Mfftn LfK HISTOR/ \3'^ aA\ THE HISTORY OF TYRE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS SALES AGENTS New York : LEMCKE & BUECHNER 30-32 West 27th Street London : HUMPHREY MILFORD Amen Corner, E.G. Toronto : HUMPHREY MILFORD 25 Richmond Street, W. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY ORIENTAL STUDIES Vol. X THE HISTOKY OF TYRE BY WALLACE B. FLEMING, Ph.D. JQeto faxk COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 1915 All rights reserved Copyright, 1915 By Columbia University Press Printed from type May, 1915 .v^^^^ A^ ,t\* Press or The New er* printing compamt Lancaster, Pa. NOTE The present volume in the Columbia University Oriental Series is a companion to the volumes previously printed dealing with two other of the principal cities of the eastern Mediterranean littoral. Tyre has had a long and eventful history; but to write that history is not always an easy task. The data have to be gathered fropa the most varied sources and a diligence exhibited which is not always apparent in the results achieved. Since the small study of J. Krall, Tyrus und Sidon (Vien, 1888), the present is the first attempt made to write the history of the place. Dr. Wallace B. Fleming has acquitted himself well of the task he assigned to himself, and has summed up carefully and with as much completeness as is possible the various phases through which the life of the city has passed. Richard Gottheil. March 1, 1915. 322611 TO PROFESSOR RICHARD J. H. GOTTHEIL, PH.D. Teacher and Friend in recognition OP The Wise and Patient Help To Which It Owes Much This Volume Is Gratefully Dedicated PREFACE The Phoenicians wrote the record of their civiHzation in achievements, not in books. This great people contributed almost nothing to the literature of the world, though they made possible all the literature of the western and near eastern nations. "The Phoenicians were masons, carpenters, ship- builders, weavers, dyers, glass-blowers, workers in metal, mer- chants, navigators, discoverers: if they were not actually the first to invent the alphabet,^ at least they so improved the art of writing that their system has been adopted and has been used by almost the whole civilized world. They surpassed all other peoples of antiquity in enterprise, perseverance and industry. They succeeded in showing that as much glory might be won and as enduring a power might be built up by arts and industries as by arms."^ Of the Phoenician cities, Tyre was the most important; it was so important that the Greeks gave its name to the whole region, calling it ^vpCa, from IIU Tsur, Tyre, and the Greek name is perpetuated to this day in our word Syria? It is remarkable that the Tyrians should have occupied so high a place in human history for twenty-five hundred years and yet have left the world no body of literature and no written 1 Herodotus (V, 58) says that the Phoenicians who came with Cadmus (DTp) of Tyre introduced in Greece many arts, among them alphabetical writing, and that the letters of the alphabet are justly called Phoenician. While it is generally admitted that the Phoenicians introduced letters, modern authorities seek to trace the elements and suggestions of their alphabet to earlier sources. For a full discussion of the subject see Pliny, Natural History, VII, 57; Rawlinson, Herodotus, Vol. II, p. 313; Kxall, Studien zur Geschichte des Alten Agypten, III, Tyrus und Sidon (Vien, 1888), pp. 15-21, 66. 2 Rawlinson, History of Phoenicia, p. 39. ' Herodotus (VII, 63) speaks of Syria as an abbreviation of Assyria, but in this he is misled by the similarity of the words. Vid. Rawlinson, Phoen., p. 40; LeStrange, Palestine under Moslems, p. 14. X PREFACE records of their own achievements and life.^ In constructing the history of the city of Tyre, materials must be gathered from widely separated sources, and the story pieced out from the references in the writings of the various peoples with whom they came in contact. The task is the more difficult because of the fact that these peoples were frequently unfriendly. Allusions to Tyre are to be found in the writings of the Egyp- tians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Persians, the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans of the ancient times, and in a few meager fragments of their own writing. In the medieval period to the close of the Crusades, the sources of information are the Latin, the Greek, the Arabic, the French and the Hebrew. The Crusaders left their principal records in Latin and French. From the close of the Crusades there is scarcely any story to tell, for Tyre lay in utter ruins. For this period we have the notes of pilgrims and travelers. The present petty town of Sur has arisen since the Mutowalis occupied the district in 1766 A.D. Its humble story presents little difficulty, but it is connected with the Tyre of history in location and name only. On the pages which follow will be found references to the works of many historians who have written of the Phoenicians, and particularly of the Tyrians; a few authors, however, require special mention. Among those who have done most work in this field should be mentioned first of all F. C. Movers, whose work, "Die Phonizier" (1842-1856) is an exhaustive review of all historical sources then available. John Kenrick published in 1855 his "History of Phoenicia," less voluminous than that of Movers, but making available for English readers all of the most important facts of Phoenician history then known. Ernst Renan's "Mission de Phenicie" (1864) was of great value for its information as to topography and art. George Rawlinson's "Phoenicia," published in London in 1889, was a rewriting of the history of Phoenicia in the light of archeological discoveries to that date. In the same year, in Berlin, Richard Pietschmann 1 Renan, Mission de Ph6nicie (IV, 1), says: " Je ne pense pas qu'aucune grande ville ay ant jou^ pendant des siScles un role de premier ordre ait laiss6 mcins de traces que Tyr." PREFACE XI published his "Geschichte der Phonizier," rendering a like service for the German readers. The most important publications concerning Tyre that have appeared are E. W. Hengstenberg's De Rebus Tyriorum (Berlin, 1832), J. Krall's Tyrus und Sidon (Vien, 1888), F. Jeremias's Tyrus bis zur Zeit Nebukadnezars (Leipzig, 1891), — all of which treat of the early period of the city's history, — and L. Lucas's Geschichte der Stadt Tyrus zur Zeit der Kreuzziige (Marburg, 1895). Recent discoveries have made necessary the rewriting of whole chapters of Phoenician history. Important researches have been carried on in Phoenicia. The Tel-el-Amarna letters have brought back to the world the lost record of an entire period of early Phoenician life, while recent excavations in Crete have resulted in the rediscovery of the old Minoan kingdom which now rises to dispute with Phoenicia the ancient sovereignty of the seas. The history of Phoenicia is the history of her several inde- pendent city-states. The Phoenicians did not seek political but commercial power. They cared little for strong political unity. Then, their land was unfavorable to such unity. It was about two hundred miles long and from two to fifteen miles wide. Headlands projecting to the sea cut this coastland into a number of small plains that had their names from their chief cities, as the Plain of Tyre, the Plain of Sidon, the Plain of Acco, etc. Thus the topography of the land was unfavorable to a strongly centralized government. There was no recognized central capital. The history of Tyre is the history of the chief of the Phoenician city-states. I am conscious of a certain unevenness in the work. Parts of it are broadly disposed, while others are meager in detail, and even bald in statement. The major cause for this is the curious abundance of materials in the sources for some periods, and their paucity in others. To future workers, to whom larger materials may come, must be left the pleasant task of filling out the story. Xll PREFACE I have not cumbered the pages with citations of secondary sources. These are mentioned only when I have felt it necessary to locate a quotation or to acknowledge an indebtedness. The notes are intended mainly to refer to the original sources, and represent not secondary, but first hand use of them all. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I PAGE Tyre to the Age of Hiram 1-15 Chapter II Tyre in the Age of Hiram 16-23 Chapter III From the Age of Hiram to the Encroachment of Assyria 24-26 Chapter IV Tyre's Resistance to Assyrian Encroachment 27-41 Chapter V Tyre's Resistance to Babylon 42-47 Chapter VI Tyre under the Persians 48-53 Chapter VII Tyre under the Greeks 54-64 Chapter VIII Tyre under the Seleucidae 65-69 Chapter IX Tyre under the Romans and Moslems 70-85 CfiAPTER X The Period of the Crusades 86-122 xiii xiv CONTENTS Chaptee XI From the Crusades to the Present Day 123-132 Chapter XII Colonies, Commerce and Industries 133-145 Chapter XIII ReHgion of the Tyrians 146-154 Chapter XIV Coins of Tyre 155-161 Index 162-165 THE HISTOEY OF TYEE CHAPTER I TYRE TO THE AGE OF HIRAM The Origin of the Phoenicians The account of the origin of the Phoenician nation given by Sanchoniathon^ impUes that the people were autochthonous. The genealogical table of Genesis X, in which tribes are personi- fied and an effort is made to trace their relation, makes Canaan son of Ham and Sidon son of Canaan, and the statement of the borders of Canaan shows that the author considered the Phoeni- cians native to Syria. But Sanchoniathon's account is purely mythical, and so is without weight, and the suggestion of Genesis X that the Canaanites were Hamitic cannot be maintained. It is clear from the language of the Phoenicians that they were Semites, and were related to the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Arabs, and especially to the Hebrews.^ It is true that the Phoenician language is not identical with the Hebrew; it has its own characteristics. "The definite article, so common in Hebrew, is rare in Phoenician. The quiescent letters, which so frequently accompany long vowels in Hebrew, are usually omitted in Phoenician. Feminine nouns do not have the * H ' termination."^ There are other differences between the two languages, and yet "the words most commonly in use, the particles, the pronouns, the forms of the verb, the principal inflections in Phoenician are identical, or nearly identical, with the pure Hebrew."^ 1 Vid. p. 7 below. 2 Vid. Noldeke, Die Semitischen Sprachen (Leipzig, 1899), p. 8. ' Rawlinson, Phoenicia, p. 24. Vid. Noldeke, Semitischen Sprachen, pp. 29-30. * Renan, Histoire des Langues S^mitiques, pp. 189, 190. Noldeke (Semit- ischen Sprachen, p. 19) says, "Hebraisch und Phonicisch sind bloss Dialekte 2 1 2 THE HISTORY OF TYRE Whence then came the Phoenicians? Herodotus says: "These Phoenicians, as they themselves say, anciently dwelt upon the Erythrian sea; and having crossed over thence, they inhabited the sea-coast of Syria. "^ This tradition was held by the Persians. "The learned among the Persians allege that the Phoenicians . . . coming from the sea called Erythria to this sea (Mediter- ranean) and having settled in the country which they now occupy, immediately undertook distant voyages; and carrying cargoes both of Egyptian and Assyrian goods, visited among other places, Argos,"^ Pliny is in agreement with this,^ and Justin gives a similar account in these words: "The Tyrian nation was founded by the Phoenicians, who, being disturbed by an earthquake, and leaving their native land, settled first of all on the Assyrian Lake and subsequently on the shore near the sea, founding there a city which they call Sidon from the abun- dance of fish; for the Phoenicians call a fish ' Sidon.' "^ If the Phoenicians had been autochthonous their marine activities might be accounted for by their location, their narrow strip of fertile coastland affording but meager opportunities apart from the sea, and their mountains affording the wood for shipbuilding. But since it is clear that they came by migration, their choice of settlement becomes inexplicable except on the supposition that they were a sea-loving people, a people schooled in nautical commerce, as the classical historians represented them.^ Renan's conclusion is as follows: "The greater number of modern critics admit it as demonstrated, that the primitive abode of the Phoenicians must be placed on the lower Euphrates, in the center of the great commercial and maritime establishments of einer Sprache." Vid. also C. Brockelmann, Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Semitischen Sprachen (Berlin, 1907), Vol. I, pp. 11-13; and P. Schroder, Die Phonizische Sprache (Halle, 1869), pp. 9, 10, 15-21, 29, 117, et al. 1 Herodotus, VII, 89. 2 Ibid., I, 1. » Plmy, Nat. Hist., IV, 21. * Justin, Historia, XVIII, 3, 2. What body of water Justin means by the "Assyrian Lake" is uncertain. On the meaning of the word Sidon see Eiselen, Sidon, pp. 10-15. * Vid. page 133 ff, below. TYRE, TO THE AGE OF HIRAM 3 the Persian Gulf."^ The occasion of the migration is wholly unknown. Justin's statement that it was the result of an earth- quake^ is extremely improbable. The movement was doubtless akin to other westward movements of Semitic peoples from Mesopotamia and the shores of the Persian Gulf, but its im- mediate cause was probably the commercial opportunities of the Mediterranean. The date of their migration to the shores of the Mediterranean must, for the present at least, be placed about 28(30 B.C., on the testimony of the priests of Melkart recorded by Herodotus.^ They stated that their city was founded twenty-three hundred years before his visit. The visit of Herodotus must have been made about 450 B.C. On the assumption that Tyre was founded soon after the coming of the Phoenicians to the Mediterranean coast, the date for the migra- tion may be set at approximately the figure given above. But the migration may not have occurred at once; it may have extended over a period of many years. Topography and Appearance On the shore of Syria from the headland of Ras al-Abiad the plain of Tyre stretches northward fifteen miles to the River Litany (Leontes). Opposite the middle of this plain, twenty miles south of Sidon, an island of rock stood out of the sea. It was on this island, in longitude 35° 15' east, and latitude 33° 15' north^ that Tyre was first founded.^ It took its name 1 Renan, Histoire des Langues Semitiques, II, 2, page 183. Vid. also Eiselen, Sidon, page 28; Rawlinson, Phoenicia, pages 20-22; Pietschmann, Geschichte der Phonizier, pages 109-126; Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, pp. 63-64. 2 Vid. p. 2 above. ' Herodotus, II, 44. This date is extremely uncertain. * Conder and Kitchener, Survey of Western Palestine, Vol. I, Chart I. Rawlinson, Phoenicia, p. 41. Rand McNally and Company's Library Atlas of the World, (New York and Chicago, 1912), Vol. II, p. 80. 5 The relative ages of Island Tyre and Tyre-on-the-Mainland have been much disputed. Priority was accredited to Tyre-on-the-Mainland by Movers (Die Phonizier, Part II, Book I, pages 172, 173) ; and Rawlinson (Phoenicia, pp. 40, 41), and this conclusion would have to be credited if we could accept the answer of the Tyrians to Alexander at its face value (vid. p. 55 below) or if we 4 THE HISTORY OF TYRE Tyre (Greek Tu/jo?; Phoenician *11^; Arabic Sur; Assyrian and Babylonian Sur-ru; Hebrew ll^j or *1ii ; Egyptian Dara, or Tar, or Taru in the Amarna letters; early Latin Sarra) from the island, the Semitic Sur, meaning Rock. At a later time the new city, or an extension of the old city, was built upon the mainland. The city upon the mainland was designated as Old Tyre, or Palae- tyrus, by the Greeks. Beside the principal island lay a smaller one, on which, in the earliest historic period, stood a famous temple of Melkart.^ Hiram, contemporary of David and Solomon, joined the two islands, reconstructed and adorned the temples, and enlarged the space of his capital eastward by wresting a considerable area from the sea.^ In this way the island attained a circumference of twenty-two stadia, about two and a half miles.^ By means of piers, a harbor was made on the northern side of the island, and another on the southern side; the first was called the Sidonian harbor, the other the Egyptian. A canal through the city connected these.^ The outer walls, on the side toward the mainland, were one hundred and fifty feet high and were surmounted by battle- ments, according to the Greek historians of Alexander's siege. ^ The royal palace was in the southwestern part of the city. The conclude from the myth related by Sanchoniathon (vid. p. 7 below) that Tyre was founded before the art of ship-building wad known. However, Hengstenburg argued (De Rebus Tyriorum, pp. 1-29) that Island Tyre was the older; Renan (Mission de Phenicie, pp. 576, 577) and Pietschmann (Die Phon., pp. 68-70) come to the same conclusion. The Tyre of the Amarna letters and of the early Egyptian travelers was clearly the island city . The mainland town was then called Sazu (vid. p. 9 below). Maspero states the present position of scholars as follows: "Palaetyrus is now generally admitted to have been merely an outpost of Tyre, and is conjecturally placed by most scholars as near Ras aJ-Ain." (Vid. Struggles of the Nations, p. 186.) 1 It had been supposed that the smaller island lay to the north (Kenrick, Phoenicia, p. 347; Rawlinson, Phoenicia, p. 91), but excavations show that the smaller island which Hiram joined to the main island laid to the southwest of the larger island. (Vid. Benzinger, Baedeker's Palestine and Syria, 1912, p. 272.) 2 Vid. Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 2, 7; Against Apion, I, 17-18. 3 Vid. Strabo, XVI, 2, 3. * Vid. Pliny, V, 76. « Vid. Curtius, IV, 2. TYRE, TO THE AGE OF HIRAM 5 chief temple was probably near the center: the Grand Square (Evpvx^^po'i) was in Hiram's eastern addition.^ The city was closely built. Some of its buildings were many stories high.^ The natural slope of the ground showed the buildings tier on tier to one who viewed them from the mainland. The water supply for the city of Tyre came from the wonderful springs of Ras al-Ain, south of the city, whose great reservoirs are still to be seen. It was carried to Palaetyrus by an aqueduct and thence was taken to the island city in earliest times by boats.^ Alexander constructed a mole from the mainland to the island, and deposits of sand have widened this until now the ancient island is connected with the shore by a neck of land a quarter of a mile wide. The Egyptian harbor has so completely silted up that its location is a matter of question. The appearance of the island city called forth unbounded praise from many lovers of the picturesque. Ezekiel spoke of it as " of perfect beauty."* Strabo speaks of Tyre in the time of Augustus as follows: "The foundation of her colonies, both in Libya and Iberia, as far as the Columns, raises the glory of Tyre far higher (than that of Sidon). Each lays claim to the title ' Mother of the Phoenicians.' ... It is said that the houses at Tyre are built in more stories than at Rome; therefore, on account of the earthquakes which it has experienced, the town has had a narrow escape of being destroyed: it also received great damage at the siege of Alexander. But it surmounted all these misfortunes and repaired its losses partly by navigation, in which the Phoenicians in general have at all times surpassed other nations, and partly by their purple, for the Tyrian purple is acknowledged to be the best; the fishing (for this purpose) is carried on not far away. Tyre possessed everything necessary for dyeing. It is true that the work-shops of so many dyers 1 Vid. Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 2, 7; Against Apion, I, 17-18. 2 Vid. Strabo, Geography, XVI, 2-23. 3 Vid. p. 13 below. The aqueducts and conduits are spoken of by Menander as existing in the time of Shalmaneser. (Josephus: Antiq., IX, 14, 2.) A!, modern historians agree in attributing them to a very remote antiquityl (Vid. Kenrick, Phoen., p. 384; Renan, Mission de Ph^nicie, pp. 593, 594; Pietschmann, Phon., p. 70.) 4 Ezekiel, XXVII, 3. 6 THE HISTORY OF TYRE make residence in the city incommodious, but it is to the skill of her work- men in this branch of her industry that the city owes her wealth. . . . She obtained a confirmation of her liberty from the Romans at the price of light conditions. . . . The maritime power of the Tyrians is attested by the number and the grandeur of their colonies."^ Pliny, writing about 75 A.D., says: "The Tyre so famous in ancient times for its offspring, the cities to which it gave birth, Leptis, Utica, and Carthage — Gades also which she founded beyond the limits of the world. At the present day all her fame is confined to the production of the murex and the purple. Its circumference, including Palaetyrus, is nineteen miles. "^ Jerome (340-420 A.D.) in his commentaries on Ezekiel, speaks of the city in his day as "nobilissima et pulcherrima." About the end of the fourth century, or the beginning of the fifth, Nonnus wrote: "And Dionysius rejoiced when he beheld the city which Neptune had bounded with the humid girdle of the sea. Her form is like the crescent moon. And he beheld what seemed a double wonder, for Tyre lies in the sea, being bounded by the waves, yet belongs to the land. She is Uke a maiden floating motionless, half hidden in the waters. . . . "Never have I seen such beauty, for the lofty trees murmur beside the waves. The near-by wood nymph listens to the ocean nymph speaking in the sea, and the mild mid-day breeze breathing from Lebanon on the Tyrian waves, and on the maritime fields, with the same breath that ripens the fruits, fills the seaman's sails, at once cooUng the brow of the husband- man and filling the mariner's sails. . . . "0 City, famous throughout the world, image of the earth, figure of heaven, thou holdest the triangular sword-belt of thy fellow the sea."* The Origin and Founding of Tyre Nothing is known as to the circumstances of the founding of Tyre.* According to Tyrian myths, theirs was the most vener- 1 Strabo, XVI, 2-23. ^ Pliny, Natural History, V, 17. ' Nonnus, Dionysiaca, XL, 311 ff. * For a full discussion of the various mythological accounts of the city vid. Movers, Die Phonizier, Vol. I, p. 118 ff. TYRE, TO THE AGE OF HIRAM 7 able city in the world. After creation came a race of demi-gods who discovered that fire could be produced by rubbing pieces of wood together, and gave this boon to man. Then came giants whose names were conferred upon the mountains which they occupied, and from them Cassius, Lebanus, Antilebanus and Brathu received their names.^ After these were born Shamen- rum or Hypsuranius, and Usoos the hunter. Shamenrum dwelled on the coast of the future town of Tyre. He invented huts of reeds, rushes and papyrus. A conflict arose between the two brothers. A violent storm caused the trees to rub against each other until they took fire and the forests of the neighborhood were consumed. Usoos, having taken a tree and broken off its boughs, was the first to venture on the sea. Arriv- ing at one of the islands he dedicated two pillars, one to fire and the other to wind, pouring out blood of beasts that he had taken in hunting, and in after years men continued to worship at the pillars. It was thus that the island city of Tyre was founded.^ According to another legend, the island was not originally fixed, but rose and fell with the waves. Between the two peaks that looked down upon the island was the olive tree of Astarte sheltered by a curtain of flame. An eagle thereon watched over a serpent coiled around the trunk. The whole island would cease to float as soon as some one succeeded in sacrificing the bird to the gods. Usoos or Herakles, destroyer of monsters, taught the people how to make boats and manage them. He then sailed to the island. The bird offered itself voluntarily for sacrifice, and as soon as its blood was poured out, Tyre rooted itself firmly to its place in the sea.^ From this time the gods never ceased to dwell in the holy island. Here Astarte herself was born,^ and in one of her temples there was shown a fallen 1 The identification of the peak Brathu is uncertain. 2 Sanchoniathon, Fragment in Philo Byblius, -Phoenicia. Philo, born 42 A.D., represents Sanchoniathon or Sanchuniathon as a Phoenician writer of great antiquity, but the existence of Sanchoniathon, outside of the imagina- tion of Philo, has been seriously doubted. Philo's citation is preserved by Eusebius, Praep. Evang., I, 9, 10. Vid. P. Migne, Patrologae, Vol. XXI, p. 7. 3 Nonnus, Dionysiaca, XL, 428 ff. * Cicero, De Natura Deorum, III, 23. 8 THE HISTORY OF TYRE star which she had brought back from one of her journeys.^ Baal was called the Melkart, King of the City.^ As to the date of the founding of Tyre, there is much uncer- tainty, Herodotus^ gives an account of his visit to the city and his investigations there. He states that the priests of the temple of Melkart told him that their temple was built when the city was founded, twenty-three hundred years before that date. Assuming the visit of Herodotus to have been about 450 B.C., we have 2750 B.C. for the founding of the city. Justin* says that Tyre was founded one year before the capture of Troy. He says : " The Sidonians many years after the building of their city, were defeated by the king of Ascalon, and came in their ships to Tyre, which they founded a year before Troy fell." This dates the founding of the city somewhere near 1200 B.C. Josephus^ tells us that Tyre was founded two hundred and forty years before the building of the temple at Jerusalem, which agrees approximately with the date given by Justin. But, as we learn from the Tel-el-Amarna letters,^ Tyre was a great city two centuries earlier than the date given by Justin and Josephus. We must therefore accept the account of Herod- otus for the present, at least. Earliest Historic Records As early as 1400 B.C. Tyre was not only a great city but was considered impregnable.'' Our earliest clear record of events at Tyre^ is given us in the Amarna letters. It is probable that 1 Sanchoniathon Vid. Eusebius, Praep. Evang., I, 10. ^ Kenrick, History of Phoenicia, pp. 322-323; p. 146 below. 3 Herodotus, II, 44. * Justin, XVIII, 3. ^ Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 3. « Vid. p. 9 ff. below, 7 Vid, Rib-Adda's letter, p. 12 below. 8 "No campaign against Tyre is mentioned in any of the Egyptian annals. The expedition of Thutmosis III against Senzauru (Inscription of Amenem- habi I, 20) was directed not against the 'double Tyre' , , , but against a town of Coelo-Syria mentioned in the Tel-el-Amarna tablets with the orthog- raphy Zinzar." Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, p. 190. TYRE, TO THE AGE OF HIRAM 9 the city yielded to Thotmes III when he made his victorious campaigns into Syria.^ The city acknowledged submission to Egypt at the time of Amenophis IV. In the reign of this Amenophis IV,^ King of Egypt, we have through the Tel-el-Amarna^ letters an interesting bit of Tyrian history. The Egyptian power in western Asi^ evidently waned while Amenophis was having his troubles with the ancient priesthood at home. Two factions were at war in the Phoenician cities. Rib-Adda of Byblus (Gebal) reported the revolt of his subjects and the successes of his rival, Abd-Ashirta,^ and his son Aziru. Cities were taking sides. Both sides professed loyalty to the king of Egypt. It is clear that all had been under Egyptian dominance. Abi-Milki^ was governor of Tyre. He belonged to the Rib-Adda faction. Zimrida, governor of Sidon, belonged to the other side. Through his agency Samuru had fallen. Now with Aziru he besieged the Island City of Tyre. He had captured Sazu on the mainland, and had cut off Tyre's supply of wood and water,^ thus desperately harassing the city. That the siege was of considerable duration is shown by the protracted corre- spondence. Abi-Milki sent repeated appeals to the king of Egypt for help. We have four of these letters in the British Museum (Numbers 28-31); two others are preserved at Gizeh (B., Numbers 98, 99), and one at Berlin (B., Number 162). 1 Vid. Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, p. 190; also Budge, History of Egypt, Vol. IV, p. 31 ff. ^ G. A. Cooke, in his article "Phoenicia" in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., gives 1376-1366 as dates for Amenophis IV. Bezold gives 1466-1454 (Tel-el- Amarna Tablets in the British Museum, p. xxii). Budge, History of Egypt, Vol. I, pp. 154-56, dates the reign of Amenophis IV at not later than 1400 B.C. In Vol. IV, Ch. 1, he dates this siege at about 1430 B.C. Breasted, History of Ancient Egyptians, p. 428, dates Amenophis IV, 1375-1358. ^ Vid. Bezold, The Tel-el- Amarna Letters in the British Museum, London, 1891; also Winckler, Die Thontafeln von Tel-el-Amarna, Berlin, 1896. Conder, The Tell Amarna Tablets, London, 1893. * Abd-Ashirta, Phoenician mOK'ynay, Greek A/SSao-rpdroj. Josephus mentions a king of Tyre by this name (Against Apion, I, 8). Vid. p. 24 below. * Abi-Milki, Hebrew Tl^D ''2Ni a name given to several kings of PhiUstia, Gath, Gerar, etc. Genesis XX, 2; XXVI, 1; Psalms XXXIV, 1; Judges VIII, 31. « Vid. p. 10 below. 10 THE HISTORY OF TYRE In the letter (B. 98) preserved at Gizeh, Abi-Milki, after the customary salutations and assurances of loyalty, entreats the king to send provisions.^ The second letter at Gizeh (B. 99) contains a petition to the king of Egypt that he will order his inspector in Syria to supply him with wood and water from the city of Sazu. This letter relates that Sidon and Hazor have gone over to the enemy, and adds that the king of Egypt will now be able to judge of the desperate condition of Tyre.^ Abi- Milki seems to have received a letter to the effect that royal orders had been given that Sidon and Arvad furnish supplies. In the letter preserved at Berlin (B. 162) Abi-Milki expresses pleasure at the king's message, but reports that Sidon and Arvad have supplied no wood or water. The style of the letters is shown by the following summary of B. 28 given by C. Bezold:^ "To the king, my lord, my sun, my god, thus saith Abi-Milki, thy servant: 'Seven times and seven times do I prostrate myself at the feet of the king, my lord. I am the dust beneath the feet of the king, my lord, and upon that which he treadeth, 0, my king and my lord, thou are like unto the god Shamash and to the god Rimmon in heaven. Let the king give counsel to his servant! Now the king, my lord, hath appointed me the guardian of the city of Tyre, the Royal Handmaid, and 1 sent a report in a table unio the king, my lord; but I have received no answer thereunto. I am an officer of the king, my lord, and I duly report all that cometh to pass, be it favorable or unfavorable.' " Abi-Milki then asks that the king of Egypt let him have twenty additional soldiers^ to defend his city. If the king will graciously give this order, his servant Abi-Milki will "live forever." There is a break in the text and then we learn that Zimrida (?) has delivered the city of Samuru to Aziru and that in consequence "the king of Egypt did not eat from the produce of his city or of his land." When Abi-Milki heard of the renown of the king and of the fame of his troops, he feared greatly, and all the countries round about trembled because they had not protected the king's interests. As soon as Zimrida knew that Abi-Milki 1 C. Bezold, The Tel-el-Amarna Letters in the British Museum, p. Ixii. * C. Bezold, The Tel-el-Amarna Letters in the British Museum, p. Ivi. ' Perhaps meaning twenty companies. TYRE, TO THE AGE OF HIRAM H had been appointed governor of Tyre, he attacked and captured the city of Sazu, and therefore the suppHes of wood and water which Abi-Milki drew from thence were cut off, and as the Tyrians were unable to provide themselves in any other way, some of them died of want. Abi-Milki asks for fresh instructions. The king of Egypt had ordered Abi-Milki to report to him everything he heard, and in obedience to this command he now writes, " Zimrida, governor of Sidon, and Aziru (a dis- affected Egyptian official), and the people of Arvad, had joined in a league and had entered into a conspiracy and had gathered together their ships and chariots and soldiers and had made an attack upon Tyre, the Handmaiden of the King," but the "hand of the king obtained might and slew them," and they were unable to capture the city. But the city of Samuru had been given to Aziru by command of Zimrida. "Concerning these things I have already sent a tablet to the king, my lord, but I have received no answer. I am surrounded on all sides with foes and we have neither wood nor water." In this desperate condition, unable to obtain supplies from the mainland, and only getting them with the greatest difficulty from his ships because of the blockading fleet, Abi-Milki entreats the king to send him instructions, and also to take steps to protect his city Tyre and his servant Abi-Milki. In conclusion he sends this tablet by the hands of a common soldier to whom he begs the king to give an immediate answer. The destitute condition of his household is shown by the fact that he is com- pelled to send the soldier without gifts for the king, instead of a proper envoy. A second letter^ in the British Museum (B. M. 29) contains the usual profuse salutation. The king of Egypt seems to have ordered that Abi-Milki should be general of the troops, whereat he expresses his joy (Yayaya!) and homage. "I will guard the city of Tyre, the great city, for the king, my lord, and I will hold it until the king shall send forth his power to help me, to give me water to drink and wood to warm myself withal." 1 Bezold, Tel-el-Amarna Letters in the British Museum, p. lix. 12 THE HISTORY OF TYRE Zimrida of Sidon and Aziru, son of Abd-Ashirta, are harassing him daily. In a third letter in the British Museum^ (B. M. 30) Abi-Milki writes to the king of Egypt with the usual compliments, and with the usual complaints against Zimrida, and with the usual plea for wood and water. He is sending a present by his messenger, Ilu-Milki.^ In reply to the king's orders he reports the news from the land of Canaan. The letter concludes with an urgent appeal for help. The fourth letter^ (B.M. 31) of Abi-Milki in the British Museum collection is not well preserved. He has been ordered to salute Shalmayati and supply him with water. He has no water to give and therefore asks the king to take steps to have this done himself. He still professes loyalty and seems to want to defend Tyre, "the city of Shalmayati." But he seems to know that all is lost. He calls Tyre "the city of Shalmayati" (perhaps a rival governor), and prepares to withdraw. This first known siege of Tyre seems, therefore, to have been successful, resulting in the overthrow of Abi-Milki and the Rib-Adda faction. Among the letters from Rib-Adda, King of Gebal, to the king of Egypt, is one referring to the situation at Tyre (B. 49). He writes: "Behold Tyre is in a state of rebellion, and if you doubt my words, ask my brother Yamilki (Tj /D H*')- I sent my possessions to Tyre for safety, but now the Tyrians have slain their general and also my sister and her sons. I sent my sister's daughters to Tyre fearing Abd-Ashirta."^ Here again is an indication that the siege was successful and resulted in the overthrow of Abi-Milki. Only a few meager facts about Tyre have survived from the period immediately following the reign of Abi-Milki. After the period of the Amarna letters it would seem that Tyre and other cities of Syria, finding that Egypt could not maintain her rule 1 Bezold, Tel-el-Amama Letters in the British Museum, p. Ixi. 2 Compare Tj^C^JK, Ruth I: 2. ' Bezold, Tel-el-Amarna Letters in the British Museum, p. Ixii. * Vid. Budge, History of Egypt, Vol. IV, p. 215. TYRE, TO THE AGE OF HIRAM 13 by arms, refused submission and became independent. But in the reign of Seti I (1313-1292) Egypt showed again her power to conquer. In the hst of the conquests of the king, preserved upon a sphinx in his temple at Kurna, Tyre (D'ru) is among the cities named.^ A traveler writing in the reign of Ramses II (1292-1225 B.C.)2 says: "... They speak of another city in the sea, Zor (111?, Tyre) the Lake (port) is her name. The drinking water is brought to her in boats. She is richer in fishes than in sand."^ The next antiquity of interest to us is Papyrus Anastasi III of the British Museum. It gives us a few pages of a school copy-book on which an official in some frontier town of Pales- tine wrote some hurried notes about the persons who passed through on the way to Syria. We are interested in a note that runs as follows: "Year 3 (Merneptah), first month of the third season (i. e., ninth month), fifteenth day. "There went up the servant of Baal, Roy, son of Zeper of Gaza, who had with him for Syria two letters; for the captain of infantry, Khay, one letter; for the chief of Tyre, Baalat-Remeg, one letter."^ Another of the notes which may refer to Tyre is as follows : "Year 3, first month of the third season (ninth month), the day. "There went up the attendant . . . who journeyed to (Upper) Tyre (D'-r' Rum). "6 In the age of Joshua, Tyre was "the strong city."*' A papyrus 1 J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt (Univ. of Chicago, 1906), Vol. Ill, paragraph 114. 2 The dates for Egyptian kings given on this and the following page are as given by Breasted. 3 Vid. Henry Brugsch-Bey's History of Egypt, translation of H. D. Sey- mour (London, 1879), Vol. II, p. 105; also Bezold, The Tel-el-Amarna Letters in the British Museum, p. Ivii. * Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. Ill, paragraph 629, 630. 6 Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. Ill, 632, 633. There is un- certainty as to the town referred to, Miiller being inclined to place it on the Jordan. (Miiller: Asien und Europa, 272.) 6 Joshua XIX, 29. If we accept 1480 B.C. as the date for the Exodus in accordance with Jewish tradition followed by Usher et al., we have as the 14 THE HISTORY OF TYRE found in 1891 in Upper Egypt, opposite Feshun, and now in St. Petersburg, gives the report of an officer by the name of Wenamon.^ It belongs perhaps to the reign of Ramses XII (1118-1090). Wenamon was sent to secure cedars from Lebanon for the king's use in ship-building. He met with a series of mishaps which show that Egypt, though claiming sovereignty, could not even protect her own messengers in Syria. He stopped at Tyre and mentions the harbor, but unfortunately his record here is so marred that nothing else can be made out. The Rise of Tyre to Supremacy among the Phoenician Cities The statement of Josephus that Tyre was founded two hundred and forty years before the building of the temple at Jerusalem,^ and that of Justin that it was founded the year before the fall of Troy,^ warrant the belief that something unusual occurred in the city's history about 1200 B.C. The city, as has been shown, was founded at a much earlier date. It may be that the later date marks an awakening and the beginning of a new era in the city's life. We find Tyre in commercial supremacy soon after this date.^ Perhaps an accession of strength from Sidon greatly promoted her prosperity. It is probable that the conditions in the sister city were such as to divert trade to Tyre. Foreign conditions were also favorable. For many centuries the Minoan power in Crete, as we learn from recent discoveries, shared the seas with the Phoenicians, perhaps antedating them in many manufacturing, commercial and marine achievements.^ date for Joshua's conquests 1440 B.C. But while there is much un- certainty as to the time of the Exodus, it is now usually assigned to a later date. Rawlinson, Brugsch, Masp6ro et al. date it in the reign of Meneptah; — Brugsch about 1300 B.C., Budge about 1270 B.C., Lepsius 1314 B.C. Breasted, Benzinger et al. consider the Khabiri of the Amarna letters the van of the Hebrew invasions of Palestine by people kindred to the Jacob tribes. Breasted places the entrance of the Jacob tribes into Palestine as late as the reign of Rameses IV, which he dates 1167-1161 B.C. ^ Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Vol. IV, 557-567. ^ Vid. page 8 above. * Vid. page 8 above. * Vid. page 134 et seq. below. 5 Vid. James Blaikie, The Sea-Kings of Crete, London, 1910; A. Mosso, The TYRE, TO THE AGE OF HIRAM 15 But the Minoan power was fast falling into decay. The way to the sovereignty of the seas was open. The awakening manifested itself in quickened courage and new enterprise. As early as 1100 B.C., Tyrian seamen not only passed the Gates of Hercules and dared the open Atlantic; but they planted the colony of Utica in Africa, and that of Gades in far-off Iberia.^ Sailors who braved the real and imaginary perils of such voyages must be accredited with great courage; such courage made Tyre the queen of the seas. And citizens willing to leave the comforts of Tyrian homes for pioneer dwellings on the far-off edge of the world must be accredited with a great spirit of commercial enterprise; and such spirit made Tyre the mart of the nations. Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization, translation of M. C. Harrison, New York, 1911, pp. 64-211 ; R. M. Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete and their Bear- ing on the History of Ancient Civilization, London, 1907. 1 Vid. pp. 134 ff . below. CHAPTER II TYRE IN THE AGE OP HIRAM After Abi-Milki, it is probable that Shalmaj^ati was the King of Tyre.^ Unless we are to understand that Baalat-Remeg was king of the city,^ no record remains to tell us who held the throne after Shalmayati until the time of Abi-baal, and all the information that has survived regarding Abi-baal is limited to that which Josephus gives, viz., that he was king of Tyre and father of Hiram.^ When Abi-baal died, his son Hiram (DID, High-Born, or D1^n[^^], Brother-of-the-Lofty) succeeded to the throne. The city over which Hiram reigned had developed many arts to a high state of perfection. The achievements in architecture, masonry, carpentry, metallurgy, the weaving of delicate fabrics, sewing and the like were not the product of a single generation. Hiram seems to have been a statesman worthy of his time. He enlarged the city by filling in on the eastern side of the island^ and made a Grand Square (Evpvxcopo^i) in this new addition to the city.^ To the southwest of the main island was a smaller island upon which was the temple of Melkart.^ Hiram joined the two islands.^ He reconstructed the temples of the city, and for this purpose he brought materials of wood from Mount Lebanon.^ The temple of Melkart he adorned with donations of gold and in it he dedicated a pillar of gold.^ It was probably at this time that the harbors were enlarged and connected by canal through ^ Vid. p. 12 above. '^ Vid. p. 13 above. ^ Vid. statements of Menander and Dius quoted by Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 5, and Against Apion, I, 14-18. Josephus says of Menander: "This Menan- der, the Ephesian, wrote the acts that were done both by the Greeks and the Barbarians under every one of the Tyrian kings, and had taken much pains to learn their history out of their own records." Of Dius he says: "One that is believed to have written the Phoenician history after an accurate manner." * Vid. p. 4 above. 16 TYRE IN THE AGE OF HIRAM 17 the city.^ But that which preserved his deeds in the knowledge of men was his alUance with Israel. Israel was just coming to her glory. Until the time of David the subjugation of the Canaanites had been incomplete.^ In the period of the Judges we find Israel a prey to one after another of the Canaanitish tribes.^ But under the leadership of King David, contemporary of Hiram, Israel had defeated the Phil- istines, the Moabites, the Edomites,^ the Ammonites,^ the Syrians, and had extended her borders even to the Euphrates.^ Hiram sent a friendly embassy to David and opened nego- tiations, a result of which was that cedar trees were sent to Jerusalem, Tyrian carpenters and masons were also supplied by Hiram, and in due time the royal palace of King David was built.^ The alliance continued through the life of David. In his closing years, when David was collecting materials for the Temple, he was aided by the "Zidonians and they of Tyre."^ When Solomon inherited the throne of his father David, he inherited also his purpose to erect the Temple at Jerusalem. And Solomon sent to Hiram, the King of Tyre, saying: "As thou didst deal with David my father, and didst send him cedars to build him an house to dwell therein, even so deal with me. Behold, I build an house for the name of the Lord, my God, to dedicate it to him . . . and the house that I build is great : for great is our God above all gods. . . . Now therefore send me a man cunning to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, and in iron, and in purple, and crimson, and blue, and that can skill to grave all manner of gravings, to be cunning with men that are with me in Juda and in Jerusalem, whom David my father did provide. Send me also cedar trees, and fir trees, and algum trees, out of Lebanon: for I know that thy servants can skill to cut timber in Lebanon; and, behold, my servants shall be with thy servants, even to prepare me timber in abundance; for the house which I am about to build shall be wonderfully great. And, behold, I will give to thy servants, the hewers that cut timber, twenty thousand measures of beaten wheat, and twenty thousand measures of barley, and twenty thousand baths of wine, and twenty thousand baths of oil." 1 Vid. p. 4 above. ^ II Samuel, XIX. » II Samuel, V, 6-9. « II Samuel, VIII, 10; I Kings, IV, 21. s Judges, III-XVI. ' II Samuel, V, 11-12. ^ II Samuel, VIII. « j Chronicles, XXIT, 4. 3 18 THE HISTORY OF TYRE Then Hiram the king of Tyre answered in writing which he sent to Solomon: "Because the Lord loveth his people, he hath made thee king over them." Hiram said, moreover: "Blessed be Jahveh the God of Israel, that made heaven and earth, who hath given to David the King a wise son, endued with discretion and understanding, that should build an house for Jahveh, and an house for his kingdom. And now I have sent a cunning man, endued with understanding, of Hiram my father's, the son of a woman of the daughters of Dan, and his father was a man of Tyre, skilful to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, in iron, in stone, and in timber, in purple, and in blue, in fine linen, and in crimson, and to grave any manner of graving, and to devise any device: that there may be a place appointed unto him with thy cunning men, and with the cunning men of my lord David thy father. Now therefore the wheat, and the barley, the oil and the wine which my lord hath spoken of, let him send unto his servants: and we will cut wood out of Lebanon, as much as thou shalt need: and we will bring it to thee in floats by sea unto Joppa: and thou shalt carry it up to Jerusalem."^ The agreement was made, and while the rough work was done by the subjects of Solomon, the skilled artisans of Hiram directed the work under the guidance of the master workman referred to above. It is clear that the Jewish writers were greatly impressed with the architectural skill of the Phoenicians. We read that the temple was built of stones made ready at the quarry, and so perfectly had they been made ready that "there was neither hammer or axe or any tool of iron heard in the house, while it was in building."^ Josephus tells us:^ "Now the whole structure of the temple was made with great skill, of polished stones, and those laid together so very harmoniously and smoothly that there appeared to the spectators no sign of any hammer, nor other instrument of architecture, but as if, without any use of them, the entire materials had naturally united themselves together." 1 The account of the agreement between Hiram and Solomon is given briefly in I Kings, V, 1-12. It is enlarged in II Chronicles, II, 3-15. Jo- sephus, Antiq., VIII, 2, quotes the correspondence rather freely. 2 1 Kings, VI, 7. ' Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 3. TYRE IN THE AGE OF HIRAM 19 The Jews were much impressed with the "great stones" and "wrought stones" that composed the foundation.^ They greatly admired the skill shown in the carving of wood, the graving of gold, in the adornments of precious stones, and the work in blue, and purple, and crimson, and fine linen .^ Before the temple, on the right hand and on the left, were placed two massive hollow pillars of brass eighteen cubits in height,^ each surmounted by a chapiter five cubits high, called Jachin and Boaz. These may have been modeled after the two pillars in the famous temple of Melkart^ at Tyre, one of which, overlaid in gold, Hiram had lately set up.^ An altar of brass was made for the burnt offerings; it was twenty cubits long, twenty cubits wide and ten cubits high. A brazen sea in hemi- spherical form and ten cubits in diameter was cast and set up on twelve brazen oxen that faced toward the four directions of the compass.^ Brazen bases for ten lavers were made; these were ornamented with figures of lions, oxen and cherubim (or "eagles," according to Josephus).^ Nothing has survived of the treasures of the Temple to tell us of Tyrian skill. The Temple was burned and its treasures plundered by Nebuzaradan, captain of the hosts of Nebuchad- rezzar, King of Babylon, in the year 588 B.C.^ Hiram obtained as a mark of the esteem of Solomon, a gift which he seems not to have appreciated.^ Because Hiram had furnished gold and silver, and cedar trees, and fir trees, Solomon gave him a district of Galilee bordering on his own possessions and containing twenty cities. Hiram went from Tyre to see ^ Vid. I Kings, V, 17-18, and Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 3. 2Vid. I Kings, VI, 14-36, and II Chronicles, III, 3-16; also Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 3. 3 For the height of these two famous pillars, vid. I Kings, VII, 15; II Kings, XXV, 17; Jer. LII, 21; Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 3. The 35 cubits of II Chron., Ill, 15, is clearly wrong. * Vid. Herodotus, II, 44 5 Vid. p. 16 above. 8 1 Kings, VII; II Chron., IV; Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 3. ' Ibid. « II Kings, XXV, 8-17; Jer., LII, 12-23. 9 1 Kings IX 10-11; Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 5. 20 THE HISTORY OF TYRE the cities which Solomon had given him; and they pleased him not. And he said, What cities are these which thou hast given me, my brother? And he called them the land of Cabul, which, according to Josephus, is a Phoenician word meaning "what does not please."^ In the age of Hiram we have some light on Tyrian commerce and navigation. Solomon's conquest of the Edomites gave him possession of the port of Eziongeber, near Eloth on the Red Sea. Here he built a fleet of ships for trade in the eastern and southern waters; and Hiram furnished "shipmen who had knowledge of the sea."^ This fleet imported almug trees (per- haps sandal wood), precious stones,^ and gold of Ophir. Solo- mon's returns for a single voyage are said to have been four hundred and twenty talents of gold.'* On the basis of II Chronicles, IX, 21, it has been believed that Solomon had a fleet in the Mediterranean waters; but the Chronicler here interpreting I Kings, X, 22, reads "ships to Tarshish" for "ships of Tarshish, " and a "ship of Tarshish" seems to have been only a particular kind of a ship. Palestine has always traded with Asia Minor through Tarsus of Cicilia which the Arabs call "Tarshish,"^ and this may be the Tarshish of Genesis, X, 4. But most modern authorities® agree that the name was given to the region of Tartessus'^ in Spain, which appears to have extended from the Straits of Gibraltar to the mouth of the Guadalquiver. We know that Tyrian colonists made settlements in these regions as early as 1100 B.C.,^ and 1 1 Kings IX, 10-13; Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 5. The district was probably assigned as a thing "pledged," 7133 from p33, to bind; but when Hiram found it of little value to him, he seems to have shrewdly interpreted its name as 3 ^ as, 711 = ?2^ not, i. e., '^as good as nothing." 2 1 Kmgs, IX, 27. 3 1 Kings, X, 11. * I Kings, IX, 28. ^ Thompson, The Land and the Book, T, p. 16. ^ Vid. Krall, Tyrus und Sidon, p. 50; Rawlinson, Phoenicia, p. 69; Pietsch- mann, Geschichte der Phonizier, p. 286. ^ Arrian, III, 86; Diodorus, V, 35; Strabo, III, 147. Vid. p. 134 below. TYRE IN THE AGE OF HIRAM 21 that Tyre carried on a vastly profitable commerce with these regions.^ For the voyages to the Spanish coast the Phoenicians must have used their largest and strongest vessels. Because of this, a "ship of Tarshish" seems to have come to represent a certain kind of great strong ship^ much as the word "Indiaman" came to represent its specific type of vessel in the English service. It is clear that the "ships of Tarshish" of I Kings, XXII, 48, were for service in the Red Sea and the east, though the Chronicler as before interprets the expression as "ships to Tarshish" (II Chron., XX, 36-37). It is easy to see how Israel, holding the territory through which the caravans of Tyre must transport their merchandise for the eastern trade, could claim a share in that trade; but there are no evident reasons why Tyre should have shared with them the commerce of the Mediterranean. Then, the imports of this fleet of Solomon could not have come from Tarshish. The fleet brought gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks.^ While the ivory and apes might have been gotten in North Africa, the peacocks almost certainly came from India or Ceylon, their native home.^ Solomon's "ships of Tarshish" therefore sailed in eastern waters, and the fact that they made three-year voyages is easily understood. The wealth that came to Israel through these commercial ventures under Tyrian direc- tion is suggestive of the golden streams that must have flowed into the coffers of Tyre, the real Mistress of the Sea. There was an interesting tilt of shrewdness between Hiram and Solomon. Josephus says: "Moreover the king of Tyre sent sophisms and enigmatical sayings to Solomon, and desired that he would solve them and free them from the ambiguity that was in them. Now so sagacious and understanding was 1 Vid. p. 138 et seq. below. 2 1 Kings, XXII, 48 (Compare II Chron., XX, 36-37); Psalms, XLVIII, 7; Isa., II, 16. 3 1 Kings, X, 22: II Chron., IX, 21. * "The peacock is native to India and Ceylon, in some parts of which it is very abundant. . . . The Greeks probably had but slight knowledge of it until after Alexander's conquest." A. Newton, Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., Article on Peacock. 22 THE HISTORY OF TYRE Solomon, that none of his problems were too hard for him, but he conquered them all by his reasonings, and discovered their hidden meaning and brought them to light. "^ That seems to be Israel's side of the story. But the fragment from the Tyrian writer Dius, which Josephus preserves for us, gives us a different version. According to this version, "Solomon who was then king of Jerusalem, sent riddles to Hiram; and desired that he might receive the like from him, but that he who could not solve them should pay money to him who did solve them, and that Hiram accepted the conditions; and when he was not able to solve the riddles, he paid a great deal of money for his fine: but that he afterwards did solve the proposed riddles by means of Abdemon, a man of Tyre; and that Hiram proposed other riddles which, when Solomon could not solve, he paid back a great deal of money to Hiram. "^ Unfortunately these dark sayings and their answers are lost, and we have no way of weigh- ing the wit of these friendly kings. Hiram lived fifty-three years and reigned thirty-four years. Upon his death, his son, Beleasarus (Baalusur) succeeded to the throne.^ Three miles distant from the modern town of Sur, and before the village of Hannawe, stands one of the most remark- able monuments of ancient Tyre that time has spared. It is called the Kabr Hiram, the tomb of Hiram. The base or pedestal consists of two tiers of great stones, each three feet thick, thirteen feet long, and eight feet, eight inches broad. Upon this rests the sarcophagus formed of a single block, which is twelve feet long, eight feet broad, and six feet high. The stone lid covering the sarcophagus is somewhat smaller and slightly pyramidal in form. It is five feet thick. The entire length is twenty-one feet.^ Renan discovered a rock chamber under the tomb, to which steps descended from the north end * Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 5. ^ Josephus, Against Apion, I, 17. ' Josephus, Against Apion, I, 18, calls this king BaXeofd/sos, = IV ?]}2 or nry hv2. * These measurements are given by Dr. Thompson. Vid. "The Land and the Book," III, 600. TYRE IN THE AGE OF HIRAM 23 of the monument.^ At some time a large hole has been broken in the eastern end of the sarcophagus and the contents have been removed.^ This weather-beaten structure bears the marks of high antiquity. One is easily tempted to believe the tradi- tions that ascribe it to Hiram, friend of David and Solomon; rugged, unpolished, heroic, mysterious, solitary, it is a fit monu- ment of such a king. But whether the body of that King Hiram ever rested here or not, we do not know. 1 Renan, Mission de Phdnicie, p. 600. 2 Rawlinson, History of Phoenicia, p. 104. CHAPTER III FROM THE AGE OP HIRAM TO THE BEGINNING OF ASSYRIAN ENCROACHMENT JosEPHUS, quoting from the Phoenician history of Menander, says: " Upon the death of Hiram, Beleazarus (*ll^"7^^),his son, took the kingdom; he lived forty-three years and reigned seven years. After him came his son Abd-Astartus (n*int-^i7~"l!Il^); he lived twenty-nine years and reigned nine years. Now four sons of his nurse plotted against him and slew him, the eldest of whom reigned twelve years. After them came Astartus (H^int^i?), the son of Deleastartus (n*inti^i7"H)- He lived fifty-four years and reigned twelve years. After him came his brother Aserymus (D"n"C^^^)j who lived fifty-four years and reigned nine years. He was slain by his brother Pheles (5^/S) who took the kingdom and reigned but eight months, though he lived fifty years. He was slain by Ithobalus (!?^D"n t^) the priest of Astarte, who reigned thirty-two years and lived sixty-eight years. He was succeeded by his son Badezorus CnliilDi?) who lived forty-five years and reigned six years. He was succeeded by Matgenus (|nD), his son. He lived thirty- two years and reigned nine years. Pygmalion (|T^^^"D^D) succeeded him; he lived fifty-six years and reigned forty-seven years. Now in the seventh year of his reign his sister fled away from him and built the city of Carthage in Libya."^ To this Josephus adds: "So the whole time from the reign of Hiram to the building of Carthage, amounts to the sum of one hundred and fifty-five years and eight months. Since, then, the temple was built at Jerusalem in the twelfth year of the ^ Josephus, Against Apion, I, 18. Cf. the quotation of Menander as pre- served by Eusebius, Historia, Book I, ch. XVI, H 4, vid. Migne, Patrologae, Vol. 19, p. 172. For full discussion of the early chronology of Tyre, vid. Movers, Die Phonizier, I, p. 138 ff. 24 FROM HIRAM TO ASSYRIAN ENCROACHMENT 25 reign of Hiram, there were from the building of the temple to the building of Carthage, one hundred and forty-three years and eight months."^ But when we add twenty-two years of Hiram's reign^ to the years of the succeeding kings to the seventh year of Pygmalion, as given above, the sum is one hundred and twenty-five years; according to which Carthage was founded not one hundred and forty-three years, but one hundred and twenty-five years after the founding of the temple, and so we have another of the many vexing difficulties of ancient chronology. Within this period of Tyre's history, her religion deeply affected the life of Israel. According to the Tyrian annals just referred to, Ithobalus, priest of Astarte, who slew his predecessor and assumed the crown, was the seventh king after Hiram, and the years of the reigns as given above make him a contemporary of Ahab. Perhaps it was religious zeal that led him to espouse his daughter Jezebel to Ahab,^ though the alliance with the bold warrior king of Israel was not without political advantages as well. Jezebel brought a vast number of the priests of Baal with her. Ahab was persuaded to build a temple to the Tyrian god on the hill of Samaria.^ At the sanctuaries of Ashteroth, four hundred priests or "prophets" of Jezebel ministered, while at those of Baal, four hundred and fifty more were engaged.^ There was a great contest between the faith of Israel and that of Tyre. As a part of that contest, according to the account in I Kings, XVII, there was a great drought, and according to the Hebrew account this was finally broken by the prayer of Elijah.^ It is an inter- esting fact that Menander mentioned this drought in his account of the acts of Ithobalus or Ethbaal,^ King of Tyre, as follows: 1 Josephus, Against Apion, I, 18. Vid. p. 24, note 1 above. 2 Vid. p. 22 above. 3 1 Kings, XVI, 31. * I Kings, XVI, 32. * I Kings, XVIII, 19. Ashteroth or Astarte was identified as Aphrodite by the Greeks. Vid. Lucian, De Dea Syria, 6. 6 1 Kings, XVIII, 41^6. ' Note that Ethbaal, King of Tyre (Josephus, Antiq., VIII, 13:2), is called King of the Sidonians in I Kings, XVI, 31. The Phoenicians were frequently called Sidonians. 26 THE HISTORY OF TYRE "Under him there was a want of rain from the month Hyperberetaeus till the month Hyperberetaeus of the year following; but when he made supplications, there came great thunderings. This Ethbaal built the city of Botrys in Phoenicia, and the city of Auza in Libya."^ Fearful persecutions were a part of the contest. Jezebel slew many of the prophets of God.^ Elijah, as a leader of Israel's religion, slew the prophets of Baal in Mount Carmel.' But Elijah soon realized that the nation was turning to Baal worship. The king accepted the religion of his queen, and the Tyrian worship presented such attractions that the whole people fol- lowed the royal example, fell away from the worship of Jehovah, and became votaries of Baal and Ashteroth.'* The fascination is seen in its persistence. "The pure cult of Judaism — the one hope of the world — contracted a well-nigh indelible stain from the proselytizing efforts of Jezebel, and Athaliah, and their furious persecutions; the heavenly light passed under a thick black cloud, and it required prolonged convulsions throughout the whole East, the downfall of Israel and Judah, and the long purgation of the Captivity, to undo the effects brought about with a light heart by a royal bigot, and his cruel daughter and grand-daughter."* ^ Josephus, Antiquities, VIII, 13. 2 1 Kings, XVIII, 13. » I Kings, XVIII, 49. * The evil influences that thus came in are declared (II Kings, XVIII, 16-20) to have been among the forces that wrought the overthrow of Israel and finally led to the Captivity of Judah. 6 Rawlinson, History of Phoenicia, p. 117. CHAPTER IV tyke's resistance to ASSYRIAN ENCROACHMENT Tyre felt the force of Assyrian encroachment for the first time in the early half of the ninth century B.C. It was in 876 B.C.^ that the Assyrian King, Asshurnazirpal, appeared on the heights of Lebanon overlooking the sea, and demanded the submission and tribute of the Phoenician cities. He had already conquered country after country. Cities that had resisted him had been plundered and destroyed and their inhabitants butchered with almost incredible cruelties. His army was one of the most perfect fighting machines that had ever been or- ganized. Their onslaught was considered resistless. The on- coming of an Assyrian army is thus described: "Behold they shall come with speed swiftly; none shall be weary nor stumble among them; none shall slumber or sleep; nor shall the girdle of their loins be unloosed nor the latchet of their shoes be broken; whose arrows are sharp and all their bows are bent, their horses' hoofs shall be counted like flint, and their wheels like a whirl- wind; their roaring shall be like a lion, they shall roar like young lions; yea, they shall roar and lay hold of the prey, and shall carry it away safe and none shall deliver it. In that day they shall roar against him like the roaring of the sea; and if one look into the land, behold darkness and sorrow; and the light is dark- ened in the heavens thereof."^ The king of Tyre was compelled to choose whether he would cross swords with this world-con- queror or submit under as favorable terms as could be secured. The conqueror himself describes his advance in these words: 1 Goodspeed (History of Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 193) suggests the date of 876 B.C. with an interrogation. Winckler (History of Babylon and Assyria, Ed. of Craig, p. 213) gives 877 B.C., while Rogers (History of Babylon and Assyria, Vol. II, p. 63) suggests 876 B.C. but later (Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament, p. 285) feels it is nearer 868 B.C. 2 Isaiah, V, 26-30. 27 28 THE HISTORY OF TYRE "At that time I marched along the Lebanon and to the great sea (Mediterranean) of the land of the Amurru I went up. I washed my weapons and made offerings to the gods. The trib- ute of the kings from the side of the sea, from the lands qf Tyre and Sidon, and Byblus and Makhallat and Maisa, and Kaisa, and Amurru and Arvad, which lies in the midst of the sea; silver and gold and lead and bronze, and garments of bright colored stuffs and cloth, and a great pagutu and a small pagutu, and ushu-wood, and ukarinnu-wood, and teeth of a dolphin, a creature of the sea, I received as their tribute and they embraced my feet. Mount Amanus I climbed and beams of cedar, cypress, juniper and pine I cut down. I made offerings to my gods, A stela with my deeds of valor I made and set up therein."^ From this inscription it is evident that the Tyrians chose the easier way of paying tribute to the conqueror. Now it must be remembered that the Tyrians were first of all a commercial people. Their prosperity depended upon peace, not war. Up to this time the ranges of Lebanon had proved a suflficient protection against the arms of the warlike nations, and the Phoenicians had been allowed to develop in their own way. They had never aspired to military conquests. Again and again in later times, when war was forced upon them, they showed that they were not without the courage that would have made worthy warriors, but they were a people of peace. If there are times when discretion is the better part of valour, it is not to the discredit of Tyre that she acknowledged the sovereignty of Assyria and brought her tribute to Asshurnazirpal. What commercial concessions Tyre secured, and what pro- tection for her trade, we do not know, for we have only the one-sided account of the conqueror; but for a century and a half the peaceful relationship continued. The Cuneiform records of this period make mention of tribute paid by Tyre and other Phoenician cities. Thus, in the Annalistic Fragments of Shal- 1 Asshumazirpal's Annals, Column III, lines 84-89, as quoted in Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament, p. 287; Goodspeed, History of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 193; and Schrader, Cuneiform Insciiptions and the Old Testament (ed. Whitehouse, London, 1888), Vol. II, p. 144. TYRE'S RESISTANCE TO ASSYRIAN ENCROACHMENT 29 manezer II, dated about 842 B.C., we read: "At that time I received the tribute of the Tyrians and Sidonians, and Jehu of the land of Omri."^ Of this king's last great expedition to the west, about 839 B.C., we read: "In the twenty-first year of my reign I crossed the Euphrates for the twenty-first time. I marched against the cities of Hazael of Damascus. I captured four of his cities. I received the tribute of Tyrians, Sidonians and Byblians."^ We have no evidence that Tyre was dis- contented with this situation. It is quite probable that, for the most part, the sway of Assyria was favorable to the land com- merce of Tyre, by making caravan routes more safe. Her wealth increased and her commerce was greatly extended. Isaiah, writing at the close of this period, reveals the prosperity that Tyre had been enjoying: "The harvest of the river is her revenue; and she is a mart of all nations. . . . Tyre, the crowning city, whose traffickers are the honorable of the earth. "^ It was in this period that a situation arose in Tyre that resulted in the founding of the city of Carthage,* and hence affected pro- foundly the later history of all the nations bordering on the Mediterranean.^ The facts regarding the founding of the city of Carthage, like those of many of the other cities of antiquity, are hopelessly interwoven with myths.^ We have a very brief 1 Vid. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament, p. 304. ^Vid. ibid., p. 304, and Sayce: Records of the Past, Old Series, Vol. V, p. 35. » Isaiah, XXIII, 3-8. * 826 B.C., 01 814 B.C. There was probably a colony, or at least a trading post at the site of Carthage long before the flight of Elissa. Philistus as quoted by Eusebius (Chronicorum Lib. II, 803 years after Abraham. Vid. Migne, Patrologae, Vol. 19, p. 406) says that the city was founded thirty years before the fall of Troy, while Appian (VIII, 1) gives the date fifty years before that event. Virgil associates Dido with Aeneas in a way that would indicate that he held to a date about the time of the fall of Tioy, i. e., about 1200 B.C. The early settlement was evidently fortified: it was called n")V3 and the confusing of this with B^paa gave rise to Virgil's story of the ox-hide. Movers, Die Phonizier, Vol. II, Book II, 137, argues that the addition built by Elissa and her followers was called DKHn mp (New Town) in contrast to this former settlement. But vid. p. 32 below. * Vid. Krall, Tyrus und Sidon, p. 66. «Vid. Movers, Die Phonizier, Vol. I, pp. 350-361; Meltzer, Geschichte der Karthager, Vol. I, pp. 90-141. 30 THE HISTORY OF TYRE statement of Menander, preserved by Josephus/ from Tyrian sources. No record has come to us directly from Carthaginian historians. The best that have survived from Latin and Greek sources are the account of Virgil in the Aeneid, Book I with commentaries, and that in Justin, XVIII, 4-5. Menander, as quoted by Josephus, states that " he (Matgenus, \r\12) lived thirty-two years, and reigned nine years. Pyg- malion succeeded him; he lived fifty-six years and reigned forty- seven years. Now in the seventh year of his reign his sister fled away from him, and built the city of Carthage in Libya. "^ This bald statement, devoid of details, may perhaps be accepted as trustworthy. According to Justin, when the king died, he left his son Pyg- malion and his daughter Elissa^ as joint heirs. But the people delivered the rulership to the boy Pygmalion. Elissa married her uncle Acerbas (Sychaeus of Virgil, 7^^ 1DD)/ priest of Hercules, whose place was second only to the king. This man had great but hidden riches. Through fear of the king he hid his wealth not in buildings but in the ground. Pygmalion, moved by avarice, slew his uncle. ^ Elissa was turned against her brother for a long time because of the crime, but at length she dissimulated her hatred and planned secret flight. Certain princes who were in disfavor with the king had entered into league with her. She went to her brother with craft and said that she wished to move to his house. Pygmalion heard her gladly, for he thought that she would bring the gold of Acerbas 1 Josephus, Against Apion, I, 18. 2 Ibid., I, 18. 3 n^K feminine of ^N (?). * Commemoration of Baal. 130 in Phoen. = ^^T in Heb. Cf . n' 13T, Zechariah I, 1 et al. ' According to one tradition, Pygmalion slew Acerbas before the altar in the temple of Melkart (Virgil, Aeneid, Bk. I) while another tradition reports that he invited Acerbas to hunt with him and while the attendants were pursuing a wild boar, he slew Acerbas with a spear and threw his body down a precipice. He then gave out that Acerbas had fallen to his death. Virgil is confused by the conflicting accounts, for while he states that Acerbas was slain before the altar publicly, he has the fact of the crime revealed to Elissa in a dream, as though the deed had been done in secret. TYRE'S RESISTANCE TO ASSYRIAN ENCROACHMENT 31 with her. He sent servants and ships for the moving. The riches were secretly concealed on board the ships, but out at sea the servants were compelled to cast overboard bags of sand, which they were led to believe were the treasures, while she prayed the shade of her husband to accept the offering of the wealth that had caused his death. The servants were easily frightened into believing that, as the treasures were gone, their only safe course lay in flight. They were joined » by certain senators and priests of Hercules, and sought a home in exile.^ They went first to Cyprus where a priest of Jupiter with his family joined them. Eighty virgins who had come down to the sea-shore to dedicate themselves to Venus before marriage, were seized and carried away to be the wives of the founders of the new city. Pygmalion was inclined to follow with a hostile fleet, but was dissuaded by his mother, who was moved by prophetic inspiration to see that the new city was to be "urbs toto orbe auspicatissima."^ Ehssa, the wanderer, was called Dido (n"n^). An additional interesting statement concerning the founding of Carthage is given by Philistus as quoted by Eusebius.^ He states that Carthage was founded by "^copo^ and Kapxv^^^'- There can be no doubt that Sw/ao? is ^)i, Tyre, and that this is testimony of the part that Tyre played in the founding of the great Libyan city. A natural inference would be that JS^ap^v^'^v refers to another city that cooperated with Tyre in the founding of Carthage. It has been argued by Professor Jastrow* that ^ The evidence shows that avarice was the motive of the crime of PygmaUon, and the unbroken friendly relations between Carthage and Tyre may be regarded as an indication that the flight of Elissa and her followers was the result of the personal character of Pygmalion rather than the opposition of any important faction of the people of Tyre. Yet the high standing of those who were in disfavor with the king and fled with Elissa, and the fact that the people had given to Pygmalion the sovereignty left to him and Elissa as joint rulers, suggest a civic situation in which the people and the crown were arrayed against the nobles and the priestly class. 2 Justin, XVIII, 4-5. ' Eusebius, Chron. Lib. II, year 803 after Abraham. Vid. Migne, Patrologae, Vol. 19, p. 406; Appian, VIII, 1, also gives Swpos and Kapx'/Scii' as the founders. * Jastrow, Journal American Oriental Society, Vol. XV, p. Ixx. 32 THE HISTORY OF TYRE the reference is probably to Kapxn^d^v (Kittium) in Cyprus. This city is spoken of in the Baal-Lebanon inscription,^ in the inscription of Esarhaddon,^ and elsewhere. It was evidently an important and flourishing city. It may be that the stop made by Elissa and her followers on the island of Cyprus was at this place, and that they remained here until the danger of pursuit made it advisable to depart, and that the priest of Jupiter and others who joined the enterprise here had large share in founding the New City, which was given the name of their home town.^ These legends and conjectures, however, are not to be accepted as established historic facts. The date and details as to the founding of Carthage form an interesting mystery in which very little is certainly known. Meltzer, after a careful considera- tion of all known materials on the subject, concludes that all that we may be sure of is " dass Karthago von Tyrien, iibrigens untern ganzlich unbekanten Umstanden, gegriindet war," and at a date quite uncertain.'* We come to a new light in the history of Tyre, with the coming of Tiglathpilezer III to the Assyrian throne in 746 B.C. He ruled all the dependencies of Assyria with a heavy hand. His immediate predecessors had been unable to enforce their sove- reignty in the west and collect the tribute claimed. Tiglath- pilezer III was a warrior and a statesman. He began with ruthless hand to establish Assyrian authority. A coalition to refuse tribute and resist its collection by force, if necessary, was formed. Tyre joined the combination, together with Judah, Israel, Damascus, Gebal and others to the number of nineteen. The confederation was formidable, but it lacked cohesion. Tiglathpilezer III marched on the confederates in 738 B.C. He met with no united opposition. One by one the cities made peace with him. When the campaign was over, Tiglathpilezer carried away the tribute from Kushtashpi of Kummukh, Rezon 1 Vid. below, p. 33 below. 2 Vid. Talbot, Records of the Past, Vol. Ill, pp. 107, 108. ' It is quite possible that Carthage had its name "New Town" in contrast with the mother city, Tyre. But see footnote on p. 29 above. < Meltzer, Geschichte der Kathager, Vol. I, p. 141. TYRE'S RESISTANCE TO ASSYRIAN ENCROACHMENT 33 of Damascus, Menahem of Samaria, Hiram of Tyre, Sibitti'li of Gebal, Urikki of Que, Pisiris of Carchemish, Enilu of Hamath, Panammu of Sam'al, Tarkhulara of Gurgum, Shulumal of Melid, Dadilu of Kask, Uassurme of Tabal, Ushkhitti of Atun, Urballa of Tukhan, Tukhammi of Ishtunda, Urimmi of Khu- bishna, and from Queen Zabibi of Arabia. Tiglathpilezer declares that he annexed the nineteen districts and appointed his generals as rulers over them.^ Here the earliest Phoenician inscription, the Baal-Lebanon, becomes available.^ It is engraved upon the fragments of a bronze bowl dedicated by a certain "governor of Karth- hadasht," or Karti-hadashti (New City, i. e., Kittium), servant of Hiram, King of the Sidonians, to Baal-Lebanon. It reads as follows : b^'2b ]n^ 1^ DJiy T^bD Dnn -in^; niz^-innnp pD i. nt:^innnp pD nc: ... 2. (1) . . . governor of Karth-hadasht, servant of Hiram, King of the Sidonians, gave this to Baal of Lebanon, my lord, of choicest bronze. (2) . , . TB, governor of Karth-hadasht. (3) to Baal of Lebanon, my lord.^ While the date of this fragment is not certain, it is probable that the King Hiram of the inscription is this Hiram of Tyre from whom Tiglathpilezer took tribute. The King of Tyre was 1 Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the O. T., p. 316. In the tribute lists of 734-732 B.C. appear the kings of various Phoenician cities and this refer- ence: " My general, the Rabshakeh, to Tyre I send. Of Mietenna of Tyre 150 talents of gold. ..." Vid. S. A. Strong (Trans.), Records of the Past, New Series, Vol. V, p. 126. ^ This most ancient of our Phoenician inscriptions was graven on a bronze bowl which was found on the island of Cyprus in 1872. The peasant who found the bowl broke it to see if it were made of gold. He left some of the fragments; others he gave to his children for playthings. The lost fragments were never recovered. Eight fragments fitted together give us the above inscription. Cooke, Northern-Semitic Inscriptions, No. 11. Corpus Inscrip- tionum Semiticarum, I, 5. 4 34 THE HISTORY OF TYRE spoken of as the King of the Sidonians^ and this inscription gives us the interesting information that the authority of Tyre ex- tended to Cyprus at this period. In the closing years of Tiglath- pilezer's reign Maten was king of Tyre.^ In the reign of Shalmanezer IV we find Tyre still enjoying semi-independence under King Eluleus, and claiming authority over the other Phoenician cities and the Island of Cyprus. The Cyprians revolted, but Eluleus sailed to their island and reduced them to submission. It is probable that the revolt of Cyprus was but submission to Assyria. The Assyrian king sent an army against Tyre. He overran all Phoenicia, but having no means for attacking the island city, he made peace and with- drew. Doubtless he had impressed the Phoenician dependencies of Tyre by his military measures, and they had seen that they were powerless to resist his armies. Sidon, Palaetyrus, and many other cities delivered themselves into his hands. Tyre refused to submit. The Assyrian king appeared again in Phoenicia. The other Phoenician cities now furnished him a fleet of sixty ships and eight hundred men to row them. Tyre seems to have been taken by surprise. But twelve ships were available with which to oppose the large hostile fleet. The Tyrians sailed boldly into battle, scattered the ships of the enemy and took five hundred men prisoners. Because of this victory great honor came to the people of Tyre. Finding the capture of Tyre impossible, the king withdrew, leaving troops to besiege the city by cutting off the water supply. The city, though distressed, was not conquered. The people drank only such brackish water as they could obtain from the wells they dug, or the rain-water which they collected in cisterns. At the end of five years, the siege was given up, troubles elsewhere requiring the Assyrian forces.^ 1 Vid. p. 25, note 7 above. *Vid. p. 33, note 1 above. »Vid. Menander as quoted by Josephus, Antiquities, IX, 14, Sect. 2. The accuracy of this account preserved by Josephus is open to serious question. Rogers thinks that this siege may have occurred under Sennacherib (History of Babylonia and Assyria, Vol. II, p. 146) . Max Mtiller considers it a confusion of several Assyrian attacks (Jewish Encyclopedia, s. v. Tyre). Vid. also Winckler: Altorientalische Forschungen, Zweite Reihe, I, p. 65. TYRE'S RESISTANCE TO ASSYRIAN ENCROACHMENT 35 King Eluleus reigned thirty-six years (?), and- it appears that after Shalmanezer's unsuccessful attempt to crush him, he was unmolested by the Assyrian forces for about twenty years. During this period Tyre regained her ascendency over a large part of the Phoenician territory, including Sidon, Sarepta, Ecdippa, Acco, and other cities. Sargon, who held the scepter of Assyria from 721 to 705 B.C., turned all his marvelous powers elsewhere. In 703 B.C. a league to resist Assyria was formed in the west, under King Hezekiah of Judah. The league included Ammon, Moab, Edom, and the cities of Phoenicia. Padi, King of Ekron, who was loyal to Assyria, was captured and delivered to King Hezekiah. Sennacherib (704-682 B.C.), son and successor of Sargon, in the year 701 B.C. appeared with a large army on the coast of the Mediterranean and received the sub- mission of the Phoenician cities, except Tyre. Let Sennacherib himself tell the story : "In my third campaign I went to the land of Khatti: the fear of the splendor of my sovereignty overcame Lull (Eluleus), the King of the city of Sidon, and he fled to the sea, and I took his territory. Greater Sidon and Lesser Sidon, and Bit-Zith, and Seriptu (Sarepta), and Mak- hallibi, and Ushu,^ and Akzibi (Ecdippa), and Akku (Acco), his strong cities and his fortresses, his storehouses of food and drink, his strongholds were vanquished by the might of the arms of Ashur my lord, and I placed them in subjection at my feet. 1 set Tuba'lu (Ethbaal) upon the throne of sovereignty over them, and laid upon him a fixed amount of tribute which was to be paid yearly to my lordship. Menahem of Samaria, Tuba'lu of Sidon . . . brought me rich gifts and heavy loads of their possessions, and kissed my feet.' The omission of all reference to Tyre is suggestive, however the Assyrian is not giving an account of his failures, but of his successes. It would seem that when Eluleus found that he could not defend his continental possessions, he withdrew to his island capital.^ Then, when Sennacherib found that he 1 Probably Palaetyrus. Vid. Winckler, Geschichte Isr., I, p. 201. 2 Taylor Cylinder, Translation of E. Wallace Budge, History of Egypt, Vol. VI, p. 136. 3 Vid. Rogers, Records of the Past, N. S., Vol. VI, p. 88, and Cuneiform Parallels, p. 340. Vid. also G. Smith, History of Sennacherib, p. 54, for 36 THE HISTORY OF TYRE could not crush Eluleus, he made Sidon the capital of Phoenicia, deposed Eluleus, whom he calls "King of Sidon," and appointed as governor the native prince Tuba'lu or Ethbaal. This political move would placate Sidon while stripping Tyre of much of her power. The account does not warrant the conclusion that Eluleus was crushed or that Tyre was taken, though the league for resistance was shattered, and Tyre seems to have made at least a nominal submission.^ There is no reason to believe that Tuba'lu proved an unfaith- ful vassal of his foreign master. Esarhaddon (680-668 B.C.) came to the throne of Assyria in 680 B.C. The yoke of Assyria proved so galling that subject provinces frequently chose the unsettled period when a new king was establishing himself upon the throne, as a favorable opportunity to revolt. Abi-Milkut, who had probably suc- ceeded Ethbaal, was on the throne of Sidon. He formed an alliance with Sanduarri, King of Kundu and Sizu, and declared independence. Esarhaddon appeared at the head of an Assyrian army, and wrought vengeance on the city of Sidon. Abi-Milkut fled to the open sea for safety. Esarhaddon says : " Abi-Milkut, King of Sidon, from the face of my soldiers in the midst of the sea had fled: like a fish from the midst of the sea I caught him, and cut off his head."^ Sanduarri suffered the same fate; and the two heads were carried to Nineveh to be hung around the necks of certain of their great men taken as captives, and who with musicians and singers, were to grace the triumph of the conqueror.^ It cannot be definitely settled whether the attack upon Tyre began during the siege of Sidon, or whether it was commenced during the subsequent march which the Assyrian armies made another account in the so-called Bull Inscriptions which states that Eluleus fled to Cyprus. 1 Goodspeed, History of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 269; Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels, pp. 334-335; History of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 296-297; Winckler, History of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 256-257. ^ Cf. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels, pp. 353-354. ' Vid. Goodspeed, History of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 294; Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels, p. 350. Sizu (Sazu) =Palaetyrus. — Vid. p. 4 above. TYRE'S RESISTANCE TO ASSYRIAN ENCROACHMENT 37 upon Egypt. ^ At least we know that it came within a short time, and the reason we can easily find in the need of immense treasure which Esarhaddon had to carry out his building schemes. The commerce of Tyre had brought the wealth of the nations to her. There were the great treasure houses. Esarhaddon would naturally turn his attention to Tyre as soon as possible. Baal was upon the throne, probably having succeeded Eluleus. The Tyrians could afford to purchase peace at a heavy price to pre- serve their commercial supremacy, but they were wise enough to know that no price would satisfy Esarhaddon while they retained their possessions and any measure of liberty. They therefore prepared for war. The Assyrian king laid siege to their city, but this was a work very different from that of be- sieging Sidon. Tyre was much better protected by her natural barriers. The Assyrian could occupy the mainland; he could capture Palaetyrus and cut off the city's usual water supply; he could attempt to fight the island dwellers with starvation. But the half mile of water in the channel was an effective barrier against assault, and the Assyrian army could not shut Tyre in from the open sea. And while the sea was open. Tyre, while harassed, could not be starved into submission. A long siege was successfully withstood and finally Esarhaddon withdrew without having accomplished his purpose. " It is true that upon one of his largest and most impressive monuments he pictures 1 Rogers, in the History of Babylonia and Assyria, holds that the siege of Tyre probably began while the siege of Sidon was in progress. On the other hand, the authority of Winckler and Goodspeed is given to the view that the siege of Tyre was begun as Esarhaddon marched south to attack the Egyptians. The account of the siege of Sidon is given in Prism A, Column 1, of the records of this king, and there is there no mention made of Tyre. But in the tablet giving the account of the campaign against Egypt, which Rogers dates 670 B.C., we read: "In my tenth campaign (Ashur gave me confidence) and I marched my troops to Magan and Melukhkha, and turned my face to the land of . . . which in the tongue of the people of Kush and Egypt is called. ... In the course of my campaign I erected siege works against Ba'al, King of Tyre, who had trusted in Tarqu, King of Kush, his friend, and had shaken off the yoke of Ashur, my lord, and had expressed defiance of me, I cut off from him food and drink, the means of life." The account then proceeds with the campaign against Tarqu. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament, pp. 357-358. 38 THE HISTORY OF TYRE Baal of Tyre kneeling before his august majesty who holds him with a ring through his lips. On the inscription, however, there is not one word about the fall of Tyre, nor elsewhere in any of Esarh addon's records is there any claim that Tyre had been taken."^ The picture on the Zinjirli stela is, therefore, a representation of Esarhaddon's vanity rather than that of the real outcome of the siege of Tyre. Tyre maintained her independence until the death of Esar- haddon, B.C. 668. Asshurbanipal, his son, was his successor on the throne of Assyria. In his first year he marched against Egypt. On his way he received the submission of twenty-two kings who came and kissed his feet. Among these was Baal of Tyre.^ Asshurbanipal went into Egypt, completely defeated the Egyptian forces and reinstated the governors appointed by Esarhaddon, who had fled before Tirhakah. Shortly after this expedition against Egypt, some of these governors began to plot against the Assyrian authority. A second expedition into Egypt completely crushed the movement. It is probable that Baal was accused of having some part in this plot and so incurred the wrath of Asshurbanipal. His third campaign was directed against Tyre, 664 B.C. He says: "In my third expedition against Baal, King of Tyre, I . . . went; who my royal will disregarded and did not hear the words of my lips; towers round him I raised; on sea and land his roads I took; their spirits I humbled and caused to melt away; to my yoke I made them submissive. The daughter proceeding from his body and the daughters of his brothers for concubines he brought to my presence. Yahimelek, his son, the glory of the country, of unsurpassed renown, at once he sent forward, to make obeisance to me. His daughter and the daughters of his brothers with their great dowries I received. Favour I granted him, and the son proceeding from his body I restored and gave him."» Baal was conquered and Tyre was made submissive to Assyria. But neither the deposing of her king nor the loss of political liberty crushed the commerce of Tyre. And even the 1 Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, Vol. II, p. 227. 2 G. Smith, Records of the Past, O. S., Vol. I, pp. 62, 63. » George Smith, Records of the Past, O. S., Vol. I, p. 68. TYRE'S RESISTANCE TO ASSYRIAN ENCROACHMENT 39 hard conditions of submission were more favorable for trade than the unsettled conditions of struggle. While armies of defence were to be maintained and hostile armies were ravaging the land, and caravans must do business in hostile territory in order to maintain the vast trade of the east, and merchandise could scarcely be obtained for export by sea — while these con- ditions of war existed, commerce mus|: have been very greatly injured. Submission to Assyria freed Tyre from military expenditure, insured the country against invasion and gave settled conditions and the protection of the "King of Asia" for the development of trade. To a commercial people these advantages more than balanced their cost in tribute and the loss of political independence. About the middle of the seventh century B.C. the Assyrian monarchy began to decline. The Tyrians must have known through their caravan traders that the Assyrian kingdom was tottering, and that the Median monarchy was gaining strength; that many provinces were withholding tribute and that there was no Assyrian sword to make collections any longer. As Assyria's cruelty had filled the world with hatred of her, so now her enervating luxury had filled the minds of distant peoples with anticipations of her fall. The Hebrew prophet Zephaniah wrote : "And he will stretch out his hand against the north and destroy Assyria; and he will make Nineveh a desolation, and dry like a wilderness. And flocks shall lie down in the midst of her, all the beasts of the nations; both the cormorant and the bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels of it; their voice shall sing in the windows; desolation shall be in the thresholds; for he shall uncover the cedar work. This is the rejoicing city that dwelt carelessly, that said in her heart, I am, and there is none beside me; how is she become a desolation, a place for beasts to lie down in! every one that passeth by her shall hiss, and wag his hand."^ With the relaxing of the Assyrian control, provinces found it necessary to protect themselves in time of danger. Independence of Assyria probably became a fact at Tyre before it was pro- claimed. It is certain that the merchant city would not pay 1 Zephaniah, II, 13-15. 40 THE HISTORY OF TYRE tribute any longer than she felt compelled to do so. The exact date when Tyre threw off the allegiance to Assyria is not known; it was probably about 630 B.C. The period of independence lasted until about 585 B.C., and in this period the city rose to the summit of her greatness. Her commerce extended to the ends of the earth. A remarkable account of her conditions and activities is given by Ezekiel, who lived in this period. He says : "The word of Jehovah came again unto me, saying, And thou, son of man, take up a lamentation over Tyre; and say unto T3'^re, O thou that dwellest at the entry of the sea, and art the merchant of the peoples unto many isles, thus saith the Lord Jehovah; Thou, Tyre, hast said, I am perfect in beauty. Thy borders are in the heart of the seas; thy builders have perfected thy beauty. They have made all thy planks of fir-trees from Senir; they have taken a cedar from Lebanon to make a mast for thee. Of the oaks of Bashan have they made thine oars; they have made thy benches of ivory inlaid in boxwood from the isles of Kittim. Of fine linen with broidered work from Egypt was thy sail, that it might be to thee for an ensign; blue and purple from the isles of Elishah was thine awning. The inhabitants of Sidon and Arvad were thy rowers; thy wise men, Tyre, were in thee, they were thy pilots. The old men of Gebal and the wise men thereof were in thee, thy calkers; all the ships of the sea with their mariners were in thee to deal in thy merchandise. Persia and Lud and Put were in thine army, thy men of war; they hanged the shield and helmet in thee; they set forth thy comliness. The men of Arvad with thine army were upon thy walls round about, and valorous men were in thy towers; they hanged their shields upon thy walls round about: they have perfected thy beauty. "Tarshish was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of all kinds of riches; with silver, iron, tin, and lead they traded for thy wares. Javan, Tubal and Meshech were thy traffickers; they traded the persons of men and vessels of brass for thy merchandise. They of the house of Togarmath traded for thy wares with horses and warhorses and mules. The men of Dedan were thy traffickers; many isles were the mart of thy hand; they brought thee in exchange horns of ivory and ebony. Syria was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of thy handy works; they traded for thy wares with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine linen, and coral, and rubies. Judah, and the land of Israel, were thy traffickers: they traded for thy merchandise wheat of Minnith, and pan- nag, and honey, and oil and balm. Damascus was thy merchant for the multitude of thy handy works, by reason of the multitude of all kinds of riches, with the wines of Helbon and white wool. Vedan and Javan TYRE'S RESISTANCE TO ASSYRIAN ENCROACHMENT 41 traded with yarn for thy wares; bright iron, cassia and calamus were among thy merchandise. Dedan was thy trafficker in precious cloths for riding. Arabia, and all the princes of Kedar, they were the merchants of thy hand; in lambs, and rams and goats, in these were they thy mer- chants. The traffickers of Sheba and Raamah, they were thy traffickers; they traded for thy wares with the chief of all spices, and with all precious stones, and with gold. Haran, and Canneh and Eden, the traffickers of Sheba, Asshur and Chilmad were thy traffickers. These were thy traf- fickers in choice wares, in wrappings of blue and broidered work, and with chests of rich apparel, bound with cords and made with cedar, among thy merchandise. The ships of Tarshish were thy caravans for thy merchandise; and thou wast replenished and made very glorious in the heart of the seas. "Thy rowers have brought thee into great waters; the east wind hath broken thee in the heart of the seas. Thy riches, and wares, thy mer- chandise, thy mariners and thy pilots, thy calkers, and the dealers in thy merchandise, and all thy men of war that are in thee, with all thy company which is in the midst of thee, shall fall into the heart of the seas in the day of thy ruin. At the sound of the cry of thy pilots the suburbs shall shake. And all that handle the oar, the mariners, and all the pilots of the sea, shall come down from their ships; they shall stand upon the land, and shall cause their voice to be heard over thee, and shall cry bitterly, and shall cast up dust upon their heads; they shall wallow themselves in the ashes; and they shall make themselves bald for thee, and gird them with sackcloth, and they shall weep for thee in bitterness of soul in bitter mourning. And in their waiUng they shall take up a lamentation over thee, and lament over thee, saying. Who is there like Tyre, like her that is brought to silence in the midst of the sea? With thy wares sent forth out of the seas, thou filledst many peoples; thou didst enrich the kings of the earth with the multitude of thy riches and of thy merchandise. In the time that thou wast broken by the seas in the depths of the waters, thy merchandise and all of thy company did fail in the midst of thee. All the inhabitants of the isles are astonished at thee, and their kings are horribly afraid; they are troubled in their countenance. The merchants among the peoples hiss at thee; thou art become a terror, and thou shalt nevermore have any being."^ Tyre was the cosmopolitan city of the world, and the Hebrew prophet saw her as a treasure-ship soon to be wrecked in storms. 1 Ezekiel, XXVII. CHAPTER V tyke's resistance to BABYLON Tyre threw off the Assyrian yoke in about 630 B.C. For many centuries Syria was the buffer territory between the peoples of the Euphrates and those of the Nile. Now that Assyria's power was broken, Egypt coveted possession of the territory. Necho II, son of Psamatik I, shortly after ascending the throne of Egypt, made an expedition into Syria in 608 B.C. and brought the whole territory as far east as Carchemish on the Euphrates, under Egyptian control. Doubtless Tyre became tributary, retaining her autonomy and securing con- ditions favorable to her trade. But in 605 B.C., Nabopolassar, King of Babylon, having overthrown Assyria, sent his son Nebuchadrezzar, to recover from Egypt the territory over which Assyria had ruled. He met Necho at Carchemish, and a great battle was fought,^ the Egyptians being defeated and put to rout. Nebuchadrezzar marched through Syria and received the submission of the whole country. His progress was a tri- umphal march. Tyre,^ with the other Phoenician cities, ac- knowledged the sovereignty of Babylon, retaining her own ruler and enjoying semi-independence under tribute. Nebuchad- rezzar had progressed to the very borders of Egypt when news of his father's death called him to hasten back to Babylon with all possible speed. Although all Syria had acknowledged submission to the new Babylonian kingdom, order had not been restored, and con- fidence in Babylonian supremacy in that territory, over Egypt, had not been established. The unsettled political conditions, 1 Vid. Jer., XLVI, and II Kings, XXIV, 1. ^ Jeremiah's allusion (XXV, 22) in 604 B.C., to the approaching downfall of the kings of Tyre and Sidon and the coastland beyond the sea, i. e., Phoenic- ian settlements in the Mediterranean, seems to imply that the Phoenician cities recovered some measure of independence. 42 TYRE'S RESISTANCE TO BABYLON 43 and petty warfares between tribes and peoples were extremely depressive for Tyre's land commerce upon which her trade by sea so largely depended. And where Babylonian ascendency was fully established, much of the trade that had belonged to Tyre in the immediate past was now falling to Babylon. Jeru- salem under Jehoiakim raised the standard of revolt and suffered severe punishment at the hand of Nebuchadrezzar, B.C. 597.^ The encroachment of Babylonia meant the loss of liberty, and seemed to mean the loss of prosperity for Tyre, unless it could be resisted. In this situation Egypt offered help. Pharaoh-Hophra (Apries) came to the Egyptian throne in 589 B.C. and was eager to regain control in the affairs of Syria and Palestine. The frequent policy of Egypt under such circumstances was to incite revolt in this border territory. A messenger from the king of Tyre met with messengers from the kings of Sidon, Edom, Moab, and Ammon at Jerusalem, to persuade Zedekiah^ to join in the united revolt. To these messengers the prophet Jeremiah gave a message which,^ if heeded, would have saved Tyre from one of the greatest calamities of her history. It was a message of submission, showing the folly and inevitable disaster of revolt. But Egypt could be counted on ; the coalition looked very strong. It appealed to a blind patriotism which finally over-rode the sane councils of Jeremiah and those who stood with him. The revolt was proclaimed. Nebuchadrezzar, at the head of a large army, advanced as far as Riblah on the Orontes. A divi- sion of the army was sent against Jerusalem and the city be- sieged.^ Hophra, with an Egyptian army, made a demon- stration against the Assyrians that necessitated a temporary lifting of the siege, but hope soon fled, for the Egyptians with- drew.^ 1 II Kings, XXIV, 1-4. 2 Read Zedekiah for Jehoiakim in Jer., XXVII, 3, 12, or omit verse 1, following the LXX. » Jeremiah, XXVII. * II Kings, XXIV, 10. ' Jeremiah, XXXVII, 7. 44 THE HISTORY OF TYRE Josephus^ says that the Egyptian army under Hophra was defeated by the Babylonians, but Jeremiah, who seems to be his authority, does not speak of any battle. Diodorus says of Hophra: "He invaded with mighty force Cyprus and Phoenicia, and took Sidon by storm; and through fear and terror of him brought other cities of Phoenicia into subjection. And having routed the Cyprians and Phoenicians in a great sea fight, he returned into Egypt loaded with the spoils of his enemies."^ And Herodotus says of him: "He made war on Sidon and fought with the people of Tyre by the sea."^ We must remember that the military world powers were Babylon and Egypt, and that they looked upon the smaller states as the lawful prizes of their contests. While the Egyp- tian army was occupied elsewhere, Jerusalem was reinvested and the siege pressed with all possible vigor. The city fell in 586 B.C.^ Nebuchadrezzar now turned to the task of taking Tyre. Ethbaal H was then king of the city; he prepared for war. The following is Ezekiel's prediction of the siege, in which Tyre for thirteen years, 585-572 B.C.,^ withstood the force of Babylonian arms: "Behold I will bring upon Tyre Nebuchadrezzar King of Babylon, king of kings, from the north, with horses, and with chariots, and with horsemen, and with a company, and with much people. He shall slay with the sword thy daughters in the field; and he shall make forts against thee, and cast up a mound against thee, and raise up the buckler against thee. And he shall set his battering engines against thy walls, and with his axes he shall break down thy towers. By reason of the abundance of his horses their dust shall cover thee; thy walls shall shake at the noise 1 Antiquities, X, 7 and 3. 2 Diodorus, I, 69. ^ Herodotus, II, 161. 4 II Kings, XXIV, 10-20. ^ Josephus, Against Apion, I, 21, says: "On the 7th year of the reign of Nebuchadrezzar he began to besiege TjTe," but this clearly is wrong. The additions of Josephus show that we ought to read the 20th for the 7th. Jer., XXVII, indicates that the siege of Tyre had not begun in the first year of the reign of Zedekiah; while Ezekiel, XXVI, clearly shows that Tyre had not yet fallen in the eleventh year of the Captivity. Vid. Kenrick, Phoenicia, p. 386, and Hengstenberg, De Rebus Tyriorum, pp. 38-42. TYRE'S RESISTANCE TO BABYLON 45 of the horsemen and of the wagons and of the chariots, when he shall enter into thy gates as men entering into a city where a breach is made. With the hoofs of his horses shall he tread down all thy streets: he shall slay thy people with the sword, and the pillars of thy strength shall go down to the ground. And they shall make a spoil of thy riches and a prey of thy merchandise; and they shall lay thy stones and thy timber and thy dust in the midst of the waters. And I will cause the noise of thy songs to cease and the sound of thy harps shall be no more heard. And I will make thee a bare rock; and thou shalt be a place for the spreading of nets: thou shalt be built no more."^ "Thy riches and thy wares, thy merchandise, and thy mariners, and thy pilots, calkers, and the dealers in thy merchandise, and all thy men of war that are in thee, and all thy company that is in the midst of thee, shall fall into the heart of the seas in the day of thy ruin."^ A large part of this description must have related to Mainland Tyre. Means effective on the mainland could not be employed against the city in the sea. Jerome, almost a thousand years later, suggests^ that Nebuchadrezzar may have constructed a mole from the mainland to the island in order to attack the city. But if such a mole had been constructed, it would have grown with the washup of the sands, as Alexander's mole has done. It certainly would have been no great task for Alexander to con- struct his mole. These facts, with the silence of a thousand years, leave no reasonable probability that the mole was con- structed before Alexander's time. Josephus quotes Philostratus as saying of Nebuchadrezzar: " This king besieged Tyre thirteen years, while at the same time Ethbaal was king of Tyre."^ Tyre occupied a position of dependency in the period immediately following. This is indi- cated by a contract tablet dated in Tyre "Month Tammuz, day 22nd, year 49th. Nebuchadrezzar, King of Babylon."^ History has left us no account of the surrender of the city. There is no reason to believe that it was taken by assault. 1 Ezekiel, XXVI, 7-14. 2 Ezekiel, XXVII, 27. 3 Commentary on Ezekiel, XXVI, 15-18. < Josephus, Antiquities, X, 2, 91; Against Apion, I, 21. » Pinches, in Records of the Past, N. S., Vol. V, pp. 99, 100. 46 THE HISTORY OF TYRE Many of the people, with much of the treasure of Palaetyrus, doubtless escaped by sea before that part of the city fell. The island city probably made submission upon conditions, without receiving the hostile army within her walls. The capture of the city was far different from the prophecy of it according to the prophet Ezekiel himself: "Nebuchadrezzar King of Babylon caused his army to serve a great service against Tyre: every head was made bald" (with continuous wearing of the helmet) "and every shoulder was worn" (with carrying weapons), "yet had he no wages, nor his army, from Tyre, for the service that he had served against it."^ The siege probably ended with the nominal submission of the city and the surrender of a number of her nobles. It is a suggestive fact that Ethbaal's life ended with the ending of the siege.^ However, he was followed on the throne by Baal,^ a native prince, probably his son. Tyre's submission was farther shown, as we shall see, from the fact that she selected her kings from the nobles whom she was compelled to send as hostages to Babylon. Her commerce was ruined by the long siege; Phoenician leadership passed for a time to Sidon. Palaetyrus remained in ruins until the time of Alexander. In Tyrian history a period of great depression follows the siege of Nebuchadrezzar. After Baal, successor to Ethbaal, had reigned ten years, 572-562 B.C., there was a revolution; and a government by (D"^C0D5-^) Judges, as at Carthage, was adopted.^ Ecnibaal (^^D'^^p), son of Baslach {nb\t;bv'2), was the first of the judges and held office but two months.^ Chelbes (D^nib^D]), son of Abdeus {[b^'2\l'2V) > was his suc- cessor and ruled ten months.^ Abbar (l^n), the high priest, as the third of the judges, maintained himself but three months before being recalled.^ Matgen (JHTO) and Gerastart (ninSi^i^""^), 1 Ezekiel, XXIX, 18-19. ''Vid. Hengstenberg, De Rebus Tyriorum, pp. 42-43; and Josephus, Against Apion, I, 21. ' Josephus, Against Apion, I, 21. * Ibid. » Ibid. « Ibid. ' Ibid. TYRE'S RESISTANCE TO BABYLON 47 sons of Abdelem (D^/'^^"!^^^), then served as joint judges for six years.^ Belator Cnni?"/'^^) ruled one year as king. After the death of Belator the royal party came into full control again.^ They sent to Babylon requesting that Merbaal O^^ IHO), who had been detained there among the hostages for the loyalty of Tyre, be allowed to return home to be their king. The request was granted, and Merbaal reigned four years.^ After his death they sent again to Babylon for Hiram, brother of Merbaal, and he reigned in Tyre twenty years .^ In the fourteenth year of the reign of Hiram, Cyrus captured Babylon (538 B.C.) and the monarchy passed under the control of the Persians.^ Thus began a new chapter in the history of Tyre. 1 Josephus, Against Apion, I, 21. 2 Ibid. » Ibid. *Ibid. 5 Ibid. CHAPTER VI TYRE UNDER THE PERSIANS In the period following Nebuchadrezzar's thirteen-year siege, supremacy among the Phoenician cities passed from Tyre to her ancient rival, Sidon. Tyre's commerce was ruined during the siege. Doubtless many of the masters of her in- dustries escaped with their possessions and transferred their activities to other cities. The military cost of the defense must have been ruinous. It is not strange that many years passed before the city recovered her strength. However Tyre had little to complain of under the Babylonian rulers who succeeded Nebuchadrezzar, and as appears from the records of the Persian period, she recovered much of her former glory. When Babylon fell before Cyrus in 538 B.C., the con- queror laid claim to all the domain that had formerly belonged to the Babylonians. Assuming sovereignty over Phoenicia, he granted the Jews a concession^ of Phoenician timber which was to be cut in Lebanon and taken by sea to Joppa for them by men of "Sidon and Tyre."^ There was no reason for the Phoe- nician cities to resent the grant; on the contrary, commercial incentives must have led them to desire the renewal of the ancient friendship which they had had with Israel, and to wish the good will of the new Persian Empire. Moreover they were to be well paid for their services. That the Phoenician cities 1 Ezra, III, 7. ^ This order of naming these cities, characteristic of th's period, bears witness that the preeminence had passed to Sidon. When Darius pre- pared for war against Greece, his spies set out from Sidon. — Herod., Ill, 136. The Phoenician ships were the best in his fleet, and the Sidonians the best among the Phoenicians. — Herod., VI, 98. When Darius visited his fleet and the sovereigns of nations and captains of the ships sat with him, "in the first seat sat the king of Sidon; after him the king of Tyre; then the rest in their order." — Herod., VIII, 67. 48 TYRE UNDER THE PERSIANS ' 49 claimed the rank of allies rather than vassals, is clear from events in the reign of Cambyses. Cambyses, coming to the Persian throne in 529 B.C., resolved upon an expedition against Egypt. In this campaign the co- operation of the Phoenician cities, possessing as they did the finest naval equipment in the world, was of very great importance. Whether such cooperation was secured by promises or threats, we are not told; certainly violence was not used, for the historian relates that they joined the fleet voluntarily.^ Justin gives us an account of an insurrection of the slaves at Tyre, which he places in this period. He says that the slaves formed a conspiracy at a time when their masters were weakened by long defensive fighting against the Persians. The slaves having slain their masters and the free citizens, seized the government. However, one moved by pity secluded the son of his master and saved his life. At a later time it was decided that the man should be crowned king over them, who first saw the sunlight on a certain morning. At the appointed place, while others gazed eastward for the first gleam of sunlight, this young man gazed westward upon the roofs of the tallest buildings of the city, and so won his crown. His name was Strato (HiriCi^i^) ; and his son and then his grandson ruled after him.^ We have no other record of this. It clearly does not fit into the historical situation to which Justin assigns it. If taken seriously at all, it must be referred to some one of the sieges earlier than the Persian time. Cambyses made himself master of Egypt but did not turn back to Babylon as might have been expected. Bent upon extending his conquests still further, he commanded the Phoe- nicians to join in an expedition against Carthage.^ The incident is vital to this story because Carthage was the noblest daughter of Tyre, and if the order had been obeyed, no one can measure what the effect upon human history would have been. The 1 Herodotus, III, 19. 2 Justin, XVIII, 3. ' Vid. Herodotus, III, 19. 5 50 THE HISTORY OF TYRE Phoenicians refused to obey the order of Cambyses, saying that they were bound to the Carthaginians by solemn oaths, and that it would be a wicked act to make war upon their own children. The courage of this answer may be measured when one remem- bers the character of Cambyses and the power of Persia; but the value that Cambyses set upon Phoenician good will is shown by the fact that he honored their answer and rescinded the obnoxious order. Tyre must have been. benefited commercially by the increased facilities for land communication afforded by the fast post- routes/ and the introduction of a uniform metallic currency throughout the Persian Empire.^ Under Darius the empire was divided into twenty satrapies. Tyre was in the fifth satrapy, which was composed of all Phoe- nicia, Palestine, Syria and Cyprus. The tribute of this satrapy was fixed at 350 talents.^ The Phoenician cities enjoyed a large amount of autonomy and retained their native kings.^ They also met in annual council at Tripolis, usually without inter- ference from the Persians.^ After the part that Tyre took in the Egyptian expedition, she was not called upon to bear arms for the Persians until 498 B.C., when the Greeks of Asia revolted. Cyprus, where the Greek population outnumbered the Phoenician, joined the revolt. Phoenicia furnished the fleet for Darius. A double battle was fought near Salamis, and, though the Ionian Greeks defeated the Phoenicians at sea, according to the Greek account, the Persian land forces gained so complete a victory that the Ionian fleet withdrew and the Persians were left masters of the situation.^ Darius proceeded from the conquest of Cyprus to attack the Ionian cities. A naval force of 600 vessels was assembled near Miletus, the city of Aristagorus, author of the Ionian revolt. 1 Vid. Esther, VIII, 9-10. ^ Vid. Rawlinson, in his Herodotus, I, 709, and IV, 30 note. » Herodotus, III, 89-91. * Ibid., VIII, 67. 6 Diodorus, XVI, 41. 8 Vid. Herodotus, V, 104-116. TYRE UNDER THE PERSIANS 51 In this fleet the Phoenicians were most zealous.^ In the naval battle, 494 B.C., near the island of Lade opposite Miletus, they defeated the lonians,^ and the conquest of Miletus soon followed. The Phoenician fleet was used by the Persians in the conquest of the islands of the Aegean and of various cities on the European shore. Miltiades, afterwards hero of Marathon, narrowly escaped capture by one of their vessels and his son Metiochus was captured.^ It may be safely assumed that the Phoenician cities furnished a large proportion of the fleets with which Mardonius in 492 B.C., and Datis and Artaphernes in 490 B.C. made their expeditions against Greece. When in 485 B.C. Xerxes determined to attempt the conquest of Greece, Phoenicia again supported Persian arms. A ship-canal was to be cut through the isthmus that joins Mt. Athos to the mainland. The Phoenicians made their portion of the cutting twice as wide at the top as was required at the bottom. They " showed in this the skill which they were wont to exhibit in all their undertakings."^ With the Egyptians they constructed the pontoon bridge across the Hellespont by which the armies of Xerxes marched from Asia into Europe.^ At the Battle of Artimisium they distinguished themselves less than the Egyptians,^ but at Salamis they were stationed over against the Athenians. How large a part Tyre had in the naval forces of Xerxes is not known, but of his twelve hundred and seven ships, Phoenicia furnished three hundred;^ and Tyre's importance among the allies of Xerxes was second only to that of Sidon.^ Among the most renowned of those who sailed was Mapen, son of Sirom (Hiram) the Tyrian.^ A combat between a Phoenician and an Athenian ship brought on the general engagement at Salamis. The Phoenicians bore an honorable part in the battle, but fell under the displeasure of Xerxes. In the confusion of the ships, crowded in the narrow 1 Herodotus, VI, 6. » Ibid., VIII, 67. 2 Ibid., VI, 14. ■ « Ibid., VIII, 17, 5. 3 Ibid., VI, 41. 7 Ibid., VII, 89. * Ibid., VII, 23. « Ibid., VII, 34. » Ibid., VII, 98. 52 THE HISTORY OF TYRE strait, they ran foul of each other; several Phoenician ships were sunk by the lonians; the Phoenicians protested against this as an act of treachery, to Xerxes who was looking down upon the battle. While the protest was being made the king beheld an unusual display of valor on the part of a Greek vessel which was in the Persian service. This incident turned the wrath of Xerxes, enraged by defeat, upon the heads of the Phoenicians. He charged them with imputing their own cowardice to the lonians, and ordered a number of their oflficers beheaded. The others, moved by resentment and fears of further outrage, withdrew at nightfall to the Attic shore and thence sailed away to Asia.^ Their transports remained and were employed in the construction of the bridge to Salamis by which Xerxes sought to conceal his purpose of flight,^ but for fifteen years we read of no Phoenician navy in Persian service, though the war with Greece continued. Not until 465 B.C., when the victorious Athenians threatened the island of Cyprus, did Phoenicia employ her naval force in Persian service.^ In the next three-quarters of a century the Phoenician cities seem to have been loyal in their submission to Persia. Their forces had prominent part in the numerous Persian wars.^ Tyre was involved in the war which arose in 392 B.C. between the Persians and Evagorus of Cyprus. This prince had over- thrown the rule of the Cypriot Phoenicians and had put to death the reigning despot, Abdemon, the Tyrian, who was friendly to Persia.^ The power of Persia was waning. Athens sent a fleet for the support of Evagorus. Acoris, king of Egypt, sent aid. Several states must have been in secret sympathy with him. He took Tyre by assault, according to Isocrates,^ which probably means that Tyre voluntarily surrendered. The city supplied him with twenty triremes.^ But the peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C., deprived him of the aid of Athens, and after ten years of revolt he was compelled to submit to Persia again, but allowed 1 Diodorus, XI, 19. ^ Ibid., XIV, 98. 2 Herodotus, VIII, 97. » Isocrates, II, 101. * Diodorus, XI, 60. ^ Diodorus, XV, 2. « Ibid., XI, 62; XII, 3, XIII, 38, XIV, 83. TYRE UNDER THE PERSIANS 53 to retain his crown. With the submission of Evagorus, Tyre became again subject to the Persians also, but the ties which bound the Phoenician cities to the Persian Empire were weak- ening. The successful revolt of Egypt, and the general dissatisfaction of the states of the west^ led in 362 B.C. to the War of the Satraps. Phoenicia participated in the revolt. Tachos, King of Egypt, was welcomed by the Phoenician cities, but disaffection among hjs own subjects compelled him to abandon the move- ment, and the rebellion of the satrapies was subdued. Tyre was still under the Persian yoke.^ The satrap of Ochus treated the Phoenicians with great inso- lence, and as a result, at a general assembly of the Phoenician cities held at Tripolis, 352 B.C., independence was declared. The Persian officers at Sidon were killed, the royal residence was destroyed, preparations for war were made and an alliance with Egypt was effected. Egypt sent four thousand Greek mercenaries under Mentor. Two satraps, Belesys of Syria and Mazaeus of Cilicia, who were sent to subdue the rebellion, were defeated in battle. Meanwhile Cyprus again revolted. Ochus collected an army of three hundred and forty thousand men, arranged for vast naval support,^ and set out in person for Phoenicia. Tennes, King of Sidon, sought to purchase personal safety at the price of the betrayal of his city. The Sidonians resolved to die rather than fall into the hands of Ochus. Each citizen shut himself with his family in his own home and then applying the torch consumed himself and his family with his dwelling. More than forty thousand persons are said to have perished in the conflagration.^ Persia under Ochus showed unusual strength. Tyre and the other Phoenician cities, resumed submission to the Persian crown. They enjoyed peace from 351 to 333 B.C. Sidon was rebuilt. Tyre doubtless profited in a commercial way from the disaster of Sidon, much as Sidon had profited from Tyre's disastrous siege under Nebuchadrezzar. 1 Diodorus, XV, 41 ff. ^ Ibid., XVI, 40. 2 Ibid., XV, 90 ff. * Ibid., XVI, 41-45. CHAPTER VII TYRE UNDER THE GREEKS: ALEXANDER'S SIEGE^ During the eighteen years of quietness that Tyre enjoyed after the struggle for independence in 352 B.C., the power of Persia was waning, and that of Greece was increasing. In 336 B.C. Alexander the Great came to the throne of Macedonia. He made himself master of Greece and soon prepared to invade Asia. The victory (334 B.C.)^ at the Granicus River gave him possession of Asia Minor; and that near the city of Issus resulted in the withdrawal of Darius beyond the Euphrates.^ Alexander did not at once pursue Darius. The navies of Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Egypt were still in Persian service. The conqueror deemed it wise to detach these before pushing his conquest further into the empire. He therefore turned south into Phoenicia. The Phoenician cities took no concerted action; they may have expected him to pursue Darius, and so may have been taken by surprise. Their forces were serving in the Persian navy, but were not hindering the Macedonian, whose campaign was a land campaign. The memory of the cruelties of Ochus were still fresh. Little opposition to Alexander was to be expected. Starto, son of Gerastartus, King of Aradus, met Alexander and presented him a golden crown and the submission of his pos- sessions. Sidon welcomed the conqueror most gladly. Her king, Starto, was serving in the Persian navy and was suspected of preference for Persia. He was deposed, and at the choice of He- phaeston, the throne was given to Abdalonymus (D^^"Pi7"nDi7), who was an obscure member of the royal family, so poor that he followed the occupation of a gardener.* ^ It is not unlikely that Zech., IX, 2-4, refers to this siege. 2 Diodorus, XVII, 19 ff. » Ibid., XVII, 33-39. i\o(ro(f)las evxoplav iroXi) irXelffr-qv Xa^eTv itXTiv iK TO&ruiv rwv iroKiuv. ' Ptolemy, Geography, I, 7. * Ibid., I, 6. 5 Ibid., I, 4. TYRE UNDER THE ROMANS 73 following him excepting when he found an error.^ The rhe- torician, Paulus of Tyre, was a man of much ability. He went to Rome on an embassy for his native city, and so pleased the Emperor Hadrian by an oration given before him that the Emperor conferred upon Tyre the title of Metropolis, thus oflScially settling the ancient controversy between Tyre and Sidon.2 Maximus of Tyre, who flourished 160-190 A.D. was a Sophist and philosopher, many of whose works are extant. He took up his abode at Rome, and is said to have been one of the instructors of Marcus Aurelius. Near the close of the second century the church at Tyre was active, under the leadership of her own bishop, Cassius, in the Paschal controversy that then stirred Christendom.^ In the year 193 A.D. Septimus Severus and Pescennius Niger were rival aspirants to the throne of Rome. Niger commanded the east with headquarters at Antioch. The Tyrians and people of Laodicea, perhaps because of jealousy of their neighbors, favored Severus. Upon receiving the news that Niger had failed in his attempt to prevent the march of Severus through the passes of the Taurus, they destroyed the insignia and boldly proclaimed Severus. Niger sent his Mauritanian troops with orders to destroy these two cities and put their inhabitants to the sword. The bloody commission was executed. Tyre was plundered and burned after a fearful slaughter of her citizens.^ Niger was defeated in the battle of Issus (194 A.D.) and was slain soon afterward at Antioch. In 201 A.D. Severus recruited the population of Tyre from the third legion which had long been in Syria, and rewarded the city for its loyalty to himself by giving it the title of Colony,^ with the Jus Italicum. The city seems to have recovered quickly from its disaster. It regained some measure of its former wealth and splendor. 1 Ptolemy, Geography, I, 18. Vid. also Kenrick, Phoenicia, p. 441. ^ Suidas s. v. IIoOXos Ti/ptos. ' Eusebius, Church History, V, 25. Vid. Schaff and Wace, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, New York, 1890, Vol. I, p. 244. ^ Herodian, III, Chapter III, 3-6. ^ Vid. coins of Severus, p. 158 below. 74 THE HISTORY OF TYRE In the year 250-251 there was a general persecution of the Christians, through an effort of the Emperor Decius to re- estabhsh the ancient Roman faith. Origen was thrown into prison, and suffered the torture of the rack and the iron collar. By his fortitude he won the name Adamantius, but when the persecution ceased, he came forth broken in health, and perhaps as a result of his torture, died in 253.^ "For largeness of learning, fruitfulness of work, sweetness of character, he was the glory of the Church in his day, and almost every great man in the Eastern Church for fifty years after his death was either a personal pupil of that great teacher, or somehow an instrument of his fashioning. "2 When the Cathedral of Tyre was built, the body of this great scholar was entombed behind its altar, accord- ing to tradition. That the Church at Tyre was not crushed by the persecution under Decius is evidenced by the fact that among the "more illustrious" bishops of the east when peace was restored (253 A.D.) was Marinus, Bishop of Tyre.^ Porphyry, the Neo-Platonist, was a native of Tyre. He attended the teaching of Origen there. Porphyry's^ Phoenician name was Malchus, T|/D, king, but because of his desire to ingratiate himself with Greeks and Romans, and perhaps to hide his Asiatic origin, he adopted the name Porphyrins, purple as the royal color, being a fair equivalent for Malchus. He was a tireless student not only in the east but at Athens under Longinus. He went to Rome in 262 A.D. and joined the Neo-Platonist school of Plotinus. In him Neo-Platonism reached its highest ethical teaching.^ He was a great opponent of Christianity. He wrote a life of Pythagoras, in which he represents Pythagoras 1 Eusebius, Church History, VI, 39, Schaff and Wace Edition, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Vol. I, p. 281; Jerome, Lives of Illustrious Men, 54. Vid. ibid., Vol. Ill, p. 374. 2 Waterman, The Fost-ApostoUc Age (N. Y., 1898), p. 359. 2 Eusebius, VII, 5. Schaff and Wace Edition, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Vol. I, p. 294. * The name Uop Acts, XII, 20. 6 A. B. Davidson, Ezekiel, p. 197. ^ Hosea, XIV, 7; Song of Solomon, VIII, 11; for frequent mention in Assyrian inscriptions vid. Shrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testa- ment (Translation of Whitehouse, London, 1888), p. 121; vid. also Strabo, XV, 3. * Text uncertain; cf. LXX; Davidson, Ezekiel, p. 198. » Gen., XXV, 13; Isa., LX, 7; Jer., XLIX, 28 et al. COLONIES, COMMERCE, AND INDUSTRIES 141 "The traffickers of Sheba and Raamah, they were thy traf- fickers: they traded for thy wares with chief of all spices, and with all precious stones and gold." Sheba was in the southwest of Arabia; her caravans^ traded with gold, precious stones, and spices. "Haran^ and Canneh^ and Eden,^ the traffickers of Sheba, Asshur and Chilmad,^ were thy traffickers. These were thy traffickers in choice wares, in wrappings of blue and broidered work, and in chests of rich apparel, bound with cords and made of cedar, among thy merchandise. The ships of Tarshish were thy caravans for thy merchandise: and thou wast replenished, and made very glorious in the heart of the seas." The "ships of Tarshish" were a type of great ships strong enough for the longest voyage.^ The camel has been called the ship of the desert; here the procession of ocean vessels is spoken of as a caravan bringing treasures to Tyre. Such was the world-wide commerce of Tyre in the days of her glory. Her seamen were doubtless among the Phoenicians who circumnavigated Africa 611-605 B.C.^ A blow was struck, more serious to the commerce of Tyre than any of the fearful sieges through which she passed, when Alexandria was founded and trade diverted to it.^ Later she suffered still further when Rome made herself the center of the world's affairs. However, Tyre continued to flourish as a com- mercial center.^ Jerome left record of her commercial prosperity in his time (340-420 A.D.).^° When we come to the period of the Crusades, while Tyre has her own ships, her navy is inferior to that of Egypt; and Genoa, Venice and Pisa have come to be 1 Job, VI, 19; I Kings, X, 2; Isa., XL, 6; Jer., VI, 20 et al. 2 In Mesopotamia, Gen., XI, 31; XII, 4; XXVII, 43; XXVIII, 10 et al. » Perhaps Calneh (Gen., X, 10) or Calno (Isa., X, 9). * Named in connection with Haran in Isa., XXXVII, 12. ^ Location unknown. Vid. LXX, in loco. ® Vid. p. 21 above. ^ Herodotus, IV, 42. 8 Vid. p. 67 above. 9 Strabo, XVI, 2-23. " Vid. p. 78 above. 142 THE HISTORY OF TYRE leaders in the world's commerce.^ From the time of her fall in 1291 A.D., Tyre lay in ruins for five hundred years. The present petty trade of Tyre, dim shadow of a mighty past, is described on page 132 above. From an early date Tyre was occupied not only with trafiicking in the merchandise of others, but with manufacturing also. In ancient times she was famous for her works in metallurgy. It was a Tyrian artist who constructed for Solomon the splendid works in bronze which were among the glories of the Temple at Jerusalem, the two massive pillars Jachin and Boaz, and the great laver called a "molten sea," fifteen feet in diameter and supported by twelve oxen arranged in groups of three.^ The same artist fashioned also "the golden altar, and the table whereupon the showbread was, of gold; and the candlesticks, five on the right side and five on the left, before the oracle, of pure gold; and the flowers, and the lamps, and the tongs, of gold; and the cups, and the snuffers, and the basins, and the spoons, and the firepans, of pure gold; and the hinges, both for the doors of the inner house, the most holy place, and for the doors of the house, to wit, of the temple, of gold."^ "To cast pillars of bronze, eighteen cubits high and twelve in circumference, with capitals of the same material, five cubits high; a molten sea supported by twelve brazen oxen; the ten movable lavers of brass, with their bases and bronze wheels, would be no slight task even for modern skill. "^ Tyre's skill in artistic metal work continued until the time of her fall. Nasir-i- Khusrau, visiting the city in 1047 A.D., saw in her bazaar "lamps and lanterns of gold and silver."^ Another industry for which the city was famous was the manufacture of textile fabrics. At the construction of the Temple at Jerusalem they showed skill in purple and in blue ^ Vid. p. 87 et seq. above. 2 1 Kings, VII, 13-47; II Chron., Ill, 15; IV, 4. 3 1 Kings, VII, 48-50. * Kenrick, Phoenicia, p. 250. Vid. Rawlinson, Phoenicia, p. 285. ' Vid. p. 85 above. COLONIES, COMMERCE, AND INDUSTRIES 143 and in fine linen.^ The veil of the temple was made of blue and purple and crimson and fine linen,^ The weaving of textile fabrics continued to be an important industry throughout the period of Tyre's greatness. Idrisi writing in 1154 A.D. says "They make also a sort of white clothes-stuff which is exported thence to all parts, being extremely fine, and well-woven beyond compare. The price is very high; and in but few neighboring countries do they make as good a stuff. "^ A third important industry was the manufacture of glass. The pillar of the temple of Melkart which "shone brightly in the night "^ must have been a hollow cylinder of green glass in which a lamp perpetually burned.^ Sidon was credited as being the place of the discovery of the art of making glass. ^ This belief indicates extensive glass manufacture to be accounted for. The sands of the seashore near Tyre were believed to be especially adapted to the making of the best kind of glass.^ The glass work of Tyre was famous in the Middle Ages.^ Mukaddasi, writing of the industries of Syria in the tenth century, says, " From Tyre, came glass beads, glass vessels both cut and blown. "^ Idrisi in 1154 wrote, "They make here long-necked vases of glass."^° The Crusaders referred with admiration to the skill of the Tyrians in this work.^^ Two pieces of glass, probably from Tyre,^^ which were for a long time considered as works in precious stone, illustrate the Phoenician art of glass making at its best. The one is a vase 1 II Chron., II, 14. 2 II Chron., Ill, 14. « Vid. p. 100 above. * Herodotus, II, 44. 5 Vid. p. 148 below. There were two great pillars of glass in the temple at Aradus (Clement of Rome, Recognitions, 7, 12). Vid. Kenrick, Phoenicia, p. 249. 6 Pliny, XXXVI, 65. ^ Vid. p. 94 above. 8 Vid. G. Migeon, Manuel d'Art Musulman (Paris, 1907),Vol. II, pp. 344-345. 9 Vid. p. 85 above. 1" Vid. p. 100 above. "1 Vid. p. 95 above. 12 G. Migeon, Manuel d'Art Musulman, Vol. II, p, 348. J 44 THE HISTORY OF TYRE in the cathedral of Genoa, whose purity of material and liveliness of color have caused it often to be taken for an enormous emerald. The tradition was that it was presented to Solomon by the Queen of Sheba. It was in the mosque of Caesarea when the Crusaders captured that city in 1100 A.D. The other piece, because of its blue color, was long considered as a sapphire. It is among the treasures of the basilica of Monza.^ Late in her history Tyre produced sugar, and from her refin- eries, sent it out to distant lands.^ But by far the most important of the industries of Tyre was the manufacture of purple dyes. This industry was so ancient and so important to the city that the discovery of the art was attributed to their tutelary deity Melkart. The legend was that Hercules (Melkart) was walking on the seashore with the nymph Tyrus, with whom he was enamoured. His dog found a Murex with its head protruding from its shell, and devoured it. When the nymph saw the beautiful color left on the lips of the dog, she refused the suit of Hercules until he should bring her a robe of like beauty. He collected the shell fish, secured the juice, and dyed for her the first garment of Tyrian purple.^ The kind of shell-fish from which the purple was secured was rare elsewhere, but abundant along the coast near Tyre. There are two species, the Murex and the Buccinum. The coloring matter is found in a sack, or vein, which begins at the head of the animal and follows the line of the body. The matter is a liquid of creamy consistency, and while in the sack, is of yellowish- white color. When extracted and exposed to the light, it be- comes first green, then purple.^ Pliny^ has left us a detailed account of the process of manu- facturing the dye. Fish traps baited with mussels or frogs were let down by ropes into the sea. When the Murex was caught the sack was removed while the animal was yet alive, or after » G. Migeon, Manuel d'Art Musulman, Vol. II, p. 348. 2 Vid. pp. 85 and 86 above. ' Nonnus, Dionys., XL, 306. * Rawlinson, Phoenicia, pp. 276-277. 5 Pliny, Hist. Nat., IX, 38. Vid. Kenrick, Phoenicia, 237-244, 253-259; Rawlinson, Phoenicia, 275-280. COLONIES, COMMERCE, AND INDUSTRIES 145 it had been killed with a blow; slow death injured the color. The Buccinum being smaller, the sack was not extracted, but the body crushed with the shell. After a maceration three days in brine, the pulp was placed in a vessel of lead and caused to simmer. The animal matter was removed by repeated skimmings, and at the end of ten days the liquor became clear. It was then boiled until the desired strength was attained. Various color effects were secured by mixing dyes, and by exposure to sunlight at different stages of the process. It is probable that there were secrets in the art that were carefully guarded. Strabo^ writes : " The Tyrian purple is acknowledged to be the best; the fishing is carried on not far away. Tyre possesses everything necessary for the dyeing. It is true that the work- shops of so many dyers makes residence in the city incom- modious, but it is to the skill of her workmen in this branch of her industry that the city owes her wealth." The production of purple was the city's chief industry in the first century.^ The Roman emperors were very jealous of the royal purple. Its general sale was prohibited by law.^ The superintendency of the dye houses of Tyre became a public office and was filled by an appointee of the crown.^ 1 Strabo, XVI, 2-23. 2 Pliny, Hist. Nat,, V, 17. ' Vid. Kenrick, Phoenicia, pp. 246-247. * Vid. p. 75 above. 11 CHAPTER XIII KELIGION While the religion of ancient Tyre had much in common with that of the rest of Phoenicia, it had also its distinguishing features; it was dominated by the worship of Melkart, the tutelary deity of the city.^ According to the Phoenician the- ogony of Sanchoniathon preserved by Philo of Byblus,^ Melkart was the son of Demarous, also called Zeus, who was the son of Ouranus and brother of Chronus. His name, Hip T|7D, King of the City, expresses his relation to Tyre. He appears in Greek mythology under the name Melicertes with the attributes of a maritime divinity, and identified with Hercules.^ Wherever his worship was estabhshed, there the Greeks supposed that Hercules had performed some exploit by which he proved himself superior to the native gods and heroes of the country: so that the triumphs of the people of Melkart seem to be the facts underlying the Greek myths of the labors of Hercules.^ A table of sacrifices and dues,^ originally from Carthage, has come down to us, which indicates that the sacrificial institutions of the Phoenicians had much in common with those of the Hebrews, and expressed similar religious ideas. To Baal were sacrificed prayer offerings, thank offerings, whole offerings, meal offerings. It is worthy of note, however, that the Phoe- nician list makes no mention of a sin offering or guilt offering. The offerings in the main are the same. On the Phoenician ^ Melkart is called Lord of Tyre, Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (cited below CIS.), 120, CIS. 122, et al. ^Eusebius, Praep. Evang., I, 9, 10. Vid. Migne, Patrologae (Paris, 1857), Vol. XXI, p. 71 ff. * MeXiKdpOos, 6 xdt 'Hpa/cXr??, Sanchoniathon. * Kenrick, Phoen., pp. 321-322. Cicero, De Natura Deorum, III, 16, says that Tyrian Hercules was the son of Jupiter and Asteria, i. e., of Baal and Ashteroth. » CIS. I, 165, c. 4th cent. B.C. 146 RELIGION 147 inscription oxen, sheep, goats, birds and produce are mentioned in the same order as in Leviticus I-II; but the Phoenician hst includes also deer, wild birds, game, milk and fat. The priests and the worshipers share the parts of the sacrifice as in Leviticus. The poor man is provided relief in both systems.'^ The Tyrians, by extolling Melkart to the supreme place in their religion, identified him with Baal.^ He is lord of the sun,^ supreme ruler, giver of life, embodiment of the male prin- ciple, god of productivity. His ancient shrine at Tyre was built at the time of the founding of the city.* King Hiram erected in his honor a splendid temple in a prominent place on the side of the island farthest from the mainland.^ Where was the temple of Melkart? "Some years ago," writes Dr. Thompson, " the quarriers who were digging out stone for the government barracks at Beirut uncovered a large floor a few feet below the surface. Breaking it up and descending through rubbish some ten feet further, they came upon a marble pavement, and a confused mass of columns of every size and variety. I went down and groped about amid these prostrate columns, and found the bases of some still in their original positions — parts of what was once a temple. In an adjoining excavation was found a marble statue of a female, life sized, robed and in good preservation. This ancient temple stood in the centre and highest part of the island and must have been very conspicuous from the sea. " The floor above these ruins belonged to a house which must ^ Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions (cited, Cooke, N. S. I., below), p. 117. Vid. CIS. I, 176 (Cooke, N. S. I., 43), 4-3 cent, B.C. 2 Melkart is not mentioned in the Old Testament, but the worship intro- duced into Israel by Jezebel of Tyre was undoubtedly offered to him. Vid. Cooke, N. S. I., p. 74. ^ Tbv i^\i.ov iv6fu^ov fjjbvov oipavoO K'OpwVy BeeXffdfMjv KdXovres. (EJ'DJJ' Py^), Sanchoniathon. " Herod., II, 44. * Joseph., Antiq., V, 2, 7, Against Apion, I, 17-18. For discussion of site vid. Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, p. 186; Renan, Mis. de Phen., 534-559. One wonders if the ruins of this temple may not come to light. 148 THE HISTORY OF TYRE have been destroyed before the city of the Middle Ages was built; and yet those ruins were there buried so deep below the surface that the builder of that house had not the slightest idea of their existence. That group of columns and marble floor was again covered up by the quarriers in their search for available building stones. The southern half of the island is buried deep beneath such ruins. "^ The ancient temple of Melkart in Palaetyrus at which the Tyrians asked Alexander to make his sacrifice to Heracles,^ probably stood on Tel al-Ma'shuk.^ This was probably the temple of the fabled Shamenrum as the ancient island shrine was that of Usoos.^ The temple on Tel al-Ma'shuk was called that of Baalshamin of the starry tunic, AaTpoxiT6vo<;.^ We know that in the great temple of the island city there were two splendid pillars;^ one was of gold and the other was said to be of "smarag- dus" (emerald), but was probably of glass and hollow, and seems to have been constantly lighted from within. It was in commemoration of these pillars that the Pillars of Hercules at the strait had their name. Although a number of temples had twin pillars,^ the symbolism is obscure.^ The worship in the early centuries was probably without the use of an image of any kind. Herodotus mentions none at the time of his investigation.^ A century and a quarter after his visit the 1 Thompson, The Land and the Book, III, pp. 617 flf. * Vid. p. 55 above. » Renan, Mis. de Ph^n., 582-583; Masp^ro, Struggle of the Nations, 186. * Sanchoniathon. 6 Nonnus, Dionys., XL, 369 flf.; Movers, 182-184. « Herod., II., 44. ^ Tyre, Baalbek, Jerusalem, Gades, et al. « W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, pp. 456-457, argues that neither they nor the masseboth were phalic, as Movers, I, 680, had claimed. Curtis, Primitive Semitic Religion Today (Chicago, 1902), pp. 84-88, describes a number of sacred stones in different places and of various shapes and forms. He says (p. 84), "At Ezra in the Hauran are two pillars between which a bas- tard cannot pass"; and, "at a village in the Druse mountains are two upright stones between which bridal couples must pass." » Herod., II, 44. There was no image in the temple of Melkart at Gades (Silius ItaUcus, III, 21-31). RELIGION 149 image seems to have come to have a place in worship, for in the city's distress during Alexander's siege the Tyrians, fearing that the gods were about to forsake the doomed city, chained the image of Apollo in the temple.^ It is probable that this image was used in the worship of Melkart, and that he as the sun-god was identified with Phoebus Apollo. As the sun-god, the god of light and of fire, Melkart was worshiped by having a fire burn perpetually in his temple at Gades^ and we may assume that the illuminated pillar of the temple at Tyre had the same symbolism. His priests had their heads shaved;^ they were barefooted and wore garments of spotless white linen before his altar.'* They held pork in abomination.^ Married women were not allowed to approach the altar .^ Festivals similar to those of Adonis at Byblus were held in the honor of Melkart twice a year. When the prolonged heat of the summer would burn everything up, he won for the earth the favor of the sky by offering himself a sacrifice to the sun. The festival of this sacrifice was kept at Tyre.^ In the month Peritius (February-March) the festival of the awakening or resurrection of Melkart, rov EpuKXeovi iye'pai^,^ was com- memorated. It may be that the sarcasm of Elijah (I Kings, XVIII, 27) has reference to this belief regarding Melkart. This festival was at the time of the year when the quail return to Palestine and it is claimed that the sacrifice of quail commem- orated the awakening of Melkart.^ It has been suggested that the Arabic sumdna, quail, gave the name to the god Eshmun, lolaos, who restored Hercules to life by giving him a quail to smell.io ^ Vid. p. 61 above. This image has been sent to Tyre by the people of Carthage. 2 Silius ItaUcus, III, 21-31. " Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. « Ibid. ' Clement of Rome, Recognitions, X, 24. 8 Joseph., Antiq., VIII, 5, 3: Movers, Die Phon., 385-387. 9 Eudoxus, ap. Athen., IX, 47. Vid. W. R. Smith, Relig. of Semites, p. 469. 10 Smith, Relig. of Semites, 469. 150 THE HISTORY OF TYRE At the time of Antioehus Epiphanes a great celebration in honor of Hercules was held at Tyre every fifth year. At this celebration athletic games had a prominent place, and costly sacrifices and offerings were made.^ The heavy cost of the elaborate worship of Melkart was met by tithes and offerings. We are told that the Carthaginians sent the tithe of their produce to Tyre annually from the founda- tion of their city, as their offering to Melkart.^ Were human sacrifices offered to Melkart? Moloch of the Ammonites was probably akin to Melkart as a god of the sun and of fire. Human sacrifices were offered to Moloch.^ They were offered Baal in Cyprus, Rhodes, Crete, Sardinia, and such offerings were very common at Carthage.^ It is said that they were frequently offered in times of great calamity in Phoenicia proper,^ but that the practice was extremely rare at Tyre is shown by the fact that no record of any human sacrifice has come down to us, and by the further fact that even at the time of Alexander's siege no such offering was made.^ To consider the practice a part of the religion of Tyre is quite as unwarranted as to make the same inference concerning the religion of Israel be- cause of the record of Abraham and Isaac,^ and that of Jephthah and his daughter.^ The chief female deity of the Semites was worshiped by the Phoenicians under the name Ashteroth. She was called the daughter of Uranus and queen of heaven.^ As a symbol of her sovereignty she had the head of a bull upon her head.'° An aerolite was consecrated to her in her temple in " the holy island Tyre."" She was identified with the moon and called ruler of 1 II Maccabees, IV, 18-20. Vid. p. 68 above. 2 Diodorus, XX, 14. » Lev., XX, 2-5; Jer., VII, 31. * Vid. Movers, I, 299-305. * Eusebius, Praep. Evan. IV, 16. Vid. Migne, Patrologae, Vol. XXI, p. 271. ' Vid. p. 61 above. ■• Gen., XXII. * Judges, XI. > Sanchoniathon. >" Ibid. " Ibid. Such sacred stones were called Baetulia in the writing of San- RELIGION 151 stars.^ To her the women offered cakes, burned incense and paid vows.^ She was identified with air and water as over against fire.^ When Usoos, the first who ventured on the sea, according to the Phoenician myth, landed at Tyre, he consecrated two pillars, one to fire and the other to wind;^ this probably means that they were consecrated, one to Baal and the other to Ashteroth. These two deities were closely related. In the inscription of Eshmunazer,^ Ashteroth is called 7^^ J2\^, "Name of Baal." As Tanith, she is called in a Carthaginian inscription 7^^ JD, " Face of Baal."* At Tyre, their close relationship was represented by the legend that he had purchased her favor by the gift of the first robe of Tyrian purple ever dyed.'^ It is probable that the sexual act had place in the Baal- Ashteroth worship at Tyre as elsewhere. It was an act of worship for a woman to have intercourse with a stranger at a temple of Ashteroth.^ The feast of Adonis at Byblus is described as follows: "But when they have bewailed and lamented, first they perform funeral rites for Adonis as if he were dead, but afterward upon another day they say he lives, . . . and they shave their heads as the Egyptians do when Apis dies. But such women as do not wish to be shaven pay the following penalty; on a certain day they stand for prostitution at the proper time and the market is open for strangers only, and the pay goes as a sacrifice to Aphrodite."^ Regarding the Baal and Ashteroth worship in Israel, Hosea choniathon. The name looks like 7S T)''2 Bethel, the name which Jacob gave to the place where he consecrated a pillar of stone (Gen., XXVIII). ^ Herodian, 5, 15. 2Jer., VII, 8; XLIV, 25. * Vid. Kenrick, Phoenicia, 303. ^ Sanchoniathon. 6CIS. 3 (Cooke N.S.I, 5). « CIS. 181 (Cooke N. S. I, 48). ^ Pollux, Onomasticon, I, 45; Nonnus, Dionys., XL, 306. 8 Herod., I, 199; Strabo, XVI, 1, 20. 9 Lucian, De Dea Syria, 6: Vid. Barton, Journ. Bib. Lit., X, 72 S. There were barbers officiating at the temple of Ashteroth, CIS. 86 (Cooke, N. S. 1, 20) . 162 THE HISTORY OF TYRE protested: "They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, and under the oaks and poplars and terebinths, because the shade thereof is good; therefore your daughters commit whoredom and your brides commit adultery."^ We gladly turn to the higher ideals of worship. W. Robertson Smith says: "There is a great variety of evidence to show that the type of religion which is founded on kinship, and in which the deity and his worshipers make up a society united by the bond of blood, was widely prevalent, and that at an early time, among all the Semitic peoples.^ The religion of Tyre was of this type. The first families of the aristocracy both of Tyre and of Carthage prided themselves that they were descendants of Melkart.^ Proper names beginning with Ger ("*U), sojourner, followed by the name of a deity, indicate that there were those who were not of the religion by birth, to whom the god became a patron and protector. The most common objects of prayer indicated by the inscrip- tions that have come down to us, are prosperity, long life, divine favor and numerous offspring.'* An oft repeated assurance is that the deity hears prayer.^ Disturbing a grave is an abomi- nation to Ashteroth.^ The two great future hopes are seed among the living and a resting place among the shades in the lower world .'^ That private or family devotion had its place in the ancient faith is shown by a little monument recently found in the region of Tyre.^ The monument is a small throne a foot and a half high cut in limestone. The throne is flanked by two sphinxes and on the back are two stelae, the one with an image repre- senting Ashteroth and the other the worshiper. The inscription 1 Hosea IV, 13. Vid. also Deut., XXIII, 17-18; II Kings, XXIII, 7. 2 W. R. Smith, Relig. of Sem., pp. 50-51. 2 Virgil, Aen., I, 729; Silius Italicus, Punica, I, 87. * CIS. I, 88, 122; Cooke, N. S. I., 29 et al. B CIS. 11, 13, 88, 122, 181; Cooke, N. S. I., 55 et al. « Cooke, N. S. I., 4. ' Cooke, N. S. I., 4; CIS. 3 (Cooke, N. S. I., 5). 8 Vid. Acad^mie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, Comptes Rendus, 1907, pp. 589-598, 606. It probably belongs to the second century B.C. according to M. Clairmont Ganneau. EELIGION 153 reads, " To my Mistress Ashteroth who is within the sanctuary which belongs to me, Abdoubast, son of Bodbaal." In a former chapter we traced the early history of Christianity in Tyre, then the coming of Islam. With the period of the Crusades Christianity again became dominant, and yielded only with the destruction of the city. We close this chapter with a list of those who have held the title of Bishop of Tyre. BISHOPS OF TYKE^ 1. Cassius. Mentioned by Eusebius, H. E., V, 25. 2. Marinus. Mentioned by Eusebius, H. E., VII, 5. 3. Methodius. Jerome, Illustrious Men, 83. 4. Tyranius. Martyr in time of Diocletian. Eusebius, H. E., VIII, 13. 5. PauUnus. Built Cathedral. Eusebius, H. E., X, 4. 6. Zeno. At Council of Nicea, Zozoman, H. E., VI, 12. 7. Paul. Athanasius, Defence against the Arians, Book II. 8. Vitalius. Athanasius, Defence against the Arians, Book II. 9. Uranius. Socrates, H. E., II, 40. 10. Zeno II. Zozoman, H. E., VI, 12. 11. Reverentius. Socrates, H. E., VII, 36. 12. Cyrus. Signed Acts of Council of Ephesus. 13. Bironisyanus. Frequently mentioned by Cyril of Alexander. 14. Irenaeus. Several letters to him in writings of Theodoret. 15. Photius. Member of Council of Chalcedon. 16. Dorotheus. Great Scholar. Theophanes, Chronographle, 5816. 17. John Kodona. Theophanes, Chronc graphic, 5973. 18. Epiphanius. Evagrius Scholasticus, H. E., Ill, 31. 19. Eusebius. Member of Council of Constantinople in 553 and signed its acts. 20. Basilius. C. 844 A.D.; Michael the Syrian. Hist. (Ed. Chabot, III, 97-100.) 1 References in the chapters above will be found to those on this list about whom other facts are known bearing upon the history of Tyre. All except 24-32 are cited by Father Cyril Aaron, Al Mashriq, 1906-1907. References to 24-32 will be found in the chapter of the Period of the Crusades, above. For a translation of Father Aaron's list I am indebted to M r. P. K. Hitti. 154 THE HISTORY OF TYRE 21. Thomas. Signed acts of Council held 879-880 after the death of the Patriarch Ignatius. 22. Saba. C. 1100 A.D.; afterwards patriarch of Jerusalem. 23. Photius. Author of a history of Ecumenical Councils according to Krumbacher. 24. Odo. Died 1122. Foulcher de Chartres, 62. 25. William. Will. Tyre, XIII, 23. 26. Fulcherus. Will. Tyre, XIV, 2. 27. Peter. Will. Tyre, XVI, 17. 28. Frederick. Will. Tyre, XIX, 6. 29. WilUam. 1175, Historian of Crusades. Will. Tyre, XVI, 17. 30. Philip of Beauvais. 1192, Will. Tyre, XXIV, 14. 31. Simon de Mangastel. 1225, Chron. Terre Sainte, I, 82-92; Will. Tyre, XXXI, 10. 32. Bonacours. 1286, Chron. Temple, Tyre, 439. After the destruction of the city (1291 A.D.) the empty title continued : the following held it according to the list of Father Aaron.^ 33. Sophronius. Mentioned by Nicophorus. 34. Irsanius. 1361. Mentioned in a letter from Philotheus, Patriarch of Constantinople to Bachamius, Patriarch of Antioch. 35. Jeremiah. Present at Council of Damascus to judge the Bishop of Homs. 36. Joasaph. 37. Aftimios. 1683-1722. 38. Ignatius. 1723-1758. 39. Andreas Fakhuri. 40. Perthanius Ni'mi. 1766-1806. 41. Basillius Abdallah. 42. Cyril. 43. Basillius Zakkar. 44. Ignatius Karub. 1835-18 ":4. 45. Athenatius Sabbagh. 1855-1866. 46. Athenatius Khawam. 1867-1886. 47. Aftimos Zalhaf. 1886- > Al Mashriq, 1906-1907. CHAPTER XIV COINS The coins of Tyre fall into three groups : the ancient, that of the Saracens, and that of the Crusaders. Of these by far the most important is the ancient coinage. This first division, in 1903 and 1904, was treated by J. Rouviere^ so fully as to super- sede all that had been previously written on the subject, and in 1910 a still more satisfactory treatment was given by George F. Hill.^ We summarize the findings of Hill as follows: Going back to the beginning of Tyrian coinage about the middle of the fifth century B.C., he distinguishes the following main groups: ' Pre-Alexandrine, c. 450-400 B.C.^ 1. ^ Pre-Alexandrine, c. 400 B.C. Pre-Alexandrine, c. 400-392 B.C. 2. Alexandrine. 3. Ptolemaic. 4. Seleucid. 5. Autonomous. 6. Quasi-autonomous. 7. Imperial silver. 8. Colonial coinage. 1. In the first group the coins are struck on the Phoenician standard, and this persists down to the time of Alexander the Great. The maximum of the stater, or double shekel was 13.90 grammes, or 214.5 grains. The denominations are the stater, the quarter, and the twenty-fourth. 1 J. Rouviere, Journal International D'Archeologie Numismatique, Vol. VI, pp. 269-332, and VII, pp. 65-108. 2 George F. Hill, A Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Phoenicia (London, 1910), p. 126 ff. ' Rouviere dates our earliest Tyrian coins c. 480 B.C. Vid. Journal Inter- national D'Archeologie Numismatique, Vol. VI, p. 269. 155 156 THE HISTORY OF TYRE The maritime importance of Tyre is expressed on the earHest coins by the dolphin and waves. Later the dolphin is given a subordinate position, and the main type is Melkart on a sea- horse. The murex shell is frequently found and alludes to the local purple industry. On the reverse, the owl often found may show Athenian influence, but it is rendered so like the hawk that some have claimed that it is to be traced to that of Egypt, which is also to be seen in the flail and scepter, these being associated in Egypt with kingship. The earliest of these coins have obscure dates or inscriptions. Those with dates seem to be followed by a series in which the thick lumpy fabric was discarded for a flatter make of coin. These are undated and uninscribed, and probably bring us down to the time of Alexander. At Tyre coins were from the earHest times usually struck from fixed dies; the exceptiorfs are found in the small denominations. The dies were not always placed ft) but sometimes upside down, sometimes at right angles to each other. Another notable characteristic of the coinage both of this period and of the next is its bad quality; a very large propor- tion of the coins have a bronze core. 2. Alexandrine Period. — In the second group, coinage with regal types is continued, but the standard changes to Attic: the denominations are the didrachm and a minute coin of 0.55- 0.45 grammes. The Attic didrachms are all dated. Some bear additional letters; others bear dates only. The additional letters are D and 1^, probablyr epresenting "H^D and 115^, but they may repre- sent royal names. In connection with the date the letters ^ and D sometimes occur; they seem to represent 7pl2 H^C^D. The eras for the dating of these are uncertain. 3. Ptolemaic Period. — The coins of the third group, which are certainly Tyrian, bear the monogram f or t° usually combined with a club. Svoronos dates the beginning of this coinage at COINS 157 285/4 B.C. A certain number are without the monogram, but bear the club. Tyre was a mint of Ptolemy III, 247/6-241 B.C., Ptolemy IV, and Ptolemy V. The Tyrian coinage of Ptolemy V must have ceased after 200 B.C., when the city finally passed into Seleucid hands. 4. Seleucid. — From the year 200 to 126/5 B.C., Tyre was an important Seleucid mint. Under Antiochus III we have un- dated tetradrachms. Bronze types of this coinage show the palm tree, the stern of a galley, a complete galley, spur of a galley. The silver is of two classes: (a) Attic with types, — Apollo (Antiochus III) ; Athena standing (Antiochus VII) ; Zeus seated (Demetrius III), and (b) Phoenician with types, — eagle on prow. The Phoenician was issued in large quantities; the Attic rarely. The Phoenician bears monograms similar to those found at a later date on the autonomous coins, but the Attic is not marked in this way. The latest date on a Seleucid coin of Tyre is A.S. 187 (126/5 B.C.). The inscriptions on these Seleucid coins apart from the mono- grams are: TTPmN D^i!i p^ ^)ib Belonging to Tyre Mother of the Sidonians Belonging to Tyre TTPmN l^b TTPOT IEPA2 KAI ASTAOT The words IEPA2 ASTAOT are often abbreviated or rendered in monogram. 5 and 6. Autonomous and Quasi- Autonomous. — In the auton- omous coinage of Tyre the most important feature is the very plentiful series of shekels, with a much smaller number of half shekels and very rare quarter shekels from the year 126/5 B.C. to 69-70 A.D. The shekel of the common norm weighs 14.54 158 THE HISTORY OF TYRE to 14,60 grammes. In the year 104 B.C. (23d year of the city) was issued a gold double shekel. The quasi-autonomous coinage extends probably only to 195/6 A.D., and not to 225/6 as Rouviere states, on his reading of the date for his coin number 2203. The more important types are connected with Melkart who appears in a Hellenized form. The eagle is probably a legacy from the Ptolemaic coinage, the palm tree, (f)olvc^, is for " Phoe- nicia." Other types express the maritime activity of the city. 7. Imperial Coinage. — The silver of imperial date, from Nero on, which has been ascribed to the mint of Tyre, presents peculiar diflBculty. Some of these coins clearly show Tyrian source, and others as clearly show Antiochian; while still others show both. It has been suggested that all were probably struck at Antioch, but out of bullion supplied by various cities. The weights as usual are very irregular; the highest for a tetradrachm is 15.14 grammes, or 233.65 grains. 8. Colonial Coinage. — The coinage from Septimius Severus to Gallienus is of interest on account of the variety of types. The title on the coins appears first as "Coloni. Sep. TVRVS METROP." A coin of Elagabalus bears the ancient inscrip- tion lU A The Phoenician deities are to be found as types. The ambrosial rocks (two pillars) appear, also an ovoid baetyl encircled by a serpent, for which the author has no explanation, but which would seem to refer to the theogony of Sanchoniathon referred to on page 7 et al. above. Heroic legends are illustrated by Dido building Carthage, and Aeneas (or perhaps Cadmus) setting sail. Another notable type is that of the reclining figure of Ocean wearing a head-dress of crab's claws. Hill has catalogued and described four hundred and ninety three of these early coins of Tyre and has given pictures of every important variety. In the time of the Fatimid Caliphs, Tyrian coins again appear. The city had one of the principal mints of these caliphs until the time of its capture by the Crusaders in 1124 A.D. COINS 159 A special feature of the coins of this period is the large proportion of quarter-dinars, which appear to have been de- signed mainly for that part of the kingdom which had a con- siderable Christian population. Images were omitted, and in their place is found a profusion of religious formulae in which the praise of Ali has a large place.^ Very few silver coins have been preserved. An early sample of this coinage is a quarter-dinar^ bearing on its obverse margin the date 361 A.H. and the stamp of Tyre; on the reverse margin it bears in Arabic the inscription to "Mu'izz, by authority of Allah, Amir of the Faithful." Its weight is 13.1 grains. A dinar^ of the date 404 A.H. shows the very profuse inscrip- tions that were common. On the obverse area is inscribed "ALI (There is no God but Allah alone. He has no equal, Mohammed is the messenger of Allah) FAVORITE OF ALLAH." The margin reads, "Mohammed is the Messenger whom Allah sent." The reverse area is inscribed, "For the sake of Allah and his favorite, Al-Mansur Abu Ali al-Imam al-Hakim, by command of Allah, Amir of the Faithful." The margin reads, "In the name of Allah this dinar was struck in the year 404 A.H." The coin weighs but 49 grains. The coins of the reign of Al-Zahir bear on their obverse almost identically the same inscription as those just spoken of, but in a slightly different arrangement. On the reverse, the margin states that the coin was struck "in the name of Allah" at the date named, and "for the sake of Allah and his Favorite Ali." The area bears the inscription of "The Glorious Al-Zahir, by authority of Allah, Amir of the Faithful." One coin of this series in the British Museum weighs 60.2 grains, and another 62.5.4 1 The place of Ali in these inscriptions is readily understood when it is remembered that the Fatimids claimed to be descended from Fatimah, only wife of Ali and daughter of Mohammed. 2 Stanley Lane-Poole, Catalogue of Oriental Coins in British Museum, Vol. IV, page 11, No. 35. 3 Ibid. Additions to Vols. I-IV, page 320. * Stanley Lane-Poole, Oriental Coins in the British Museum, IV, page 28. 160 THE HISTORY OF TYRE A popular issue of Al-Mustansir had three margins, and a pellet in the center. On the obverse the first margin was as that of the coins last described. The other margin bears the usual ascriptions to Mohammed and to Ali except the third margin of the reverse. It bears the inscription of " Al-Mustansir, Billah, Amir of the Faithful." Dinars of this kind vary in weight from 45.1^ to 60 grains.^ Our earliest coins of this kind date 442 A.H. Another type, apparently of later date, but belonging to the same reign, has a margin and central area. The inscriptions are of the usual sentiment. The reverse area bears the inscription of "Mustansir Billah, Amir of the Faithful," while the margin has the date and imprint of Tyre.^ The coins of Al-Amir show little variation. They had an area and two margins. They bear the usual praises of Allah and of Mohammed and Ali. The inner reverse margin reads, " Abu Ali Al-Amir, in the wisdom of Allah, Amir of the Faithful," while the outer margin reads, " In the name of Allah the merciful and compassionate this dinar was struck at (place) in (date) year."" These bring us to the time of the capture of Tyre by the Crusaders in 518 A.H. (1124 A.D.). When Tyre fell into the hands of the Crusaders, the Venetians assumed possession of the mint. It will be remembered that their interests were commercial rather than religious. It was therefore to their advantage to continue the coinage in a way attractive to the peoples of the Orient. They therefore issued coins on the standards established at Tyre, and bearing the usual Arabic inscriptions of praise to Allah and Mohammed. It was not until the time of the civil strife at Tyre under Philip of Montfort that the Venetians lost this privilege which they had secured.^ 1 Stanley Lane-Poole, Oriental Coins in the British Museum, IV, page 41, No. 160. 2 Ibid., page 41, No. 163; vid. also page 37, No. 145, and page 46, No. 187. ^ Ibid., page 45. * Ibid., page 52, No. 212; and page 58, No. 216, dated 515 A. H. * Gustav Schlumberger, Numismatique de L'Orient Latin, page 128. COINS 161 These coins issued by the Venetians were dated by the reign of the ruHng caHph, and the year A.H. Properly speaking they were pseudo-Arabic, and all the gold coins that were issued at Tyre were probably of this class.^ These were struck in large numbers^ until the year 1250 A.D., when the Papal delegate with King Louis interdicted the practice, being indignant at seeing the name of Mohammed on money issued by Christians.' The governors of the city evidently did not issue gold coins on their own authority. The chaotic conditions that prevailed in the years following the Crusade of King Louis were such as to make the coinage of gold almost impossible. A few copper coins, extremely rare, have come down to us from the princes of Tyre. Those issued by Philip of Montfort bear a cross surrounded by two wreaths, between which appeared the word P h e 1 i p e. On the reverse are the letters D e S U R between two wreaths sur- rounding a temple-like edifice.^ Another copper coin^ between two wreaths around a central Cross, has the inscription lOhS TRO, JohnofToron. On the reverse DE co U R appears between two wreaths surrounding a temple-like edifice. What the edifice was meant to represent is wholly unknown. These humble coins bring us to the date of the city's destruc- tion, 1291 A.D. 1 Gustav Schlumberger, Numismatique de L'Orient Latin, page 132. 2 See note 1, page 92 above. * Gustav Schlumberger, Numismatique de L'Orient Latin, page 133. * Ibid., page 128. 5 Ibid., page 128. 12 INDEX Abbar, Judge of Tyre, 46. Abd-Ashirta, 9. Abd-Astartus, King of Tyre, 24. Abdeus, Judge of Tyre, 46. Abi-Baal, King of Tyre, 16. Abi-Milki, Governor of Tyre, 9. Abi-Milkut, King of Sidon, 36. Abu-Sufy^n before Tyre, 81. Acre (Acco), Siege of, 108-109. Adan de Cafran, Governor of Tyre, 121. Ahab, King of Israel, 25. Al-Afdal, Commander of Egypt, 85, 88, 92. Alexander the Great, 54£f.; Attacks Tyre, 55; Constructs Mole, 56; Secures Fleet, 58; Captures City, 63; Crucifies 2,000 Tyrians, 64; Celebrates Victory, 64. Alexandria, Trade diverted ot, 67. Alphabet, Origin of, IX. Amaury, King of Jerusalem, 101. Amaury, Governor of Tyre, 121. Amenophis IV, King of Egypt, 9. Antachdes, Peace of, 52. Antigonus besieges Tyre, 65. Antiochus the Great takes Tyre, 66. Antiochus Epiphanes, 67. Antoninus Martyr, 79. Apollo, Statue of, 61. Arculf, Bishop, 84. Aserymus, King of Tyre, 24. Ashteroth (Astarte), vid. Religion. Assassins, Sect of. 111, 120. Asshurnazirpal, King of Assyria, 27; Received Tribute of Tyre, 28. Asshurbanipal, King of Assyria, 38. Assyrian Encroachment, 27ff. Astarte (Ashteroth), vid. Religion. Astartus, King of Tyre, 24. Athanasius tried at Tyre, 77. Ayyub, Sultan of Egypt, 117. Azemilcus, King of Tyre, 55. Aziru, son of Abd-Ashirta, 9. Baal and Ashteroth, 25-26; Vid. ReUgion. Baal, King of Tyre, 37; Resists Esarhaddon, 37; Submits to As- shurbanipal, 38. Baal Lebanon Inscription, 33. Baalat-Remeg, King of Tyre, 13, 16 Badezorus, King of Tyre, 24. Baibars, Sultan of Egypt, 119, 120 Baldwin I, King of Jerusalem, 88 Attacks Tyre, 90. Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem, 100 Baldwin de Bourg, King of Jerusalem 93. Barbarossa, Emperor Frederick Death of, 108. Baslach, Judge of Tyre, 46. Belator, Judge of Tyre, 47. Beleasarus, King of Tyre, 22, 24. Behan of Sidon, 117. Benjamin of Tudela, 101. Bonacours, Archbishop' of Tyre, 121. Bordeaux Pilgrim, 78. Cabul explained, 20. Cambyses, King of the Persians, 49. Carthage founded, 24ff., 135ff.; Mean- ing of the Name, 32, 136. Cassius, Bishop of Tyre, 73. Cassius, rules Syria, 70. Chelbes, Judge of Tyre, 46. Christianity introduced, 71. Coins of Tyre, 155-161. Colonies of Tyre, 5, 6, 24, 133-137. Commerce of Tyre, 20, 40, 137-142. Conrad of Montferrat, before Acre, 103; At Tyre, 104; Resists Saladin, 104ff. ; Refused to admit King Guy, 107; Supports Siege of Acre, 108; Aspires to Throne of Jerusalem, 109; Chosen King, 111; Assassi- nated, HI7II2. Constantine issues Edict of Milan, 76. Crete, Early Minoan Power of, 14, 137. Crusades, 86flf . Crusaders pass Tyre, 87; Capture Jerusalem, 88; Capture Treasure Train, 89; Attack Tyre, 90; Second Attack, Conquest, 94ff.; Warring Factions of, 108-110, 116, 118, 119. Cyrus, King of the Persians, 48. Damietta attacked by Crusaders, 116. Darius, King of the Persians, 50. David, King of Israel, 17; Friend of Hiram, King of Tyre, 17; Tyrians build his Palace, 17. 162 INDEX 1G3 Decius, Persecutions under, 74. Demetrius holds Tyre, 66. Diocletian, Persecutions under, 75. Dorotheus, Superintendent of Dye Works, 75. Earthquakes, 92, 101, 115, 128. Ecnibaal, Judge of Tyre, 46. Elijah, 25; On Mt. Carmel, 26. Eluleus, King of Tyre, 34; Reduces Revolt in Cyprus, 34; Resists Shalmanezer IV, 34; Defeated by Sennacherib, 35. Esarhaddon, King of Assyria, 36; Suppresses Revolt in West, 36; Besieges Tyre, 37. Ethbaal (Ithobalus), King of Tyre, 24. Ethbaal II, King of Tyre, 44. Ethbaal III, King of Tyre, 46. Evagorus of Cyprus, 52. Ezekiel, 40, 44, 46, 138ff. Frederick, Archbishop of Tyre, 99. Frederick of Germany, King of Jerusalem, 116. Fulcher, Archbishop of Tyre, 99. Fulk of Anjou, 100. Gerastart, Judge of Tyre, 46. Glass of Tyre, 94, 100, 143-144. Guy of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem, 107; Besieges Acre, 108. Halil, Sultan of Egypt, 122; Over- throws Kingdom of Jerusalem, 122; Annihilates Tyre, 122. Hannibal flees to Tjrre, 67. Henry of Campagne, King of Jerusa- lem, 113. Heracles identified with Melkart, 55. Herod Agrippa, 71. Hezekiah, King of Judah, 35. Hiram, King of Tyre, 4, 16; Enlarges City, 16; Friend of David, 17; Friend of Solomon, 17; Commercial Enterprises, 20; His Wit, 20, 21; Tomb of, 22. Hiram II, King of Tyre, 33. Hiram III, King of Tyre, 47. Hugh, King of Jerusalem, 120. Hugh of Tiberias, 106. Ibn Jubair's Description, 102. Ibn Merwdn rebuilds Tyre, 83. Ibrahim Pasha, Governor of Syria, 128, 129. Industries of Tyre, Metallurgy, 142; Textile Fabrics, 142; Manufacture of Glass, 143; Making of Sugar, 144; Purple Dyes, 144; Summary of, IX. Isaiah, 29. Islam, Rapid Conquests, 80; Condi- tions imposed, 82. Isma'il, Sultan of Damascus, 117. Ithobalus (Ethbaal), King of Tyre, 24. Izz al-Mulk, Governor of Tyre, 88, 90, 92. Jehoiakim, King of Judah, 43. Jeremiah, 43. Jerome, 78. Jerusalem, besieged by Nebuchad- rezzar, 44; Taken by Crusaders, 88. Jews, Slaughter of at Tyre, 79-80. Jezebel, Daughter of King Ithobal of Tyre, 25; Introduces Tyrian Religion into Israel, 25. John de Brienne, King of Jerusalem, 115. John of Ibelin, 116, 117. John of Montfort, Governor of Tyre, 121. Judas Maccabeus, 69. Kalaun, Sultan of Egypt, 121. Kharesmians, 117. Lade, Battle of, 51. Literary Era at Tyre, 72. Louis IX, King of France, 118. Lysius attempts to destroy Jewish State, 68. Manuel, Emperor of Constantinople, 101. Marinus of Tyre, 72. Marion, King of Tyre, 70. Mas^M, 92. Matgen, King of Tyre, 24. Matgen, Judge of Tyre, 46. Maundrell's Description, 124-126. Maximinus, Edict against Christian- ity, 75. Melkart, identified with Heracles, 55; Temple at Tyre, 55; Temple at Palaetyrus, 55; Vid. Religion. Menehem, King of Samaria, 33. Menelaus, Jewish High Priest, 68. Methodius, Bishop of Tyre, 75. Merbaal, King of Tyre, 47. Miltiades, 51. Mongols invade Syria, 119. Mtl'awiyah, 83. Mutawalis (Metawileh), 126. Murex, 144. 164 INDEX Nabopolassar, King of Babylon, 42. Nebuchadrezzar, King of Babylon, 42; Defeats Necho at Carchemish, 42; Accepts Submission of Tyre, 43; Besieges Tyre 13 yrs., 44. Necho II, King of Egypt, 42; De- feated by Nebuchadrezzar, 42. Obeidah captures Aleppo, 80. Ochus, King of the Persians, 53. Odo, Archbishop of Tyre, 99. Origin of Phoenicians, Iff. Origen persecuted at Tyre, 74; En- tombed in Temple of Tyre, 74. Paul, St., at Tyre, 71. Paulus of Tyre, 73. Paulinus, Bishop of Tyre, 76; Builds Temple at Tyre, 76. Peter, Archbishop of Tyre, 99. Peter the Hermit, 87. Pharaoh-Hophra (Apries), King of Egypt, 43; Supports Revolt against Babylon, 43; His Wars, 44. Pheles, King of Tyre, 24. Phihp, King of France, 109. Philip de Montfort, Lord of Tyre, 118; Escapes assassination, 120- 121. Philip of Toron, 117. Phoenicians, Origin of. Iff.; Lan- guage, 1. Pillars, Symbolism of, 7. Pompey reduces Syria, 70. Porphyry, 74. Ptolemy gains Tyre, 63. Purple, Pliny's Account of Manufac- ture, 144. Vid. Industries. Pygmalion, King of Tyre, 24. Ramses II, King of Egypt, 13. Ramses XII, King of Egypt, 14. Raoul de Soissons, 117. Ras al-Ain, 125, 131. Religion: Melkart, 146, 147; Sacri- fices, 146-147; Temple of Melkart, 147; Temple at Palaetyrus, 148; Twin Pillars, 148; Festivals of Melkart, 149; Human Sacrifices not made, 150; Ashteroth, 150- 151; Kinship with Deities, 152; Objects of Prayer, 150; Private Worship, 152; Bishops of Tyre, 153-154. Rib- Adda, King of Gebal (Byblus), 9, 12. Richard, King of England, 109. Richard Philanger, Lord of Tyre, 116. Roy, Servant of Baal, 13. Saladin, Successes, 103; Besieges Tyre, 104-106; Death of, 113. Salamis, Battle of, 51. Sanchoniathon's Myth, 7. Sargon, King of Assyria, 35. Satraps, War of, 53. Sazu (afterwards Palaetyrus), 11. Sennacherib, King of Assyria, 36. Seti I, King of Egypt, 13. Shalmanezer IV, King of Assyria, 34. Shalmayati, King of Tyre, 12, 16. ShorabiJ subjects Tyre to Islam, 80. Sidon, Meaning of Name, 2; De- stroyed by Ochus, 53; Rebuilt, 53; Welcomed Alexander, 54. Slave Trade, 40, 68, 113. Solomon, Friendship for Hiram, 17; Builds Temple at Jerusalem, 17ff.; Sea Ventures, 20; Wit of, 21, 22. Starto, King of Tyre, 49. Sychaeus (Acerbas), 30. Synod of Tyre, 77. Syria from Sur (Tyre), IX. Tarshish, 20; Ships of explained, 20, 21. Tel al-Ma'shuk, 131. Tel el-Amarna Letters, 8ff. Temple at Jerusalem erected, 17-19; Destroyed, 19. Temple of Crusaders at Tyre, 130. Temple of Melkart, 4, 8, 16; Vid. Religion. Temple of Paulinus at Tyre, 76. Tennes, King of Sidon, 53. Theodorich's Description of Tyre, 102. Thotmes III, King of Egypt, 9. Tiglathpilezer III, King of Assyria, 32. Tigranes, King of Armenia, 69. Tirhakah, King of Egypt, 38. Toron, Castle of, 114-115. Tuba'lu (Ethbaal), King of Sidon, 36. Tugtakin, Sultan of Damascus, 89, 96, 97. Tyrannion, Bishop of Tyre, 76. Tyre, Meaning of Name, 4; Founding of, 6ff.; Myth of Floating Island, 7; Older than Palaetyrus, 3-4; Topog- raphy, 3, 16, 85, 86; Besieged under Abi-Milki, 9; Rise to Leader- ship, 14; In the Age of Hiram, 16ff.; Yields to Asshurnazirpal, 28; Trib- ute to Shalmanezer II, 29; Revolts against Tiglathpilezer II, 32; Con- quered, 33; Besieged by Shal- manezer IV, 34; Revolts against Sennacherib, 35; Besieged by Esar- INDEX 165 haddon, 37; Independent, 40; Sub- mitted to Nebuchadrezzar, 42; Joined Revolt, 43; Besieged 13 yrs. by Nebuchadrezzar, 45; Submitted, 45; Era of Depression, 46; Ruled by Judges, 46; Monarchy reestab- lished, 47; Under Persians, 48; Supported Persians against Greeks, 50; Yielded to Evagorus of Cyprus, 52; Restored to Persians, 52; Re- sisted Alexander, 55ff . ; Alexander's Siege, 55flf . ; Besieged by Antigonus, 65; Destroyed by Niger, 73; Re- stored by Severus, 73; Yields to Moslems, 80; Reduced by Egypt, 85; Besieged by Crusaders, 90; Second Crusaders' Siege, 95; Be- sieged by Saladin, 105-106; De- stroyed by HaUl, 122; Modern Tyre, 126-132. Vial, General, at Tyre, 127. Volney's Account, 127. Water Supply of Tyre, 5; Vid. Ras al-Ain. Wenamon, Early Egyptian Traveler, 14. William of Jerusalem, Archbishop of Tyre, 98. William of Tyre, Archbishop of Tyre, 98. Willibald, Travels of, 84. Xerxes employs Tyrians against Greece, 51. Yukenah captures Tyre for Islam, 80. Zedekiah, King of Judah, 43. Zeno, Bishop of Tyre, 77. Zephaniah, 39. Zimridi, King of Sidon, 9. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS Columbia University in the City of New York mi The Press was incorporated June 8, 1893, to promote the publication of the results of original research. It is a private corporation, related di- rectly to Columbia University by the provisions that its Trustees shall be officers of the University and that the President of Columbia University shall be President of the Press. 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