
 b. Eami descendentes s. interossece volares, three to four; they pass in the 
 second to the fourth spatium inteross. metacarpi, at the inferior extremi- 
 ties of which they anastomose with the branches of arcus volare sublimis. 
 The first and largest at the radial border of the index finger is often 
 wanting. 
 
 c. Kami perforantes, three, pass at the superior extremities of the second to 
 the fourth spat, inteross. metacarpi, from before backwards to the rr. de- 
 scendent. art. radialis, and form with these the small interossece dorsales. 
 (See arcus dorsalis.) 
 
 3. Arcus volaris sublimis, lies in the palm of the hand, covered by aponeu- 
 rosis palmaris, upon the tendons oi flexor r. digitor., below convex; rather 
 nearer to the carpal articulation than the deep arch ; chiefly formed of ram. 
 sublimis art. ulnaris. From the convexity arise : 
 
 Art. digitales, three, which pass between the tendons of the flexors of 
 the fingers to the heads of the ossa metacarpi, in the second to the fourth 
 interspaces, there anastomosing with the interossece dorsales ; they bifur- 
 cate, and thus supply the radial border of the five fingers, and the ulnar 
 border as far as the second finger. On the anterior surface of the pha- 
 langes, lying close to the flexor tendons, they send branches to the dorsal 
 surface, which, like these, but smaller, pass to anastomose with each 
 other by means of transverse branches, and give branches to the skin. 
 The radial border of the index finger and thumb is supplied by ram. volaris 
 art. radialis, which anastomoses with the arcus volaris sublimis. 
 
 Aorta descendens t the descending aorta. 
 
 570. A. Aorta descendens thoracica, the thoracic aorta. 
 
 Position : on the left side of the twelfth [eighth inferior] dorsal 
 vertebra, seven to eight inches long, before the vertebral column 
 (above separated by duct, thoracic.) ; behind the left pulmonary 
 vessels (above), the oesophagus (below), and the pericardium (in 
 the centre) ; has to the left the mediastinum, to the right the oeso- 
 
THE VESSELS. 321 
 
 phagus (above), Ven. azygos and duct, thoracicus close to it (above, 
 where it winds to the left, behind it) ; is surrounded by much adi- 
 pose tissue, and many lymphatic glands. Branches : 
 
 1. Artt. bronchioles, two to the left, one to the right ; they arise sometimes 
 from a common trunk, from the anterior wall of the aorta (also from mam- 
 mar, interna or subdavia), and pass forwards to the posterior wall of the 
 bronchus, ramifying on the bronchia and pulmonary vesicles; they give 
 branches to the oesophagus; bronchial glands, and anastomose with the coro- 
 nary arteries of the heart and thyreoidea inferior. 
 
 2. (Esophagea, five to seven, thin and long, arising in front from the aorta; 
 they pass to the anterior surface of the oesophagus, in the mucous membrane 
 of which they terminate, and send long branches upwards and downwards. 
 
 3. Mediastinaposticce, small branches for the posterior wall of the pericar- 
 dium and the mediastina. Two phrenicce superiores arise deeply, pass to the 
 internal crura of the diaphragm, and anastomose with the cesophageee. 
 
 4. Jntercostales posteriores, eight to nine for the second, or third to eleventh 
 intercostal space (the first and second are supplied by intercostal, prima. See 
 subdavia). Origin : from the lateral walls of the aorta ; the superior at an 
 acute, the inferior at a right angle. Course : the superior upwards, the infe- 
 rior more horizontally outwards, over the heads of the ribs into the intercostal 
 space next above, and divided between the heads of the two ribs into ram. an- 
 terior and posterior. Situation : behind the pleura and the trunk of sympathi- 
 cus; the right behind the oesophagus, ductus thoracicus; and Ven. azygos also ; 
 the left behind v. hemiazygos and sympathicus; the two last (right and left) co- 
 vered by the crura of the diaphragm. 
 
 Branches : besides many small osseous branches for the bodies of the ver- 
 tebrae, the following: 
 
 a. Ramus anterior s. intercostal is, passes in the direction of the trunk, in the 
 centre of the intercostal spaces, at first between pleura and m. intercost. 
 intern., then between intern, and extern., and there divides into : 
 
 1. Ram. sup. 8. infracostalis, the continuation of the trunk which passes 
 on the inferior border of the rib situated above, in a proper groove, 
 as far as the anterior third, then in the middle of the intercostal space, 
 descending and anastomosing with a. mammar. intern., epigastrica, 
 phrenica, circumfiexa tiei. 
 
 2. Ram. inferior, supracostalis, which passes to the superior border of 
 the rib lying below, and is lost in the periosteum and the muscles. 
 
 b. Ramus posterior s. dorsalis; passes between process, transversi, on the 
 external border of lig. colli costa intern, backwards, and divides into : 
 
 1. Ram. spinalis, which passes through foram. intervertebrale, with a 
 branch for the body of the vertebra, with another for the medulla spin. 
 
 2. Ram. muscularis, a larger branch, which ramifies between longissim. 
 dorsi and ileocostalis, and is lost in the skin. 
 
 21 
 
322 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 571. B. Aorta descendens abdominalis, the abdominal aorta. 
 
 Situation : almost in the middle, yet rather to the left, before the 
 first to the fourth abdominal [lumbar] vertebra ; surrounded in the 
 hiatus aorticus, close to ductus thoracicus and Ven. azygos by the 
 crura of the diaphragm; in the cavity of the abdomen on the left 
 side of Ven. cava inferior', covered by gangl. ccdiacum, the corpus 
 pancreatis, and pars horizontal, infer, duodeni, the left em ul gent 
 vein, root of mesenterium, and lumbar portion of peritoneum (to 
 the left below). 
 
 572. Anterior azygos branches (these are the arteries for the 
 organs of digestion). 
 
 1. Coeliaca, the cceliac axis, half to one inch long, four lines diam. Origin : 
 at. a right angle from the anterior wall of the Aorta, while still in hiatus aorti- 
 cus, close under artt. phrenicce inferr. Position : behind the curvatura minor 
 of the stomach, on the right side, of the Cardia, between the layers of the 
 small omentum, upon the superior border of the Pancreas, under the left 
 lateral part of the lobul. Spigelii, closely surrounded with plexus cceliactis. 
 Branches pass off from a single point (tripus Halleri),\o Stomach, Liver, and 
 Spleen (all lying above mesocolon transvers.) 
 
 1. Coronaria ventriculi sinistra, the smallest of the branches of the cceliaca. 
 Course : to the left and above to the right side of the cardia, then again 
 curves to the right, passes in the semicircle on the small curvature (be- 
 tween the layers of the small omentum), and anastomoses with art. cor. 
 vent, dextr. hepaticce. Branches : artt. cesophagea inferr. to the inferior 
 portion of the oesophagus; artt. cardiacce surround the cardia, and supply 
 the fundus ventric. ; artt. gastricce arise along the small curvature, and 
 supply the anterior and posterior walls of the stomach ; very frequently 
 a ram. hepaticus (to the left lobe of the liver). 
 
 2. Hepatica. Course: transversely to the right, above the pancreas, to the 
 right before the trunk of the ven. portce, gives off art. pancreaticcs mediae, 
 and divides (one to two lines from origin) into a superior and inferior 
 branch. 
 
 a. Ram. hepaticus, the superior branch, passes obliquely forwards to 
 the Porta, where it divides into art. hepat. dext. and sinistra. Posi- 
 tion : before foram. Winslowi in the lig. hepatico-duoden., below 
 the ven. portce, to the left side of duct, choledochus. 
 
 1. Pylorica s. coronaria dextra, a small branch passes along the 
 small curvature to the left, supplies the anterior and posterior 
 surfaces of the stomach, and unites with coron. ventric. sinistra. 
 
 2. Hepatica sinistra passes through the left portion of the Porta to 
 the left lobe of the liver, lobul. quad, and Spigelii. Branches 
 pass transversely. 
 
 3. Hepatica dextra, thicker, passes, divided into several branches, 
 
THE VESSELS. 323 
 
 between the rami of the ven. porta to the right lobe of the liver, 
 gives off art . cystica, which, with a branch above and below the 
 gall bladder, passes from neck to fundus. 
 
 b. Ram, gastro-duodenalis, passes downwards between the commence- 
 ment of Duodenum and the head of the Pancreas, and from pylorus 
 along the great curvature between the layers of the great omentum. 
 Branches : 
 
 1. Pancreatico-duodenalis, passes downwards on the pars descend, 
 duodeni, between it and Pancreas, gives off aftt. pancreatic, dex- 
 trce and duodenales, which anastomose with jejunales ofmesenter. 
 superior. 
 
 2. Gastro-epiploica dextra, is that portion of ram. gastro-duodenal. 
 which passes along the great curvature, gives branches to the 
 anterior and posterior surface of the Stomach, and six to eight rr. 
 epiploici, which descend between the laminae of the great omen- 
 tum. Anastomoses at the fundus ventriculi with coron. ventric. 
 sinistra. 
 
 3. Lienalis, the splenic artery the largest branch of the caeliac passes 
 very tortuously along the superior border of the Pancreas (in a sulcus) to 
 the left, and enters the spleen at the hilus divided into (four to ten small, . 
 or two principal) branches. Situation : behind the stomach. 
 Lateral branches : 
 
 a. Artt. pancreatica (four to six), tolerably large, to the left portion of 
 the Pancreas. 
 
 b. Art. gastro-epiploica sinistra descends before the cauda pancreat., 
 behind the fundus of the stomach, passes to the left part of the great 
 curvature, and gives ascending branches into the left part of the great 
 omentum. 
 
 c. Art. breves (two to six), arise from one or several terminal branches 
 close to the Spleen, and pass backwards to the fundus, as high up- 
 wards as the cardia of the Stomach. 
 
 2. Mesenterica 8. mesaraica superior (seven to eight inches long) supplies the 
 small intestines and the right half of the large. Or. : close (one inch) below 
 cceliaca. Course : between the laminae of the mesentery in the root, ap far 
 downwards as the right iliac fossa, a little to the left and below curved ; it is 
 lost, becoming very small in the ccecal region. 
 
 Situation : at first behind Pancreas, between it and Aorta, then separated 
 from this by the boundary bet ween duodenum and jejunum, as it enters below 
 the Pancreas into the root of the mesentery. Branches for Pancreas; for the 
 small intestines from the left convex, for colon and coicum from the right con- 
 cave side. 
 
 1. Artt. intestinales (s. jejunales et t'Zete), ten to fifteen larger (eight to 
 twelve smaller) branches, which pass downwards and forwards for two 
 to three inches in length, then divide and unite in loops or arches with 
 one another. After a threefold division and junction, branches pass off 
 
324 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 from the convexity of the last loops, which form a superficial vascular rete 
 (under the peritoneal investment) and a deep upon the mucous membrane 
 of (fifteen to twenty feet long) the small intestines. From one artery 
 arises in the embryo (two to three months) the 
 
 Art. omphalo-mesaraica, which passes from the abdomen through the 
 umbilical cord into the umbilical vesicle, and afterwards becomes imper- 
 vious. 
 
 2. Artt. coliccB pass from the mesenterium into the mesocolon, divide in the 
 neighbourhood of the large intestines, and unite in larger arches, from 
 which anterior and posterior branches immediately come off; the superfi- 
 cial and deep ramusculi of which supply the parietes of the large intes- 
 tine. There are : 
 
 a. Art. colica dextra superior, passes downwards to colon ascendens, 
 and anastomoses by means of an ascending branch with a. colica me- 
 dia, by a descending branch with a. colica dext. inferior. 
 
 b. Art. colica dextra inferior, s. ileo-colica, arises deeper, about the 
 centre of mesenterica superior; passes downwards, and gives an as- 
 cending branch to colon ascendens (which anastomoses with a.) ; a 
 descending to caecum (art. ccecalis) and ileum (which anastomoses with 
 the termination ofmesentef sup. itself); and art. appendicalis for the 
 vermiform process of the caecum. 
 
 c. Art. colica media, arises above from mesent. super, passes forwards 
 to the colon transversnm, and anastomoses, with art. colica dextra, and 
 to the left with art. colica sinistra. 
 
 3. Mesenterica inferior, smaller than art. mesent. super., supplies the left 
 half of the large intestines. Or. : about two inches above the place of bifurca- 
 tion of the Aorta. Course : at first downwards upon the Aorta; then before 
 the A. Uiaca com. sinistra downwards, and to the left in the mesocolon de- 
 scendens; it divides two inches from the origin, into : 
 
 1. Colica sinistra superior, passes transversely outwards before the left 
 art . spermat. and ureter, then behind the colon sinistrum and peritoneum 
 upwards, divides into a superior and inferior arched branch, and supplies 
 colon sinistr. as far asflexura sigmoidea. 
 
 2. Colica sinistra inferior, supplies thefiexur. sigmoidea. 
 
 3. Hamorrhoidalis superior s. interna, descends in the meso-rectum to the 
 rectum and on its posterior wall to the sphincter ani, where it anasto- 
 moses with hcemorrhoidahs media (from A. hypogastr.) and the vesical ar- 
 tery. 
 
 573. The lateral branches of the Abdominal Aorta, 
 given off in pairs. 
 
 4. Phrenica inferior, one on either side, arise close under hiatus aorticus 
 (frequently from a. cceliaca, or from a common trunk), pass upwards and out- 
 wards, spread about the hiatus aortic., foram. quadrilat., and reaches with an 
 external branch to the attachments of the diaphragm, where it anastomoses 
 with artt. intercostal, and mammariaint.; it gives off 
 
THE VESSELS. 325 
 
 Artt. suprarenales superiores for the caps, suprarenales. 
 
 5. Suprarenales medics pass before the crura of the diaphragm transversely 
 outwards (the right behind ven. card), and spread out upon both surfaces of 
 the suprarenal capsules. 
 
 6. Eenales, short and thick, sometimes two to four (emulgentes). Or. : at 
 a right angle close under mesenterica super., frequently deeper. Course : 
 transversely outwards and backwards to the hilus of the kidney. Position : 
 surrounded by fat, behind the peritoneum and the F. renalis, before the body 
 of the second lumbar vertebra, before the crura of the diaphragm and Psoas 
 major. The right passes behind F. cava. infer., and is also longer than the 
 left, which arises higher. Branches : 
 
 a. Artt. suprarenales infer, for the suprarenal capsules and adipose tissue 
 (artt. adiposce). 
 
 b. Three to six terminal branches pass through the hilus, before the renal 
 pelvis and behind the veins, and form, between the cortical and tubular 
 substance, a rete which especially supplies the cortical substance. 
 
 7. Spermatica interna. Or. : at an acute angle from the anterior wall of the 
 aorta, under art. renalis (rarely above, rarely from this). Course: descends 
 on the inner side of F. spermat. backwards as far as the pelvis, behind the pe- 
 ritoneum, before psoas and ureter; the right obliquely before F. cava, the left 
 before the sigmoid flexure of colon. Within the pelvis, internal to psoas, be- 
 fore A. iliac, externa. 
 
 In the male : it extends through the inguinal canal (together with Vat de- 
 ferens; and Vv. spermaticce) to the testicle and epididymis. 
 
 In the female : very tortuous, between the layers of the lig. uteri latum 
 below the ovaria, it anastomoses with art. uterina, gives small branches to 
 lig. uteri latum and the ovary. 
 
 8. Lumbales (three), five on either side. Origin : at a right angle from the 
 posterior circumference of aorta before the lumbar vertebras. Course: (like 
 artt. intercostales) transversely outwards, behind the crura of the diaphragm 
 (the superior), behind m. psoas (the inferior); on the basis proc. transvers., 
 dividing into : 
 
 a. Earn, posterior, passes with a ram. spinalis through foram. intervertebrale, 
 partly to the bodies of the vertebrae, partly to the spinal marrow; with a 
 ram. dorsalis to the muscles and skin of the lumbar region. 
 
 b. Earn, anterior. 8. abdominalis, smaller, passes between quadrat, lumbar. 
 and transvers. abdom. to the abdominal muscles ; the branch of the first art. 
 lumbalis along the lower border of the twelfth rib obliquely forwards ; the 
 branches of the fifth art. lumbalis along the crista oss. ilei, supplies the abdo- 
 minal muscles, iliacus and glutcei. 
 
 574. At the inferior extremity of the Abdominal Aorta, 
 the single. 
 
 9. Sacra media, small. Or. : close above or at the point of bifurcation from 
 the posterior wall of the aorta. Course : vertically downwards, before the 
 
32d SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 fifth lumbar vertebra, the sacrum coccyx, behind the rectum. Branches : pass off 
 laterally over the separate vertebras to the bones and periosteum, and anas- 
 tomose with artt. sacrce laterales ; on the basis of coccyx arched. 
 
 575. C. Iliaca communes, the common Iliac arteries. 
 
 Origin : before the fourth lumbar vertebra these two principal 
 trunks pass off from the anterior wall of aorta abdominalis, at an 
 acute angle (in the male=65, in the female=75). Course : 
 extending, downwards and outwards and rather backwards, about 
 two inches long ; between them a triangular space, the base of 
 which is situated at the inferior border of the fifth lumbar vertebra. 
 Position: behind the peritoneum and ureter (crossing with the 
 last), on the inner side of m. psoas, on the left side of Vv. iliacce 
 communes ; surrounded by lymphatic glands. The right passes 
 over V. iliac, commun. sinistra to the inner side of V. iliac, 
 commun. dextra. The left passes from the commencement on the 
 left (external) side of the vein, and is in front covered by Art. 
 hcemorrhoidalis interna. Branches : ' small to the Vv. iliacce, 
 communes and .lymphatic glands, otherwise none. Each Art. 
 iliac, commun. divides rather above Symphysis sacro-iliaca 
 into two terminal branches : Art. hypogastrica and cruralis. 
 
 576. I. Hypogastrica s. Iliaca interna, the internal Iliac artery, 
 
 the internal branch of iliaca com mun., passes at first rather down- 
 wards and forwards, then slightly curved, before symphysis sacro- 
 iliaca into the small pelvis, and divides, after a course of an inch 
 to an inch and a half, either into two (an anterior arid a posterior) 
 or into eight (in the female ten) branches. Position : behind the 
 peritoneum, on the left side the Vv. hypogastr., A. hypog. sinistra 
 passes over V. iliaca com. sinistra, inwards. 
 
 577. Anterior branches : 
 
 1. Umbilicalis, the umbilical artery of the embryo. Vesicalis, the vesical 
 artery of adults. 
 
 The umbilical arteries, very large in the embryo, the blood of which they 
 carry to the placenta, pass downwards, curved forwards and outwards, to the 
 sides of the urinary bladder, upwards and inwards to the umbilical ring, from 
 which they pass out into the umbilical cord and placenta, winding round the 
 Vena umbilicalis spirally. After birth the portion between the naval and 
 urinary bladder is closed, and froms the lig. laterals vesicce. From which 
 piece, still open and with thick walls (art. veswalis) arise: 
 
 1. Artt. vesicales. a. Posterior on the posterior Wall of the bladder from the 
 base to the vertex, b. Anterior on the anterior surface, often arises from 
 
THE VESSELS. 327 
 
 art. uterina. c. Inferior, often from Art. hypogastrica ; at the base of the 
 bladder it also supplies the seminal vesicles. 
 
 2. Art. uterina arises frequently from the hypogastric., passes transversely 
 inwards, curves from the external border of collum uteri into lig. latum, at 
 the sides of the uterus up to ihefundus, supplying with several anastomo- 
 sing branches the anterior and posterior surfaces of the uterus, and penetra- 
 ting into its substance. All these are very tortuous, and particularly deve- 
 loped during pregnancy. Branches: tubaria passes with three long 
 branches to the fimbriae and Fallopian tubes, giving off the proper ovarica. 
 
 3. Art. vaginalis descends on the side of the uterus, supplies this with many 
 branches, also with a branch for the neck of the bladder, and terminates 
 in an arch between vagina and rectum. 
 
 4. Art . defer entialis, generally from vesicalis inferior to the seminal vesicles 
 and vas deferens, and art. (vesico) prostatica to the pars prostatica urethra. 
 
 5. Art. hamorrhoidalis media, sometimes wanting, or arises from art. hypo- 
 gastr. and pudenda interna ; passes laterally on the anterior surface of the 
 rectum. 
 
 2. Obturatoria. Origin: below the umbilicalis from the hypogastr., often 
 from iliaca externa (rarely from a. cruralis), and in common with a. epigas- 
 trica. Course: horizontally forwards, on the lateral wall of the entrance to 
 the pelvis, as far as and through (the superior angle of the) foram. ovale out 
 upon the thigh, where it divides into an external and internal branch. Posi- 
 tion: close under m. psoas, above nerv. obturator, behind the peritoneum. 
 
 Lateral branches in the pelvis : 
 
 a. Earn, iliacus passes forwards between/ossa and m. iliacus ; anastomoses 
 wilh circumflexa ilei. 
 
 b. Sam. pubicus arches behind the symphy. pubis. 
 
 c. Sam. ascendens small, anastomoses with epigastrica. 
 Terminal branches outside the pelvis : 
 
 d. Ram. interior s. internus, between m. obturat. extern, and os pubis, 
 arched on the inner half of foram. obturat. downwards and backwards ; 
 it gives branches to mm. adductores ; to the scrotum (in the female to 
 
 labia externa) ; anastomoses with art. circumflex, interna. 
 
 c. Ram. posterior s. externus, on the outer half of foram. obtur., terminates 
 between the neck of the femur and m. quadratus, by means of anastomoses 
 with art. ischiadica ; it gives art. acetabuli (to the fat in the depth of the 
 acftabulum). 
 
 578. Posterior branches of the hypogastrica : 
 
 3. lleo-lumbalis s. iliaca anterior. Origin : sometimes with art. glutaa 
 from the posterior wall, next to the origin of hypogastrica. Course : back- 
 wards and behind n. obturatorius, external and superior to the upper border 
 of the Sacrum; behind m. psoas; divides immediately into : 
 
 a. Earn, lumbalis, which ascends along the bodies of the lumbar vertebras 
 
328 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 behind m. psoas, gives off a muscular branch for m. psoas and quadrat, 
 lumborum, and a spinal branch through foram. intervert., between the 
 last lumbar vertebrae and sacrum to the spinal cord. 
 
 b. Ram. iliacus; passes transversely outwards upon the fossa, iliaca, with a 
 superficial branch on the inner, with a deep on the outer surface of the 
 Iliacus, and supplies the muscles of the periosteum. 
 
 4. Sacra lateralis; very frequently two on either side. Origin: frequently 
 from art. glutcsa. Course : inwards and downwards, on the anterior surface 
 of the Sacrum (external to the foram. sacralia anterr.): anastomoses in front 
 with sacra media, and gives branches to the posterior internal bony walls. 
 Besides these : rami spinales, which enter through foramen sacralia anterr. 
 into the canalis spinalis to the nerves, and through/orr. sacrr. posterr. to the 
 spinal muscles. 
 
 5. Glutcea (superior) s. iliaca posterior, the glutasal artery. The largest 
 branch of the hypogastrica passes out from the pelvis, curving backwards and 
 outwards: passes between the first sacral and fifth lumbar nerves to the 
 highest part of incisura ischiadica, above the superior border of m. pyriformis, 
 and immediately divides into a superficial branch, which ramifies under 
 glutceus maximus on the posterior and superior part of it, and into a deeper 
 branch, which passes between m. glutceus med. and minimus on the superior 
 border forwards and upwards. Nutritia llei passes inside the pelvis at the 
 inferior part of os llei. 
 
 579. Terminal branches of the hypogastrica : 
 
 6. Ischiadica s. glutcea inferior. Origin : often in common with glutcea or 
 pudenda interna. Course : before the glutcea; passes out of the pelvis under 
 m. pyriformis, and above lig. sacro-spinosum through incisura ischiadica. 
 Position: on the inner side of N. Ischiad., behind the pudenda. Branches: 
 internal pass transversely between m. glutceus max. and lig. tuberosa sacrum, 
 and to the skin of the coccyx; several descend with IV. Ischiad., others 
 to the rotator muscles ; anastomoses with art. circumjlexa ilii, behind collum 
 femoris. 
 
 7. Pudenda (communis s. pudica interna). Course : passes out before the 
 plexus sacral, downwards, between m. pyriform. (below it) and lig. spinoso- 
 sacrum from the incis. ischiad. major, turns round the external surface of the 
 Spina, and passes between lig. sacro-spinos. and tuberosum through incis. 
 ischiadic. minor again within the pelvis ; then ascends on the inner surface of 
 tuber Ischii, the rami of the ischia and pubis, as high as the symphysis pubis; 
 at that place lying close to the bones upon m. trans, perincei and ischio -caver 
 nosus. Branches: small for the urinary bladder, rectum, vesiculas seminales, 
 Prostata or Vagina ; close to the spina ischii branches to the rotator muscles ; 
 on the tuber Ischii external muscular branches, and an anastomosis with art- 
 ischiad. between tuber Ischii and trochanter; the internal are : 
 
 a. Artt. hcemorrhoidales infer, s. externce for the rectum, sphincter, and leva- 
 tor ani. 
 
THE VESSELS. 329 
 
 Terminal branches : b. Perineea (super jicialis). Or. : at the posterior 
 border of m. trans, perincei. Course : from behind forwards, and from with- 
 out inwards on the inner side of m. ischio-cavernos., and terminates in the 
 centre of the scrotum as art. septi scroll. Position : above fasc. perincei 
 superficialis, below, m. transfers, perincei superf. Branches: transversa 
 perinai passes behind transversely over the perinceum; scrotales posteriores s. 
 labiales, at the termination of the perinceum to the posterior part of the scrotum 
 or labia. 
 
 c. Profunda perincsi 8. art. penis (ditoridis) is the name also given to that 
 part of the pudenda from the posterior border of m. transvers. perin. as far as 
 symphys. pubis. From it pass off: 
 
 a. Bulbosa s. bulbi urethras, a large branch, transversely to the posterior 
 boundary of bulbus urethra; (or to the Vagina [the nymphos] ), ramifying 
 in corp. cavernos. [spongiosum] urethra to the glans. 
 
 b. Dorsalis penis (or ditoridis) perforates between the roots of the corp. 
 cavernos. and the symphys. pub., the ligam. suspensor., passes close be- 
 neath the skin very tortuously upon the back of the penis to the glans, 
 behind which it forms a vascular circle, and supplies the foreskin and 
 glans. 
 
 c. Cavernosa s. profunda penis (or ditoridis) passes in the middle of the 
 cavernous body along the septum, and ramifies very delicately inside it, 
 as far as the glans, anastomosing with the bulbosa and dorsal, pen., and 
 that of the other side through the septum. J. Miiller's Artt. helicince, 
 the tendril-like tortuous capillary vessels of cavernosa, which terminate 
 blindly, and are said to give rise to the erectio penis, are probably artifi- 
 cial anatomical products. (Henle.) 
 
 580. II. Cruralis, the external Iliac artery, 
 
 the external branch of Iliaca communis, passes from the place of 
 division of the last in the pelvis, as Art. Iliaca externa, on to the 
 thigh, as : femoralis, as far as the popliteal space, where it is 
 called poplitcea. 
 
 581. A. Iliaca externa. 
 
 Origin : before the superior border of symphysis sacro-iliaca 
 from art. iliaca communis. Termination : at the femoral arch 
 in the centre between symphysis pubis and spina ilei super. 
 Length: three and a half inches. Course: extends obliquely 
 from above downwards, from within outwards, and rather for- 
 wards, into the pelvis. Position : covered before and internally, 
 loosely, by peritoneum; crossed by the ureter; separated from 
 it on the inner side of the m. psoas by fasc. iliaca ; before ven. 
 iliaca externa. Before the right art. iliaca rests the termination 
 of the small intestines; before the left the sigmoid flexure of 
 
330 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 colon. Behind the ligam. Pouparti, it is situated on the outer 
 side of the vein (in the same sheath with it), on the inner side of 
 nerv. cruralis. Branches : 
 
 1. Epigastrica (inferior s. interna). Origin : two to three lines (sometimes 
 half an inch to two inches above lig. Pouparti from the inner side of lliaca 
 externa, or in common with art. obturatoria). Course : 1.. at first transversely 
 inwards to beneath the spermatic cord (or lig. rotund, of the female) ; 2. then 
 bends upwards, concave above ; 3. lastly, directly upwards to the umbilicus. 
 Position : 1. before Ven. cruralis, crossed by vas deferens which ascends ver- 
 tically behind it, then above it anteriorly and in the inguinal canal ; half an 
 inch to an inch and a half (at the convexity of the crossing points is the ab- 
 normal origin of obturatoria, which then winds round the upper and inner 
 boundary of the fempral ring) ; 2. obliquely behind the posterior wall of in- 
 guinal canal, upwards and inwards, between fasc. transversa and peritoneum, 
 it forms the boundary between fovea inguinal, externa and interna; 3. at the 
 outer border and the posterior surface (inside the sheath) of m, rectusabdominis. 
 It is lost in the umbilical region, as it anastomoses. with A. mammar. intern. 
 by means of a capillary rete inside the m. rectus. Branches : 
 
 a. Art. spermatica externa, enters the. inguinal canal, passes through it 
 along the anterior surface of the spermatic cord (lig. uteri rotundum), 
 and passes to the scrotum (labia majora} outwards; anastomoses with 
 spermat. interna. 
 
 b. Art. pubica, passes along the crista oss. pubis internally, where it anasto- 
 moses, behind the Syniphysis, with the artery of the other side. 
 
 c. Ram. obturatorius, descends on the superior and internal border of the 
 femoral ring behind the ram. horizontal, oss. pubis tp art. obturator. ; is 
 sometimes so large that the art. obturatoria appears to arise from art. epi~ 
 gastrica. 
 
 2. Circumjlexa ilii s. epigastrica externa. Origin: opposite to the last, or 
 below it, from the outer side of the art. iliaca ext.; sometimes double. Course : 
 obliquely outwards and upwards to the spina ilei anterior superior, hence 
 arched along the crista oss. ilei, between m. obliq. intern, and transfers, 
 abdom. to the art. ileo-lumbalis backwards. Position : at first behind ligam. 
 Poupartii. bet ween the two laminae of fasc. iliaca, then only covered by the 
 peritoneum. Branches : ascending for the abdominal muscles and skin ; de- 
 scending for the fossa iliaca. In the region of the Spina the 
 
 Ram. abdominalis ascends, parallel with the art . epigastrica, between m. 
 transversus and obliquus internus, and anastomoses with artt. lumbales 
 and intercost. inferr. 
 
 582. B. Femoralis, the femoral artery, 
 
 is that part of art. cruralis which reaches from the femoral ring to 
 the inferior third of the thigh, passing downwards, inwards and a 
 little backwards, in. the direction of a line which commences in 
 
THE VESSELS. 331 
 
 the centre between spina ilei anter. superior and symphysispubis> 
 and terminates on the inner side of the limb, below its middle. 
 Position : for about three inches below Poupart's ligament the ar- 
 tery is covered in front by the skin, fasc. lota and lymphatic glands, 
 then by m. sartorius, which passes obliquely from above down- 
 wards and from without inwards, and inclines to the inner side of 
 vastus intern, in the groove between this and the insertions of the 
 Adductores. Behind it rests in a groove between m. psoas (with- 
 out) and pectinceus (within), upon the body of the os pubis, the 
 emimntm ileo-pectincBa, before the internal third of the acetabulum, 
 so that a space of from one inch to one and a half is found between 
 it and the superior part of the os femor., farther down upon the 
 adductor magnus, the tendon of which it perforates, and passes 
 upon the posterior surface of the thigh. Above, the vein lies to 
 the inner, farther down on the posterior side ; the nerve on the 
 outer side of the artery. The art. and ven.femor. lie in a proper 
 sheath, into which n. sapfon. internus penetrates, whilst nerv. cru- 
 ralis remains in its own sheath. Branches : 
 
 1. Inguinales, three to six, small, arise in front close under lig. Poupart. ; 
 they ramify in the glands and skin of the groin. 
 
 2. Epigastrica superficialis, arises one inch below the femoral arch, in front, 
 perforates proc. falciform., passes vertically upwards, between the skin and 
 fasc. superficialis, gives a transverse ram. iliacus inwards towards the spina 
 
 ilei, and terminates at the umbilicus, in the skin. 
 
 3. Pudenda externa (scrotales or labiales anteriores), usually a superior and 
 an inferior ; they pass from arcus cruralis transversely inwards ; the superior 
 close under the skin to the mons Veneris, penis and scrotum (or labia majora); 
 the inferior covered by ihe fascia, transversely before Ven. crural., under ven. 
 saphena. 
 
 4. Profundafemoris, supplies the muscles and skin on the inner and poste- 
 rior surface of the thigh. Origin: H to 2 inches below the femoral arch, 
 sometimes also higher, rarely deeper. Course : immediately backwards, 
 then downwards between mm. adductores, closer to the bone than art.femo- 
 ralis, perforates the adductor magn. (above the perforation for femo falls') , and 
 is lost in biceps and semitendinosus. Position : above before the termination 
 of 'flexor, femoris and pectinaus, lastly adductor magnus and brevis, behind ad- 
 ductor longus. 
 
 Branches : 1. The circumflex arteries, two. 
 
 2. The perforating arteries, three to five. 
 
 1. Circumflexa femoris interna, arises to 1 inch below the commencement 
 of prof, femo r.; passes backwards and transversely inwards between m. pecti- 
 n&us and flexor, femor., above trochant er minor, to the 
 
 internal and posterior surface of the neck of the femur. Branches : ram. 
 superficial, to m. pectinaus, abduct, long, and brevis. 
 
332 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Art. acetabuli to the capsule and lig. teres of the acetabulum. 
 
 Earn, anastomotici to the superior part of the scrotum, uniting with the 
 
 obturatoria and pudenda. 
 Ram. trochantericus, between m. obturat. ext. and quadrat, femor., to the 
 
 fossa of trochanter major, anastomosing with glutcea and ischiadica. 
 
 2. Circumflexa femoris externa, passes behind m. rectus femor., before Psoas- 
 iliacus outwards around the basis of trochanter major, and there ramifies, since 
 it anastomoses with the interna, sends a branch upwards for glutceus minim. 
 and fascia lata, another on the outer border of red. femoris downwards al- 
 most as far as the patella. 
 
 3. Perforantes, three to five ; they perforate the mm. adductores at their in- 
 sertions, and then pass to the posterior surface transversely round the femur, 
 and supply the muscles on the posterior surface of the limb. Art . perfor. prima 
 perforates the adductor magnus below the trochanter minor, gives a branch to 
 n. ischiadicus and a nutritia femoris superior ; nutritia magna comes from the 
 second or third art. perforans, [and takes a direction upwards]. They anas- 
 tomose with the inferior branches of femoralis (also keep up the collateral 
 circulation after ligature of the poplitcea). The first also anastomoses with 
 the circumflex, femor. and glutcea ; the third is the terminal branch of pro- 
 fundafemoris. 
 
 083. C. Poplitcea, the popliteal artery, 
 
 the continuation of art. femoralis, reaches, from the inferior third 
 or fourth of the thigh, as far as to the superior fifth or sixth of the 
 leg, and is about seven inches long. Course : somewhat oblique, 
 from above, downwards, and from within, outwards to the centre 
 of the popliteal region, hence, vertically downwards. Position : 
 deep, (especially below) in the neighbourhood of the bone, it is 
 covered behind from above to below by : m. semi-membranos., 
 fat and fascia poplitcea ; m. gastrocnemius and plantaris long., 
 lastly m. soleus ; close behind it, and externally (almost together) 
 Ven. poplitcea, and behind this N. tibialis. Before it lie from 
 above downwards the inner and posterior surface of the os fe- 
 moris, the knee-joint and m. poplitceus. On the inner side : m. 
 semi-membran., condyl. intern, femor., caput intern, gastrocnemii. 
 -On the outer side : m. biceps, cap. extern, gastrocn., plantar, long., 
 soleus. Branches ; posterior : 
 
 1. Surales 8. gemellce, two to four, arise at the knee-joint, pass forwards and 
 downwards on the anterior internal surface ofm. gastrocnemius; a branch with 
 n. saphenus as far as tendo Achittis. Anterior branches : 
 
 2. Articulares genu superiores, superior articular arteries. 
 
 a. Articularis interna I., a. superficialis [s. anastomotica magna] arises 
 from art. cruralis whilst in the sheath of m. adduct. magn., sometimes 
 higher ; the largest passes under sartorius to the condylus internus; a 
 branch to the triceps, another with n. saphenus intern. 
 
. 
 
 THE VESSELS. 333 
 
 b. Articularis internet II. , passes transversely to the condylus internus, 
 ramifies there and gives branches to the border of the patella. 
 
 c. Articularis externa arises opposite 6, and passes transversely outwards 
 to condyl. externus, and gives an : 
 
 Art. superior media for the posterior surface of the knee-joint. 
 3. Articulares genu inferiores, inferior articular arteries. 
 
 d. Articularis externa, passes outwards and forwards above the fibula, 
 covered by gastrocn. extern., plantar, long., biceps, andlig. genu extern. 
 
 e. Articularis interna, also passes inwards to the condyl. tibia. From it, 
 if not from the art. poplit. itself, arises : 
 
 Art. inferior media, which penetrates from behind through the 
 middle of the capsular ligament into the knee-joint. 
 
 f. Articularis iiifima externa, passes transversely over the fibula out- 
 wards, covered by m. peronoeus long, and extens. digit, commun., rami- 
 fying in these as far as the fibula and knee-joint. 
 
 Sete articulare genu, is found on the anterior and lateral surfaces of the 
 knee-joint, and behind lig. patella. It is formed by artt. articulares genu, 
 connected above with the perforantes profundcefemor., below with the recur- 
 rentes tibice. 
 
 584. HI. Tibialis antica, the anterior tibial artery, 
 
 the anterior branch of art. poplitcea (two or three inches below the 
 knee-joint), passes, from the point of division of the last at the in- 
 ferior border of m. paplitaus, immediately forwards above the su- 
 perior border of lig. interosseum (between the superior extremity 
 of tibia and fibula). It then extends directly downwards before 
 lig. inteross. as far as the inferior fourth of the tibia, thence in- 
 clines inwards and downwards to the dorsum of the foot, from 
 which point it is called art. pedicea. Position : very deep, before 
 lig. interosseum, and farther down before the external surface of 
 the tibia, behind and between m. tibialis anticus and extensores 
 digit, (commun. and hattuc. long.) ; on the inner side of the n. 
 tibial. anticus. At the tarsal joint : upon this, covered by lig. 
 cruciat. and the tendons of extens. hattuc. longus. Branches : 
 
 1. Recurrens tibialis posterior, passes off close at the commencement of 
 tibialis, upon the posterior surface of the tibia upwards to the joint ; covered 
 by m. poplitceus. 
 
 2. Recurrens tibialis anterior. Or. : close above lig. inteross. Course : in- 
 wards and upwards between m. tibial. anticus and condylus extern, tibiae, close 
 to the bone. Branches to m. tibial. antic., extens. digit, comm., capitul. fibul.; 
 anastomoses with articul. genu extern. 
 
 3. Art. malleolaris externa, arises higher or deeper, above lig. tarsi dorsale. 
 Course : curves outwards and forwards around the external malleolus to the 
 outer surface of os cuboideum, and anastomoses with art. tarsea externa and 
 perontea. 
 
334 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 4. Art. malleolaris interna, passes transversely under tendo m. filial, antici 
 inwards and above the internal malleolus to the internal surface of the 
 tarsus, and anastomoses with art . plantaris interna. 
 
 585. Pedicea s. dorsalis pedis, the dorsal artery of the foot, 
 
 the continuation of tibial. antica, when it has passed out from under the lig. 
 tarsi dorsale, passes upon the back of the foot, from behind forwards, as far 
 as the posterior extremities of the os metatarsi 1. and 11., and sinks between 
 these to the sole of the foot. Position : on the external border along the ten- 
 dons of extensor halluc. longus, on the internal of extens. digit, brevis, covered 
 by the fascia and skin, only. Branches : 
 
 5. Tarsea externa. Origin : before the collum astragali. Course : obliquely 
 outwards, under m. extens. digitorum brevis, to the basis of the fifth os meta- 
 tarsi; anastomoses with art. plantaris under the sole of the foot. 
 
 Branches : !. Ham. posterior, anastom. with art. malleolar. externa and^e- 
 
 roncea. 
 
 2. Sam. anterior, passes forwards in a curve, anastomoses with 
 art. metatarsea, and sometimes gives the interossea dorsalis 3. 
 
 6. Tarsea interna, passes obliquely forwards and inwards, to the articula- 
 tion of os cuneiformel. and metatarsi 1., gives branches to the great toe before, 
 and to the metatarsus behind. 
 
 7. Art. metatarsea, arises, generally, in the interspace between first and 
 second os metatarsi at the posterior extremity ; passes transversely outwards, 
 and forms the arcus dorsalis metatarsi, which anastomoses with tarsea externa 
 and gives off anteriorly the artt. interossece. 
 
 8. Art. interossea dorsalis I. passes off from the art. pedicea, before this be- 
 takes itself to the sole of the foot, into first interstit. inteross., and supplies the. 
 dorsal surface of the outer and inner border of the great toe and the internal 
 border of the second toe ; it belongs therefore to the arcus dorsalis. 
 
 586. IV. Tibialis postica, the posterior tibial artery, 
 
 the posterior branch of art. poplitaa, passes downwards in the 
 direction of the last, at an acute angle from art. tibialis antica to 
 the posterior surface of the leg and the internal malleolus ; beneath 
 this to the groove on . the inner surface of calcaneus, and divides 
 at the boundary between the sole and the internal border of the 
 metatarsus, into art. plantaris interna and externa. . Position : 
 as far as the inferior third of the tibia before m. soleus, then on the 
 inner border of tendo Achillis, covered by the fascia and skin, only ; 
 behind m. tibialis posticus and flexor, digitor. longus ; on the in- 
 ner side of n. tibialis. On the inner side of the os calcis covered 
 by lig. laciniat. internum above, flex, digit, long, (within) and 
 haUucis (without) it divides, close behind caro quadrata. Branches : 
 
THE VESSELS. 335 
 
 1. Nutrition tibia, large, passes downwards on the posterior and outer side of 
 tibia as far asforam. nutrit., and supplies the medullary cells. 
 
 2. Art. perpntea s.fibularis. Origin : at an acute angle, one inch to an inch 
 and a half below the origin, on the outer wall of tibial. postica. Course : down- 
 wards along the inner posterior surface of the fibula, separated from it by 
 
 flexor halluc. long., and behind the external malleolus, on the outer side of 
 colcaneus. Position : covered behind by m. soleus upon tibialis posticus, then 
 between this and flex, halluc. longus, upon lig. interosseum. Behind malleolus 
 externus; on the external border of tendo Achillis covered by fascia and skin, 
 only. 
 
 a. Muscular branches backwards for m. soleus, externally for mm. peronasi 
 and a nutritia flbulcs [directed downwards] . 
 
 b. Peroncea anterior s. perforans, a thinner branch, passes down on the 
 inferior third of the tibia through the lig. interosseum on its anterior 
 surface, and passes into the rete mall-eol. externum. 
 
 c. Peron&a posterior, a continuation of art. peronoza, passes along the 
 outer border of the tendo Achillis, covered by fascia and skin, only, to 
 the outer surface ofcalcaneus, and anastomoses with art. malleolar. and 
 plantar, externn., and gives a transverse uniting branch which passes 
 between the tendo Achillis and the bones to the tibialis postica. 
 
 3. Malleolaris interna posterior arises behind the inferior extremity of tibia, 
 passes close to the bone from the tendons of tibialis posticus and flex, digit, 
 long, to the inner malleolus and into rete malleolar e internum. 
 
 4. Plantaris interna, the smaller internal terminal branch of art. tibialis 
 postica. Course : along the inner border of the sole of the foot (one inch re- 
 moved from it) forwards. Position : between abductor hallucis (within) and 
 flexores digitor. (without), covered by the fascia plantar. 
 
 Branches: ascending to the articulations of the metatarsal bones. Termi- 
 nal branches from the posterior extremity of os metatarsi hallucis : 
 
 a. Ram. internus, passes along the inner border of the m. abductor hallucis 
 superficially. 
 
 b. Earn, internus, anastomoses with the trunk of art. inteross. plantar. L 
 A branch passes through/asc. plantaris to the skin of the inner side. 
 
 5. Plantaris extcrna, the deeper external terminal branch of tibial. postica. 
 Course : from the inner side ofcalcaneus, obliquely outwards and forwards as 
 far as the posterior extremity of os metatarsi V.; an inch distant from the 
 outer border of the foot ; then curved inwards above oss. metatarsi 4 to 2, 
 where it anastomoses with art . pedi&a (see arcus plantaris). Position : upon 
 the tendons of flex, digit, commun. and halluc^, caro quadrata^ flex, digit. 5. 
 brev. and inteross ei; covered behind by lig. laciniat., then by abduct, halluc., 
 flexor digit, brevis, aponeurosis plantar, (below). 
 
 Branches: to the calcis, to mm. flexor, digit, brev. and caro quadr., to the 
 Tarsus. Art. plantaris digiti V. externa passes under flex, brevis digit. V., 
 terminates at the outer border of the plantar surface of the little toe, and anas- 
 tomoses with art. dorsales tarsi (compare Arcus plantaris and Art. tarsea 
 externa.) 
 
t 
 
 336 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 587. The vascular arches of the foot. 
 
 1. Arcus dorsalis pedis s. tarseus dorsalis, close upon the dorsal surface of 
 the metatarsal bone, is before convex, and arises from the junction of the 
 
 Art . metatarsea with the anterior branch of the art. tarsea. 
 From it three branches arise : 
 
 Arlt. interossecB dorsalis pass in the second to the fourth interstitium in- 
 terosseum metatarsi, where they give off the three : 
 Artt. perforantes, which sinks downwards, and pass opposite to the 
 artt. perforantes from the arcus plantaris; 
 
 whilst they divide in a forked manner at the anterior extremity into the 
 small : 
 
 Artt. digitales dorsales, which betake themselves to the dorsal sur- 
 face of the toes, from the external border of the second as far as the 
 internal of the fifth toe, terminate on the first phalanx, and unite 
 with the corresponding of arcus plantaris. 
 
 Both borders of the first and the internal border of the second toe are 
 supplied from art. dorsalis hallucis, the terminal branch of art. pedicea. 
 
 2. Arcus plantaris (profundus, there is no arcus plant, sublimis present), 
 close under the posterior extremities of the metatarsal bones in the sole of the 
 foot, is convex before, and arises principally from the junction of: 
 
 Art. plantaris externa with art. pedioea (also tibial. postica and antica}. 
 From it three superior and five anterior branches arise : 
 
 a. Artt. perforantes (three) ascend (see arc. dorsalis}. 
 
 b. Artt. interossea, four, pass in the second to the fourth interstit. in- 
 teross., divide at the anterior extremity into two branches : 
 
 Artt. digitales plantares, which supply the outer border of the great, 
 the inner of the fifth toe, and both plantar borders of the second, 
 third, and fourth toes, and unite in an arch on the ungual phalanx. 
 
 588. The Veins of the great Circulation. 
 
 They form, with the exception of the two veins of the heart, two 
 principal trunks, namely, V. cava superior, which carries the 
 blood from the superior, and V. cava inferior, which carries it from 
 the inferior half of the body to the right auricle of the heart. Both 
 stand in relation by means of a lateral branch, V. azygos, which 
 arises in the inferior half of the body and opens into the superior 
 vena cava. With the system of the inferio'r cava an important one 
 is included, the system of the Portal vein, and in the foetus the um- 
 bilical vein, besides. 
 
 589. A. Vence cordis s. cardiacs. 
 
 I.'V. coronaria magna cordis. Course : from the apex of the heart as far as 
 
THE VESSELS. 337 
 
 basis ventriculi upwards in the anterior longitudinal groove ; then leaves its 
 art. coron. sinistra, turns in the left transverse groove at a right angle to the 
 left, and opens at the posterior inferior surface into the right auricle, close to 
 the septum atriorum, covered by valvul. Thebesii. Branches : from the walls 
 of the ventricles and the septum; it receives besides : 
 
 a. F. cordis media s. Galeni s. posterior, passes in the posterior longitudinal 
 sulcus from the apex as far as the transverse, and opens in a wide place 
 shortly before the orifice of V. magna. 
 
 b. V. coronoria dextra, passes from the left border of the heart in the trans- 
 verse groove to the right, and opens shortly before the orifice of F. 
 magna. 
 
 2. Ft?, minores cordis, 3 to 4 small veins on the anterior surface of the 
 right ventricle of the heart, open into the right auricle ; below it frequently 
 v. coro?iaria dextra. Vv. and foramina Thebesii do not exist farther. 
 
 590. B. Cava superior s . descenders, the superior or 
 
 descending cava, 
 
 corresponds to the arcus aortce and the aorta thoracica ; arises in 
 consequence of the association of anonyma dextra and sinistra 
 close behind the cartilage of the second right rib, one inch from the 
 middle line of the body. Course : downwards on the right side of 
 the sternum, from before to behind and from left to right to the 
 superior part of the right auricle. Position : the superior portion ; 
 on the inner side of the right lung (the right anterior mediastina) 
 and the JV. phrenicus dexter; it lies to the left on the art. anonyma 
 and arcus aortce, behind gland, thymus, before (lymphatic glands 
 and) trachea. The inferior portion inside the pericardium (one to 
 one inch and a half long), close before : bronchus, Art. and Ven. 
 pulmonalis (super.} dextr. ; touches on the left aorta ascendens, is 
 free to the right. V. cava sup. possesses no valves, and therefore 
 pulsates. Length : three inches. Breadth, at the mouth, two 
 inches. Sometimes two Vv. cc. supp. are present. Branches : 
 V. anonyma dextra, sinistra and V. azygos. 
 
 591. 1. Vence anonymcB dextra et sinistra [s. Brachio- 
 
 cephalica~\. 
 
 They correspond on the one side to truncus anonymus, on the 
 other to carotis and art. subclavia. Origin : behind the articulatio 
 sterno-clavicularis and from the junction of the Ven. jugularis in- 
 terna and subclavia. Without valves. 
 
 22 
 
338 
 
 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Anonyma dextra. 
 Length: twelve to fourteen 
 lines. Course: vertically down- 
 wards and inwards. Pos. : pa- 
 rallel with art. anonyma, which 
 is close to it on the left ; one 
 inch from the middle line ; to 
 the right and behind TV. phreni- 
 cus and art. mammar. dextra. 
 Branches : Vv. mammaria in- 
 ter na and thyreoid. infer, dex- 
 tra ; often the v. vertebralis alone. 
 
 Anonyma sinistra. 
 Longer (two inches) and 
 thicker. Course: almost horizon- 
 tal, backwards concave. Pos. : 
 above arcus aortce, behind the 
 superior border of the Sternum, 
 before art. anon., carot., and 
 subclavia sinistra. Branches : 
 Vv. mammar. interna, thyreoi- 
 dea sinistra, and phrenica su- 
 per., thy mica, pericardiaca, and 
 often v. intercostalis superior 
 and v. vertebralis. 
 
 The collateral branches : 
 
 1. Vv, tkyreoidecB inferiores, one dextra, one sinistra. Course : like art. 
 thyr. infima; the former opens in the angle between the two Vv. anony- 
 mce, the latter into the left v. anonyma; they receive Vv. tracheales and 
 laryng. (plexus trachealis). 
 
 2. Vv. mammarice internes, two for each artery ; they receive Vv. sternales 
 (plexus sternalis). 
 
 3. Vv. phrenica, very long and small ; they pass with N. phrenic, and art . 
 phren. super. 
 
 4. V. vertebralis. Origin: in the deep cervical muscles, and a smaller 
 branch from the foram. condyloid. Course : in the canal, vertebralis, 
 passes out under the sixth or seventh vertebra, and opens close behind F. 
 
 jugul. intern.; receives V. cervical, ascend, and profund. Position: be- 
 hind art. subclavia. 
 
 592. 1. Jugularis interna, the internal jugular vein, corresponds to the 
 carotis communis and externa. Or. : in the foram. jugulare with a sacciform 
 enlargement, bulbus, passing out of the sinus transversus of the cranial cavity. 
 Course : descends at first behind, then on the outer side of carotis interna, 
 communis, and IV. vagus (which lies in a sheath between the artery and vein 
 behind them), and terminates, with an oval enlargement, bulbus, at the origin 
 of truncus anonymus before Art. subclavia. From foram. jugular, to the su- 
 perior border of the larynx, called cephalica interna, two inches and a half to 
 three inches long ; it is covered by m. digastricus and sterno-mastoid, on the 
 outer side of the nn. glossophar., hypogloss., and pharynx, on the inner of the 
 proc. styloid., before proc. transvers. of the first to the third vertebra. At the 
 larynx it receives the short cephalica externa, which arises from the junction of 
 facialis anterior and posterior. 
 
 a. V. facialis anterior corresponds to art. maxillar. externa. Course : ex- 
 ternal and behind art. maxillar. extern., downwards and outwards from 
 the internal angle of the eye, to the anterior border of m. masseler over 
 
THE VESSELS. 339 
 
 the lower jaw to one inch beneath its angle. Position : at the angle of 
 the eye, as ven. angvlaris, before the lig. palpebr. intern.; then between 
 levat. labii alaq. nasi and orbicul. palpebr.; upon levator labii super, and 
 buccinat., under the zygomatici ; beneath the lower jaw upon gland, sub' 
 maxillaris. Branches : 
 
 1. V. frontalis, between the skin and m. frontalis, near the central 
 line of the forehead, to the root of the nose. 
 
 2. V. supraorbitalis, between m. corrugator and frontalis, from without 
 inwards, anastomoses with vv. temporales ; with v. frontalis over lig. 
 palpebr. intern. ; receives v. diploica frontal. 
 
 3. V. ophthalmica, passes backwards from the v. angularis between lig. 
 palpebr. int. and trochlea, on the inner wall of the Orbita, then over 
 IV. opticus, leaves the art. ophthalm., and passes, at the internal boun- 
 dary ofjissur. orbital, super., into the sinus cavernosus. It receives : 
 v. sacci lacrymal., ethmoidal. anter. and poster., ciliar. long, and vorti- 
 COSGS, lacrymalis, central, retinae ; lastly: 
 
 v. ophthalmica inferior, which lies on the floor of the orbit, formed 
 of vv. muscular es and ciliares inferior., likewise anastomosing 
 through fissura orbit, infer, with ram. prof and. v. facial, anter. 
 
 4. Vv. nasales, from the back (dorsales) and alee of the nose (pinnales s. 
 alares.) 
 
 5. Vv. palpebrales inferiores and labiales superiores. 
 
 6. Samus profundus s. facialis prof undo unites the v. facial, with v. 
 maxillar, interna and ophthalmica ; arises from a plexus which is 
 formed by v. ophthalm. infer., nasalis poster., dentalis superior, upon 
 the posterior surface of the upper jaw, is connected with plex. 
 pterygoid., and opens below the proc. zygomatic. of the upper jaw. 
 
 7. Vv. labiales inferiores, buccales, massetericce, submentalis, sub- 
 maxillar es. 
 
 8. V. palatina arises in the soft palate and from plex. tonsillaris ; also 
 open into cephalica interna. 
 
 b. Vena facialis posterior. Origin: inside the parotis behind collumcon- 
 dyli max ill. infer., from v. temporalis and maxillaris interna. Position : 
 on the inner side of carotis externa. Course : behind the ram us of the 
 lower jaw : united at an angle with V. facialis anter. It frequently 
 opens, as it passes away before sterno-mastoideus into V. jugularis externa, 
 and sends a large uniting branch, over m. digastricus, to V. jugularis in- 
 terna. Branches : 
 
 1. V. temporalis communis passes backwards from art. temporalis, be- 
 tween the meatus auditor, externus and the maxillary articulation 
 under the skin, and enters the parotis ; unites behind collum con- 
 dyli, with V. maxillaris interna ; consists of: 
 
 a. Temporales superficiales ; these are branches which pass from 
 a rete with wide meshes from the forehead, vertex and occiput 
 
340 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 between the skin and muscular layer, unite above the proc. 
 zygomat. of the temporal bone, and unite before the external 
 auditory meatus with : 
 
 b. V. temporalis media; passes under fascia media; over m. tern- 
 poralis from before backwards, perforates the fascia ; consists of: 
 vv. palpebral. and orbitales externcs. 
 
 2. Maxillaris interna corresponds to the inferior portion of art' 
 maxillar. intern. ; receives two vv. meningece medics, v. dentalis infe- 
 rior, vv. temporal., profundce, pterygoidece, masset ericas ; they form 
 plexus pterygoideus in the inferior part of the temporal fossa, be- 
 tween m. temporal, and pterygoid. extern, and the two pterygoidei. 
 
 3. Vv. parotidecs, auricula res poster, and anter., transversa faciei form 
 between Parotis, m. masseter, and about the maxillary articulation, 
 the large plexus massetericus, which is connected above the incisura 
 semilunar. with pi. pterygoid. 
 
 c. V. occipitalis passes under m. splenius forwards, and receives several 
 vv. mastoidecB, which pass out of sinus transvers. of the cranial cavity, 
 and they establish an important communication between the external and 
 internal cranial veins. 
 
 d. Ven. thyreoidea superior ; its branches come from the superior part of 
 the thyroid gland, from below the pharynx, from the interior of the 
 larynx ; it opens into the short trunk of cephalica externa ; likewise the 
 laryngea and lingualis (s. jugular, externa}. 
 
 e. V. thyreoidea media arises from art. thyr. infer., opens into the trunk of 
 jugular, interna. 
 
 593. Jugularis externa consists of an anterior and posterior (cutaneous) 
 trunk, which open together behind the clavicle, and enter into the V. sub- 
 clavia or V. anonyma. They have (two) valves. 
 
 1. Jugularis externa anterior, formed by one or two vv. subcutanecB above 
 the hyoid bone, descends along the inner border of m. sterno-cleido-mas- 
 toideus, and curves backwards behind the inferior termination of the 
 muscle to the posterior trunk. A transverse branch unites the right and 
 left vein, and generally receives the V. thyreoid. media ; a superior 
 transverse branch unites both in the region of the os hyoides. 
 
 2. Jugularis externa anterior. Origin : behind the angle of the lower 
 jaw, from a branch of V.facialis posterior, V. occipitalis, and auricular, 
 superfic. Course: oblique from above downwards, and from before 
 backwards, over the sterno-cleido-mast. ; from the angle of the lower jaw 
 as far as the centre of the clavicle, then forwards and inwards to the 
 v.subclavia. Position: superficial, covered by M. platysmam. and skin 
 only; above, behind it N. auricularis ; below, behind m. sterno-cleido- 
 mast. Branches ; besides the principal rami : 
 
 a superior connecting branch through the Parotis with V. Jugularis 
 interna ; 
 
THE VESSELS. 341 
 
 an inferior, under the clavicle, to V. cephalica of the upper arm ; 
 
 farther : 
 
 Vv. transverse colli and scapulas ; from laryngea superior, and often ; 
 V. lingualis. The superficial veins upon the dorsum lingua (vv- 
 linguales) open between m. lingualis and mucous membrane in a 
 plexus lingual, superior at the basis of the tongue. From it a 
 branch accompanying the n. li'igualis passes to 
 
 Vv. ranince. They pass superficially beneath the tongue to the 
 side of the frenulum, accompany N. Jiypoglossus between TO. 
 genio and hyo-glossus, are connected with plexus inferior at the 
 side of the tongue, and open in the Ven. lingualis, which takes 
 the same course as the artery (and, frequently, opens into cepha- 
 lica externa). 
 
 594. 3. Vena subdavia, shorter than the art. subclavia. Origin : at the 
 superior border of m. serratus anticus, from v. axillaris. Termination behind 
 artic. sterno-clavic. Course: transversely inwards to the orifice of V.jugu- 
 laris interna (in the anonyma), whilst art. subclav. is curved, or arches over 
 the apex of the lung. Pos. : behind m. subclavius and clavicle, attached by 
 fascia cervicalis ; before art. subclavia (and m. scalenus anticus ;) close above 
 the first rib, beneath_/aseia cervicalis and the skin. Valves-are wanting. 
 
 Branches : V. intercostalis prima dextra, generally V. jugularis externa ; 
 transversa colli and scapula. V. subclavia is a continuation of: 
 
 1. Vena axillaris, which is placed on the inner and anterior side of atr. 
 axillaris, and consists of the two vena; brachiales united together, which 
 pass deeply on both sides of art. brachialis. Branches : circumflex, 
 humeri, subscapul., thorac. extern.; they receive the V. cephalica, whilst 
 the rest of the cutaneous veins open into vv. brachiales. The deep veins 
 of the hand and the fore-arm correspond exactly with the distribution of 
 the arteries of the same name, but are double, and anastomose together. 
 
 2. Cutaneous veins of the arm ; they are larger than the muscular and 
 deeply-seated veins, form plexus, and are situated between the muscular 
 layers and the subcutaneous uniting tissue. Strongest on the dorsal sur- 
 face of the hand, formed by the ascending digital veins, the plexus, con- 
 cave above, sends off several branches upon the carpus, the most external 
 of which, v. cephalica pollicis , passes on the thumb ; the most internal, r. 
 salvatella, on os metacarpi V. On the arm the cutaneous veins are more 
 numerous on the flexor surface. They are : 
 
 a. Vena cephalica s. cutanea radialis, the continuation of cephalica pol- 
 licis, passes along the outer surface of radius to the middle of it, 
 about the external border upon the anterior surface, and divides, one 
 to two inches below the bend of the arm, into the mediana and cepha- 
 lica brachii. The last passes at first on the outer border of the m. 
 biceps, then inwards to the groove between m. pectoralis maj. and 
 deltoid., where it opens (one inch below the clavicle) into the vena 
 
342 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 axillaris ; it receives the cutaneous veins of the upper arm, shoulder, 
 and breast. 
 
 b. Vena basilica s. cutanea ulnaris, a continuation of salvatella, passes 
 on the ulnar border and the flexor surface of the fore-arm, and unites 
 with the v. mediana (one inch to two inches and a half) above the 
 bend of the arm. When an ulnaris posterior is present, it opens 
 higher up. In the upper arm it passes on the inner border of m. bi- 
 ceps, perforates the fascia brachii, and opens into v. brachialis interna 
 or axillaris. It carries the blood of the volar side of the hand and 
 of the fore-arm. 
 
 c. Vena mediana passes obliquely from without inwards, and from be- 
 low upwards, from v. cephalica to v. basilica, larger than either, lying 
 in the bend of the arm over the aponeurosis of tendo m. bicipit. and 
 art. brachialis. It carries the blood of the dorsal side of the hand 
 and fore-arm, and also receives branches from the volar surface and 
 the deep veins of the fore-arm. Varieties in these veins are parti- 
 cularly frequent. 
 
 595. II. Vena azygos. 
 
 This vein corresponds with the aorta thoracica, uniting v. cava in- 
 ferior and superior with one another. Or. : in the abdominal 
 cavity; before the first lumbar vertebra, rarely, from the v. rena- 
 lis or v. cava inferior itself. Course ; through hiatus aorticus into 
 the thorax ; on the right side of the thoracic vertebra as high as 
 the third intercostal space ; curving over bronchus and v.pulmonal. 
 dextra forwards, it opens at the posterior part of v. cava superior 
 at its entrance into the pericardium. Situation : in the cavum 
 mediastin. posticum, before the w. intercostales dextrce, to the 
 right of aorta and ductus thoracicus. It receives in front : v. bron- 
 chialis dextra, some vv. cesophagece, and mediastina ; to the right 
 the eight last vv. intercostales dextrce ; to the left v. hemiazygos 
 and the intercostales superiores sinistrce. 
 
 1. Vena lumbalis ascendens , the connecting ramus of the transverse vv. lum- 
 bales, ascends, curved or in a straight line ; receives a branch from ven. 
 iliaca communis, and passes into the v. azygos upon the right, into v. 
 hemiazygos upon the left side. 
 
 2. Vena hemiazygos. Origin: from the four last vv. intercostales sinistrce 
 and v. renalis. Course : through hiatus aorticus, along the left side of 
 the vertebral column as high up as the eighth or seventh dorsal vertebra, 
 passing before them, behind ductus thoracicus and aorta, into the ven. 
 azygos. The superior (the second and third) vv. intercostales sinistrce 
 generally form a trunk "(hemiazygos superior}, which opens from above 
 downwards into hemiazygos or azygos, accordingly as it has received the 
 
THE VESSELS. 343 
 
 superior ven. bronchial, sinistra. It receives vv. cesophagea, mediastin. 
 and pericardiacecB. 
 
 596. C. The cava inferior s. ascendens. 
 
 Origin : before the cartilage between the fourth and fifth lumbar 
 vertebra, behind and to the right of the bifurcation of aorta abdo- 
 minalis, by the junction of the two vv. iliacce. Course : vertical 
 from the fourth lumbar to the ninth dorsal vertebra ; on the inferior 
 surface of the liver curved rather forwards and to the right towards 
 the posterior portion of the right longitudinal fossa, it passes behind 
 this through foram. quadrilaterum of the diaphragm, immediately 
 (half an inch to three quarters of an inch) into the pericardium, 
 and there horizontally forwards and to the left into the inferior 
 posterior part of atrium dextrum. 
 
 Situation: to the right on the anterior surface of the bodies of the vertebra, 
 to the right of the aorta, behind the peritonaeum, the inferior horizontal portion 
 of the duodenum, the pancreas ; before m. psoas and the right cms of the 
 diaphragm ; above in a semi-canal of the liver. Without valves, except valv. 
 Eustachii at its mouth. Collateral branches correspond to the distribution of 
 the branches of aorta abdominalis, with the exception of art. ccdiaca and me- 
 sentericee (see the portal vein) ; they are : 
 
 1. Vv. lumbales and lumbalis ascendens. 
 
 2. Vv. spermaticae. a. Testiculares et epididymece, anastomosing with the 
 vv. pudenda they form a plexus spermalicus (s. pampiniformis), and with 
 vas deferens and the art. spermatic, the spermatic cord. They leave 
 the vas deferens on its entrance into the pelvis, and pass along the m. 
 psoas (with art. sperm.) to ven. cava inf. [the right] and v. renalis [the 
 left] ; the left behind sigmoid flexure (therefore frequently varicose [?]). 
 b. Ovaricte, from the ovary, uterus, ligg. rotund. ; they form, like vv. 
 testiculares , a plexus pampiniform. at the orifice. 
 
 3. Vv. renales, the right is shorter and passes more obliquely upwards 
 than the left, which receives the spermatica sinistra, and passes over in 
 front of the aorta. 
 
 4. Vv. suprarenales. 
 
 5. Umbilicalis (see 559). 
 
 6. Vv. phreniccs inferiores, two for each art. phrenica. 
 
 7. Vv. hepaticcB, arise from the capillary rete formed by vena portas and 
 art. hepatica in the lobules of the liver, open with eight to ten small 
 trunks along the fossa vena caves, with two to three larger from the 
 right and left lobes of the liver close under the foramen quadrilaterum, 
 at an acute angle into the vena cava. They pass from before backwards 
 (crossing also with the branches of v. portce and art. hepatica), are not 
 placed in a fibrous sheath, and are perforated like a sieve in their inte- 
 rior by the minute veins opening into them. 
 
344 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 597. I. Vena iliacce communes. 
 
 Origin : before the superior part of symphys. sacro-iliaca by the 
 junction of vv. iliacce internet, and externa, behind the division 
 of art. iliaca communis. Termination : to the right of the supe- 
 rior border of the fifth lumbar vertebra. Course: obliquely up- 
 wards and inwards. Valves are wanting. 
 
 Iliaca communis dextra \ Iliaca communis sinistra 
 is situated: behind and to the is situated: internal to and be- 
 outside of art. iliaca comm., hind its artery ; at the mouth 
 is shorter, and receives no the art. iliaca commun. dextra 
 branches. It is not compressed descends before it from left to 
 by an artery, like the left com- right; receives: V. sacra me- 
 rnon iliac vein. dia. 
 
 1. Iliaca interna s. hypogastrica corresponds to the art. hypogastrica, and its 
 branches (the v. umhilicalis, only, opens into v. portcs). Origin : generally 
 from plexus, on the walls and in the organs of the pelvis, and in the external 
 organs of generation. Course : ascends out of the pelvis before m. pyriformis 
 and symphys. sacro-iliaca, is short. Position : behind and internal to the 
 arteries of the same name. They and their branches are supplied with 
 veins. 
 
 a. Plexus hcemorrhoidalis surrounds the inferior extremity of the rectum, 
 and the mucous membrane of the orifice of the anus, is formed by Vv. 
 hcemorrh. super r., branches of v. mesenterica infer., and the vv. hce- 
 morrh. mediae and infer.; branches of v. hypogastrica. 
 
 b. Plexus vesicalis, in the male surrounds Prostata and neck of the blad- 
 der, is connected with a; receives the vv. superficiales penis, and gives 
 offtw. vesicales. In the female it is smaller, and unites with plexus va- 
 ginalis. 
 
 c. V. dor salts penis arises from the foreskin, passes (between its two ar- 
 teries) upon the back of the penis, connected with the deep veins, and 
 enters under the pubic angle through ligam. pubo-prostaticumto plex. 
 prostaticus. In the spongy tissue of corpp. cavernosa arise the branches 
 of pudenda interna. 
 
 d. Plexus vaginalis arises in the erectile tissue of the introitus vaginas, 
 connected with plex. vesicalis and hcemorrhoid. 
 
 e. Plexus uterinus. The veins of the uterus form large trunks not tortu- 
 ous, at the lateral margins (situs uterini), united together transversely, 
 and possessing erectile fibres, like the tissue of the Uterus; they unite 
 with the vv. ovaricce. 
 
 f. Vv. iliolumbalis , sacra lateralis, obluratoria, ischiadica, pudenda, glu- 
 tcea. 
 
 2. Iliaca externa s. cruralis, takes a course like the art. cruralis. In the 
 
THE VESSELS. 345 
 
 pelvis it is situated on the inside (and behind) in the femoral ring : on the inner 
 side (crural hernia passes down before it) ; below the mouth of v. saphena: 
 behind ; and at the inferior part of the thigh : on the outer side of the artery ; 
 in the popliteal region ; behind, and rather outside the art. poplitcea. In the 
 foot and leg the deep veins are double for each artery, but they take a similar 
 course. The v. iliaca externa, only, does not possess valves. 
 Cutaneous veins (with very thick walls) : 
 
 a. Saphena interna s. magna, arises from plexus dorsalis pedis, on the in- 
 ternal border of the foot, passes upon the dorsal surface of os metatarsi 
 I., and over the tarsus, curves from below upwards before the inner 
 malleolus, then ascends on the internal surface to the posterior border 
 of the tibia as far as behind condyl. intern, femor. (on the inner side of 
 the tendons of mm. semitendin., gracilis, and sartorius), inclines to the 
 front, and ascends along the anterior border of m. sartorius to the inner 
 and anterior surface of the thigh, perforates the fasc. cruralis, and sinks 
 one inch below the femoral arch into the v. femoralis. It receives the 
 cutaneous veins of the thigh, of the anterior abdominal walls and Vt. 
 pudend. externce, and branches of the deep veins. 
 
 b. Saphena externa s. parva arises from plexus dorsalis pedis, on the outer 
 border of the foot, passes round behind the external malleolus, at first 
 on the outer border of the tendo Achillis, then over this to the centre of 
 the fibula, and thus to the popliteal region, where it sinks, between 
 nerv. tibialis audfibularis, close to t;. articular infer, interna. into the 
 popliteal vein. It covers and crosses the n. peronaus twice. It receives 
 branches from the sole of the foot and leg, unites with v. saphena interna 
 at the malleolus and back of the foot ; and sometimes also opens into 
 it. 
 
 598. II. Vena portcz s.portarum, the portal vein, 
 
 forms a tolerably independent system of vessels, the roots of which 
 pass forth from the capillary rete of the organs of digestion, unite 
 into one venous trunk, which again ramifies, in a dendritic man- 
 ner, like an artery, in the liver, so that its blood passes along 
 through the vv. hepatica, again into the circulation. It corre- 
 sponds to Artt. cceliaca, mesenterica superior and inferior, with 
 the exception of art. hepatica. Origin : from the vv. mesenterica 
 superior and linealis, united at an acute angle, behind the head of 
 the Pancreas, the duodenum, in the centre before the vertebral 
 column, to the left of the Vena cava inferior. Course : from be- 
 low upwards, and from left to right, four inches long, to the left 
 extremity of the transverse fossa of the liver, in which it bifurcates. 
 Situation : behind cap. pancreatis and pars descend, duodeni, art. 
 and ductus hepaticus, before v. cava. infer. ; within the capsula 
 Glissonii, between the two layers of lig. Jiepatico-duodenale. 
 
346 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Branches : to the trunk of ven. portce also pass v. gastrica (sinis- 
 tra) superior and cystica ; from the trunk passes off in the Porta 
 (sinus v. portce) : 
 
 a. Ramus dexter, the shorter and thicker branch for the right 
 lobe of the liver. 
 
 b. Ramus sinister, for the left and the two central lobes, re- 
 ceiving in the embryo the right branch of the umbilical vein, and 
 gives offductus venosus Arantii, which unites v. portce and v. cava 
 inferior. 
 
 The two branches pass off from one another at a right angle, 
 quickly divide, continually becoming smaller, and form, at last, 
 around the glandular lobules of the liver, a capillary rete, from 
 which the vv. hepaticce come off. 
 
 1. Lienalis s. splenica arises in the cells of the spleen, passes through the 
 Hilus and transversely to the superior border of the pancreas, behind and be- 
 low art. lienalis, towards the right to the mesenterica superior. It receives 
 vv. breves, pancreaticce, gastro-epiploica sinistra, and : 
 
 a. V. mesenterica inferior. This arises from ven. hemorrhoid. superior in 
 the plexus hcBmorrhoidalis of the rectum (therefore connected with v. hy- 
 pogastrica) and vv. colicce sinistrce; passes obliquely to the right and 
 above mesocolon descendens, before the vasa renal, and behind the pan- 
 creas to the splenic vein, near to its confluence with v. mesenterica su- 
 perior, in which it even often opens. 
 
 b. Mesenterica superior. It lies on the right and anterior side of the ar- 
 tery of the same name, arises from vv. colica dextra and intestinales, 
 gastroepiplow. dextra, and receives in the embryo the v. omphalo-mese- 
 raica from the umbilical vesicle, which in the third month of foetal life, 
 together with its artery, again disappears. 
 
 Anastomoses of the portal vein : 1 . between the vv. hcemorrlioi- 
 dal. and hcemorrhoid. internet. 2. Between the veins of colon 
 transvers., descendens, and v. cava inferior. 
 
 599. Vena umbilicalis, the umbilical vein, arises in the embryo 
 from the capillary rete formed by the two artt. umbilicales in the 
 Placenta. Passing through the umbilical cord and ring into the 
 belly of the foetus, it advances to the inferior surface of the liver 
 (in the left anterior longitudinal sulcus), and bifurcates into a 
 larger connecting branch for the left branch of the portal vein, and 
 a smaller left (duclus venosus Arantii), which carries the blood 
 into the ven. cava inferior. It becomes impervious (in one month) 
 after birth, and then passes as lig. teres hepatis. It is larger than 
 the portal vein of the foetus, and valveless. Branches: about 
 twenty small ones for the liver. 
 
THE VESSELS. 347 
 
 600. The Veins of the vertebral column, 
 
 to which also w. azygos and hemiazygos belong, connect together 
 the veins of all parts of the trunk, so that, if even one of the two 
 cavoe is obstructed in any place, the circulation of the blood is, in 
 consequence, uninterrupted. They are partly external, upon the 
 arches of the vertebrae, partly internal, in the canalis spinalis, 
 and they form rete in the whole length of the vertebral column. 
 
 1. Internal: 
 
 a. Plexus 'spinales interni anteriores; they lie close upon the bones, on the 
 posterior surface of the bodies of the vertebrae ; they appear as a broad 
 longitudinal canal, consisting however of transverse canals lying close 
 together, with thin walls, connected at the foram. magnum with sinus 
 occipital.; they receive the blood from the vertebra? and the dura mater. 
 
 b. Plexus spinales interni posteriores; between dura mater and vertebral 
 arches, the meshes are wider ; they form a ring with the anterior 
 plexus between two vertebrae, besides two canals passing close to the 
 middle line ; they anastomose with the : 
 
 2. External: 
 
 a. PL spinales externi posteriores; they are placed with wide meshes upon 
 the vertebral arches between the transverse and spinous processes ; 
 more narrow in the neck (pi. colli poster.} where there is an anasto- 
 mosis with sinus transversus, (through foram. condyloid. post, and 
 mastoid.} 
 
 b. PI. spinales externi anteriores; do not exist throughout the spine ; pi. 
 colli anter., pi. sacralis. 
 
 The Lymphatic vessels, Vasa lymphatica s. resorbentia. 
 
 I. The Trunks. 
 
 601. Ductus thoracicuS) the thoracic duct, 
 
 the common trunk of the lymphatics of the entire inferior and 
 the left superior half of the body, measures transversely in width 
 two lines, has a few valves, and frequently divides into two or 
 several trunks, which again unite. 
 
 Origin : before the first to the second lumbar vertebra, to the 
 right of the Aorta, to the left of the right internal cms of the 
 diaphragm, close under the hiatus aorticus ; by the confluence of 
 three (to six) short thick ramuli, the central one of which com- 
 prises the lymphatics of the organs of digestion (chyliferous ves- 
 sels), whilst the lateral consist of the united lymphatics of the 
 inferior extremities and the pelvis. One or two of the united 
 ramuli is enlarged, one to two inches, before the commencement 
 
348 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 of duct, thoracic. ; the place is called Ampulla s. cisterna (ckyli) 
 Pecqueti, s. receptaculum chyli. Course : tortuous, before and 
 through the hiatus aorticus upwards, rather to the right on the 
 anterior surface of the bodies of the vertebra?, to the right of aorta, 
 to the left of the v. azygos. Passing almost in the central line as 
 far as to the front of the fourth dorsal vertebra, it inclines to the 
 left behind the aorta, on the left side of (esophagus, passes out on 
 the inner and posterior side of art. subclavia sinistra from the 
 thorax, and curves, before the seventh cervical vertebra and behind 
 the v. jugular, intern, sinistra, in an arched form outwards and 
 forwards to the angle between v. jugularis interna and subcla- 
 via sinistra, where, provided with a valve, it opens singly or divided. 
 Situation : the inferior part in the right, the superior in the left 
 mediastinum. 
 
 602. 2. Truncus lymphaticus dexter s. major, the right 
 
 lymphatic trunk, 
 
 receives the lymphatics of the right half of the head, neck, chest 
 (the right lung, the right heart, and half of the liver and pharynx), 
 and the right' superior extremity ; is in connexion by means of 
 branches with ductus thoracicus. It arises : about one inch above 
 the angle of vv. jugularis interna and subclavia dextra, in which 
 it opens, from three small trunks, in which the lymphatics of the 
 right arm from without, those of the right half of the chest from 
 within, those of the head and neck from above, flow together. 
 The small trunks sometimes open into the veins (subclavia jugu- 
 laris). 
 
 603. II. The Lymphatics and Lymphatic glands of the inferior 
 
 half of the body. 
 I. Inferior extremity. a. Lymphatic glands : 
 
 1. Glandula tibialis antica, lies before and above lig. interosseum; is not 
 always present ; is formed by the deep lymphatics of the foot. 
 
 2. Glandules poplit&a, two to four small glands in the poplitasal region 
 along the vasa poplitcea, formed by the deep lymphatic glands. 
 
 3. Gl. inguinales (seven to twenty), surrounding the opening of the v. 
 saphena magna, and are situated below the lig. Pouparti, in the fossa 
 (fossa ovalis) between m. psoas and pectineus on the thigh, three inches 
 in length, two in breadth. The deep (two, three to seven) are some- 
 times wanting, they are situated behind \hefascia cruralis (round about 
 the vasa cruralia), and unite through the opening in the last (where the 
 v. saphena perforates) with the superficial, which lie upon the v. saphena 
 andproc. falciform., also, immediately with the gl. iliaca by means of 
 the femoral ring. 
 
THE VESSELS. 349 
 
 b. Lymphatics : 
 
 1. The deep accompany the deep-seated blood-vessels on the anterior and 
 posterior surface of the inferior extremity. The anterior pass into the 
 gl. tibial. antica, the posterior into the gl. poplitoza, and thence along 
 the v. cruralis into the gl. inguinal, prof. 
 
 2. The superficial arise in the skin of the foot, the posterior partly from 
 the sole, corresponding with v. saphena parva; the anterior come off 
 from the back of the toes, incline inwards, ascend on the inner side of 
 the leg, then upon Sartorius to the superficial inguinal glands, accom- 
 panying the F. saphena magna. 
 
 2. The surface of the external parts of generation. The superficial lym- 
 phatics of the scrotum and penis (or the inferior portion of labia majora), be- 
 take themselves to the deep and most superior inguinal glands, also those of 
 the rectum; they correspond to the vasa pudenda externa. 
 
 3. Anterior inferior abdominal walls, the loins and buttocks. Their super- 
 ficial lymphatics, as well as some which accompany vv. epigastric, and cir- 
 cumflex, ilei, pass to the superficial and superior inguinal glands. 
 
 4. Internal surface of the pelvic and abdominal walls : 
 
 a. Lymphatic glands : 
 
 1. Gl. iliactB externce (six to eight), along the vasa iliaca externa and 
 commun. upwards to the fifth lumbar vertebra ; three thereof are placed 
 close behind the femoral ring on the outer, the inner, and anterior sur- 
 face of the femoral vessels. 
 
 2. Gl. hypogastricas (nine to twelve), upon and close to vasa hypogastrica, 
 are traversed by the lymphatics from the interior of the organs of ge- 
 neration (ras. pudenda internal. 
 
 3. Gl. sacrales (four to five), laterally before the promontorium in the me- 
 sorectum. 
 
 4. GL lumbales s. aortica (twenty to twenty-five), on the sides of the 
 aorta (especially this) and vena cava, upwards. 
 
 b. Lymphatics : 
 
 1. Plexus iliacus externus. The lymphatics pass out of the inguinal 
 glands, through fascia cribriformis, behind the v. cruralis into the 
 pelvis, under the peritoneum to the gl. iliaca, forming a plexus about 
 the artery ; on the other side to the gl. hypogastricce, where they form 
 
 2. Plexus hypogastricus, about art. hypogastrica, and also 
 
 3. Plexus sacralis on the posterior pelvic wall, passing into the 
 
 4. Plexus lumbalis (and gl. lumbalis). This plexus extends around the 
 aorta abdominal, and v. cava inferior, receives the lymphatics of the 
 kidneys, testicles, and spermatic cords, and the female internal organs 
 of generation, and forms the lateral roots of the ductus thoracicus. 
 
 5. Of the urinary organs : 
 
 1. Lymphatics of the kidneys and supra-renal capsules, are superficial 
 and deep. The last pass forth at the hilus of the kidney, form plexuses, 
 
350 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 and open into the plexus lumbalis, after they have united with those of 
 the supra-renal capsules, and received those of the ureters. 
 2. Lymphatics of the urinary bladder open into plexus hypogastricus. 
 6. Organs of generation : 
 
 1. Lymphatics of the testicle pass in the spermatic cord, and in the sper- 
 matic vessels, forming a plexus spermaticus to the plex. lumbalis. 
 
 2. Lymph, of corpora cavernosa pass with the art. pudenda under the 
 symphysis pubis to the plex. hypogastricus, to which also those of the 
 seminal vesicles and preputial glands proceed. 
 
 3. Lymph, of female internal organs of generation. Those of the collum 
 uteri pass to the plexus hypogastricus and plexus sacralis; the remain- 
 ing lymphatics of the uterus to the superior angles of the last, and 
 thence, united with those of the tubes, the ovaria, and ligg. lata, with 
 the vasa spermatica to plex. lumbalis. 
 
 604. III. The Lacteals [lymphatics] and Lymphatic Glands 
 of the organs of digestion. 
 
 1. Small intestines. a. Lymphatic glands. 
 
 Gland, mesentericce, 130 to 150, and situated in rows between the laminae 
 of the mesenterium, the largest at the origin, and at the extremity of 
 vasa mesaraica superiora. The former, are gl. duodenales, they lie be- 
 fore the duodenum; the latter are gl. ileo-colica, in the angle between 
 ileum and colon. (They readily inflame.) 
 
 b. The lymphatics are particularly numerous in the so-called Jejunum. 
 The superficial arise from the serous and muscular coats ; the deep, vasa lac- 
 tea, which, during the process of digestion carry white chyle from the villi of 
 the mucous membrane, and pass from gland to gland around the truncus cce- 
 liacus, to form the middle root of the ductus thoracicus. 
 
 2. Of the large intestines, a. Lymphatic glands. 
 
 Gland, mesocolicce, twenty to fifty, are placed connected with the gl. mesen- 
 tericcB. They are most numerous in the mesocolon transversum, along the 
 vascular arches of art. and vv. colicce. 
 
 b. Lymphatics. Those of the ccecum, colon ascendens, and transversum, 
 pass through gl. mesocolic. to the gl. mesenterica ; those of the colon descen- 
 dens and rectum to the gl. lumbales and sacrales. 
 
 3. Of the stomach, a. Lymphatic glands. 
 
 1. Gl. gastro-epiploiccB superiores (four to six) are situated in the small 
 omentum on the small curvature along the art. coronar. ventric. sinis- 
 tra. 
 
 2. GL gastro-epiploicce inferiores (six to eight) in the great omentum on the 
 great curvature, along the art. coron. ventric. dextra. They are espe- 
 cially accumulated about the ostia pyloricum and cardies, and they send 
 their vasa efferentia to the gland, coiliacce. 
 
 b. Lymphatics. The superficial form a plexus beneath the peritoneal in- 
 vestment; the deep, likewise, upon the mucous membrane, and they incline, 
 
THE VESSELS. 351 
 
 partly, to the great, partly to the lesser curvature, to the gl. lienales and gl. 
 pylorica. 
 
 4. Spleen and Pancreas, a. Lymphatic glands. 
 
 1. Gl. lienales are placed in the hilus of the spleen. 
 
 2. Gl. pancreatico3, at the superior border of the pancreas along the art. 
 splenica. 
 
 b. Lymphatics. Those of the spleen are said to carry a red lymph (Hew- 
 son) ; the superficial come from the covering, the deep from the Parenchyma; 
 they form a plexus in the hilus, and pass, with the lymphatics of the pancreas, 
 along the art . lienalis to the gl. cceliaca. 
 
 5. Of the liver, a. Lymphatic glands. 
 
 1. Gl. hepaticcB, small glands, in the porta, they pass into the 
 
 2. Gl. cceliaccs (sixteen to twenty), which are placed round about the tripus 
 Halleri, receive the lymphatics of the superior organs of digestion, and 
 assist in forming the lateral roots of the ductus thoracicus. 
 
 b. Lymphatics. Those upon the superior surface of the liver pass partly 
 forwards through the diaphragm behind the proc. ensiformis to the gl. medi- 
 astinae anticte (others to the smaller curvature of the stomach), partly from 
 before to the posterior border ; on the inferior surface of the liver they pass 
 from before, backwards : those which pass to the right of the gall-bladder, to 
 the gl. lumbales ; those which lie to the left, to the gland, cardiacce ; those 
 which surround the gall-bladder in a plexus, to the gl. hepaticce and c&liactB. 
 The deep lymphatics pass out on the ductus hepaticus, and the Ven. portoz in- 
 side the capsula Glissonii, and proceed to the same glands. 
 
 605. IV. Lymphatics and Lymphatic glands of the superior 
 half of the body. 
 
 1. Of the superior extremity, a. Lymphatic glands. 
 
 1. Gl. cubitales, two to three superficial in the bend of the elbow, three to 
 four deep at the same place above condyl. internus, behind v. basilica. 
 
 2. Gl. brachiales, five to seven small glands along the art. brachialis. 
 
 3. Gl. axillares, ten to twelve in the axilla, and round about art. axillar,, 
 connected by means of a plexus axillaris ; they receive the lymphatics of 
 the superior extremities and thoracic parietes, and pass with four to five 
 vasa efferentia into the plexus subclavius, and thence into the truncus 
 communis. ; 
 
 b. Lymphatics. The superficial pass with vv. cephalica and basilica, the 
 deep with the arteries ; both terminate in the gl. axillaris. 
 
 2. Of the external walls of the thorax. The lymphatics of the anterior 
 and lateral parietes ascend over m, pectoralis and serratus major to the 
 gl. axillares ; those of the posterior walls upwards and downwards (under 
 the tendon of m. longis. dor si), to the same. 
 
 3. Of the internal thoracic parietes. a. Lymphatic glands. 
 
 1. Gl. intercostales (sixteen to twenty); they are small, and lie close to the 
 dorsal vertebra on the anterior surface of the heads of the ribs ; some 
 
352 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 between the mm. intercostales ; they send their vasa efferentia into ductus 
 thoracicus and 
 
 2. Gl. mediastincB posteriores (eight to twelve). They are placed along the 
 aorta thoracica and oesophagus, receiving the lymphatics of the (esophagus 
 and pericardium. 
 
 3. Substernales, they pass along the art. mammaria interna, one in each in- 
 tercostal space, close to the sternum. 
 
 4. Gl. mediastincB anterior es are placed, partly (three to four) upon the dia- 
 phragm before the pericardium, partly (eight to ten) round about the arcus 
 aort., ven. cava superior and innominata at the basis cordis. Their vasa 
 afferent, come from the convex surface of the liver, the diaphragm, peri- 
 cardium, the thymus. 
 
 b. Lymphatics : 
 
 1. Plexus intercostales consists of the deep lymphatics along the artt. and 
 vv. intercostales, receive the lymphatics of the vertebral columns, pass 
 through gl. iidercostales and mediastin. poster., and into the duct, thora- 
 cicus. They have roots in the mm. Intercast, and pleura costalis. 
 
 2. PL mammarius internus. The lymphatics of the superior half of the an- 
 terior abdominal walls ascend behind proc. ensiform., united with those 
 on the external surface, by means of the gl. substernales as high upwards 
 as the gl. cervicales inferiores, and into the ductus thoracicus and truncus 
 lymph, dexter. 
 
 3. The lymphatics of the diaphragm pass to the pi. Intercast, and hepatic. 
 and to the gl. substernales. 
 
 4. Of the Thoracic viscera: a. The lymphatic glands. Glandules bronchi- 
 ales s. Vesaliance (twenty to thirty, larger) are situated along the bronchi 
 and their point of bifurcation, the largest usually at the division of trachea, 
 the smallest (gl. pulmonares) penetrate the substance of the lungs. In 
 youth yellowish white, they become in time (from the tenth year onwards) 
 darker, blue and black, and readily ossify. 
 
 b. Lymphatics of the lungs. The superficial form beneath the pleura a 
 close rete and pass, generally inwards to the gl. bronchioles at the roots of the 
 lungs. The deep arise from the lobes of the lungs and pass to gl. bronchial. 
 and gl. ossophagecB. Vasa efferentia of the bronchial glands pass to gl. trachea- 
 les and cesophag. and with these into the ductus thoracicus and trunc. lymphatic, 
 dexter.; several also into v. jugularis interna. 
 
 c. Lymphatics of the heart. The superficial, beneath the membr. serosa, 
 generally pass on the right border ; the deep arise from the internal membrane 
 of the heart ; they pass with the last from the pericardium, and sink into the 
 pi. aorticus before aorta and art. pulmon., and into the ductus thoracicus. The 
 lymphatics of the thymus gland and pericardium pass into the gl. substernales, 
 mediastin. anteriores and bronchioles. 
 
 5. Of the head and neck. a. lymphatic glands of the head. 
 1. Glandulce subauriculares, under and behind the auricle, behind the in- 
 sertion of m. sterno-cleido-mostoid.; they are, like the rest (gl. mastoidece, 
 
THE VESSELS. 353 
 
 occipitales) of the lymphatic glands of the skull (which are only found on 
 the back of the head) very small and less numerous. 
 
 2. Gl. submaxillares, the largest in the face, they lie at the basis mandibula 
 (eight to ten) and along the art. maxillaris; they open into gl. cervicales 
 superficiales. 
 
 3. Glandules parotidea, deep, lying superficially between parotis and m. 
 masseter. 
 
 4. GL zygomaticcB, under the zygoma, they open into gl. submaxillares and 
 cervical, superf. 
 
 5. Gl.faciales profunda, behind m. buccinator, and on art. maxillar. intema, 
 they receive the deep lymphatics of the face ; its cavities and the dura 
 mater; they open into gl. cervical, profunda. 
 
 b. Lymphatics of the head. The superficial accompany the art. temporal, 
 superf. to the gl. parotid., and the art. occipitalis to gl. mastoidece. The deep 
 rasa lymphatica meningea pass on the art. and v. meningea med. to the gl. ju- 
 gulares. No one has, at present, been able to follow lymphatics into the sub- 
 stance of the brain. The superficial lymphatics of the face pass along the 
 blood-vessels to the gl. submaxillares; the deep pass out from the temporal, and 
 pterygo-palatine fossae and the nasal cavities. Those of the tongue, pharynx, 
 velum palati and larynx, open into the gl.faciales prof, and gl. cervicales. 
 
 c. The lymphatic glands of the neck are placed upon its anterior surface. 
 
 1. Gl. cervicales superficiales are situated generally along the F. jugular, 
 externa, in the triangular space between clavicula, mm. sterno-cleido- 
 mastoid. and trapezius, covered by plat ysmamy aides; also several small 
 ones under the os hyoides. 
 
 2. Gl. cervicales profundce pass in numbers along the V. jugular, and carotis 
 intern., from the process, mastoid., as far downwards as the superior open- 
 ing of the cavity of the thorax, before the vertebral column on the sides 
 of the pharynx and oesophagus, and are connected with gl. tracheales. 
 
 d. The lymphatics of the neck come from the pharynx, ossophagus, larynx, 
 trachea, pass through the gl. cervicales, and out of these into a common trunk, 
 which empties itself upon the left side into the ductus thoracicus, upon the 
 right into the truncus lymphaticus dexter. 
 
 23 
 
OF THE NERVES, 
 
 NEUROLOGIA. 
 
 " The knowledge, then, of what is termed the Economy of an Animal 
 Body is to be acquired only by an intimate acquaintance with the distri- 
 bution and uses of the nerves ; and this knowledge of the natural relations 
 leads directly to the comprehension of the signs of disturbed function, or the 
 symptoms of disease." Sir C. BELL. The Nervous System of the Human 
 Body. Preface, 3d edition. 
 
 " At first this intricate network seems accidental ; neither arrangement 
 nor system is apparent ; but when the minute twig discovered by one anato- 
 mist in London is as surely found by another at Pavia, as two astronomers, 
 at different spots on the globe, trace in the heavens, with the same certainty, 
 the discoveries of Herschel, there can no longer be a doubt of the nerves 
 being distributed with regularity and system. 
 
 " There is no such thing as a nerve deviating or being wanting (an occur- 
 rence frequent in the vascular system), without the loss of some essential 
 faculty." Introduction. 
 
NEUROLOGY. 
 
 LITERATURE : 
 
 Bell, Sir C. Nervous System of the Human Body, 3d edit. 1844, and 
 
 Papers in Phil. Trans. 1821, and after. 
 Art. " Nervous Centres." Cycl. of Anat. and Phys. 
 
 " Ganglion." Idem. 
 
 Solly. Anat. and Phys. of the Human Brain. New edition. 
 
 Clark, Le Gros. Practical Anat. and Elementary Phys. of the Nervous 
 
 System. 1836. 
 Animal Electricity. Art. Cycl. of Anat. and Phys. 
 
 Luminousness. Idem. 
 
 Burrowes. Cerebral Circulation. Lumleian Lect. 1843, Med. Gaz. vol. 
 
 xxxii. 
 
 Mayo's Anat. and Phys. Commentar. EeiVs Essays. 
 Longet. (In French.) Anat. et Phys. du Systeme Nerveux. 
 Hatt's, Marshall, Works. On the Nervous System. 1843. 
 Reid. Edin. Med. and Surg. Journal, vol. xlix. and li. 
 Swan. A Demonstration of the Nerves of the Human Body. 
 Burrowes. Med. Gaz. vol. xvi. 
 T. W. King. The Course of the Motor Cords ; also on Reflex Action. 
 
 Med. Times, Nov. 1844. 
 E. Cock. Obs. on the Gangl. Enlargement of the Pneumo-gastric Nerves. 
 
 Guy's Hosp. Rep. vol. ii. p. 311. 
 J.Hilton. Distribution, &c. of the Laryngeal Nerves. Guy's Hosp. Rep. 
 
 vol. ii. p. 514. 
 
357 
 
 THE NERVES, NEUROLOGIA. 
 
 606. The nervous system, sy sterna nervosum, the organ of 
 psychical life, of sensation, and (in reciprocal action with the mus- 
 cular tissue) also that of motion, consists of two principal portions, 
 the central and peripheral, both of which are uninterruptedly united 
 together, and are not even different in substance. The central ner- 
 vous mass is compressed into the cranium and medullary canal of 
 the spine ; the peripheral penetrates (as nerves) the organs of the 
 body, and spreads itself out like the branches of a tree from the 
 central portion. 
 
 607. 1. The tissue of the Nervous system. 
 
 It consists of two portions, opposed to one another, which are 
 found in the nerves as well as in the central portions ; these are : 
 
 608. a. The primitive fibres. They are cylindrical, isolated in 
 their whole course, undivided, with soft, peculiar contents, and sur- 
 rounded by a delicate envelope. In the nerves we observe an 
 external sheath, consisting of fibres of uniting tissue, which, taking 
 a longitudinal direction, are connected with the envelope of the whole 
 nerve, and an internal delicate limiting membrane, which appears 
 to consist of fibres arranged spirally, and closely surrounds the 
 nervous contents (neurine) of the primitive fibre. Both sheaths 
 become transparent by means of dilute acetic acid. The neurine 
 is (in the fresh state) homogeneous, milk-white, soft, readily coagu- 
 lated by cold, alcohol, common salt, &c., and then presents in the 
 middle a central stripe (cylinder axis Purkinje), which is not yet 
 coagulated. In consequence of yielding or laceration, whilst ma- 
 cerating in water, the primitive fibres appear knotty (varicose). 
 In the central parts, the primitive fibres are more delicate, and are 
 not surrounded by an external sheath ; but they are, otherwise, in 
 the same condition as in the nerves. They form the white sub- 
 stance of the former. 
 
 609. b. Ganglion globules (globuli gangliorum), the nucleated 
 bodies of the nerves, form kidney-shaped, three or four-cornered 
 cells, in which is found a clear vesicular nucleus, and within this a 
 nucleolus. The contents of the cell are soft, granular, brownish 
 yellow, or gray. The nucleolus yellowish brown, solid. They 
 are probably surrounded by an internal sheath, but fixed by an 
 external (often reddish) fibrous capsule. They are placed in masses 
 
358 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 between and round about the primitive nervous fibres. Their ex- 
 ternal vaginal processes give a weak, gray appearance (especially 
 to the n. sympathicus), misled by which they have been regarded 
 as vegetative, organic, nervous fibres, since they stand in relation 
 with forms of uniting tissue, only (Valentin). 
 
 The ganglion globules of the central portions are extremely deli- 
 cate and difficult to isolate ; the vaginal formation is here, also, 
 doubtful. They form the gray, yellow, and brown substance of 
 the brain and spinal marrow. 
 
 The white or medullary substance is formed of primitive fibres. 
 The gray or cortical substance of ganglion globules ; it is more 
 plentifully supplied with vessels than the white. 
 
 610. 2. The chemical elements. 
 
 The medullary substance of the brain consists of four-fifths water ; 
 Cholesterine ; Cerebric acid, free, or united with soda or phosphate 
 of lime; Oleophosphoric acid, free, and with soda; Oleineand Mar- 
 garine; Oleic and Margaric acids; Albumen, with sulphur (Fremy). 
 Moreover, the sheaths of the nerves, with vessels and uniting tissue, 
 are to be attended to in the examination. The medullary substance 
 contains more fat, the cortical substance more albumen, the spinal 
 marrow more fat and less albumen, the nerves more albumen than 
 the brain. (Vauquelin). 
 
 611. The peripheral portion of tfo Nervous system, 
 
 nerves, nervi, are long portions formed of bundles (fasciculi), lying 
 close together, and cords (funiculi) of primitive fibres, which place 
 the surfaces of the body and muscles in connexion with the central 
 portions, and are, partly, the conductors of sensations from the 
 periphery to the centre ; partly, the conductors of movements from 
 the latter to the former. There are two kinds, white and gray : 
 
 The white nerves (animal or cerebro-spinal) are strong, bright, 
 transversely striped, spread out in the muscles of the trunk and in 
 the skin, and are surrounded by a sheath of strong, fibrous, uniting 
 tissue, the Neurilemma, which blends, externally, with the amor- 
 phous uniting tissue of the surrounding parts ; internally, in the 
 outer sheath of the delicate nervous fasciculi (see before). The 
 primitive fibres of the white nerves (diam. 0*080 0*084 of a line) 
 are strongest in the muscles of voluntary motion, and most delicate 
 in the nerves of the senses. 
 
 The gray nerves (vegetative) are soft (see nervi molles), but 
 tolerably strong, diaphanous, reddish gray, not transversely striped ; 
 their neurilemma very strong, and provided with an annular layer. 
 
THE NERVES. 359 
 
 They form a plexus about the vessels (which serve for their sup- 
 port), and proceed to the involuntary muscles (see n. sympathicus). 
 The more primitive fibres there are found in them, the more they 
 resemble the white nerves, e. g. the nerves of the heart. 
 
 1. Course. Every primitive fibre passes uninterruptedly, and 
 without branches, from the central to the peripheral extremity, 
 generally outwards and downwards. The nerves mostly enter the 
 organs from within; or rather, they pass to their actually free 
 surface. 
 
 2. Combinations take place in this way, only that fasciculi pass 
 over from one nervous trunk into another, the primitive fibres 
 always passing in an isolated condition,' never coalescing with one 
 another. The different kinds of combination are as follows : 
 
 a. Anastomosis, loops. A part of the fasciculus of a trunk is 
 detached, and passes away as a distinct branch (ramus). It 
 goes into the sheath of another trunk, and applies itself to 
 this, thus forming a simple anastomosis. When an inter- 
 change of fasciculi takes place between two trunks, a re- 
 ciprocal and decussating anastomosis arises. 
 
 b. An interlacement, plexus, signifies the combination of anasto- 
 mosing branches into a network, the meshes of which are 
 empty, or are filled by other tissues. From each root of the 
 plexus each of the nerves passing off from it contains, at last, 
 separate fasciculi. Plexus gangliosus signifies a plexus, the 
 meshes of which are filled up with ganglion globules. 
 
 c. Nervous ganglia, ganglion nervosum, is a smaller or larger 
 intumescence, formed by the accumulation of peripheral 
 ganglion globules. In addition to these, their sheaths and 
 vaginal processes, a larger or smaller number of primitive 
 fibres are found in it which pass through the ganglion, 
 singly, or forming a plexus, and entwining about the glo- 
 bules. The ganglion is surrounded by a strong neurilemma, 
 in which the capillary vessels ramify. 
 
 612. 3. Origin and terminations. The roots of the nerves 
 are the immediate continuations of the primitive fibres of the brain 
 and spinal cord. The posterior roots contain finer, the anterior 
 coarser, fibres. United into fasciculi and trunks, they divide, as 
 before described, and, finally, spread out in the substance of the 
 organs in loops, so that the primitive fibre is reflected at its ex- 
 tremity and returns to the centrum, no proper termination to it 
 being present. 
 
 The plexus, in which the terminations of the nerves resolve 
 
360 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 themselves, are, like the capillaries, variable, according to the 
 organs into which they enter. 
 
 In the contractile tissues (muscles, and so forth), the nerves are 
 said (by C. Burdach) to terminate with narrow loops, in the parts 
 endowed with sensation (the skin, organs of the senses, &c.), with 
 plexuses and wide loops. 
 
 Moreover, each single muscular fibre and cell of an organ is 
 not pervaded by a corresponding nerve fibre. 
 
 4. The vessels (capillary and lymphatic) of the nerves are dis- 
 persed in their neurilemma. 
 
 [Pacinian bodies, corpuscles. Observed by Pacini in 1831. 
 " Small corpuscles or globules, of an elliptical figure to the 
 eye, dull white or opalescent, of about two-thirds of a line long, 
 lying attached to the digital branches of the median and ulnar 
 nerves." They are also found along the nerves of the sole of the 
 foot. See the article in Cycl. of Anat. and Physiol.]. 
 
 613. The Central parts , 
 
 brain and spinal cord, consist of the same elements as the peri- 
 pheral. The primitive fibres and ganglion globules are accumu- 
 lated in masses, and united into definite shapes, which are not 
 separated from one another by means of external sheaths. 
 
 The white substance consists of fasciculi of primitive fibres 
 which are continued from the nerves, interlace, decussate, and 
 either pass through the gray substance of the central organs or 
 receive it between them. According to Valentin there are, even 
 here, no terminations to the nerves ; but, as in the peripheral, 
 only places for their reflection ; so that every primitive fibre is 
 closed in a circular manner, and by that it might be decided that 
 in the central organs no other fibres exist as such which continue 
 into the nerves. 
 
 The gray substance exists under different colours, partly as ex- 
 ternal (the cortex of the brain), partly as internal (in the spinal 
 marrow) masses, in the deep layers of which (in the brain) fibres 
 are also found, together with the ganglion globules (Lauth). 
 
 1. The spinal cord sends off from thirty-one to thirty-two nerves 
 upon either side, the posterior roots of which are subservient to 
 sensation, those of the anterior to motion. Higher upwards the 
 fibres of these roots decussate in the medulla oblongata, as the 
 right pass off to the left, and the reverse. From this point (almost) 
 all the fibres pass upwards into the brain through Pom Varolii in 
 the crura cerebri, and partly into the cerebellum. 
 
 According to Budge, the spinal cord contains motor fibres in its 
 
THE NERVES. 361 
 
 whole thickness ; according to Valentin, the nervous fibres of the 
 flexor muscles are situated in the anterior columns of the spinal 
 cord and pass over those of the extensor muscles in the posterior. 
 The motor and sensitive nerves of the viscera pass along in the 
 spinal marrow (See IV. sympathicus). 
 
 2. The brain sends off twelve pairs of nerves. These are, 
 partly, nerves of sensation (and of the senses), partly nerves of 
 motion, and partly of both together (mixed nerves). They are 
 abstractedly of the three nerves of the higher senses (for smell, 
 sight, hearing), which may be considered as parts of the brain, in 
 accordance with the spinal nerves, and the skull has been regarded 
 as consisting of three vertebrae. Accordingly there might be an 
 anterior (n. oculo-motor, abducens trigeminus] and a posterior in- 
 tervertebral nerve of the skull (N. glossopharyng., vagus with 
 accessorius and hypoglossus). We cannot, however, refer to, in 
 all, an anterior and posterior root. They arise from the posterior 
 part of the basis of the brain. 
 
 The hemispheres of the cerebrum, carp. caUosum, hypophysis 
 and pineal gland, are the means neither of motion nor sensation ; 
 it appears, accordingly, as if the mental functions (thought) were 
 dependent upon them. 
 
 In the cerebellum the nerves of the large intestines, of the blad- 
 der and organs of generation, terminate; in the optic tubercles and 
 striated bodies those of the stomach and small intestines ; in the 
 corpora quadrigemina (by going through Pans Varolii) the nerves 
 of the trunk. 
 
 The vessels of the central parts are very fine, and consist of the 
 primary vascular coat only ; they form close rete in the gray, but 
 are more sparingly diffused in the white substance. They spread 
 out on the surface in the pia mater (see after), and from here sup- 
 ply the substance (and from the processes which the last sends into 
 the cerebral cavities, as plexus choroidei). The arteries quickly 
 pass into capillary vessels. Lymphatic vessels are not known in 
 the substance, but probably in the envelopes. For the membranes 
 of the brain, see Brain and Spinal Marrow, 624. 
 
 614. The Brain, Encephalon, 
 
 is a mass consisting of nervous substance, which, surrounded by 
 three concentric membranes, fills up the cranial cavity, and con- 
 tains, in its interior, four spaces connected together. Its surface is 
 covered by a gray (cortical) substance, from one to one and a half 
 lines thick, the (medullary) substance lying under that is white. 
 
362 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Weight : from three and a half to four pounds and one-third ; 
 greatest longitudinal diameter, six inches ; transverse, five inches ; 
 vertical, four and three-quarter inches. It is divided into the three 
 following portions : 
 
 615. 1. The great brain, cerebrum, fills up the cranial cavity, 
 with the exception of thefossce occipitales inferiores, is semi-oval, 
 four inches deep, about three pounds weight, and rests with its basis 
 upon the anterior and central cranial fossae, and upon the tentorium 
 cerebelli. A deep fissure divides the cerebrum into two lateral 
 halves or hemispheres, of equal size, each of which contains, in 
 the interior, a cavity (ventriculus lateralis), consists of three lobes, 
 and which, on the surface, are distinguished by the convolutions, 
 gyri, like intestines, which are limited by irregular fossae (suki) 
 not very deep, and which do not generally correspond upon the 
 two hemispheres. On the inferior surface of the brain we see, in 
 the middle from before to behind, proceeding from the centre of the 
 brain, also before and between the crura cerebri, a perforated place, 
 the substantia perforata media, before it two roundish tubercles, 
 corpora mamillaria, before these a gray enlargement, tuber cine- 
 reum, elongated into the infundibulum to which the glandula pi- 
 tuitaria is connected. Before the tuber cinereum the decussation 
 of the optic nerves presents itself. Upon both sides of the basis 
 cerebri we see the fossa Sylvii, which separates the anterior from 
 the middle cerebral lobes, and the origin of the twelve pairs of 
 nerves, of which the olfactory nerve is situated in a particular ex- 
 cavation. Behind that part of the hemispheres which is situated 
 over the cerebellum is a little hollowed out. On the external sur- 
 face of the brain we see a fissure, the continuation of the fossa 
 Sylvii, which separates it into a horizontal and ascending portion. 
 The superior surface presents the great longitudinal fissure, fissura 
 cerebri longitudinalis, and the irregular gyri and sulci. On the 
 internal surfaces of the hemispheres, which are turned towards 
 each other, there is a tolerably constant gyrus fornicatus which 
 forms an arch around the great cerebral commissure. We gene- 
 rally admit three lobes on each hemisphere ; but according to 
 Arnold and others we must receive five, an anterior, middle, supe- 
 rior, posterior, and the Insula or lobus intermedius (according to 
 Burdach, lobus caudicis). The last presents the gyri breves. 
 
 ' 616. 2. The small brain, cerebellum, is situated in the inferior 
 cranial fossa, covered by the tentorium. It projects a little behind 
 the posterior cerebral lobes, is roundish and flattened from above 
 downwards ; its transverse diameter measures four inches, its Ion- 
 
THE NERVES. 363 
 
 gitudinal two and a half, the vertical two. Weight, four ounces ; 
 it is said to be greater in the female than in the male (Cuvier). In 
 proportion to the size of the great brain in children =1 : 20, in the 
 adult =1 :7. Its superior surface is divided by a projecting line 
 from before to behind into two sloping, its inferior by a fissure, 
 vattecula, into two rounded lateral halves, hemisphceria cerebelli, 
 which are convex below, and have between them at their posterior 
 circumference a triangular space, which receives the tentorium and 
 the crista occipitalis interna. The anterior boundary presents a 
 crescentic excavation, incisura marginalis anterior^ which sur- 
 rounds the corpp. quadrigemina ; before it protuberantia annula- 
 ris is situated; and from it proceed the crura cerebelli ad pontem, 
 ad corpp. quadrigemi?ia and ad medullam oblongatam. Between 
 the two hemispheres the process, vermiform,, is situated, which is 
 divided by a transverse fissure, sulcus. transvers. Reilii, into a 
 superior and inferior portion, and forms the roof of the fourth ven- 
 tricle. Other transverse fissures give to the surface of the lesser 
 brain a laminated appearance. 
 
 617. 3. The central portion of the brain, mesencephalon, isth- 
 mus encephali^ consists of several parts at the basis and in the inte- 
 rior of the brain, which unite together the large and small brains 
 and the spinal marrow. To this belong : medulla oblongata, pans 
 Varolii, crura cerebri and corpp. quadrigemina. 
 
 Parts of the Central and Great Brain. 
 
 618. I. On the Basis. 
 
 1. The medulla oblongata, the conical enlargement at the supe- 
 rior extremity of the spinal marrow (bulbus medulla), the imme- 
 diate continuation of which it is, and with which it forms an obtuse 
 angle, is from fourteen to fifteen lines long, nine broad, sk thick ; 
 it commences at the foramen magnum and terminates at thepons 
 Varolii, as its anterior surface rests upon the clivus. It contains 
 white and gray substance intermingled, and presents on its anterior 
 surface a longitudinal fissure which goes as far as the pons, and a 
 posterior which expands into the fourth cerebral ventricle. On 
 each half, which arises by this arrangement, we see three enlarge- 
 ments : 
 
 a. Corpora pyramidal,ia, the anterior pyramids, lying close to- 
 gether. Each of these is a white narrow (below one line and a 
 half, above two lines) fasciculus of fibres which decussate with the 
 fibres of the other side in its inferior third only, and above pass into 
 thepons Varolii. 
 
364 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 b. Corpora olivaria, much shorter than the last (six lines long), 
 on the outer side of which they are placed, directed downwards 
 and inwards. Above they are separated from pons Varolii by a 
 deep fossa, below they are bounded by arched fibres, internally by 
 the roots of N. hypoglossus, and they reach as far as the central 
 line. On their outer border, fasciculi of fibres ascend from the 
 spinal cord (funiculus siliquce externus), and pass through pons 
 Varolii to the sides of corpp. quadrigemina (crura ad corp. qua- 
 drig.}, and form the superior roof of the aquceductus Sylvii. 
 
 The posterior surface of the medulla oblongata is covered by the 
 cerebellum, and presents above a V-shaped fissure, calamus scrip - 
 torius, which forms the anterior wall of the fourth ventricle ; 
 externally the 
 
 c. Corpora restiformia s. crura cerebelli inferiora, the posterior 
 pyramids, the superior extremity of which is enlarged in the form 
 of a nipple, and are, in a manner, the roots of the cerebellum, con- 
 sist of tortuous fibres. 
 
 2. Pons Varolii s. protuberantia annularis, white, cubical, 
 placed above med. oblong, from the centre of clivus to the proc. 
 clinoid. postt., in a depression before the small brain, below the 
 corpp. quadrigem. and the cerebrum. In the middle of the inferior 
 surface, directed obliquely upwards and forwards, it presents a 
 longitudinal sulcus (for art. basilaris), on the sides of which the 
 prolongations of the corpp. pyramidalia proceed ; farther, trans- 
 verse fibres, from which the crura cerebelli pass off; and from be- 
 tween which N. trigeminus arises. From the anterior border, the 
 crura cerebri pass forth ; from the lateral, the crura cerebelli ; at 
 the posterior, the pyramids enter. The superior surface forms the 
 floor of the fourth ventricle. 
 
 3. Crura cerebri, two thick, cylindrical, white cords, six lines 
 long, diverging from the anterior border of the pons, forwards, up- 
 wards and outwards to the great brain, where they become broader 
 and flatter, and are embraced by tractus nerv. opticorum. Below 
 and at the sides free, they unite above with the corpp. quadrige- 
 mina and crura cerebelli superiora. They form the continuations 
 of the pyramids. Between them is a triangular space which is 
 filled up by the three following parts : 
 
 4. Substantia perforata media, basis ventriculi 3 ; this gray 
 perforated plate consists of two triangular fasciculi (separated 
 from the crura cerebri by a black line), and forms the poste- 
 rior part of the. floor of the third ventricle. Here arises N. 
 oculomotorius. 
 
 5. Corpora mamillaria s. bulbi fornicis, two half globules, the 
 
THE NERVES. 365 
 
 size of a pea, externally white, internally gray, (in the foetus, one 
 only,) separated by a fissure, united by means of gray matter ; 
 they form the extremities of the anterior, descending crura of the 
 for nix. 
 
 6. Tuber cinereum, a gray, soft mass in the triangular space 
 between (and before) the corp. mamittar. and tracti optici, the floor 
 of the third ventricle; above it lies the commissura anterior ; 
 under it the 
 
 7. Infundibulum, a reddish, hollow body, directed obliquely 
 forwards, two lines long, to which 
 
 8. Hypophysis (s. glandula pituitaria) is attached. It consists 
 of an anterior larger and whiter, and a posterior smaller and 
 yellowish lobule, lies in the sella turcica, is very vascular, and 
 weighs from five to ten grains ; on its sides the plexus caver- 
 nosi. In the fetus and the lower animals hollow. 
 
 9. Tractus nervorum opticorum, two white, flat bands, fifteen 
 lines long, arising behind from thalamus oplicus and corp. genicu- 
 latum ; they wind around the crura cerebri on the outside and be- 
 hind, at the place where they enter into the brain, then pass, on the 
 outer side of tuber cinereum, inwards and forwards, and unite be- 
 fore the tuber cinereum. 
 
 10. Chiasma nervorum opticorum, a quadrangular flattened 
 ganglion, the internal fibres of which decussate, while the external 
 pass directly forwards; it lies before the hypophysis, behind the 
 lamina cribrosa. Its anterior border is united, by means of a 
 vertical lamina terminalis, with the anterior commissure, which is 
 situated above it. From this the optic nerves pass off. 
 
 1 1 . Lamina cribrosa cerebri s. substantia perforata anterior, a 
 thin, white plate before the ckiasma, perforated by many vessels, 
 bounded in front by the commencement of corp. callosum. From 
 it the olfactory nerves arise. 
 
 619. II. The Azygos Parts in the centre of the Cerebrum. 
 
 1. Corpus callosum s. commissura maxima, a white flat band, 
 three and a half inches long, eight to ten lines broad, and two to 
 three thick, in the centre between the great hemispheres (one inch 
 distant from their anterior, two from their posterior border), visible 
 from above in the deep longitudinal fissure, consisting of transverse 
 fibres (stria transverse^ Wittisii). Its superior arched surface 
 presents two longitudinal striae (strice longitudinaks Lancisii), 
 between which a slight depression is found (raphe) ; upon it the 
 artt. callosfB and the free border offalx cerebri are situated. Its 
 
366 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 inferior concave surface forms upon either side the roof of the la- 
 teral ventricle, is situated in the middle line, in front, above the 
 septum ; behind^ above the fornix. Its posterior thick and free 
 extremity (spknium) with the lyra s. psalterium, that is, the in- 
 ferior transverse fibres, covers the corpp. quadrigemina and coro- 
 narium, and touches the monticulus cerebetti. Its anterior extre- 
 mity is reflected upon itself (genu), and passes from above down- 
 wards and from before backwards, terminating, in a beaked man- 
 ner (rostrum), before the commissura anterior at the basis of the 
 cerebrum. 
 
 2. Septum pellucidmn, the translucent partition, a thin, trian- 
 gular, vertical plate higher before than behind, expanded between 
 the anterior part of corp. callosum and the fornix, consists of two 
 layers (between which the canal, septi pellucidi [fifth ventricle]), 
 and forms the internal walls of. the lateral ventricle. 
 
 3. Fornix, a )( shaped medullary arch, passing in the direction 
 of the corp. callosum, consists of two laminae which, beneath the 
 septum, are placed close to one another, between and upon the 
 optic tubercles, and before and behind separate from each other. 
 Its anterior crura (columnce) incline downwards and forwards 
 around the optic tubercles, in consequence of which a semilunar 
 space, foramen Monroi, arises (through which the lateral com- 
 municates with the third ventricle). They then curve between 
 thalamus and corpus striatum to the corp. mammillaria, and, 
 from these, may be traced, as far as tcenia semicircularis and 
 corpp. quadrigemina, backwards, to the optic tubercles. Its pos- 
 terior crura are more widely separated from one another (between 
 them the lyra), and curve round the posterior surface of the tha- 
 lamus outwards and downwards to the pedes Hippocampi in the 
 lateral ventricles. 
 
 4. Conarium s. glandula pinealis, a conical reddish-gray cor- 
 puscle (four lines long, two to three lines broad), between the two 
 anterior of the corpp. quadrigemina, invested with Pia mater, 
 surrounded by Vv. Galeni, is situated behind the commis. poste- 
 rior of the third ventricle, below the lyra, its free apex directed 
 backwards. It is connected by means of two crura with the optic 
 tubercles, is sometimes hollow, and contains the yellow and white 
 sand of the brain (phosphate and carbonate of lime). 
 
 5. Corpora quadrigemina s.bigemina (lobus opticusofihe lower 
 animals), are the two larger anterior (nates) and the two smaller 
 posterior (testes) elevations which are situated in a quadrangle of 
 ten lines long and eight broad at the superior extremity of the 
 crura cerebri above the commencement of aquceduct. Sylvii (hence 
 
THE NERVES. 367 
 
 pons Sylvii) under the splenium fornwis, before the cerebellum, 
 behind the optic tubercles. In front fibres pass to the optic tuber- 
 cles and the commissura posterior of the third ventricle, behind 
 they enter the crura cerebelli superiora. 
 
 620. The Ventricles of the Brain. 
 
 1. The lateral ventricles, ventriculi laterales s. tricornes. Each 
 hemisphere of the cerebrum contains a large L-shaped cavity, 
 which is situated rather towards the basis, separated from the other 
 by the septum pettucidum andforniz only, and in communication 
 by means of theforam . Monroi. It is partly filled with the plexus 
 choroideus. Its roof (centrum semiovale Vieussens) consists of 
 the transverse fibres of the corp. ccdlosum. We distinguish four 
 portions : 
 
 a. Cetta lateralis, the lateral chamber, is the central, superior, 
 longitudinal space, which is deeper internally in the angle between 
 septum andfornix on the one side, and thalamus and corp. stria- 
 turn on the other, than externally. Corp. striatum and thalamus 
 form its floor. 
 
 1. Corpus striatum, a club-shaped, gray mass, perforated by 
 veins, which passes backwards into a point, and is situated in 
 a deep fossa on a plane with the insula (foss. Sylvii), on the 
 outer side of tludamus. It is traversed by white striae which 
 penetrate the thalamus. 
 
 2. Thalamus nervi optici, the optic tubercle. Its superior, 
 vaulted, longitudinal surface looks into the lateral ventricle 
 (covered by plexus choroides) ; before it the anterior crus of 
 iheforniz curves downwards ; the corpus striatum surrounds 
 it externally (separated by stria cornea [tienia semicircu- 
 laris]), with which it forms a centrum for the hemisphere, 
 and is associated with that of the thalamus of the other side 
 by means of commissura mollis ; its internal vertical sur- 
 face forms the lateral wall of the third ventricle ; beloiv, it 
 receives the crus cerebri in an excavation, and behind and in- 
 ternally it joins the posterior commissure. Quite internally 
 on the posterior surface, above the crus cerebri, external and 
 
 . internal to the corpp. quadrigemina, are situated upon either 
 side the two geniculate bodies, the corp. geniculatum inter- 
 num which passes into one of the anterior, and externum 
 which blends with one of the posterior of the corp. quadri- 
 gemina. 
 
 3. Stria cornea \tcenia semicircularis], a white, band-like, me- 
 
368 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 dullary stripe between corp. striatum and thalamus ; above 
 which is situated the lamina cornea, that is, a thickening of 
 the internal membrane of the ventricle (with the vena striata). 
 
 b. Cornu anterius. It extends from the lateral chamber before 
 the clavate extremity of corpus striatum, forwards, downwards, 
 and outwards, into the anterior lobe of the brain. The anterior 
 cornu is bounded before by the genu of corp. callosum, internally 
 by septum pellucidum. 
 
 c. Cornu posterius s. cavitas digitata passes from the posterior 
 extremity of the lateral chamber into the posterior lobes of the 
 brain, is externally convex, behind pointed, very insignificant, is 
 situated near the basis, and presents on its inferior wall a gray 
 projection [Hippocampus minor], which depends upon a convo- 
 lution on the base of the brain, and is covered by white medullary 
 striae which give to it a digitate appearance (pes hippocampi mi- 
 nor}, and pass on to blend with thefornix. 
 
 d. Cornu descendens s. inferius, extends in an arched form from 
 the posterior extremity ofcella lateralis, around the optic thalamus 
 and crus cerebri, forwards and downwards into the middle cere- 
 bral lobe. Its superior concave wall is placed close upon the in- 
 ferior convex, which forms the 
 
 Pes hippocampi major, cornu Ammonis. This is a cylindrical 
 enlargement, thicker before and curved within, on the internal 
 concave border of which a narrow thick edging, tcenia(s.fimbria), 
 and under that a gray, notched stripe, fascia dentata, is found. 
 The external surface consists of whiter, the internal of gray, spiral, 
 convoluted substance ; the white passes on to the corpus callosum 
 andforniz; the gray depends upon a convolution at the basis of 
 the brain. (Compare pes hippoc. minor.} 
 
 2. The middle cerebral ventricle, ventriculus tertius, a narrow 
 fissure in the middle line, above and behind broader, near the basis 
 of the cerebrum, lying between the two optic thalami which form 
 its lateral walls, and are covered with gray matter. Its floor is 
 curved downwards; its posterior portion, white and strong, in- 
 clined forwards, corresponds to the space between the crura cerebri ; 
 its funnel-shaped centre, to the corpp. mammillaria and infundi- 
 bulum ; its anterior portion extends as far as to the posterior bor- 
 der of the chiasma. 
 
 Anterior wall, formed by crura anter.fornicis, before this com- 
 missura anterior and lamina terminalis, presents the for am. 
 Monroi. The posterior wall, formed by corpp. quadrigem., com- 
 missur a posterior, presents under this the aditus ad aquceductu m 
 Sylvii. The roof is formed byfornix zu&lyra. 
 
THE NERVES. 369 
 
 Openings : 
 
 1. Foramen Monroi, in front and above, leads into the right 
 and left lateral ventricles. 
 
 2. Aditus ad aquceductum Sylvii, behind. 
 
 3. Aditus ad infundibulum, below, leads into the infundibulum. 
 Commissures : 
 
 1. C. anterior, a white cylindrical cord, passing before the an- 
 terior crura of theforniz from one hemisphere to the other. 
 From it the lamina terminalis passes vertically downwards 
 to the chiasma. 
 
 2. C. Posterior, smaller than the last, in other respects like it, 
 uniting the two thalami, lying before the corpp. quadrigemina, 
 under the pineal gland with which it is united. 
 
 3. C. mollis, a gray band stretched like a bridge between the 
 anterior extremities of the thalami, passes transversely through 
 the centre, nearer to the roof than to the floor of the cerebral 
 ventricles. 
 
 3. The Aqueduct of Sylvius [iter a tertio ad quartum ventri- 
 culum], a three-sided canal, passes from the posterior extremity 
 of the third ventricle, backwards and downwards, under the pineal 
 gland [its commissure and the posterior commissure] and the corpp. 
 quadrigemina, above the centre of the crura cerebri to the fourth 
 ventricle. 
 
 4. The fourth ventricle, ventriculus quartus s. cerebelli, a rhom- 
 boidal space between the cerebellum and the isthmus, the former 
 of which forms the posterior wall (roof), the latter (the floor). It 
 is broad in the centre, in front narrow, and it passes backwards 
 into a point. The floor, that is, above, the posterior surface of the 
 pans Varolii, below, that of the medulla oblong., is rhomboidal, 
 and bounded laterally, below, by corpp. restiformia. The roof 
 consists above of the crura cerebelli superiora and valvula magna, 
 in the centre of the vermis inferior ; below, of a fibrous plate 
 from the neurilemma of the spinal marrow. The superior angle 
 receives, below, the valvula magna of aquceductus Sylvii ; the 
 lateral angle reaches to the corpus rhomboid, of the cerebellum ; 
 the inferior angle presents a fissure between medulla oblongata 
 and cerebrum, through which the fluid in the fourth ventricle com- 
 municates with that beneath the arachnoidea of the spinal cord. 
 The interior is smooth, covered with a serous membrane, and 
 contains, like the other cerebral ventricles, a plexus choroideus. 
 
 24 
 
370 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 The Parts of the Cerebellum. 
 
 621. I. On the hemispheres. 
 
 1. The superior lobes. They are, an anterior layer, and a poste- 
 rior crescentic ; both are separated by the sulcus horizontalis from 
 
 2. The inferior lobes. These exist in greater number according 
 as they are arbitrarily divided. We usually distinguish an anterior 
 (lob. biventer), posterior, middle lobes, and 
 
 a. Tonsilla (s. lobus medulla oblongatce) ; lying, generally, in- 
 ternally in a depression on the anterior and middle lobes, be- 
 hind and close to the corp. restiforme of its side, surrounding 
 with its internal concave surface the medull. oblongata, and 
 extending, with its anterior extremity inwards, into the fourth 
 ventricle. 
 
 b. Flocculus (lobul. nervi pneumo-gastrici), placed behind the 
 crus cerebelli ad pontem and 2V. vagus, below Nn. facialis 
 and acousticus, before the tonsilla. 
 
 3. The medullary body of the hemispheres. In the interior of 
 each hemisphere we find a white nucleus, from which fifteen to six- 
 teen principal branches pass off, which again ramify, are sur- 
 rounded by a brown substance, and thus produce the arbor vitce. 
 From the central point of the vertical, olive-shaped nucleus, corpus 
 rhomboideum s. ciliare, the indented surface of which is formed of 
 yellow arid gray substance, pass out 
 
 4. The crura cerebelli, of which there are three upon either side. 
 
 a. C. cerebelli superior a (s. ad corp. quadrigem., ad testes), are 
 placed before the superior vermis, pass, united, through valv. 
 Vieussens., converging upwards and forwards under ihecorpp. 
 quadrigem., to the cerebrum. 
 
 b. C. cerebelli inferiora s. corpp. restiformia, pass from the 
 medull. oblong, (which see), forwards and upwards, to the 
 hemispheres of the cerebellum. 
 
 c. C. cerebelli lateralia s. ad pontem. They are situated before 
 the two preceding, at the anterior circumference of the cere- 
 bellum, and pass over internally into the pons Varolii. 
 
 622. II. The Vermiform processes, Vermis, 
 
 is the central portion of the cerebellum, divided by the sulcus hori- 
 zontalis into a superior and inferior portion, contains, likewise, in its 
 interior, a medullary nucleus, from which medullary striae pass into 
 its two divisions. 
 
 1 . The superior vermiform process, vermis superior, projects in 
 
THE NERVES. 371 
 
 the middle line on the superior surface of the cerebellum, like a 
 crest, and presents : 
 
 a. Mons cerebeUi t that is to say, the largest portion of the vermis 
 superior ; its summit (cacumen) is situated rather in front, 
 under the spknium corp. callosi ; behind (declive) and at the 
 sides it is sloping. 
 
 b. Lobulus centralis^ the smallest part, is placed in the anterior 
 excavation of the cerebellum, behind the corpp. quadrigemina, 
 below the mons, above the anterior valve. 
 
 c. Folium cacuminis, is placed in the posterior excavation, trans- 
 versely behind the mons, and unites the two posterior lobes of 
 the hemisph. cerebeUi. 
 
 2. The inferior vermiform process, vermis inferior, lies, curled 
 up like a worm, in the longitudinal fossa (vallecula) between the in- 
 ferior lobes of 'hemisph, cerebeUi, into which it passes, like the vermis 
 superior ; behind and above pons and medutt. oblongata. Four 
 prolongations pass off from it (branches) : 
 
 a. An anterior, the apex, in the anterior excavation, enlarged and 
 clavate anteriorly (this is, nodulus Melacarne) ; it projects 
 into the fourth ventricle. 
 
 b. Two lateral, passing from a longitudinal uvula (uvula vermis) 
 in the central line, and the broadest and highest part of the 
 inferior vermis, lying before it (pyramis vermis), into the 
 lateral angle of the fourth ventricle. 
 
 c. A posterior (tuber valvulce) is situated in the posterior excava- 
 tion, and unites the posterior inferior lobes of the hemisph. 
 cerebeUi. 
 
 3. The great valve, valvula magna cerebri, s. Vieussenii, s. 
 velum medull. anterius, a thin, semi-transparent, gray plate, spread 
 out between the two crura cerebeUi superiora. The anterior con- 
 vex surface forms the posterior wall of aqutzductus Sylvii ; the 
 posterior concave looks towards the vermis superior ; the anterior 
 border is connected with the posterior corpp. quadrigemina ; the 
 posterior border with the medullary substance of the vermis in- 
 ferior, above the nodulus Melacarne. 
 
 4. The small posterior valve, velum semilunare s. medullare 
 posterius, a thin medullary plate, situated between medulla oblong. 
 and vermis inferior, the short central portion turned freely towards 
 the fourth ventricle, whilst the convex external border is attached 
 from the flocculus as far as the corpp. quadrigemina. 
 
 623. The Structure of the Brain. 
 
 The gray centre of the medulla spinalis continues into the 
 
372 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 medulla oblongata, enclosing a canal in its interior, which passes 
 into the longitudinal sulcus of the sinus rhomb. , in consequence 
 of. which this fossa becomes covered with the gray substance 
 (stratum, cinereum). In some places it is more particularly col- 
 lected together (alee cinerece and subst. ferruginosa). The ante- 
 rior crura, of the gray substance of the medulla spinalis form the 
 (denticulated) nuclei of the olivary bodies (corpp. denticulata), 
 and are surrounded by white substance, the posterior, in like man- 
 ner, the nucleus of the corpora restiformia. The white fibres of 
 the spinal cord everywhere surround the gray substance in the 
 prolongations, form the pyramids and the so-called eminentice 
 teretes of the sinus rhomb., and cross each other in several places 
 (Decussation). They then proceed into the pans, crura cerebri, 
 the cerebellum, and so forth. 
 
 The pedunculi cerebelli, passing off from the cord-shaped bodies 
 of the med. oblong., form with their white mass the medullary 
 centre (meditullium album) of the cerebellum, which (except in 
 the vermis) encloses, as in the olivary body, a gray denticulated 
 nucleus, and divides externally into lobes, which are again over- 
 laid with gray substance, whereby arises the arbor medullaris or 
 arbor mtce (see before). The separate lobes and lobules are, as 
 also in the cerebrum, united together by means of arched fibres, 
 the so-called massa explementi which fill the intervals between 
 them. The pons consists of two transverse and two longitudinal 
 layers of fibres, between which the gray substance is deposited. 
 The pedunculi cerebelli superioris s. ad corpp. quadrigemina 
 pass away inwards under this (surrounded upon both sides by 
 the laqueus which passes into the corp. quadrigem.), and strengthen 
 the peduncles of the cerebrum. Hypophysis cerebri, and particu- 
 larly tuber cinereum .and infundibulum, consist almost entirely 
 of gray substance, the nucleus of the medulla spinalis appearing 
 in view. The infundibulum has a hollow in it. The peduncles 
 of the cerebrum are continuations of the fibres from the medulla 
 oblongata (from the pyramids, funiculi siliquce of Burdach) and 
 cerebellum. They consist of three fasciculi : basis, covering 
 (tegumentum), and cord (laqueus), which are separated by black 
 substance (which passes upon them into fhe three cerebral 
 ganglia). The inferior layer passes into the corpp. striata, the 
 superior or tegumentum into the optic thalami, the laquei into 
 the corp. quadrigem., the white mass of which they form. The 
 four tubercles have each four gray nuclei. The glandula pine- 
 alis attached to them has a granular structure like that of the 
 pituitaria, and consists of a grayish-red substance. The optic 
 
THE NERVES. 373 
 
 tubercles have in the interior three distinct gray nuclei, one inter- 
 nal, external, and superior. The commissure (central) uniting 
 the optic tubercles, as well as the border found between them in 
 the third ventricle, also consists of gray substance. Still more 
 distinct and larger are the three gray nuclei of the striated bodies, 
 nucleus caudatus lenticularis and tceniceformis. The stria cornea 
 consists of medullary matter, and only appears yellow when look- 
 ing through a vein. From the cerebral tubercles the great me- 
 dullary striae, only, pass out, the radiatio medullaris, fibres, 
 which, as they decussate with those of the carp, callosum, form 
 the hemispheres of the cerebrum. From the corp. striatum fibres 
 spread out towards both sides; in front and behind fasciculi of 
 fibres go into the fornix, which they call the forceps. Those 
 which cover the lateral ventricles are called tapetum. The ante- 
 rior commissure consists, also, of white and gray matter. The 
 corpp. albicantia (with gray nucleus) are the commencements [?] 
 of the fornix ; they pass, as radix ascendens, into the columetta 
 fornicis. Each right and left gives off a medullary plate, the 
 septum pellucidum, between which is the ventriculus septi pellu- 
 cidi, communicating with the third ventricle. The columellce pass 
 into the body of the fornix. This divides into the crura, and 
 passes into the lateral ventricles. The peripheral part of the 
 fornix passes in an arch around the corp. callosum, (gyrus forni- 
 catus), and terminates as, uncus, the hook. The fibres of the 
 crura form in the cornua of the ventricles, with others of the 
 corp. callosum, the pes hippocampi major and minor. The first 
 has two layers of medullary and two layers of gray substance ; 
 on it, as in the small, the gray is the cortical substance, covered 
 by medullary fibres. The fibrce explementorice here also fill up 
 the intervals between the fibres of the radiatio medullaris cerebri 
 of the peripheral fornix and of the corpus callosum. Medullary 
 lamince do not only pass from one convolution to another in an 
 arched manner, but a distinct mass also unites the anterior and 
 inferior lobes in the fossa Sylvii (fasciculus uneiformis. Reil.) 
 
 624. The Membranes of the Brain. 
 
 The brain and spinal cord are enveloped by three membranes 
 which pass, immediately, into one another at the foramen magnum. 
 Those of the spinal cord, see 628. The membranes of the 
 brain : 
 
 1. The dura mater, s. meninx fibrosa, a fibrous sac, the exter- 
 nal rough surface of which is firmly attached to the internal cranial 
 bones, and here serves as periosteum ; the internal, smooth, and 
 
374 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 moist surface is inseparably connected, by means of uniting tissue, 
 with the arachnoid. It is connected externally with the external 
 periosteum at tine foramina of the skull, through which the nerves 
 pass out, and forms prolongations internally which enter into the 
 fissures of the brain. These are : 
 
 a. Falx cerebri, passing from the foramen ccecum and crista 
 galli, at first narrow, then broader, in the centre of the cranial 
 vault from before backwards, where its base falls vertically 
 upon the tentorium. The superior convex border reaches 
 from for. ccecum as far as protuberant, occipitalis, and con- 
 tains the sinus longitudinalis superior; the inferior concave 
 touches the corp. callosum behind only, and contains a small 
 vein (sinus longitud. inferior) ; the lateral surfaces separate 
 the hemispheres of the cerebrum from one another. 
 
 b. Tentorium cerebelli, a septum, placed transversely, is situ- 
 ated beneath the posterior lobes of the cerebrum and above 
 the cerebellum ; is maintained in mutual tension with thefah 
 cerebri. The external larger circumference attaches behind 
 to the linece transvers., in front to the superior angle of the 
 petrous bone, and contains the sinus transversus. Its internal 
 smaller boundary is concave, and encircles the pons Varolii 
 and corpp. quadrigemina. The apices of the external cir- 
 cumference are attached to the proc. clinoid. posterr., those 
 of the internal to proc. clinoid. anteriorr., as they pass away 
 under the former (decussating), and bound the fossa pituitaria. 
 The sin. cavernosi are placed inside them. 
 
 c. Falx cerebelli passes downwards from the protuberantia oc- 
 cipitalis interna, vertically, to the centre of the posterior 
 circumference of foramen magnum, where it divides into two 
 folds for the lateral parts of the foramen. The basis is in 
 contact with the tentorium ; the posterior border attaches it- 
 self to crista occipital, poster. The anterior looks towards 
 the base of the posterior fissure, the lateral surfaces towards 
 the inner surfaces of the posterior lobes of the cerebellum. 
 
 Structure. The dura mater consists of two fibrous layers, 
 which in several places separate from one another, and form tri- 
 angular canals for the reception of veins : these are the sinus. 
 The fibres of the layers decussate in various directions. Between 
 the internal layer and that of the arachnoid, along the longitudinal 
 sinus, we find in the adult the white corpp. (glandul.) Pacchioni, 
 which often project into the sinus, and produce thinning of the 
 cranial bones. 
 
THE NERVES. 375 
 
 625. Sinus venosi dur<z matris. They consist of the internal 
 coat of the vessels, strengthened by fibres of the dura mater, and 
 they have small valves. The sinus of either side are in communi- 
 cation, by means of transverse sinus, with those of the other side, 
 and by vena diploica and emissaria Santorini with the external 
 cranial veins. They empty their blood into the F. cephalica (s. 
 jugular.) inter na. 
 
 Vence diploicce are situated between the two tables of the bones 
 of the skull in the diploe, and enter into communication, internally, 
 with the sinus of the cranial cavity, externally with the external 
 veins of the head. In each half of the skull four large branches 
 are found : 
 
 1. Frontalis passes through a small foramen at the incis. supra- 
 orbit, to the V. supraorbit. 
 
 2. Temporalis anterior passes from angid. parietal, anter. to 
 V. temporalis. 
 
 3. Temporalis posterior passes behind and above proc. mastoi.d. 
 outwards, or opens into sin. transversus. 
 
 4. Occipitalis, the largest, opens, in the neighbourhood of the 
 middle line on the linea semicircul. infer., into the F. occipitalis. 
 
 Emissaria Santorini are canals which connect the sinus with 
 the external veins, through peculiar foramina in the cranial cavity. 
 The largest passes through foram. mastoid., parietale, and condy- 
 loid. postering. 
 
 The sinuses which meet together in the torcular Herophili : 
 
 1. Sinus longitudinalis superior, is situated in the superior 
 border of the fake cerebri, receives on either side seven to ten Vv. 
 cerebri superr. from the surface of the brain, and some smaller 
 from the falx major, is connected by means of foram. parietale 
 with Vv: occipitaks, by means of for. coxum (in children), with 
 the nasal veins, and falls from above into the torcular. 
 
 2. Sinus tentorii medius s. quartus, lies at the basis of falx 
 cerebri above the centre of the tentorium, from before to behind, 
 where it opens into the anterior boundary of torcular. It forms 
 the continuation of the F. magna Galeni, which arises from the 
 two Vv. cerebri interni, and receives at the anterior part the 
 
 3. Sinus s. F. longitudinalis inferior. It passes along the 
 inferior concave border of fake cerebri, is narrow, and sometimes 
 absent. 
 
 4. Sinus transversi s. laterales, a right (usually wider) and a 
 left, passing off laterally from torcular, and passing in the sukus 
 transversus, at first on the posterior border of the tentorium, 
 horizontally, then in the fossa sigmoidea downwards, inwards, and 
 
376 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 forwards io foram. jugulare, and passes into the bulbus ven. jugu- 
 laris. They are connected by means of an emissarium Sant. in 
 the foram. mastoid. with Vv. occipital, superjiciales, and receive, 
 besides the veins of the posterior cerebral lobes, cerebellum and in- 
 ternal ear, the sinus petrosus superior, and partly the occipitalis 
 posterior. 
 
 5. Sinus petrosus superior, passes along the superior angle of 
 the petrous bone in the tentorium, connected at the apex with sin. 
 cavern., and opens behind and externally in sin. transvers. 
 
 6. Sinus occipitalis posterior, descends singly or double from 
 the inferior circumference of the torcular, in the falx cerebelli to 
 the posterior border of 'foram. magnum, opening right and left into 
 the sin. transvers., and into plexus venos. spinalis. 
 
 Torcular Herophili s. confluens sinuum, is the expanded point 
 before the protuberantia occipitalis inter na, where the above- 
 mentioned sinus meet together with five (or six) orifices. 
 
 Sinus which meet together in the confluens sinuum anterior, 
 between the apex of the petrous bone and the sphenoid of either 
 side: 
 
 7. Sinus petrosus inferior, passes in the groove between the 
 internal inferior border of os petros. and the pars basilar. oss. oc- 
 cipitis, between foram. lacerum posticum and anticum, connected 
 in front with sin. cavernos. and occipital, anter., opening under 
 sin. transvers. at the anterior circumference in the V. cephalica 
 interna. It unites the anterior and posterior sinus of the basis 
 cranii. 
 
 8. Sinus occipitalis anterior (transversus) s. basilaris, a trans- 
 verse venous plexus lying upon the clivus, uniting the sin. petros. 
 infer., as also the sinus cavernosi of the right and left side with 
 each other. 
 
 9. Sinus cavernosus, situated at the sides of the sella Turcica, 
 between the apex of the petrous bone and thejissura sphenoidalis, 
 is wide and cellular by means of numerous fibrous bands, is per- 
 forated by carotis interna, plexus caroticus and N. abducens, and 
 has on the external wall the N. oculo-motorius. 
 
 At the anterior external extremity (sinus ophtkalmicus) it re- 
 ceives the Vv. ophthalmicce,V. fossa Sylvii connected with that of 
 the other side below the hypophysis by means of sinus circularis 
 inferior, by means of foram. lacerum anterius with plexus ptery- 
 goid., and opens behind into the sinus petrosi. Into it open : 
 
 10. Sinus circularis Ridleyi, which surrounds the pituitary 
 gland in the sella turcica. 
 
 11. Sinus srjheno-parietalis s. alee parvcz, lies on the lateral 
 
THE NERVES. 377 
 
 wall of the cranial cavity, between the anterior and middle fossae, 
 uniting with V. meningea media ; it receives the anterior diploica 
 temporal., and opens into the sinus cavernosus (ophthalmicus). 
 
 The vessels and nerves of the dura mater. Arteries: me- 
 ningece anterior., from ethmoidalis ; media, from maxillaris in- 
 terna ; posteriores, from pharyngea ascendens, occipitalis and 
 vertebralis. 
 
 Veins : Vv. meningece, double for each artery, open into the 
 sinus and into plexus pterygoideus. Lymphatics are wanting 
 (Arnold) ; those on the internal wall belong to the arachnoidea. 
 Nerves : branches from the first division oftrigeminus and troch- 
 learis, two long branches near the middle line. 
 
 2. Arachnoidea (the serous membrane). The external surface 
 of the pia mater is covered with pavement epithelium, which ex- 
 tends over the convolutions of the brain like a bridge, passes upon 
 the internal surface of the dura mater, firmly attached to it by 
 uniting tissue, and thus forms a closed sac, which does not enter 
 the cerebral cavities, lies between pia and dura mater, and con- 
 tains in its cavity, even during life, a serous fluid (fluidum cere- 
 bro-spinak) which may be pressed out in drops, or in a jet, after 
 piercing it. 
 
 3. Pia mater s. meninx vasculosa, the soft, vascular envelope, 
 a thin membrane formed of a vascular rele, and uniting tissue, 
 lies close upon the surface of the brain, surrounded by the internal 
 layer of the arachnoidea; enters the sulci and ventricles, and 
 forms 
 
 The plexus choroidei, which folded in a curly form are situated, 
 one in each ventricle, but continue uninterruptedly into one 
 another, and send numerous blood-vessels into the substance 
 of the brain. They are covered with epithelium, which is 
 distinguishable from the ciliated epithelium of the ventricles. 
 
 626. Vessels of the Brain. 
 
 The brain is largely supplied with blood, the course of which is 
 retarded by the convolutions of the arteries. These quickly ra- 
 mify on the surface, and penetrate thus into the cortical substance : 
 other branches pass into the cavities, form the plexus choroidei, 
 and supply from this point the medullary substance. 
 
 There are the two carotides internee and vertebrales. 
 
 The cerebrum is supplied by branches from both, the cerebellum 
 from those of the vertebral alone; namely : 
 
 a. The cerebrum by : art. corporis callosi and its two Rr. com- 
 
378 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 municantes, art. fossa Sylvii, choroidea and profunda 
 cerebri. 
 
 b. The cerebellum by : artt. cerebelli inferior, media and su- 
 perior. 
 
 Veins do not accompany the arteries ; they are found plentifully 
 on the surface, and fall into the sinus of the dura mater. 
 
 a. In the interior of the cerebrum pass : 
 
 1. V. choroidea, arising at the anterior point of cornu descend, of 
 the lateral ventricle; it ascends in the plexus choroid., the 
 veins of which, as well as those of the cornu Ammonis, it 
 receives and unites with. 
 
 2. V. corporis striati, which passes from the stria cornea be- 
 tween corp. striatum and thalam. n. optici, whilst still in the 
 lateral ventricle, to 
 
 3. V. cerebri interna s. magna. This enters into the third 
 ventricle through foram. Monroi, passes into its plexus cho- 
 roid. from before backwards, unites between corp. callos. and 
 quadrigem. with that of the other side into a short (two to 
 three lines thick) trunk, the vena Galeni, which, at the junc- 
 tion oftentoriumandfalx cerebri, enters into the last and the 
 sinus quartus. 
 
 b. The veins of the cerebellum open into the Vv. vertebrales, into 
 the sinus transvers., petrosi and occipitalis posterior. 
 
 627. The Spinal Marrow, Medulla spinalis, (xusXos, |a^iVy]^. 
 
 This is the medullary column, flattened from before backwards, 
 which passes downwards into the canalis spinalis as the immediate 
 continuation of the medulla oblongata, surrounded, like the brain, 
 by membranes. Its surface is white. Its length measures, in the 
 adult from fifteen to eighteen inches ; its circumference, at the 
 inferior extremity of the cervical portion = eighteen lines, in the 
 lumbar portion = twelve (intumescentia cervicalis and lumbalis), 
 whilst the dorsal portion is the smallest, on which account the 
 nerves arising from it are also the smallest. Its superior extremity 
 passes uninterruptedly into the medulla oblongata at the foramen 
 magnum ; its inferior termination, on account of the long lumbar 
 and sacral nerves, which lying close together, are called cauda 
 equina, reaches, in the foetus, as far as the sacrum, in the adult to 
 the second lumbar vertebra, where it terminates in a conical form 
 (conus medullaris) and presents two ganglia, as an exception, only. 
 On its anterior and posterior surfaces a fissure is observable in the 
 middle line (fissura mediana) ; at the base of the anterior fissure a 
 
THE NERVES. 379 
 
 transverse porous commissura alba, but upon that of the deeper 
 posterior fissure, gray substance (comm. grisea) which is situated in 
 the interior of the spinal marrow. This posterior fissure is, 
 according to Arnold and Valentin, in the fresh medulla, merely a 
 groove which only above and below passes into a fissure. We may 
 regard the spinal cord as consisting of two lateral halves. Each 
 half is divided by a sulcus lateralis (for the posterior roots of the 
 spinal nerves) into a larger anterior and a smaller posterior co- 
 lumn, between which and the anterior roots of the spinal nerves, 
 even a yet smaller, central, may be detected. In the commence- 
 ment of foetal life a canal is found in each half. 
 
 Structure of the Spinal cord. White substance forms the ex- 
 terior, cortex, of the spinal cord, and gray the nucleus. 
 
 The gray substance consists of ganglion globules (see before). 
 It is very vascular, of various colours (darker in children), and 
 presents, upon a transverse section, generally, this figure )(, above 
 and below rather ^-shaped ; hence in the gray substance a centre 
 and cornua, or crura, are described. The cornua are directed out- 
 wards towards the roots of the spinal nerves, lying, however, 
 closer to the posterior surface. 
 
 The medullary substance consists of longitudinal fibres (nerve 
 tubules) which pass close to, but independently of, one another, are 
 separated by sheaths (pia mater\ at least the larger, from each 
 other, forming broader or narrower fasciculi, and at last the two 
 (three) columns of either side, observable externally. According 
 to Valentin, the fibres are the immediate continuations of the spinal 
 nerves, which pass upwards, and the medullary substance contains 
 no more fibres than those taken together. Free extremities are 
 not found. Above (see Medull. Oblong. 618.) the posterior co- 
 lumns, divided into three to four fasciculi, go forwards, obliquely 
 through the gray substance, and proceed onwards as the anterior 
 pyramids, since the fasciculi of the two sides decussate (decussa- 
 tio), whilst the anterior columns pass directly into the posterior 
 pyramids (corpp. restiform.) 
 
 628. The membranes of the spinal cord, the immediate con- 
 tinuations of the cerebral membranes. 
 
 1. Dura mater, a long fibrous cylinder, extending fromforam. 
 magn. to the termination of canal, sacralis. The external surface 
 is separated from the vertebral canal by means of uniting and adi- 
 pose tissue, in which the plexus venosi spinales (interni) is found. 
 It does not perform the office of periosteum to the vertebrae. The 
 internal surface is covered with the arachnoid, and connected in 
 
380 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 many places with the pia mater. Behind it is free ; before it is 
 connected by processes with lig. longitudinakposterius. Laterally, 
 sheaths pass off with the nerves through the foramina interverte- 
 bralia, for the posterior and anterior roots of which there are 
 openings (two) in it. The superior extremity is firmly attached to 
 the circumference of theforam. magnum, and passes into the dura 
 mater of the brain ; the artt. vertebraks perforate it at this point. 
 The inferior extremity forms a wide sac around the cauda equina, 
 divides into several sheaths (from five to six) for the sacral nerves, 
 and is firmly connected with lig. sacro-coccyg. postic. Vessels : 
 arteries are rami spinales, the artt. cervicaks, dorsaks, lumbales 
 and sacraks. The veins pass into the plex. spinales interni. 
 Nerves have not yet been found, the dura mater is however sen- 
 sitive. 
 
 2. Arachnoidea. Between the dura and pia mater an epithe- 
 lium layer is placed, as in the brain, which covers the uniting tis- 
 sue of the two surfaces, opposed to each other, and is regarded as 
 a proper tunic ; that is, the arachnoid membrane. It envelopes the 
 nerves of the cauda only, as far as iheforamm. intervertebr., and 
 is then reflected upon the dura mater. Between dura and pia 
 mater a space is also found, filled with cerebro-spinal fluid, which 
 facilitates the movement of the spinal cord. 
 
 3. Pia mater, is stronger than that of the brain, dirty white, 
 sometimes, in the cervical region, dotted with blackish spots. It 
 forms the neurilemma of the medulla spinalis, to which it is firmly 
 applied, into the fissures of which it enters, and envelopes the 
 nervous fasciculi. It is strengthened by fasciculi of fibres, which 
 are only lost in the cranial cavity ; it is formed besides of uniting 
 tissue and vascular rete. On either side the thin edge of the fibrous 
 lig. denticulatum is attached, from the free, thicker edge of which 
 (from twenty to twenty-one) denticulations pass outwards, and 
 connect themselves with the dura mater in the intervals between 
 the anterior and posterior roots of the nerves. The first denticu- 
 lation is placed in the foram. magn. between art. vertebral, and 
 n. hypogloss. ; the last at the first lumbar vertebra. From this 
 point, the inferior extremity of conus meduttaris, the pia mater 
 terminates in a delicate thread, filum terminate, which above, only, 
 contains a little gray medullary matter, and is attached below in 
 the sacral canal to the termination of the dura mater. 
 
 The Peripheral portion of the Nervous System. 
 629. A. The cerebral nerves, nervi cerebrates. 
 There are twelve pairs, of which the first, second, and eighth 
 
THE NERVES. 381 
 
 are destined for the organs of the senses entirely, the third and 
 seventh pass forth between the anterior and middle, the ninth and 
 twelfth between the middle and posterior cranial vertebrae. 
 
 630. I. N olfactoriuSj the nerve of Smell. 
 
 Origin : from the basis of the anterior cerebral lobe with three 
 white roots ; the external, longest, passes in a curve from the fossa 
 Sylvii inwards and forwards ; the middle, short, directly forwards, 
 and the internal rather curved inwards, arises from the substantia 
 perforata anterior. .Each root consists of several smaller. They 
 are united into a three-sided nerve (tractus olfact.) which runs in a 
 sulcus on the inner side of the inferior surface of the anterior cere- 
 bral lobes, is soft, striped with gray, and surrounded by the pia 
 mater. It lies upon the cribriform plate, and terminates with the : 
 
 Bulbus cinereus, a club-shaped, flat enlargement, three lines 
 long, and usually of gray substance. This olfactory bulb is, in 
 young embryos and in the lower animals, hollow, and connected 
 with the lateral ventricles. From its inferior surface many deli- 
 cate nn. olfactorii, covered by dura mater , pass downwards through 
 the foramina of the cribriform plate in two rows. 
 
 The external row (from twelve to sixteen nerves) spreads out 
 in a rete upon the mucous membrane of the two superior nasal 
 conchae. 
 
 The internal row (from nine to twelve nerves) expands in tufts 
 upon the mucous membrane of the septum of the nasal cavity, in 
 the centre almost to its floor. 
 
 631. II. N. opticus, the nerve of Sight. 
 
 Origin: from ihalamus opticus, the posterior mass of which 
 passes into the optic tracts, corpp. geniculata and quadrigemina. 
 Course: 1. As tractus opticus (which see). 2. As chiasma n. 
 optic, (which see). 3, From the chiasma the n. opticus, even now 
 covered by the dura mater, passes forwards and outwards, through 
 foram. opticum into the orbit and to the globe of the eye, the coats 
 of which it perforates behind, rather internal to its axis, and ex- 
 pands as the retina (which see). In the foram. opticum it lies 
 above and internal to art. ophthalmica ; in the orbita, surrounded 
 by the four mm. recti, and much fat ; ganglion ophthalm., nervi 
 et vasa ciliares lie close to it. Its sheath (of the dura mater) 
 passes from the foramen opticum into the sclerotica. It nowhere 
 divides into filaments, but has in its centre a deficiency (porus) for 
 the vasa centralia iridis. 
 
382 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 632. III. N. oculo-motorius, the nerve of Motion for the 
 
 muscles moving the globe of the Eye. 
 
 Origin : between the crura cerebri, and from them, with a series 
 of filaments, the most internal meeting in the subst. perforata media 
 (therefore the simultaneous movement of both pupils, see gangl. 
 ophthalm.), it passes forth between pans Varolii and corpp. mam- 
 millaria. Course: at the commencement flat, between art. cerebri 
 poster, and cerebelli superior, then round the last upwards, out- 
 wards and forwards as far as sella turcica, where it perforates the 
 dura mater and the sinus caver nos., and passes at the most inter- 
 nal part through Jissura orbitalis superior into the orbit. Before 
 that it divides into a ram. superior and inferior, which separate in 
 the orbita and unite (not always) with plexus caroticus. Situation 
 in the cavernous sinus: external to carotis, above n. abducens, in- 
 ternal to n. patheticus and ophthalmicus ; immediately in the 
 orbits, below n. frontalis and patheticus, internal to ram. nasalis. 
 
 1. Ramus superior, below and for m. rectus super., and for lev. 
 palpebr. super., in which it soon ramifies with many branches. 
 
 2. Ramus inferior, much larger, between n. opticus and abdu- 
 cens, internal to m. red. externus / it immediately divides into 
 three branches : 
 
 a. Ram. internus, to the internal surface of m. red. internus. 
 
 b. Ram. inferior, to m. red. inferior. 
 
 c. Ram. externus, passes on the outer border of m. rectus infe- 
 rior to m. obliq. inferior, and gives off the short root of gangl. 
 ciliare. 
 
 N. oculo-motor is the motor nerve for all the muscles of the 
 globe of the eye, with the exception of m. obliquus superior and 
 rectus externus. 
 
 633. IV. N. Trochlearis s. patheticus. 
 
 Origin : with three to four filaments from valvula cerebelli ante- 
 rior s. magna, between the cerebrum and cerebellum, behind the 
 corpp. quadrigemm. ; it inclines round the crus cerebelli super. 
 and appears at the basis before the pons Varolii, external to crus 
 cerebelli, internal to n. trigeminus. Course : forwards through a 
 canal of the tentorium to the outer wall of the sinus cavernosus ; 
 passes through the broadest part of the Jissura orbit, super., at the 
 same time with ram. frontalis, into the orbits. Here it passes in- 
 wards and forwards, obliquely over the ram. super, n. oculo-motor., 
 and the posterior extremity of mm. levator. and rectus sup., to the 
 superior border of m. obliquus superior. Situation : as far as sella 
 
THE NERVES. 383 
 
 turcica, between pia mater and arachnoid, below the oculo-moto- 
 rius ; in the sinus cavernosus, on the outer side of the last nerve, 
 above n. opkthalm., united with it by means of several filaments ; 
 in the orbits, close under the periorbita, internal to ram.frontalis, 
 where it gives off filaments to the ram. lacrymalis. Branches : 
 ram. tentorii, from out of the sinus cavernosus backwards to sin. 
 transversus ; it comes, according to Arnold, from ophthalmicus. 
 
 N. trochlearis, long and thin, supplies the obliquus superior, is 
 the n. respiratorius oculi, according to Sir (X Bell. 
 
 634. V. N. trigeminus s. quintus, the Tri facial nerve. 
 
 Origin : with two roots ; the larger posterior (ganglion) root, 
 from corp. restiforme (continuation of the posterior columns of the 
 spinal cord) ; the anterior, smaller root from the surface of the 
 ponSj in the anterior lateral part of which, both (the small root 
 from within) become visible in a fissure, as they are united into a 
 trunk. Course : the trunk passes from the pons as a flat fascicu- 
 lus upwards, outwards and forwards, through a canal which the 
 dura mater forms with the superior border of the apex of the pe- 
 trous bone. Here the fibres of the posterior root (portio major) 
 separate and interlace, and form alone the ganglion Casseri, 
 whilst the anterior root (portio minor) passes away under the pos- 
 terior surface of the ganglion, and with the third branch of the 
 ganglion forms the n. maxillaris inferior. [The two portions of 
 this nerve are generally separated at their exit from pons Varolii 
 by a few of its fibres.] 
 
 Ganglion Casseri, the semilunar ganglion, consists of soft gray 
 substance traversed by white fibres ; it is flat, convex in front and 
 externally, lies on the anterior surface of the apex of the petrous 
 bone, in a depression, firmly united with the dura mater. The three 
 following branches pass off from its convexity : 
 
 Ramus ophthalmicus. 
 
 Ram. maxillaris superior ', and 
 
 Ram. maxillaris inferior. 
 
 They diverge as they pass out, and the last is accompanied by the 
 small (motor) root of the n. trigeminus. From the Cass. ganglion 
 a few fibres pass to the tentorium and to the dura mater of the 
 petrous and sphenoid bone ; others to the phxus caroticus. 
 
 635. Ramus I. trigemini s. N. ophthalmicus, 
 
 the smallest and most superior of the three branches of gangl. 
 Casseri, passes forwards, outwards and upwards, on the outer wall 
 
384 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 of sinus cavernosus, gives a filament backwards which accompa- 
 nies another of the trochlearis to the tentorium, and divides into 
 three branches, which pass through thejissura orbitalis superior, 
 at different points, into the orbita. Position : below n. trochlearis, 
 external to n. oculo-motorius and abducens. Branches from with- 
 out inwards are : N. lacrymalis, n.frontalis, n. nasalis. 
 
 1. N. frontalis, the frontal nerve, the continuation of ophthal- 
 micus, and its thickest branch, passes horizontally forwards under 
 the periorbita and obliquely above the lev . palpebr ., sends frequent- 
 ly a small branch which passes over the m. obliq. sup,, and under 
 the trochlea, out of the orbita, and into the superior eyelid. In front 
 it divides into : 
 
 a. N. supraorbitalis, the external larger branch, which passes 
 through foram. supraorbitale, out of the orbita, sends nume- 
 rous branches downwards to the superior lids (one of which 
 anastomoses with n.facialis beneath n. orbicularis), two others 
 upwards to the skin of the forehead, which may be followed 
 as far as the lambdoidal suture, but only supply the skin and 
 periosteum. A smaller branch passes through a small fora- 
 men in the foram. supraorbit. into a canal on the frontal bone, 
 and to the skin of the forehead on the tuber frontale. 
 
 b. N. supratrochlearis, the smaller internal branch, passes out 
 between for. supraorbit. and (above) the trochlea of m. obliq. 
 sup., and divides into superior branches for the top of the 
 forehead, and into inferior for the upper lid and back of the 
 nose, where it anastomoses with n. nasalis. Sometimes two 
 nn. supratrochl. are present. 
 
 2. N. nasalis s. naso-ciliaris passes between ram. super, and 
 infer, of oculo-motor., inwards and forwards, obliquely over n. 
 opticus, beneath m. rectus and obliq. super, to the internal wall of 
 the orbita, and divides at the superior border of m. rectus intern. 
 into n. ethmoidalis and infratrochlearis. Before this one or several 
 nervi ciliares pass off from it, and the 
 
 a. Radix longa ad ganglion ciliare, a minute, sometimes double 
 filament, which separates even in the cranial cavity (in the 
 sinus cavern.}, where also a grayish filament (radix media) 
 from plexus carol, n. sympath. is applied, and accompanies it 
 to the posterior angle of the 
 
 Ganglion ciliare s. ophthalmicum. This lenticular, flat, 
 grayish-red ganglion lies in a considerable quantity of fat 
 on the outer side of n. opticus, two to three lines distant 
 from the optic foramen, beneath art. ophthalmica. The 
 radix brevis from oculo-motorius enters at its posterior in- 
 
THE NERVES. 385 
 
 ferior angle. From its anterior border two small fasciculi 
 pass off the 
 
 Nervi ciliares. They pass along in a tortuous manner 
 with artt. ciliares, anastomosing with one another ; they 
 perforate the sckrotica around the n. opticus, pass evenly 
 between this and the choroidea to the ciliary ligament, and 
 some, thence, to the iris, where they divide ; others pass 
 immediately to the retina. The superior fasciculus has 
 four, the inferior five to six filaments. 
 
 b. N. eihmoidalis passes immediately through for am. ethmoidale 
 anterius from the orbit into the cranial cavity, passes from be- 
 hind forwards upon the superior surface of the cribriform plate 
 of the ethmoid bone near the crista gaUi, and sinks into the 
 nasal cavity through an anterior foramen, where it divides into 
 an internal and external branch. 
 
 1. Ramus interna s. septi mobilis, upon the mucous mem- 
 brane of the anterior part of the septum. 
 
 2. Ramus externus gives a branch to the conchse and anterior 
 part of the septum ; passes into the sulcus of the nasal bone, 
 and comes forth between the bones and cartilage, and rami- 
 fies upon the skin of the ala nasi as far as the point where 
 it anastomoses with n.facialis. 
 
 c. N, infratrochlearis passes on under m. obliquus superior with 
 art. ophthalmica, escapes from the orbit beneath the trochlea. 
 and divides into : 
 
 1 . External branches, which perforate the m. orbicularis, and 
 at the free border of the superior lid anastomose in loops, 
 supplying the lacrymal sac and caruncle. 
 
 2. Internal branches, which anastomose upon the root of the 
 nose with branches of n.facialis. 
 
 3. Superior branches, which pass to the forehead, and anasto- 
 mose with n. supra-trochlearis. 
 
 3. N. lacrymalis, the smallest branch of ophthalmicus, passes 
 along the superior border of m. rectus externus on the outer wall 
 of the orbita, with art. lacrymalis, and divides into an external and 
 internal branch. 
 
 1. Ramus externus s. nerv. zygomaticus passes through the 
 malar bone, uniting with n.facialis on the cheek. 
 
 2. Ram. internus passes through the lacrymal gland, ramifies 
 in it, then perforates the upper lid with a branch which 
 reaches as far as the tarsus, and with another which is lost 
 in the skin of the anterior temporal region. 
 
 25 
 
386 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Ramus II. trigemini s. N. maxillaris superior. 
 
 The superior maxillary nerve, in point of size and position in the 
 middle between /. and ///., passes, after a short course, through 
 foram. rotundum into the fossa spheno-maxillaris, where branches 
 pass off from it in all directions, accompanied by branches of art. 
 maxillaris interna. It divides (Arnold) into three principal branches, 
 which correspond to those of the ophthalmicus. 
 
 1. N. subcutaneus males corresponds to n. lacrymalis, enters 
 the orbita through Jlssura orbital, infer., passes along the inferior 
 wall forwards, and divides into an ascending ram. lacrymalis, 
 which enters the lacryrnal gland from below, anastomoses with n. 
 lacrymal., and gives filaments to the external angle of the eye; 
 and a horizontal ram. malaris, which passes along through the 
 anterior malar foramen, with a filament for the skin of the cheek, 
 with another (often double) to the anterior part of m. temporalis, 
 and there anastomoses with n. tempor. profund. (See maxillaris 
 inferior.) [A temporal branch also ascends, perforates the outer 
 wall of the orbit, afterwards the temporal fascia, and supplies the 
 skin about the external angular process of the frontal bone]. 
 
 2. N. spheno-palatinus corresponds to n. nasalis, a shorter 
 branch, descends vertically into the fossa spheno-palatina, and en- 
 larges on the outer side of the foramen into the 
 
 Ganglion splwno-palatinum s. rhinicum s. Meckelii. This 
 grayish- red, soft, three to four-cornered nasal ganglion, is 
 larger than the ophthalmic, with which it is frequently in con- 
 nexion by means of a filament (Tiedemann). It consists of 
 two roots ; the short consists of several filaments from nerv. 
 spheno-palatin. ; the long, radix mollis,i\\at is ram. profun- 
 dus n. Vidiani, comes from the plexus caroticus n. sympa- 
 thici,is grayish-red, and under n. Vidianus recurrens in a 
 sheath. Two or three filaments pass through Jiss. orbitalis 
 infer, into the n. options. Through it pass : 
 a. Nn. palatini, descending vertically. They are : 
 
 1. Palatinus anterius s. major, passing through the poste- 
 rior palatine canal, at the inferior orifice of which it in- 
 clines forwards upon the palatine vault. Before that it 
 gives off ram. nasalis inferior, for the middle nasal cham- 
 ber and the inferior concha ; farther, several filaments, 
 which pass upon the internal walls of the antrum High- 
 mori to the last molar teeth ; lastly, a ram. staphylinus 
 for the uvula. Its terminal branches pass on the alveolar 
 
THE NERVES. 387 
 
 borders and in the central line to the glands, and the mu- 
 cous membrane of the palate, and to the gums. 
 
 2. Palatinus posterior s. medius passes in a proper canal, 
 and, having left it, backwards to the posterior nasal open- 
 ing. 
 
 3. Palatinus ezternus s. parvus, for the palatine arches and 
 tonsils. 
 
 b. Nn. nasaks posteriores, very fine, pass inwards through the 
 for. spheno-palatinum into the nasal cavity, advancing, when 
 there, between the bones and mucous membrane on the outer 
 wall and on the septum. They pass, contrary to the branches 
 of the first division, in the vault, so that the proper nerves of 
 smell are surrounded in a circular manner by these nerves of 
 sensation, like the optic nerve by the nn. ciliares. 
 
 1. N. naso-palatinus Scarpce s. n. septi narium passes in- 
 wards, before the sinus sphenoidalis, below its opening to 
 the nasal septum, and on this almost horizontally forwards 
 to the canalis incisivus, through which it passes to the mu- 
 cous membrane of the mouth behind the incisor teeth, with- 
 out anastomosing with that of the other side, and without 
 forming a ganglion. % 
 
 2. Nn. nasales superiores, three to four, pass vertically down- 
 wards on the posterior part of the outer wall of the nasal 
 cavity, between the mucous membrane and periosteum, sup- 
 plying the concha and nasal chambers, and the pharynx 
 at the orifice of the tuba Eustachii, with a ram. pharyn- 
 geus (Bock). 
 
 3. N. Vidianus s. petrosus superficial s. recurrens passes 
 from the posterior part of ganglion Meckelii backwards, 
 through the canalis Vidianus, enters between temporal and 
 sphenoid bone, perforating the mass of cartilage in theforam. 
 lacerum anter., into the cranial cavity, and into a sulcus on 
 the anterior surface of the petrous bone, through hiatus 
 canal. Fallopice to the bend of n. facialis, with which it 
 anastomoses. Below it, passes the n. petrosus prof undus, 
 a larger branch, and of a more gray hue, which lies in the 
 can. caroticus on the outer side of carotis, and ascends ta 
 the gangl. Meckelii from the plexus caroticus, where it 
 anastomoses with the branches which pass to the nerv. 
 oculo-motorius. 
 
 3. Nervus infraorbitalis, the continuation of the trunk, corre- 
 sponds to the n.frontalis, enters through Jissura orbital, infer, into 
 the canalis infraorbitalis, passes to its anterior orifice (above and 
 
388 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 external to art. infraorbit.), where it divides into fibres on the face, 
 and sends branches upwards : 
 
 a. Rami palpebrales, to the skin, and under m. orbicularis, to 
 the conjunctiva of the inferior eyelid ; internally : 
 
 b. Rami nasales, to the skin of the alee, nasi ; downwards : 
 
 c. Rami labiales, to the upper lip, for the skin and mucous 
 membrane. These last are very numerous, and they anasto- 
 mose particularly with n.facialis. 
 
 Before its entrance into the canal, infraorbitalis the trunk gives 
 off: 
 
 1 . N. dentalis posterior superior ; it often arises with two to 
 three filaments (between which art. alveolaris poster.}, de- 
 scends forwards upon the tuber maxillare, gives branches 
 to the m. buccinator [they most likely perforate this, and 
 supply the mucous membrane], the fat of the cheek, and 
 the gums. The superior branch penetrates, above tuber, 
 maxillare, the inferior below it, between the bony plates 
 of the upper jaw, into the canal, alveolar, poster,, forms 
 there a plexus, from which one filament passes off for 
 each root of the molar teeth, and terminates in the dental 
 pulp. 
 
 Inside the canalis infraorbitalis the trunk gives off: 
 
 2. N. dentalis anterior superior, arising half an inch behind 
 foram. infraorbitale, is very large; it passes vertically 
 
 down in a canal between the bony plates of the upper jaw 
 to a plane with the floor of the nose, and ramifies close to 
 that into : 
 
 a. Ascending branches, which are lost in spina nasalis anter., 
 give a branch to the nasal mucous membrane and inferior 
 concha; and : 
 
 b. Descending branches, for the -first molar, the cuspidati, 
 and incisor teeth. 
 
 637. Ramus III. n. trigemini s. N. maxillaris inferior. 
 
 The inferior maxillary nerve is the largest and most posterior of 
 trigeminus, consisting of a posterior external fasciculus, which 
 comes from the gangl. Casseri, and an anterior internal fascicu- 
 lus, that is, the small root (motor fibres) of trigeminus. Course : 
 passes quickly out of the cranial cavity through foramen ovaleinto 
 the fossa zygomatica, where it immediately divides into eight 
 branches, of which the three first belong to the posterior, the five 
 others to the anterior fasciculus. 
 
THE NERVES. 389 
 
 1. N. Umporal. superficial, s. auricularis anterior. The tem- 
 poro-auricular nerve corresponds to the lacrymalis and subcuta- 
 neus of the first and second division. Origin : outside and behind 
 the third division, with two roots, which surround the art. menin- 
 gea media, and contain two filaments of gangl. oticum. Course : 
 backwards and rather downwards behind thecollum condyli of the 
 lower jaw, where it divides into an ascending and descending 
 branch. 
 
 a. Ram. temporalis inclines backwards and upwards around 
 condylus, between the articulation and external auditory mea- 
 tus, perforates the parotis, and passes, in company with art. 
 temporal., into the temporal region close beneath the skin, in 
 which it ramifies to the vertex* At the condyle it gives one 
 (important), sometimes two, 
 
 ram. communicantes to n.facialis, farther branches to the 
 temporo-maxillary articulation, to the skin of the meatus 
 auditor, extern., to the tympanic membrane ; in the tem- 
 poral region a connecting branch with n. temporal, pro- 
 fund,, and a plexus for art. temporalis. 
 
 b. Ram. auricularis forms a plexus behind the condylus about 
 the art. maxillar. interna, perforates the parotis with five to 
 six branches which pass to the lobe of the ear ; others anasto- 
 mose with filaments of plexus cervicalis ; one branch unites 
 with n. dentalis ; another enters the maxillary articulation. 
 
 Ganglion oticum (Arnoldi). This flat, oval otic ganglion 
 is situated close under theforam. ovale on the inner side of 
 n. maxillar. infer., where the portio minor trigemini joins 
 it closely ; internal to the cartilaginous tuba Eustachii and 
 the origin of m. circumflexus palati mollis, before art. me- 
 ningea media. It has three roots : 
 
 1. The long one comes from n. tympanicus of glosso-pha- 
 ryngeus. 
 
 2. The short from portio minor (especially tfpterygoid. in- 
 ternus) of the trigeminus. 
 
 3. The central, soft, from the first cervical ganglion of sym- 
 pathicus, the filaments of which pass along the art. menin- 
 gea media. From it, constantly, arise, from the upper 
 portion : 
 
 1 . Nerv. ad tensorem tympani, a soft, grayish-red filament, 
 passing along by means of tuba Eustachii to the tensor 
 of the tympanic membrane. Another nerve comes from 
 n.pterygoid.internus to this muscle, which perforates 
 the otic ganglion, and receives a little of its substance ; 
 
390 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 on this account the memb. tympani cannot be directly 
 moved at the instigation of the will. Usually : 
 
 2. Two filaments to n. auricula temporalis. 
 
 3. One filament to the chorda tympani (Krause), and one 
 likewise to m. circumfiexus palati mollis (Cruveilhier). 
 
 [The translator takes the liberty of adding, in this place, a para- 
 graph from M. Longet's work (Anat. et Phys. du Systeme Nerveux, 
 par F. A. Longet, 2 vols., Paris, 1842), vol. ii. p. 501 :- " As for 
 the ganglia which constitute the cephalic portion of the great sym- 
 pathetic, I have myself often insisted upon the double connexion of 
 each of them with a motor and sensitive cerebral nerve ; and I 
 have proved, against the opinion of Arnold, that the spheno-palatine 
 ganglion does not form a exception, and that it likewise receives 
 filaments from a cranial nerf which presides over movement. All 
 these ganglia (ophthalmic, spheno-palatine, otic, and sub-maxil- 
 lary) having been described with details suitable to the trifacial 
 nerve, I have only to remind the reader that the common motor 
 oculi or the facial nerve furnishes their motor roots, whilst the 
 glosso-pharyngeal or the trifacial sends to each of them the sensi- 
 tive roots."] 
 
 2. N. alveolaris inferior, descends at first between m.pterygoid. 
 extern, and internus, then between internus and the ramus of the 
 lower jaw, separated by an aponeurosis from n. lingual and m. 
 pteryg. intern, through foram. alveolare poster, in the canal, alveo- 
 laris in the same sheath with art. dental, inferior. From this 
 branches are given off to each root of the inferior molar teeth. As 
 far as the entrance to the canal the ram. mylo-hyoideus accompa- 
 nies it ; in the canal it bifurcates at foram. mentale into two rami : 
 
 a. Ramus dentalis incisivus, very fine, passes farther along 
 the canal, and supplies the cuspidati and incisor teeth. 
 
 b. Ramus mentalis, stronger, passes out at the foram. mentale, 
 ramifies in the skin and mucous membrane of the under 
 lip, particularly at its free border, and forms, with n.facialis, 
 a plexus mentalis. 
 
 3. N. lingualis, the nerve of the sense of touch and sensation 
 of the tongue, corresponds to n. nasalis and palatinus of the first 
 and second division, is situated farther forwards than the last, 
 takes a curve forwards and downwards, at first between m. ptery- 
 goideus extern, and pharynx, then between the two pterygoidei, 
 pteryg. internus and the ramus of the lower jaw ; thence directly 
 forwards along the superior border of the sub-maxillary gland, 
 between this and the mucous membrane of the mouth, above m. 
 mylo-hyoideus, lastly obliquely beneath the sublingual gland, on 
 
THE NERVES. 391 
 
 its internal side to the border of the tongue, and between m. myfo- 
 and genio-glossus into the substance of the tongue ; it lies above 
 n. hypoglossus, and terminates in tufts upon the mucous membrane 
 and the papillae at the borders and the tip of the tongue. Between 
 the mm. pterygoidei it receives the chorda tympani, which blends 
 with it behind at an acute angle ; farther a connecting branch 
 from n. alveolaris inferior. It gives branches to the tonsilla, the 
 mucous membrane of the cheeks, and the gums ; from its inferior 
 surface filaments pass to the ganglion linguale ; lastly, also, to 
 the gland, sublingualis, and there forms a pi. sublingualis. 
 
 Ganglion glotticum s. linguale s. maxillare. The lingual 
 ganglion is placed in the curve of n. lingualis between it and the 
 gland sub-maxittaris, at the side of the root of the tongue, oppo- 
 site the last molar tooth, covered by the mucous membrane. Its 
 three roots are received; 1. from the chorda tympani of n. foci- 
 alis (motor) ; 2. from nerv. lingualis (sensitive) ; 3. from the 
 first cervical ganglion of n. sympathicus. From it branches pass 
 off; 1. to the ductus Wkartonianus (for the excretion of saliva 
 in the act of tasting) ; 2. to the n. lingualis (as from gangl. oti- 
 cum to the auricularis from g. ophtlialmicum to the n. opticus} 
 of hypoglossus. 
 
 4. Nervi masticatorii, the three branches, contain the fibres of 
 the portio minor n. trigemini. They are : 
 
 1. N. mylo'hyoideus passes downwards in a sheath, with nerv. 
 alveolaris inferior as far as foram. alveolare poster., then in 
 the sulcm mylo-hyoid. of the lower jaw, and ramifies in m. 
 mylo-hyoideus, and the anterior belly of m. biventer (the 
 posterior belly of which is supplied by n.facialis). 
 
 2. N. massetericus inclines backwards and over incisura semi- 
 lunaris outwards, and sinks into m. masseter. Above, a 
 deeper branch goes to the temporal fossa and to the maxillary 
 articulation. 
 
 3. N. temporalis profundus, frequently double, passes upwards 
 close to the wall of the temporal fossae, anastomosing with 
 branches of masseteric., buccinator. , and temporalis super- 
 
 Jicialis ; with lacrymalis and subcutaneus, and loses itself 
 in the muse, temporalis. 
 
 4. JV. buccinatorius, a larger branch, penetrates the m. ptery- 
 goid. extern., gives temporal twigs, passes downwards be- 
 tween m. pterygoid. ext. and temporal., behind proc. coronoid. 
 to m. buccinator, anastomosing behind duct, btenonianus in 
 a curve with nerv.facialis, and giving branches to the muscles 
 of the angles of the mouth. 
 
392 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 5. Nn. pterygoidei externus and internus to the muscles of the 
 same name. The last gives filaments to m. tensor palati 
 and tympani by means ofgangl. oticum. (Hence the mem- 
 brana tympani is stretched by the pterygoid muscles in loud 
 sounds/&c.) [?]. 
 
 Distribution of the Trigeminus : 
 
 a. It perforates all the muscles of the face ; 
 
 b. Supplies the pterygoid muscles (with motor nerves) ; 
 
 c. Supplies the skin of the whole face ; 
 
 d. The teeth, gums, and jaws ; 
 
 e. Enters into the organs of smell, sight, hearing, taste, endow- 
 ing them with common feeling, but not the specific sensation 
 of smell, sight, &c. ; and also nutrition, e. g. in the conjunc- 
 tiva of the eyes. 
 
 638. VI. N. abducens, the nerve for the external rectus muscle. 
 
 Origin: with two roots : a. from the posterior border of pom 
 Varolii ; b. from the superior part of corpus pyramidale. Course : 
 upwards and rather outwards from under the pons, perforates the 
 dura mater, and passes inwards over the apex of the petrous bone 
 into the cavernous sinus. Here it lies on the outer side ofcarotis 
 and to the inside of the veins of the sinus, and receives two 
 branches- from plex. caroticus and one from n. ophthalmicus ; it 
 then passes directly forwards through the fissura orlitalis supe- 
 rior into the orbita, [between the two origins of] m. rectus exter- 
 nus, lying there on its internal surface above the n. oculo-moto- 
 rius, under n. ophthalmicus. 
 
 639. VII. N.facialis s. communicans facwi, 
 
 formerly known as portio dura puris VII., is a mixed nerve, 
 which arises with two roots ; the larger anterior (motor) root 
 from the posterior border of pons Varol., in the fossa between this 
 and the medulla oblongata ; the smaller posterior (sensitive), from 
 corpus restiforme, where the auditory nerve arises (hence the 
 guidance of the undulations producing sound to the ear by means 
 of n. facialis). Course : external to and above in front of n. 
 acusticus, with which it passes along to the meatus auditorius 
 internus. 
 
 Pars petrosa. In the auditory meatus the nerve gives a small 
 filament to n. acusticus, it enters the canolis Fallopii, forms at 
 the hiatus c. Fall, a curve the bend around the cavity of the 
 
THE NERVES. 393 
 
 tympanum, and passes out through theforam. stylomastoideum to 
 the face. At the bend the small root forms a ganglionic enlarge- 
 ment, this is : 
 
 ganglion geniculatum, a grayish-red, triangular ganglion which 
 receives the n. Vidian. superfcial. (of nerv. trigemin.) and 
 gives off; a. some minute filaments which again sink back- 
 wards into the auditory nerve with a reddish enlargement ; b. a 
 filament, which passes to the long root of gangl. oticum. Be- 
 fore it leaves the canal the n.facialis gives off: 
 
 1. Ram. ad fenestram ovakm going along through a small 
 canal in the posterior part of the fenestra ovalis. 
 
 2. Nervus stapedii, passes obliquely inwards to the muscular 
 portion of m. staped. 
 
 3. Chorda tympani, that is, a nerve which runs along a canal 
 peculiar to it (canal chorda), in the posterior wall of the 
 tympanum, backwards and upwards, then forwards in the 
 arch through the cavity of the tympanum, free, between the 
 long crus of the incus and the manubrium of the malleus, 
 and passing forth from a small foramen in the centre of 
 
 fissura Glasseri, it applies itself to n. lingualis, and gives a 
 long motor root to the ganglion linguale. 
 
 4. Rami communicantes cum n. vago, come from the auricu- 
 lar branch of n. vagus, two small branches. 
 
 Having made its exit at the foram. stylo-mast, the n. facialis, 
 whilst situated behind the parotis, gives off the following branches : 
 
 5. N. auriculo-occipitalis s. occipitalis posterior, inclines, from 
 the stylo-mastoid foramen upwards, and divides into a larger 
 ram. occipitalis, which ramifies in the m. occipit., the perios- 
 teum, and on the vessels, and anastomoses with a filament of 
 plex. cervicalis ; and into a ram. auricularis, which supplies 
 the mm. retrahentes of the auricle [and the other muscles] 
 and anastomoses with the rr. temporales of n. trigemini and 
 facialis and the auricular branch of n. vagus. 
 
 6. N. stylo- hyoideus inclines obliquely outwards to the m. stylo- 
 hyoid., and anastomoses with the n. sympathicus and first 
 cervical nerve. 
 
 7. N. digastricus to the posterior belly of m. digastricus, gives 
 branches to the carotis, and unites with n. vagus, trigeminus 
 and sympathicus. 
 
 8. Rami parotidei posteriores come partly from the trunk, 
 partly from the branches, and terminate in the substance of 
 the parotis. 
 
 After this the trunk curves forwards in the anterior half of the 
 
394 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 parotid, and divides into three, rarely two, diverging branches, 
 which form a large plexus (plexus parotideus s. anserinus) which 
 surrounds the art. temporalis with a posterior loop. From this 
 pass into the face : 
 
 1. Nn. zygomatici, five branches. The three first (also tern- 
 porales) arise close under the auricle, ascend above the zygo- 
 matic process, give branches to the auricle, to the temple, 
 mm.frontalis and orbicularis, at'the outer angle of the orbit, 
 and unite with one another, with subcutan. malce and tempo- 
 ral, superficialis. The fourth, frequently a branch of the 
 third, is situated more deeply, ramifying below in the m. 
 orbicularis. The fifth is larger, sends a superior branch to 
 the inferior eyelid to the n. infraorbitalis ; an inferior to 
 the art. auricular, inferior and filaments to the fat below the 
 malar bone. 
 
 2. Nn. faciales s. buccales, four branches, passing over m. 
 masseter forwards, supplying the ductus Stenonian., the 
 
 , vessels and muscles of the face, of the inferior part of the 
 forehead, of the nose, of the lower eyelid downwards as 
 far as risorius Santorini. They anastomose with n. infra* 
 orbitalis and its plexus. 
 
 3. N. marginalis maxillce inferioris s. labio-mentalis, descends 
 to the angle of the lower jaw, bends forwards and passes 
 over the horizontal ramus of the lower jaw with a superior 
 branch for the upper portion of the lower lip, with an infe- 
 rior branch to the chin joining the plexus mentalis of n. 
 mentalis (see trigemin.) 
 
 4. Nervi ad plexum platysmamyoideum, generally three 
 branches, descend on the vertical ramus of the lower jaw 
 to the m. platysmamyoides anastomosing with the last 
 nerve and the third cervical ; they reach to the region of 
 the larynx. 
 
 640. VIII. Nervus acusticus, the nerve of Hearing, 
 formerly portio mottis paris VII., arises: 1. In the rhomboidal 
 fossa, behind n. facialis, from corp. restiforme ; 2. From crus 
 cerebelli superius, around which it bends ; coming forth behind 
 the pons and passing on the outer side of n. facialis, which it 
 receives in a groove, outwards and upwards to the internal audi- 
 tory meatus. Here it unites by means of filaments with the n. 
 facialis ; and divides into an anterior (n. cochlea) and a posterior 
 (n. vestibuli) principal branch which pass through the foramina 
 in the base of the auditory meatus to the labyrinth. 
 
THE NERVES. 395 
 
 1. -ZV. cochlea, passes through the anterior foramen with spirally- 
 arranged fibres, becoming the more so as they approach themodiolus, 
 sending its branches through the tractus spiralis foraminulentus, 
 which form loops upon the lamina spiralis, and terminate at the 
 infundibulum. 
 
 2. 2V. vestibuli, passes backwards and divides into three branches 
 which go through three fossae to the vestibule. A grayish-red en- 
 largement is found on it, like the auditory nerve which is generally 
 rather reddish. 
 
 a. 2V". saccularis major, passes obliquely forwards to the superior 
 fossa and its canaliculi into the saccus oblongus and the ampulla 
 of the superior and external semicircular canals. 
 
 b. 2V. saccularis 'minor, more horizontal to the saccus hemi- 
 sphericus. 
 
 c. 2V. amputtaris inferior, deeper, through the external fossa to 
 the ampulla of the posterior semicircular canal. 
 
 641. IX. 2V. glosso-pharyngeus. 
 
 Origin : with a series of filaments (two roots) from corp. resti- 
 forrne, above n. vagus, below n.facialis; passing out between corp. 
 restiforme and olivare. Course : the trunk passes, a distance of from 
 one half to three quarters of an inch outwards, forwards and rather 
 upwards to the anterior part offoram. jugulare, separated from the 
 n. vagus by a vessel, forms two ganglia, passes out from the cranial 
 cavity, and divides into two branches. Situation : in Iheforam. 
 jugulare ; in front and above, before n. vagus and accessorius, 
 before and on the inner side of v.jugularis interna, in a canal of 
 dura mater ; below the foramen : united with a ramus of n. sym- 
 pathicus, curved forwards and downwards on the outer surface of 
 carotis interna, on the internal of m. stylo-pharyngeuj, removed 
 from v.jugularis int., n. accessorius and vagus. Junctions : with 
 n. vagus, its auricular and pharyngeal branch with plexus caroticus; 
 and with n.facialis in the m. digastricus. 
 
 1. Ganglion jugulare (Ehrenritter, J. Miiller), lies (from a half 
 to one line long and broad) upon the posterior fasciculus of glosso- 
 pharyngeus, the anterior and posterior roots of which unite above 
 and below it, in the superior part of the foram. jugulare. Below 
 it (from two to four lines) lies a larger ganglion. 
 
 2. Ganglion petrosum (Andersch). It is oval, one and a half 
 to two lines long, situated in the vettecula of the petrous bone, and 
 receives on its superior and anterior part : 
 
 Nerv. tympanicus s. Jacobsonii. The tympanic nerve ascends 
 by means of a peculiar canal (upon the crest between canal caro- 
 
396 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 ticus and fossa jugularis) to the inner wall of the tympanum, is 
 surrounded by a thin ganglionic mass (ganglwlum tympan.) 
 receives a filament from pkx. caroticus, and gives a branch to 
 thefenestrce rotund, and ovalis. Below the last the trunk bends 
 round, forwards and downwards, passes through tuba Eustachii, 
 perforates its cartilage, and terminates in the glands about its 
 orifice. Two branches, besides, pass off on a plane with the 
 fenestra ovalis. 
 
 a. TV. petrosus profundus minor, passes through a canal of the 
 septum between tuba Eustachii and canal, caroticus in the 
 last "to the plex. carotic., where it unites with ram. prof. n. 
 Vidian. 
 
 b. Ram. communicans n. petrosi-superficialis minoris, passes 
 in a canal, behind the tubce Eustachii upon the anterior sur- 
 face of the petrous bone to n. petros. superf. minor (see 
 nerv.facialis), which passes through foram. spinos. to gangl. 
 oticum. 
 
 (Plexus tympanicus major, Jacobson's anastomosis is princi- 
 pally formed by a., lies upon the internal wall of the tympanum, 
 supplies the mucous membrane and osseous substance, and is 
 probably in connexion with the chorda tympani.) 
 
 3. Ramus pharyngeus, divides into from two to three branches, 
 which form, with those of n. vagus, the pkx. pharyngeus, and 
 supply m. constrictor super, and med. and the posterior part of 
 the pharynx. 
 
 4. Ramus lingualis, the nerve of taste, the continuation of the 
 trunk, passes in a curve, convex behind, from the carotis interna 
 to the root of the tongue, giving, in this course, branches to m. 
 stylo-pharyngeus, which lies before it, to the tonsils above, to the 
 mucous membrane of the root of the tongue, where it anastomoses 
 with n. maxillaris inferior. In the root of the tongue it divides 
 immediately into an external branch for the mucous membrane of 
 the border and the inferior surface, and an internal branch for the 
 posterior third of the mucous membrane, as it forms a plexus about 
 the foramen ccecum. Both unite with n. maxillar. inferior and 
 trigemini, 
 
 642. X. IV. Vagus s. pneumogastricus, the Vagus nerve. 
 
 Origin : with from twelve to sixteen filaments (united into from 
 six to eight fasciculi) from the central columns of medulla oblong. 
 between corp. olivare and restiforme. Course : under the cere- 
 bellum obliquely downwards, forwards and outwards to the ante- 
 rior part of the foram. jugulare. It here lies in an especial sheath 
 
THE NERVES. 397 
 
 (of dura mater} behind nerv. glosso-pharyng. ; before v. 
 interna ; it forms a ganglion to which nerv. accessor. WiUisii is 
 applied. Below the foram. jugulare it forms a plexus ganglia- 
 form.; is placed at first before, then on the inner side ofven.jugu- 
 laris, n. accessor, and hypoglossus; it passes downwards along the 
 neck behind carotis (within) and jugularis (without), in one sheath 
 with them, separated from n. sympathicus (which is behind and 
 outside) by uniting tissue, to the thorax, and from this with the 
 oesophagus through the diaphragm, where it terminates in the 
 plexus Solaris on the stomach. 
 
 643. (I.) The cranial portion. 
 
 a. Ganglion, jugulare n. vagi, lies, almost enclosed in dura 
 mater, in the superior part of the for. jugulare, oval, flat, and 
 two lines long, receives a few filaments from n. accessorius, 
 glosso-pharyng., sympathicus and facialis. From its ante- 
 rior external side arises : 
 
 1. N. auricularis. The auricular branch passes round the 
 bulbus v. jugul. forwards, gives a filament to n. Jacobsonii, 
 passes through a canal behind proc. styloideus into the 
 canal. Fallopiee, here anastomoses with n. facialis, passes 
 through a canal in the proc. mastoid. again outwards to 
 the skin of the posterior part of the external auditory 
 meatus. (Important on account of the sympathy existing 
 between the Ear, Lungs, and Stomach. ARNOLD.) 
 
 2. Connecting twigs with the gangl. cervicale I. (See this.) 
 
 644. (II.) The cervical portion. 
 
 b. Plexus ganglioformis s. nodosus, lies half an inch below the 
 foram. jugulare, and is a loose plexus of the fasciculi of the 
 vagus, the meshes of which are filled with a grayish-red fat. 
 It unites with nerv. hypoglossus, glosso-pharyng. and sympa- 
 thicus, sometimes also with the first cervical nerves. From 
 it arise : 
 
 1 . Nn. pharyngei. The superior pharyngeal nerve unites 
 with n. hypoglossus, passes to m. constrictor super., and 
 the mucous membrane. The delicate middle unites with 
 n. pharyngeus, the glosso-pharyng., and passes with these 
 also to the superior part of the pharynx. The inferior 
 descend obliquely, unite with n. sympathicus, and termi- 
 nate in m. constrictor medius and crico-pharyngeus. 
 They form : 
 
398 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Plexus pharyngeus, lying on the lateral walls of the 
 pharynx, entwining around the art.pharyng. ascendens, 
 and terminating in the muscles and the mucous membrane. 
 At the superior part fibres generally come from glossophar., 
 in the middle from n. vagus, below from vagus and sym- 
 patkicus. 
 
 2. N.laryngeus superior. The superior laryngeal nerve (prin- 
 cipally a sensitive nerve) arises on the inner side, and passes 
 along it close to the pharynx, obliquely behind the carotis 
 interna forwards and inwards, and divides into : 
 
 1. 2V. laryngeus externus, the smaller inferior branch arising 
 sometimes from the trunk of the vagus itself, passes downwards 
 and inwards, and at the side of the larynx forwards, between 
 m. constrictor infer, and thyroid, cartilage, and is lost in the 
 m. crico-thyreoideus and upon the internal surface of the 
 larynx in the m. crico-arytcenoid. It receives two filaments 
 of sympathetic, and gives some to n. cardiacus behind carotis 
 
 . interna (this is, plex. laryngeus) ; farther, to m. constrictor 
 infer, and thyroid, gland. 
 
 2. 2V. laryngeus internus, continuation of the trunk, passes 
 between os. hyoid. and larynx, enters into the last with art. 
 laryngea super., and divides beneath the mucous membrane 
 in a radiating form into anterior and posterior branches. It 
 supplies the mucous membrane of the epiglottis, the thyroid 
 cartilage, membr. hyo-thyreoid., of the vocal cords, of the mm. 
 arytcenoidei [merely perforating them in order to reach the 
 mucous membrane], and anastomoses upon the posterior sur- 
 face of the cricoid cartilage with nerv. recurrens. 
 
 c. Several vascular branches pass over and under the point of bi- 
 furcation of carotis, forming plexuses about these vessels. 
 
 d. Rami cardiaci, from two to four, arise below the region of the 
 point of bifurcation of the carotis, pass downwards upon it, 
 anastomosing with one another, and passing into the plexus 
 cardiacus (of sympathicus). To these also belongs the ram. 
 descendens, which passes from the posterior part of the vagus, in 
 the inferior part of the neck above the carotis, partly to the 
 cardiac plexus, partly to the oesophagus, and anastomoses with 
 n. sympathicus. 
 
 645. (III.) The thoracic portion of the Vagus. 
 
 Upon the right side of the trunk passes between ven. and art. 
 subclavia ; upon the left, between carotis communis and art. sub- 
 
THE NERVES. 399 
 
 clavia into the chest. Course as far as the roots of the lungs ; upon 
 the rigid side : behind v. anonyma and cava super., in the sulcus 
 between trachea and oesophagus downwards to a point behind the 
 roots of the lung; upon the left: behind v. anonyma to the left of 
 arcus aorta and behind bronchus sinister. Hence it passes into 
 the cavum mediastin. postic., divided into two branches, upon the 
 right side, behind, upon the left, before, the oesophagus, through 
 the foramen cesophageum into the abdomen. Branches : 
 
 1. Nerv. recurrens s. laryngeus inferior, arises upon the right 
 side (where it is frequently double) before the art. subclavia, upon 
 the left, before the arcus aorta, externally to the ductus Botatti, 
 at the place where the vagus passes backwards ; it bends itself 
 under the vessels, and passes upwards behind them on the outer 
 side between tracJiea and oesophagus, perforates m. constrictor 
 pharyngeus infer., and enters the larynx ; terminating in the m. 
 crico-arytanoideus [and m. arytanaidei~\. It gives branches to 
 the mucous membrane [7] and to the muscles as well to the con- 
 strictors as to the dilators of the larynx ; also to the ozsopliagus 
 and the trachea [the muscular fibres behind] ; anastomosing with 
 n. laryngeus super, and n. sympathicus by means of some rami 
 cardiaci. It is principally a motor nerve. 
 
 2. Rami cardiaci thoracici, are from five to six larger, and 
 several more delicate branches, which pass into the following 
 plexus, or are lost upon the external surface of the pericardium. 
 
 Plexus cardiaci, formed of vagus and sympathicus, entwine 
 about the great vessels of the heart, and are separated at the 
 point of reflection of the pericardium into superior and in- 
 ferior, but connected with each other as well as with those of 
 the oesophagus and trachea. 
 
 3. Rami tracheales inferiores, lie on the anterior surface, close 
 above the bifurcation of the trachea, intermingling at this point 
 with nerv. sympathicus into a 
 
 Plexus trachealis anterior, which is connected with the internal 
 cardiac plexus, and proceeds into the plex. pulmonalis an- 
 terior, which covers the bronchi in front. 
 
 On the posterior surface of the trachea, a plexus tr. posterior 
 also arises, from six to seven branches, which is connected with 
 the pharyngeal and cardiac plexus, and gives branches to the 
 mucous membrane of the bronchi. 
 
 4. Plexus pulmonalis posterior, frequently arises from the 
 trunk of the vagus ; from four to six branches, upon the right 
 and left side of the lungs. The left is the larger. Both are 
 connected together with plex. trachealis, and enter the lungs with 
 
400 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 the bronchi. Some filaments are lost in the pulmonary artery. 
 Its posterior filaments belong to n. sympathicus, from its three 
 superior ganglia. 
 
 5. Plexus oRsophageus inferior, formed by the internal principal 
 trunk of the vagus, which descends farther on the O3sophagus be- 
 low the bronchi, entwines around it, and penetrates between its 
 coats. The right vagus passes more towards the posterior (pi. 
 Q3soph. post.) -, the left more towards the anterior surface (pi. an- 
 terior). Both anastomose with each other by large branches. 
 
 646. (IV.) The abdominal portion of the Vagus. 
 
 The right trunk enters behind, the left before the ossophagus, 
 through the foram. c&sophageum. Each is lost in a fasciculus, 
 rami gastrici, and forms a plexus gastricus. 
 
 1. Plex. gastricus anterior, formed by the left n. vagus, lies 
 upon the anterior surface along the small curvature from the 
 Cardia to the Pylorus ; gives branches to the fundus ventri- 
 culi ; to the small omentum as far as fossa transversa 
 hepatis. 
 
 2. Plexus gastricus posterior, formed by the right n. vagus, 
 lies behind the cardia, is smaller than 1, and passes, princi- 
 pally, into tine plex. Solaris. 
 
 Connexions of the n. vagus : with n. trigeminus, facialis, 
 glosso-pharyngeus, accessorius Willis., hypoglossus, cervicaU. su- 
 perr. 3, and sympathicus. 
 
 Function. The vagus is entirely sensitive until its connexion 
 with n. accessor. Willis., then a motor nerve likewise. 
 
 647. XI. N. accessorius Willisii, the spinal accessory Nerve. 
 
 Origin : from the posterior part of the central columns of the 
 spinal cord, between the posterior roots of the fourth to the sixth 
 cervical nerves (sometimes even deeper) and lig. denticulatum ; 
 with six to seven radical filaments, which are strengthened by the 
 posterior roots of the first (to the third) cervical nerves, but only 
 pass in a sheath with them, and often present a small ganglion, 
 but which belongs to the cervical nerves. Course : upwards on 
 the sides of the spinal marrow, always becoming more distant 
 from it ; over the first cervical nerve, strengthened by some fila- 
 ments, through the foram. magnum to the cranial cavity. It 
 here passes in a curve downwards, forwards, and outwards, en- 
 veloped by the dura mater, to the vagus, passes into its sheath, 
 on the outer side, and behind it, through foram. jugulare, pass- 
 
THE NERVES. 401 
 
 ing on it and its ganglion, and dividing into its two branches. 
 It is a motor nerve, and holds the same relation to the vagus 
 as the posterior root of a spinal nerve does to the anterior. 
 
 1. Ram. internus, passes downwards, partly into the nerv. 
 pharyng. superior, partly through the plex. ganglioform 
 (probably into the laryng. superior, and) into the thorax, to 
 the nerv. recurrens, the pharyngeal and gastric plexus. 
 
 2. Ram. externus, the posterior branch, the continuation of the 
 trunk, descends behind ven. jugular, interna outwards and 
 backwards, perforates m. sternockidomast. at the superior 
 third, gives branches to it, becomes enlarged by means of 
 branches from the second and third cervical nerves, and 
 enters the m. trapezius on the internal surface, ramifying in it 
 as far downwards as its inferior extremity. 
 
 648. XII. Nerv. Hypoglossus, the lingual Nerve. 
 
 Origin : between carp, pyramidale and olivare, with ten to fif- 
 teen filaments, which unite into two fasciculi, in a row with the 
 anterior roots of the spinal nerves, behind the art. vertebralis. 
 Course : the two fasciculi, covered by the pia mater, perforate the 
 dura mater separately, become covered by it, and ascend to the 
 foram. condyloid. anterius, through which the united trunk passes 
 out of the cranial cavity (one line thick). Hence it passes down- 
 wards and forwards, situated internal to and behind n. accessorius, 
 vagus, and v.jugularis interna ; inclining in a curve from above, 
 behind and internally over vagus and carotis (over the place of 
 bifurcation) forwards, upwards, and inwards, to the tongue. Here 
 it is situated, at first, internal to and under m. digastricus, then, 
 above art. thyreoid. and lingualis, external to them, internal to 
 m. stylo-glossus. Finally, it passes upwards and forwards into 
 the flesh at the inferior surface of the tongue, covered by gland, 
 submaxillaris and m. mylo-hyoideus, where it terminates at the 
 apex. 
 
 Connecting branches with : the first cervical ganglion of the 
 sympathetic, and the first and second cervical nerves, n. vagus, 
 n. lingualis trigemini. Vascular branches : to carotis andjitgu- 
 laris interna and art. lingualis. Muscular branches for : hyo- 
 thyreoid., genio-hyoideus, hyo-, stylo-, genio-glossus, and gland, 
 submaxillaris. Finally : 
 
 Ram. descend. Iwjpoglossi, arises from the commencement of 
 
 the curve, descends outside the carotis before the vagus (in 
 
 the same sheath), anastomoses with it, the third cervical 
 
 nerves [sometimes the second or even the fourth], gives 
 
 26 
 
402 ' SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 branches to m. omo-hyoideus [and a long filament for the 
 posterior belly], sterno-, hyo-, and thyreoideus, and passes 
 behind the last to the plex. cardiac, super., and with another 
 branch to the nerv. pkrenicus in the mediastin. anticum. 
 Nerv. hypoglossus is a motor nerve only. 
 
 649. The Spinal Nerves, Nervi spinales. 
 
 From thirty-one to thirty-two pairs are enumerated, namely : 
 eight cervical, twelve dorsal, five lumbar, five sacral, and one to 
 two coccygeal pairs of nerves. 
 
 They arise with two roots from the sides of the anterior and 
 posterior columns of the medulla spinalis, connected with the 
 gray matter in the interior. 
 
 The anterior (motor) root is smaller than the posterior, separated 
 from it by means of the ligam. denticulatum, and arises from a 
 narrow white line. The posterior (sensitive) root is stronger, 
 arises from the gray lateral sulcus, and is provided with a gan- 
 glion (ganglion spinale). 
 
 Course. Both roots, enveloped in arachnoid, approach each 
 other, without anastomosing, and pass out, even still surrounded 
 by a sheath of the dura mater, through a corresponding interver- 
 tebral foramen. The superior spinal nerves pass off horizontally, 
 and are shorter, the inferior at so much the more of an acute 
 angle with the spinal cord, the nearer they approach its termina- 
 tion. The two roots unite into one trunk after their exit from the 
 intervertebral foramen, which immediately divides into an anterior 
 and posterior, and branches for the n. sympathicus. Fibres from 
 the anterior as well as from posterior roots are united in these 
 branches. 
 
 a. Ganglia spinalia, reddish, firm ganglia, formed by the pos- 
 terior roots of the spinal nerves, are situated one in each interver- 
 tebral foramen ; but those of the sacral and coccygeal nerves, 
 while still within the canalis spinalis and the dura mater. They 
 are so much the larger, the stronger their roots and the branches 
 passing off. The anterior roots of the spinal nerves are merely 
 applied to their anterior surfaces (according to Cruveilhier they 
 are also united to them by fibres). 
 
 b. The anterior branches of the spinal nerves are, with the 
 exception of the first and second cervical, much stronger than the 
 posterior, flat, and pass forwards and outwards before the trans- 
 verse processes. In the neck, the loins, and sacrum, they form 
 loops by means of ascending and descending branches, in conse- 
 quence of which a plexus arises, from which the nerves pass off 
 
THE NERVES. 403 
 
 to the extremities, in particular. In the back (nn. intercostales) 
 they pass singly, without forming a plexus. 
 
 c. The posterior branches, much smaller than the anterior, pass 
 between the transverse processes (foram. intervertebrr. posterr. 
 Cruveilhier), and through the foram. sacralia postt. backwards, 
 divide into several branches, and soon terminate in the muscles 
 and the skin of the back from the occiput to the coccyx. 
 
 650. 1. The cervical nerves, Nervi cervicales (eight pairs). 
 
 Their posterior branches pass at first transversely inwards be- 
 tween m. complexus and semispinalis, perforate the trapezius from 
 before backwards, and take a retrograde course beneath the skin 
 transversely outwards ; they also unite with the plexus. Those of 
 the two first are larger than the anterior. The anterior branches 
 form, principally, the plexus cervicalis brachialis. 
 
 651. a. The four superior cervical nerves 
 
 supply the skin and muscles of the occiput, nape of the neck and 
 cervical region, and form the plex. cervicalis, from which n. phre- 
 nicus arises. 
 
 1. Nerv. cervicalis 1. s. infra occipitalis Aschii, one of the 
 smallest spinal nerves, passes forth under art. vertebralis (rarely 
 over it) between occiput and atlas, behind proc. obliquus, and di- 
 vides below the curvature of the art. vertebralis. Its larger ante- 
 rior root contains from three to four fasciculi, the smaller posterior 
 from two to three. It is situated farther forwards than the rest of 
 the posterior roots, applies itself to the n. accessories , and is said 
 to be sometimes wanting. Its ganglion lies in the foram. inverte- 
 brale. 
 
 a. Rambus anterior, passes on the inner side of art. vertebral, in 
 a sulcus of the Atlas, and bends downwards to form a loop 
 with the second cervical nerve. Branches to the articulation 
 of the occiput, hypoglossus, gangl. cervicale I., vagus and 
 sympath., art. vertebralis, mm. recti cap-itis antici and late- 
 ralis, between which it pierces 
 
 b. Ramus posterior, larger than a, passes in the space between 
 mm. capitis obliqui and red. postic., supplies these and m. 
 lateralis, biventer and complexus. 
 
 652. 2. N. cervicalis II., 
 
 far larger than I., passes through between atlas and dentatus, far- 
 ther backwards than the rest of the spinal nerves, and divides be- 
 neath m. capit. obliq. inferior, into : 
 
404 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 a. Ram. anterior, passing under m. obliq. capit. inferior for- 
 wards and outwards ; gives branches to : the loops with the 
 first and third cervical nerves, ram. descend, and hypoglossi, 
 nerv. vagus, accessorius, m. red. capit. antic, major, sterno- 
 cleidomast. 
 
 b. Ram. posterior, sometimes larger than a, gives ascending 
 and descending branches to the posterior loops, besides to : 
 mm. obliquus capit. infer., trachelomast., complexus, sple- 
 riius, semi-spinal, cervic., and the 
 
 Nerv. occipitalis major. This perforates the superior ex- 
 tremity of the biventer cervicis and m. cucullaris, sup- 
 plies these, ascends between nape and occiput internal to, 
 art. occipital., is then situated beneath the skin, gives a 
 curved branch to the middle line, others outwards and 
 upwards, and reaches as far as the middle line of the 
 vertex. It unites with ram. poster, of the third cervical, 
 probably, also, with the temporal nerves. 
 
 653. 3. 2V. cervicalis III., 
 
 passes obliquely upwards and outwards between the muscles, and 
 transverse processes, through the second intervertebral foramen, 
 and divides immediately into : 
 
 a. Ram. anterior. Uniting with the second and fourth cervical 
 nerves, the first cervical ganglion of the sympathicus, recur- 
 rens hypoglossi, it passes from behind into the centre of m. 
 sterno-ckidom., and gives : 
 
 1. N. occipitalis minor ; frequently only a branch of the 
 
 occipit. major, passing forth behind m. sterno-cleidomast. 
 
 over m. splenius capit. and proc. mastoid. upwards, to 
 
 the outer border of the occiput, ramifying in the skin. 
 
 Branches to the muscles, to n.facialis, and the : 
 
 N. auricularis superior for the skin of the superior 
 part of the external ear and m. attolens ; it unites with 
 n.facialis and occipit. major. 
 
 2. IV. auricularis magnus, inclines round m. sterno-cleido- 
 mast., forwards and upwards to its anterior border, where 
 it divides (at the angle of the lower jaw), giving an auricu- 
 lar branch to the posterior part of the auricle from below 
 upwards, which unites with n. facialis, and another to the 
 occiput, which unites with n. occipitalis. 
 
 3. Nn. subcutanei colli (3). The superior inclines from be- 
 hind over m. sterno-cleidomast., obliquely forwards and 
 upwards, external to v. jugular, externa, supplies the skin 
 
THE NERVES. 405 
 
 with an anterior branch, going through the parotis as far as 
 the angle of the mouth, and unites with nerv.facialis, with 
 a posterior branch directly upwards to the skin on the ante- 
 rior part of the auricle. The central unites with the last, 
 giving branches upwards to the chin, downwards to the 
 inferior region of the neck ; the inferior inclines before the 
 ven. jugular, externa inwards, sends branches to the most 
 inferior region of the cervical skin, and on the chest, 
 b. Ramus posterior, contributes to the posterior loop, passes 
 under proc. spin, of the second vertebra and into the skin of 
 the centre of the nape of the neck. Branches to : m. trachelo- 
 mastoid., transversal., complexus, splenius capit., semi-spinal, 
 cervic. and trapezius. 
 
 654. 4. N. cervicalis IV., 
 
 passes out through the third intervertebral foramen, between the 
 third and fourth cervical vertebrae, gives branches to art. vertebralis, 
 and divides into : 
 
 a. Ram. ant., giving branches to m. rectus capit. antic, major, 
 longus colli, scakn. med., levat. scapul., to the third and fifth 
 loops. From the last : 
 
 1. Nn. supraclaviculares, for the most part cutaneous nerves, 
 which radiate in the inferior trigonum cervicale between m. 
 sterno-ckido-mast., trapezius and clavicle ; the anterior to 
 the clavicle and mammary gland, the central to the axilla, 
 the posterior to the scapula. 
 
 2. Nerv. phrenicus respiratorius internus (Ch. Bell), the 
 diaphragmatic nerve, arises from the fourth cervical nerve, 
 and is strengthened hy filaments from the third, fifth, and 
 sixth, even from the second and seventh ; it unites with the 
 superior cervical ganglion, sometimes with hypoglossus and 
 vagus. Course : before m. scaknus anticus, downwards 
 and inwards, and between art. and v. subclavia into the 
 cavum mediast. antic, of the thorax. It is, here, between 
 Pleura and Pericardium, before the roots of the lungs, 
 without distributing any branches ; on the left side it passes 
 round the apex of the heart (therefore longer). It divides 
 into two principal branches, which radiate upon the superior 
 surface of the diaphragm, and partly pass to its inferior 
 surface, where they anastomose with the plexus phrenicus 
 sympaihici. It is a mixed nerve, and gives rise, by its 
 motor filaments, to the involuntary respiratory movements 
 of the diaphragm, the two anterior thirds of which it 
 supplies. 
 
406 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 b. Ram. posterior is small, is distributed in the m. multifid., 
 compkxus, gives other branches, and terminates in the m. 
 splenius capitis, or upon the skin. 
 
 Plexus cervicalis, formed by the loops of the four superior cer- 
 vical nerves (their anterior branches), is situated behind m. sterno- 
 cleidom. and ven. jugularis interna, before the superior extremity 
 of m. scalenus mcd. and levat. scapulce, the third and fourth cervi- 
 cal vertebrae. Its branches have been described. 
 
 655. b. The four inferior cervical nerves 
 
 supply more especially the skin and muscles of the superior extre- 
 mity, as their strong anterior branches interlace, upon their exit 
 from the intervertebral foramina, and form, with the first dorsal 
 nerve, the plexus brachialis. The posterior branches are small, 
 incline round in. multifidus, &c., supply splenius, biventer, &c., 
 and terminate upon the skin of the middle line, at the inferior re- 
 gion of the neck. 
 
 656. Plexus brachialis. 
 
 Situation: oblique from the inferior lateral region of the neck as 
 far as the inner side of the head of the humerus. Its superior 
 broader portion lying between the mm. scaleni, covered by a fascia, 
 is situated above art. subclavia in the trigonum cervicale inferius, 
 and is connected above with plex. cervicalis and n. phrenieus. Its 
 central narrower portion between clavicle and first rib, behind art. 
 axillaris. Its inferior portion in the axilla, behind the m. pectoralis 
 major, before the scapulo-humeral articulation, separated from this 
 by the tendons of the m. subscapularis, surrounds the art. axillaris. 
 The branches are spirally interwoven. 
 
 657. a. Respiratory nerves, the branches of the 
 
 pars supra-clavicular is. 
 
 1. N. dorsalis scapulce, arises from the ram. anter. of the fifth 
 cervical vertebra, descends obliquely backwards through the m. 
 scalen. medius, above levator. scap., and with art. dorsalis sca- 
 pulce on the internal surface of mm. rhomboidei ; distributes mus- 
 cular branches. 
 
 2. TV. thoracicus longus (posterior) s. respiratorius externus 
 Bellii, arises with three roots, from the fifth to seventh cervical 
 nerves, which perforate the scalenus medius. Its trunk descends 
 on the external surface of serratus antic, major as far as its infe- 
 rior extremity, before m. scapularis ; its branches pass in arches 
 into the Serratus Magnus. 
 
THE NERVES. 407 
 
 3. Nn. ihoracici anteriores, arise from the anterior portion of 
 the brachial plexus, above the m. subclavius, from the fifth to 
 seventh cervical nerves, pass inwards, before and behind art. 
 axillaris to m. pectoral, major and minor ; a filament along the 
 clavicula. Branches : to m. subclav., deltoid., even to the skin of 
 the mammary gland. 
 
 4. IV. suprascapularis arises from the fifth, and is enlarged by 
 the sixth and seventh cervical nerves, passes backwards, outwards, 
 and downwards along the m. omo-hyoid. and with the vena 
 transversa scap. goes through the incisura scapul., beneath the 
 lig. transvers., whilst the artery passes over it. (In consequence 
 of becoming enlarged the vein presses upon this nerve ; hence 
 pains about the shoulder in diseases of the heart.) It supplies m. 
 supra- and infra-spinatus. 
 
 5. Nn. subscapulares, two branches, arise from the fifth to 
 seventh cervical nerves, sometimes from n. axillaris, pass back- 
 wards and downwards, giving branches to m. teres major, and 
 sinking into m. subscapularis. 
 
 6. N. marginalis scapulce s. subscapularis longus, arises from 
 the inferior central part of the plexus, passes with art. subscapul. 
 to the outer border of the shoulder blade, giving branches to : m. 
 serrat. antic, maj. and latiss. dorsi. 
 
 658. b. The nerves of the arm, branches of the pars axillaris 
 
 of the brachial plexus. 
 
 There are three cutaneous and four muscular nerves. 
 Of these, the 
 
 N. Axillaris supplies the m. deltoideus and teres 
 
 minor ; 
 
 IV. musculO'Cutaneus the flexors of the fore-arm ; 
 
 IV. radialis the extensors of the fore- 
 
 arm and the hand, and 
 the supinators / 
 
 IV. medianus and ulnaris the flexors and prona- 
 
 tors of the hand and 
 fingers. 
 
 659. Cutaneous nerves. 
 
 1. IV. cutaneus brachii internets (minor s. ulnaris}, arises from 
 the loops of the seventh cervical and first dorsal nerves, passes 
 into the axilla on the internal posterior side of ven. axittar., then 
 on the internal side of the humerus, perforates the fasc. brachial. 
 in the middle third and inclines outwards. It supplies above, the 
 
408 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 skin of the arm, on the posterior surface, downwards as far as the 
 olecranon, on the inside ; as well as the anterior surface ; uniting 
 above the olecranon with the principal trunk of the middle cutane- 
 ous nerve. 
 
 2. N. cutaneus medius s. internus major, arises from the in- 
 ferior portion of the plexus or from n. ulnaris and medianus (at 
 first on the ven. axillar., then on the ven. basilica), afterwards 
 between them, downwards along the boundary of the anterior and 
 internal surface of the upper arm, beneath the fascia, giving above 
 branches to the axilla and to the skin along the m. biceps, and 
 divides into an external branch for the anterior surface and an in- 
 ternal for the ulnar border of the fore-arm, the branches of which 
 extend as far as the carpal articulation. 
 
 In the bend of the arm it is situated over ven. mediana, rather 
 internally, towards the condylus internus. (The outer side of the 
 vein is therefore selected in venesection.) 
 
 3. N. cutaneus externus s. musculo-cutaneus s. perforans Cas- 
 serii, arises close to the n. medianus or with it, from the fifth to 
 the seventh cervical nerves, perforates the m. coracoideus and 
 passes obliquely between biceps and brachial. intern, outwards, 
 passes downwards to the v. cephalica, and close to this on the 
 fore-arm, in the inferior half of which it divides into a volar and 
 a branch for the radial border, which terminates in the skin over 
 the carpal articulation. Branches to : m. coraco-brachialis, 
 biceps, brachialis internus, and to the skin of the anterior sur- 
 face of the lower arm. 
 
 660. Muscular nerves. 
 
 4. N. axillaris s. circumflexus humeri, arises from the inferior, 
 middle part of the plexus, curves inwards and backwards, behind 
 anconceus long, [triceps] around the highest part of the humerus 
 with art. circumjl. humeri post., and terminates in the skin be- 
 tween the axilla and upper arm on the posterior surface. Branches 
 to : m. subscapul., [?] tares major [?] and minor, deltoid, to art. 
 axillaris, the shoulder joint, and into the bones ; lastly : 
 
 N. cutaneus humeri posterior superior [there are generally 
 two, even three branches], perforates the m. deltoideus, 
 and ramifies in the posterior, superior, and outer region of 
 the upper arm. 
 
 5. Nero, ulnaris s. cubitalis, arises from the inner part of the 
 plexus, from the sixth to the eighth cervical, and first dorsal nerve, 
 passes downwards on the inner side of art. axillar. and brachi- 
 alis behind ven. axillaris, perforates the fascia, and goes between 
 
THE NERVES. 409 
 
 m. triceps and the lig. intermusc. intern, under the skin to the 
 groove behind the condylus internus, between it and olecranon, 
 without giving off branches. Hence it passes between proc. 
 coronoid. of ulna and flexor carpi ulnaris [between the origins 
 of this muscle], and passes on the ulnar side of the anterior sur- 
 face of the fore-arm, and divides in its inferior third into a volar 
 and dorsal branch. At this point it lies under m. flex. carp, 
 ulnaris and digitor. super flcialis, above the profundus ; at first 
 over, then internal to art. ulnaris. Branches to m. flex, carpi 
 ulnar., digit, 'superfic. [profundus~\ ; one branch accompanies 
 art. ulnaris to the skin of the volar surface of the carpus, as it 
 perforates the fascia antibrachii. 
 
 a. Ram. dorsalis manus, passes between flex, carpi ulnaris. 
 and ulna, supplies the skin on the ulnar border of the fore- 
 arm and divides on the carpus. 
 
 a. Ram. sublimis supplies the back of the fifth and fourth 
 fingers on each side, that of the third finger on the ulnar 
 side, with one branch. 
 
 b. Ram. profundus (small) winds round over the capitu- 
 lum ulnce upon the back of the hand, where it anasto- 
 moses towards the radial side. 
 
 b. Ram. volaris, the continuation of the trunk, passes on the 
 inner side of art. ulnaris under the tendon of flexor carpi, 
 and enters, between lig. carp. vol. commune and proprium, 
 passing close to the os pisiforme into the hollow of the hand, 
 and divides into : 
 
 a. Ram. sublimis, supplies the ulnar side of the little fin- 
 ger on the palmar surface. 
 
 b. Ram. medius, supplies the radial side of the little and 
 the ulnar side of the fourth (ring) finger. 
 
 c. Ram. profundus, supplies the muscles of the little fin- 
 ger, forms a loop on the os pisiforme with the corre- 
 sponding branches of the former ; passes on the arcus 
 profundus arterwsus to the mm. inter ossei, adduct. pol- 
 licis [and the two lumbricales nearest the little finger.] 
 
 6. -ZV. medianus ; arises from the fifth cervical to the first dorsal 
 nerves, from the outer part of the plexus, often united with n. mus- 
 culo-cutan. ; surrounds art. axiUaris ; passes downwards on the 
 outer side of art. brachialis, on the inner of m. biceps, afterwards 
 over the artery and to its inner side, through plica cubiti to the 
 forearm, without giving branches. Descends from the centre of 
 the bend of the elbow over art. ulnaris and behind m. pronator 
 teres [often perforating it], is then situated in the inferior half of 
 
410 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 the forearm between jta?r digitor sublimis andprofundus; finally, 
 it passes between the tendons of flexor . digit, sublim. and carpi 
 radialis behind lig. carpi volare proprium to the hollow of the 
 hand, where it divides into four branches. 
 
 Branches to: art. interossea, to the hollow of the hand (r. cuta- 
 neus longus) [or palmar cutaneus], and to all muscles of the flexor 
 side of the fore-arm, except flexor carpi ulnaris. 
 
 a. Ram. volaris internus, supplies the skin of the hollow of the 
 hand, the third lumbricalis [sometimes], and the collateral 
 surfaces of the third and fourth fingers. 
 
 b. Ram. medius internus, supplies the second m. lumbric., and 
 the collateral surfaces of the second and third fingers. 
 
 c. Ram. medius externus, supplies the first m. lumbric., and 
 the collateral surfaces of the second and first fingers, and the 
 external of the last. 
 
 d. Ram. externus, muscular branches for flexor, brevis, abduc- 
 tor, and opponens pollicis. 
 
 [e. Ram. interosseus, accompanying the art. inteross. ant., sup- 
 plies the pron. radii quad.] 
 
 7. N. radialis s. spiralis, in size and course resembling the 
 median, arises from the fifth to the eighth cervical nerves from the 
 posterior part of the plexus. Course: it winds round the posterior 
 surface of the upper arm outwards, forwards, and downwards 
 towards the fore-arm, as it passes down upon the anterior internal 
 surface of condyl us externus, and divides at the flexure of the arm. 
 Position : at first behind art. axillaris, and separated by it from 
 n. ulnaris and medianus, then close to the bone in a sulcus be- 
 tween the heads of the triceps m., finally passing out obliquely 
 between brachialis internus and supinator longus over the con- 
 dylus externus. 
 
 Branches : a long cutaneous branch, which reaches down as low 
 as the back of the hand, and to all the extensor muscles, except m. 
 extensor carpi ulnaris [?]. 
 
 a. Ram. dorsalis s. ram. super ficialis, continuation of the trunk, 
 passes (on the outer side of art. radial.} under supinator lon- 
 gus upon the dorsal surface of the fore-arm, perforates the 
 fascia below its centre, and divides into an external and in- 
 ternal branch. 
 
 a. Ram. anterior, passes down upon the extern, pollic. 
 
 brevis, gives branches to the volar surface of the skin of 
 
 the ball of the thumb, and terminates as n. dorsal. 
 
 radialis pollicis on that organ. 
 
 /3. Ram. posterior, supplies the dorsal side of the collateral 
 
THE NERVES. 411 
 
 surfaces of the first and second, and those of the second 
 and third fingers. 
 
 b. Ram. profundus s. musmdaris, passes through or under m. 
 supinaior brevis upon the dorsal surface of the fore-arm, sup- 
 plies the extensor muscles, and passes close upon the lig. in- 
 terosseum (as n. interosseus externus}, to terminate upon the 
 carpal articulation. 
 
 661. IT. The Nerves of the Back, Nervi dorsales (twelve pairs). 
 
 The first passes out between the first and second dorsal, the last 
 between the twelfth dorsal and first lumbar vertebra. Their roots 
 are smaller, and lie more widely asunder than those of the other 
 spinal nerves ; their trunks also are less developed. They traverse 
 a greater length of the canal, spinalis, form their ganglia, and soon 
 divide after their exit from the intervertebral foramen. By means 
 of frequent anastomoses, they form arched loops with each other, 
 and give off roots to the nerv. sympathicus. 
 
 1. Posterior branches, rami dorsales, smaller than the anterior, 
 turn round between lig. colli costce extern, and intern., backwards, 
 and divide into an external and internal branch. 
 
 a. Rami externi, turn outwards : 
 
 a. Those of the seven superior, smaller, pass out between the 
 transverse processes; pass between m. longissim. and sa- 
 cro-lumbalis, give branches to them, to cervical, descend. 
 and transversal., to levatores costarum, and the over-lying 
 skin. 
 
 /5. Those of the five inferior are larger, perforate the tendons 
 ofserratus posticus and latissimus dorsi, and terminate 
 below in the skin. 
 
 b. Rami interni, are larger in the seven superior dorsal nerves; 
 pass upon m. multifid. spince, inwards and downwards to- 
 wards the transverse processes, give branches to m. mutifid., 
 semi-spinal, cervicis and dorsi, mm. inter spinales, perforate 
 the superficial muscles, and spread out, as the two are asso- 
 ciated together, externally in the skin of the back. 
 
 2. The anterior branches, nervi inter costales, pass between the 
 ribs before the lig. colli costce intern., traverse, below the vasa in- 
 
 fracostalis, the sukus costalis, between mm. intercostales externi 
 and interni, forwards and outwards, and divide in the middle be- 
 tween vertebrce and sternum into an internal and external branch. 
 The anterior branch of the first dorsal nerve assists in forming the 
 plex. brachialis, as its superior branch passes upwards behind art. 
 

 412 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 maxillaris to the eighth cervical nerve ; its inferior branch tra- 
 verses as intercostal nerve along the first rib. 
 
 a. Rami interni s. profundi continue to pass in the direction of 
 the trunk, along the inferior borders of the ribs as far as the 
 middle line of the chest and abdomen. 
 
 a. The thoracic (r. thoracici interni), these are the branches 
 of the second to the seventh intercostal nerves, which 
 give small branches to the mm. intercostales and trian- 
 gularis sterni (of the third to the seventh), perforate at 
 the outer border of the sternum the mm. intercostal, and 
 pectoralis major, are again reflected outwards, supplying 
 the mammary gland and skin, and unite as internal cu- 
 taneous nerves of the chest with the external. 
 
 (3. The abdominal branches (r. abdominales interni) ; 
 these are, the branches of the eighth to the twelfth inter- 
 costal nerves, are larger, give branches to the mm. in- 
 tercostales, pass behind the cartilages of the short ribs, 
 and traverse between mm. obliquus intern, and trans- 
 versus abdom. to and in the sheath of m. rectus, supply- 
 ing the muscles and skin of the anterior abdominal walls. 
 
 b. Rami externi s. laterales perforate (the twelfth excepted) the 
 m. intercostal, extern, from behind forwards, then pass forth 
 on the lateral walls of the chest and abdomen, and divide im- 
 mediately into an anterior and posterior branch. 
 
 a. The thoracic branches (r. thoracici externi), that is, the 
 second to the seventh branch, passing forth between the 
 digitations ofm. serratus antic, major. Their anterior 
 branches are reflected inwards, and ramify in the skin 
 of the thorax. Their posterior branches, backwards 
 upon n. latissimus dorsi, give filaments to it, and ter- 
 minate in the skin of the back. The posterior branch 
 [intercosto-humeral] of the second and third n. intercos- 
 tal, goes to the skin of the upper arm, and forms the 
 posterior cutaneous nerves of the superior third of this 
 region of the upper extremity [Nn. WrisbergiiJ. 
 
 /3. The abdominal branches (rami abdominales extern.), 
 that is, the eighth to the twelfth branch, passing out be- 
 tween the digitations of m. obliquus extern. Their an- 
 terior branches are reflected inwards, give a branch to 
 m. obliq. extern., and ramify in the skin of the lower 
 part of the anterior abdominal parietes. Their posterior 
 branches pass backwards to the skin of the lumbar re- 
 gion. 
 

 THE NERVES. 413 
 
 662. III. The lumbar, abdominal nerves, Nervi lumbales, 
 (eight pairs.) 
 
 The first passes out between the twelfth dorsal and first lumbar 
 vertebra, the fifth between the fifth abdominal and the sacrum. 
 Their roots lie closer together, belong to the cauda equina, and 
 pass tolerably far downwards in the canal, spinalis ; they are not 
 united, like the earlier spinal nerves, by means of interposed fila- 
 ments. The ganglia of the lower are situated in the canalis spi- 
 nalis. The trunk divides, soon after its exit from the interverte- 
 bral foramen, into an anterior and posterior branch. 
 
 The anterior branches increase at the origin from the first to 
 the fifth, unite by means of two or several filaments with n. sym- 
 pathicuS) pass through m. psoas major , and associate in loops be- 
 fore the transverse processes of the abdominal vertebrae, the four 
 superior of which form plex. lumbalis, while the fifth belongs to 
 theplex. sacralis. 
 
 2. The posterior branches decrease in size from the first to the 
 fifth, are soon reflected backwards between the transverse pro- 
 cesses and their muscles, and divide into : 
 
 a. Internal branches. They pass in the groove on the basis of 
 the transverse process to m. multifidus and inter spinales. 
 The fifth branch unites with the first n. sacralis. 
 
 b. External branches. They are larger, go to mm. intertrans- 
 versarii and sacro-lumbalis. The three first distribute nn. 
 cutanei superiores \lumbo- glutceal] to the glutseal region. 
 
 Plexus lumbalis. 
 
 The lumbar plexus is formed by the loops of the second, third, 
 fourth, and a small branch of the first abdominal nerve, and is 
 situated on the sides of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae between 
 the transverse processes and the fasciculi of psoas major. Three 
 secondary and three principal branches pass off from it, the for- 
 mer of which belong to the first and second lumbar nerves as 
 nn. abdominaleS) and pass between m. psoas and iliacus on one 
 side and the peritoneum on the other, to the crural arch ; the 
 latter supply the inferior extremity. 
 
 664. a. The secondary branches, abdominal brandies. 
 
 1. JV. ileo-hypogastricus arises from the first lumbar nerve, 
 perforates the psoas, passes outwards before m. quadrat, lumbor. 
 downwards towards the crista ilei, penetrates m. transvers. abdom., 
 passes, between m. transversus and obliquus internus, along the 
 
414 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 crista ilei, and terminates in the skin over the abdominal ring and 
 mons Veneris, or passes through the inguinal canal. It supplies 
 the above-mentioned muscles. 
 
 2. N. ileo-inguinalis arises from the first lumbar nerve or the 
 first loop, perforates m. psoas farther forwards, and the m. trans- 
 versus in the neighbourhood of spina ilei anterior super., after 
 that the obliq. intern., and passes over the spermatic cord (or the 
 round ligament), through the abdominal ring to the skin of the 
 pubic region (mons Veneris) and the anterior external part of the 
 scrotum (or the labia externa), sometimes even to the thigh. 
 
 3. N. genito-cruralis arises from the second lumbar nerve, or 
 the second loop, perforates the psoas close in front, passes down- 
 wards, forwards and outwards upon its anterior surface, and 
 divides in the inguinal region into an internal and external 
 branch. 
 
 a. Ram. externus s. lumbo-inguinalis, passes off obliquely, 
 from the psoas to the m. iliacus outwards, and passes upon 
 this with an external branch to the spina anter. super., per- 
 forates the inferior border of the abdominal muscles, and 
 supplies the skin of the outer superior part of the thigh ; 
 with an internal, upon or outside the art. cruralis, through 
 the femoral ring to the skin of the anterior superior part of 
 the thigh. 
 
 b. Ram. internus s. n. spermaticus externus [s. ileo-inguinal] 
 runs through the femoral ring on the inner side of v. cruralis, 
 with an external branch which terminates in the inguinal 
 glands over Poupart's ligament and the skin ; with an inter- 
 nal branch through the inguinal canal upon the spermatic 
 cord (or lig. uteri rotund.) into the tunica vaginalis propria 
 to m. cremaster, testicle, tunica dartos, and skin of the scro- 
 tum (or to mons Veneris and the anterior extremities of the 
 labia). 
 
 665. b. The principal branches, femoral. 
 
 4. N. cutaneus femoris anterior externus [s. inguino-cutaneus], 
 arises from the second loop, perforates the psoas, passes down upon 
 m. iliacus underneath its aponeurosis; behind art. circumflexa 
 ilei at the outer extremity of lig. Poupartii through a short sheath, 
 here perforates the fascia cruralis, and descends on the outer side 
 of the thigh as far as the knee. Connexions : with the two rami 
 of the genito-cruralis (plexiform). Branches : to the skin over 
 trochanter major, and internally in front. 
 
 5. J!V". cruralis, the middle and largest branch of the lumbar 
 
THE NERVES. 415 
 
 plexus, arises, especially, from the second, third, and fourth lum- 
 bar nerves, passes rather obliquely downwards, outwards and for- 
 wards, behind m. psoas, then before m. iliacus, behind lig. Pou- 
 partii upon the anterior surface of the thigh, where it immediately 
 divides into two principal branches. Situation : in the fossa ili- 
 aca ; in the fossa between psoas and iliacus covered by the fascia 
 iliaca on the external border of the psoas ; behind the lig. Pou- 
 partii ; separated from the art. cruralis by its sheath and the 
 tendon of psoas, below the femoral ring. Branches : to m. psoas 
 and iliacus pectin&us [?] and the following : 
 
 1. N. cutaneus femoris anterior internus comes off at Pou- 
 part's ligament, and descends as far as the outer surface of 
 the knee. It gives branches to m. sartorius and supplies the 
 skin of the outer surface in the centre, and that of the ante- 
 rior and internal in the lower third of the thigh. 
 
 2. N. cutaneus femoris anterior medius arises from the anterior 
 and internal principal trunk, descends in the lower third of 
 the thigh outwards, and terminates above and outside the 
 patella,. 
 
 3. N. patellaris arises next to the last on the outside, below lig. 
 foupartii, supplies the skin on the internal and anterior part 
 of the lower extremity of the thigh, and turns over the pa- 
 tella to the anterior part of the superior extremity of the leg. 
 
 By anastomoses between the external cutaneous nerves, 
 loops and superficial plexuses arise upon the inferior 
 part of the patella. 
 
 4. Rami musculares for : tensor fascice (sometimes [?]), for 
 vastus externus (from three to four), internus (one), m. sar- 
 torius, several, superficial and deep, which, perforating the 
 muscle, pass to the skin on the inner side of the knee ; for 
 rectus femoris and cruralis. 
 
 5. Nero, saphenus magnus, the principal branch of n. cruralis, 
 passes as far as the middle of the thigh on the outer side of 
 art. cruralis above the passage of the last through m. adductor 
 magnus, and divides into an internal and a larger external 
 branch. 
 
 a. Ram. internus passes over art. cruralis, behind m. sar- 
 torius, then perforates it and passes on the internal sur- 
 face of the knee-joint to the a,nterior of the shin-bone to 
 ramify in a radiating form in the skin over its upper 
 third. A branch passes backwards to the middle of the 
 thigh. 
 
 b. Ramus externus is larger, passes over the art. cruralis 
 
416 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 downwards and inwards, comes forth, after being more 
 deeply seated, from between m. gracilis and sartor., and 
 descends on the internal and anterior part of the leg, with 
 the ven. saphena ; it supplies the skin of the inner part 
 of the popliteal region, of the calf, of the inner malleolus 
 and back of the foot. 
 
 6. Nervus obturatorius, arises especially from the fourth lumbar 
 nerve, passes downwards posterior and internal to m. psoas with 
 the vasa obturatoria close to the lateral parietes of the pelvis, and 
 enters the foramen in the membrana obturatoria above the artery, 
 where it divides for the supply of the mm. obturatorii [only exter- 
 nus and sends a few filaments to the hip-joint]. 
 
 a. Ram. anterior is larger, passes forth between adductor brevis 
 and longus, supplies these, the gracilis, the skin on the internal 
 anterior region of the middle of the thigh, and, united with 
 n. cutan. fern, intern, the inner side of the calf [and knee 
 hence pains in this region in incipient disease of hip-joint]. 
 
 b. Ram. posterior perforates, and supplies the adductor longus 
 and brevis, and ramifies in the magnus as far as the knee. 
 
 666. IV. The Sacral Nerves, Nervi sacrales, 
 (eight pairs). 
 
 They arise (except the fifth) side by side from the inferior en- 
 largement of the spinal cord. Their roots descend, almost ver- 
 tically, in the canal, spinalis, inside of which, even, the ganglia 
 of the posterior roots are situated. The trunks of the united roots 
 are therefore longer than those of the lumbar nerves. They divide 
 soon after their exit from the sacral foramina, into their anterior 
 and posterior branches. 
 
 a. The anterior branches decrease in thickness from the second 
 to the fifth, pass out through the foramina sacralia antt., but 
 the last between the inferior piece and the cornua of the 
 sacrum unite with n. sympathicus, and give branches to m. 
 pyriformis and coccygeus. The first to the fourth give 
 branches to the plexus in the depth of the pelvis, and form 
 the plexus ischiadicus with the fifth lumbar nerve. The fifth 
 unites with the fourth and the coccygeal nerve, and goes 
 directly into the skin of the anal region. 
 
 b. The posterior branches are less developed, the third most. 
 They pass forth through the foram. sacral, posteriora, unite 
 with each other, with the anterior branches, and with the last 
 lumbar and coccygeal nerves, and pass as the posterior cuta- 
 neous nervesof the glutseal region ; nn. clunium posteriores (3) 
 
THE NERVES. 417 
 
 667. Plexus sacralis s. ischiadicus, 
 
 formed of the first, second and third sacral nerves, and of branches 
 of the fourth and fifth abdominal [lumbar] nerves; is situated in a 
 direction downwards and outwards towards the inferior extremity 
 of the incisura ischiadica major before the m. pyriformis ; before 
 it, the vasa hypogastrica, which separate it from the peritoneum 
 and rectum. It is connected above with the lumbar plexus [by 
 lumbo-sacral nerve], in front with the hypogastric plexus; below 
 it continues into the n. ischiadicus, and with the smaller portion of 
 the muscular nerves of the glutceus, the posterior region of the 
 thigh, and into the pudendal nerves. 
 
 1. The secondary branches. 
 
 a. Nn. hcemorrhoidaks medii and vesicates inferiores, are three 
 or four twigs of the anterior branches of the third sacral nerves, 
 they give branches to plexus hypogastricus (see n. sympathic.),pass 
 to the rectum and above the vesiculce seminales to the neck of the 
 bladder, in the female as far as the vagina. 
 
 b. Nn. hce7norr}ioidales inferiores, the terminal filaments of the 
 anterior branches of the fourth sacral nerve. This last gives 
 branches to plex. hypogastricus, the prostata, vagina, m. levator 
 ani and coccygeus. 
 
 1. N. glutceus superior, arises from the loops of the third and 
 fourth lumbar with the first sacral nerve, passes above m. pyriformis 
 with art. glutcea through the incisura ischiad. major, anastomoses 
 with the ischiadic nerve, and divides immediately into two or three 
 principal branches, the largest of which passes in a curve to the 
 outer part of the thigh, between glutceus medius and minimus ; it 
 supplies the glutczi [g. med. and min.] and skin [?], the tensor 
 fascice, and in, the pelvis, the pyriformis. 
 
 2. N. glutceus inferior, arises from the loops of the fourth and 
 fifth lumbar, and first and second sacral nerves, passes out below 
 m. pyriform. with art. ischiadica from incisura major on the in- 
 ternal surface of glutceus maximus ; ramifies in it and in the skin, 
 and unites with the ischiadic nerve. 
 
 3. N. cutaneus femoris posterior communis, arises from the 
 first and second loop of the sacral nerves, passes out under m. 
 pyriform. through incisura major with art. ischiadica and down- 
 wards between tuber ischii and trochanter major, dividing into 
 several branches : 
 
 a. Nn. cutanei clunium inferiores are reflected around the in- 
 ferior border of glutceus maximus, supplying the skin of 
 trochanter major and the lower part of the glutseal region. 
 27 
 
418 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 b. Nn. scrotales s. labiales are reflected beneath the m. glutczus 
 maximus inwards, and terminate in the skin of the internal 
 superior part of the scrotum or labia maj., sometimes also in 
 the perinceum. 
 
 c. Nn. cutanei femoris posteriores, for the skin of the posterior 
 and inner part of the thigh as far as the posterior and outer 
 part of the popliteal region, whence filaments extend down- 
 wards to the outer and interior region of the calf. 
 
 4. N. pudendus s. spermaticus communis arises (variably) from 
 the flat cord of the associated sacral nerves, immediately passes in 
 the depth between lig. spinoso-sacrum and sacro-ischiadicur/i on 
 the inner side of art. pudenda under m. levator ani, and divides 
 into : 
 
 a. Ram. inferior s. N. perincci, corresponds to the art. pudenda 
 (with the exception of art. dorsalis penis'), passes, above this, 
 jfrom behind forwards, then between m. obturator intern, and 
 membr. obturat. with a curve upwards, and terminates with a 
 superficial branch (with art. transv. perin.), taking a course, 
 obliquely inwards and forwards, to the lower part of the scro- 
 tum and the penis, with a deep branch to the anterior part of 
 sphincter ani, to the bulbo-cavernos. and bulbus urethra, (in 
 the female to sphincter vagince, the labia and mons Veneris). 
 
 b. Ramus superior s. n. dorsalis penis (n. clitoridis of the 
 female), passes in a curve (with art. pudenda), at first close 
 to the inner surface of the tuber ischii, then upwards between 
 levator ani and obturator internus, and beneath symphysis 
 pubis (surrounded by the veins), upon the dorsum of the penis 
 in the middle line, and more superficial than art. dorsalis ; it 
 divides into two branches, the internal deeper of which goes 
 to the glans, the external cutaneous ramifies on the sides of 
 the penis, and forms a plexus which supplies the skin of the 
 three superior fourths of the organ. 
 
 The nerve of the clitoris is finer and smaller, but takes pre- 
 cisely the same course. 
 
 5. N. hczmorrhoidalis infimus arises, frequently, from n. pu- 
 dendus, passes, more internally than this, between lig. tuberoso- 
 and spinoso-sacrum, under the levator ani, in the fat, divides and 
 passes to the posterior part of the sphincter ani and the neighbouring 
 skin. 
 
 6. 7V. ischiadicus, the longest nerve of the body, arises from the 
 third and fourth lumbar, and the first, second and third sacral 
 nerves, passes out from the incisura ischiadica major below n. 
 pyriformis, flattened, descends between tuber ischii and trochanter 
 
THE NERVES. 41.9 
 
 major, close upon the rotator muscles, covered by glutceus maxi- 
 mus, directly to the posterior surface of the thigh. It here lies 
 enveloped in fat, and accompanied by no [large] vessel, before the 
 long head of m. biceps and before m. semitendinosus, then in the 
 fossa between the two; behind m. adductor magnus. [Above 
 gemellus sup. it gives off a branch which, passing behind the two 
 gemelli and obturator intern. , is lost in quadratusfemoris.] 
 
 Distribution. At the breadth of three to four fingers above the 
 knee-joint (the commencement of the popliteal space) ; even beforeor 
 after its exit from the pelvis it divides into two principal branches. 
 Branches ; superior : to mm. biceps , semitendinosus, -membra- 
 nosus, adductor magnus ; inferior : to caput breve bicipitis, to the 
 fat of the knee-joint, to the outer side of the patella. 
 
 a. N. peroneus s. fibularis s. poplitceus externus, the smaller 
 external branch, descends on the external side of biceps, obliquely 
 outwards through the popliteal region, then behind condylus extern, 
 femoris and tibice, between the tendons of the biceps and the outer 
 head of gastrocnemius ; outwards and rather forwards, behind the 
 superior attachment of m. solceus to the capitulum fibula, where 
 it divides into one of two superficial and deep branches. Branches : 
 to biceps and knee-joint (see n. ischiadic.) ; farther : 
 
 a. Posterior cutaneous branches, rr. cutanei cruris peroncvi 
 posteriores. 
 
 1. N. cutan. medium internus, descends under the fascia in the 
 middle of the posterior surface of the calf as far as the inferior 
 extremity of the leg. 
 
 2. N. cutan. medius externus s. communicans Jibularis passes 
 along the outer half of the calf and the Undo Achillis, then 
 under the external malleolus to the back of the foot, supplies 
 the skin on its outer half, the dorsal surface of the outer side 
 of the fifth, and the collateral surfaces of the fourth and fifth 
 toes ; and unites with n. communicans tibialis (which see). 
 
 3. N. cutaneus externus, supplies the skin of the outer border 
 from the superior to the inferior extremity of the leg. 
 
 /3. The superficial terminal branches of n. peronceus. 
 
 4. Ramus superjicialis externus s. N. cutaneus dorsi pedis me- 
 dius, passes on the outer side of the fibula, gives branches to 
 gastrocnemius extern., peronceus tertius, extensor haUucis 
 longus ; betakes itself to the middle of the anterior surface 
 of the leg, perforates the fascia, supplies the skin of this part 
 and about the external malleolus ; divides dichotomously on 
 
420 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 the dorsum of the foot, and supplies with an internal arched 
 branch the skin of this region, as far as the root of the great 
 toe ; with an external branch the collateral surfaces of the 
 third and fourth toes. 
 
 5. Ramus superficialis internus s. N. cutaneus dorsi pedis in- 
 tern, supplies the mm. peronei, passes over the ankle joint 
 inwards, towards the internal malleolus, supplies the skin on 
 the internal border of the dorsum pedis and bifurcates. Its 
 internal branch supplies the inner surface of the great, and 
 the collateral surfaces of the same and the second toe ; its 
 external branch the collateral surfaces of the second and third 
 toes. 
 
 y. The deeper terminal or muscular branch. 
 
 6. N, tibialis anticus winds round the capitulum fibulce, for- 
 wards, descends on the anterior surface of lig. inteross. out- 
 side and before art. tibialis antica, between m. extensor digi- 
 tor. longus communis, hallucis and tibialis anticus, gives 
 branches to these muscles, passes under lig. cruciatum, upon 
 the dorsum pedis, into the sheath of extensor halluc. and bi- 
 furcates. 
 
 a. Ramus internus, continuation of the trunk, passes under 
 art. metatarsea (pedicea ?) directly forwards, between first 
 and second os metatarsi, unites with the fifth, and supplies, 
 accordingly, the dorsal side of the collateral surfaces of the 
 first and second toes. 
 
 b, Ramus externus passes transversely outwards, close upon 
 the tarsus, under extens. brevis halluc. and digitor. com- 
 munis, and supplies them. 
 
 b. N. tibialis s.peronteus internus, descends as the continuation 
 of n. ischiadicus, vertically through the popliteal space, between 
 the heads of the gastrocnemius, then on the posterior surface of 
 the tibia, covered by m. soleus, and on the internal border of ten- 
 doAchUlis, behind and under the internal malleolus, where it bi- 
 furcates. Situation : in the popliteal space, on the posterior and 
 outer side of vena poplitcea, covered only by the fascia / as far as 
 tendon Achillis, by mm. gastrocnemius and soleus, on the outer 
 side of art. tibialis postica ; behind and below the malleolus, co- 
 vered by the fascia, in a sheath with the vasa tibialia (and behind 
 them), behind the tendons of m. tibialis posticus and flexor, com- 
 mun. digit longus. 
 
 Branches : for the posterior part of the knee-joint, for m. popli- 
 

 THE NERVES. 421 
 
 tceus, the muscles of the calf, m. tibialis postic. audjlexor hattucis 
 longus. Farther : 
 
 1. N. communicans tibialis s. cutaneus longus (s. saphenus ex- 
 ternus), descends behind the popliteal space and the calf, then 
 curves under the external matteolus and unites with n. com- 
 munic. fibularis, as : 
 
 N. dorsalis extern, digiti 5, on the outer border of the foot 
 and to the fifth toe (see before). 
 
 2. N. cutaneus plantaris arises in the centre of the leg, per- 
 forates the fascia on the tendo Achillis, and passes to the skin 
 of the heel and the sole. 
 
 3. N. plantaris internus, arises under proc. internus calcanei, 
 passes over m. abductor haUucis, and between this and flex, 
 digit, commun. brevis, and bifurcates. Its internal smaller 
 branch passes on the inner border of the sole to the great toe, 
 supplying the skin and mm. flexor and abductor brevis. Its 
 external, branch bifurcates, supplies the skin, mm. lumbricaks 
 [only two] and interossei [?] and the joints, as well as the 
 collateral plantar surfaces of the first and second, the second 
 and third, the third and fourth toes. 
 
 4. N. plantaris externus, is stronger, passes forwards between 
 caro quadrata and flexor, digitor. comm. brevis to the outer 
 border of the foot, gives branches to these muscles, and ab- 
 duct, brevis digit. 5. Its superficial branch supplies the col- 
 lateral surfaces of the fourth and fifth, and the outer surface 
 of the fifth toe. Its deeper branch passes in a curve to the 
 arcus arter. plantaris, inwards and forwards, and supplies the 
 adductor hattuc.flex. digiti 5, and interossei. 
 
 668. V. The Coccygeal Nerves, Nervi coccygei, 
 (one or two pairs), 
 
 arise from the conus medullaris with a single root which descends 
 in ihefllium terminate, enlarges at the point of the sheath of dura 
 mater, passes out and descends with two branches on the middle 
 ligament of the sheath to the inferior extremity of the sacrum. 
 The anterior branch is the larger, passes out between the cornu 
 and the superior part of the first piece of the coccyx, forwards, 
 unites with n. sympathicus (see ganglion coccygeum) ; and with 
 the anterior branch of the fifth sacral nerve. 
 
 The posterior branch passes immediately backwards, and unites 
 with the posterior branch of the fifth sacral nerve. 
 
422 
 
 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 [Nerves of the Lower Extremity from the LUMBAR PLEXUS. 
 
 Anterior crural nerve supplying the flexors of the hip, sartorius, and the 
 
 extensors of the knee joint. 
 
 Obturator nerve the obturator extern., the adductors and 
 
 gracilis. 
 LUMBO-SACRAL. 
 
 Superior glutceal 
 
 Cutaneous branches - 
 
 SACRAL. 
 Internal pudic 
 
 Inferior glutasal 
 
 Branches 
 Branches 
 
 ' Muscular branches 
 External poplitceal 
 
 Internal poplitceal 
 
 (posterior filial) 
 Internal plantar 
 External plantar 
 
 Cutaneous branches 
 
 glutcBUS med. and min. and tensor vaginas 
 
 femoris. 
 the skin over these muscles. 
 
 muscles and skin of perineum, and parts 
 
 of the organs of generation, &c. 
 glutcBus maximus and skin of pudendal 
 
 and posterior femoral regions. 
 Viscera in pelvis. 
 obturat. intern., pyriform., gemelli, quad. 
 
 femoris. 
 
 the flexors of the knee, 
 the peroncBal muscles, the flexor of foot 
 
 and extensors of toes, 
 the extensors of foot and long flexors of 
 
 toes. 
 
 short flexors of toes. 
 the flex, ace., interossei, adductor, hallucis, 
 
 trans, pedis and/, min. digit. 
 the skin over these muscles.] 
 
 The Sympathetic Nerve, 
 Nervus sympathicus s. gangliosus, 
 
 This is a string (connecting cord) of from twenty-four to twenty- 
 five interrupted ganglia, found upon the lateral and anterior sur- 
 faces of the vertebral column, before the transverse processes of the 
 vertebra?, which forms plexuses on the different organs by means 
 of branches which pass off laterally from the ganglia. It receives 
 its roots from the brain, but in great measure from the spinal cord, 
 as filaments pass from each spinal nerve to the corresponding gan- 
 glion, remaining here with the already existing plexus, or continu- 
 ing, after a longer or shorter course, from the connecting cord into 
 the lateral branches. [Filaments also arise within the ganglia^ 
 The ganglia correspond, generally, to the intervertebral spaces, and 
 are in close relation, by means of connecting filaments, with all the 
 other ganglia of the body, like a chain. The connecting cords of 
 the two sides are associated before the os coccyx in the ganglion 
 coccygeum. 
 
THE NERVES. 423 
 
 A. The ganglionic chain, central portion, 
 
 is divided into the cranial, cervical, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic 
 portions. 
 
 670. I. The Cranio-cervical portions, pars cepJiplica. 
 
 The cervical portion consists of three (or four) ganglia connected 
 together by means of the trunk, is situated upon the anterior sur- 
 face of mm. rectus capit. antic, major and longits cotti, surrounded 
 by loose uniting tissue, behind carotis internet and communis, v. 
 vertebralis and n. vagus (on their inner side). 
 
 The trunk between the ganglia is white, thinner or thicker, 
 sometimes knotty and divided, descends vertically to the second 
 ganglion, behind art. thyreoid. inferior, or directly to the third 
 ganglion. 
 
 671. 1. Ganglion cervicale supremum s. magnum is spindle- 
 shaped, fusiform, flattened, rather concave on the inner surface ; 
 gray, even; half to one inch long, one to six lines broad, one to 
 three lines thick ; sometimes fissured at the inferior extremity, 
 and constricted (double ?). Position : generally before the proc. 
 transvers. of the second to the fourth cervical vert., before mm. 
 rectus cap. antic, major and lon^us capitis, posterior and internal 
 to carotis interna, n. vagus, and hypoglossus ; ten to twelve lines 
 below the introitus canal, carotid. It receives its principal roots 
 from the three first cervical nerves, some also from the fourth and 
 fifth. These enter into its posterior side, are reflected, and then 
 pass into the rami and the cord of the cervical portion. The branches 
 are: 
 
 a. Ramus ascendens, passes off from the superior extremity, and 
 divides into an anterior and posterior branch, which together form 
 the cranial portion of the n. sympathicus. 
 
 1. N.jugularis (r. posterior) ascends from the superior poste- 
 rior part to the foram. jugulare, and gives filaments to : 
 gangl. petrosum glosso-phary?igei ; gangl. jugular e vagi ; 
 to nerv. hypoglossus. The last, generally, enter the gangl. 
 cervic. supremum in an isolated manner, and do not properly 
 go to the hypogloss., but come from it. 
 
 2. N. caroticus (ram. anterior), ascends on the posterior and 
 internal surface of carotis inter na, forming deYicaie plexuses, 
 and divides on the first curvature, close beneath canal caroti- 
 cus, into an external and internal branch, which pass toge- 
 ther on the outer and inner side of carotis, ascending in the 
 canal to the plexus cavernosus. In the canal arise : 
 
424 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 a. -ZV". carotico-tympanicus inferior, from the external branch, 
 passes through a little canal on the posterior outer wall of 
 can. carotic. into the tympanum for the nerv. Jacobsonii 
 (see n.glosso-pharyngeus). 
 
 b. N. Vidia^us profundus (s. petrosus prof, major), passes 
 through can. Vidianus, with n. Vid. superficial, to the gangl. 
 Meckelii (see trigeminus), after it has received the superior 
 connecting branches with the plex. tympanicus. 
 
 N. petrosus profundus minor. This passes out between 
 can. caroticus and the osseous tuba Eustachii. 
 c. Connecting branches with m. abducens ; commonly, three 
 wind round the second curvature of the carotis outwards, 
 and pass into the sinus cavernosus, to nerv. abducens, 
 where this crosses the carotis. 
 
 672. Plexus cavernosus, is situated below and on the inner side 
 of carotis, at its entrance into the sinus cavernosus, is gray, per- 
 forated by arteries, and gives numerous branches, which form a 
 plexus, partly about the carotis and its branches, and partly pass 
 to other nerves. Branches : 
 
 1. For n. oculo-motorius. A twig passes, constantly, between 
 n. oculo-motor. and ophthalmicus (n. quinti) through fissura 
 orbital, super, to the longer (or shorter) root of ganglion cili- 
 are. Others pass close over n. abducens to n. oculo-motorius. 
 
 2. For n. trigeminus. They pass over the third curvature of 
 carotis from within outwards, and advance, partly into the in- 
 ternal portion of gangl. Gasseri, partly into n. ophthalmicus. 
 Several rr. recurrentes pass backwards to the tentorium cere- 
 beUi. 
 
 3. For n. abducens. They pass on the internal inferior side of 
 n. abducens below the last curvature of the carotid ; some- 
 times to n. trochlearis. 
 
 4. For n. opticus and gangl. spheno-palatinum. Some fila- 
 ments go on the inner side of nerv. abducens from the supe- 
 rior anterior part of plex. cavernosus, but only reach as far as 
 the sheath of the optic nerve, and appear to anastomose with 
 filaments of the gangl. spheno-pal. (Valentin.) 
 
 5. Ramuli sphenoidales (four to six) pass inwards to the dura 
 mater around the hypophysis (but probably not into this), and 
 into the sinus sphenoidalis. 
 
 6. Ramuli ad carotidem cerebralem pass on the inner side of n. 
 abducens, on the sigmoidal superior curvature of the carotis 
 to plex. n. mollium. 
 
THE NERVES. 425 
 
 b. Ramu descendens is the connecting cord of the n. sympathi- 
 cus itself (see above). From it connecting filaments pass off to n. 
 cardiacus and laryngeus superior. 
 
 c. Anterior branches of ganglion cervicale I. 
 
 1. Nervi mottes (s. carotidis externce), arise singly or with a 
 common trunk (truncm n. mottium} from the anterior surface 
 of the ganglion, are soft, thin, and reddish, descend forwards, 
 entwine round both carotids, and form plexuses round all the 
 rami of carotis externa. 
 
 Plexus nervorum mottium are as numerous as the branches 
 passing off from the carotis extern. ; also, pi. thyreoideus, 
 lingualis, &c. Above the point of division of the large 
 arteries they commonly form ganglia ; thus ganglion in- 
 tercaroticum in the angle between carotis interna and ex- 
 terna. The following nerves have a distinct share in these 
 plexuses ; n. hypoglossus, vagus, g1osso-pharyngeus,faci- 
 alis, and trigeminus. From the plexus facialis a filament 
 passes, as a soft root, to the gang, maxittare ; from pi. 
 maxUlar. internus, with art. meningea media to ganglion 
 oticum. 
 
 2. N. cardiacus superior s. longus, arises from the inferior ex- 
 tremity of the ganglion, or below this even from the trunk, 
 enlarged by the laryngeal branch of the vagus , passes on 
 the inner side of n. sympathicus before m. longus colli, 
 behind carotis communis, in front, over art. thyreoidea (on 
 the right side close to trachea, on the left before oesophagus}, 
 enters the chest behind art. subclavia, and passes with the 
 carotis, (on the left) and truncus anonymus (on the right side) 
 to the aorta, in the coats of which it is, partly, lost, sending 
 filaments on to the posterior cardiac and pulmonary plexus. 
 It unites with : nn. molles, vagus, and its recurrent branch, 
 and gives filaments to the thyroid gland, m. sterno-, 
 hyo-thyreoid, constrictor pharyng. inferior. It sometimes 
 forms two ganglia. 
 
 a. Gangl. cardiacum superius, small, close under art. thyreoid. 
 inferior. 
 
 b. Gangl. cardiacum inferius, s. Wrisbergi, larger, in the tho- 
 rax (upon the right side, where the nerve is generally stronger). 
 
 G13. 2. Ganglion cervicale medium, roundish, elliptical, smaller 
 than the superior cervical ganglion, is larger in one instance than 
 in another, but almost always present; it is placed on the trunk of 
 n. sympathicus, between the superior and inferior cervical gan- 
 
426 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 glion on the art. thyreoid inf., receiving rarauli from the fifth and 
 sixth, or fifth to the seventh cervical nerves, and the principal fila- 
 ments of plex. thyreoideus inferior (is not to be confounded with 
 the ganglionic enlargement before the fourth and fifth cervical ver- 
 tebrae ; this is often wanting). Between it and the inferior cervi- 
 cal we find, almost always, small ganglia interposed. 
 
 a. Plexus thyreoideus inferior , passes from the cervical portion, 
 form plexuses around the art. thyr. inf., gives branches to the 
 thyroid gland, and receives those of: the plexus of the cardiac 
 nerves in the inferior part of the neck, from n. recurrens, and 
 the trunk of the vagus. In it lies before or behind art. thyreoid. 
 infer, a gangl. thyreoideum inferius. 
 
 b. N. cardiacus medius, arises from or below the gangl. c. me- 
 dium, passes downwards and inwards behind the carotis, form 
 plexus around this (forming in the thorax the gangl. cardiac, 
 medium), and enter along it the posterior cardiac plexus ; it 
 unites with : plex. thyreoid. infer., with branches from gangl. 
 infimum c. and n. vagus. 
 
 674. 3. Ganglion cervicale infimum s. stellatum, flat, round- 
 ish, or three to four cornered, rarely double, sometimes blended 
 with the first thoracic ganglion, lying before the root of proc. 
 transv. of the seventh cervical vert., or on the neck of the first rib, 
 higher or lower upon the art. vertebral, behind art. subclavia. Its 
 roots come from the sixth and seventh, also from fourth, fifth, and 
 eighth cervical nerves. Its branches are : 
 
 a. N. cardiacus infimus, half a line thick, passes downwards 
 and inwards, with the trunk of the vagus, and then on the 
 arcus aortcB to the inferior cardiac plexus ; is sometimes want- 
 ing upon the right side, forms united with n. card, medius, 
 the thick (crassus) cardiac nerves. Connexions : with plex. 
 vertebral., subclav., laryng. infer, and vagus. 
 
 b. Branches (three) for art. vertebralis, ascending on this in the 
 canal, vertebral., surrounding it like a plexus, and anasto- 
 mosing with the cervical nerves. 
 
 c. Branches (two) for art. subclavia, forming loops about it, and 
 sinking into the first thoracic ganglion. 
 
 d. The trunk of n. sympath., between the lowest cervical and 
 first thoracic ganglion, divides and descends before and behind 
 art. subclavia. 
 
 675. II. Pars thoracica n. sympathici. 
 
 The thoracic portion descends along the vertebral column (from 
 
THE NERVES. 427 
 
 the first to the third ganglion, upon the heads of the ribs, then 
 more externally), through the thorax, and divided, between the 
 external and middle crus of the diaphragm, into the abdomen. 
 Before it is covered by the pleura ; behind it pass the vasa and 
 nerv. intercost. ; close to that of the right side the v. azygos. Its 
 ganglia : 
 
 Ganglia ihoracica (eleven to twelve) are flat, generally tri- 
 angular, with the apex directed outwards, and they are applied 
 to the outer side of the trunk. The two first and the twelfth 
 are the most developed, but less so than the cervical ganglia. 
 The first is covered, partly, by art. subclavia and vertebral. 
 They contain a single or threefold root from the intercostal 
 nerves, and give branches : to the cardiac, pulmonary, ceso- 
 phageal, and aortic plexuses, for the bodies of the vertebra? 
 and the intercostal spaces. Lastly : 
 
 The roots to the nervi splanchnici, the visceral branches. 
 
 676. III. Pars lumbalis n. sympathici. 
 
 The lumbar portion descends on the sides of the bodies of the 
 lumbar vertebrae internal to the m. psoas, and unites above and 
 below by means of transverse cords with the one of the other side. 
 The trunk is single as well as double and triple. Its ganglia : 
 
 Ganglia lumbalia (four to five) are small, flat, and elongated, 
 
 frequently blending one with another, so that only two or 
 
 three appear to be present (as in the neck) ; grayish-red, like 
 
 the rest of the ganglia, and lying on the left behind aorta 
 
 abdominalis, on the right behind v. cava. Their single, 
 
 double, triple or five-fold roots, from the anterior branches of 
 
 the lumbar nerves, are very long, and pass into them, around 
 
 the bodies of the vertebrae, under m. psoas. Branches : 
 
 To aorta abdominalis, artt. lumbales, hypogastrica, and the 
 
 plexuses of the same names, n. renalis infer., poster., and 
 
 filaments between n. renalis and spermaticus. 
 
 677. IV. Pars sacralis et coccygeus. 
 
 The pelvic portion descends, divided into two larger filaments, 
 on the anterior surface of the sacrum, to the inner side of for am. 
 sacralia anteriora. Its trunk is very delicate, approaches more 
 and more the farther it descends to that of the other side, and 
 unites by means of transverse filaments with it, and the plexus 
 about the art. sacralis media, and terminates with the gangl. coc- 
 cygeum. Its ganglia : 
 
428 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Ganglia sacralia (four to five, or six) are very variable in 
 situation, shape, and number, the superior generally the 
 thicker ; they lie close to the exit of the anterior roots of the 
 sacral nerves, from which they receive two thick roots. 
 Branches : 
 
 To art. hypogastrica and their branches, rectum and pelvic 
 
 plexus. 
 
 Plexus sacralis medius commences even upon the fourth 
 lumbar vertebra, descends on the anterior surface of the 
 sacrum, becomes larger as far as the fourth piece of the 
 sacrum, and forms four to five ganglionic circles about the 
 art. sacralis media, becomes more delicate on the coccyx, and 
 terminates in the 
 
 678. Ganglion coccygeum. 
 
 An azygos, small ganglion, in which the most external filaments 
 of the n. sympathici of the two sides blend together. It is situated 
 upon the anterior surface of the coccyx, unites with the coccygeal 
 nerves, and gives several minute filaments to the apex of the os 
 coccyx. 
 
 B. Visceral branches and plexuses. 
 
 679. a. Rami splanchnici (s. pars thoracica). 
 
 1. Nerv. splanchnicus supremus, is not constant, it arises from 
 the cardiac plexus, and receives roots from the first to the sixth 
 thoracic ganglia. Its course varies, sinking into the vagus, or with 
 the aorta into the abdomen to the plexus mesaraicus superior and 
 renalis. 
 
 2. JV. splanchnicus major, arises with many roots from the fifth 
 to the eleventh or all the thoracic ganglia, descends along the verte- 
 bral bodies, becomes flattened, passes between the external or inter- 
 nal and middle crus of the diaphragm (or through hiatus aortic.) 
 in great measure to the gang, semilunare of its own side. The 
 right sends a. portion of its fibres, to the left, towards the spleen ; 
 the left towards the right, so that they cross. 
 
 3. N. splanchnicus minor, arises from the eleventh or twelfth 
 thoracic ganglion or higher, passes outwards close to 2, sometimes 
 united with it, into the lower part of plex. cceliacus, often also into 
 plex. renalis. 
 
 4. N". splanchnicus inferior s. renalis posterior, arises from the 
 twelfth thoracic ganglion, anastomoses with 3, and passes to plex. 
 cceliac., renalis, and supra-renalis. 
 
THE NERVES. 429 
 
 The nn. splanchnici are white, the plexus, into which they enter 
 gray. 
 
 680. b. Plexuses in the abdomen. 
 
 I. Plexus Solaris (cadiati s. mesenterici) comprehends the great 
 plexus of nerves on the aorta, from the origin of art. ccdiaca and 
 mesaraica super, as far as the commencement of the renal arteries, 
 lying behind the peritoneum, deeply, behind the regio epigastrica, 
 and forming very large ganglia, from which numerous branches, 
 interlacing with each other, pass off, and which anastomose with 
 n. vagus, phrenicus, with other branches of the sympathicus, a 
 less number with the lumbar nerves. The principal mass of them 
 forms the two : 
 
 1 . Ganglia semilunaria (s. magna ccdiaca s. cerebrum abdo- 
 minale), two reddish, bridge-like masses of ganglion, which are 
 situated on the inner sides of the supra-renal capsules. 
 
 Into these ganglia the white nn. splanchnici major and minor 
 betake themselves ; from them gray branches pass out, as : 
 
 1 . Rami phrenici, uniting with posterior branches of n . phreni- 
 cus and forming plexus about the artt. phrenices inferr. on 
 the right and left, entering into the fleshy portion of the 
 diaphragm, and connecting themselves with the hepatic and 
 suprarenal plexus. 
 
 2. Rami suprarenales (eight to sixteen) form, particularly 
 upon the posterior surface of the suprarenal capsules, plexus 
 suprarenales, which are connected with n. phrenicus, vagus, 
 and with the renal plexus. 
 
 3. Rami hepatici, arise from the two large ganglia and that 
 part of the plexus Solaris which lies transversely over the 
 art. hepatica before the aorta ; and forms : 
 
 a. Plexus arteriosus hepaticus s. dexter, on the hepatic 
 artery and ductus hepaticus within the liver ; where it 
 anastomoses with the 
 
 b. Plexus venosus. From this plexuses go to the gall 
 bladder (also from a), ductus cysticus, and choledochus, 
 which are in connexion with those of the pancreas, 
 duodenum, and stomach. 
 
 4. Rami gastrici (white) form, especially upon the art. 
 coronar.ventric. sinistra, a plexus (pkx.curvatur. minor.), 
 anastomoses with the branches of n. vagus (which see) 
 lying before it, pancreatic, splenic, and hepatic plexuses ; 
 forming a coronet around the port, pylorica. 
 
 5. Rami lienales, forming the plex. lienalis on the splenic 
 
430 SPECIAL ANATOMY. 
 
 artery for the spleen, and giving branches to the pancreas 
 
 andjundus ventriculi. 
 
 2. Plexus mesentericus superior, a dense plexus of whitish-gray 
 nerves at the origin of art. mesent. super., contains on the left side 
 a large ganglion, which is connected with gangl. codiacum. Be- 
 fore it lies the pancreas, and it receives the pkx. pancreaticus, as 
 well as the intestines to which the branches of art. mesent. sup. 
 go, supporting the plexus. 
 
 II. Plexus intermesentericus aorta (s. aorticus abdominalis), 
 lies between art. mesenterica superior and inferior, forms ganglia, 
 and unites with the mesenteric, renal, inferior caval and spermatic 
 plexus, and sends branches to the sciatic and vesical plexus. 
 
 III. Plexus mesentericus inferior, accompanies the arteries of the 
 same name and its branches ; unites in the meso-rectum with the 
 sciatic plexus. 
 
 IV. Plexus renales, are situated before and behind the renal ves- 
 sels ; are superior, middle, and inferior, forming small ganglia, and 
 are connected with the principal ganglia (see above). In the kid- 
 neys the nerves pass with the arteries, give filaments to the renal 
 calyces, and twine around the straight urinary canaliculi. 
 
 V. Plexus vena cavce inferiores, are but slightly developed, arise 
 especially from pi. intermesentericus, connected with renal, sper- 
 matic, and hepatic plexus. 
 
 681. C. The Pelvic Plexus. 
 
 I. Plexus divisionis aortce abdominalis, a superior and inferior. 
 The superior lies under the origin of art. mesenterica inferior, pass- 
 ing a little to the left ; its right portion passes upon art. hypogas- 
 tric. dexter, the left on the art. h&morrh. intern, to the pi. hce- 
 morrh. intern. The inferior is more delicate, lies between the two 
 art. iliacce, and goes into the plex. hypogastrici. 
 
 II. Plexus hcemorrhoidalis superior s. S. romani, lies between 
 the two layers of the superior (sigmoid flexure) meso-rectum, is in 
 connexion with the nerves of the vas deferens, and especially of 
 the left ureter. 
 
 III. Plexus hypogastrici, a superior azygos and two inferior 
 lateral. 
 
 1 . Plexus h. impar, goes on the right side of the art. iliaca, 
 passing off from the plexus at the place of division of the 
 aorta, and enters right and left the 
 
 2. Plexus h. lateraks. These descend on the artt. hypogastr.; 
 form long plexuses, and are surrounded by a ligamentous 
 mass, They are in connexion, below, with 
 
THE NERVES. 431 
 
 IV. Plexus hcemorrhoidales inferiores, a right and a left, con- 
 nected with the superior plexus of the rectum, receiving branches 
 from the sacral nerves. 
 
 V. Plexus vesicates, ascend partly at the sides of the urinary 
 bladder, partly horizontally forwards to the cottum vesicce and to 
 the prostata (plex. prostatici). Filaments pass off from it to the 
 vesiculce seminales, vasa deferentia, and form plex. spermatici, 
 which are connected above with the renal plexus , and continue into 
 the plexus testicularis. 
 
 VI. Plexus cavernosi, arise especially in the pi. prostatici and 
 from branches of the sacral nerves, perforate the fibrous mass 
 about isthmus and bulbus urethra, and partly cross, as the one 
 enters into the right, the other into the left spongy body. 
 
 In the female, instead of branches for prostate, vas deferens, 
 &c., there are corresponding filaments for uterus and vagina, ova- 
 rium and tuba. 
 
 The posterior and lateral plexus uterini arise, generally, from 
 plex. hypogastr., the anterior on the contrary, generally, from the 
 anterior branches of the third and fourth sacral nerves. They 
 entwine about the veins and enter into the substance of the uterus. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
LITERATURE. 
 
 Cock, Edward. Practical Anatomy of the Nerves and Vessels supplying 
 
 the Head, Neck, and Chest. 1835. 
 
 Burns. Surgical Anatomy of the Head and Neck. 1811. 
 Morton. Thos. Surgical Anatomy of the principal Regions of the Human 
 
 Body. Royal 8vo. Plates. 
 Ellis, Viner. Anatomical Demonstrations. 
 Lawrence <f- Watt. Anatomico-chirurgical Views of the Nose, Mouth, &c. 
 
 Lond. 1809. 
 
435 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE MORE IMPORTANT 
 REGIONS OF THE BODY. 
 
 The Head. 
 
 682. 1. Regio occipito-frontalis, comprehends the cranial vault, 
 above a line between protuberantia occipitalis, proc. mastoideus, 
 and root of the nose. Thickness of section :=". Composition: 
 1. External skin (thick, and covered with hair). 2. Very thick 
 fibre-cellular tissue containing fat, with superficial vessels and 
 nerves. 3. M. epicranim with the galea. 4. Loose fibro-cellu- 
 lar tissue. 5. Pericranium (firmly attached to the sutures by 
 vasa emissaria and prolongations of the dura mater). 6. Bones 
 (strongest in front in the central line, where is crista frontalis). 
 7. Dura mater with sinus longitudinalis in the middle line 
 torcular Herophili at the tuber occipitale, (sinus later alls thence 
 to the inferior posterior angle of the parietal bones). S. Arach- 
 noidea, pia, cerebrum. 
 
 683. 2. Regio temporalis, temples, is bounded, anteriorly, by 
 proc. orbital, of frontal bone ; behind, by the root of proc. zygo- 
 matic. and meatus auditorius ; below, by zygomatic arch ; above, 
 by linea temporalis (semicircular'). 
 
 Thickness : == 12'" (before and below); = 6'" (above and be- 
 hind.) Parts : 1. Skin (behind beset with hair). 2. Fibro-cel- 
 lular tissue containing fat, with art. temporalis, which divides into 
 frontal and parietal branches at a distance of 15'" above the zy- 
 goma, 4'" from the external auditory .meatus. 3. M. attottens 
 auricula and fasc. superficialis. 4. Loose fibro-cellular tissue. 
 5. Fascia temporalis, between the two layers of which below, a 
 triangular space with fat and art. temporal, med. 6. M. tempo- 
 ralis ; anteriorly fat, vasa et neiva temporal, profundi. 7. Pe- 
 riosteum and bones, -pars squamosa temporal., os parietal., fron- 
 tal., ala magna sphenoid., os zygomatic. 8. Art. meningea 
 media ; two fingers' breadth removed (and above) from proc. 
 orbitalis oss. zygomat. 9. Dura mate)', &c. 
 
 684. 3. Aural region (see Organon auditus). 
 
 685. 4. Regio-mastoidea, is bounded, in front, by the groove 
 between the cartilage of the ear and proc. mastoid. ; behind and 
 above, by the curved line at which the growth of hair terminates : 
 
436 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 below, by the apex of proc. mastoid. Parts : 1. Closely-applied 
 external skin and fatless fibre-cellular tissue. 2. M. retrakens 
 auricula, occipital., sterno-mastoid., below the. last m. splenius. 
 3. The anterior (auricular} vessels, nerves, and lymphatic glands 
 in the groove behind the ear, below m. retrahens ; behind, below 
 the skin, vasa et. nn. mastoidei. 4. Periosteum and bones pars 
 mastoid. of temporal bone, the posterior inferior angle of parietal, 
 and a little way from occipital bone ',foram. mastoid., sulcus late- 
 ralis (a small portion) ; suiur. mastoid. and squamosa ; cellul. mas- 
 toidece. 5. Dura mater with (a portion of) the sinus later alls, 
 and tentor. cerebelli. 
 
 In the new-born infant the posterior lateral fontanelle. 
 
 [Dissection. 1. An incision from the root of the nose to the external occi- 
 pital protuberance, in the middle line. 2. In front, an incision from the root 
 of the nose extending outwards along the eyebrows to the anterior extremity 
 of the zygoma. 3. Behind, an incision from the external occipital protuberance 
 transversely outwards to the apex of the proc. mastoideus. The section should 
 be carried through the skin and subjacent fibro-cellular tissue, which are 
 then to be reflected outwards towards the ear, with very great care. TRANS.] 
 
 686. 5. Nasal region, Reg. nasalis. 
 
 Interior of the nose. The opening of the lacrymal canal sur- 
 rounded by a fold of mucous membrane lies behind a projection 
 of the proc. nasalis of the upper jaw, an inch behind the anterior 
 nasal openings, on the external nasal wall. The inferior turbinate 
 bone is distant two lines from the floor of the nasal cavity. [This 
 varies considerably.] 
 
 The opening of the Eustachian tube is found in the middle of 
 the side wall of the posterior nasal opening, equally as far removed 
 from the anterior, as the incisor teeth from the uvula. 
 
 687. 6. The Mouth, Cavitas oris. 
 (See before, " Cavities of the Face.") 
 
 a. Arch of the palate. Parts: 1. Mucous membrane (firmly 
 connected to a fibrous cellular tissue) with nn. palatini posterr. 
 
 2. Vasa et nn. palatini medii at the internal part of the alveolus. 
 
 3. Vasa et nn. alveolares behind and infraorbitales before, on the 
 external part of the alveolus. 4. Palate and superior maxillary 
 bones. 
 
 b. Soft palate velum pendulum palati extended transversely 
 across, behind the arch of the palate, four-sided, five lines high, is 
 on both sides covered with mucous membrane which anteriorly 
 
THE HEAD. 437 
 
 passes upon the vault of the palate, behind upon the choance, is 
 bounded at the sides by the palate, and terminates in the palatine 
 arches ; in the centre of the inferior surface the uvula. Parts : 
 from before backwards: 1. Anterior mucous membrane. 2. Layer 
 of mucous glands. 3. Fibrous fascia of mm. tensores palati with 
 the insertions of glosso- and pliaryngo-palatini. 4. Levatores 
 palati. 5. Layer of glands with azygos [levatores'] uvulce. 6. 
 Posterior mucous membrane. 
 
 c. Tonsil glands, reg. tonsillaris, lie between the palatine 
 arches, assist in forming the isthmus faucium, and bounded ex- 
 ternally by the carotis internet, between the great cornua of the 
 hyoid bone and the angle_of the lower jaw. Parts : from within 
 outwards : 1 . Oral mucous membrane. 2. M. Glosso-palatin. 
 before, pharyngo-palat. behind the tonsils. 3. Tonsil with circul. 
 'nervos. tonsillar. (from glosso-pharyng. and gangl. cervic. super.). 
 
 4. Constrict, pharyng. super, externally. 5. Fibro-cellular tissue, 
 nerves. 6. Plexus venos. pharyng. 7. Carotis interna, eight to 
 ten lines behind and external to the tonsils. 
 
 The lymphatics pass into the submaxillary glands [lymphatic]. 
 
 [Dissection. The pharynx and upper portion of the oesophagus, the larynx 
 and upper rings of the trachea with the surrounding soft parts, the bones of 
 the face, and the anterior half of those of the cranium, are to be removed 
 from the subject. The section of the bones of the basis cranii must be made 
 posterior to the roots of the styloid processes of the temporal bones, and 
 through the basilar portion of the occipital, between the origins of the supe- 
 rior and middle constrictor muscles of the pharynx, before, and the insertion 
 of the rectus anticus major muscle, behind. After dissecting the pharyngeal 
 muscles by removing the cellular tissue about them, a vertical division of 
 them should be made through the raphe in the middle line behind. The pos- 
 terior wall of the pharynx being now turned aside, the parts described under 
 
 5. and 6., a, b, c, may be examined after inspection and removal of the mu- 
 cous membrane. TRANS.] 
 
 d. Malar region, reg. malaris. Over the malar bone the skin 
 is very delicate and rich in blood-vessels ; under it fibres orbicul. 
 palpebr. ; under these the zygomatici ; behind, art. transv.faciei , 
 below, rami zygomat. n. facialis Pars masseterica. 1. Skin 
 and much fat. 2. The anterior border of parotis and rami buc- 
 cales n. facial., ductus Stenonianus, behind from 8 to 9'", in front 
 4'" below the zygomatic bone (with art. transv.fac. on its superior 
 margin), its opening in the region of the first and second molar 
 teeth, 4'" before the masseter m. 3. M. masseter. 4. Lower 
 jaw ; in the incisura sigmoid : the deep vessels and nerves of the 
 
438 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 masseter. 5. Below, n. lingualis, ram. mylohyoid., n. dental, 
 infer., m. pterygoid. internus ; above, between the last and max- 
 illa super. : art. maxillar. intern., nn. dental, infer, and tem- 
 poral, superfic., lig. laterale internum, which separates the prece- 
 ding from ram. lingualis n. trigemini. 
 
 [Dissection. 1. Carry an incision through the skin, only, from the inner 
 angle of the eyelids along the lower border of the orbit to the outer angle of 
 the lids, thence parallel with the zygoma to its temporal root. 2. An inci- 
 sion from the inner angle of the eyelids to the commissure of the lip, then to 
 the anterior border of the masseter muscle upon the inferior maxillary bone, 
 and thence parallel with the lower edge of the horizontal ramus of this bone 
 to its angle. Reflect the skin towards the sterno-cleido-mast. m., and dissect 
 the parts 1, 2, and 3. 
 
 Dissect away carefully the parotid gland, leaving it attached by its duct. 
 
 Now, saw through the temporal root of the zygoma and the malar bone, 
 divide the fascias attached to the zygoma above, and reflect it, together with 
 the masseter muscle, carefully, downwards. The parts, 4., will be exposed, 
 the vessels and nerves close to the posterior border of the temporal muscle. 
 Detach the masseter from its insertion, and leave it suspended by its nerve. 
 The insertion of the temporal muscle (the coronoid process of the lower jaw) 
 is now to be sawn through, and, with the muscle, turned upwards. The 
 pterygoid muscles are exposed, and the parts, 5., may be dissected. Two 
 incisions are required to remove the coronoid process ; one, vertical, parallel 
 with the posterior border of the ascending ramus, and passing through the 
 centre of the incisura sigmoidalis ; the other, transverse, and parallel with 
 the border of the alveolus. The two incisions should meet in about the cen- 
 tre of the ascending ramus. TRANS.] 
 
 Pars intermaxillaris the anterior portion of the cheek ; be- 
 tween the upper and lower jaws. 
 
 e. Floor of the mouth. The tongue with ihefrenulum, on the 
 sides of which, close beneath the tongue the openings of the ductus 
 Wharton., at the sides of the tongue artt. ranincz, and more exter- 
 nally vena ranince. Mm. mylohyoid. shuts in the cavity of the 
 mouth ; below it the anterior belly of biventer, the skin. 
 
 [Dissection. To examine these parts and their relations accurately, it is 
 necessary, after removing the skin and displaying the soft parts, to make a 
 vertical section of the lower jaw, on the outer side of, not through, the sym- 
 physis ; in fact, between the lower incisor teeth and first cuspidatus. Then, 
 dividing the mucous membrane of the mouth at its attachment to the lower 
 jaw, the tongue may be drawn forwards, and the anatomy of this region stu- 
 died. A bristle may be passed through the duot (Wharton's) of the submax- 
 illary gland. The openings of the sublingual glands by the sides of the 
 tongue should also be examined. TRANS.] 
 
THE HEAD. 439 
 
 688. 7. Cavity of the Gullet (s. Pharynx). 
 
 The entrance to the larynx lies in the anterior part of the pha- 
 rynx, balow the isthmus faucium. 
 
 [Dissection: see under 6. above, after c. TRANS.] 
 639. 8. Orbital region, regie orbitalis. 
 
 a. Eyebrows. About the inner third of the superior margin 
 of the orbit the n.frontalis passes out, besides the artery. 
 
 b. Eyelids. 1. Skin (very delicate). 2. Loose fatless areolar 
 tissue (which becomes easily infiltrated with serum). 3. M. or- 
 bicular, pcdpbr. 4. Artt. palpebrales. 5. Tarsus and lig. latum 
 palpbr. ; at the border of the orbital margin areolar tissue contain- 
 ing fat. 6. Conjunctiva. 
 
 At the internal angle of the eyelid: 1. Most delicate skin. 2. 
 Venous plexus. 3. Lig. palpebr. intern. 4. Lacrymal sac, which 
 is separated externally by a fibrous layer from the caruncula, be- 
 low the last, and rather externally, the thin roof of the antrum 
 Highmori, and the origin of m. obliq. inferior. 
 
 690. 9. Zygomatic fossa, Fossa zygomatica, 
 
 below the temples, above the masseter, external to the orbits, inter- 
 nal to the parotis. The superficial portion is connected with the 
 deep (fossa spheno-maxillaris) by fissura pterygo-maxillaris ; 
 that with the orbita by fiss. orbitalis inferior. It is formed by the : 
 
 a. Sphenoid ; b. posterior part of sup. maxillary ; c. palate ; d. 
 condyle of infer, maxillary ; e. a portion of the temporal ; and f. 
 ethmoid bone. 
 
 Parts ; below the zygoma and the insertion of m. temporalis : 
 1. Vasa temporalia masseteric. 2. M. Pterygoid extern, with art. 
 maxiUar. intern, betweeen its two portions, and plex. ven. ptery- 
 goid. 3. Below the insertion of m. pteryg. extern, internally n. 
 lingualis, in the centre n. dental, infer., externally temporal super- 
 ficialis. In the fossa spheno-maxillaris from above to below ; 
 (v. opthalmica, n. ophthalmic., oculomotor., pathetic., abducens in 
 thejissura. orbit, superior) ; n. maxiUar. super, from behind for- 
 wards ; ganglion Meckelii on the outer side offoram. spheno-pala- 
 tinum. 
 
 [Dissection. As described in the second part, under b, d. TRANS.] 
 
 691. 10. Parotid region, Regio parotidea, 
 
 is bounded, anteriorly, by the posterior border of ram. maxiUar. 
 infer. ; behind, by proc. mastoid. and meatus auditor, extern. / 
 above, by zygoma ; below, by the angle of the lower jaw, and a 
 
440 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 horizontal line backwards ; internally, by proc. styloideus, lig. 
 stylo-maxillar., hyoideum. The parotis occupies nearly the 
 whole of this space, and is all round enclosed in fascia. Parts 
 from without inwards: 1. Skin, slightly hairy (behind the beard 
 of the cheek). 2. Close areolar tissue, having little fat, with 
 branches of n. auricular, from plex. cervicalis. 3. Lymphatic 
 glands. 4. Parotis ; from it upwards : art., ven. temp., rr. tem- 
 poral, n. maxill. infer. ; behind : art. auricular, post., and rr. 
 auricul. n. facial, and plexus cervical. Inside the parotis: 1. 
 behind, n.facialis, 6'" deep; in front its branches " deep. 2. 
 F. parotidece. 3. deeper, carotis externa, close to the proc. styloid. 
 
 [Dissection. As described in the first part, under 6, d. TRANS.] 
 
 The Trunk. 
 692. I. The Neck. Anterior cervical region. 
 
 a. Supra hyoideal, reg. supra-hyoidea, lies between lower jaw 
 and hyoid bone, forms the floor of the mouth. 
 
 In the middle line (submental region) lie : 1. skin (in the male 
 hairy) with a thicker or thinner layer of fat. 2. Mm. platysmam. 
 with superficial nerves of the plex. cervical, and branches of art. 
 mentalis. 3. Ventr. anter. m. digastric. 4. Deep branches of 
 art. submentalis. 5. Mm. mylohyoidei. 6. Mm. geniohyoidei. 
 7. Geriio-glossi. 8. In front and above : glandula sublinguaL, 
 with ductus Wfiartonian. and the mucous membrane of the mouth ; 
 below and behind, the tongue. Laterally, we find over the m. 
 platysmam. the following parts : 1. Layer of fasc. cervical. 2. 
 Plexus of art. and ven. submental. (facialis), the vasa lymphat. 
 facial., the n, mylo-hyoid. (dental, infer.'), branches of facialis 
 and superficial branches of plexus cervicalis ; between them gland, 
 submaxillar. and lymphatic glands. 3. M. mylohyoideus. 4. 
 Above and before, gland. sublinguaL, duct. Wharton. (above), n. 
 lingual, and art. sublinguaL (below the glands), then beneath 
 the mucous membrane below and behind : 1. N. hypogloss. and 
 ven. lingual, close to the great cornua of the hyoid bone. 2. M. 
 stylo-, hyoglossus. 3. Art. lingual, and n. glosso-pharyngeus 
 and tongue. 
 
 Yen. facialis passes upon the external, art. facialis on the in- 
 ternal side of the gland, submaxillaris ; art. submental. below it 
 on the inferior border of the lower jaw ; n. mylohyoideus still 
 deeper. 
 
 b. Infrahyoideal region, reg. infrahyoidea. s. inter stitium jugu- 
 lare, a triangle the base of which is formed by the os hyoides, the 
 
THE TRUNK. 441 
 
 sides by the internal borders of the musculi sterno-mastoidei, and 
 the apex by the first piece of the sternum. 
 
 1. The central portion consists, above, of the reg. laryngea 
 (larynx) ; the centre, of the reg. thyreoidea (thyroid cartilage and 
 thy. gland); below, of the fossa supra-sternalis s.jugulum, tra- 
 cheal fossa. 
 
 2. Superior lateral portion, trigonum cervicale superius, is a 
 triangular fossa, bounded, above, by the posterior belly of digas- 
 tricus, in front, by the superior belly of omohyoideus, behind, by 
 the anterior border of sterno-mastoid., and above passing into the 
 reg. parotidea. Below lies the sterno-mast., close to and before 
 the trachea. 
 
 Position of the parts: 1. Skin and loose fibro-cellular tissue, 
 with little fat. 2. Above, fascia cervicalis and mm.platysmam. ; 
 below, in the jugulum, a space between the anterior and middle 
 layer of the fasc. cervicalis, which sends a process externally into 
 the reg. supraclavicularis behind the m. sterno-mast., and contains 
 in the middle line a descending branch of ven. ihyreoid. inf. (fre- 
 quently) ; some lymphatic glands ; laterally, the ven. jugularis 
 anterior. 3. Mm. sterno-hyoidei, above, m. omohyoideus. 4. 
 Mm. thyreo-hyoidei, branches of n. hypogloss. and mm. sterno-thy- 
 reoidei. 5. Thyroid gland, with the deep layer offasc. cervical., 
 which is attached to the posterior surface of the sternum and larynx. 
 6. Plexus venosus thyreoidus, and, near the sternum, v. subclavia 
 sinistra and truncus anonymus (but the last rests entirely beneath 
 this region, as it ascends obliquely from left to right). In the angle 
 between the two : 7. The trachea. 8. Pharynx above ; below and 
 to the right, n. recurrens dexter ; below and to the left, oesophagus, 
 and on its anterior surface, n. recurrens sinistra, and a transverse 
 branch of art. thyreoid. inf. 9. Loose fibro-cellular tissue ; under 
 that mm. longi coUi, and the fifth to the seventh cervical vertebra?. 
 
 In the trigonum cervicale superius ; 1. The skin and thin layer 
 of fibro-cellular tissue. 2. M.platysmam. 3. Nn. cervicale su- 
 perfic., and behind n. auricularis (s. plex. cervic.). 4. Ven. jugu- 
 lar, externa. 5. M. digastric, and stylohyoid. 6. Lymphatic 
 glands, surrounded with venous plexuses. 7. N. hypogtossus, 
 carotis externa, which is to be felt in the inferior angle of the tri- 
 gonum. Farther inwards and backwards, carotis interna (which 
 see), with the parts surrounding it. 
 
 693. Lateral surfaces of the Neck, Reg. supraclavicularis. 
 
 1. Reg. sterno-mastoidea. The sterno-cleido-mast,. is covered 
 by a loose fibro-cellular tissue, in which the ven. jugular, extern. 
 descends from before backwards. It covers : 
 
442 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 a. Below (the m. omohyoideus) : 1. Loose fibro-cellular tissue, 
 wherein is a branch of ven. jugul. extern, (anter.) 2. The deep 
 layer offasc. cervical, and m. omohyoideus. 3. The external bor- 
 der of m. sterno-hyoid., and -thyreoideus. 4. The junction of w. 
 jugular, intern, and extern, behind articul. sterno-ckidoidea (in the 
 
 angle the duct, thoracicus opens). 5. N. phrenicus outside (close 
 to scalenus antic. m.}, 1" distant from n. vagus (close to carotis 
 commun.); between the two, n. sympathicus. 6. Right, the supe- 
 rior extremity of truncus anonymus (carotis and art. subclav. 
 dextra) ; left, carotis comm., art. subclav. sinistra. 7. Right, n. 
 recurrens ; left, ductus thorac., the superior extremity of the 
 pleura. 8. M. longus cotti and vertebral column. The carotis 
 lies 1" removed from the anterior border of m. sterno-cleido-mast. ; 
 the right rather nearer. 
 
 b. Above (between tmwhyoid.and splenius): 1. Plex. cervical. 
 2. Art. cervical, ascend., m. rect. antic, cap. magn., scaleni, levat. 
 scapul.j splenius colli. 3. Proc. transversi and art. vertebralis. 
 Quite above, splenius capitis, &c. 
 
 2. Trigonum cervicale inferius, supraclavicular fossa, a trian- 
 gle, the base of which is formed by the clavicular (the first rib), the 
 sides by the anterior border of m. cucullaris and the posterior of 
 sterno-cleido-mast., and which is divided by the post, belly of m. 
 omohyoideus into an inferior smaller, and a superior larger triangle. 
 
 Position of the parts: 1. Skin, m. platysmam. 2. Before, v. 
 jugular, extern.; above, nn. subcutan. colli, accessor. Willisii. 3. 
 M. omohyoid. and the deep layer offasc. cervicalis. 4. Art. trans- 
 versa colli, supraclavicular., ven. subclavia (between the first rib 
 and clavicle). 5. In front, scalenus anticus (on the internal bor- 
 der of which n. phrenicus) ; behind, scalenus rued, (and post.} ; be- 
 tween the two, above and outside the origin of plex. brachialis; 
 below and within, art. subclavia, upon the first rib, close to the 
 tubercle, separated by scalenus antic, from ven. subclavia. Ex- 
 ternal to the scaleni the artery lies close behind the vein, in the 
 direction of m. omohyoid. 6. The transverse processes of the 
 cervical vertebras, mm. intertransvers., art. profund. cervic. and 
 vertebralis. 
 
 Posterior surface of the neck, nape, cervix. 
 
 [Dissection. 1. An incision should be made in the middle line, through 
 the skin only, from the chin to the sternum. 2. From the mastoid process to 
 the acromion. 3. From the mastoid process to the centre of the upper border 
 of the sternum. 
 
 Two triangular flaps of skin are thus formed, attached by their bases, the 
 one, above, to the horizontal ramus of the lower jaw ; the other, below, to the 
 
THE TRUNK. 443 
 
 clavicle. These are to be reflected upwards and downwards. The platysma 
 myoides is to be dissected, the course of the external jugular vein examined, 
 and the muscle divided transversely and reflected. The parts above described 
 occupying the various regions, the boundaries of which should be accurately 
 defined, may be now exposed and dissected in succession. TRANS.] 
 
 694. Chest, Thorax. 
 
 1. Reg. sternalis. a. Skin thick, in the male hairy, in the cen- 
 tral line firmly attached, b. fibro-cellular tissue, with the tendons 
 of sterno-mastoid., pecioraks, rect. abdom. c. sternum : above, lig. 
 interclaviculare. d. M. triangular, sterni. e. Mediastina an- 
 tica ; at the inferior part of the pericardium ; above the thymus, 
 ven. anonyma. 
 
 2. Reg. mammiUaris, beneath the claviculce, on the sides of the 
 sternum. Parts: 1. Very delicate skin, especially on the nipple. 
 2. Fibro-cellular tissue with much fat, in which, above, nn. clavi- 
 culares, mammary arteries and nerves. 3. Mammary gland, with 
 branches of vasa mammar. interna and thoracica. 4. Loose 
 fibro-cellular tissue. 5. M. pectoral, major, minor ; serratus mag- 
 mis. 6. Ribs, intercostal muscles. 
 
 3. Reg. costalis, costal region, a. Before the ribs, on the supe- 
 rior half of the thorax; behind the shoulder: 1. Skin and thick 
 fibro-cellular tissue. 2. M. trapezium, latiss. dorsi. 3. Rhomboi- 
 deus. 4. Above, m. serratus postic. sup. 5. Ribs. 
 
 On the inferior half: skin, fibro-cellular tissue, branches of nn. 
 and vasa intercost. Then : 1. M. rect. abdom. (in its sheath), 
 obliq. extern., serratus magn., and costal portion of latissim. dorsi. 
 2. Ribs. 
 
 b. Between the ribs (spatium intercostale) : 1. Mm. intercostales 
 externi. 2. Nervi et vasa intercost. (on the inferior border, of 
 angulus costa, also at the superior border of each rib). 3. Mm. 
 intercost. intern. .,y> 
 
 c. Behind the ribs : 1. Fibro-cellular tissue (and mm. infracos- 
 tales). 2. Vasa mammar. interna, above, two lines from the bor- 
 der of the sternum, below, before m. triangular, sterni. 3. Pleura. 
 (The chest should not be opened upon the right side below the 
 fourth, upon the left below the third intercostal space (reckoning 
 from below), if it is wished to avoid injury to the diaphragm). 
 
 4. Regio dorsalis, dorsal region. 
 
 695. Cavity of the Thorax. 
 
 1. Regio mediastini, is bounded in front by the sternum, behind 
 by the vertebrae, above by the neck, below by the diaphragm, right 
 
444 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 and left by pleura and the lungs. Directed towards the left and 
 downwards, this space is broad above, and especially below, in the 
 centre very narrow, also X-shaped. In the centre at the posterior 
 third lie the roots of the lungs. 
 
 a. Inferior half corresponds to the inferior of the sternum. Parts : 
 1. Loose, fibre-cellular containing adipose tissue. 2. Anterior part 
 of the pericardium. 3. Heart, origin of the great arteries, termi- 
 nation of ven. cava super. 4. Vv. pulmonales / and post, part of 
 pericardium. 5. Lymphatic glands and oesophagus (in the central 
 line) surrounded by plex. nerv. cesophag. 6. Aorta descend, to 
 the left ; ven. azygos to the right ; duct, thorac. in the centre and 
 behind. 7. Fibro-cellular containing adipose tissue, in which are 
 nn. splanchnici, artt. and w. inter costales. 8. Dorsal vertebra. 
 
 b. Superior half, behind the superior half of the sternum. Parts : 
 1. Loose fibro-cellular tissue, containing adipose (thymus gland) 
 with small branches of mammary artery. 2. Above : v.subclavia 
 sinistra ; most superior part of the pericardium, below. 3. Trun- 
 CKS anonym, and v. cava superior, in front ; termination of art. 
 pulmonalis, lig. arteriosum, arcus aortce (with n. recurrens) ; 
 carotis and art. subclavia sinistra (with n. vagus and phrenicus) 
 to the left ; curve of ven. azygos (with n. vagus and phrenic.) to 
 the right. 4. In the middle line : termination of the trachea (left 
 n. recurrens) ; under that a rhombic space between the two bronchi 
 and rami art. pulmonal. ; in which are lymphatic glands. 5. 
 (Esophagus, behind bronchus sinistra. 6. Duct, thoracic, behind 
 the oesophagus. 7. Loose fibro-cellular tissue with the superior 
 intercostal vessels. 8. Extremity of m. long, colli. 9. Dors, 
 vert. 
 
 c. Roots of the lungs, above the centre and in the posterior 
 third. Parts : 1. The pulmonary veins, two on a side. 2. Ramus 
 art. pulmonal. 3. Bronchus, covered before by plex. pulmonal. 
 anter., behind by n. vagus and plex. pulmon. posterior. They 
 divide the anterior from the posterior mediastinum and n. phrenic. 
 from vagus. 
 
 2. Lateral parts. The lungs invested by the pleura pulmonalis. 
 
 Abdomen, Venter. 
 
 1. Reg. epigastrica, extends from the termination of the ster- 
 num and the eighth rib as far as the inferior border of the twelfth, 
 and to about the breadth of two fingers above the navel. A cen- 
 tral and two lateral portions are described. 
 
 a. Epigastrium, scrobiculus cordis, gastric fossa, that is, the 
 triangular, central part between sternum and the cartilages of the 
 six last ribs. Behind the delicate, sensitive skin, thefasc. superfic. 
 
THE TRUNK. 445 
 
 with the cutaneous branches of sixth to eighth nerv. intercostal. ; 
 proc. ensiform., linea alba, m. rectus in its sheath ; vasa mamma- 
 ria ; laterally, m. transversus and pars costal, diaphragma. The 
 following parts are met with : 
 
 1. The left lobe of the liver ; 2. the cardia ; 3. pars pykrica of 
 stomach ; 4. the small omentum and a part of the large ; 5. the 
 second and third portions of duodenum ; 6. Pancreas surrounded 
 by lymphatic glands, with truncus ccdiacus ; 7. the large vessels, 
 crura diaphragmat. ; first and second lumbar vertebrae. 
 
 b. Hypochondrium dextrum, contains the costal portion of the 
 diaphragm and lig. suspensorium hepatis, is filled up by the liver. 
 The fundus of the gall bladder corresponds to the cartilage of the 
 ninth rib. We find therein : 1. Flexura coli dextra. 2. The first 
 portion of duodenum and cap. pancreat. 3. Before the foram. 
 Winslow. : art. hepatica in front [to the left] ; ductus hepatic., 
 cystic, and commencement of choledochus in the centre [to the 
 right] ; ven. porta [between the two], and termination of n. vagus 
 dexter behind. The right lobe of the liver rests against the right 
 kidney and supra-renal capsules above and behind. 
 
 c. Hypochondrium sinistrum, contains the fundus ventriculi ; 
 above and before a small process of the left lobe of the liver ; be- 
 hind and to the left the spleen with lig. gastro-splenicum, between 
 the anterior lamina of which the vasa brevia, between the posterior 
 the vasa lienalia and the cauda pancreatis. Behind the stomach 
 and below the spleen: the superior extremity of colon, descend., 
 the left kidney, and caps, supra renales. 
 
 Both regg. hypochondr. present, 1. A thick skin. 2. Fibro-cel- 
 lular containing adipose tissue, cutaneous veins and branches of 
 the inferior nn. inter costales. 3. A thin aponeurosis and fascia 
 superficial. 4. Mm. obliq. extern, and latissim. dorsi. 5. Costa 
 spurice with mm. inter costales. 6. Diaphragm ; on the inferior 
 surface of which (abdominal cavity) the peritoneum ; on the su- 
 perior surface (thoracic cavity) pleura costalis and phrenica. 
 
 697. 2. Regio mesogastrica. This is the part below the last 
 ribs and above the hip bones ; distinguished in the centre as regio 
 umbilicalis, at the sides regg. lumbales, loins. The abdominal 
 wall is here thick ; the peritoneum is firmly attached in the proxi- 
 mity of the navel to the linea alba, in which openings for vessels 
 are found, especially above the navel. The abdominal wall in the 
 region of the loins consists of, 1. Skin. 2. Areolar tissue (fasc. 
 superfic.) in a thick layer between m. obliq. extern, and longissim. 
 dorsi; passing, below the twelfth rib, into the areolar tissue of the 
 
446 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 thorax. 3. M. obliq. externus ; behind a small piece of latissim. 
 dorsi. 4. Fasc. lumbo-dorsalis. 5. M. obliq. internus, covered 
 before by m. obliq. extern. 6. Areolar tissue, with branches of 
 vasa circumflexa ilei and n. ileo-hypogastric. 7. M. transversus. 
 In the centre of the space between navel and spina ilei ant. supe- 
 rior, one is equally far removed from artt. epigastrica, circumflexa 
 ilei, and lumbales. 
 
 In the abdomen are situated : 1. The great omentum. 2. Colon 
 transversum (separated from the reg. epigastrica by mesocolon 
 transvers.) ; the small intestines. 3. Mesenterium. At the sides, 
 behind some of the convolutions of the small intestines : 1. Colon 
 ascend, and descendens. 2. Kidneys and ureters in a considerable 
 quantity of adipose tissue. 
 
 698. 3. Lumbar regions, regio lumbalis, lie right and left of 
 the fine lumbar vertebra?, present in the centre a groove (with 
 proc. spinosi) formed by the projecting mm. ileo-lumbalis and Ion- 
 giss. dorsi; are bounded below by crista iliaca and spina poste- 
 rior. Parts: 1. Skin. 2. Condensed areolar tissue. 3. Fasc. 
 lumbo-dorsal. (posterior layer). 4. M. ileo-lumbar. and longissim. 
 dorsi. 5. Fasc. lumbo-dorsal. (anterior layer). 6. M. quadratus 
 lumb., which forms the most posterior portion of the abdominal 
 walls. On the convex anterior surfaces of the lumbar vertebra : 
 1. Crura diaphragmatis ; right, ven. cava ; left, aorta; exter- 
 nally, nerv. sympathicus ; above, the commencement of duct, tho- 
 racicus and of ven. azygos. 2. Lymphatic glands and areolar 
 tissue, which are connected with those of the mesenterium. Late- 
 rally : m. psoas ; plexus lumbalis ; and 2 to 3" below the last rib, 
 the kidneys, in adipose tissue. To reach the abdominal aorta it 
 is not necessary to open the peritoneum ; between m. psoas, quad- 
 ratus lumborum, and peritoneum we find areolar with abundance 
 of adipose tissue. 
 
 699. 4. Inferior abdominal region, regio hypogastrica, extends 
 from a transverse line, between the two spines ilei, as far down- 
 wards as the bones of the pubes. 
 
 Parts: 1. Skin (with pubic hairs). 2. Areolar tissue (fasc. su- 
 perfic.) over the pubes, thick and rich in adipose tissue, with art. 
 epigastric, super/. 3. M. pyramidalis, rectus in its sheath ; lig. 
 triangulare. 4. Mm. obliq. and transv. 5. Fasc. transv., be- 
 longing to the inferior fourth of m. rectus, immediately adjacent to 
 which is the peritoneum. 6. Art. and ven. epigastrica ; TJrachus ; 
 artt. umbilicales and the superior third of the urinary bladder. 7. 
 
THE TRUNK. 447 
 
 Peritoneum. In the abdominal cavity : the small intestines, covered 
 by the great omentum. 
 
 Lateral parts, inguinal regions, regg. inguinales (see next page). 
 
 Iliac fossa, fossa iliaca internet,, between the vertebral column, 
 the crista ilii and the crural arch are covered by m. iliacus and 
 psoas. Between them m. cruralis passes ; transversely behind the 
 psoas, art. iko-lumbalis ; before it, n. genito cruralis ; external to 
 it, n. inguino-cutaneus ; close to the crista iliaca, the art. circum- 
 flexa ilei. 
 
 Vasa iliaca commun. and hypogastrica are covered by lami- 
 nated areolar tissue (fasc. proprid}, and by : 
 
 1 . Fasc. iliaca. Upon this lie : art. iliaca, in the direction of 
 a line between the navel and the centre of the crural arch, on the 
 anterior and outer side of the vein. 2. Peritoneum. 3. Ccecum 
 on the right, sigmoid flexure of colon on the left, &c., as far as the 
 external skin. The fascia iliaca envelopes the psoas above by its 
 attachment to the vertebral column, and proceeds below the crural 
 arch towards the trochanter minor, uniting with the fascia lata, 
 (and thus forms the passage which the pus takes in psoas abscess.) 
 
 699. bis. Regio inguinalis, Inguinal region, 
 includes the parts which lie the breadth of two fingers above, and 
 the breadth of three fingers below, the bend of the thigh, plica 
 inguinalis. 
 
 In the upper part, close above lig. Fattopice, lie behind the skin : 
 
 1. Layers of fascia super/., cutaneous veins between them. 
 
 2. V. super fie. abdom., 5 to f " distant fromannitl. abdom.; ex- 
 ternal to it, art. epigastrica superficialis. 
 
 3. Lig. Fallopice and the inferior portion of the tendon of m. 
 obliq. extern. ; with annul, abdom. (l" removed from the sym- 
 pkys. pubis), and canalis inguinalis, which contains the spermatic 
 cord or lig. uteri rotund., art. sperm, extern., ram. intern, of 
 nerv. spermat. extern, and nerv. ileo-inguinalis. 
 
 4. Behind the inguinal canal : fasciculi ofm. obliq. intern, and 
 transversus. 
 
 5. Fascia transversalis forms, two inches distant from the spina 
 iliaca anter. super., the annulus inguinalis (intern.}. 
 
 6. Fascia propria (areolar tissue between fasc. transversal, and 
 peritoneum), with vasa epigastrica (interna), one fourth to half an 
 inch distant from the internal boundary of annul, inguin. (intern.). 
 
 7. Peritoneum with its folds, and fovea inguinal, externa and 
 interna. 
 
 At the inferior part, below lig. FaUvpia, lie behind the skin : 
 
448 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 1. Layers offasc. superf. with cutaneous veins, ram. extern, 
 nerv. spermat. externi, ven. saphena magna (and superfic. ab- 
 domin.), which last opens one inch below lig. Fallop.'mto the vena 
 cruralis, surrounded by superficial inguinal glands, outside n. 
 cutan.femor. anter. externus. 
 
 2. Superficial layer of fascia lata, which forms proc. falciform, 
 andfovea ovalis. 
 
 3. Vena cruralis, behind fovea ovalis ; externally art. cruralis 
 behind the outer part of proc. falciform. ; on the outer side of the 
 artery, nerv. cruralis in its sheath. 
 
 4. Upwards towards lig. FalZopice : the crural canal and crural 
 ring in the centre between spina ilei anter. super, and symphysis 
 pubis, internal to and below the internal abdominal ring. 
 
 5. Vasa cruralia, surrounded by the deep inguinal glands, en- 
 closed by the vagina vasorum, separated from nerv. cruralis by 
 the deep layer offasc. lota ; internally, close to the vessels, the 
 thin prolongation of * fascia transversalis (septum crurak, Cloquet), 
 and lig. Gimbernati ; externally m. psoas iliacus with nerv. cru- 
 ralis in its sheath. 
 
 6. Eminentia ileo-pectincea, and ram. horizontal, oss. pubis 
 above ; m. pectinceus below ; behind, the deep layer offasc. lata, 
 covers the vasa obturatoria, at their exit from the pelvis. 
 
 The triangular space between lig. Fallopice, ram. horizontal, 
 pubis and os ilium filled up internally by lig. Gimbernati, in the 
 centre by the vasa cruralia and nerv. cruralis, externally, by the 
 inferior part of m. psoas iliacus (between spina ilei anter. infer. 
 and eminent, ileo-pectin.) 
 
 [Dissection. Above Poupart's ligament. 1. Make an incision through the 
 skin only, transverse to the axis of the body, from the anterior superior 
 spinous process of the ilium to the mesian line ; from the termination of this, 
 continue : 
 
 2. A vertical incision to the symphysis pubis. Reflect the skin towards 
 the thigh, as far as Poupart's ligament. Examine the layers of superficial 
 fascia. Reflect them, making incisions, as before, in the same direction. 
 Clear away, after observing it, the external spermatic fascia, and make the 
 boundaries of the external abdominal ring distinct. Through this, in the 
 male, the spermatic cord, in the female, the round ligament, will be seen to 
 pass ; the incision may be extended downwards, following the course of these 
 organs. An incision should now be made through the tendon of the external 
 abdominal oblique muscle only, in a direction corresponding with No. 1, 
 above, and the tendon reflected towards the thigh, the fibres connecting it 
 with the subjacent tendons, and the tendon of the muscle of the opposite side 
 
THE TRUNK. 449 
 
 (the decussating fibres), being carefully divided. Examine next the free 
 muscular edge of the internal oblique and transversalis muscles, and their con- 
 joined tendons, as well as the fibres of the cremaster muscle in the male. From 
 the junction of the outer with the middle third of Poupart's ligament carry 
 an incision vertically upwards, parallel with the linea alba, dividing and re- 
 flecting inwards in succession, and outwards, the muscular fibres of internal 
 oblique and transversalis muscles. The muscular fibres must be detached 
 from the outer third of Poupart's ligament. From the commencement of the 
 vertical incision the fibres may be separated in the direction of their fasciculi, 
 namely, towards linea semilunaris. The fascia transversalis will now be 
 exposed, the spermatic cord (or round ligament) resting upon its pubic portion, 
 and lost in the internal abdominal ring, the external or iliac portion attached 
 to Poupari 1 s ligament. The fascia spermatica interna is to be examined, 
 and then removed, to display more clearly the margins of the ring. Next 
 push upwards and backwards the peritonaeum, and observe the course of the 
 spermatic vessels, the vas deferens, and the relations of the external iliac and 
 internal epigastric arteries. The fascia iliaca and its attachments may like- 
 wise be studied. 
 
 Below Poupart's ligament. 1. Make an incision from the anterior and 
 superior spinous process of the ilium to the centre of the thigh, the direction 
 being inwards ; in fact, parallel with the course of the fibres of the Sartorius 
 muscle. 
 
 2. An incision from the spine of the pubes, downwards, to the termination 
 of the last. Reflect the skin, only, upwards. Fat and fibro- cellular tissue 
 forming more or less a superficial fascia, which encloses small arteries and 
 veins, lymphatics, and their glands above, and the saphena vein below, may 
 be reflected upwards. The fascia lata will be exposed, and immediately 
 below the point at which the saphena vein is lost to view, by entering the 
 sheath of the femoral vessels, it divides into an internal pubic and an external 
 iliac portion. The handle of the scalpel may be passed under the falciform 
 process of the latter, and upon raising it, the sheath of the femoral vessels is 
 seen. The lymphatic vessels may be seen passing under Poupart's, and close 
 to the outer border of Gimbernat's ligament, on the inside of the femoral 
 vein, to the outer side of which is the femoral artery, each enclosed in sepa- 
 rate fascial canals, the most internal being called the crural ring. To demon- 
 strate this, make a small longitudinal incision through the anterior surface of 
 the sheath, parallel to and over the centre of each vessel ; then, with the 
 handle of the scalpel passed along the sides of vessels, raise them from their 
 fibrous canals. A considerable quantity of adipose tissue will be found sur- 
 rounding the lymphatics below and at their entrance into the crural ring. 
 Dividing carefully across, or detaching the posterior surface of Poupart's liga- 
 ment from the anterior of the sheath of the femoral vessels (septum crurale), 
 the connexion bet ween this sheath and the pubic portion of fascia transversalis 
 will be displayed. TRANS.] 
 
 29 
 
450 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 Pelvis. 
 
 700. I. Pubic region, regio pubis (see parts of generation). 
 
 Cavity of the small pelvis. Behind the symphysis pubis : 
 1. Urinary bladder. 2. Vas deferens and ureter upon both 
 sides (they cross each other). 3. Fossa recto-vesicalis in the male, 
 vesico-uterina in the female. 4. In the female : Uterus, vagina, 
 and broad ligaments (they divide the pelvis into an anterior and a 
 posterior half) ; behind that fossa recto-uterina. 5. Behind and 
 to the left, rectum, fixed above by meso-rectum, below by loose 
 areolar tissue. 
 
 701. II. Perinoeal region, R. perincei, 
 
 closes the pelvic outlet, is bounded behind by the coccyx, on the side 
 by ligg. sacro-ischiatica, tuber and ram. ascendens ischii, in part, 
 by ligg.pubicum inferius ; below, by the external skin, above, by 
 the peritoneum. It is oval, passes forwards towards the root of 
 the penis (or the commissura poster \ labior.pudend.), and is divided 
 by a transverse line extending between the two tuberosities of the 
 ischia, into the anterior, proper perineeal, and into the anal region. 
 
 1. Reg. analis, region of the anus. 
 
 a. At the sides of the anus: 1. The skin. 2. Much areola, 
 containing adipose tissue with vasa and nn. hcemorrhoidal. inferr. 
 3. Fasc. perincei. 4. M. levator and sphincter ani. 5. Fascia 
 pelvis . 6. Peritoneum. 
 
 b. Behind the anus : skin, condensed areolar tissue, containing 
 adipose, posterior extremity of sphincter ani, fascia perin., mm. 
 levatores in the raphe, fascia perin. superior, fat and areolar tissue, 
 coccyx, and sacrum. 
 
 2. Reg. perincealis s.uro-genitalis^he anterior triangular part of 
 the perineum, between the pubic arch and a transverse line between 
 the two tuber a ischii. 
 
 a. In the male : 1. Skin, wrinkled, thin, hairy. 2. Loose lami- 
 nated areolar tissue with adipose, which continues on to the scrotum. 
 3. Fascia superjicialis with the vasa and nn. perincei superfic. (in 
 the direction of tuber ischii of the one to the spina pubi,s of the 
 other side.) M. bulbo-cavernos. in the centre, transvers. and ischio- 
 cavernosi on the sides. 5. Bulbus urethrce in the centre, corp. ca- 
 vernos. on the sides ; in the triangular space between the two, two 
 or three lines from the ram. ascend, ischii, crosses art. transvers. 
 perincei ; 4. and 5. lie in a sheath formed offasc. superjic. and 
 profunda s. media. 6. Lig. perinceale ; it is perforated by bulb, 
 urethra and vasa, nn. dorsal, penis (between corp. cavcrnos. and 
 
THE TRUNK. 451 
 
 ram. descend, pubis). 7. Between fascia perinsei and pelvis lie 
 from before to behind : 
 
 a. Pars membranacea urethra with Cowper's glands and in- 
 vested behind by mm. bulbo-cavernosus. 
 
 b. Prostata, pars prostat. urethra and collum vesica, attached 
 above by lig. pubo-prostaticum (six to eight lines behind the sym- 
 physis pubis, two or three above the anus). 
 
 c. Vesiculce seminales, and vasa deferentia between them, and 
 crossing with the inferior extremity of the ureters. In the tri- 
 angular space between them the fundus vesica rests upon the rec- 
 tum ; between the last the neck of the bladder, prostatic and mem- 
 branous portion of the urethra?, a triangular space also exists 
 (which is taken advantage of in Lithotomy). 
 
 8. Anterior portion offasc. pelvis (forms a sheath for the pro- 
 stata and plex. venosus prostaticus). 9. Laminated areolar tissue. 
 10. Peritoneum. 
 
 b. In the female the proper perineum, that is, the region between 
 the labia. majora and orific. ani. is shorter (fifteen lines long), but 
 broader than in the male. Fascia perinai, very strong ; the 
 muscles are the same, only instead of bulbo-cavernosus the con- 
 strictor vagina. 
 
 The urethra (one to an inch and a half long, before, four to 
 six lines, behind, three lines broad), passes backwards beneath the 
 pubic arch on the anterior surface of the vagina curved rather up- 
 wards. Its orifice lies a quarter of an inch below the clitoris. 
 
 The vagina (four inches long, one inch broad) curved, ascends, 
 backwards, between urethra, bladder, and rectum ; between their 
 openings and that of the last a triangular space exists (the base of 
 which lies below, since the vagina and rectum lie close upon one 
 another, fifteen lines above the orific. ani.), in which adipose as 
 well as areolar tissue, fibres of mm. transvers., sphincter, levator 
 ani, constrictor vagina, and the vasa transvers. perinai are found. 
 To their sides fascia pelvis is firmly attached. 
 
 The triangular space of the vestibule between the clitoris and the 
 orificium urethra is taken advantage of in Lithotomy ; in it we 
 find : 1. The mucous membrane. 2. Very vascular areolar tissue 
 in the centre, the roots of the clitoris covered by the mm. ischio- 
 cavern. and the anterior extremity of sphincter vagina on the 
 sides. 3. Fascia perinai (with the art. transvers. perinai) per- 
 forated by the urethra. 4. Vv. dorsaks clitorid., collum vesica 
 and ligg. pubo-vesicalia. 5. The inferior portion of the anterior 
 wall of the bladder. 
 
452 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 The urinary bladder lies, in the female, higher over the perinseum, 
 than in the male. 
 
 The orificium ani is broader, and is placed more posteriorly 
 (behind a transverse line between the tuber ischii) than in the male. 
 
 [Dissection. 1. Of the male perinaeum. 
 
 The subject should be tied up', as in'the operation for lithotomy. The bony 
 boundaries of the perinaeal region must then be carefully recognised. 
 
 Incisions through the skin : 1. A vertical incision is to be made in the raphe 
 from the arch of the pubes, which may be felt, or from the junction of the 
 skin of the perinaeum with that of the scrotum, to the anterior verge of the 
 anus. 2. Transverse incisions, one on either side from the termination of the 
 last to the outer sides of the tubera ischii. The two triangular flaps thus 
 formed are to be reflected outwards over the thighs, and there fastened. 3. 
 From the anterior verge of the anus carry two incisions, one on either side, 
 around the opening, backwards, until they meet at the posterior verge in the 
 middle line behind ; from this point continue directly downwards to the coc- 
 cyx. These two likewise triangular flaps are to be reflected over the thighs, 
 and there secured. The sphincter ani is now to be dissected, and after exa- 
 mining the posterior portion of the superficial fascia, the ischiorectalfossce of 
 either side may be cleaned out. 
 
 Continuing the dissection of the perinaeum, make an incision in the middle 
 line as before indicated, from the arch of the pubes, in front, to the anterior 
 extremity of anus, behind, having previously reflected the superficial anterior 
 fibres of the sphincter ani, or even dividing them also in the centre. Now, 
 carefully dissecting the superficial fascia away from its posterior or deeper 
 connexions, examine its relations with the deep perinaeal fascia behind. 
 Having done this, divide the junctions between them, and reflect the layers 
 of the superficial fascia on either side, observing their attachments to the an- 
 terior borders of the rami of the ischia and pubes. 
 
 Care must be taken of the perinaeal vessels and nerves which traverse this 
 fascia. The muscles of the perinaeum may now be dissected. 
 
 The accelerator urines should be detached from the deep fascia behind, for 
 it does not arise from it, but is merely applied to its anterior surface. With a 
 little care and dexterity, the handle of the scalpel may be gradually passed 
 between the muscle and the spongy body which it surrounds. The tubular 
 character of the muscle is then clearly demonstrated. The posterior portion 
 of the corp. spongiosum and urethra may even be divided transversely, and 
 then withdrawn from the muscular tube. 
 
 2. Of the female perinaeum. 
 
 The vertical incision should be carried to the anterior commissure of the 
 vagina, and then round the borders of its mouth, meeting at the posterior 
 commissure, terminating in front of the anns. With this variation excepted, 
 as in the male. TRANS.] 
 
THE TRUNK. 453 
 
 702. Axillary cavity, fovea axillaris, Axilla, 
 
 is triangular; its base directed towards the chest, its apex towards 
 the inner side of the upper arm, its anterior wall is formed by m. 
 pectoralis major , minor, and the anterior portion of the deltoideus ; 
 its posterior wall by m. latissimus dorsi, teres major, and subscapu- 
 laris ; the inner wall by m. serratus magnus and the chest ; the 
 external wall by m. biceps, coraco-brachial., upper arm (the upper- 
 most part). The blunt apex forms a triangular opening, which is 
 in connexion with the reg. supraclavicularis ; formed in front by 
 the clavicula, behind by the superior border of reg. scapularis, in- 
 ternally and below by the first rib. 
 
 703. Fossa infraclavicularis, 
 
 is the name given to a triangular excavation on the anterior wall 
 of the axilla, through which we pass to the apex of that fossa. It 
 is bounded externally by the head of the humerus ; internally, by 
 proc. coracoid. ; above, by clavicula and acromion ; and arises from 
 the fissure between m. deltoid, and pectoralis major. Before it 
 pass vena cephalica and art. acromialis. Behind that vasa and 
 nn. thoracici externi ; m. pectoralis minor and fasc. coraco-clavi- 
 cularis, m. subclavius. Beneath the hairy and thin skin at the base 
 of the axilla, which is largely supplied with sebaceous follicles, a 
 loose adipose areolar tissue is found, some superficial lymphatic 
 glands, fasc. brachialis (between m. pectoral, maj. and latissim. 
 dorsi), branches of vasa axillar. and the v. axillaris, deep lym- 
 phatic glands, vena and art. axillaris, the trunks of nerves, lami- 
 nated areolar tissue, and the shoulder joint. 
 
 Art. axillaris passes : a. between the first rib and the superior 
 border of m. pectoral, minor, on the outer side of v. axillaris, on the 
 inner of the inferior branch of piece, nerv. brachialis and proc. cora- 
 coid., supported upon m. intercostal. I., the second rib, and m. serrat. 
 antic, major. ; b. behind pectoralis minor, covered by the two roots 
 of the n. medianus before, closer to the humerus ; c. from the infe- 
 rior external border of m. pectoral, minor, as far as to the inferior 
 limit of the axilla, behind v. axillar., internal to and behind nerv. 
 medianus, m. coraco-brachial., cap. breve bicip., and os humeri ; 
 before nerv. ulnaris, before and internal ton. radialisand oxittaris. 
 Behind implex, lymphaticus, tendons of subscapularis, m. latissim. 
 dor si. The direction of art. ven. axillaris, and the pkx. brachialis, 
 is oblique from above and within, to below and without (from the 
 anterior internal angle of the axilla to its external). 
 
454 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 On the costal parietes pass ; art. mammaria externa (in front), 
 n. thoracic, poster, (behind) and nn. cutanei brachii. 
 
 On the posterior wall of the axilla : a branch of art. scapular, 
 commun., a nerv. infrascapular ., and lymphatics. 
 
 The largest number of lymphatic glands lie at the internal ante- 
 rior angle above the mm. pectorales, and close to the axillary bor- 
 der of the scapula. 
 
 The Extremities. 
 
 704. Plica cubiti, bend of the elbow, 
 
 is the angle in the anterior region of the elbow, which the articular 
 ends of the upper and forearm form with one another. We there 
 find under the skin and fascia, which above passes into the f. bra- 
 chii, below into the vagina cubiti, the fossa cubiti, a triangular de- 
 pression bounded externally by m. supinator longus, internally by 
 pronator teres, at the base by the tendon of the biceps, and m. 
 brachialis internus (above), the origin of flexores commun. digit. 
 and supinat. brevis (below). Position of the parts in the fossa 
 cubiti : 
 
 1. Yen. mediana. 2. Aponeurosis bicipitis. 3. Art. brachialis 
 between its veins. 4. Nerv. medianus on the inner. 5. Tendon 
 of biceps on the outer side of the artery. 
 
 705. Fossa poplitcea, bend of the knee, 
 
 a rhomboidal shaped space on the posterior (flexion) side of the 
 knee, is formed below by the two heads of m. gastrocnemius, the 
 inner of which is the longer, and partly covered by the tendon of 
 semimembranosus ; the external superior side by the biceps, the 
 internal by the belly of semimembranosus, then by the tendons of 
 the last-named muscle, the sermtendinosus, gracilis, and sartorius. 
 
 Position of the parts : 1. Skin thin, smooth, and very extensi- 
 ble. 2. Fibro-cellular tissue with adipose, in which cutaneous veins 
 and the terminal branches of nerv. cutaneus femor . poster, magn. 
 and nerv. cutan. post, medius. 3. Fascia lata ; forming, with a 
 superficial layer, an arch over the fossa, covers with a deep layer 
 the limits and the floor of it ; surrounding also, besides lymphatic 
 glands, fibro-cellular and adipose tissue, the vessels and nerves. 
 
 a. Art. poplitcza, passes pretty nearly in the centre of the fossa, 
 
THE TRUNK. 455 
 
 is entirely covered above by ven. poplitaa, fibro-cellular tissue, 
 fascia, and skin, at the lowest part by m. gastrocnem.^ and the ob- 
 liquely passing m. plantaris. 
 
 b. Ven. poplitcea, firmly adherent to the posterior external side 
 of the artery. 
 
 c. Nerv. tibiaHs, to the posterior external side of the vein, pass- 
 ing away obliquely behind it to the inner side. 
 
456 
 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
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458 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 d. Nerv. peronaus, on the inner side of m. biceps, covered only 
 by fascia, on the posterior surface of condyl. extern, femor. to the 
 outer side of condyl. extern, tibia, as far as behind capltul. fibula. 
 
 The two nerves (c and d) receive the art. and vein in the centre 
 between them. 
 
 4. M. poplitceus, 5. Ligam. poplitceum, pass obliquely down- 
 wards from condyl. extern, femoris to condyl. intern, tibice. 6. 
 Fossa condylorum posterior of the knee joint. 
 
 Situation of the Viscera, relative Position of the Organs in 
 the Three Great Cavities. 
 
 708. Cranial Cavity. 
 
 After removing the cranial bones we directly come to 
 I. Dura mater, from the internal surface of wliich the follow- 
 ing processes pass between the recesses of the brain : 
 
 1. Proc.falcifarmis major, s.falx cerebri. Its superior convex 
 border extends from foram. ccecum and crista galli of ethmoid 
 bone along the crista frontal, interna, beneath the central line of 
 the cranial arch as far as protuberant, occipital, interna ; contain- 
 ing the sinus longitudinal, superior. Its inferior concave border 
 is extended freely between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum, 
 close above the corp. callosum in the scissura longitudinal, cerebri; 
 it contains the sinus longit. inferior. 
 
 2. Tentorium cerebelli ; lies over the fossa cranii inferior, trans- 
 versely between the lobes of the cerebrum and the superior surface 
 of the cerebellum, below the falx cerebri and above thefalx cerebelli. 
 In the middle line passes sinus quartus [straight or horizontal 
 sinus]. Its external convex border is attached to the linea cruciatce, 
 transversce occipitis, the angulus super, oss. petrosi, as far as the 
 proc. clinoidei poster.; contains sinus transvers. and petrosi supe- 
 riores. Its free, internal, concave border reaches as far as the 
 corp. quadrigemina, splenium corp. callosum and pons Varolii. 
 
 3. Process, fakiformis minor s.falx cerebelli lies in theincisura 
 cerebelli poster., between the hemisphcer. cerebelli, behind tuber 
 valvul. and pyramis vermis, beneath the centre of the Tentorium, 
 and extends along the crista occipital, interna from the protuberan- 
 tia as far as foram. magnum ; containing, at the posterior attached 
 border, sinus occipitalis posterior. 
 
 4. Process, spurii dura matris are visible after the brain is re- 
 moved from the skull. 
 
 a. Roof of the sella turcica, stretched between proc. clinoid. 
 
THE EXTREMITIES. 459 
 
 anter. and poster., covers the fossa pro gland, pituitar., presenting 
 in the middle a foramen for infundibul. and sin. circular Ridkyi. 
 
 b. Between the apex of the petrous and the alaparva of sphe- 
 noid bone, the superior external wall of sin. cavernos., and farther 
 outwards the sin. ophthalmicus is formed. 
 
 c. Tubular sheaths for vessels and nerves penetrate the fora- 
 mina of the basis cranii. 
 
 5. Sinus ; are found between the layers of the dura mater. 
 
 a. Sinus transversi in the sulcus transvers., at the posterior 
 border of tentorium cerebetti. Into it open 
 
 1. Sinus longitud. super.; passing along the convex border of 
 falx cerebri ; opens into the right sin. transv. on the protube- 
 rantia occipit. interna. 
 
 2. Sinus quartus / [straight] passes into the centre of tento- 
 rium, from before backwards ; receiving where tentorium and falx 
 cerebri unite, 
 
 Vena magna Galeni, which, arising by the confluence of vv. 
 cerebrales internee, pass into plexus choroid. 3. 
 
 Its posterior extremity enters the left sinus, transversus (s. tor- 
 cular. Herophili). 
 
 3. Sinus longitud. inferior, on the concave border of falx cere- 
 bri, passes into sinus quartus. 
 
 4. Sinus petrosus superior, in the sulcus petrosus on the supe- 
 rior angle of pars, petrosa ; unites sinus cavernos. with trans- 
 versus. 
 
 5. Sinus petrosus infer., between the apex of pars petrosa and 
 the clivus ; opens at the foram. jugulare into the sinus trans- 
 versus. 
 
 b. Sinus occipitalis posterior passes on the crista occipit. in- 
 terna, from the torcular Herophili downwards to the sinus circu- 
 lar, foram. magni, which lies upon the posterior boundary of 
 
 foram. magn., and is connected with the so-called sin. occipit. ant. 
 s. basilar. upon the clivus and ihe fossa pro medulla oblongata. 
 
 c. Sinus cavernosi passes on both sides of sella turcica between 
 the apex of petrous and alaparva of sphenoid bone. Into it dis- 
 charge, 
 
 1 . Sinus circularis Ridkyi ; surrounding the hypophysis ce- 
 rebri. 
 
 2. Sinus spheno-parietales s. ophthalmici (ant. extremity of sin. 
 cavernosi) ; at the inferior extremity of fiss. orbitalis superior. 
 
 3. Sinus petrosi anteriores ; between pars squamosa and pe- 
 trosa of temporal bone (often wanting). 
 
 II. Arachnoidea, surrounded by the Dura, it surrounds the pia 
 
460 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 mater ; it is extended like a bridge across all the depressions, and 
 over all the sulci of the brain. 
 
 III. Pia mater, slightly attached to the free surface of the brain, 
 and entering into all its suki, depressions and cavities, it closes the 
 fourth ventricle at the Jissur. transv. cerebelli, [abnormally] and 
 the third ventricle even at the foram. Bichat. in the Jiss. transv. 
 cerebri. 
 
 709. IV. Cerebrum, great brain. Its superior convex surface 
 looks towards the cranial vault, and is divided into two hemispheres 
 by the 
 
 Scissura longitudinalis, which penetrates as far as corpus cal> 
 losum, in front, before the genu corpor. callosi, and between the 
 anterior cerebral lobes to the base of the skull ; behind, posterior 
 to splenium corp. callosum, and between the posterior cerebral 
 lobes to the cerebellum, and receives ihefalx cerebri. 
 
 Anterior cerebral lobes. Their inferior surfaces lie upon the 
 fossa cranii anterior ; their internal surfaces meet together ; be- 
 hind they are separated from the middle lobes by the fossa Sylvii. 
 On the inferior surface, towards their inner border, the sulcus trac- 
 tus olfactorii is seen, at the posterior termination of which, close 
 before substantia perfor. media, lie the corp. mammillaria. 
 
 Middle cerebral lobes are indistinctly bounded behind by margo 
 petrosus of petrous bone, and they occupy the fossce cranii media. 
 
 Posterior cerebral lobes occupy the space in thefossce occipitales 
 superiores. Between them and the cerebellum the Jissura transv. 
 cerebri leads to splen. corp. callos., corp. quadrigem., ventricul. 
 3., and later ales. 
 
 710. V. Cerebellum, lesser brain, fills up the fossce occipitales 
 inferiores, is divided by the horse-shoe-shaped incisur a poster., at 
 the posterior border and falx cerebelli, into two hemispheres, by a 
 deep transverse groove, sulcus horizontalis Reilii, into a superior 
 and inferior hal united in the middle line by the vermis [proc. 
 vermiformis']. The vallecula on the inferior surface of the vermis 
 receives anteriorly the pons Varolii, behind the medulla oblongata. 
 Between the last and the cerebellum the Jissura transversa cere- 
 belli leads into the fourth ventricle. The superior surface of the 
 cerebellum is separated from the posterior lobes of the cerebrum 
 by the tentorium. 
 
 711. VI. Basis encephali. We find in the middle line from 
 behind to before, 
 
SITUS VISCERUM. 461 
 
 1. Medulla oblongata. upon the pars basilar. occipitis, between 
 the hemispheria cerebetti, behind pons Varolii. In its middle 
 line : 
 
 a. Fissura long, anterior ; on the side of this : 
 
 b. Corp. pyramidalia. Next to these the olivary bodies, 
 and most posteriorly and externally the corp. restiformia. 
 
 2. Pons Varolii, upon the clivus, behind the crura cerebri, be- 
 tween the crura cerebelli ad pontem. 
 
 3. Substantia perforata media, between crura cerebri. 
 
 4. Corp. mammiUaria, above^?r0c. clinoidei posterior es, between 
 crura cerebri. 
 
 5. Tuber cinereum, between the anterior extremities of tractus 
 optici, elongating itself forwards and downwards in the infundibu- 
 lum to the hypophysis in the sella turcica. 
 
 6. Chiasma nerv. opticorum, upon the proc. clinoidei medii, 
 between the two lamina cribrosce, which lie before the crura cere- 
 bri at the commencement offossce Sylvii, and the posterior extre- 
 mity of sulcus tractus olfactorius. On the sides of the base are 
 situated, 
 
 1. Fossa Sylvii, with the insula of Reil, and the oper- 
 culum. 
 
 2. Crura s. pedunculi cerebri, behind the tractus opticus, 
 before pons Varolii. 
 
 3. Tractus opticus, behind lamina cribrosa, before crus 
 cerebri, winding round them. 
 
 4. Gyrus hippocampi, externally close to crus cerebri, 
 forms in front the uncus. 
 
 712. VII. Cerebral nerves. 
 
 1. Olfactorius, appears at the internal extremity of fossa Sylvii 
 and lamina cribrosa, passes in the sulcus tractus olfactorius on 
 the inferior surface of the anterior cerebral lobes, enlarges (bulbus 
 cinereus) upon the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, and quits 
 the cranial cavity with a double series of filaments. 
 
 2. Opticus, appears at the anterior border of chiasma, passes 
 through foram. opticum, where it lies above and internal to art. 
 ophthalm., into the orbit, where it is situated on the outside and 
 below it. 
 
 3. Oculo-motorius, appears on the inside of the pedunc. cerebri, 
 passes through a fissure of the dura mater, approaching proc. cli- 
 noid. post., into the sinus cavernosus, along the superior wall, out- 
 side the carotis interna ; enters the orbit th rough fissura orbital, 
 superior. 
 

 462 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 4. Trochkaris, appears at the anterior lateral border of pons 
 Varolii, before the cms cerebelli ad pontem, perforates the dura 
 mater behind proc. clinoid. post., passes in a canal formed by it 
 above the apex of the petrous bone, between the superior and outer 
 wall of sinus cavernosus, to the Jiss. orbital, super., and into the 
 orbit. 
 
 5. Trigeminus, appears at the anterior lateral border of pons 
 Varolii, before the crura cerebelli ad pontem, external to troch- 
 learis, penetrates the anterior border of tentorium close above the 
 apex of the petrous bone, and there forms the ganglion Gasseri, 
 from the inferior border of which its first, second, and a portion of 
 its third division pass off. 
 
 Ramus I. passes through fissura orb. superior. 
 
 II. through for am. rotundum. 
 
 III. through foram. ovale out of the skull. 
 
 6. Abducens, appears between the posterior border of pons Va- 
 rolii and the corp. pyramid., enters through the fissure of the dura 
 mater, on the clivus, into the sinus caver nos., and passes, when in 
 this, on the outer side of the carotis to thejfiss. orbital, superior. 
 
 7. Facialis, appears at the posterior lateral border of pons Va- 
 rolii, between crus cerebelli ad pont. and corp. restiforme, passes 
 in a sulcus of the acusticus; and enters, by the meatus auditor, in- 
 tern., into the canal FaUopice. 
 
 8. Acusticus, appears externally close to the last, passes to 
 meatus auditor, intern, between corp. olivare, floccul., and crus 
 cerebelli ad pontem. 
 
 9 and 10. Glosso-pharyngeus and vagus, appear below the pos- 
 terior border of pons Varolii, between corp. olivare and restiforme, 
 they pass out through foram. jugulare [post, lacerated foramen]. 
 
 11. Accessorius Willisii, passes through for. magnum into the 
 cranium, and leaves it through foram. jugulare [post, lacerated 
 foramen]. 
 
 12. Hypoglossus, appears between corp. olivare and pyramid., 
 passes out through foram. condyloid. anterius. 
 
 713. VIII. Arteries [see 552, and 554.] 
 
 1. Carotis cerebralis, enters the sinus cavernosus at the apex of 
 the petrous bone, surrounded by plexus carotic. intern., lies upon 
 the outer inferior side of the sinus, penetrates it behind foram. 
 opticum, gives off art. ophthalmica, and divides into the three fol- 
 lowing arteries : 
 
 a. Art. corpor. callos. [ant. cerebral], lies at its commencement 
 before the chiasma above n. opticus, then in the scissura 
 longitudinal. 
 
SITUS VISCERUM. 463 
 
 b. Art. fossa Sylvii [middle cerebral], commences below the 
 lamina cribrosa, then in fossa Sylvii. 
 
 c. Art. clwroidea, external tocrus cerebri, below tractus opticus, 
 enters the cornu descend, of the lateral ventricle. 
 
 2. Circulus arteriosus Wittisii, above and close to the sella tur- 
 cica, surrounds the chiasma, tuber cinereum and corp. mam- 
 millaria. 
 
 3. Art. vertebrates, enters into the cranial cavity at the posterior 
 lateral part offoram. magn., lies at first on the side of, then ob- 
 liquely before the medutta oblongata. The two vessels unite and 
 pass as basilaris upon the clivus. 
 
 a. Art. basilaris gives off: art. auditories, internee, cerebeUi in- 
 feriores and superiores, and divides at the proc. clinoid. 
 post, into the two artt. profunda cerebri [posterior cerebral], 
 which pass around the crura cerebri to the posterior cerebral 
 lobes. 
 
 714. Thorax [compare 695.] 
 
 After removing the sternum we arrive at the pleura with the 
 lungs laterally, in the centre the cavum mediastini antici, the 
 pericardium with the heart, and the cavum mediastin. postic. with 
 trachea, ozsophagus, vascular and nervous trunks. 
 
 715. I. Pleurae. Each pleural sac is united to the lateral 
 thoracic parietes as pleura costalis. The right lies obliquely from 
 above to below, and from right io left, so that above it reaches as 
 far as the right border of manubrium sterni, below to the centre 
 of corp. sterni. The left attaches itself to the left border of the 
 manubrium, below to the external extremity of the sixth and 
 seventh-rib cartilage. 
 
 From these points the pleura costalis turns backwards on either 
 side to the lateral regions of the pericardium and the roots of the 
 lungs as mediastinum anticum. 
 
 Each pleura costalis goes backwards to the front of the heads 
 of the ribs and to the sides of the vertebral bodies, and hence turns 
 forwards to the lateral surfaces of the pericardium and to the roots 
 of the lungs as mediastin. posticum. 
 
 Below, the pleura is united with the convex surfaces of the dia- 
 phragm, pleura phrenica ; posteriorly and at the sides it extends 
 to the last ribs. 
 
 Ligamentum pulmonis, extends from the pleura phrenica to 
 the posterior border of the inferior lobe of the lungs, and here 
 passes over into the 
 
 Pleura pulmonalis, which invests the entire surface of the lungs, 
 
464 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 forming between the lobes ligg. inter lobularia, and at the roots of 
 the lungs covering the parts entering and passing out. 
 
 716. II. Lungs. Each of the two lungs rests with the con- 
 cave basis upon the convex surface of the diaphragm. The 
 rounded apex reaches about one inch above the first rib. Their 
 convex external surface is turned towards the concavity of the 
 ribs, and shows on the right lung two incisurce interlobulares 
 passing from behind forwards, on the left one incis. interlobular ., 
 so that the former is divided into three, the latter into two lobes. 
 
 717. HI. Pericardium, extends from the point of junction of 
 the sixth and seventh rib cartilage with the sternum of the right 
 side : a rhomboidai piece of its anterior surface looks freely into 
 the cav. mediast. anticum. It envelopes 
 
 718. IV. The Heart, the posterior inferior surface of which 
 rests upon the diaphragm, the basis of which lies to the right, 
 above and behind as high as the sixth dorsal vertebra, the apex 
 to the left, in front and below, behind the anterior extremity of 
 the cartilage of the sixth and seventh left ribs. Sulcus longi- 
 tudinalis, transversus. Ventriculi, atria and auricula cordis 
 (see Heart, 527.) 
 
 Besides the coronary veins, there open into the heart : 
 1. Vena cava superior, formed by the junction of the two 
 anonymce \ven. brachio-cephaliccz] behind the first and second 
 right costal cartilages, passes before art. pulmonal. dextra, to the 
 right and rather behind the commencement of the Aorta, into the 
 atrium dextrum. 
 
 a. V. anonyma dextra [right brachio-cephalic] lies perpendicu- 
 larly before the first (right) costal cartilage, before and inter- 
 nal to nerv. phrenic, dexter and art. mamm. intern, dextra. 
 
 b. V. anonym, sinistra [left brachio-ceph.] horizontal behind 
 the manubrium, close above arcus aorta, before art. 
 anonyma, carotis and subclavia sinistra. 
 
 3. V. cava inferior, passes through foramen quadrilaterum of 
 the diaphragm from the ventral into the thoracic cavity, and im- 
 mediately into the pericardium, where it turns forwards and to 
 the left, and before the eighth and ninth dorsal vertebra sinks into 
 atrium dextrum. 
 
 3. Vena pulmonales, pass forth with two trunks from the root 
 of each lung, lie behind and below the other large blood-vessels of 
 the heart and behind the bronchi, advancing towards those of the 
 opposite side, and opening into the atrium sinistrum. 
 
 From the heart arise, besides the coronary arteries, 
 
SITUS VISCERUM. 465 
 
 1. Arteria pulmonalis, which lie the most anterior of all the 
 vascular trunks. Origin : ventriculus dexter, behind auric, sinis- 
 tra, covering the origin of the aorta. Divides on an elevation 
 with the third dorsal vertebra. The left trunk passes obliquely 
 backwards over vv. pulmonal. sinistr., before aorta descend, and 
 bronchus sinister with two branches to the left lung. The right 
 branch below arcus aortce, before bronchus dexter, behind aorta 
 ascendens with three branches to the right lung. From the angle 
 of division the lig. arteriosum (duct. art. Botatti) passes to the 
 concavity of arcus aortte, internal to nerv. vagus sinister. 
 
 2. Aorta, arises from the left ventricle, ascends behind art. 
 pulmonalis as aorta ascendens from left to right, lying there be- 
 tween art. pulmon. (to the left) and v. cava sup. (to the right), 
 forms on an elevation with the second intercostal space the arcus 
 aorta, which passes from right to left and from before backwards 
 into the cav. mediast. post. ; and downwards as far as the fourth 
 dorsal vertebra. Here it descends as aorta descend, close to the 
 left side of the vertebral column, first close, then behind the oeso- 
 phagus, and passes through hiat. aortic, in the region of the 
 twelfth dorsal vertebra into the abdomen. 
 
 From its convexity arise 
 
 a. Art. anonyma [art. brachio-cephalic.], lying the farthest 
 to the right and in front, behind manubrium sterni, before 
 trachea ; divides into carot. commun. and subclav. dextrce. 
 
 b. Carotis comm. sinistra, at the commencement before, 
 then to the left of trachea and cesophagus, behind manubrium, 
 ven. brack, ceph. sinistra, and m. sterno-hyoideus. 
 
 c. Subclavia sinistra, the farthest to the left and behind, 
 before the termination of m. longus colli. 
 
 1 . Mammaria interna, arises from the ant. inf. surface 
 of subclavia, turns, at the commencement, forwards, then 
 downwards, passes inwards between two veins, before the 
 pleura on the inner surface of (one to seven) costal car- 
 tilages as far as proc. ensiform., where it bifurcates intc 
 its two terminal branches, ram. musculo-phrenic. and epi- 
 gastricus. 
 
 719. V. Vena azygos and hemiazygos (v. conjugate) pass 
 along on either side between crus extern, and med. diaphrag. into 
 the cavum mediast. post., passing close to the bodies of the dorsal 
 vertebra as high as the eighth, where they unite in the ven. azy- 
 gos. This passes upwards to the right of the aorta and the ductus 
 
 30 
 
466 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 tkoracicus as high as the third and fourth dorsal vertebrae, curves 
 around branch, dexter and art. pulmon. forwards to the posterior 
 wall of ven. cava sup., in which it terminates. 
 
 720. VI. Ductus tkoracicus passes through hiat. aortic., lying 
 between aorta thoracic, and ven. azygos before the bodies of the 
 vertebrae ; goes to the left, in the region of the fifth and sixth dor- 
 sal vertebrae behind the (esophagus and the termination of arc. 
 aorta, and opens in the angle between ven. jugular, inter na, and 
 subclavia sinistra. 
 
 721. VII. Trachea, behind the manubr. sterni, ven. anonyma, 
 and carotis sinistra, it divides before the third dorsal vertebra, close 
 behind arcus aortce, into the two bronchi. Bronch. dexter [the 
 largest] lies behind v. cava super., passes away under the curve of 
 v. azygos ; broncli. sinister [the longest and most oblique] under 
 the arch of the aorta to the lungs. Both lie behind the art. and 
 above the v. pulmonales. 
 
 722. VIII. (Esophagus passes behind the trachea and rather 
 to the left of it, into the cav. mediastin. post. ; lying, at the com- 
 mencement, more in the central line, and to the right of the aorta; 
 lastly to the left and before aorta and duct, thoracic., and enters, 
 upon a plane with the ninth dorsal vertebra, the abdominal cavity 
 through for. ccsophageum. 
 
 723. IX. Nerves. 
 
 1. Nero, vagus, passes down and close to carotis, rather external 
 to it, before art. subclavia and behind ven. anonyma obliquely into 
 cav. mediast. anticum. 
 
 a. N. recurrens dexter, passes off from it, and around the 
 art. subclavia dext. backwards to the larynx : sinister like- 
 wise around the arcus aortce. Both ascend behind the carotis 
 in the groove between trachea and (Esophagus. 
 
 b. Nn. pulmonales. 
 
 The vagus then turns into the cav. mediast. post., passes ob- 
 liquely inwards behind the bronchi to the oesophagus (the left on 
 its anterior, the right upon its posterior surface), and are lost 
 through yo/. ozsophageum of the abdominal cavity. 
 
 2. Pars thoracica nerv. sympathici, lies on the outside of cav. 
 mediast. post, behind the pleura costalis, close to the vertebral bo- 
 dies, before the proc. transv. and heads of the ribs. Ganglia 
 thoracici (eleven to twelve) between, upon, or before the heads of 
 the ribs. 
 
 a. Splanchnicus major, arises from six to ten ganglia 
 
SITUS VISCERUM. 467 
 
 thorac., entering the abdominal cavity between crus med. and 
 intern, diaphragm. 
 
 b. Splanchnicus minor, arises from nine to ten ganglia, 
 perforates the crus medium. Both lie more anterior and in- 
 ternal than the trunk of sympathicus, before the vasa inter- 
 costal.; upon the left side, close to the aorta; upon the right, 
 close to ven. azygos. 
 
 3. Nervus phrenicus, enters the cav. mediastin. antic., on either 
 side behind the outer portion of artic. ster no-clavicular is before art. 
 subcl. and behind v. subcl., on the outer side of art. mammaria in- 
 terna, contiguous to the pericardium ; the right passes more ante- 
 riorly before v. cava super., the left curved around the apex of the 
 heart to the diaphragm. 
 
 T24. Abdominal Cavity. 
 
 1. Within the peritoneum (Infra peritonaeum). 
 
 1. Liver, situated in the hypochondr. dextr., extending on the 
 left as far as into epigastrium. The convex surface in the con- 
 cavity of the diaphragm, directed upwards and forwards ; the con- 
 cave surface downwards and backwards. 
 
 Lobulus dexter covers the superior part of the right kidney 
 (impressio renalis), Ihejftexura coll dcxlra (impressio colica), 
 farther to the left and before the duoden., pylorus, lig. hepatico- 
 renale and duodenale ; foram. Winslowii. 
 
 Lobulus sinister lies upon the small omentum and the 
 cardia ; lob. Spigelii in the curvatura minor. 
 
 Posterior superior border is obtuse, and unites with the dia- 
 phragm. 
 
 Inferior anterior border is acute, and directed downwards. 
 On the inferior surface : Fossa longitudin. dextra with the 
 gall bladder -fundus below, collam directed towards fossa 
 transv. ; passes into ductus cysticus, which joins with duct, 
 hepaticus, at an acute angle to form the duct, chokdoch., 
 which opens into the posterior wall of pars descend, duodeni. 
 At the posterior part lies ven. cava inferior. 
 
 Fossa longitudinal, sinistra with lig. teres (ven. umbilical.) 
 before duct. ven. Arantii behind. 
 
 Fossa transversa presents : v. porta and art. hepat. (ves- 
 sels entering), duct, hepat. (passing out) surrounded by cap- 
 sul. Glissonii, in the lig. hepatico-duodenak. 
 
 a. Ven. portce, and to the right before it art. Jiepatica. 
 
 b. Ductus hepaticus before v. portce, between art. hepat. 
 (to the left) and duct, cystic, (to the right). 
 
468 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 c. Duct, choledochus to the right, and rather before the ven. 
 portce, behind duodenum. 
 
 2. Spleen, situated in fiypochondr. sinistra. Its thick superior 
 extremity on the diaphragm, the thin inferior extremity above flex, 
 coli sinistra. External surface towards the concavity of the last 
 ribs and pars cost, of diaphragm. Internal concave surface bounded 
 by fund, ventriculi, presents hilus. 
 
 3. Pancreas, behind the stomach, in the reg. epigastr., before 
 the large vascular trunks and the vertebral column. The head in 
 the curve of the duodenum, the tail towards the spleen. The duct 
 (duct. Wirsungianus) opens into pars, descend, duodeni. 
 
 4. Stomach in reg. epigastrica and hypochondr. sinistra. Cur- 
 vat, major below, minor above ; anterior wall behind the abdomi- 
 nal parietes ; posterior before pancreas, aorta ; cardia to the left 
 and above, beneath for. cesophageum; behind proc. xiphoideus, in 
 the scrobiculo cordis, and the extremity of the left lobe of liver; 
 pylorus to the right, behind the lobul. quadratus. Fundus in the 
 reg. hypochondr. sinistra, united to the spleen. 
 
 5. Duodenum. First portion, pars horizont. super, proceeding 
 from the pylorus to the right, curves below the right lobe of the 
 liver. Second portion, pars, descend., before the right kidney to 
 the region of the third lumbar vertebra. Second curve. Third 
 portion, p. horizontal, infer, passes off to the left, then between the 
 layers of the mesenterium into the jejunum. 
 
 6. Jejunum two-fifths, and ileum, three-fifths, traverse regg. 
 umbilical., hypogast., iliaca, even into the depth of the pelvis (in 
 the excavat. recto-uterina and vesico-uter.), passing in the reg. 
 iliac, dext. into the large intestines. 
 
 7. Cazcum ; with proc. vermiform, behind and external in reg. 
 iliac, dextra, upon m. iliacus dexter. 
 
 8. Colon, ascendens, transvers., descendens with sigmoid flexure 
 passes by the side of the last lumbar vertebra into the rectum. 
 
 9. PerUonceum, extends from the umbilicus upwards on the in- 
 ternal surface of the abdominal parietes to the diaphragm, forming 
 in this way, as it surrounds the lig. teres, the lig. suspensor. 
 hepatis. 
 
 From the concavity of the diaphragm it descends to the obtuse 
 border of the liver as lig. coronar. hepatis, which at the sides passes 
 over into the anterior layer of ligg. triangularia ; covering the 
 convexity of the liver it turns over the acute border to the inferior 
 surface which it also covers as far as lobulus Spigelii, and com- 
 pletes laterally the ligg. triangularia. From the fossa transv. it 
 goes to ihejlexur. coli. dextr. and right kidney (lig. hepatico-coli- 
 cum and -renale) farther, to the curvat. minor, (lig. hepat. gastric. 
 
SITUS VISCERUM. 469 
 
 s. omentum minus), and to the duodenum (as lig. hepatico-ditode- 
 nak, which is continued to the right kidney as lig. duodeno-renale). 
 On the left side it descends from the diaphragm to the anterior wall 
 of the stomach and the spleen (lig. phrenico- gastric, and one layer 
 of lig. phrenico-lienak), covers the anterior surface of the stomach, 
 descends as one layer of the great omentum [turns upon itself], 
 and ascends as the fourth layer, covering the colon transvers. as 
 mesocolon transvers., passes to the [inferior] border of pancreas, 
 and attaches itself to the posterior abdominal parietes. 
 
 Foramen Winslowii is a space between ven. cava and v. porta- 
 rum below the tubercul. caudatum of the liver. Through this the 
 saccus epiploicits is tucked in. The anterior layer covers 
 
 lobulus Spigelii, forms the posterior layer of lig. gastrico-ke- 
 pniic. (small omentum), covers the posterior surface of the 
 stomach, descends as second layer of great omentum, and as 
 third layer again ascends, covering [the transv. colon] the 
 anterior surface of the pancreas, and turning back at the tobul. 
 Spigelii. 
 
 Mesenterium. The root of the mesentery extends from the 
 second lumbar vertebra to the symphys.-sacro-iliac. dextr. Be- 
 tween its two layers are found the convolutions of the small intes- 
 tines. From the symph. sacro-iliac., the peritoneum is continued 
 upon the ccecum,proc. vermiform., colon, and rectum. 
 
 In the male it passes from the anterior surface of the rectum to 
 the posterior of the urinary bladder, since it forms the ezcavat. 
 recto-vesicalis, and on both sides the plicce semilunares Douglasii, 
 covers the lateral two-thirds of the posterior surface of the bladder, 
 invests laterally the lig. vesicle lateralia, and above the lig. vesicce 
 suspensor., and then again ascends to the posterior surface of the 
 anterior abdominal parietes. 
 
 In the female it forms the ezcavat.io-recto-uterin., plic. Dougl., 
 lig. uteri lota, plica and excav. vesico-uterince, passes upon the 
 bladder, and so on. 
 
 Uterus lies in great part covered by peritoneum, above the va- 
 gina, between bladder and rectum, with thefundus in the entrance 
 to the pelvis. 
 
 Tuba FaUopice lies at the entrance to the pelvis, before and 
 above the ovary, at the side of the uterus ; its external extremity 
 projects freely into the abdominal cavity. 
 
 Ovarium, between the layers of the broad ligament, over the 
 round ligament, on the side offundus uteri, and united with it by 
 lig. ovarii. 
 
 Lig. uteri rotundum, below the tuba and the ovarium, on the 
 lateral borders of the uterus. 
 
470 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 725. II. Outside the peritoneum, 
 
 in the abdominal and pelvic cavities are situated : the capsules, 
 supra renales, the urinary organs, internal organs of generation, 
 the rectum, the superior portion of the duodenum, the great ves- 
 sels and nerves. 
 
 1. Caps. sup. renales, situated in the reg. hypochondriaca on 
 the posterior abdominal walls, upon the upper border of the kid- 
 ney, below the diaphragm, the right behind the liver, the left be- 
 hindfundus ventriculi. 
 
 2 Urinary organs, viz. kidneys, ureters, bladder. 
 
 a. Kidneys. They are placed in the reg. lumbalis, before m. 
 quadratus lumborum and the eleventh and twelfth ribs, close to 
 the first and third lumbar vertebrae, behind the peritoneum ; the 
 right kidney behind lobul. dexter, duodenum, and colon ascendens ; 
 the left behind the inferior extremity of the spleen, cauda pancreat. 
 and colon descendens. 
 
 The internal border with the hilus, rests upon the pars lumbal. 
 of diaphragm and m. psoas. In the hilus lie, from before back- 
 wards, vena, arteria, pelvis renalis. 
 
 b. "Ureter^ descends obliquely inwards from the pelvis of the 
 kidney, with a sigmoidal curve ; before, m. psoas and vasa iliaca ; 
 behind, the vasa spermatica, which descend obliquely outwards, 
 and cross it ; it passes between rectum and psoas into the pelvic 
 cavity, and to the posterior wall and lateral parts of the fundus 
 vesicce. Here it lies in the male, at first on the side, then be- 
 tween the rectum and urinary bladder, behind vas deferens ; in 
 the female, close to collum uteri, below lig. uteri rotund., then 
 between bladder and vagina. 
 
 c. Urinary bladder ; it lies in reg. pubis, between the pubic 
 bones and the rectum or uterus : 
 
 1. Corpus vesicce, behind the symphysis pubis, before the 
 rectum or uterus, touching laterally the side walls of the 
 pelvis. 
 
 2. Vertex, projects upwards as far as the superior border 
 of symphysis pubis, or, even above this, covered behind by 
 peritoneum. 
 
 3. Fundus, situated anteriorly upon the perinaum, above the 
 vesicula seminal, andvasa deferent., behind upon the inferior 
 portion of rectum (in the male) ; upon the anterior wall of 
 vagina (in the female). 
 
 4. Collum (in the male surrounded by the prostate), lies over 
 the anterior part of perinceum (the vagina in female), close 
 behind the lower border of symphysis. 
 
SITUS VISCERUM. 471 
 
 3. Internal organs of generation. 
 
 a. Prostata surrounds the coUum vesicce, and the commence- 
 ment of the urethra, situated close before the vesicul. seminal. 
 and vasa deferent., above the perinceum and the lower extremity 
 of rectum ; its anterior pointed extremity behind and below the 
 lig. arcuatum. 
 
 b. Vesiculce seminales are placed close together, behind and 
 above the prostata, between rectum and fundus vesicce , before and 
 external to the ureters and vasa deferentia. 
 
 c. Vas deferens, passes on either side through the internal in- 
 guinal ring into the abdominal cavity, bends round art. epigastrica 
 and over vasa cruralia backwards, inwards, and downwards, lying 
 at first at the side, then on the fundus of the urinary bladder, be- 
 fore the ureter, and internal to the vesic. seminal, of its own 
 side. 
 
 d. Vagina, between rectum and bladder, below the fundus 
 vesicce and urethra, in the axis of the lesser pelvis. 
 
 4. Rectum : it lies on the posterior wall of the pelvis from the 
 promontorium down to the end of the coccyx ; in women, behind 
 uterus and vagina ; in men, behind and below the prostate, blad- 
 der, vesicuke seminales, and vasa deferentia. Its most superior 
 portion is covered in front, and laterally by the peritoneum. 
 
 5. Vessels : 
 
 a. Aorta abdominalis descends through hiatus aorticus into the 
 abdomen, lies close to the anterior surface of the lumbar vertebrae 
 (as far as the cartilage between the fourth and fifth), to the left of 
 ven. cava infer., behind the cardia, caput pancreat., third portion 
 of duodenum, radix mesenterii. Its branches : 
 
 1 . Phrenicce inferr. andcceliaca, arise close under hiatus aorticus. 
 
 2. Lumbares I., mesenterica super., arise before the twelfth dor- 
 sal vertebra. 
 
 3. Supra renales, renales, spermaticce intern. Lumbares II., 
 before the second lumbar. 
 
 4. Lumbares III., arise before the third lumbar. 
 
 5. Mesenterica inferior, between third and fourth lumbar. 
 
 6. Lumbares IV., before the fourth lumbar. 
 
 7. Sacra media and iliacce, between fourth and fifth lumbar. 
 
 b. Artt. iliacce, communes descend obliquely from the place of 
 division of the aorta outwards and backwards behind the ureters^ 
 on the inner side of m. psoas, as far as symphys. sacro-iliaca. 
 The left lies immediately before the vena iliaca sinistra on the 
 outside, the right goes first over v. iliaca sinist., and then passes 
 to the inner side of v. iliaca dextra. Their branches : 
 
472 TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY. 
 
 1. Hypogastrica [iliac intern.], lies close before symphys. sa- 
 cro-iliaca, at the side of the posterior wall of the small pelvis. 
 
 2. Iliaca externa lies in the great pelvis, between vena iliaca 
 (internally) and nerv. cruralis (externally,) before fasc. ili- 
 aca and psoas, passing under the crural arch. 
 
 c. Vena cava inferior, arises rather below the division of the 
 aorta, ascends on its right side, inclines rather to the right and for- 
 wards, and passes behind the pancreas, before the right crus of the 
 diaphragm into the fossa pro ven. cava of the liver, between lobulus 
 dexter and Spigelii ; hence through for am. quadrilaterum into the 
 thorax. Its branches : 
 
 Vv. iliaca communes, pass on the right side of the correspond- 
 ing arteries; the left longer, behind the origin of art. iliaca dextra, 
 before art. sacra media. 
 
 1. V. hypogastrica, lies behind its artery. 
 
 2. V. iliaca externa, on the inner side of the artery. 
 
 d. Vena azygos arises before the second and third lumbar verte- 
 bra (on the right) by the junction of branches of v. iliaca, renalis, 
 and cava infer, with the lumbalis ascend., passes between the cen- 
 tre and external right crus diaphragm, (or through hiatus aortic.) 
 into the thorax. 
 
 e. Vena hemiazygos, arises on the left, and takes a course like 
 ven. azygos. 
 
 d. Ductus thoracicus, formed by two trunci lumbales and one 
 lymphatic, intestinal., arises before the first and second lumbar 
 vertebra to the right of and behind aorta abdominal., close to art. 
 mesenter. super, (or renal, dextra), passes through hiatus aorticus 
 into the thorax. 
 
 6. Nerves : 
 
 a. Plexus lumbalis / lies in and behind m. psoas, before m. qua- 
 drat, lumborum. Its continuation : nerv. cruralis lies in the 
 groove between m. psoas and iliacus, under fasc. iliaca, at first 
 behind ; then on the outer side of art. iliaca. 
 
 b. Plexus sacralis s. ischiadicus lies behind art. hypogastrica, 
 ischiadica, and pudenda, before n. pyriformis at the inferior ex- 
 tremity of incisura ischiadica major. 
 
 c. N. sympathicus. The lumbar portion lies on the sides of the 
 bodies of the lumbar vertebra, the gangl. lumbalia dextra behind 
 aorta, the gangl. lumb. sinist. behind v. cava. The sacral por- 
 tion close before the os sacrum; the (four) gangl. sacralia at 
 the inner edge of foramina sacrall. anteriora. Gangl. coccygeum, 
 the termination of n. sympathicus on the anterior surface of the 
 sacrum. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 '.* The numbers refer to the antique figures. 
 
 A. 
 
 Abdomen, 696. 
 
 Acetabulum, 92. 
 
 Acidum lacticum, 12; uricum, 11. 
 
 Acini hepatis, 445 ; Malpighi, 470. 
 
 Acromion, 94. 
 
 Aditus : ad aquaeduct. Sylvii, 620 ; 
 
 ad cochleam, 52; ad infundibulum, 
 
 620 ; ad vestibulum, 52. 
 Adminiculum lineae albae, 261. 
 Alae Ingrassiae (alae minores), 48 ; 
 
 magnae, 48; nasi, 517; pterygoid., 
 
 48 ; sacrales, 79 ; vespertilionis, 
 
 486. 
 
 Albumen, 6. 
 Alveoli, 66. 
 Amphiarthrosis, 45. 
 Ampulla chyli, 438 ; membranac., 
 
 515; ossea, 512, 
 Anastomosis Jacobsonii, 511. 
 Angiologia, 520. 
 Angulus costs, 85 ; facial. Camperi, 
 
 73 ; maxillae, 66 ; oculi, 492 ; oris, 
 
 428 ; pubis, 92. 
 Annulus abdominalis, 258 ; cruralis, 
 
 364; digitorum, 336, 377; ingui- 
 
 nalis, 258, 260 ; tympani, 52 ; um- 
 bilical, 261. 
 Ansa capitis, 52. 
 Anthelix, 506. 
 Antitragus, 506. 
 Antrum Highmori, 59. 
 Anus, 444. 
 Aorta ascend., 539 ; descend, 570 ; 
 
 abdom., 571 ; thorac., 570. 
 Aperturae pelvis, 93 : pyriform, 69. 
 Aponeuroses, 146 ; bicipit. 319 ; is- 
 
 chio-pubica, 282; -rectalis, 282; 
 
 palmar., 333; plantar, 596. 
 Apophysis, 41. 
 Apparatus ligamentos., 111. 
 Appendices epiploic. s. adiposae, 441 ; 
 iform., 
 
 app. vermiform., 442. 
 
 Aquaeductus cochl., 514 ; Sylvii, 620 ; 
 vestibuli, 52, 514. 
 
 Aquula Cotunni, 515 ; vitrea, 515. 
 
 Arachnoidea, 624, 628 ; oculi, 499. 
 
 Arbor vitae cerebelli, 621 ; uteri, 486. 
 
 Arcus aortae, 540 ; cruralis, 256 ; dor- 
 sal, carpi, 569 ; pedis, 587 ; glosso- 
 palatin., 428 ; pharyngo-palatin., 
 428 ; plantaris, 587; pubis, 92 ; su- 
 perciliaris, 50; t arse us infer, et su- 
 per., 551 ; volaris carpi, 569 ; tarsis, 
 587. 
 
 Area Martegiani, 504. 
 
 Areola mammae, 489. 
 
 Arteriae, 524 ; A. acetabuli, 577, 582 ; 
 acromialis, 561 ; adiposae, 573 ; al- 
 veolaris, 547; anonyma, 540; an- 
 gularis, 551 ; aorta, 537 ; dppendi- 
 calis, 572 ; articulares genu, 583 ; 
 aspera, 466 ; auditiva, 555 ; auricu- 
 lares, 545, 546 ; axillaris, 560. 
 
 B. Basilaris, 555; brachialis, 564; 
 breves, 572 ; bronchiales, 570 ; 
 buccinatoria, 548 ; bulbosa, 579. 
 
 C. capsularis, 551 ; cardiacae, 539; 
 carotis, 540, 550; cavernosa, 
 579 ; centralis retinae, 551 ; ce- 
 rebelli, 555; cerebralis, 552, 
 555 ; cervicalis, 557 ; choroi- 
 dea, 552 ; ciliares, 551 ; circum- 
 flexae femoris, 582; humeri, 
 563 ; ilium, 581 ; clitoridea, 
 579 ; cochleae, see auditiva : cce- 
 calis, 572 ; caeliaca, 572 ; colica, 
 572 bis ; collaterals, 566 bis ; 
 communicans, 552; coronariae 
 cordis, 539 ; labiorum, 544 ; 
 ventriculi, 572; corporis cal- 
 losi, 552; cruralis, 580: cubi- 
 talis, 568 ; cystica, 572. 
 
 D. deferentialis, 577 ; dentalis, 
 548, 549; digitales, 569, 587; 
 dorsalis linguae, 543 : nasi, 551 ; 
 penis (clitoridis), 579; pollicis, 
 
 31 
 
474 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 567; scapulae, 557; duodena- 
 les, 572. 
 
 E. emulgentes, see renales: epi- 
 gastrica externa, 581 ; inferior 
 sen interna, 581 ; superficialis, 
 582 ; superior, 559 ; ethmoi- 
 dales, 551. 
 
 F. faciales, 543 ; f. profunda, 546 ; 
 f. transversa, 546 ; femoralis, 
 582; fibularis, 586 ; fossae Syl- 
 vii, 552; frontalis, 551. 
 
 G. gastro-duodenalis. -epiploicae, 
 572 bis ; glutaei, 578. 
 
 H. haemprrhoidal. extern, s. infer. 
 579 ; interna, 572 ; media, 577 ; 
 helicinae, 579 ; hepatica, 572 ; 
 hypogastrica, 576. 
 I. jejunales et ileas s. intestinales, 
 572 ; ilep-colica, 572 ; ileo-lum- 
 balis s. iliaca anterior, 578 ; ili- 
 aca commun., 575; externa, 
 581 ; interna, 576 ; posterior, 
 578 ; infra-costalis, 570 ; infra- 
 orbitalis, 548; infra see sub- 
 scapularis ; inguinales, 582 ; 
 innominata s. anonyma : inter- 
 costales, 558, 570 ; interosseae, 
 567, 568, 585, 587 bis; ischia- 
 dica, 579. 
 
 L. labiales, 544, 579, 582 ; lacry- 
 malis, 551 ; laryngeae, 543, 556 ; 
 lienalis, 572 ; lingualis, 543 ; 
 lumbales, 573. 
 
 M. mammaria externa, 558 ; in- 
 terna, 558 ; rnalleolares, 584, 
 586 ; masseterica, 547 ; mastoi- 
 dea, 545 ; maxillaris externa, 
 543 ; interna, 546 ; mediastinae, 
 570; meningeae antic., 551; 
 magna s. media, 547; parva, 
 547 ; posteriores, 545 bis, 554 ; 
 mentalis, 547 ; mesaraica infer., 
 572; super., 572; metatarsea, 
 585, 587; muscularesoculi, 551 ; 
 mylo-hyoidea, 547. 
 N. nasalis, 544, 549, 551 bis ; nu- 
 tritia femor., 582 ; tibiae, 586 ; 
 ulnae, 568. 
 O. obturatoria, 577; occipitalis, 
 545; oesophageae, 570; om 
 phalo-mesaraica, 572; ophthal- 
 mica, 551 ; ovarica, 577. 
 P. palatinae, 544 ; palpebrales 
 551 ; pancreaticae, 572 bis ; pe- 
 diaea, 585; penis, 579; perfo- 
 rantes, 582 ; pericardiacae s 
 mediastinae : phrenicae, 573; pe- 
 rinaea, 579; peronaea, 586 ; pha- 
 ryngea ascend., 545 ; suprema 
 
 a. vidiana: pinnales, 544 ; plan- 
 tares, 586; poplitaea, 583 ; prin- 
 ceps pollicis, 567 ; profunda 
 brachii, 566 ; femoris, 582; pe- 
 rinaei, 579 bis ; penis, 579 ; pte- 
 rygoideae, 547; pterygo-palat., 
 - 549 ; pubica s. pudenda, 577, 
 579 ; externa, 582 ; pulmonalis, 
 535 ; pylorica, 572. 
 R. radialis, 567 ; ranina, 543 ; re- 
 currens, 567, 568, 584 ; renalis, 
 573. 
 
 S. sacci iacrymal., 551 ; sacra la- 
 teral., 578; media, 574; scapu- 
 laris, 557 ; scrotales, 579, 582 ; 
 septi mobil., 544 ; narium, 549 ; 
 spermatica, 573, 581 ; spheno- 
 palatina, 549 ; spinales, 554 ; 
 spinosa, 547 ; splenica s. liena- 
 lis, stylo-mastoidea, 545 ; sub- 
 clavia, 553 ; sublingualis, 543 ; 
 submentalis, 544 ; subscapula- 
 ris, 563 ; supraorbitales, 551 ; 
 suprarenal., 573; suprascapu- 
 lar, 557 ; surales, 583. 
 T. tarseae, 551, 585, 587 ; tempo- 
 rales, 546 bis ; 547 ; thoraciae, 
 561, 562; thymicae, 558; thy- 
 reoideffl, 543, 556 ; tibialis, 584, 
 586 ; tracheales, 556 ; tonsilla- 
 1 ris,544; transversa cervic., 557; 
 faciei, 546 ; perinaei, 579 ; sca- 
 pulae, 557; tubaria, 577; tym- 
 panicae, 547, 549. 
 U. ulnaris, 568 ; umbilicalis, 577; 
 
 uterina, 577. 
 
 V. vaginalis, 577 ; venosa s. pul- 
 monalis : vertebralis, 554 ; ve- 
 sicales, 577 ; vidiana, 549. 
 Arthrodia, 45. 
 Arthrologia, 110. 
 
 Articulat. acromio-clavicular. 119; ca- 
 pitis, 112; carpi, 123 ; carpo-carpal., 
 125; carpo-metacarpea, 126; costo- 
 vertebral., 115 ; coxae, 129; cubito- 
 humeralis, cubiti, 121 ; digitorum 
 manus, 128; pedis, 132; genu, 130; 
 humeri, 120; maxillaris, 114; me- 
 tatarsi, 136; radio-cubital., 122; 
 sterno- clavicular., 118; -costal., 
 116; tali s. pedis, 132; tarsi, 133; 
 tibio - fibular, 131 ; tibio-tarsalis, 
 132; vertebrarum, 111. 
 Astragalus, 106. 
 Atlas, 77. 
 
 Atria cordis, 527, 528. 
 Auricula, 505 ; cordis, 527. 
 Auriculus, 506. 
 Auris, 505. 
 

 INDEX. 
 
 475 
 
 B. 
 
 Balanus, 482. 
 
 Barba s. crines. 
 
 Bilin, 10. 
 
 Brachia, 94. 
 
 Bronchi, 466. 
 
 Bronchia, 467. 
 
 Buccae, 428. 
 
 Bulbus aortae, 537; cavernos., 482; 
 cinereus, 630 ; fornicis, 618 ; oculi, 
 496; olfactor., 630; pili, 26; ven. 
 jugular., 592; urethra, 473. 
 
 Bursae mucosae s. synoviales, 148. 
 
 C. 
 
 C acumen, 622. 
 
 Calamus scriptorius, 618. 
 
 Calcaneus, 106. 
 
 Calx, 106. 
 
 Calyces renales, 471. 
 
 Camera oculi, 502. 
 
 Canales: alveolaris, 66; caroticus, 
 52 ; central, modioli, 514 ; cruralis, 
 365 ; Fallopiae, 52 ; Fontanae, 497 ; 
 incisivus, 59 ; infra-orbitalis, 59 ; 
 inguinalis, 259 ; intestinalis, 437 ; 
 lacrymalis, 64 ; palatin., 60; petiti, 
 504; pterygo-palatin., 48; sacral., 
 79 ; Schlemmii, 497 ; semicircu- 
 lares, 513 ; membranac., 515 ; spi- 
 nalis, 80; spiralis cochl., 514; sta- 
 pedii, 509; tympanicus, 52; vagi- 
 nalis,477; vertebralis,80; vidianus, 
 48; zygomaticus, 61. 
 
 Canaliculus mastoideus, 52. 
 
 Canaliculi lacrymales, 494. 
 
 Canthi oculi, 492. 
 
 Capilli s. crines. 
 
 Capsulap : adipose rents, 470 ; atra- 
 biliariae s. renes succenturiati ; Glis- 
 sonii, 445 ; lentis, 503 ; bulbioculi, 
 496 ; synoviales, 110, 148. 
 
 Caput, 46, 682; epididymid., 477; 
 gallinagin., 473. 
 
 Cardia, 436. 
 
 Caro linguae, 429 ; quadrata Sylvii, 
 392. 
 
 Carotis cerebralis, 550 ; facialis, 542. 
 
 Carpus, 99. 
 
 Cartilagines, 32, 85, 111 ; annularis 
 s. cricoidea, 462 ; arytaenoid., 462; 
 auris, 506 ; dentis, 433 ; falcatae s. 
 semilunares genu, 130 ; fibrosae, 32 ; 
 formativa s. ossium, 43; nasi, 518 ; 
 pyramidal, s. arytaenoid., 462 ; San- 
 torin., 462; scutiform. s. thyreoidea, 
 462; triangular, intermed., 122 bis ; 
 Wrisbergian., 462. 
 
 Carunculae: lacrymalis, 493; myrti- 
 formes, 487 ; sublingualis, 430. 
 
 Cauda equina, 627. 
 
 Cavitas abdominis, 724: cranii, 57, 
 708 ; glenoidalis, 52, 94 ; nasi, 69 ; 
 oris, 70, 687 ; pelvis, 93 ; thoracis, 
 87, 695 ; tympani, 509. 
 
 Cavum cranii, 57 ; dentis, 431 ; medi- 
 astini, 468 ; uteri, 486. 
 
 Cellulae, 13 ; ae'reae s. pulmonales, 
 467 ; ethmoidales, 49 ; lacrymales, 
 49*; mastoideae, 52 ; medullares, 
 42 ; nucleate, 13 ; palatinae, 49. 
 
 Centrum semicirculare, 620; semi- 
 ovale Vieussens, 620; tendineum, 
 266. 
 
 Cerebellum, 616. 
 
 Cerebrum, 615 ; abdominale, 680. 
 
 Cerumen, 507. 
 
 Cervix uteri, 486. 
 
 Chiasma nerv. optic., 618. 
 
 Choanae, 69. 
 
 Chorda?: longitudin. Lancisii, 619; 
 tendineae, 528; transversal, cubiti, 
 122 ; tympani, 639 ; vocales s. ligg. 
 vocalia, 463. 
 
 Chorion, 484. 
 
 Chylus, 34. 
 
 Cilia, 492 ; vibratoria, 20. 
 
 Circulatio sanguinis, 531. 
 
 Circulus arter. Willis., 555 : arter. et 
 venos. irid., 500. 
 
 Circumferentia articular., 98. 
 
 Cisterna chyli. 601. 
 
 Clavicula, 95. 
 
 Clitoris, 488. 
 
 Clivus, 48. 
 
 Cochlea, 514. 
 
 Coecum, 442. 
 
 Coles s. penis, 482. 
 
 Colla, 8. 
 
 Colliculi : u. optici, 501 ; seminalis, 
 473. 
 
 Collum vesicae urinariae, 472. 
 
 Colon, 443. 
 
 Columella, 514. 
 
 Columnae fornicis, 619 ; rugarum 
 recti, 444 ; vaginae, 487 ; vertebra- 
 lis, 74. 
 
 Commissurae : alba, 627 ; anterior, 
 620; cinerea, 627; labior. pudend., 
 488; cerehri magna, 619; mollis, 
 620 ; posterior, 620. 
 
 Conarium, 619. 
 
 Conchae : auris, 506 ; inferiores nasi, 
 64 ; mediae Morgagni, 49. 
 
 Condyli femoris, 102 ; humeri, 96 ; 
 maxill. inf., 66; occipital., 47; sca- 
 pulae, 94 ; tibiae, 103 ; ulnae, 97. 
 
476 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 torcul. Hero- 
 
 Confluens sinuum s. 
 
 phili, 625. 
 
 Conjunctiva, 492, 497, 498. 
 Conus medullaris, 627; vasculos. 
 
 Halleri, 477. 
 Cor, 527. 
 Corium, 39. 
 
 Cornea, 498 ; opaca, 497. 
 Cornicula Santorini, 462. 
 Cornua: ammonis, 620; Bertini, 48; 
 
 coccygea, 80 ; hyoid, majora et 
 
 min., 67; limacum, 494; sacralia, 
 
 79. 
 
 Corona ciliaris, 504 ; glandis, 482. 
 Corpora : bigemina, 619 ; callosum, 
 
 619 ; candicantia s. albicantia s. 
 
 mammillaria, 618 ; cavernos. penis, 
 
 482; urethrae, 473; ciliare, 499; 
 
 geniculata, 618, 620 ; Highmori, 
 
 477 ; luteum, 483 ; mamillaria, 614, 
 
 618; olivaria, 618; pyramidalia, 
 
 618 ; quadrigemina, 619 ; restifor- 
 
 mia, 618, 623 ; rhomboideum, 621 ; 
 
 striatum, 620 ; trigonum, 471 ; vi- 
 
 treum, 504. 
 Corpuscula triticea, 67 ; lienis, 451 ; 
 
 Pacinian.,.612. 
 Costa, 85. 
 Coxa, 89. 
 Cranium, 53. 
 Crines, 26. 
 Cristae : frontales, 50 ; galli, 49 ; ilei, 
 
 90; lacrymalis, 63; nasalis, 59, 62; 
 
 occipitales, 47; sphenoidalis, 48; 
 
 turbinalis, 60 ; pyramidalis, 512. 
 Cruor, 36. 
 Crura cerebelli, 618, 621; cerebri, 
 
 618, 620; diaphrag., 266; fornicis, 
 
 619 ; gland, pineal., 619 ; medull. 
 
 oblongat., 618, 621 ; uteri, 486. 
 Crus, 103. 
 Cryptae Lieberkiihnian., 441 
 
 ceae s. follicul. sebac., 39. 
 Cubitus s. ulna. 
 Culmen, 622. 
 Cunnus, 488. 
 Cupula, 514. 
 Cutis, 39. 
 Cystis fellea, 447. 
 Cytoblastema, 13. 
 Cytoblastus, 13. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dartos, 476. 
 Declive, 622. 
 Denies, 431. 
 Dentitio, 433. 
 
 Descensus testiculi, 477. 
 
 Detrusor urinae, 472. 
 
 Diaphragma, 266. 
 
 Diaphysis, 41. 
 
 Diarthrosis, 45. 
 
 Didymi, 477. 
 
 Digiti manus, 101 ; pedis, 108. 
 
 Diploe, 42. 
 
 Discus proligerus, 484. 
 
 Diverticulum Vateri, 439. 
 
 Dorsum s. columna vertebral., 74. 
 
 Ductus arter. Botall., 535 ; Bartholin., 
 
 430; biliferi, 445; choledochus, 
 
 449 ; cysticus, 448 ; deferens, 478 ; 
 
 ejaculatorius, 479 ; hepaticus, 446 ; 
 
 naso-lacrym., 494; lactiferi, 489; 
 
 pancreaticus s. Wirsungianus, 450 ; 
 
 Riviniani, 430 ; Stenonianus, 430 ; 
 
 thoracicus, 601 ; venos. Arantii, 445; 
 
 Whartonianus, 430. 
 Dura mater encephali, 624 ; medull. 
 
 spinal., 628. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eminentiae : arcuata, 52 ; capitata, 
 96 ; ileo-pectinea, 92 ; carpi, 99 ; 
 intermedia, 103 ; pyramidalis s. pa- 
 pillaris, 509 ; eminentiae teretes, 
 623. 
 
 Emissaria Santorini, 625. 
 
 Enarthrosis, 45. 
 
 Encephalon, 614. 
 
 Endocardium, 528. 
 
 Ephippium, 48. 
 
 Epidermis, 39. 
 
 Epididymis, 477. 
 
 Epigastrium, 696. 
 
 Epiglottis, 462. 
 
 Epiphysis s. ossa. 
 
 Epiploon, 457. 
 
 Epistropheus, 77. 
 
 Epithelium, 19. 
 
 Excayatio ischio-rectalis s. fossa peri- 
 naei: recto-uterina, 453; recto-ve- 
 sical, 453 ; vesico-uterina, 453. 
 
 Extremitates abdominales s. inferi- 
 ores, 102; thoracicae s. superiores, 
 94. 
 
 F. 
 
 Facies s. ossa faciei: auricular., 79, 
 
 90 ; lunata, 92. 
 
 Falx cerebelli, 624 ; cerebri, 624. 
 Fasciae, 146; abdominales, 267; ani 
 
 s. perineal., 283; antibrachii, 319 ; 
 
 brachii, 298 ; bucco-pharyngea, 181; 
 
INDEX. 
 
 477 
 
 bulbi s. capsula bulbi, 496 ; cervi- 
 calis, 210 ; clavicularis, 219 ; com- 
 munis superf., 146 ; cruralis, 379 ; 
 cubiti, 319; dentata, 620; femoris 
 s. lata, 361 ; iliaca s. lumbo-iliaca, 
 349 ; ilio-pubica, 349 ; lata, 361 ; 
 lumbo-dorsalis, 252 ; dorsalis ma- 
 ims, 334 ; nuchae, 252 ; palmaris s. 
 aponeuros. : parotideo-masseteric., 
 180 ; pedis, 396 ; pelvis, 284 ; peri- 
 naei, 281, 283; plantaris, 396 ; prae- 
 vertebral., 211; subscapularis, 291 ; 
 supra-spinata, 291 ; superficial^ 
 abdom., 267 ; pector., 219 ; tempo- 
 ralis, 179; transversal, abdom., 268. 
 
 Fasciculus unciformis, 623. 
 
 Fauces, 434. 
 
 Fel, 10. 
 
 Femur, 102. 
 
 Fenestra cochleae B. rotunda, 509 ; 
 ovalis s. vestib., 509. 
 
 Fibro-cartilagines s. cartill. fibross. 
 
 Fibula, 104. 
 
 Filamenta: terminal, medull. spin., 
 628. 
 
 Fimbria, 620; tubas Fallop., 485; 
 linguae, 429. 
 
 Fissura: Glaseri, 52; orbital, infer., 
 48; super., 48, 57; sphenoidal. s. 
 spheno-maxillar., 48. 
 
 Fistula sacra s. medulla spinal. 
 
 Flocculus, 621. 
 
 Focile majus s. ulna, minus s. radius. 
 
 Folium cacuminis, 622. 
 
 Folliculi dentium s. dentes, Graafiani, 
 484 ; mucosi, 40 ; pilorum, 26 ; se- 
 bacei, 39. 
 
 Fonticuli, 55. 
 
 Foramina: alveolar, infer., 66; pos- 
 ter., 59; centrale retinae, 501; cce- 
 cum, 49; c. linguae, 429; condy- 
 loidea, 47 ; cribrosa, 49 ; ethmoida- 
 lia, 49, 50; incisivum , 59 ; infraor- 
 bitale, 59 ; interruptum, 48 ; inter- 
 vertebralia, 75; jugulare, 47; lace- 
 rum anter. poster., 52, bis, 57 ; 
 magnum occipitale, 47; mastoid., 
 52 ; maxillare (poster.), 66 ; Mei- 
 bomii s. ccecum linguae, mentale, 
 66 ; Monroi, 620 ; obturatorium, 
 92 ; O3sophageum, 266; opticum, 48 
 bis ; or bit alia s. ethmoid., ovale, 48, 
 92 ; ov. cordis, 528 ; parietale, 51 ; 
 pterygo-spinosum, 48; quadrilate- 
 rum, 266 ; rotundum, 48 ; spheno- 
 palatin., 60 ; spinale, 75 ; spinosum, 
 48; stylomastoid., 52; supraorbi- 
 tale, 50; Thebesn, 528; vertebrale, 
 77; Winslowii, 452; zygomatic., 61. 
 
 Fornix, 619 ; cranii, 57 ; vaginae, 487. 
 
 Fossae : articulares patellae,. 105 ; 
 (bulbi v.) jugular., 47; cerebelli, 
 47; cerebrum, 47; condyloideae, 
 47 ; cochlea, 52 ; cranii, 57 ; cubiti 
 s. sigmoid. ; ductus venosi, 445 ; 
 gland, lacrymal., 50 ; humeri, 96 ; 
 hyalpidea, 504; iliaca, 93, 699 ; ilio- 
 pectinea, 365 ; infra - clavicular. , 
 703 ; infraspinata, 94 ; inguinalis, 
 453; innominata, 506; intercondy- 
 loideae, 102; lacrymal., 63; longi- 
 tudin. hepat., 445; malleoli, 104; 
 
 pro medulla obi., 47 ; Morgagni, 
 473; navicular., 473, 488; auris s. 
 scapha : ovalis, 528 ; parietalis, 51 ; 
 perinaei, 282 ; poplitaea, 102, 705 ; 
 pterygoidea, 48; pterygo-palatina, 
 72; pulmonales, 87 bis ; sigmoidea, 
 98; spheno-maxillar., 72; supra- 
 clavicular., 211 ; supraspinata, 94 ; 
 Sylvii, 615; temporales, 57; trans- 
 versa hepatis s. porta ; trochante- 
 rica, 102 ; trochlearis, 50 ; umbili- 
 calis, v. cavae : vesicae fell., 445 ; 
 vestibuli, super., infer., 52; zygo- 
 matica, 71, 690. 
 
 Fossula petrosa, 52. 
 
 Foveae : acetabuli, 92 ; axillaris, 702 ; 
 inguinales, 453 ; lacrymal., 50, 68 ; 
 maxillaris, 59 ; ovalis, 365. 
 
 Frenula: clitoridis, 488; labiorum, 
 428, 488 ; linguae, 429 ; Morgagni, 
 440 ; valvul. cerebell. anter., 622. 
 
 Funiculus spermaticus, 478 ; umbili- 
 calis s. art. and ven. umbilic. 
 
 G. 
 
 Galea aponeurotica, 150. 
 
 Ganglia, 611; Arnoldi, 637; auricu- 
 lare, 637 ; cardiacum, 672, 673, 674 ; 
 caroticum, 672; cerebri, 620; cer- 
 vicalia, 671, 673, 674; ciliare, 635; 
 coccygeum, 678 ; Casseri, 634 ; 
 geniculatum, 639 ; glotticum, 637 ; 
 incisivum, 636 ; intercaroticum, 
 672 ; jugularia : Mulleri, 641 ; n. 
 vagi, 643 ; linguale, 637 ; lumbalia, 
 676 ; maxillare, 637 ; Meckelii, 636 ; 
 naso - palatinum, 636; ophthalmi- 
 cum, 635; oticum, 637; petrosum, 
 636 ; rhinicum, 636 ; sacralia, 677 ; 
 semilunare, 680; sphenopalatinum, 
 636 ; spinalia, 649 ; temporale, 672; 
 thoracica, 675 ; thyreoideum, 673. 
 
 Genae, 428. 
 
 Genetalia muliebra, 483 ; virilia, 475 
 
478 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Genu corpor. callosi, 619 ; n. facial., 
 639. 
 
 Gingiva, 432. 
 
 Ginglymus, 45. 
 
 Glabella, 50. 
 
 Glandebalae, 26. 
 
 Glandulae, 37; Bartholinianae, 488; 
 Brunnerian, 438 ; buccales, 428 ; 
 ceruminos, 507; Cowperi, 479, 488 ; 
 Duverneianae, 488 ; epiglottica, 462, 
 464; Haversian, 110; labiales, 428 ; 
 lacrymales, 494 ; lactiferae s. mam- 
 mae ; lenticular, ventric., 436 ; Lie- 
 berkiihn., 438; Littrii, 473; Mei- 
 bomii, 493 ; mucosae, 37 ; molares, 
 428; odoriferae s. Tysonianae, 482; 
 palatine, 428; parotis, 430; Pey- 
 erian, 438 ; pinealis, 619 ; pituitaria, 
 618; praeputiales, 482; prostata, 
 480; solitaries intestinal., 438, 439; 
 salivales, 430; sublingualis, 430; 
 submaxillar, 430 ; suprarenales, 
 474; tartaricae, 37; thymus, 469; 
 thyreoidea, 465 ; tracheales, 466 ; 
 tubulosee, 37. 
 
 Glandulss lymphatics : aorticae, 603 ; 
 axillares, 605; brachiales, 605; 
 bronchiales, 605 ; cervicales, 605 ; 
 cceliacse, 604 ; cubitales, 605 ; duo- 
 denales, 604 ; faciales, 605 ; gas- 
 tro-epiploicae, 604 ; hepaticse, 604 : 
 hypogastricae, 603; iliacae extern., 
 603; inguinales, 603; intercostales, 
 605 ; Littrii, 473 ; lienales, 604 ; 
 lumbales, 603 ; mastoideae, 605 ; 
 maxillares internee s. submaxillar., 
 605; mediastinse anter. et post., 
 605 ; mesentericae, 604 ; mesoco- 
 licae, 604 ; occipitales, 605 ; pan- 
 creatic, 604; parotidae, 605; popli- 
 teae, 603; pulmonicae, 605; sacrales, 
 603 ; subauriculares, 605 ; sub- 
 maxill., 605 ; substernales, 605 ; 
 tracheales s. bronchiales ; tibialis 
 antic., 603; Vesalian, 605; zygo- 
 maticae, 605. 
 
 Glans clitorid., 488; penis, 482. 
 
 Glomeruli Malpighii, 470. 
 
 Glottis, 463. 
 
 Gubernaculum Hunteri, 477. 
 
 Gyri breves, 615 ; gyrus fornicatus, 
 615, 623. 
 
 H. 
 
 Habercula, 478. 
 Hallux, 108. 
 
 Hamulus lacrymal., 63 ; oss. hamati, 
 99 ; pterygoid, 48. 
 
 Harmonia, 45. 
 
 Helix, 506. 
 
 Hemisphaeria cerebri, 614 ; cerebelli, 
 
 616. 
 
 Hepar, 445. 
 Hiatus aorticus, 266 ; canal. Fallop., 
 
 52. 
 Hilus lienis, 451 ; ovarii, 483 ; pul- 
 
 mon., 467; renis, 470. 
 Hippocampus, 620. 
 Histologia, 1. 
 Humerus, 94. 
 
 Humor aqueus, 502 ; vitreus, 504. 
 Hymen, 487. 
 Hypogastrium, 699. 
 Hypophysis cerebri, 618. 
 
 I. 
 
 Jecur, 445. 
 
 Jejunum, 440. 
 
 Ileum, 440. 
 
 Impressiones digitatae, s. cranium. 
 
 Incisurae : ischiadica major, minor, 
 
 91 ; pterygoidea, 48 ; Santorini, 
 
 507; sigmoidea, 66 ; supraorbitalis, 
 
 50. 
 
 Incus, 510. 
 Index, 101. 
 
 Infundibulum, 471 ; inf. cerebri, 618. 
 Inscriptiones tendineae s. m. rectus 
 
 abdom. 
 Insula, 615. 
 
 Integumenta communia, 38, 39. 
 Intercilia, 491. 
 Interstitium jugulare, 692. 
 Intestinum amplum s. crassum, 441 ; 
 
 augustum s. tenue, 438. 
 Introitus vaginae, 487. 
 Intumescentia ganglioform. n. facial, 
 
 639. 
 
 Iris, 500. 
 
 Irritabilitas Halleri, 143. 
 Isthmus faucium, 428 ; urethrae, 473 ; 
 
 Vieussenii, 528. 
 Juga alveolaria, 59, 66; cerebralia, 
 
 51. 
 
 Jugulum, 692. 
 Julus, 428. 
 Junctura ossium, 45. 
 
 L. 
 
 Labia, 428 ; orificii uteri, 486 ; pu- 
 dendi majora, 488 ; minora, 488. 
 
 Labra: glenoidea s. cartil., 110; ace- 
 tabuli, 129 ; humeri, 120. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 479 
 
 Labyrinthus membranaceus, 515; os- 
 seus, 512; oss. ethmoid., 49. 
 
 Lacertus Weitbrechti, 112. 
 
 Lacinice plantares, 395; 1. s. fimbr. 
 tub. Fallop., 485. 
 
 Lacunae s. cryptae, 473. 
 
 Lacunar orbitae, 68. 
 
 Lacus lacrymalis, 494. 
 
 Lamella? ossium, 42. 
 
 Laminae: cribrosa cerebri, 618; fasc. 
 femoris, 365; oss. ethmoid., 49; 
 scleroticae, 497; papyracea, 49; spi- 
 ralis, 514; terminalis, 514; vitrea, 
 57. 
 
 Lanugo, 26. 
 
 Laqueus, 623. 
 
 Larynx, 461. 
 
 Lema, 493. 
 
 Lemniscus s. corp. ciliare cerebelli. 
 
 Lens crystallina, 503. 
 
 Lien, 451. 
 
 Lienculus, 451. 
 
 Ligamenta, 110; accessor, obliquum, 
 rectum Weitbrecht, 112; alaria 
 genu, 130; Maucharti, 112; api- 
 cum, 111 ; arcuatum, 117; arterio- 
 sum, 535; ary-epiglottica, 463 ; au- 
 riculas, 506 ; capsulare sacciforme, 
 122 bis; ciliare, 499; conoideum, 
 119; coronar. hepatis, 455; corus- 
 cantia, 116; crico-arytaenoid., 463; 
 -thyreoid., 463; -tracheal., 463; 
 crucial, atlantis, 113; -digitorum, 
 336; -genu, 130; tarsi, 381; del- 
 toideum, 132; denticulatum, 628; 
 duodeno-colicum, d.-renale s. peri- 
 toneum ; Epididymis, 477 ; Fallo- 
 piae, 256; flava, 111; fundiforme 
 tarsi, 381 ; gastro-colicum, gastro- 
 hepaticum, gastro-lienale s. perito- 
 naeurn ; Gimbernati, 257 ; glenoi- 
 deum, 120; glosso-epiglottica, 464 ; 
 glottidis, 463; hepatico-colicum, 
 -duodenale, -gastricum, -renale s. 
 peritonaeum, Hunteri s. Guberna- 
 cul. ; hyo-epiglotticum, 462; hyo- 
 thyreoidea, 463; ilio-lumbalia, 117; 
 ilio-pectineum s. fasc. iliaca ; ilio- 
 sacra, 117; inguinale s. fasc. trans- 
 vers. ; intercartilaginea s. cartil. ; 
 intervertebr., Ill ; interlobularia, 
 468; intertransversalia, 111; laci- 
 niata, 383 ; laryngis, 463 ; longitu- 
 dinale anter., Ill ; poster., Ill ; 
 mallei, 510 ; mucosa genu, 130 ; 
 nuchaB, 111; obturatorium, 117; 
 obt. atlant., 112; ossicul. auditus, 
 510; ovarii, 483; palpebralia, 492 ; 
 patellas, 130; phrenico - gastrica, 
 
 -lienale s. peritonasum; pelvis, 117; 
 perinaeale, 283; poplitaeum, 130; 
 Poupartii, 256; pubo - prostatica, 
 482; -vesicalia, 284, 472; pulmonis, 
 468; pyramidalia s. artic. carpi; 
 radiatum extern., 116; rhomboid, 
 carpi, 123; clavicute, 118, 119: 
 sacro-coccygea, 117; sacro-ischia- 
 dica, 117 ; serosa s. periton., serra- 
 tum, 628 ; spinoso- sacrum, 117 ; 
 stylo-hyoideum s. muse. ; stylo- 
 maxillare, 114; subcruentum, 122 
 bis ; subflaya, 111 ; suspens. dentis, 
 112; -penis, 482; -hepatis, 445; 
 -vesicffi, 453 ; triangularia, 455 ; 
 teres, 129, 445; trapezoideum, 119; 
 tuberoso-sacrum, 117; uteri lata, 
 486; -rotunda, 486; vaga, 117; 
 Valsalvae, 506 ; vesicalia, 472 ; vo- 
 calia, 463. 
 
 Limbus alveolaris s. process, alv., 66. 
 
 Lineae : alba, 261 ; arcuatae, 90 ; as- 
 pera, 102; intertrochanterica, 102; 
 semicircularis, 47, 50, 51, 57; ob- 
 liquae, 66, 462; transversae occi- 
 pitis, 47; palat., 60; turbinata, 59. 
 
 Lingua, 429. 
 
 Lingula, 622. 
 
 Liquor sanguinis et lymphae, 33. 
 
 Liquor Morgagni, 503. 
 
 Lobulus anonymus hepatis, 445 ; au- 
 riculas, 506 ; biventer s. cerebel- 
 lum ; caudatus s. quadratus, 445 ; 
 Spigelii s. hepar ; tener s. cere- 
 bellum. 
 
 Loculamenta, 442. 
 
 Lunula, 23. 
 
 Lympha, 34. 
 
 Lyra, 619. 
 
 M. 
 
 Maculae cribrosae, 512; lutea, 501; 
 germinativa, 484. 
 
 Malleolus extern., 104; intern., 103. 
 
 Malleus, 510. 
 
 Mammae, 489. 
 
 Mandibula, 66. 
 
 Manubrium mallei, 510; sterni, 84. 
 
 Manus, 99. 
 
 Margo ciliaris iridis. 500. 
 
 Massa explementi, 623. 
 
 Massae laterales, 77. 
 
 Matrix pili, 26 ; unguis, 23. 
 
 Maxilla inferior, 66 ; super., 59. 
 
 Meatus auditor, extern., 52, 507; in- 
 tern.. 52; narium, 519. 
 
 Mediastina, 468. 
 
480 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Meditullium album, 623. 
 
 Medulla oblongata, 618 ; ossium, 42 ; 
 spinalis, 627. 
 
 Membranae : adamantina, 431 ; cap- 
 sulo - pupillaris, 503 ; Descemetii, 
 498 ; fenestrae rotundae, 509 ; gra- 
 nulosa, 484 ; humor, aquei, 498 ; 
 hyaloidea, 504 ; interpssea cruris, 
 131 ; medullaris, 42 ; niciitans, 492 ; 
 obturatoria s. Ligg. ; oss. sacri pro- 
 pria, 117 ; pigmenti, 499 ; pituitaria, 
 519; pulposa palati, 428 ; pupillaris, 
 503; Ruyschiana, 499; Schneideri- 
 ana, 519; sterna propria, 116; su- 
 prachoroidea, 498 ; thyreohyoidea 
 s. lig. ; tympani, 508 ; secundaria, 
 509 ; vitellina s. chorion ; Wachen- 
 dorfiana, 503. 
 
 Membrum virile, 482. 
 
 Menisci, 114. 
 
 Meninx arachnoidea, 624 ; dura, 624 ; 
 pia, 624. 
 
 Mentum, 66. 
 
 Mesencephalon, 617. 
 
 Mesenteriolum appendicis, 442; tes- 
 ticuli s. mesorchium. 
 
 Mesenterium, 459. 
 
 Mesocoecum, 459. 
 
 Mesocolpn, 459 ; -transvers., 458. 
 
 Mesorchium, 477. 
 
 Mesorectum, 459. 
 
 Metacarpus, 100. 
 
 Metatarsus, 107. 
 
 Modiolus, 514. 
 
 Mons cerebelli, 622; Veneris, 482, 488. 
 
 Monticulus cerebelli, 622. 
 
 Mordices s. dentes. 
 
 Morsus diaboli, 485. 
 
 Mucro cordis, 527 ; sterni, 84. 
 
 Musculi, 141. 
 
 A. abdominales, 253, 254, 255, 
 262, 263 ; abducens, oculi, 495 ; 
 abductor digit, minimi. 326, 
 389 ; hallucis, 385 ; pollicis, 
 
 , 315, 322 ; accelerator urinae, 
 
 277; adducens oculi, 495; ad- 
 ductores femor., 357, 358, 359, 
 360 ; hallucis, 387 ; pollicis, 
 325 ; amatorius, 495 ; anconaei, 
 295, 296 ; aniscalptor s. aniter- 
 sor, 222; antagonistae, 145; an- 
 titragicus, 154, 506 ; ary-epi- 
 glotticus, arytaenoid., 464; at- 
 tollens auricul., 151 ; humeri, 
 285 ; oculi, 495 ; auriculares, 
 151 ; azygos uvulae, 200. 
 
 B. baseo-glossus, 194; bibitorius, 
 495 ; biceps brachii, 292 ; femo- 
 ris, 350 ; biventer cervic., 232 ; 
 
 maxillae, 188; brachialis intern., 
 293; extern., 295; buccinator, 
 163 ; bucco-pharyngeus, 196 ; 
 bulbp-cavernos., 277. 
 
 C. caninus, 166 ; capitis, 149 ; ce- 
 rato-glossus, 194; cerato-pha- 
 ryngeus, 196 ; cervical, de- 
 scend., 236 ; chondro-glossus- 
 pharyng., 194, 196; circumfl. 
 palati, 199; cpccygeus, 272; 
 complex, cervic., 233 ; com- 
 pressor narium, 159; constric- 
 tor cunni, 278 ; isthmifaucium, 
 201 ; pharyngis, 196 ; urethrae, 
 277 ; coraco-brachialis, 294 ; 
 -ceryicalis, 185 ; corrugator su- 
 perciliaris, 156 ; costo-ciavicu- 
 lar., 214; cremaster, 264 ; cri- 
 co-arytaenoid., -thyreoid., 464; 
 -pharyngeus, 196 ; crotaphytes, 
 175 ; cruralis, 355 ; cucullaris, 
 221 ; curvator coccygis, 273. 
 
 D. deltoideus, 285 ; depressor alas 
 nasi, 158 ; anguli oris, 169 ; 
 labii inferior., 171 ; septi mobil., 
 162 ; vesicae, 280 ; digastricus 
 maxill., 188; dilat ores narium, 
 160 ; conchae, 506. 
 
 E. ejaculator. semin. s. accelera- 
 tor ; epicranius, 149 ; erector 
 clitorid., penis, 276; extensores 
 carpi, 309_, 310 ; coccygis, 274 ; 
 cruris, 355 ; -digitorum com- 
 mun.312, 368; digit, min., 313 ; 
 dorsi, 237; halluc., 367, 378, 
 384 ; indicis, 318 ; pollicis, 316, 
 317. 
 
 F. fascialis, 353 ; flexores carpi, 
 301, 303; digitor. commun., 
 304, 305, 377, 391 ; digit, min., 
 327, 390 ; femoris, 337 ; fibula- 
 ris, 350 ; hallucis, 386 ; pollicis, 
 306, 324; radii, 292; frontalis, 
 150. 
 
 G. gastrocnemius, 372; gemelli, 
 345, 346; genio-glossus, 195; 
 -hyoideus, 191 ; -pharyngeus, 
 196; glosso-palatin., 201 ; glu- 
 taei, 340, 341, 342 ; gracilis, 356. 
 
 H. helicis, 506 ; hippicus, 366 ; 
 Hprneri, 494; hyo-glossus, 194. 
 
 I. iliacus, 338 ; ilio-costalis, 238 ; 
 incisivi, 158, 172 ; indicator, 
 318; infracostales, 217; in- 
 fraspinat., 287; intercostales, 
 216; interossei, 331, 332, 394, 
 395 ; interspinales, 249 ; inter- 
 transversales, 250 ; ischio-ca- 
 vernos., 271 ; -coccyg., 272. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 481 
 
 L. latissim. colli, 182 ; dorsi, 222 ; 
 laxator tympani, 510; levator 
 anguli oris, 166 ; -scapulae, 226 ; 
 -ani, 275 ; costarum, 243 ; -labii 
 super., 164, 165; -menti, 172 ; 
 -palpebrae, 157; -palati, 198; 
 penis, 276; -pharyng., 197; 
 linguales, 192 ; longissim. dor- 
 si, 237 ; longus colli, 203 ; lum- 
 bricales, 330, 393. 
 
 M. mallei, 510; mansores, 174; 
 masseter, 174; multifidus, 248; 
 mylo-hyoideus, 190 ; -pharyn- 
 geus, 196. 
 
 N. nauticus, 376 ; nutator capitis, 
 183. 
 
 O. obliqui abdomin., 253, 254; 
 capitis, 246, 247; oculi, 495; 
 obturatores, 344, 345 ; occipit., 
 149 ; omohyoideus, 185 ; orbi- 
 cularis oris, 162 ; palpebrar., 
 155 ; opponens digit, min., 328 ; 
 pollic., 323. 
 
 P. palato-staphylin.,200; palma- 
 ris brevis, 329 ; longus, 302 ; 
 papillaris, 528 ; patheticus, 495 ; 
 pectinaeus, 357 ; pectorales, 
 212, 213; pediaeus, 384; peri- 
 naeus, 271 ; peristaphylini, 198; 
 peronei, 369, 370, 371 ; pharyn- 
 gei, 196 ; pharyngo-palatinus, 
 202 ; pyriformis, 343 ; plantaris, 
 373; platysmamyoid., 182; po- 
 plitaeus, 375 ; procerus, 161 ; 
 pronator quad., 307; teres, 
 300 ; protractor s. sphincter ani ; 
 protrahens auricul., 152; psoas 
 major, minor, 337, 338 ; ptery- 
 goidei, 176, 177; pterygo-pha- 
 ryngeus. 196 ; pubo-caverno- 
 sus, 277 ; pyramidalis, 161, 263. 
 
 Q. quadratus femor., 347; lum- 
 
 borum, 265; menti, 171. 
 R. radialis intern., 301, 309 ; bre- 
 vis, 310; longus, 309; rectus 
 abdominis, 262 ; recti capitis, 
 204, 205, 206, 244, 245 : -femo- 
 ris, 355 ; -internus s. gracilis ; 
 -pculi, 495 ; reflector epiglot- 
 tid., 464 ; rhomboidei, 227, 228; 
 retrahentes auriculas, 153; ri- 
 sorius, 170 ; rotatores dorsi, 
 251. 
 
 S. sacci lacrymalis, 494 ; sacro- 
 coccygei, 273, 274 ; sacro-lum- 
 balis s. ilio-costalis ; sartorius, 
 354 ; scaleni, 207, 208, 209 ; se- 
 mimembranos., 352 ; semi-spi- 
 nalis cervicis, 242 ; -dorsi, 241 ; 
 
 semitendinosus. 351 ; serrati 
 antici, 215; postici, 229, 230; 
 soleus, 374 ; spheno-salpingo- 
 staphylin., 199 ; sphincter ani, 
 270; -oris, 162; -palpebrarurn, 
 155 ; spinalis cervicis, 240 ; 
 dorsi, 239 ; splenius capitis, 
 224 ; colli, 225 ; sternocleido- 
 mastoideus, 183 ; sternohyoi- 
 deus, 184; -thyreoideus, 186; 
 stylo-glossus, 193 ; stylo-hy- 
 oid., 189 ; stylo - pharyngeus, 
 197 ; subanconeus, 297 ; sub- 
 clavius, 214 ; subcpstales s. in- 
 fracost. ; subcruralis, 355 ; sub- 
 scapularis, 290 ; superbus, 495 ; 
 supinatores, 308, 311 ; supracos- 
 tales s. levatores cost. ; supra- 
 spinatus, 286. 
 
 T. temporalis, 175 ; tensor fasciae 
 lat., 353; palati, 199; teretes, 
 288, 289; tibialis antic., 366; 
 postic., 376; thyreo-arytaenoid., 
 464; -hyoideus, 187; thyreoi- 
 deus, 187; thyreo-pharyngeus, 
 196; trachelo-mastoid., 234; 
 tragicus, 506; transversal, cer- 
 vicis, 235; menti, 173; pedis, 
 388; transversus abdomin., 255; 
 auriculae, 506 ; mandibulae, 190; 
 nasi, 159 ; perinaei, 271 ; pros- 
 tatae, 480 ; trapezius, 221 ; tri- 
 angularis menti, 169 ; sterni, 
 218; triceps brachii, 295 ; femo- 
 ris, 358 ; surae, 372. 
 U. ulnaris extern., 314; intern., 
 
 303. 
 
 V. vasti, 355 ; vesicales, 280. 
 Z. zygomatici, 167, 168. 
 
 Mutatio dentium, 433. 
 
 Myologia, 141. 
 
 Mystax, 428. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nares, 517. 
 
 Nasus, 516. 
 
 Nates s. clunes. 
 
 Nervi, 611. 
 
 A. abducens, 638 ; accessories 
 Willisii, 647; acusticus s. audi- 
 torius, 640; alveolar, anter., 
 636; infer., 637; poster., 636; 
 super., 636; auricularis ante- 
 rior, 637; magnus, 653; n.vagi, 
 643 ; poster., 639 ; superior, 
 653 ; auriculo-temporalis, 637 ; 
 axillaris, 660. 
 
482 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 B. brachiales, 658 ; buccales, 639 ; 
 buccinatorius, 637, 
 
 C. cardiac! sympathici, 672, 673, 
 674 ; vagi, 644, 645 ; carotico- 
 tympanici, 671 ; caroticus, 671 ; 
 cerebrales, 629 ; cervicales, 650; 
 ciliares, 635 ; circumflexus hu- 
 meri, 660 ; coccygei, 668 ; coch- 
 leae, 515, 640 ; communicans 
 faciei, 639; fibul., 667; tibiae, 
 667 ; communicantes faciales, 
 639 ; crotaphitico - buccinator, 
 637 ; cruralis, 665 ; cubitalis, 
 660; cutanei abdominis, 661; 
 antibrachii, 659; brachii, 659; 
 cruris, 667 ; dorsi pedis. 667 ; 
 femoris, 665, 667; glutasi, 667; 
 pectoris, 661. 
 
 D. dentales, 636, 637 ; diaphrag- 
 maticus, 654; digastricus, 639; 
 divisus, 634; dorsales, 661; 
 clitoridis penis, 667; -scapulae, 
 657. 
 
 E. ethmoidalis, 635. 
 
 F. facialis, 639; faciales, 639; 
 femoralis, 665 ; fibularis, 667 ; 
 
 ^frontales, 635. 
 
 G. genito-cruralis, 664 ; glosso- 
 pharyngeus, 641 ; glutaei, 667 ; 
 gustatorius, 637. 
 
 H. haemorrhoidales, 667 ; hypo- 
 glossus, 648. 
 
 I. ileo-hypogastricus, 664; ileo- 
 inguinalis, 664; indignatorius, 
 639 ; infra-occipitalis, 653 ; in- 
 fraorbitalis, 636 ; infrascapula- 
 ris, 657; infraspinatus, 657; in- 
 fratrochlearis, 635 ; inguinalis, 
 
 664 ; intercostales, 649, 661 ; 
 interossei, 660; ischiadicus, 667; 
 Jacobsonii, 641 ; jugularis, 671. 
 
 L. labiales, 636, 667; lacryrnalis, 
 635 ; laryngei, 644, 645 ; lin- 
 gualis, 637, 641; lumbales, 662; 
 lumbo-inguinales, 664. 
 
 M. mandibularis,637; marginalis, 
 639; massetericus, 637; masti- 
 catorii, 637; maxillaris supe- 
 rior, 636 ; maxillar. infer., 637; 
 meatus auditorius extern., 367; 
 , medianus, 660 ; mentalis, 637 ; 
 molles, 672; muscularis, 660, 
 
 665 ; musculo-cutaneus, 659 ; 
 mylohyoideus, 637. 
 
 N. nasales, 635, 636 bis ; naso- 
 ciliaris, 635 ; naso - palatinus, 
 Scarpae, 636. 
 
 O. obturatorius, 665; occipitales, 
 652, 653 ; oculo-motorius, 632 ; 
 
 cesophagei, 645 ; olfactorius, 
 630 ; ophthalmicus, 635 ; opti- 
 cus, 631. 
 
 P. palatini, 636 ; palpebrales, 636; 
 patheticus, 633 ; pectorales,657, 
 661 ; perforans Casserii, 659 ; 
 perinaei, 667; peronei, 667; pe- 
 trosi, 636, 641, 671 ; pharyngei, 
 
 644 ; phrenici, 654 ; plantares, 
 667; pneumogastricus, 642; pop- 
 litaei, 667 ; pterygoidei, 637 ; 
 pterygo-palatinus, 636 ; puden- 
 di, 667. 
 
 R. radialis, 660; recurrens, 636, 
 
 645 ; renales, 679 ; respirato- 
 rius, 657. 
 
 S. sacrales, 666; sapheni, 665, 
 667; scapularis, 657; scrotales, 
 667 ; septi narium, 636 ; sper- 
 maticus, 664, 667; sphenopa- 
 latinus, 636 ; spinales, 649 ; 
 splanchnici, 679 ; subclavius, 
 654 ; subcutanei : colli, 653 ; 
 clunium, 667 ; femoris, 667 ; 
 glutffiii, 667; malae, 636; max- 
 illae infer., 637; nasi, 636; peri- 
 naei, 667 ; suboccipitalis, 651 ; 
 subscapularis, 657 ; supracla- 
 viculares, 654 ; supraorbitalis, 
 635 ; suprascapularis, 657 ; su- 
 praspinatus, 657 ; supratroch- 
 learis, 635 ; sympathicus, 669. 
 T. temporales, 637 bis ; tentorii 
 cerebelli, 633; thoracici, 657, 
 661 ; tibiales, 667 ; tracheales, 
 645 ; trigeminus, 634 ; troch- 
 learus, 633 ; tympanicus, 637, 
 641. 
 
 U. ulnaris, 660. 
 V. vagus, 642 ; vestibuli, 515, 
 
 640; vidiani, 636, 671. 
 Z. zygomatici, 635, 639. 
 Neurilema, 29, 611. 
 Neurologia, 606. 
 Nodulus Arantii, 528 ; Malacarne, 
 
 622. 
 
 Nucleus caudatus, 623; cerebelli, 623; 
 dentis, 432 ; lenticularis, 623 ; len- 
 ds, 503 ; taeniasformis, 623. 
 Nymphae, 488. 
 
 O. 
 
 Occiput, 47. 
 
 Oculus, 490. 
 
 (Esophagus, 435. 
 
 Olecranon, 97. 
 
 Omentum majus, 457 ; minus, 457. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 483 
 
 Omoplata, 94. 
 
 Ora serrata, 504. 
 
 Orbiculus ciliaris, 499. 
 
 Orbita, 68. 
 
 Orchides, 477. 
 
 Organa : auditus, 505 ; digestionis, 
 427 ; genitalia, 475 ; gustus, 429 ; 
 lacrymalia, 494; olfactus, 516; res- 
 pirationis, 460; sensoria, 490; sudo- 
 ripara, 39; uropoetica, 470; visus, 
 490; vocis, 461. 
 
 Os, 428; tincae, 486. 
 
 Ossa, 41; antibrachii, 97; basilare, 
 47 ; brachii, 96 ; bregmatis, 51 ; 
 capitatum, 99: capitis, 46; coxae, 
 89 ; coccygis, 80 ; cranii, 46 ; cri- 
 briforme, 49; cruris, 103; cuboi- 
 deum, 106 ; cuneiformia, 106 ; cy- 
 lindrica, 41; ethmoideum, 49; fa- 
 ciei, 58; femoris, 102; frontale, 50; 
 hamatum, 99 ; humeri, 96 ; hyoi- 
 deum, 67; ilium, 90; innominata, 
 88 ; intermaxillare s. incisivum, 59 ; 
 ischii, 91 ; jugale, 61 ; lacrymale, 
 63 ; linguale, 67 ; lunatum, 99 ; ma- 
 lare, 61 ; manus, 99; maxillare, 59, 
 66; multangulum majus, 99; mi- 
 nus, 99 ; nasalia, 62 ; naviculare. 
 99, 106 ; occipitis, 47 ; palatina, 60 ; 
 parietalia, 51; pectoris, 84; pedis, 
 106; petrosum, 52 ; pisifbrme, 99 ; 
 pubis, 92; pyramidale, 99; sacrum, 
 79 ; scaphoideum, 99, 106 ; sesa- 
 moidea, 101, 108; sphenoidea, 48; 
 temporum, 52; trapezoides, 99; tri- 
 quetrum, 99; turbinata, 64; unci- 
 forme s. hamatum ; unguis, 63 ; zy- 
 gomatica, 61. 
 
 Ossicula auditus, 510; Bertini, 48; 
 episternalia, 84; lenticulare, Sylvii, 
 510; Wormiana, 47. 
 
 Osteogenesis, 43. 
 
 Osteologia, 41. 
 
 Otoconia s. otolithi, 515. 
 
 Ovaria, 483. 
 
 Ovula Nabothi, 486; Graafiana s. 
 vesicul. 
 
 Ovulum, 484. 
 
 P. 
 
 Palatum durum, 428 ; mobile, 428. 
 
 Falpebrae, 492. 
 
 Pancreas, 450. 
 
 Panniculus adiposus, 30. 
 
 Papillae calicinae, capitatae, clavatae, 
 conicae, 429 ; corii, 39 ; filiformes, 
 fungiformes, 429 ; foliata, 429 ; len- 
 
 ticulares, 429 ; linguae, 429 ; mam- 
 mas, 489; renalis, 470; truncatae, 
 vallatae, 429. 
 
 Pappus, 428. 
 
 Parastata, 477. 
 
 Parotis, 430. 
 j Patella, 105. 
 : Pecten, 92. 
 ! Pectus, 83. 
 
 Pedunculi cerebri, 623. 
 
 Pelvis, 88, 93; renalis, 471. 
 
 Penis, 482. 
 
 Pericardium, 530. 
 
 Perichondrium, 29, 32. 
 
 Pericranium, 57. 
 
 Periglottis, 429. 
 
 Perimysium, 142. 
 
 Perinaeum, 701. 
 
 Periorbita, 68. 
 
 Periosteum, 29, 42. 
 
 Peritoneum, 452. 
 
 Perone s. fibula. 
 
 Pes, 106 ; anserinus, 351 ; hippocampi 
 major, 620 ; minor, 620. 
 
 Phalanges, 101, 108. 
 
 Pharynx, 434. 
 
 Philtrum, 428. 
 
 Pia mater, 29, 626, 628. 
 
 Pigmentum nigrum s. acinosum, 24. 
 
 Pili, 26. 
 
 Pinguedines, 12. 
 
 Pinnaj nasi, 517. 
 
 Placenta lymphae et sanguinis, 35, 36. 
 
 Planum semicirculare, 51. 
 
 Pleura, 468. 
 
 Plexus : anserinus s. nerv. facial. ; 
 lymphatici s. vasa lymphat., 601 ; 
 venosus pampiniform., 596 ; spi- 
 nales, 600. 
 
 Plicae conniventes Kerkring., 438 ; 
 cubiti, 704; inguinalis, 699 bis; 
 palmatae, 486 ; pubo - umbilicales, 
 453 ; recto-uterin. s. periton. ; semi- 
 lunaris conjunctiv., 492 ; Douglas, s. 
 periton.; urachi, 453; uretericae, 
 472; vesico-uterin. s. periton. 
 
 Pollex, 101. 
 
 Pomum Adami, 462. 
 
 Pons Sylvii, 619 ; Varolii, 618. 
 
 Porta hepatis, 445. 
 
 Portio dura, 639 ; mollis n. vii., 640; 
 intermed. Wrisberg. s. nerv. faci- 
 alis, 639. 
 
 Porus acusticus s. meatus auditor. 
 
 Praeputium clitorid., 488 ; penis, 482. 
 
 Processus : alveolaris, 59; anconaeus, 
 97; anonymus, 47; ciliares, 499; 
 clinoidei, 48, 57 ; cochlearis, 509 ; 
 condyloid., 47, 66 ; coracoideus, 94 ; 
 
484 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 coronoideus maxill.,66; ulnae, 97; 
 cubitalis s. ancon., 97; ensiformis, 
 48, 84 ; ethmoidalis, 65 ; folianus, 
 510; falciform, major et minor, 624; 
 fascia? latae, 365 ; frontalis maxill. 
 sup., 59 ; oss. zygomatic., 61 ; geni, 
 66; incudis, 510; jugularis, 47; lac- 
 rymalis, 64 ; mallei, 510 ; riiammil- 
 laris, s. mastoideus, 52; maxillar., 
 64 ; nasalis, 59 ; obliqui, 75 ; odon- 
 toideus, 77 ; orbitalis, 60 ; oss. zy- 
 gomat., 59 ; palatinus, 59 ; pterygoi- 
 deus, 48 ; pyramidalis, 60 ; sphenoi- 
 dal., 60; spinosus, 48, 75, 76 ; sty- 
 loidei, 52, 97, 98 ; temporalis, 61 ; 
 transversi, 75, 76 ; uncinatus, 49, 
 99 ; vermiformis, 442 ; xyphoides, 
 84 ; zygomatici, 50, 52. 
 
 Prolabia, 428. 
 
 Promontorium, 79, 509. 
 
 Pronatores, 145. 
 
 Prostata, 480. 
 
 Protuberantia annularis, 616, 618 ; 
 occipitalis, 47. 
 
 Psalterium, 619. 
 
 Ptyalin, 7. 
 
 Pubes, 26, 476, 488. 
 
 Pudendum, 488. 
 
 Pulmones, 467. 
 
 Pulpa dentis, lienis, pili, testis (which 
 see). 
 
 Punctae lacrymalia, 494. 
 
 Pupilla, 500. 
 
 Pylorus, 436. 
 
 Pyramides Ferreinii, 470 ; Malpighi, 
 470. 
 
 Pyramis vermis, 622. 
 
 R. 
 
 Radiatio medullaris, 623. 
 
 Radius, 98. 
 
 Radix pulmonis, 467. 
 
 Ramus maxill. infer., 66 ; Jacobsonii, 
 
 641. 
 Raphe corp. callos. ; pharyng. ; peri- 
 
 nse\ et scrotii (which see). 
 Receptaculum chyli seu Pecqueti, 
 
 601. 
 Recessus hemielliptic., hemispheric., 
 
 512 ; vesic. urinar. (see these). 
 Rectum, 444. 
 Regio analis, 701 ; costalis. 694 ; epi- 
 
 gastrica, 696 ; hypogastrica, 699 ; 
 
 inguinalis, 699 bis ; laryngea, 692 ; 
 
 lumbalis, 698 ; malaris, 687 ; mam- 
 
 millares, 694 ; mastoidea, 685 ; me- 
 
 sogastrica, 697 ; nasalis, 686 ; occi- 
 
 pito-frontalis, 682; orbital., 689; 
 parotid., 691 ; perinaai, 701; sternal., 
 694 ; sterno-mast., 693 ; supracla- 
 vicul., 693; suprahyoid., 692; thy- 
 reoid., 692; temporal., 683; ton- 
 sillar., 687; umbilical., 697; uro- 
 genitalis, 701. 
 
 Ren, renulus, 470 ; succenturiat., 
 474. 
 
 Rete articulare cubiti, 568 ; carpeum 
 dorsalis, 569 ; genu, 583 ; malleo- 
 lare, 586; Malpighii s. epidermis; 
 mirabile, 522; vasculos. Haller., 
 477. 
 
 Retina, 501. 
 
 Retinaculum tendin., 146. 
 
 Rigor mortis, 143. 
 
 Rima glottidis, 463 ; valvas, 488. 
 
 Rostrum lamin. spiral., 514 ; sphe- 
 noidal., 48. 
 
 Rotatio, 45. 
 
 Rotatores, 145. 
 
 Rotula s. patella, 105. 
 
 Ruga? transvers., 429 ; longitudinal., 
 485. 
 
 S. 
 
 S. romanum, 443. 
 
 Saccarum lactis, 12. 
 
 Sacculus oblongus, rotundus, 515. 
 
 Saccus epiploicus, 457 ; lacrymal., 
 494. 
 
 Saliva, 7. 
 
 Sanguis, 36. 
 
 Scalae : tympani, vestibuli, 514. 
 
 Scapha, 506. 
 
 Scapula, 94. 
 
 Scissura longitudinal, cerebri, 615, 
 709. 
 
 Sclerotica, 497. 
 
 Scrobiculus cordis, 696. 
 
 Scrotum, 476. 
 
 Scyphus, 514. 
 
 Sebum cutan., 39. 
 
 Sella equina s. turcica, 48, 57. 
 
 Semicanalis tensor, tyrnp., 509. 
 
 Septum atriorum, 527 ; cordis, 527 ; 
 crurale, 364; narium, 518; pellu- 
 cidum, 619; penis, 482; scroti, 476; 
 ventriculorum, 528. 
 
 Serum, 33, 35, 36. 
 
 Sinus, 489 ; basilaris, 625 ; cavernosus, 
 624, 625 ; circularis iridis, 497 ; Rid- 
 leyi, 625 ; durae matris, 625 ; eth- 
 moidales, 49 ; frontales, 50; jugulis, 
 61 ; lateralis, 625 ; longitudinales, 
 624, 625 ; mastoidei, 52 ; maxillaris, 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 485 
 
 59; occipitales, 624, 625; ophthal- 
 micus, 625 ; perpendicular., 625 ; 
 petrosi, 625 ; pterygoideus, 48 ; 
 quartus s. rectus, 625 ; sphenoi- 
 dales, 48 ; tarsi, 106 ; transversus, 
 624, 625 ; ven. portae, 445 ; venos. 
 retinae, 501 ; vesicalis, 472. 
 
 Situs viscerum, 708. 
 
 Smegma praeputii, 482. 
 
 Socii, 145. 
 
 Spatium intercostale, 694. 
 
 Speculum Helmpntii, 266. 
 
 Spinae : angularis, 48; basilaris, 47; 
 ilii, 90 ; ischii, 91 ; mentales, 66 ; 
 nasales, 50, 59, 60; occipitalis, 47; 
 pharyngea, 47 ; pubis, 92 ; scapulae, 
 94 ; tibiae, 103 ; trochlearis, 50 ; tu- 
 bercul. maj. et minor., 96; verte- 
 brarum, 74. 
 
 Splanchnologia, 426. 
 
 Splen s. lien. 
 
 Splenium corpor. callos., 619. 
 
 Stapes, 510. 
 
 Sternum, 84. 
 
 Striae : alba, 196 ; corneae, 620 ; lon- 
 
 fitudinal., 619 ; transvers. Willis., 
 19. 
 
 Subiculum coma Ammon., 620. 
 Substantia alba, 609, 613 ; cinerea, 
 
 609; ossea, 431; ferruginea, 623; 
 
 periorata, 615, 618 ; spongiosa, 41 ; 
 
 vitrea, 431. 
 Sulci : arteriosi, 50, 51 ; caroticus, 48, 
 
 57; circular, cord., 527. 
 Sulcus bicipit., 96 ; costalis, 85 ; lac- 
 
 Smalis, 59 ; lateralis, 51 ; longitu- 
 nalis cord., 527; cranii, 51, 57; 
 humeri, 96 ; infraorbital., 68 ; mento- 
 labialis, 428 ; mylo-hyoid., 66 ; naso- 
 labialis s. linea; pro n. olfactorio, 
 49; oss. cuboid., 106; palatinus, 
 60; pterygoid., 48; pterygo-palati- 
 nus, 59 ; transversus cordis, 527 ; 
 cranii, 47, 51, 52; tympani, 508. 
 
 Supercilia, 491 ; acetabuli, 92. 
 
 Superficies auricularis : lunata acetab. 
 s. facies ; -peronea, 103 ; tibialis, 
 104. 
 
 Supinatores s. musculi. 
 
 Sura s. musculi cruris. 
 
 Sustentaculum tali, 106. 
 
 Suturae, 45 ; cranii, 54 ; palatinae, 59, 
 60 ; transversae, 60. 
 
 Symphysis oss. pubis, 92; sacro-ilia- 
 ca, 92. 
 
 Synarthrosis, 45. 
 
 Synchondrosis, 45. 
 
 Syndesmologia, 110. 
 
 Synovia, 29. 
 
 Systema nervosum, 606. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tabula vitrea s. lamina, 57. 
 
 Taenia, 620 ; coli, 443 ; semicircularis, 
 619. 
 
 Talus, 106. 
 
 Tapetum, 499. 
 
 Tarsus, 106 ; palpebrar., 492. 
 
 Tegumentum commune, 38. 
 
 Tela elastica, 31. 
 
 Tendines, 146 ; Achillis, 374 ; exten- 
 sor cruris, 355. 
 
 Tentorium cerebelli, 624. 
 
 Testes, 477 ; cerebri, 619 ; muliebres, 
 483. 
 
 Testiculi, 477. 
 
 Thalamus opticus, 620. 
 
 Theca, 484. 
 
 Thenar, 321 bis. 
 
 Thorax, 83. 
 
 Tibia, 103. 
 
 Tonsilla, 428, 621. 
 
 Tonus, 143. 
 
 Torcular Herophili, 625. 
 
 Trabeculae carnese, 528; cavernos., 
 482. 
 
 Trabes cerebri seu corp. callos., 619. 
 
 Trachea, 466. 
 
 Tractus foraminulentus, 514 ; intes- 
 tinalis s. ductus ; olfactorius, 630 ; 
 opticus, 618, 631. 
 
 Tragi, 506. 
 
 Tragus, 506. 
 
 Trigonum cervicale infer., 693 ; su- 
 per., 692. 
 
 Tripus Haileri, 572. 
 
 Trochanter major and minor, 102. 
 
 Trochleae, 147, 335 ; femor., 102. 
 
 Trochoides, 45. 
 
 Truncus anonymus, 540 ; basilaris, 
 555 ; lymphaticus, 602 ; thyreo-cer- 
 vicalis, 556. 
 
 Tuba Eustachii, 511 ; Fallopiae, 485. 
 
 Tuber calcanei s. calx ; cinereum, 
 618; cochleae, 509; frontale, 50; 
 ischii, 91 ; maxillare, 59 ; oss. ilii, 
 90; naviculare, 106 ; parietale, 51 ; 
 valvulae, 622. 
 
 Tubercular articulare, 52; caudatum, 
 445 ; fibula?, 104 ; Loweri, 528 ; pa- 
 pillare, 445. 
 
 Tuberositas condyli fern., 102; meta- 
 tarsi V., 107; radii, 98. 
 
 Tubuli Belliniani, 470 ; seminiferi, 
 477; uriniferi, 470. 
 
 Tunicae : adnata oculi s. conjunctiva 
 
486 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 bulbi ; testis, 477 ; albuginea lienis 
 (which see) ; oculi s. sclerotica, ova- 
 rii, penis, renis, testis (see these) ; 
 dartos, 476 ; erythroides s. m. cre- 
 master ; Jacobi, 501 ; nervea s. pro- 
 pria, 29 ; vaginalis commun. lestis 
 et funic. sperm., 478 ; propria funi- 
 culi, 478 ; propria testis, 477 ; vaso- 
 rum, 523 ; vasculosa, 29. 
 
 Tutamina oculi, 491. 
 
 Tympanum, 509. 
 
 U. 
 
 Ulna, 97. 
 
 Umbilicus s. annul, umbilic., 261. 
 
 Umbo, 508. 
 
 Uncus, 623. 
 
 Ungues, 21. 
 
 Urachus, 453, 472. 
 
 Urea, 11. 
 
 Ureter, 471. 
 
 Urethra, 473. 
 
 Uterus, 486. 
 
 Utriculus ventricular., 515. 
 
 Uvea, 500. 
 
 Uvula, 428. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vagina, 487 ; cruris, 379 ; cubiti, 319 ; 
 mucosffi, 148; musculor., 146 ; mus- 
 cui. recti abdom., 269; nervorum, 
 608 ; synoviales, 148 ; tendinum, 
 146 ; vasor. crural, and canal, cru- 
 ral., 362, 365. 
 
 Vallecula, 52, 616, 622. 
 
 Valvulae : Bauhini, 438 ; cerebelli, 
 622; connive ntes Kerkring., 438; 
 Eustachii, 528; Fallopiae s. Bau- 
 hin. ; foram. oval., 528; ileo-coeca- 
 lis, 442 ; mitralis, 528 ; pylori, 436 ; 
 semilunares s. sigmoideae, 528 ; tri- 
 cuspidalis s. triglochines, 528 ; The- 
 besii, 528 ; Tulpii, 440 ; vasor. lym- 
 phatic., 526 ; venarum, 525. 
 
 Vas deferens, 478. 
 
 Vasa : absorbentia s. resorbentia ; 
 aerofera, 467 ; bronchialia, 467 ; 
 capillaria, 523 ; chylifera s. lact. ; 
 efferentia and inferentia, 526 ; ex- 
 halantia, 523 ; lactea, 604 ; lympha- 
 tica, 526, 601 ; pulmonalia, 467, 
 534 ; resorbentia, 601 ; sanguifera, 
 521 ; vasorum, 522 ; vorticosa, 499. 
 
 Vasculum aberrans Halleri, 477. 
 
 Velum medullare, 622 bis ; palatinum, 
 428. 
 
 VenaB, 525. 
 
 A. 'alares, 592 ; angularis, 592 ; 
 anonym, 591 ; arteriosae, 536 ; 
 auriculares, 592 ; axillaris, 594 ; 
 azygos, 595. 
 
 B. basilica, 594 ; brachiales, 594 ; 
 breves, 598. 
 
 C. cardiacae, 589 ; cava inferior, 
 596 ; superior, 590 ; cephalica 
 externa, 592 ; interna, 592 ; 
 pollicis radialis, 594 ; coronari 
 cordis, 589 ; cruralis, 597. 
 
 D. dorsalis penis, 597. 
 
 F. facialis anterior, 592 ; posterior, 
 592; profunda, 592; frontalis, 
 592. 
 
 G. Galeni, 589. 
 
 H. ruemorrhoidalis, 597 ; hemi- 
 azygos, 595 ; hepatic, 596 ; 
 hypogastrica, 597. 
 I. iliaca communis, 597 ; externa, 
 597; jugularis externa anter., 
 593 ; poster., 593 ; interna, 592. 
 L. Jabiales, 592 ; lienis, 598 ; lin- 
 gualis, 593 ; lumbalis ascend., 
 595. 
 
 M. magna cordis, 589 ; Galeni s. 
 brain, mammaria, 591 ; mastoi- 
 deae, 592 ; maxillaris interna, 
 592 ; mediana, 594 ; mesenteri- 
 cae, 598 ; minores cordis, 589. 
 O. occipital., 592; ophthalmic., 
 
 592 ; ovaricas, 596. 
 P. palatine, 592; parotideae, 592; 
 portarum, 598 ; pudenda, 596 ; 
 pulmonales, 536. 
 R. raninae, 593 ; renales, 595. 
 S. salvatella, 594 ; saphenaa, 597 ; 
 spermaceticae, 596 ; spinales, 
 600 ; splenica, 598 ; subclavia, 
 594 ; subscapular, 594. 
 T. temporales, 592 ; thyreoideae, 
 591, 592; testiculares, 596; 
 transversa colli and scapulae, 
 593. 
 
 U. umbilicalis, 599. 
 V. vertebralis, 591 ; vesicales, 
 
 597 ; vorticosae, 592. 
 Ventriculus, 436. 
 
 Ventriculi : cordis, 527 ; laterales, 
 620 ; Morgagni, 464 ; quartus, 620 ; 
 septi pellucidi, 623 ; tertius, 620. 
 Vermis, 622. 
 Vertebrae, 75. 
 Veru montanum, 473. 
 Vesica fellea, 447 ; urinaria, 472. 
 Vesiculae : germinativa, 483, 484 ; 
 Graafian., 484; pulmonales, 467; 
 seminales, 479. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 487 
 
 Vestibulum, 512 ; vaginae, 488. 
 
 Vibrissae, 518. 
 
 Villi, 438. 
 
 Virga, 482. 
 
 Viscera, 426. 
 
 Vomer, 65. 
 
 Vulva, 488. 
 
 Zona ciliaris, 504 ; iridis, 500 ; Val- 
 
 salves, 514, 515. 
 Zonula Zinnii, 504 ; ossea lam. spiral., 
 
 514. 
 
 
 THE END. 
 
*. 
 
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v 
 
 

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