GIFT OF HISTORY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN THE NEAR EAST A HISTORY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN THE NEAR EAST BY JULIUS RICHTER, D. D. EDITOR "DIE EVANGELISCHEN MISSIONKN," AUTHOR OF " A HISTORY OF MISSIONS IN INDIA,' ETC., ETC. EDINBURGH AND LONDON OLIPHANT, ANDERSON & FERRIER 1910 Printed in United States of America Preface TO the Boards of the great Congregational and Pres- byterian Churches of America I dedicate this volume with an expression of the deep gratitude which Prot- estant Christendom owes to them for their comprehensive and thorough work in the Near East. They have worked during the nineteenth century quietly, with little recognition from outside, for the uplifting and spiritual vitalizing of the vener- able remnants of the Oriental Churches. Now after the sudden changes of the last year, those missions stand out as the well founded corner-stones of great and promising mission churches, as the pillars of hope in the midst of the turmoil of the Near East. I have had the privilege during the last month to be for the first time in the United States, at the fountainhead of those beneficent streams which are fertilizing the dry fields of the Levant. What I have experienced during this time has filled my heart with great hopes for the future of the missionary movement. When at the International Convention at Eoch- ester I looked into the bright faces of about four thousand students, kindled with enthusiasm for missions, I realized that the central question of the labourers in the great harvest here finds an ideal solution. When I came in close touch with The Laymen's Missionary Movement, I ventured to hope that by reclaiming the wealth of the Union for the service of the King- dom that other perplexing problem, the money question, would be dealt with satisfactorily. And when in constant intercourse with the leaders interested in missionary movements I saw of what high type these men really are, my confidence increased that the leadership, too, is in good hands and that by such men God has a great work waiting for America. This book in English is not a mere translation of the Ger- man edition. Whole chapters have been rewritten, others 5 6 Preface more or less altered. English and American views on mis- sionary questions differ greatly from the German. The writer of history has a task like that of an oculist who adapts the spectacles exactly to the eye so that men may see matters clearly and distinctly in their right proportions. A historian tries to do the same for his readers ; to present the facts in just that form which enables them to be seen in their true perspec- tive and significance. In translating this book into English I had the joy of a man privileged to show to the members of his household a hidden treasure belonging to them, the great value and beauty of which they had not hitherto known. I am deeply indebted to the Kev. John Elliot of Priors Marston, England, and to the Rev. Murray Scott Frame of Union Theological Seminary, New York, for their untiring zeal in revising the book. I gratefulty acknowledge the help of both, for they spared no pains in bringing out the book in as correct a form as possible. We are on the eve of great events in the Near East. The problem gains in importance and urgency year by year. Those facts become suggestive which show that the American missions have been more effective in their Muhammadan work than generally known. I have just received a letter from the Rev. C. R. "Watson, D. D., Foreign Secretary of the United Presby- terian Church in America, proving convincingly to what extent the American Mission in Egypt has worked among the Mu- hammadans. There are 3,945 pupils in its schools, more than 10,000 patients treated every year in its hospitals and 139 con- verts have been gathered in, an earnest of a greater future harvest. May this book, too, increase the Christian and mis- sionary interest in the Muhammadan world and may it, by giving an accurate record of what has been done up to the present time, make many Christians willing to enlarge these missions for greater work in the future. JULIUS RICHTER. New York. On the day of departure from the United States. Contents INTRODUCTION n I. THE MUH AMMADAN WORLD AND THE EASTERN CHURCHES I 7 1. The Muhammadan World . . . 17 2. Two Aspects of Islam 21 3. The Oriental Churches . . . ... 36 4. The Roman Propaganda .... 46 5. The Russian Church 56 6. The Position of Christians Under Turkish Rule 58 7. What is the Justification of Protestant Missions Among the Oriental Christian Churches ? . 66 8. Has the Time Come for Muhammadan Missions in the Near East ? 76 9. The Message of Christianity to Islam . 80 II. THE BEGINNINGS OF PROTESTANT MISSIONARY EN- DEAVOUR 89 1. Peter Heyling 91 2. Henry Martyn 93 3. The " Mediterranean Mission " of the Church Missionary Society 94 4. The Basle Mission in Transcaucasia, 1822-1835 97 III. PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN TURKEY AND ARMENIA . 104 1. The Mission of the American Board Until the Rupture with the Ancient Church, 1830-1846 106 2. From the Organization of the Protestant Church in 1 850 Until the Armenian Massacres in 1 895 113 3. The Armenian Massacres, 1894-1896 . . 135 4. Russian Armenia 153 5. The Work of the American Board from 1896 to 1907 155 7 Contents 6. Protestant Missions Among the Greeks, the Bulgarians andthe Turks . .164 7. The New Era in Turkey . . . .176 IV. SYRIA AND PALESTINE 181 (A) Syria 181 1. The Mission of the American Board, 1823-1870 185 2. The Entrance of the Other Missionary Societies 201 3. The Mission of the American Presby- terians, 1870-1908 . . . .212 (B) Palestine 229 1. The Beginnings of Protestant Missionary Work : Anglo- Prussian Episcopate of Jerusalem 235 2. The Mission of the Church Missionary Society ...... 242 3. German Missionary Work in the Holy Land 258 4. Protestant Outposts in Arabia . . .271 V. PERSIA . . 279 1. Protestant Missions in Persia. The Work of the American Board, 1834-1870 . 294 2. The American Presbyterian Mission Among the Nestorians, 1870-1908 . 303 3. Missionary Competition .... 308 4. American Presbyterian Missions in Persia, Exclusive of the Mission Among the Nestorians 317 5. The Work of the Church Missionary So- ciety in Persia . 329 VI. EGYPT AND ABYSSINIA 337 (A) Egypt 337 1. The American Mission .... 344 2. Spittler's " Apostelstrasse " (Apostles' Road) and Other Smaller Missions . 354 Contents 9 3. The Church Missionary Society Mission in Egypt . 358 4. The Egyptian Sudan . 363 (B) Abyssinia 37 l 1. The Church Missionary Society Mission from 1830 to 1843 .... 378 2. The Second Period The Falasha Mission . 382 3. The Swedish National Mission . . . 386 VII. MISSIONS AMONG THE JEWS. THE WORK OF THE BIBLE SOCIETIES 39 l (A) Missions Among the Jews . . . 39 1 (B\ The Work of the Bible Societies .400 VIII. SUMMARIES AND STATISTICAL TABLES . . .412 INDEX 4 2 3 Introduction THE " Near East " of this book comprises the Balkan Peninsula, the Levant with Armenia and Persia, and Northeastern Africa. Some of our readers may question the accuracy of our use of the term " Protestant Mis- sions." It may seem to them that these words ought to be used exclusively to denote Protestant missionary activity among non-Christians, whereas only a small part of the grand efforts, with the history of which this book is concerned, have been directed towards the non-Christian population of the Near East. Yet we have no word exactly expressing what we want to say, and the word " mission " has been widely and gener- ally used in connection with the evangelistic and educational efforts to enlighten and revivify the old and venerable, but deplorably decaying Churches of the East. So we feel there will be no misunderstanding if, in this book, we use the term so dear to our hearts to describe all efforts to evangelize the Near East. Most of this history is a narrative of admirable undertakings to help on, and to bring to a higher level of spiritual life, the ancient Eastern Churches. Yet throughout this wide area evangelistic efforts among Christians are up to the present time the most important and comprehensive method of preparation for work among non-Christians. And we are convinced that in the near future greater interest will be taken in the hitherto isolated missionary efforts on behalf of the Muhammadans. Protestant Missions in the Near East have, during the last century, found scant attention among the larger Christian public. This may be due partly to the fact that missionary writers regarded this work as not properly within their sphere, whilst church historians, even such as were specially interested in the Eastern Churches, either had no access to the sources ii 1 2 Introduction needed for the compilation of a history, or were unable to thread their way through the labyrinth of material. An ex- tensive and important chapter of modern church history con- sequently remained almost unknown ; or, if writers of earnest purpose ventured into this region, where everything was shrouded in obscurity, they led their readers astray by erro- neous and mistaken statements. Only one who is fairly con- versant with missionary literature is in a position to follow the tangled threads of such a complicated development of events, and even such an one will find that his powers are limited. We present the following studies to our readers only as an imperfect sketch. At the present time, owing to the lack of previous work in this field, it is almost impossible to offer anything complete. May the following pages serve some later historian as a stepping-stone to a more comprehen- sive and discriminating survey. Even this fragmentary account will show what an impor- tant and deeply interesting chapter of mission history it is with which we have to do. By the Koman Catholics a lively interest has long been taken in church propagation in the East, and this interest is fostered by means of missionary period- icals, such as Die KaiholiscJien Missionen and also by means of magazines dealing exclusively with this field. 1 We regret that Protestants, on the contrary, except perhaps as regards the Holy Land, have generally failed to perceive the impor- tance and extent of the work carried on by their co-religion- ists in these lands. Their interest has not been aroused even by the fact that the Turkish Empire, with its neighbouring provinces, has been brought into such close connection with Europe by the political developments of the past decades. How many are the claims of those desolated lands on our sympathy ! Scientific research has for generations been in- tensely alive to the surprising discoveries which their forlorn 1 Such periodicals dealing with the Roman Catholic Missions in the East are the following: in Italy, Bessarione (since March, 1896) ; in France, Revue de V Orient Chretien; in Germany, Nillea, Calendarium ecclesias utriusque (Innsbruck, 1896). Introduction 13 tumuli yield every year to the archaeologist. The gigantic old palaces of Nineveh and Babylon have been dug out and have revealed to our astonished eyes an admirable culture of almost prehistoric times. The graves and ruins of Egypt have begun to speak again of the ancient glory of the realm of the Pharaohs and its indigenous, Mle-born civilization. Even the old capitals of almost forgotten kingdoms, like the Hittites of the Bible, have been discovered and unearthed again. A man who showed no interest in these wonderful monuments of a remote antiquity would be regarded as deplorably short- sighted. But in these regions there are living ruins too, living ruins that have a special claim on our sympathy and help. Our studies lead us to the lands of the Bible, lands conse- crated by the most sacred associations with the mighty works of God. These are the lands in which the all-wise Disposer of the destinies of mankind worked out on the stage of history the redemption of the human race ; the lands where the Chosen People heard the call of God, where they wandered, suffered and perished ; where the Only Begotten Son of God sojourned in the days of His flesh and accomplished on the cross the redemption of the world ; where the great Apostle of the Gentiles laid the foundations of the Christian Church. There the primary developments in the history of the Chris- tian Church took place. There the martyrs sealed their testi- mony with blood. There the most celebrated church fathers clothed the facts of the Christian plan of salvation in the modes of thought of Greek philosophy and culture, thereby exercising a decisive influence upon the development of Chris- tian doctrine. There the growth of early Christianity was marked by the rise of church buildings and the introduction of liturgical forms, the development of church organization and church practice. There for the first time Christian national Churches took their rise and became prosperous. The most severe blow sustained by the Church of Christ throughout the whole course of her history was that which was struck in the year 632, when the Arab invasion swept like a devastating flood over the Eastern provinces of the Church. 14 Introduction The century which followed was the most disastrous in the history of the Church. More than half the territory then nominally Christian was brought under the sway of the Cres- cent. It is a reproach to Christian nations that the rest of the Church looked on for seven centuries with short-sighted indolence, whilst the Eastern Eoman Empire was being sub- merged beneath successive waves of invasion, until the year 1453 witnessed the fall of Constantinople itself. Once, throughout a period of nearly two hundred years, the nations of Christendom strove to recover at least one dearly loved province, the Holy Land, from the hands of the fanat- ical Muhammadaus. The time of the Crusades is the most romantic period of the Middle Ages; in spite of all their political folly and petty rivalry, they constituted a grand effort on the part of Christendom to win back the countries of her birth. The effort failed ; the wave of enthusiasm was beaten back by the brazen walls of Muhammadan fanaticism. Since then Christendom has made a second attempt to win back the lost provinces ; not by mail-clad knights or death- dealing cannon, but, just as in the day when the Christian Church was founded in those regions, by the gentle influences which emanate from the preaching of the Cross. She estab- lished churches, schools and hospitals. She sent missionaries, who followed in the footsteps of Him who did not break the bruised reed nor quench the smoking flax. Though this work, like the Master Himself, does not make its voice heard in the streets, our Lord's disciples, at any rate, should have their eyes opened to discern its hidden glory. The following pages contain the history of these efforts put forth to recover the provinces wrested by Islam from the Church, this modern crusade, which breathes more truly than that old-time war- fare the spirit of the Prince of Peace. The course of our book is dictated by the nature of the sub- ject. We shall endeavour, first of all, to gain a general idea of the religious and social condition of this vast region, direct- ing our attention to the Muhammadan world and to the remnants of the ancient Christian Churches. We shall then Introduction 15 take up the different countries one by one, and survey the missionary efforts put forth in each. With the Romish prop- aganda we deal only in so far as this is necessary to a right understanding of Protestant work. We do not attempt to describe the spiritual life, the constitution, the liturgies, and the checkered history of the Eastern Churches. Nor do we deal with the history of the religious controversy between Mu- hammadans and Christians. It seems to us better to direct our attention solely to the wide-spread ramifications of the Protestant missionary enterprise. May this plain, unvarnished tale open the eyes and warm the heart of many a Protestant Christian. True, we do not record events which have moved the world. We still live in a day of small things. But as we traverse those consecrated lands, we are reminded afresh that it was here that God worked out the redemption of the world. Cannot He, who once caused the river of salvation to flow forth from these lands into all the world, cannot He bring back to these re- gions some currents from that stream of blessing, which has enriched Europe and America ? In these regions Christianity once showed its power, when opposed by the civilized heathen- ism of the Greek-Roman world ; should not the same power approve itself a second time as " the victory that overcometh the world " ? Protestants have carried the Gospel far and wide throughout the world ; they have given heed to the command, " Go ye into all the world and preach the Gospel to every creature." But on Mount Olivet the Master, as He was about to leave this earth, issued His instruction, " And ye shall be witnesses unto Me both in Jerusalem and in all Judea and in Samaria and unto the uttermost part of the earth." The Muhammadan lands of the East lie at the very door of Christendom ; a journey of two and a half days takes us to Constantinople ; in seven to nine days we can reach Jerusalem or Cairo. At the beginning of the last century, if Christians desired to carry the Gospel to the heathen nations of Africa and Asia, it was necessary cautiously to traverse the interve- ning fringe of Muhammadan territory, or to make one's way 16 Introduction around it. The route round the Cape of Good Hope has been exchanged for the more direct route through Muhammadan lands, where the traveller can now pass in safety. The in- habitants of these countries have the right to ask of Christian missionaries no longer to pass them by through disregard or hopelessness. History of Protestant Missions in the Near East THE MUHAMMADAN WORLD AND THE EASTERN CHURCHES 1. The Muhammadan World ONLY a part of the Muhammadan world can claim our attention in the following pages. We shall con- sider Turkey, Persia, Arabia, and Egypt. These are the lands in which Muhammadanism took its rise. They are at the same time the home of more or less important remnants of ancient Christian Churches. Yet, in order to appreciate the position which these nations occupy in relation to the Muhammandan peoples as a whole, we must cast at least a rapid glance over the entire region occupied by the followers of the Prophet. The Muhammadan world is a broad strip of territory, ex. tending from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the Dutch East Indies, and far into the interior of China. On the north the boundary line of this wide region passes from the Straits of Gibraltar through the Mediterranean to the Balkan Peninsula, runs northward to the Danube and stretches east- ward across the steppes of Southern Russia and Siberia into China. In China the western provinces of Kan-su, Shen-si, Yun-nan and the new province of Hsin-kiang, have a large admixture of Muhammadans ; the further east one travels, the smaller is the proportion of the Muhammadan population. In 17 l8 History cf Protestant Missions in the Near East Africa, the Muhammadan countries in Western and Central Sudan extend into the interior of Guinea, in fact almost as far south as the Congo ; to the east, in spite of the paramount influence of Muhammadan Egypt, they have not advanced south of the latitude of Fashoda, except along the coast. Along the east coast of Africa Arab immigrants have formed a new centre of Muhammadan influence, which has extended westward even beyond the great inland lakes. In Southern Asia we find that in a large part of India, especially in the northern provinces, in the United Provinces, and in Bengal, the Muhammadans form no inconsiderable proportion of the population, numbering many millions of adherents. In the Dutch East Indies they have taken entire possession of Java, the most beautiful and most thickly populated of the islands. They are very strong in the other large islands of Sumatra, Celebes, and Borneo, and have gained a footing on the remotest islands of the group. In addition to this wide belt in which Islam is almost without rival, isolated outposts are to be found at the Cape of Good Hope and on some of the islands off the East African coast. Authorities still differ considerably as to how many Mu- hammadans are to be found in these countries. The reason is not far to seek. Only in the case of such territories as are under the dominion of Christian powers do we possess reliable statistics, obtained through an accurate census. Thus we know that in British India there are 62,458,077 Muhammadans, m Egypt, 8,978,775, in Cape Colony, 15,100, in Cyprus. 47,900, in Ceylon, 212,000. But with regard to very large tracts of territory we possess only approximate estimates. So the most careful statisticians differ considerably in their results ; the French geographer Malte Brun reckoned in 1810 and again in 1831 only 110 millions. " Brockhaus Konversationslexikon," 1894, 175 millions. On the other hand, " Brockhaus Konversa- tionslexikon," 1902 (14th Ed., Vol. YI), 244 millions. The Wurtemburg statistician, Director H. Zeller (Allgemeine Missiona-Zeitschrift, 1903), 175,330,000. Hubert Jansen, " Verbreitung des Islam," 1897, 259,680,672 (!). H. Wichmann The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 19 in Justus Perthes' Atlas, 1903, 240 millions. " The Moham- medan World of To-day," 1906, 232,966,1T0. 1 Of these 228 millions of Muhammadans, taking that figure 1 We append herewith the most important of the separate items, so that the reader may form his own estimate of the accuracy of the total. We print in italics the names of those countries for which the figures may be considered fairly correct, because derived from an official census : EUROPE: Turkey, 2,050,000; Bosnia, 549,000; Bulgaria, 643,000; Boumania, 44,000; Servia, 14,000. Total 3,300,000 AFRICA: North Egypt, 8,979,000; Tripoli, 1,250,000; Tunis, 1,700,000; Algeria, 4,071,000; Morocco, 5,600,000. Total 21,600,000 Central and East Erythrea, 150,000; Somaliland. 1,100,000; British and German East Africa, 1,250, 000; Egyptian Sudan, 1,000,000; Abyssinia, 300,000. Total 3,800,000 West French West Africa, 20,000,000 ; British Africa, 7,500,000; German West Africa, 2,000,000; other countries, 1,000,000. Total 30,500,000 Congo, 2,000,000; French Congo, 1,000,000; other countries and islands, 750,000. Total 3,750,000 Total in Africa 59,650,000 ASIA : North and West Turkey, 12,250,000 ; Independent Arabia, 3,500,000; Persia, 8,750,000; Afghanistan, 4,500,000 ; Russian Asia, 6,500,000 ; Bokhara and Khiva, 2,000,000. Total 37,500,000 South British India, 62,500,000; Ceylon, Malay Peninsula and other British possessions, 900,000. Total 63,400,000 Dutch East Indies, 29,250,000 ; French colonies in Hither and Further India, 1,500,000; Siam, 1,000,000. Total 31,750,000 Central China, 30,000,000. 30,000,000 Total in Asia 162,650,000 Asia 162,650,000 Africa 59,650,000 Europe 3,300,000 Total 225,600,000 If the usual estimate of thirty millions of Muhammadans in China is not thought to be considerably too high, we may reckon that in round figures there in a Muhammadan population in the world of two hundred and twenty-five millions. 2O History of Protestant Missions in the Near East as an approximate total, only thirty-eight millions, 1 or about one-sixth, live in those parts of Asia and the north- east corner of Africa which, in this book, occupy our attention. But these regions include within their borders the countries in which Islam took its rise, and they embrace its holiest cities and its most celebrated universities ; in a word, they contain, as it were, the heart and head of Muhammadanism. One of the chief duties of the orthodox Moslem is the " hadj " or pilgrimage to Mecca, which every Mussulman is expected to perform at least once in his life. This pilgrimage brings Muhammadans from the remotest countries of the earth to Mecca, whence a flood of Moslem piety flows back into all parts of the Muhammadan world. Besides this, Arabic is the sacred language of Islam. Only in that language is it per- missible to read the Koran and to pray. It is in Arabic alone that Muhammadan theological and philosophical works, in short, original Muhammadan works of learning, have been written. Consequently, the Arabic-speaking countries of Hither-Asia and North Africa claim as their birthright a position of preeminence with regard to the other Muhammadan countries of the world. In addition to this, Church and State are so indissolubly connected in the Muhammadan world that a certain amount of prestige attaches to the holder of the highest temporal office, the lawful Khalif, that is, the Turkish Sultan in Stamboul. In him centre the ambitious political aspirations of the Moslem world. Thus, in spite of their- comparatively small population, a unique position in the Muhammadan world is occupied by the lands which con- tain Mecca and Stamboul, in which Medina and Jerusa- lem, the next holiest cities of the Moslems, are situated, and where Arabic is spoken as the mother tongue of the inhabitants. 1 Europe accordingly the note on page 19, 3,300.000 ; Asia Minor, 7,179,000 ; Armenia and Kurdistan, 1,795,000; Mesopotamia, 1,200,000; Syria, 1,053,100; Turkish Arabia, 1,000,000. Independent Arabia, 3,500,000 ; Persia, 8,750,000; Egypt, 8,979,000; Egyptian Sudan, 1,000,000; Abyssinia, 300,000; Erythrea, 152,000. Total, 38,600,000. The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 21 2. Two Aspects of Islam Muhammadanism shows evident signs of decay ; on the other hand, there are less evident signs of progress. Islam, which was founded by the sword, and the early adherents of which were desirous of proving its truth by the sword, has through many a long year experienced a succession of reverses. These began in Western Europe. Since the victory of Charles Martel at Poictiers the flood of Muhammadanism has receded ; one part of Spain after the other, Lower Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Isles, were freed from the yoke of Islam. It was a hard struggle, lasting several centuries. At the beginning of the fourteenth century the greater part of Eastern Europe was under Muhammadan sway. But then, came a reaction. The Russians fought against the Moslems, and in the course of the struggle, which lasted some hundreds of years, they became experts in the art of war and in the subtleties of diplomacy. The absorption by Eussia of terri- tories that were formerly Muhammadan continued throughout the nineteenth century. Thus in 1800 Georgia, and in 1828, 1829, and 1878, parts of Armenia were annexed, while from 1844 to 1887 the Trans-Caspian territory and Turkestan, the ancestral homes of the Turks in Asia, were subjugated. A third series of Muhammadan reverses dates from 1683, when John Sobieski raised the siege of Vienna. The Austrians gradually gaining courage, after struggles that lasted several decades, succeeded in driving the Turks back from the Leitha across the Danube, and regained possession of Hungary. Throughout the nineteenth century a fourth movement has taken place, whereby the power of Islam has been still further curtailed. The " Sick Man on the Bosphorus " has had to suffer the amputation of one limb of his unwieldy body after the other. Provinces have either been made into independent kingdoms, or have been placed under the protection of European Powers. Thus in 1829 the Turkish Empire lost Greece and Servia, in 1830 Algeria, in 1858 Roumania, in 1878 Cyprus, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro and Bulgaria, in 1882 Egypt and Tunis, and in 1898 the island of Crete. 22 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East Turkey is only a comparatively small part of the region under Muhammadan rule. What else remains to-day of the former realm of Islam ? There was a time when the Sudan, the Fulbe and Hausa States of West Africa, Zanzibar and the whole of East Africa as far as the Lakes, in fact as far as the Upper Congo, were ruled by Muhammadan princes. To-day the three Christian Powers of France, Britain, and Germany have divided these territories between them. There was a time when India from the Himalayas to Cape Cormorin was governed by the Great Moguls in Delhi and their vassals ; but years ago the last maharajah bowed his proud neck before Christian Britain. There was a time when the Muhamma- dans were masters of the Mediterranean and the adjacent seas, as well as of the Eed Sea and the Indian Ocean. To-day Britain is mistress of these seas, and the converging points of the trade routes which cross their waters are under her con- trol. Gibraltar, Malta, Aden, Perim, Penang and Singapore are important connecting links of the British Empire. Of the two hundred and twenty-five millions of Muham- madans only thirty-five millions are at present under Moslem rule, while one hundred and sixty millions are under Christian rule. Whereas the Sultan, the " Commander of the Faithful," Muhammad's Khalif, rules over about eighteen million Mu- hammadans, the Christian King of England commands eighty millions, the French Eepublic and Holland each twenty-nine millions and the Kussian Czar fourteen millions. It was disastrous for Islam that from the twelfth century the Turks assumed the leadership. From one point of view this was an advantage. Through the centuries of their world empire the Arabs have never lost their Bedouin characteristics. They never learned statecraft. Their history is a record of ambitious cliques and reckless adventurers. The Turks, on the contrary, are a people with a capacity for rule. By nature excellent soldiers, they founded a lasting government. But they do not take kindly to civilization. There are four great nationalities which have played a leading part in the internal and external history of Islam ; the Arabs, the Per- The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 23 sians, the Mongols and the Turks. The first three introduced splendid epochs of civilization and stood, at various times, in the forefront of general culture the Arabs in Egypt, Morocco and Spain ; the Persians in their own country ; and the Mongols in India. They achieved great things in architecture, philosophy, geography, and astronomy. They produced poets and religious thinkers of world- wide renown. Nothing of all this is to be found among the Turks, no truly great poet, no explorer of the unknown, no fruitful constructive ideas in art. They rule with the mailed fist, and their rule is a curse for the peoples subject to them. Under their rule are found repre- sentatives of more gifted nations Greeks, Egyptians, Mace- donians, Armenians. As long as these languish under the Turkish yoke, they deteriorate outwardly and inwardly. Freed from Turkish tyranny, they recover. Think what Greece, Bul- garia, Servia, Cyprus, and Egypt have become since their lib- eration, and you realize the curse of Turkish rule. In the whole range of history, you will hardly find a nation that has done so little for civilization after seven centuries of unrivalled opportunity. That Islam to-day is generally regarded as an- tagonistic to culture, is to be attributed, above all, to the Turks. There are five chief causes of decay in Islam. (1) Muhammadan governments have proved incapable of developing the economical resources of their lands and of helping the population of these lands to thrive. Turkey, Persia and Morocco, almost the only countries still governed by Muhammadans, are in a condition of economical chaos. On the Balkan Peninsula and in Asia Minor Turkey possesses fertile territories, once the seats of a flourishing civilization. Assyria, Babylonia, the Ionian coast of Asia Minor, and Mace- donia were once the granaries of the world. To-day these territories are impoverished and famine-stricken, hardly able to sustain the tenth part of their former population. Turkey herself, the mistress of these precious territories, suffers from chronic financial disability. At the present day, when po- litical questions are so intimately connected with financial 24 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East conditions and when national wealth means national power, such countries are bound to fail in the race. 1 (2) Hand in hand with this economic incapacity goes inter- nal political incapacity, which has never known how to settle disputes and establish lasting peace and order. First of all, there is the national enmity between Turks and Arabs. The northern half of the Ottoman Empire as far south as Tripoli in Syria is Turkish, the other half Arab. Probably the Arabs are the nobler race ; they are also the nation of the Prophet and the Koran ; they feel it to be an injustice that the Turks have assumed the place of paramount authority in Islam, and that the Sultan regards himself as Khalif. Then there is the bitter antagonism of Turks and Arabs alike against their Christian subjects. Of such discord we shall find many a record in the following pages. Further, Turkey has not been able to amalgamate with herself races nominally Muhamma- dan, such as the Druses, the Nusairiyeh, the Kurds, and the Muhammadan Albanians. Large provinces of the empire Armenia, Kurdistan, Syria, nearly the whole of Turkey in Europe are in a chronic state of ferment, that nowhere allows of peaceful settlement. It is often impossible to say whether such countries as Yemen, Central Arabia, and Tripoli are in a state of chronic rebellion, or whether they have achieved full independence. And, to complete the mischief, the government cannot hold in check the Bedouin hordes from Arabia and the Syrian desert, which constantly overrun Syria and Mesopotamia. These Bedouins are like the desert sand, absorbing unhindered one fertile stretch of the country after 1 In 1875 Mustafa Fazil Pasha, a brother of the Khedive of Egypt, wrote to the Sultan : Your Majesty's subjects, of whatever faith they may be, fall into two classes, viz : the ruthlessly oppressing and the mercilessly oppressed. In- dustry, agriculture, trade all lie prone in the empire. When a man can ex- ploit his neighbour, he takes no pains to improve his mind or his field ; and where tyranny and extortion reign, no one can hope for the fruit of his labour, and no one works. Every passing year robs us of our foreign support. All the European statesmen, on regarding the actions of your officials, exclaim : That government is incapable of reform, it is doomed to destruction. Well, sire, are such prophecies lies? (Dr. Gundert, " Protestant Missions," 4th Ed., p. 257). The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 25 the other, because there is no power to call a halt. This inca- pacity for internal government escapes attention in some de- gree because of the fact that the religion of Islam binds together all Muhammadan races, so that they present a solid front against all non-Muhammadans. This bond of a common religion is so strong that it transcends the ties of blood and race. A Muhammadan father does not hesitate to give testi- mony against his own son, should that son embrace Christian- ity. Those Greeks, Armenians and Bulgarians who have become Muhammadans, are often, in the second and third generation, the bitterest opponents of their countrymen who have remained Christians, their new religious connection severing even the ties of family. This peculiar contrast, on the one hand internal, national enmity of the bitterest kind, and, on the other hand, united opposition against all outsiders, explains many curious anomalies in the history of Muhamma- dan states. (3) A third cause of the decay of Islam is the contradiction between the teaching of Islam and established facts. Bead Sura IX of the Koran, the only sura that is not introduced with the words " In the Name of God, the Merciful and Com- passionate," words that would sound blasphemous in this con- nection. Four months are allowed to infidels for considera- tion. If they are not converted to Islam within that time, then " kill the idolaters wheresoever ye shall find them, and take them prisoners, and besiege them, and lay wait for them in every convenient place ; but if they repent and observe the appointed times of prayer and pay the legal alms, dismiss them freely " (Sura IX : 5. Sale). 1 " Fight against those unto whom the Scriptures have been delivered, and yet who believe not in God, nor in the last day, and forbid not that which God and His apostle have forbidden, and profess not the true religion, until they pay tribute by right of subjection and they 1 To be sure Muhammad uttered the famous saying, * ' There must be no com- pulsion in matters of religion." But the Arab commentators say, probably with truth, that this declaration was abrogated by later utterances, such as those given above. 26 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East be reduced low." That Moslems should be subject to the infidel Christians is thus an intolerable thought, which raises the fanaticism of Moslems to the boiling point. Yet three- quarters of all Muhammadans are subjects of Christian nations, and the rest are in more or less close dependence on Christian Europe. What a contradiction ! There is the same anomaly in Muhammadan theology and learning. There have certainly been centuries in which these have made great progress. But there was always a germ of death in them. That " winged word," with which Khalif Omar, or his Egyptian general Amr, is said to have excused the destruction of the invaluable library of Alexandria, "Either there is in these books what the Koran contains, and then they are superfluous ; or they con- tain something different, and then they are false and noxious," reveals the fundamental genius of Islam, which has fallen like the frost of winter on the scientific spirit. The only allowable task of science is the codifying and explaining of the authoritative words of Allah in the Koran, as they defini- tively regulate all that bears on the common life, the mosque, the courts of law, the bazar, and even the Khalif s throne. But this artificial system of law, which the learned deduce from the Koran and the Sunna with hair-splitting exactitude, is in sharp conflict with stern reality. The Muhammadan higher schools exhaust themselves in an attempt to reconcile facts with the teaching of their sacred writings. The whole modern state would have to be remodeled, in order to be brought into conformity with the will of Allah, as propounded by the mollahs. The same contradictory elements are to be found in the relations of business and civil life. This is increasingly true in proportion as European influence gains ground in Muham- madan lands. Tobacco and wine are an abomination to the orthodox Muhammadan. The camel and the horse carry him on his journeys. Of railways and steamers, of electricity and the telephone his Koran knows nothing. Could he but retire to some distant oasis in the desert, where he could hear noth- ing of these abominations of the giaour, and where he could fashion his life according to the precepts of the Koran ! The The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 27 risings of the Wahabis in Arabia, and of the Senussi order in North Africa, are typical attempts to defy the modern reality and to restore the ideal of Islam. (4) Connected with this is the fourth cause of decay, the splitting up of Muhammadans into sects. Persia is the classic land of Muhammadan sects, whose name is legion. There are sects philosophical, sects religious, sects political. But the formation of sects is by no means confined to Persia. As a rule there are two doctrines of Islam that are a fertile soil for the growth of sects : (a) the doctrine that Allah calls an Imam (teacher) in each generation, who has divine authority to expound the Koran to his contemporaries. It is not to be wondered at that repeatedly some conceited man, haunted by hallucinations, regards himself as such an Imam; (b) the doctrine that at the end of days the Mahdi is to finish Mu- hammad's still incomplete work, leading Islam to be mistress of the world. What a number of Mahdis have arisen during the last century ! And the sadder the condition of Muham- madan countries becomes, the greater is the likelihood that rage at the disappointing present, and a yearning for the Ideal of Islam, will lead to Mahdi risings. (5) In addition to all this, moral deterioration is eating at the vitals of Muhammadan nations. The Koran allows polygamy, one of the worst ethical errors of Muhammad. Polygamy is everywhere the rule, except where poverty en- forces monogamy. The result is that even a greater degree of sensuality prevails in such nations than among Africans or Hindus. This carnality has borne fatal fruit. If the woman is but the plaything of the man and exists only to satisfy his lust, why need she be educated ? On the contrary, the less she knows, the better. In the eyes of the man, she is but flesh. This general feeling has stood in the way of the education of women. Unbridled fleshly desires, also, are fanciful and changeable. The slightest thing may cause antipathy, or at least indifference. Hence divorce and adultery are common. Kev. John Young, the Scottish missionary in Aden, says that he does not know any man over thirty who has not been mar- 28 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East ried two or three times. Snouck Hurgronje has drawn fear- ful pictures of the moral depravity in the holy city of Mecca, where most marriages are temporary, and where many women have been married to thirty or more men consecutively. Still worse, in Asia Minor prostitution is fearfully common, and Turkish society in particular is honeycombed with the un- natural vice of pederasty. Where such moral depravity reigns, a sound family life is impossible. The children grow up in the poisonous atmosphere of intrigue, fleshly lust, bad language and shameless licentiousness. They are polluted from youth up. It is perhaps the greatest curse of the Ori- ental Churches, that they have to exist in such an atmosphere and are liable to become infected by the surrounding corrup- tion. It is refreshing, when wandering through these moral wastes, to come upon a people like the Kurds, a people morally pure, and therefore robust ; and one feels almost inclined to forgive them their ingrained robber instincts because of their moral purity. It is terrible that one who knows Islam as thoroughly as does William Gifford Palgrave, especially as it is in Asia Minor and Arabia, must sum up his verdict in these strong words : Only " when the Koran and Mecca shall have disappeared from Arabia, can we expect to see the Arab as- sume that place in the ranks of civilization, from which Mu- hammad and his book have, more than any other cause, long held him back" ("The Mohammedan World of To-day," p. 80). 1 In spite of all this it would be a mistake to look for 1 Never perhaps was the general decline of Islam more plainly set forth than at a conference of prominent and learned Muhammadans which met at Mecca from the 27th of March to the 10th of April, 1899, to enquire into the reasons of this decline and to devise remedies. The chairman opened the proceedings with an assertion that in any two adjacent countries, districts, villages or homes, one of which is Muhammadan, the other not, you will find the Moslems less ener- getic, worse organized in every respect, less skillful in the arts and trades than the non-Moslems, though the former may excel the latter in such other virtues as honesty, courage and liberality. In explanation of this sad state of things, the conference adduced no fewer than fifty-six causes, embracing the whole range of life, religious, political and social. It was resolved to found a society for the revivifying of Islam, the society of " the Mother of the Villages, " and to establish The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 29 an early collapse of Islam, even though it should lose its last remnant of political power. There remains real vitality in the Muhammadan world. The more Islam decays outwardly, the more does this inner vitality reveal itself. It finds ex- pression, above all, in the orders of dervishes, one of the most remarkable phenomena in the Moslem world. Since Islam developed near one of the chief seats of the early Christian colonies of monks in Egypt and the Sinaitic peninsula, and since she won her first successes in countries in which the monastic idea had taken root, it is not to be wondered at that, in Islam also, similar tendencies asserted themselves. The oldest dervish order is said to have been founded by the Khalif Abu Bekr, Muhammad's uncle. Centuries passed, how- ever, before this dervish idea became fully developed. It was too foreign to the genius of Islam to find a home there quickly. In 1165 Abdul Kadr el Jilani, of Bagdad, founded the most celebrated of the earlier orders. Not till the political de- cline of Islam in the nineteenth century was the number of dervish orders, till then small, increased, by way of reaction as it were, to eighty-eight. Millions of adherents flock to them. They are perhaps the most valuable spiritual asset of modern Islam. Following the example of the Muhammadan theologian, in Mecca a Koraishite Khalifate of a decidedly ecclesiastical character, to be main- tained by an army drawn from all Muhammadan states. The learned Oxford Orientalist, Professor Margoliouth, concludes his report of this significant con- ference by raising the weighty question, u Has Islam any golden age to look back on, except in the sense that at one time Muhammadan sultans were a terror to their neighbours, whereas now their neighbours are safe from their raids ?" In answer to which he asserts that " there is no real abuse current in Muham- madan states from which they have ever been free, except by accident, for a limited time. . . . The days of the ' Pious Khalifa ' could they be repro- duced, would mean no progress even in the most backward Islamic countries. The strengthening of Islam, if it is not to be a calamity to the whole world, is not to be effected by the reproduction of a barbarous past, but by an attempt to utilize the vast force which Islam represents, as a factor in the real progress of the civilizing and ennobling of the race. And whether this can be done, or the whole of this huge capital must be ' written off ' is the question which re- formers have to solve" ("East and West," 1907, p. 393). 30 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East Ghazali,one of whose works is a standard in Muhammadan theol- ogy, this theology is divided into three parts, Law, Dogmatics and Mysticism. This mysticism acquired an independent and recognized position. Apart from a knowledge of the law, the thoroughly educated Moslem theologian requires special train- ing to enable him to come into communion with Allah. To effect this is the task of mysticism. It is an anciently accepted principle that a personal instructor, a murshid, is necessary. Such instructors are supplied by the mystical orders, the tariqas. The founder of an order is believed to be in direct communication with Allah, this spiritual bond passing over to the sheikh of the order for the time being, the sheikh being connected with the founder by his silsilah, or " spiritual in- heritance." The sheikh, either immediately and personally, or through vicars and Khalifs commissioned by him, has the care of all souls who place themselves under his spiritual guidance and enter his tariqa, or order. Orthodoxy demands that the study of mysticism be engaged in only after a man has been well grounded in law and doctrine. In practice, however, the dervish orders try to attract to themselves the ignorant masses, who have had no previous training. The organization 1 of the orders is generally identical. At the head stands the grand master, called the sheikh, who claims obedience from every member. The dervishes live in zawiyahs or monasteries, under a mukaddim, or abbot. The full members of the order, living in the community, are ikhwan or khuan, i.e., brethren. Side by side with them are the lay members, who follow worldly callings, but in times of danger gather round the order by which they are protected. The novitiate is a long and fatiguing process. At first the novice has to perform ascetic exercises with the object of mor- tifying his personal will and of making him a pliable tool in the hands of his superiors. His advance in the order is but slow, from one grade to another according to his fitness. All the orders aim at deepening the religious life by means of an 1 Cf. Miss. Rev., 1900, pp. 372 ff., 1902, pp. 732 fl. "Missions wissenschaftliohe Studien," pp. 129 ft. Sell, " Essays on Islam," pp. 99 ff. The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 31 ecstatic sinking of the soul in Allah. Seven steps in this proc- ess seem to be common to all the brotherhoods. The first and second comprise the dikr and the common rules of Islam. The dikr (tikr, trika) is the special formula constituting the peculiar feature of the order. It is added to every prayer and is frequently repeated at every religious service. The third step is the ecstatic passion ; the fourth, the ecstasy of the heart; the fifth, the ecstasy of the immortal soul; the sixth, the mystical ecstasy ; the seventh, the ecstasy of absorption in Allah. These steps are reached by fasts, vigils and special exercises. On the lowest step the dervish is only a " learner " ; on the second, a " seeker after God " ; on the third, a fakir , i. e., a man who has dissolved himself into the Nothing. On the fourth step, he is a sufi, i. e., an object of divine love. At this stage he begins to have visions and revelations, which he regards as coming directly from Allah. Then he becomes a salek, " a man who makes for the goal, i. e., God." On the next step he is " drawn to God," and constantly shouts in ecstasy. After this he becomes either a " holy fool " or a " holy teacher," and is filled with the spirit of Muhammad. There is yet a higher step, when the man shall become equal to God, and the soul lose its individuality, being absorbed in God. Yery seldom, however, does any one reach a higher level than that of a " holy fool." Men of this grade are com- mon in Arabian towns. Though they do not beg, they live by alms, and are frequently seen running naked through the streets. To give an example of the exercises of these dervishes, we will describe those of the kadirija order. The members of this brotherhood have, at every prayer exercise, to repeat (1) " There is no God but Allah " 165 times ; (2) " God be merciful to me," 100 times ; (3) the dikr of the order, " Oh, Allah, bless our lord and master Abdul Kadir 10,000 times more than there are atoms in the air," 100 times. Then the worshipper sits cross-legged on the ground, his right hand resting with upturned palm on his right knee, while his left hand lies on his left leg. In this position he continues to utter 32 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East the name of Allah slowly and softly, until all evil thoughts vanish it may be 1,000 or 2,000 times giving special empha- sis to the last syllable in "Allahw." Then he turns his head 1,000 to 2,000 times regularly from left to right, repeating in the same way " Allaha " until good thoughts come. Finally he bows his head low the same number of times, always re- peating " Allahi," until he has no thoughts at all, or, as the dervish expresses it, " until all thought is absorbed in God." With other orders the process is not so quiet ; they employ stronger methods to induce the ecstasy. For instance, the aisawiya join hands in a circle, and, under the lead of their sheikh sway their bodies from right to left, uttering hundreds of times the name of Allah. The oftener they do this, the greater becomes their excitement. Sometimes they cry "Allah" 5,000 or 10,000 times. Finally they jump up and shout the name as loud as they can. Nor do they cease until they collapse in a fainting condition, whereupon they are shoved aside, others taking their places. Some place prickly fruits on their naked backs and roll about upon them. Others inhale the poisonous fumes of charcoal until they become demented. Others again place splinters of wood in their eyes, cheeks, tongue, or sides, while some stand and jump on the edge of a sharp sword, or fix the point of a sword on their bodies and let it be tapped with a boot or stick. As soon as they are in this way brought to the verge of madness, the sheikh gives them a live sheep, which they rapidly devour, skin and hair included, fighting like mad dogs for the most repulsive parts and all this in the name of God ! Most nearly related to the aisawiya are the two best known European dervish orders, the rufaiya, or " howling dervishes," and the maula- wiya, or " dancing dervishes." * 1 Snouok Hurgronje, a recognized authority on modern Islam, says of the ka. dirija: "Expressions of the religious life resembling madness are observed only in brethren of the lower grades of the order, or, in a more refined form, in the most secret assemblies of the initiated. Yet . . . these brethren like to linger on the border of two worlds, in the half-light with half-closed eyes. Their highest ideal is to have during their earthly life intoxicated feelings, which can- not be described in human speech." Nor do we miss here " the indispensable The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 33 It is difficult for us to realize that orders which effect this kind of piety should represent the strength of Islam. And yet to their activity Islam owes its most important progress, its greatest conquests in the nineteenth century. The scope of the kadirija is chiefly in Western Sudan, the desire of its adherents being to spread the Muhammadan faith among the heathen nations of Africa. They are to be found as far south as Sierra Leone and the upper Niger. The fact that a tribe, as soon as it becomes Muhammadan, is spared by the slave dealers, has added large populations to Islam. The tiyaniyah order is powerful chiefly in Tunis, exercising its influence as far as Sierra Leone and Timbuctoo. This order must be chiefly credited with the mighty advance of Islam in North and East Africa. At present the most important and powerful order is the sanussiyah. Founded in 1843 by the Algerian sheikh Sanussi, and since his death in 1859, led with equal skill by his son, this order possessed in 1886 one hundred and twenty-one monaster- ies and houses of the order and had, counting the lay brethren, about eight million adherents. In Tripoli its power is so great that Turkish authority is little more than nominal. The order found a special promoter and adherent in the person of the Sultan of Wadai, through whose influence the population of the adjacent district of Ennedi embraced Islam. The mon- asteries of the sanussiyah are found as far as Morocco, and their influence in the interior of Africa, on the upper and middle Niger, is on the increase. " The great aim of Sheikh Sanussi in his work of reformation is the reestablishment of the original Islam, as he imagines it, the reintroduction of the moral and religious laws and precepts of the Prophet, the re- newing of the purity of the Islamitic faith, free from the besmirching influence of European civilization and Christian- ity. All the modern innovations in Turkey and Egypt were hateful to him, and he therefore adopted an Arabic motto for movements of the body and head, full of hypnotic suggestion, -whereby the sa- ored formulae pass from one shoulder through the heart to the other side and wander through various parts of the body " (Mekka II, p. 378), 34 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East his order, " The Turks and Christians belong to the same category : we will destroy them both at the same time." Much has been said about Muhammadan missionaries and Muhammadan missionary societies ; but in the sense in which we understand it, there are no such organizations in Islam, or at least they have been very short-lived. Nor are the orders, though they perform the greatest part of the work, really the pioneers of Islam among infidels. It is, rather, characteristic of the Muhammadans, that, as a rule, every merchant or traveller is a propagator of his faith. As far as the Hausa merchants advance in "West Africa, so far does Islam extend. It is a well-known fact that in the first three centuries of Christianity, the time of its most rapid expansion, the name of hardly one officially appointed missionary is re- corded after the death of the Apostles. And yet Christianity penetrated country after country victoriously, and congrega- tions sprang up like mushrooms. Every Christian was a mis- sionary of his faith, and, wherever he went, he preached it and gained converts. Alas ! how different it is now with the Christians scattered over the whole world. But it still holds good of Islam ; and this championship of his faith by the simple Moslem, his boldness and punctuality in performing his relig- ious duties even in the most alien surroundings, prove to be a most effectual means of propagating his religion. The der- vishes follow in the track of these simple forerunners. It has sometimes been expected that the progress of Islam would be crippled in proportion to the waning of the Crescent, and as the claim of Islam to be a political power becomes il- lusory. Facts teach that in its contact with the lower forms of religion among the negroes, the Malays and the pariahs of India, the missionary power of Islam would seem to increase in proportion as Islam loses the support of political influence and the sword. In its propaganda Islam possesses a great advan- tage over Christianity ; it forms a gigantic, concentrated body, which by the natural law of attraction assimilates all that comes within a certain range. Christianity is represented only by individuals, or at most by numerically insignificant The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 35 communities scattered throughout nearly the whole of the missionary world of Asia, Africa and Oceanica. Where it is in a position to appear with the full weight of its ecclesiastical and political organizations, as in South Africa, North America and the Australian continent, the process of Christianization is rapid. Such favourable conditions are the rule for Islam, but for Christianity the exception. It must be added that, while both religions enjoy the advantage of offering the ben- efit, so attractive to savages, of leading them from barbarism to a certain appearance of civilization, Islam with its polyg- amy, slavery, spirit worship and tolerance of sorcery, makes far lower moral demands than Christianity, which in many cases is also hindered by racial animosities between black and white. Thus it becomes apparent how Islam develops con- siderable missionary power among the uncivilized peoples of Africa and India. Still another factor in the world of Islam must be taken into account, the idea of Panislamism. As Muhammad had the empire of the world conferred upon him by Allah, so, ac- cording to the Muhammadan view, his Khalif is the rightful ruler of all the Faithful, the only one called to rule the world. Since the assassination of the fourth lawful Khalif, Ali, the honour of the Khalif ate has passed from one dynasty to another. But since this dignity was surrendered by the Abbaside Khalif of Egypt in 1517 to the Osmanli Sultan, Selim I, it has been claimed by the Sultan of Constantinople. For many Sultans it may have been a mere title, used to en- sure their position with their subjects. The Sultan Abdul Hamid (from 1876) recognized the possible importance of the claim involved in this title in view of the excitable char- acter of the Moslems. By a secret, yet organized agitation in every Muhammadan country, he endeavoured to commend himself to all orthodox Moslems as the only lawful Khalif. It is true that the Persian Shiites, the Arabian Wahabites and the Moslems of Morocco refuse to acknowledge this claim ; true also, that barely a twelfth part of the Muham- madans about nineteen millions out of two hundred and 36 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East twenty-five millions are really under the dominion of this Sultan ; true again that the proud Arabs, following an ancient tradition, claim that only one of KoraisJiite blood may be- come Khalif, and that therefore only the Sherif of Mecca has a right to the title. Nevertheless it cannot be denied that this agitation about the Khalifate has had a real effect upon the minds of Muhammadans. Were the Sultan, like his pred- ecessors in former centuries, still the " ever- victorious," Mos- lems in all the world would willingly submit themselves to the "Commander of the Faithful." Owing to the present feebleness of the " Sick Man on the Bosphorus," this ideal is far from fulfillment, yet this agitation constitutes a constant, latent danger to European governments in Muhammadan col- onies. It is curious that the agitation is strongest in Muham- madan Egypt, governed by Christian England. It must be added that it is merely agitation and not an organized, combined effort. It is with Islam as it is with the Protestant Churches. Its radically democratic character renders combined actions beyond the limits of each state very difficult. Yet, in spite of this lack of combination, the ferment of Muhammadan fanati- cism engendered by such movements is felt throughout the Muhammadan world. In the Crimean war Muhammadans held the grotesque view that the French and English rushed as his vassals to the help of the " Kuler of the World " against the insolent rebel, Kussia. The result was that a high tide of Muhammadan rebellion broke upon Muhammadan countries under infidel rule, with the object of shaking off the offensive yoke of the unbe- lievers. Thus, in 1857, occurred the mutiny in India; in 1859, the rebellion in Borneo ; in 1858-1861, Muhammadan risings in Kan-su, Shen-si and Yun-nan. This beating of a single pulse throughout the entire Muhammadan body con- stitutes the danger of Panislamism. 3. The Oriental Churches From the beginning the chief immediate aim of Protestant Missions in the Near East has been to infuse new spiritual The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 37 vigour into, and to kindle new intellectual light in, the Oriental Churches. It is therefore necessary to give some general in- formation about the political and religious state of those Churches. To become acquainted with them is of high in- terest to the student of church history. It is as if he were turning over the torn yellow pages of a picture-book. Ancient religious controversies, sympathies and antipathies come to life again, that have lain hidden under the debris of twelve or thirteen centuries. The East Koman Church was the backbone of the early church development. From the time of Constantino it was the established Church of the Eastern Empire. It exists in the present day as the Greek Orthodox Church. In the grand ecclesiastical traditions of Origen, Athanasius, Basil, the Gregorys, and of John Chrysostom, this Church possesses a magnificent heritage from the Past. Since, in ad- dition, she has been upheld by the Greeks, a people as men- tally vigorous and intellectually gifted as they are self-con- scious and proud of their glorious history, it is not to be wondered at that the Greek Church occupies by far the most prominent position in the ecclesiastical life of the Christian East. To this Greek Orthodox Church belong (1) the great Russian Church in which the Czar holds well-nigh the same position of supremacy which the Byzantine Emperor formerly held ; (2) the group of churches among the Slavonic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, embracing Bulgarians, Servians, Roumanians, Ruthenians and others, and (3) a group of Greek Churches in Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor and in those former centres of Graeco-Macedonian civilization, Syria, Pales- tine and Egypt ; in all about ninety millions. These groups of Churches are organized into no single ecclesiastical body. The vigorous Sultan Mahmud II, indeed, recognizing the fact that as a Muhammadan he could not do justice to his Christian subjects, transferred the ecclesiastical and civil oversight (rumi melleti) over all Christians to the Patriarch of Con- stantinople, after the taking of this city in 1453. Yet, as those parts of Turkey in which Christianity prevailed broke 38 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East away from the Turkish yoke and were organized into inde- pendent states, they asserted at the same time their ecclesi- astical independence of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and strove to build up national Churches among themselves. Thus autonomous Churches were founded in Greece, Montenegro, Servia, Koumania, Hungary, etc. Even within the dominions of Turkey, the Patriarch of Constantinople had not sufficient power nor prestige to maintain papal authority over the churches of his creed. The Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem looked back upon an equally glorious ecclesi- astical past, and enjoyed so great a prestige on account of the holy places lying in their territory, that they became autono- mous and independent of Constantinople in nearly every re- spect, although their independence is not legally defined. Even the small Orthodox Greek Church of Cyprus and the u archbishopric " of the fifty monks of the Sinai Monastery became autonomous. Several factors contribute to the further loosening of this feeble ecclesiastical connection. In the "orthodox" churches of Mediterranean lands, Greek has for ages been the language of the church services and of ecclesi- astical learning. The patriarchs, therefore, claimed the right to put Greeks into all the important livings under their con- trol, even though the congregations might not understand Greek. This gave rise to a fateful quarrel with the Bul- garians, a people proud of their nationality and very ambi- tious. They considered it an insult, that Greeks should be the superior clergy and should conduct the services in Greek. The obstinacy of the Constantinople Patriarchate on the one hand, which refused to accede to the just demands of the Bulgarians, and, on the other hand, the backing up of the latter by the Kussian government, led, in 1870, to the issuing by the Sultan of a firman declaring the Bulgarian Church practically independent of the Patriarch, and conferring upon it an autonomous " Exarchate." Although the Patriarch re- plied by excommunicating the Bulgarian Church, thereby forcing it into a kind of schism, the latter has maintained its autonomy, and is striving hard to annex the whole Bulgarian The Muhammadan World and the Eastern Churches 39 nation to its ecclesiastical, as well as to its political, organiza- tion. The Bulgarians number two and a half millions in Bulgaria itself, and one and a half millions in European Turkey, most of the latter being found in Macedonia. Similar difficulties confront the Patriarchates of Antioch and Jerusalem. It is true that in these districts Greek was originally the language of the church services, of culture and of trade, and that the Fathers of this region were without exception Greeks. Yet, after the Arabian conquest in the middle of the seventh century, language and civilization under- went a complete change. The native population, including the Christians, adopted the Arabic language, so that even Greek families, which immigrated in former centuries, speak Arabic, though perhaps in the family circle Greek is spoken and understood. This being so, the congregations feel it to be an insult that only Greek-speaking ecclesiastics are placed over them as bishops and higher clergy. And they have a powerful supporter of their claims in Kussia, who is striving to establish her political supremacy throughout the Near East on the basis of an ecclesiastical unity in Syria and Palestine. Of the loose group of Orthodox Greek Churches within the Turkish Empire the Patriarchate of Constantinople is the most important. To it belong the churches in Asia Minor and in that portion of European Turkey in which the population is Greek by birth and language with only a slight intermingling of Slavs. The congregations connected with this Patriarchate number, approximately, two and a half million souls. Here, apart from a not inconsiderable portion of the interior high- lands of Asia Minor, where it has been superseded by the Turkish or Armenian tongues, the Greek language is used by the people and in the churches. Compared with this large Patriarchate, those of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem appear poor enough. Alexandria lost the greater part of her congregations as far back as the sixth century, when nearly the entire Egyptian Church seceded to Monophysitism. Dur- ing fourteen centuries of Muhammadan oppression, their number has further declined, so that at the present day there 4o History of Protestant Missions in the Near East are only 10,000 native members, in addition to 40,000 immi- grants, especially from Greece and the islands of the ^Egean Sea. The Patriarchate of Antioch has about 250,000 Syrians, most of whom speak Arabic. In the Patriarchate of Jerusalem, there are at most 50,000 to 51,000 (the greater part of whom also speak Arabic), the largest congregations being in Jerusalem, Jaffa and Nazareth (5,000 each), Bethlehem (3,800), Beit Jala (4,000), Beit Sahur (1,150), Lydda, Gaza and Kamleh (about 1,000 each). The creed of the Orthodox Greek Church is based on the seven Ecumenical Councils ; it teaches baptismal regeneration, the conferring of the Holy Spirit by the anointing with holy oil, transubstantiation, etc. Prominent in the religious life of the people are the veneration (not the worship, KpooKuvr)fft. The Basle Mission in Transcaucasia, The Basle Mission, founded in 1816, was, in the first years of its existence, content to supply men for other societies, English and Dutch. But, in 1820, feeling at length a measure of strength, it began to contemplate a mission of its own. Many pious Suabian families had emigrated, in 1819, to Russian Transcaucasia, and had founded German settlements in Tiflis and its neighbourhood. They requested the Basle Committee to send them some of their young missionaries to minister to them spiritually. The active mind of the leading secretary in Basle, Rev. T. Blumhardt, recognized in this ap- plication a brilliant prospect for an extended mission. From these German colonies as centres he hoped not only to infuse new life into the moribund Oriental Churches, but also to press on to the Muhammadans living in adjacent countries. His expressive face used to light up as he expounded his idea that it would be possible to reach Persia, Russian Trans- caucasia, nay, all the countries round the Mediterranean, within a few days, starting from any harbour of the Black Sea. Egypt, Abyssinia and the North Coast of Africa were not too far away but that they might be easily and safely reached and, if necessary, as easily escaped from (Eppler, "Geschichte der Basler Mission," p. 28. W. Hoffmann, " Elf Jahre," pp. 30 ff,). 98 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East The energetic support of the Eussian government was also confidently relied on, since the pious Emperor Alexander I was at that time Czar. It was under his influence that the Kussian Bible Society had been founded in 1813. This Society joined its forces with those of the British and Foreign Bible Society to reprint and distribute the then rare Ancient Armenian Bible. By 1815, 5,000 complete Bibles and 2,000 New Testaments (followed, in 1817, by 2,000 more) were sent to Kussian Armenia and were speedily disposed of. It must be confessed, however, that they were bought only by the educated classes and higher clergy, who alone understood ancient Armenian. The Basle Mission was begun with the permission of the Russian government, though under certain restrictions. Pas- tors were allowed in the German settlements, but non-Chris- tians should be baptized only on condition that they settled in the German colonies. There were four tasks that the Basle Committee placed before the first missionaries in 1821 : (1) to distribute the Word of God in every language and dialect of those peoples ; (2) to acquire a knowledge of the chief lan- guages commonly spoken by them ; (3) to found a college for Persians and Tartars, as an advanced school for pupils of the elementary national schools ; (4) to set up a printing-press for the translation of the Bible and of Protestant literature. A Scottish missionary society had, in 1802, begun to work in these southeasterly parts of Eussia, especially from two centres, the Tartar village of Karass, on the northern slope of the Caucasus, and Astrachan, the capital, lying on the Caspian Sea. But as the results proved unsatisfactory they determined to make Astrachan the sole centre, and to direct their efforts mainly to the distribution of the Bible and of Protestant litera- ture. They were therefore glad that the Basle Mission was ready to take up their work at Karass. This mission thus secured a firm footing for its work. The Suabian colonists in Eussian Transcaucasia welcomed the Basle Brethren with joy, and placed themselves under their spiritual care. Eev. A. H. Dittrich drew up for them a prac- The Beginnings of Protestant Missionary Endeavour 99 tical form of church organization and other Brethren became their ministers. But soon Shusha, a town in the mountain district of Karabagh, situated on a height surrounded by deep valleys, became the chief centre of the Basle Mission. Here they began an Armenian and Russian school, and set up their printing-press. On their preaching tours they passed through the districts on both sides of the Caucasus, pene- trating also far into Persia and Mesopotamia. Rev. Johann Jacob Lang, untiring as he was in his labours among the German colonists, still found time to go from one Tartar camp to another, bringing the Gospel to the heathen. Shusha of- fered many opportunities for work among the Armenians, and the Basle missionaries believed they could minister to them with greater freedom and success, not by founding a separate Protestant Church but by arousing the old Churches them- selves to new spiritual life. Especially in Shemacha and Baku, two towns which they regarded as substations of Shusha and often visited, they gained among the Armenians faithful friends. There also they came into frequent, and often friendly, touch with the Muhammadans. Felician Zaremba, one of the missionaries, had a peculiar gift of appealing to their hearts in a simple and hearty way. Felician Zaremba, 1 a young count descended from an old Polish noble family, a branch of which had gone over to the Protestant Church in 1635, had, in 1817, at the age of twenty-three, under the impulse of very strong religious feelings, turned his back on brilliant prospects of honour and riches by a secret flight across the boundary. In the following year he entered the college of the Basle Mission. The committee saw in him a personality specially fitted to put their Caucasus Mission on a firm footing. By his complete command of the Russian lan- guage and thorough knowledge of Russian state affairs he was marked as the man to conduct the many complicated negotia- tions with the Russian authorities. His burning zeal to lead souls to the Saviour, combined with the ease with which he approached Armenians and Muhammadans, made him an ex- 1 "Ein russischer Edelmann als Missionar," 3d ed., Basle, 1900. loo History of Protestant Missions in the Near East cellent missionary. Though he may not have been the most talented among the German missionaries in the Caucasus, he was certainly the most prominent personality, and, during the thirteen years of the existence of the mission, its history is in the main the history of his life. Karl Gottlieb Pfander, a clever linguist with a thorough theological education, was sent out in 1825, and proved a master in the difficult task of theological argument with Muhammadans. He fearlessly travelled through the north- west of Persia and the countries bordering on the Euphrates, as far as Bagdad, winning souls for Christ by his clear dialectic and his warm heart. His chief apologetic work, "The Balance of Truth " (Mizan ul Haqq), is founded on his experi- ences as an itinerant missionary in those days. It is one of the best Protestant polemical works directed against Islam, it is still published and much read in Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Hindustani and English, and is almost indispensable to every missionary among Muhammadans. 1 Pfander is an interesting figure among the Muhammadan missionaries of the nineteenth century. Born on the 3d of November, 1803, in Waiblingen, the son of pious and well-to- do parents his father was a baker he was early won for mission work, and entered the college of the Basle Mission in 1820. In 1825 he was appointed to the Basle Mission in Trans- caucasia, with special instructions to devote himself to the Muhammadans ; and that constituted his life's work for forty years, until his death on the 1st of December, 1865. He laboured in three fields consecutively ; during the first twelve years, 1825-1837, in the service of the Basle Mission in Trans- caucasia; then, with some intervals, for fourteen years in Northern India, in Agra and Peshawar ; and finally, for seven years, 1858 to 1865, in Constantinople. In this volume we come across him in the first and last of these periods. His years in India were no doubt the zenith of his life. It was then that he displayed the greatest power. His famous controversy ! "Chr. Friedr. Eppler," "Dr, Karl Gottlieb Pfander, ein Zeuge der Wahr- keit." Basle, 1888. The Beginnings of Protestant Missionary Endeavour 101 with his well-informed opponent Kahmat Allah, in Agra, in the Easter week of 1854, was a notable event in the North India Mission. Two of the witnesses of that controversy, the Muhammadans Safdar Ali and Imaduddin, became later bold defenders of the Christian faith. Pfander is especially celebrated for his striking apologetic book, " The Balance of Truth " (Mizan ul Haqq, English Edi- tion by the Kev. K. H. Weakley, London, 1867). Starting from the deeply rooted and general desire for salvation which can be satisfied only by a revealed religion, Pfander goes on to show that for Muhammadans and Christians there are only three books of revealed religion, the Old Testament, the New Testament and the Koran. Then he proves in three chapters : (1) that the Bible supplies a fully satisfying revelation, (2) that this revelation ought to be known to and appropriated by every Moslem and (3) that, on the other hand, neither was Muhammad a man qualified to give a revelation, nor is the Koran in itself satisfactory. Pfander rightly lays chief stress on the second point, the systematic exposition of salvation through Christ. He does this very positively, but at the same time in a manner that appeals to the thoughts and feelings of Muhammadans. In the first part he disposes of the foolish prejudices of Moslems against the Bible, above all of the utter unreasonableness of the talk about the corruption of the text of the Bible, a means of attack which, devised by Muhammad himself, has been reiterated again and again by Muhammadan controversialists to cover the fact that the Bible opposes the prophetic claims of Muhammad. Very wisely he postpones his severe polemic against Muhammad and the Koran to the third chapter so that it follows his exposition of the Christian doctrine of Salvation. He does not mince his words, but gives a very clear and strong statement of the shortcomings of the Prophet. The varied work of the Basle Brethren was not without re- sults in many ways. The Muhammadans gained were few, but they were men of worth. One of them was Mirza Faruch, a child of Christian parents, who had been kidnapped by the 1O2 History of Protestant Missions in the Near Esat Persians and had been for seventeen years brought up as a Moslem. He became the faithful companion of the mission- aries on their preaching tours. Another convert was Alex- ander Kasim Beg, a learned professor in Kasan. Among the Armenians, also, the mission had faithful friends, such as the two deacons Moses and Parsegh in Shusha, the teacher Arakel in Shemacha, the merchant Hakob, father of Hakob Abuhayatian, the martyr of Urfa in 1895, and others. But a destructive blight was to fall upon this promising work. The higher clergy in the patriarchate of Echmiadzin determined to oppose this active Protestant movement. They refused to give their sanction to the translation of the Bible in the modern Ar- menian tongue, a translation which Dittrich had prepared with such pains. They sent a memorial to the Russian Court, com- plaining of the unwarrantable interference of the Basle mis- sionaries in the concerns of the Armenian Church. The gov- ernor-general, von Rosen, who was an enemy of Protestant missions, kindled the flame of hostility against the Basle Brethren, by describing them as secret allies of the English and enemies to Russian influence. Nicholas I therefore issued a ukase on the 5th of July (23d of August), 1835, which put a sudden end to the Basle Mission. The ukase forbade any kind of work within the Armenian Church, or among Muham- madans. Within the Russian dominions, the Russian State Church alone was to be authorized to work among other Christian Churches and among Muhammadans. For a time the hope was entertained in Basle that they might be able to continue the Caucasus Mission in spite of this crushing blow. Nothing more might be necessary than to transfer the centre of their activity to the Turkish territory lying close at hand, in order to carry on the work among the Armenians undisturbed. But would not the Armenian clergy there be just as hostile to their work as on Russian territory ? And would they not by such a move be encroaching on the work of the American Board in those parts ? In the opinion of Gottlieb Pfander, Persia ought to be made the centre of the mission's activity. It was, indeed, clear that the time had The Beginnings of Protestant Missionary Endeavour 103 not yet arrived for a direct and open preaching of the Gospel there, yet he hoped to be able to found schools for secular ed- ucation. The Basle Committee, however, would not agree to undertake such purely preparatory work. So the Caucasus Mission was dissolved. Those of the breth- ren who did not remain as pastors of the German settlements entered the service of English societies, chiefly the Church Missionary Society, in Asia Minor or India. There came an unexpected after-effect of the Basle Mission in the Caucasus. In Shemacha, in 1842, the Armenians who had been awakened under the ministry of the Basle Brethren formed, under the leadership of the teacher Arakel and an Armenian named Sarki Hambarzumoff, a small Protestant community within the Armenian Church. Being excommuni- cated in 1861 with fearful anathemas, they obtained permis- sion in 1866, after suffering much persecution, to attach them- selves to the recognized Protestant-Lutheran Church of Rus- sia. In union with that Church they exist to this day, exer- cising no influence on the Armenian Church (Eppler, " Ge- schichte der Griindung der armenisch-evangelischen Gemeinde in Schamachi," Basle, 1873). Ill PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN TURKEY AND ARMENIA WE divide European Turkey into four parts : Albania, Macedonia, Thrace, and Bulgaria, though the Prin- cipality of Bulgaria is in process of becoming inde- pendent. The population of Albania is mainly Albanian, though there is an intermingling of Servians and Turks in the northeast, and of Greeks in Epirus to the south. Of the mil- lion of inhabitants, the Koman Church claims 131,400, at least 333,000 belong to the Orthodox Church, and about 100,00 are Bulgarians ; the rest of the population is Muhammadan, save for the modest number claimed by the Protestant Mission. Macedonia, including the vilayets of Salonica, Monastir and Kossovo, is inhabited mainly by Greeks in the south and along the coast, and by Bulgarians in the interior, the number of the population being about 2,750,000. Salonica, the chief town, is a busy centre of Protestant missions, which have also secured a footing in the vilayet of Monastir-Bitolia. Thrace, in which lies the capital, and which consists of the vilayets of Constantinople and Adrianople, has a population of 2,000,000, Constantinople alone claiming more than half a million. In Thrace a majority are Turks. The Christians belong mainly to the Greek Orthodox Church. In Bulgaria there are about 3,732,200 inhabitants, of whom 643,258 are Muhammadans. In the statistical tables of 1893, 2,606,786 are given as Greek or Bulgarian Catholics, 22,617 as Roman Catholics, 2,384 as Protestants and 6,643 as Armenian Christians. This makes a total of about 2,640,000 Christians. It is computed that the population of European Turkey, without Bulgaria, numbers rather less than 5,891,000, of whom 3,000,000 are Muhammadans and 2,660,000 Christians. 104 Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 105 Of the latter, 2,250,000 are Greek Orthodox and 320,000 Koman Catholics. We divide Turkey in Asia into the five large groups of Asia Minor, Armenia with Kurdistan, Syria, Mesopotamia and Arabia. 1 The following is a statistical table of the population : Population. Asia Minor 9,500,000 Armenia and Kurdistan (vilayets Mamuret el Aziz, Erzerum, Van, Bitlis and Diarbekr) 2,600,000 Syria (vilayets Beirut and Syria, mutessarifliks, Lebanon and Jerusalem and the Janak Haleb) 2,500,000 Mesopotamia (vilayets Mosul, Bagdad and Basra and the districts of Urf a and Sor) 1,200,000 Arabia (vilayets Hijas, Asir, Hodeida, Sana and Taisand the Nejd) 1,200,000 Total population of Turkey in Asia 16,900,000 We have to deal at present only with the first two divisions, Asia Minor, and Armenia with Kurdistan. We take them up together, since they are indissolubly connected in their mission history. Muhammadans preponderate in both prov- inces. Orthodox Greeks inhabit the western and northern coasts of Asia Minor, where there are more than a million of them. In the towns of these districts there are scattered col- onies of Armenians, especially numerous in the neighbourhood of Constantinople, one of the most noted churches to which Armenians make pilgrimage, as well as the best Armenian training-school, being situated in Armash near Nicomedia. In the vilayets of Armenia and Kurdistan the Armenians dwell in fairly compact masses. According to a very super- ficial estimate there are altogether 10,000,000 Muhammadans and 2,500,000 Christians in these lands. 'Of the eighteen vilayets and two mutessarifliks which constitute Asia Minor, we find in the Christl. Orient a passably correct statistical statement, following Cuinet, ' ' La Turquie d' Asie, ' ' Paris, 1892-1894. According to it the population of Asia Minor is 14,857,118, of whom 11,801,485 are Muhammadans and 2,760,- 864 Christians; of the latter 1,475,011 are Armenians. The Armenians form, therefore, the greater part of the Christian population of Asia Minor, 106 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East 1. The Mission of the American Board Until the Rupture with the Ancient Church, 1830-181$ As in so many other fields the British and Foreign Bible Society was the first organization to begin Protestant mission- ary work in Turkey. Just as, with the cooperation of the Russian Bible Society, it had laboured in Russian Armenia, so here in Turkish Armenia it distributed Bibles and portions of the Bible in Ancient Armenian at very reduced prices, drawing part of its supply from St. Petersburg, and making use also of the version prepared by the Roman Mechitarists in San Lazaro near Venice. Soon perceiving, however, that these versions were not easily understood by the people, the British and Foreign Bible Society, in conjunction with the Russian Bible Society, prepared in 1822 a new Armenian-Turkish translation of the New Testament and in 1823 another in the vulgar Armenian tongue (Ashharapar). As the Armenian Church authorities did not wish a Bible to be read by the common people, they refused to give their sanction to these versions, and the British colporteurs had to dispose of their costly wares as well as they could in face of opposition from the Armenian clergy. In 1828 the mission of the American Board 1 in Syria, founded by the Congregational Church of the United States, was temporarily interrupted by the Greek War of Independ- ence, and the missionaries had to retire to Malta (cf. Chap. VI, A, 1). Two of them, Dr. Eli Smith and Dr. O. Dwight, were commissioned by their committee to undertake a journey of exploration and research throughout Asia Minor, Armenia and Northwestern Persia. After having been nearly six- teen months on the way, they gave the report of their expe- riences in an important book entitled : " Christian Researches in Armenia." This book, which went through several editions, 1 Cf. Rufua Anderson, "History of the A. B. C. F. M., Oriental Churches," 2 Vols. For the period 1831-1846 Pfeifer, "Die Armenierin der Tiirkei," Berlin, 1863, copied in Christl. Orient, 1897, pp. 27, 78, 120. ' ' Forty years in the Turkish Empire. Memoirs of Rev. Wm. Goodell, D. D.," by Ed. G. Prime, D. D., 8th ed., Boston, 1891. Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 107 drew the attention of American friends of mission work to the peoples of the Near East, and the American Board resolved to begin work at once among the Armenians. A way was opened for them in a surprising manner in the large and influential Armenian colony in Constantinople. Certain merchants and bankers of high social position, know- ing that knowledge is power, had come to the conviction that the superiority of European nations was based, to a great ex- tent, on their advanced culture. They were therefore look- ing around for men to bring them that Western culture, and became convinced that good schools were the best channel for this life-giving stream. At the head of this enlightened party was the educator, Peshtirnaljan, who has been called the Erasmus of Armenia. He was a careful and critical student of the Armenian language and literature, and was well versed in the history and theology of the Oriental and Roman Churches. He quoted the Bible with astonishing ease and exactitude, and relied on it as on the supreme guide of faith. Although timid by nature, he led his students slowly but surely into new paths of study, convincing them that their Church was not only not infallible, but that it had actually gone astray on many points of doctrine. He was the best possible precursor of the Protestant missionaries; from his pupils they obtained their first assistants. Up to his death in. 1837 he remained a staunch friend of Protestantism, although he never had the courage openly to join the Protestant com- munity. It was on the 9th of June, 1831, that the first missionary of the American Board, Eev. "William Goodell, arrived in Con- stantinople, to be followed a year later by the Rev. Harrison Gray Otis Dwight, the pioneer, and by the Rev. William Gottlieb Schauffler, the linguist. It was fortunate for the new mission that it could retain the services of these excellent men for thirty years and more. Dr. Goodell retired in 1865 in his seventy-third year, and died on February 18, 1867, in Phila- delphia. Dr. Schauffler lived on to 1883, when, at the age of eighty-four, he died in New York, the veteran of the mission. 1 08 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East These three men determined the character of the Board's work during the first three decades of its existence. Dr. H. G. O. D wight worked well-nigh uninterruptedly in Constantinople. His chief power lay in his untiring proclama- tion of the Gospel in Constantinople and its neighbourhood. In addition to learned treatises and magazine articles, he wrote in 1850 his " Christianity Eevived in the East." (The second edition in 1854 had the title " Christianity in Turkey.") He met with his death in an unfortunate railway accident, whilst at home on furlough, on the 25th of January, 1862. Two methods recommended themselves as the most effectual in gaining entrance and influence, namely literary and educa- tional work. The former has been from the beginning the most prominent part of American activity, and their work in this sphere has been excellent. It may be said in general that the American missionaries have created a literature in every language in the Near East which fell within the field of their labours. The whole of the Bible was translated into modern Armenian, Armeno-Turkish and Osmanli-Turkish, the classical language of the Turks (cf. Chap. VII, 2, #, 5), and is printed in various editions, as also in portions. Further they published the New Testament and the Psalms in ancient Armenian and in Kurdish. To supplement this direct Bible work, and as helps to a better understanding of the Bible, handbooks, con- cordances, commentaries and other books of the kind were written and published, especially in modern Armenian and Armeno-Turkish. Books of devotion were also compiled in both languages. Then there were handbooks on all the sub- jects taught both in the lower schools and in colleges. Even a weekly paper, the Avedaper (messenger), of a combined re- ligious and secular character, received constant care and attention. It has appeared since 1885, partly in modern Armenian, partly in Armeno-Turkish, and has about one thousand subscribers. Nearly all of the American mission- aries took part in a greater or less degree in this literary work ; but the bulk of it lay on the shoulders of Dr. Goodell, who distinguished himself by the translation of the Bible Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 109 into Armeno-Turkish, and, later, on those of the linguist, Dr. Elias Riggs. Elias Eiggs was a reticent, retiring student, whose com- panions were his books, and whose chief delight was the ac- quiring of ancient and modern languages. He was a com- plete master of Greek, Armenian and Bulgarian ; he studied the dead languages of the Near East, Hebrew and Chaldaic, Syriac and Koptic ; he understood most of the living languages of Europe and Western Asia, at least well enough to be able to read their literature without any trouble. He had a gift for exact philological investigation, and was deeply interested in all questions connected with the study of languages. With all this scientific endowment, he was a man possessed of a steady determination to devote these talents to the service of the Christian Churches of the Orient, by providing them with good Protestant literature in languages understood by the common people. His work was devoted to the three great Oriental Churches, the Greek, the Bulgarian and the Armenian. He wrote many of the tracts and school-books that were neces- sary to the mission in their church and educational work. He assisted in the production of the magazines which the mission- aries published, though he did not edit them himself. He translated and composed many hymns for the church services. Above all else, he devoted himself to the translation of the Bible with all his mind and heart. This work of his predilec- tion was characterized by painful exactitude, patient research, sincere fidelity and a wonderfully consistent style. With equal intentness he strove to gain for himself a clear under- standing of a passage and then to present it in words and phrases that would be at once understood by the simplest mind. His two complete versions, in Armenian and Bul- garian, are regarded by experts as masterpieces of translation. He was a member of the committee appointed to revise the Turkish version, it being his special task to give everywhere a clear exposition of the sense of the original Hebrew or Greek text of the Bible, which his colleagues undertook to express in the Turkish language. no History of Protestant Missions in the Near East Dr. Riggs' life was extraordinarily uneventful. Having been sent to the East as early as 1830, he assisted for some years in the mission schools in Argos (Greece), in Bebek, in Haskeui near Constantinople, and in Smyrna. After that he went to Constantinople, where he spent the latter half of his life, nearly fifty years, in quiet study. Highly esteemed by friends and opponents, greatly admired for his learning, and yet always of a retiring disposition, he spent these years in strenuous work, until at the age of ninety he entered into his rest on the 17th of January, 1901. Though only a small minority of the Armenians could read, they were from of old a civilized nation with a great respect for books, and with a deep-rooted faith in the Bible as the "Word of God and as the supreme authority for faith and con- duct. So the open Bible was the missionaries' most powerful ally. An appeal to it was always impressive and through such oft-reiterated appeals they justified their work in the minds of the people. The Board's work among the Armenians consisted essentially in carrying out a favourite watchword of American friends of the mission : " The reintroduction of the Bible into Bible lands." Even after the pioneers of this great literary work had died, one after another other able men fol- lowed in their footsteps. Of these we mention only Dr. Ed- ward Riggs, the son of Elias Riggs, Henry Otis D wight, son of H. G. Otis Dwight, Dr. Henry S. Barnum (since 1867) and Dr. George F. Herrick. It would have been impossible for the Board to carry out its comprehensive literary scheme, had not the British and American Bible Societies, as well as various religious tract societies rendered abundant help. The Bible House in Con- stantinople was the arsenal which supplied all the mission stations with the two-edged sword of God's Word (cf. Chap. VII, 2, c). The second of the two methods which the American Board found most useful was educational work. Having made pre- vious attempts in this direction in Greece, the American mis- sionaries opened a grammar school in Constantinople in 1834. Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 1 1 1 After various changes, this was transformed in 1848 into a " Seminary " in Bebek, a suburb of Constantinople, with Dr. Cyrus Hamlin as its active and capable head. The intention was to attract the flower of the Armenian youth by offering a thorough Western education. Other less important schools had the same aim in view. It soon became evident, however, that this end could not be so easily accomplished as had been expected. There were other opportunities for advanced edu- cation in Constantinople and its neighbourhood, the district to which the mission was at first confined. For the leading Ar- menian bankers, not liking to see the Americans monopolize higher education, set up rival schools. Besides, the mission had learned that, in order to gain influence in the Armenian Church, it was more necessary to spread the knowledge of the Gospel among its clergy, and to get as many of the clergy as possible under their influence for a time. So the seminary in Bebek was converted into a preparatory theological institu- tion. It was not the original plan of the Americans to found sep- arate Protestant churches. They rejoiced not to be obliged to take up at once such an attitude towards the ancient Church as had been forced on their brethren in Syria by the deliberate hostility of the Maronites in the Lebanon. They hoped gradually to leaven the Armenians and their Church with Gospel teaching and a vigorous Christian life, being ready, meanwhile, to bear patiently the abuses and antiquated forms of that Church, until in course of time their teaching should promote a reform of the whole church life from within. But they were disappointed. The leaders of the Armenians, and the higher clergy in particular, soon began to look askance at the rapid progress of the Protestant mission, and to combat it with imprisonment, banishment, and a policy of petty vex- ation. The Patriarch Stephan III (1831-1839, and 1840-1841) was dethroned because he was too indulgent, too favourable towards the Protestants. His successor, the Patriarch Matteos (1844-1848), made it his chief aim to extirpate the Protestant 112 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East movement. Nor is he altogether to be blamed. The Ameri- can Mission was more of a threat than perhaps its missionaries realized to the unity of an ancient Church, with whose eccle- siastical organization and with whose historic forms the demo- cratic spirit of American Congregationalism was, at best, but little in accord. And with this church unity, which the Amer- ican Mission thus threatened, was wrapped up the national ideal. Kobbed of political independence, scattered over wide and diverse areas, having not even a common language, the Ar- menians had but one bond of union left them, their Church. To touch this, to threaten its existence, was regarded as a crime against their nation. The most powerful motive of Armenian opposition to the American Mission was the fear that its success would break or at least loosen the unity of the national Church. The Patriarch Matteos had effectual means at his disposal to annihilate the flourishing Protestant work. The sharpest weapon at his command was the power of excommunication, and this he wielded in the freest and most effective manner. Protestants, or those suspected of Protestant tendencies, even the pupils of the mission schools, were excommunicated, some- times as individuals, sometimes by companies (1844-1846). The churches in the metropolis, and in all the districts ill which the Protestants had exercised any influence, resounded with the anathemas of excommunication. Parents were com- manded to disown their children, employers to dismiss Prot- estant labourers. Protestants were to be forced to pay their debts at once, without any mercy ; no baker nor butcher was to sell them anything ; they were to be shunned like the plague. The peculiar double function of the Armenian Patriarch, who is not only the ecclesiastical but also the political and social head of his community, enabled him to cause the curses of his excommunications to fall with irresistible force on all who had Protestant leanings. Many families, especially in the capital, were bereft of home and sustenance. The missionaries ap- pealed to the Protestants of Europe and America for help in Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 113 supplying their persecuted converts with food and shelter, and in giving them a new start in life. 2. From the Organization of the Protestant Church in 1850 Until the Armenian Massacres in 1895 A critical turning-point had been reached. What was to be done ? The Protestant Mission and its adherents had been solemnly and officially thrust out of the Armenian Church. If the Americans were not to drop their work altogether, they could hardly avoid organizing a separate Church. This would have a far-reaching influence on civic life. Ecclesiastical com- munities are in Turkey at the same time civic corporations. They have their own taxation registers, they record their own births, deaths and marriages in accordance with the Turkish official forms. They settle among themselves many civil cases, especially heritage quarrels. The religious com- munity must give bond for any of their number who wish to open a shop or to start a trade. If the Americans wished to build up a Protestant community, they would have to organ- ize their adherents as a civic corporation. Their converts must leave the communion, inherited from the fathers and sanctified by age, to form themselves into a new communion, based on the Protestant faith. Fortunately for the Protestant cause, the English ambas- sador at that time, Lord Stratford Canning de Kedcliff, under- stood and warmly interested himself in what was going on. After consulting with his government and the missionaries, he first made a preliminary arrangement, which was followed in 1850 by the proclamation of an imperial firman granting a legal status to the " Protestants " (abbreviated by the Turks into " Prote "), of whom there were 1,007, as a new ecclesi- astical and civic corporation. Since they had no bishop, who, like the patriarchs, might negotiate directly with the Porte, the civic functions of such an ecclesiastical head were trans- ferred to an "Agent of the Protestants," to be chosen by themselves. But be it noticed, all Protestants in the whole of Turkey were by this firman allowed to form only one civio 1 14 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East and ecclesiastical community, whatever their nationalities might be ; they ceased to be Armenians or Greeks, Arabians or Syrians, and all came under the category of " Protestants." However great the gain was, and however thankfully the persecuted Armenians and their missionaries were for the firman, it is evident that it had many disappointments in store for the Protestant cause. Under such a constitution it was very difficult for Protestantism really to become popular in the Eastern Churches ; it looked like a wedge threatening to split up their nationalities. In the name of the patriotism for which both Armenians and Greeks are famous, the Eastern Churches raised repeated protests against such national decom- position, and more than once at critical moments the cry was heard, " We hope to become twice as much evangelical as you are, but we will never become Protestants." Yet these evils did not immediately become apparent ; on, the contrary, the firman of 1850 was followed by a great ad- vance on the part of the mission. A great task was placed before it, the task of building up a separate Protestant Church. The first step they took was to extend their sphere of activity considerably. Even prior to the rupture they had gained some footing in Asia Minor. Since 1820 Smyrna had been occupied, though not continually, the first station of the Amer- ican Board in the Levant. When the station in Malta was given up in 1833 (cf. Chap. IY, a, 1), the printing-press and its accessories, with the exception of what was required for Arabic work in Beirut, was taken to Smyrna, which was per- manently occupied by the American missionaries in 1834. Owing to the close connection of Constantinople with Bithynia on the other side of the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmora, some sparks of evangelical truth had been carried into the latter territory and had burst into flame, particularly in Brusa, Nicomedia and Adabazar, where small Protestant congrega- tions had been formed under the leadership of converted priests. Brusa had been occupied as a station in 1834. When, in the same year, the Board's Persian Mission among the Nestorians was begun in Urmia, Trebizond became the Black Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 115 Sea harbour from which the overland route to Persia started. It therefore was an indispensable place for a depot on the road to the distant inland mission field, and work was begun there in 1840. This single link between Constantinople and the mission field in Persia proved insufficient, in view of the great distance, the bad roads, the lack of facilities for travelling, and the danger from bands of Kurdish robbers. So in 1840 a second station was established in Erzerum, half-way from Trebizond to Lake Urmia. This ancient and important town recommended itself the more, be- cause it was considered to be the capital of Turkish Ar- menia and lay in the midst of a district very thickly popu- lated by Armenians. At the time of the rupture more new stations were founded, either as a favourable opportunity offered itself, or according to a well-considered plan, whereby the work was to be ex- tended so as to reach all towns and districts with a large Armenian population. The first station, Aintab, lay far in- land from the Bay of Iscanderun, on the southern slope of the wild Taurus range. Bedros, an Armenian priest in Constan- tinople, had been banished to a monastery in Jerusalem on account of his Protestant leanings. On the way thither he escaped to Aintab, where his preaching found such unexpected and general acceptance that the missionaries, after a short visit of inspection, established there a station in 1846. In a short time Aintab became one of the most powerful centres of the entire work. From Aintab the work was extended along the southern slope of the Taurus eastwards and west- wards. Marash, the most important of the stations founded from Aintab as a centre, soon became a flourishing sister- station. Other towns were only temporarily occupied by American missionaries. Such towns were Urfa, the ancient Edessa, the renowned town of Abraham, Aleppo, the thriving centre of Northern Syria, Adana, the capital of the fertile Cilician plain, and the proud, grim mountain fastnesses of Hadjin and Zeitun. In 1856 this branch of the mission to the south of the Taurus was organized as a separate mission, 1 16 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East called at first the " Southern Mission," and later, the " Mission of Central Turkey." Another important starting-point of extensive development was in the wild highlands of Southwestern Armenia and Kurdistan, with their deep fertile valleys. The attention of the missionaries was directed to this field of work on their long journeys from Trebizond across the highlands of Asia Minor to Mesopotamia. Just as the importance of establish- ing an intermediate station in Erzerum had become clear to them on their journeyings to Urmia, so did it happen in the case of Diarbekr^ on their way to Mosul. This important ancient city was the end of the weary overland journey. Thence they floated down to Mosul in a few days, on inflated sheepskins or on simple wooden rafts. Diarbekr was occupied in 1851. Soon it became evident that there was a favourable opening in the neighbouring districts lying to the north and northwest. The missionaries seized the opportunity the more joyfully because they thus won an entrance into the heart of the original home of the Armenians. Kharput, on the upper Euphrates, boldly situated on a precipitous mountain, became in 1855 the first mission centre for this district. Arabkir, which was afterwards attached to Kharput, had been occupied two years earlier. In the course of the years other stations were added Sivas, farther west, Bitlis and Yan to the east and northeast respectively. In 1860 this district was organized as the " Mission in Eastern Turkey." For some decades there was to the south and southwest another group of stations forming the " Assyrian " or " East Syrian " Mission. When the Board began a vigorous work among the Mountain Nestorians in the wild and pathless highlands lying between the middle Tigris and the Lake of Urmia, it seemed to be indispensable, on account of the difficult travelling, to establish a station as a resting-place on the opposite Mesopotamian side of this mountain waste. Mosul was fixed upon for this purpose, which, however, salubrious and central as it was, was unbearably hot during Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 1 17 the three summer months. The station had to be abandoned temporarily in 1844, when the Protestant Episcopal Church of America settled there in order to commence a mission among the Nestorians. The Board wished to avoid friction. That mission, however, left Mosul a few years later, and the Board reoccupied it in 1849, in order to make a further ad- vance into the Nestorian highlands. This work was very arduous, and many noble lives were lost on the long and fatiguing journeys to Mosul. So it became evident that Mosul lay too far away to serve the purpose for which a station had been founded there, and it was abandoned in 1860. The missionaries [working in the Mosul district had come into close contact with the Jacobites, whose ecclesiastical language, like that of the Nestorians, is a Syrian dialect, which, however, is no longer understood by the common people, who know only Arabic. The religious centre of these Jacobites is Mar din, a town lying in a high and healthful position above the Mesopotamian plain. Unfortunately the Roman Church long ago gained a strong influence among the people, and has split them up into two parties. The Americans began their work here in 1858. In 1860 the stations at Diarbekr, Mosul and Mardin were organized as the " Assyrian Mission," of which we have already spoken. When Mosul was given up, it seemed advisable to connect the other two stations with the "East Turkish Mission." The work in Mardin is still rather isolated, Mardin being the only station of the Board where the work is carried on in Arabic. The work in Asia Minor was also extended. Marsovan, which lies inland from the middle of the northern coast, be- came a station in 1851. Other stations were added, in Tokat, where Henry Martyn died ; in Amasia, where Strabo, the great geographer, was born ; in Caesarea, the ancient capital of Cappadocia, the birthplace of the two distinguished brothers, Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa; and in other towns. These stations were organized in 1860 as the " West Turkish Mission." Doors seemed to be opened every- 1 18 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East where. Even in notoriously fanatical places the hostility of the people was overcome and their confidence won. In Diarbekr. where at first not even the lives of the missionaries were safe, ten years later the townspeople extended a truly royal welcome to a missionary on his return. In Hadjin and Zeitun the missionaries were at first in the greatest danger, and were obliged to flee for their lives ; five years later their successors were besieged day and night by eager hearers, wishing to learn from them. It would lead us too far to follow up in detail the history of the stations and missions. We must not even try to give a complete list of the stations among which there have been so many changes in the course of years. Suffice it to say that the centres of the Armenian population were occupied by the mission. From Erzerum attempts were even made to push forward into Kussian Armenia, lying close at hand ; but here the intolerance of the Kussian Church was a great hindrance. The personnel of the American Mission has always been large and distinguished. As a rule there have been forty men regularly employed as ordained and medical missionaries and as teachers ; and, including the missionaries' wives, about sixty ladies. The term of service has, owing to the healthful climate, been on the average a long one. The expenses have been partially met since 1854 by the " Turkish Missions'. Aid Society " in England, which has contributed from 2,000 to 2,500 annually. With a view to supporting the Turkish Mission of the American Board, the Turkish Missions' Aid Society was formed on the 3d of July, 1854, chiefly through the efforts of the Eev. C. G. Young. Contributions came from members of different British denominations, the Aid Society following its own principles in distributing its funds. While not helping to meet such expenses as those of missionaries' salaries, dwellings and travel, they liberally supported the native clergy, the schools, the orphanages and the hospitals. Es- pecially in times of trouble, as during the Armenian massacres Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 119 of 1895 and 1896, and the Macedonian disturbances of 1905 and 1906, the Society rendered much help. After 1893 its name was changed to " The Bible Lands' Mission Aid Society," on account of the extension of its support to almost all the missions in the Near East. It is a magnificent and pleasing expression of English sympathy with the missions in this im- portant and attractive field, in which there is comparatively little done directly by English missionary societies. The inner development of the mission kept pace with its territorial extension. Its churches naturally followed the pattern of American Congregationalism. On the 1st of July, 1846, a week after the excommunication of the Protestants by the Patriarch Matteos, the first congregation was es- tablished in Constantinople. The procedure in this case is typical of the founding of later churches. The Protestant Armenians applied by letter to the mis- sionaries for help in this unaccustomed work. They received a working scheme for a " Protestant Armenian Church," which was set on foot on the 1st of July. After prayer had been offered and a passage of Scripture read, the Confession of Faith, the Covenant and the Kules of Discipline were read and explained. Then all present were summoned to indicate their consent by standing up. All arose and responded after every article of the Confession, " Thus we believe." In the same way they gave their consent to the Covenant. Then the missionaries and certain Europeans arose and pronounced the assembly to be a true church of Christ. A roll of mem- bers was then made, which contained the names of thirty- seven men and three women. These members then proceeded to elect a pastor by ballot. A man named Khatshadurian, an able Armenian who had already proved his sincerity by suf- fering for the Gospel, was chosen. Other church officers were thereupon elected. Finally Kev. O. Dwight was requested to assist the inexperienced pastor for a while. A week later a special meeting of the missionaries was called in order to ordain Khatshadurian. He was ordained with the laying on of hands. A pamphlet was issued by the congregation justi- 1 2o History of Protestant Missions in the Near East fying and describing its procedure. The process of constitu- ting congregations was similar everywhere in Turkey, though the degree of formality varied. The missionaries always adhered to the plan of letting the assembled Protestants choose their own pastor and other church officials, who then organized the ministry and other congregational matters as best they were able. To be sure, this democratic method is not altogether suited to the Eastern mind. After ages of autocratic rule, it was at first difficult for them to accustom themselves to a democratic constitution, which entailed both the privileges and the duties of autonomy. Sometimes they exhibited a childish spirit of rebellion against the authority of the missionaries, e. g., in 1861, when the congregation at Pera separated itself from the mission because they were not granted the right to dispose of money sent from America for the mission. At other times, through ignorance and want of experience, they committed faults which were difficult to remedy. Yet it must not be forgotten that, under the cir- cumstances, there lay a well-nigh inestimable advantage in the plan of conceding what was nearly unlimited congrega- tional freedom. The task of the missionaries was, not to sow the first seeds of Christianity among heathen, but to raise a people that had for centuries possessed Christian feelings, thoughts and aspirations, to a higher level of Christian life and knowledge. It was necessary to put an end to the guardianship and autocratic rule of the clergy, which had been a barrier to higher development. To effect this the American democratic ideals were highly adapted, perhaps more so than the constitution of an Episcopal Church. So, after "all, the*disadvantage of possible democratic excesses was outweighed by the resultant training in self-reliance. We mentioned before that every recognized Church in Turkey enjoys a certain amount of autonomy. It was a wise act of the Board that its missionaries conceded those privileges accorded to the Protestants by the firman of 1850, without any restriction, to the newly formed congregations. With people of so strong a national feeling as the Armenians, the Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 121 only hope of extending Protestantism lies in keeping the foreign element in the background, especially in matters of church government. Further, the Board soon found that a mistake had been made at the outset in supplying money too plentifully for congregational and educational purposes, as well as for salaries, buildings and other ends. As the Armenians had ever been accustomed to make great pecuniary sacrifices for their churches and their ministry, it was only fair that the Protestant congregations should be as far as possible self-supporting, even should this require strenuous effort on the part of small communities. Here, as in other missions, self-support was a lesson learned by Prot- estant converts only after painful experience ; for they did not readily abandon the convenient theory that the money sent out from America was not intended for the missionaries but for themselves. The newly formed congregations were at' first sorely isolated in various parts of Asiatic Turkey. It became evident that they must have some kind of union, however loose. For there were several things to be done which could not be left to each congregation, as, for instance, the formation and ac- knowledgment of new congregations, the ordination and dis- missal of ministers and the granting or withdrawal of licenses to preach. Some kind of board of appeal was also evidently required. Further, the great distances separating the con- gregations rendered a yearly conference all the more necessary. So several congregational unions were formed. They coincided only partially with the several missions of which we have spoken, and thus exhibited most strikingly the abstention of the missionaries from mingling in church affairs. Such a union was formed in Kharput in 1865, under the name of " The Eharput Protestant Union." In 1864 certain congrega- tions in Brusa, Nicomedia, Adabazar and the neighbourhood had united as " The Union of the Protestant Armenian Churches of Bithynia." This union acquired later particular importance by joining with the congregations in Constanti- nople. A third, " The Central Turkish Protestant Union," 122 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East was formed in Marsovan in 1868, while a fourth, " The Cilioian Union" was formed in the south. These unions had a decided effect in developing a spirit of self-government. After a visitation from America in 1883, the unions were constitutionally organized and extended. The characteristic feature of the inner life of these congre- gations is the general adoption of the Congregational principle of distinguishing between the communicant members and the adherents. All the seceders from the old Church had already been baptized and confirmed and their children had also been baptized as infants. So it was very surprising and puzzling to them when they learned that the Americans admitted but a small number to the Lord's Supper, and permitted only the children of communicants to be baptized, especially as it was the exaggerated and almost superstitious view of the sacra- ment which had contributed in no small measure to the petri- faction of the Oriental Churches. Under the new regime they must pass an examination to gain admission to the Lord's Sup- per, an examination often by no means easy. In one place twenty candidates were examined for ten hours, after which only eleven of them were considered fit for admission. It will, perhaps, be best to describe the case of a single congre- gation, which, after passing through the stage of utter astonishment, at last accustomed itself to this congregational practice. In Diarbekr the pious and zealous medical missionary, Dr. Azariah Smith, founded in 1851 a small Protestant church of about fifty Armenians and Jacobites, eleven of whom he ad- mitted as communicant members. As soon as it became known that only those who were of reputed 'piety would be recognized as communicant members, influential Jacobites en- deavoured to have the rule altered, so that any Protestant of irreproachable character should be regarded as a full member without further test. There ensued much controversy and the Protestant cause was all but ruined, as the natives threatened to return to their old Churches. At length Dr. Smith per- suaded them to listen to a sermon on Luke 18 : 18-30 and Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 123 Acts 2 : 43-47, in which he set forth the ideal of the " one holy Catholic Church " in glowing words. The difficulty subsided for a time. But by the year 1854 friction had again become so violent that the church of communicant members had to be dissolved. A new examination took place, and again only eleven out of twenty candidates were admitted. For a time there was again a calm. But eight years later there arrived a Protestant Scripture reader, Garabed, a protege of Samuel Gobat, then Bishop of Jerusalem, who had in Jerusalem be- come acquainted with the rules of the Anglican Church. He maintained that all adult Protestants should be admitted to the Lord's Supper, and their children baptized without exception. This naturally gave rise to new trouble and a further crisis. As there was no central authority for the Churches, the missionaries travelled hither and thither trying to establish their influence in the congregations, supporting, comforting, advising and admonishing both the native pastors and catechists and the congregations themselves. In some cases, as in Kharput, special men were set apart for this evangelizing work within the Protestant community. In 1846 the Board began to pay special attention to educa- tional work. After the Protestants in Turkey had been formed into separate communities side by side with the other Churches, it was necessary, in the nature of the case, to pro- vide a separate educational system for the youth of the con- gregations. This was done by establishing primary schools, which the church-members were expected to maintain as soon as they should be able to do so. Even more necessary was it to train able and reliable teachers and ministers under Prot- estant influence. We have already told how the Board be- gan its educational work in Constantinople by establishing ad- vanced schools with a view to attracting promising young Armenians. This undertaking was now abandoned, for the expense of such institutions was excessive, nor did they seem altogether necessary as a pioneering agency, since there was at that time a general interest in the Gospel among the Armenians. The Board wished to devote attention to the congregations, 1 24 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East and to respond to the calls for teachers, catechists and pastors, which came to them from all quarters. This task of training a native ministry was difficult enough in view of the democratic principles of the Congregational mission. As each congrega- tion is independent, it exercises its own judgment in the elec- tion of a pastor, teacher or catechist. The functions of the Union to which such a church belongs are confined to the examination, recognition and ordination of the ministry. So the Board can but provide institutions for the training of students, some of whom come of their own accord and at their own expense, while others are sent either by the congrega- tions or the missionaries. Their training finished, the mission does not undertake the responsibility of finding situations for them or of providing them with salaries. It is for the in- dividual congregations or the unions or the individual mis- sionaries to engage such candidates. That is the theory at any rate, and it is more and more working out into practice. Yet, after all, the influence of the missionaries is considerable in the matter of the engagement and work of all teachers and pastors, by reason of their superior insight and the weight of their opinion in all church affairs. .The schools have been subjected to many changes both in their nature and in the standards which they have maintained. In Turkey there is no fixed system of education, there being neither a standard course of study for the pupils nor a re- quired grade of proficiency for the teachers. The entire matter is left in the hands of the various religious bodies. The mis- sionaries who, following home example, were inclined to make high demands on teachers and pupils, had to come to an agreement with the congregations as to what the children should learn and what the qualifications of the teachers should be. On the latter point the question as to what salary the congregation was able and willing to give was decisive. It was long before the members learned to appreciate the value of a thorough primary education for their children. It will be instructive to give the experience of one congregation in this matter. Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 125 In 1872 the congregation at Aintab applied to the Board thus : " We remember how things stood twenty-five or thirty years ago. At that time we did not realize the necessity and advantages of education. A population of 10,000 Armenians in Aintab was satisfied with one school, in which reading and writing could be learned. When, by the action of the Board, the Bible had been translated into our common language, our views with regard to schools underwent a change, we know not how. We, as Protestant Armenians, were no longer satisfied with even three or four schools, nor with the fact that only our sons could be educated ; something must be done for our daughters too. We found also that ability merely to read and write did not suffice ; the children needed to be taught more than this. While at first we were hardly willing to send our children to school, though it was the missionaries who bore the expense of their education, now we were willing to establish secondary schools at our own cost. In the light of God's Word we saw that we must be educated, would we be- come good Christians, good fathers and mothers and useful members of society. This desire was materially increased by the fact that there was among our Churches a demand for a better educated class of men as teachers and ministers. All the congregations in our union are convinced that the status of the clergy must be raised." The pastors and catechists too had difficulties of their own. Preaching itself was almost unknown in the ancient Church. The presbyters and deacons of that Church had only to read the long and unintelligible liturgies. Since for this purpose little more was required than the ability to read, there was a very low grade of education prevalent among the lower clergy. It was not easy to raise up alongside such a clergy one that was versed in the Holy Scriptures, well grounded in Christian doctrine, and experienced in preaching and teaching, in the care of souls and in the administration of church affairs. The Board founded four theological seminaries, or training- schools, one for each of the three Turkish Missions : in Mar- sovan for the Western Turkish Mission ; in Kharput for 126 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East Eastern Turkey ; and for Central Turkey in Marash. A fourth had to be provided in Mardin for those in the southeast who spoke Arabic. These theological institutions cannot be com- pared with those of the Churches in America. The training in them is confined to the more important theological studies, exposition of the Scriptures standing in the centre of the whole course. Instruction is generally given in the language of the students. Little attention is devoted to foreign languages, either English, Greek or Hebrew. In order, however, to fit the students thoroughly for their work among their own peo- ple, they are made acquainted with the ancient Armenian and the Turkish languages. It is natural that the demand for education should expand in proportion to the spiritual advance of the Protestant Arme- nian Church. While the first students in the seminaries were half developed men without much preparatory training, it be- came necessary later to provide a better preliminary training, in order that the work in the theological seminaries might be more thorough and fruitful. Accordingly intermediate schools were instituted between the primary schools and the semina- ries. Such schools had to become more numerous, as more boys grew up in Protestant families, who wished to have a better education, that they might enter the higher professions, not exclusively now as teachers and ministers. The necessity of satisfying this demand was laid upon the mission by the fact that there were no other schools available for the training of these boys. At this point in our record of the development of educational institutions we must view in some detail the work of Dr. Cyrus Hamlin. Cyrus Hamlin l was sent to Asia Minor in 1838 and was commissioned in the following year to found the theolog- ical seminary of which we have already spoken, in Bebek near Constantinople no easy task for a young man of twenty-eight. At first the house was small, the educational apparatus insuffi- cient and the students nearly all of them poor. It was a task 1 Dr. Cyrus Hamlin : " My Life and Times Among the Turks Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 127 that just suited Hamlin, who knew how to make the best of any situation. His inventiveness so terrified the indolent Turks that they regarded him as the greatest " sheitan " (satan) in Constantinople. It was rumoured that he took a photograph of every convert, and that, should any of them apostatize, Hamlin would shoot at the picture or cut it through, with the result that the man would surely die. His electrical machine, it was said, was for the sole purpose of " making Protestants." If he merely looked intently at an Armenian or Greek, he won power over him. 1 But to the poor and the sick he appeared as a guardian angel, and although he was not by profession a doctor, yet he was appointed as medical officer for the poor in the suburb. During a serious epidemic of cholera he was indefatigable in allaying the sufferings of the sick, saving many lives by his loving care. He never shunned hardship or danger. Once, during the holidays, one of his students fell ill and died before Hamlin could reach him. When he arrived at the house it had been deserted, the dead body having been left in it. A terrified crowd stood outside. The foul odour characteristic of cholera issued from the win- dow. No one had the courage to help bury the body. Ham- lin at once ordered a number of boards and a hammer and nails to be brought, and soon had made a large box. Then having tied a cloth saturated with vinegar over mouth and nose, he entered the house, carried the dead body out and laid it in the coffin. After that the crowd was willing to complete the burial. Such a virile personality could not fail to influence those with whom he came into contact. His college filled astonish- ingly. He was particularly pleased that nearly a fourth part of the students came from Armenian or Greek manses, in spite of the growing hostility to the mission among the native clergy. The greater number of his eager students were poor, unable even to clothe themselves decently. Yet Hamlin did not wish them to receive what they lacked as charity ; he 1 These are but samples of the superstition that the missionaries frequently met with among Oriental Christians as well as among Muhammadans. 128 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East preferred to let them earn what was necessary. So he ar- ranged workshops in connection with his college. In addition to the hours devoted to teaching, he stood for an hour every morning at the carpenter's bench, spent another hour at mid- day at the anvil, and at night arranged the work for the tailors or examined the mending of the boots. He was, how- ever, richly rewarded by the happy, busy spirit which he ob- served among his boys. Then there came the rupture with the ancient Church. The converts were boycotted, no one having anything to do with the Protestants, no one employing them. It was against Hamlin's principles to give the hungry Protestants food out of charity ; he knew that he would be rendering them better service by obtaining work for them. The outbreak of the Crimean War and the subsequent formation of the large camp of the English army on the Bosphorus gave him his opportunity. He determined to set up a large bakery and a flour mill worked by steam, in order to provide the poor Protestants with work whilst supplying bread to the troops. His American colleagues shook their heads and drew back from him ; but he was not disconcerted, even though the Board refused to sup- ply him with the funds necessary for his undertaking. Day by day he delivered at the camp 14,000 pounds of good loaves of full weight, and withal so punctually and honestly that the military authorities quite seriously proposed that he should supply the troops in other places also. At the close of the war Hamlin discontinued this work, which, to the surprise of his friends, had realized a net gain of 5,500. This sum he paid in to the treasurer of the mission to the last farthing, thus stopping the mouths of those who had doubted his hon- esty. Nevertheless Hamlin left the Society in 1860, feeling that he could not agree with their educational methods. The sem- inary which he had founded was to be removed to Marsovan in Asia Minor, and in place of the hitherto prevalent use of English in the teaching, the vernaculars were to be introduced. He determined to continue his work independently, without Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 129 means and support as he was. His idea was to found in Con- stantinople a college on the American pattern, which should serve as a channel through which to irrigate the parched fields of the ancient Churches, and perhaps even the corrupt Turk- ish society, with the life-giving streams of English Christian culture. But where could he obtain the necessary means? He visited the United States, endeavouring by lectures and conferences to gain supporters for his scheme, and he succeeded in awakening enthusiasm in the heart of Christopher Robert, a New York merchant, with whose help, chiefly, he set to work, calling his institution the " Robert College." Plentifully supplied with money, 1 Hamlin returned to Con- stantinople, but only to meet with new difficulties. The Porte refused to sanction such far-reaching plans, for it was not in its interests to permit its Christian subjects to be well educated. Hamlin was not permitted to build on the first site which he had bought. In buying a second plot he made the stipulation that he should pay no money before permission to build on it was granted. It was not long before a document in the grand vizier 's own handwriting, granting him permission to build, was handed to him. Thereupon he paid the price, but hardly was the money out of his hands, when two officials of the Porte appeared on the site to stop the building operations, stating that there were still " some formalities to be attended to." Then followed further difficulties. The Jesuits, who at that time were very influential, did all in their power to sup- press the Protestant college. In this they were supported by the French and Russian ambassadors, while the American consul declared that he was not authorized to support Hamlin. How was the latter now to carry out his project ? Had he not been an American, he would most likely have lost courage. But he persevered. The further development of the case be- came so dramatic, and the denouement was so comical, that it is a pity we cannot give it in detail. The visit of an American admiral to Constantinople, a letter written by Hamlin to his 1 At the time of his death in 1878 Mr. Robert had given $400,000 for the col- 130 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East consul, the outbreak of a rebellion in Crete all these operated together and one day Hamlin, to his great surprise and joy, not only received permission from the Porte to build his college, but was also informed that it would be recognized as a college incorporated by the legislature of New York and placed under its protection. The opening of the college in Bebek, five miles to the north of Constantinople, took place in 1863. It stands in a beautiful position, below it the blue waters of the Bosphorus, imme- diately behind it the bold ruins of the Rumeli Castle, on every side an extensive view of the mountains of Asia and Europe with their castles, towns, and villages. Situated in the midst of such delightful surroundings, picture to yourself an impo- sing structure that would grace an American university. The curriculum at the Kobert College, which is affiliated with the New York University, includes, as in similar institu- tions in America, a four years' preparatory course in the academy, which was supplied with a new building called the Theodorus Hall in 1902, and which has at present 194 students. In the 'college proper there is a twofold four years' course in arts and in science, upon the successful completion of which the degree of B. A. or a science degree is bestowed. The classes are attended by about 180 students. Few, however, go in for the examinations. The college buildings include the Hamlin Hall and the Albert Long Hall. The entire property of the college contains twenty-three acres. In addition to the build- ings already mentioned there are a gymnasium, five profess- ors' dwellings, and numerous outbuildings, the whole present- ing an imposing appearance. But it can hardly be called a missionary institution. On principle it declines to draw away students from their Church in order to make them Protestants. Students are simply required to attend daily morning and evening prayers and the services on Sunday. There is a Young Men's Christian Association, founded in 1892 by Luther Wishard, the well-known secretary of the American Y. M. C. A., and it does much to create a Christian atmos- phere. It is a remarkable fact, that, although the college lies Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 131 so close to fanatical Constantinople, there are among the 373 students, sixteen Turks, five Kurds and two Arabs. Up to the year 1905, 2,705 students passed through the institution. 1 Cyrus Hamlin remained president of the college only till 1873, when he returned home worn out with his labours. There re- mained to him, however, a long eventide of life, which he spent as professor of theology. His countrymen heaped on him high honours ; he received the degrees of Doctor of Divinity and Doctor of Philosophy. He died in Portland, Maine, on the 8th of August, 1900. Several talented and able men have since been successful presidents of the Eobert College, e. g. 9 C. F. Gates, LL. D., D. D., and George Washburn, D. D. The mission hesitated to follow the example of Cyrus Ham- lin. It was not their wish to deorientalize their pupils by im- parting an English education to them, nor to make them dissatisfied with their simpler life by arousing unattainable ambitions in their breasts. Yet the demand for higher edu- cation was growing apace. The need of an educated ministry, too, was pressing, and there was a sad gap between the primary schools and the theological seminaries. In 1S74 the first college was founded in Aintab. 2 Since then two other similar institutions have been opened for the two other mis- sions, the Euphrates College at Kharput in 1876, and the Anatolia College at Marsovan in 1886. All three have, in the course of years, so developed that they provide primary, secondary, and college education, along with certain courses in special subjects. A further stage of development in the general educational system was entered upon about the year 1880. The Armenians had become alive to the fact that, if they were to take their proper place in Turkey and in the world, they must surpass the other nations of the country in education. A great desire for enlightenment seized the Protes- l ln 1900, twelve former students had entered the ministry, eighty-eight had become teachers, fifty were state officials (especially in Bulgaria), fourteen were judges and thirty-seven medical men. Those who, after passing through the Eobert College, wish to pursue study in special subjects, go to the Syrian Protes- tant College in Beirut, where they enjoy special advantages. 8 " The Higher Educational Institutions of the American Board," Boston, 1904. 132 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East tants as well as the Gregorians. The leading missionaries felt bound to satisfy this strong desire. Consequently the number of educational institutions has greatly increased dur- ing the last twenty-five years, and twenty-five " high schools" for boys have been added to the colleges, most of them board- ing-schools. The standards of these high schools are becoming higher from year to year. The English language occupies an ever larger place. In the ancient Church the education of girls was at a very low ebb, and it was long before even the Protestant Armenians became aware that it was necessary that the girls, too, should at least be taught Bible history, reading, writing, and singing. In the smaller congregations the girls attended the same schools as the boys, while in larger places separate primary schools for girls gradually sprang up. It became evident that it was of the utmost importance that the girls should be trained under the same Christian influences, if they were to become the wives of teachers and elders, pastors and cate- chists. The first high school for girls was a school for the daughters of educated Armenians, begun in Constantinople on lines similar to those of the Bebek Seminary. After the rup- ture of 1846, however, this plan was abandoned, as it was found that the students in the theological seminary were mostly married men who came with their families to enter upon the four years' course of study. Thus it became neces- sary so to arrange matters that the wives, too, should profit by their prolonged stay in the mission stations, while their hus- bands were attending the seminaries. To meet this want a new system of higher education was tried ; it became even more important when female teachers for the primary girls' schools and Bible- women in the churches came to be needed. Add to this that an increasing number of the more well-to-do Armenian families, especially in Constantinople and Smyrna, were willing at some sacrifice to afford their daughters the advantages of a Protestant education in separate boarding- schools. In consequence of the relations between the sexes in the East, boarding-schools are more necessary for female educa- Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 133 tion than with us. The result was that in 1871 a Protestant girls' boarding-school was founded in Scutari, near Constanti- nople. The increased demand for knowledge on the part of women caused this side of the educational system of the mission to grow in a surprising manner we might almost say, too quickly. Perhaps a German writer is not a fully competent critic of American schemes for female education, as it is known that Germans hold somewhat different views on the position of women in society from the American ideals. So Americans are inclined to extend to Oriental women, too, a fuller measure of educational advantages than seems desirable or proper to a German mind. An important factor in this development is to be found in the growing strength and influ- ence of women's missionary societies in America which had at their disposal an ample supply of lady missionaries and of means to further their views. By 1895 the number of girls' boarding-schools had increased to twenty with 1,200 boarders. Some of them, as in Kharput and Marash, became colleges. The highest and most prominent institution is the American College for Girls at Scutari, founded in 1890, publicly recog- nized by an official decree, an irade of the Sultan, in 1895, and even relieved of taxation. Turkey has also enjoyed the benefits of medical missions, which since 1870 have become so prominent in the work of American missionary societies. Medical missionary work was begun at first on a small scale in all the missions, espe- cially in the towns of Caesarea, Aintab, and Mardin. One of the most prominent of the medical missionaries in the service of the American Board during those earlier decades was Dr. Henry West, who, born in 1827, was sent in 1859 to serve among the Armenians, being stationed at Sivas. He died in 1876, having worn himself out not only by unremitting work in his profession, but also in the exercise of an unusual ability for training native assistants to become able doctors themselves. The Kev. E. Eiggs declares, " that the best and most reliable medical men in the towns of Asia Minor were 134 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East mostly pupils of the celebrated medical missionary, Dr. H. West." The natives said of him, " He is like Jesus." For the fifty years following the rupture in 1846 the de- velopment of the Protestant Mission was quiet and steady. The Board's report of the year 1895 stated that the Armenian Mission numbered at that time 14, for the most part well equipped, main stations, and 268 out-stations. There were 46 missionaries and one medical missionary, 42 missionaries' wives, and 63 other lady missionaries, making a total Ameri- can force of 152 persons. In addition to these there were 90 Armenian pastors, 117 catechists, 529 teachers and 66 other assistants a total Armenian force of 800. One hundred and eleven churches had 11,835 full members and about 20,000 adherents. It was calculated that there were 32,092 adults and 24,132 children in the Sunday-schools. Accordingly the entire Protestant community numbered about 50,000 souls. Protestant influence was evidently on the increase and the prospects of the mission were most promising. From our report of this missionary movement it might be supposed that, after the time of the rupture, the American missionaries used all their influence to increase their own congregations by an uncompromising propagandism. It must be stated that, if we look at the mission as a whole, this reproach seems to us quite unjust. It is true that, after the establishing of Protestant Churches had become a necessity, the missionaries shunned none of the difficulties connected with the forming of new congregations and schools in their endeavour to lay a sure foundation for the building up of a virile Protestant ecclesiastical system. They knew that a considerable period of hatred, and even of open hostility, would have to elapse before the Gregorians would be in a frame of mind to judge them fairly, since their work must lie under the suspicion of being a proselytizing effort to destroy the ancient Church, an undertaking similar to the intrigues of the Jesuits. But in the prosecution of their work they ever kept in mind the whole nation, aiming to fill their hearts with evangelical teaching, to give them a new religious life, and to Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 135 raise them to a higher moral level. The means they employed for this purpose, in the face of much misrepresentation, were the distribution of the Bible and sound Protestant literature, and a vigorous work of higher education. As they were de- barred from working among that portion of the Armenian people which lived in Kussian territory, they had to concen- trate their labours upon the Armenians in Turkey, numbering 144,000, upon whom, therefore, in spite of their wide disper- sion, they have been able to leave a deep impression. Perhaps the plainest proof of this is that the Koman propaganda, which formerly had quite neglected education, began to establish rival schools in order to counteract the influence exercised by the Protestants. 1 And the Armenians themselves became incited by the Ameri- cans to make fuller provision for education in a way quite new in the history of the people. They established primary and sec- ondary schools for boys, and even began to pay attention to female education. It seemed as if a new spring time had come to the people. But upon this promising development there burst out a devastating storm which threatened to destroy all the splendour of the new awakening and even to make an end of the Armenians as a nation the fearful massacres of the years 1894-1896. 3. The Armenian Massacres, 189^-1896 (a) The Armenian Question. 2 The status of the Zimmies throughout Turkey is, generally speaking, bad, and that of the Armenians is particularly deplorable. We have already seen that they are almost everywhere a minority in the prov- inces which they inhabit. They form the bulk of the popula- tion only in certain small sections of their original home and in a district of Cilicia about Zeitun. Their chief curse is the 1 There is in Sivas a Roman Catholic college, a rival of the American Anatolia College in Marsovan, and another college in Mesereh as a rival of the Euphrates College in Kharput. 2 James Bryce, " Transcaucasia," 4th ed., 1896. Hepworth, "Through Armenia." 1 36 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East Kurds. From time immemorial, as witness Xenophon's " Ana- basis," these savage bandits have infected the wild mountain wastes of Eastern Turkey, being subject to no authority, and every man's hand being against his fellow ; terrible neigh- bours for a quiet, unarmed, agricultural population such as the Armenians were in their home country. Only the mailed fist of a strong government could have compelled the rebellious Kurdish sheikhs to leave their peaceable neighbours unmo- lested. The Ottoman Porte had not even the desire to do so, since the Kurds are, at least nominally, Muhammadans, and the Armenians "Christian dogs." As early as 1855 the Eng- lish general, Sir Fenwick Williams, who, from personal observations during the Crimean War, had become aware of the danger threatening the Armenians, stated in a Blue Book report, that the Armenian provinces were subjected to systematic and abominable oppression in all matters of daily life, that the Turkish government was an organized tyranny, the like of which was not to be seen elsewhere in the world, and that no words could fitly describe the infamous character and behaviour of the Turkish police (" Turkey," Yol. XVII, 1877, No. 6, p. 3). A new age seemed to be dawning for Armenia when, in the Peace of San Stephano on the 3d of March, 1878, Turkey solemnly pledged herself to Russia to introduce radical reforms, making a similar promise to the Concert of the great European Powers at the subsequent Berlin Congress in the summer of the same year. The sixty-first section of the Acts of the Con- gress required of the Porte that it should without delay carry out such reforms as were demanded by the circumstances existing in the provinces inhabited by Armenians, and as would be sufficient to protect the latter against the Circassians and Kurds. The Porte was to report from time to time to the six signatory powers, which took upon themselves the duty of seeing that the reforms were carried out. England, in addition, received from the Sultan at the Cyprus Conven- tion on the 4th of June, 1878, a promise that he would intro- duce such reforms as the two powers might agree to be neces- Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 137 sary for the protection of the Christians and other subjects of the Porte in Armenia. These clear and promising provisions appeared to the Armenians to assure them relief from op- pression. But cruel disappointment was in store for them. There are few chapters of European history which present so deplorable a picture of hopeless confusion and repeated failure, as the story of the many and weary negotiations between the cabinets of Europe and the Porte concerning Armenian reforms. Of what nature should the reforms be ? Did Europe wish to found a semi-autonomous principality in Greater Armenia similar to those in Samos and Crete, or a Pashalik with a Christian pasha at its head as in the Lebanon since 1862 ? Either plan would be difficult on account of the strong Muhammadan population in the provinces. Nor did Russia at all wish to have near her Caucasian boundary a national Armenian state which might bar her advance into Asia Minor, and which would be certain to fill the million of Armenians in Eussia with a strong desire to be attached to the independent Armenia. Yet no one could suggest any other program of reform. The Sultan alone knew that he had determined to nullify every reform which might be suggested. Abdul Hamid II had been on the throne since 1876, a man of great energy and a fanatical Moslem. The demands of the powers appeared to him unreasonable, and he knew that all good Moslems would be of the same opinion. Should the Zimmies, then, be put on social equality with the Muhammadans and even per- haps be set over them as their magistrates ? As subjects under the lash of the Moslems the Zimmies might be tolerated, for they were after all the best taxpayers in Turkey. But to grant them equal rights was contrary to the holy law. This must at all costs be prevented. Any attempt on their part to gain equality was in itself rebellion. An incautious Turkish minister was but saying what he thought when he cynically remarked that the best way to get rid of the Armenian ques- tion was to get rid of the Armenians. And this was the plan Abdul Hamid adopted. Such characteristically Muhammadan 138 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East logic was the more welcome to the Turks since they were aware of the fact that the Armenians excelled both Turks and Kurds in all industrial pursuits and especially in com- merce and the trades, for on such undertakings the Armenians had concentrated their great mental powers. Consequently they had become prosperous, while the Turks had become im- poverished. The Armenians were the owners of the caravans, while the Turks were their drivers and stable boys. Arme- nians had acquired possession of the finest houses and the most valuable estates. All this was opposed to the Muhammadan conception of the position of a subject nation. Is it, then, to be wondered at that, jealous as they were, and unable to com- pete in a fair way with the diligent, talented and capable Armenians, the Turks resorted to the sword, to " get rid of " the latter in cold blood ? Unfortunately some of the Armenians provided an excuse for the barbarous treatment to which they were subjected. It is generally admitted that, both in town and country, they had ever been as a nation quiet subjects without any thought of rebellion, though sorely oppressed. Rebellion would be folly, for it could but bring on them sure ruin. They had no experience in politics, and the only weapons they were per- mitted to carry were daggers and swords and primitive match- locks. Could they with these meet the rifles and cannon of newest pattern possessed by the Turkish soldiers ? Further- more Abdul Hamid had in 1891 raised a light irregular troop of cavalry, the " Hamidiye " regiments, from among the wild Kurds, who were robbers by trade and ever ready to swoop down upon the Christians. Yet, in spite of the obvious folly of rebellion, Armenian emigrants in various countries of Europe and America had been forming secret societies for the purpose of remedying the miserable condition of their home- land. It has never become known how these " Hunchiagists " or " Hunkachists " were organized, what their objects were in particular, nor what their plan of operations. Now and then traces of them are met with in Consular Reports. Unfortu- nately their very existence and work lent a shadow of justice Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 139 to the Porte in dealing harshly with the peaceable and de- fenseless Armenians. The government caused a rumour to spread throughout Europe and Turkey that a rebellion among the Armenians was imminent. Thus the poor people, already in the clutches of Turkey, came to lose the sympathy of Christian Europe as well. It was no doubt, also, due to this panic about a rebellion that the wild rage of the Turks and Kurds burst into flame. Only in rare cases did the Turkish authorities have common sense enough at once to seize and imprison the few Armenian agitators. In reality it pleased them better to make the existence of such agitation an excuse for a general massacre. And it is true that some of the Ar- menian communities received the revolutionists with open arms, and permitted themselves to be worked up into an ex- cited state, in which they committed reprehensible acts, thus damaging the national cause. Bitlis and Yan were especially dangerous lurking places of the rebels. 1 (5) The Massacres. 2 In the wild mountain district of Sas- sun, south of Mush, trouble had arisen between the Arme- nians and the Kurds, and the former had declared to the gov- ernor that they could not pay their taxes, if the Kurds robbed them of all they possessed. This the governor regarded as rebellion and in August, 1894, he advanced against the peace- able peasants with a large force of regulars, Hamidiye, and other Kurds. The peasants were slaughtered or dispersed, and their villages plundered and burnt. According to the statement of the British consul, 900 Armenians lost their lives. 1 After his escape to America, Fia Bey, who during the whole time of the massacres was the unscrupulous instrument of the Sultan and of Fehim Pasha, the infamous head of the palace spies, cynically exposed the secret machinery of that bloodshed to reporters and interviewers. A treacherous clique around the Sultan arranged the Armenian demonstrations in Constantinople and afterwards convinced the Sultan that most dangerous plots were being laid, and that his throne and life were endangered by the Armenian revolutionists. "So Abdul Hamid ordered the massacres, not knowing that his own officials had organized the revolutionary demonstrations " (Sonnenaufgang, Vol. XI, p. 171). 2 Dr. Joh. Lepsius, "Armenien und Europa," 1896. "Les Massacres d'Ar- menie." Documents Diplomatique* ; Affaires Armeniennes, Paris, 1897. J. Rendel Harris, "Letters from Armenia," 1897. 140 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East The first massacre caused a great sensation. England brought renewed pressure to bear upon the Sultan to cause him to carry out the reforms he had promised, and on the llth of May, 1895, laid a complete scheme of reforms before the Porte, to the effect that an equal number of Christian and of Muhammadan officials should be appointed for the govern- ment of the Armenian provinces, with a joint Board at their head. The Sultan now saw that the affair was becoming serious. Yet at the same time he rejoiced to observe that there was no unanimity among the European Powers, and that therefore no effective interference could at once take place. He therefore determined to adopt radical measures to reduce the number of Armenians to such an extent as to render any reforms superfluous. From September 30th until December 29th, massacre fol- lowed massacre in quick succession, in Constantinople on Sep- tember 30th, in Akhissar on October 3d, in Trebizond on the 8th, in Erzingyan on the 21st, in Baiburt on the 25th, in Bitlis on the 2Yth, in Erzerum on the 30th, in Arabkir from the 1st to the 5th of November, in Diarbekr on November 1st, in Malatia from the 4th to the 9th, in Kharput on the 10th, in Sivas on the 12th, in Amasiah, Marsovan and Aintab on the 15th, in Marash on the 18th, in Kaisarieh on the 30th, in Urfu, twice, on October 26th and on the 28th and 29th of December. Other isolated massacres followed in 1896, in Yan on June 26th, and in Constantinople from the 26th to the 28th of August. The slaughter of Armenians was a joy to the Turks. A massacre was heralded by the blowing of trumpets and con- cluded by a procession. Accompanied by the prayers of the mollahs or the muezzins, who from the minarets implored the blessing of Allah, the slaughter was accomplished in admi- rable order according to a well arranged plan. The crowd, supplied with arms by the authorities, joined most amicably with the soldiers and the Kurdish Hamidiye on these festive occasions. Every one was in a good humour. The Turkish women stimulated their heroes by raising the guttural shriek Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 141 of their war cry, the Zilghit, and deafened the hopeless de- spair of their victims by singing their nuptial songs. A kind of wild, cannibal humour seized the crowd. Here an officer shouted, " Down with the Armenians, it is the Sultan's will ; " there a Wali exhorted them, " Look alive ! cease not to kill and plunder and pray for the Sultan." Why should they cease to pray, or abstain from the slaughter ? Were they not promised a reward for their pious actions ? And were not the stores of the Armenian merchants and their dwelling- houses full of treasures ? Were they not sure, also, not to be punished ? Nay, had not a paternal government made ar- rangements for its faithful subjects to enable them to murder at their own sweet will, without any danger to themselves, so that in fact it was as safe as slaughtering sheep ? The savage crew did not even spare the children. Of what use was this brood, whose parents were either dead or had fled ? To save a year-old baby from an orphan's woes the Muhammadans of a village near Marash threw it into the fire ! In Baiburt they burned suckling babes with their mothers in fourteen houses. Ohannes Avakian, a rich man of Trebizond, offered the attacking party all his wealth if they would but spare him and his family. He was holding his three-year-old son in his arms. The brutes, knowing that they were sure of his wealth, killed the boy first in order to get at the old man. Both were murdered before the eyes of the wife and the other children. In Erzerum the crowd enjoyed itself killing a man's sons on the corpse of their father, whom it had slain by chopping off piece after piece of his body and pouring vinegar into the wounds. In Diarbekr the Kurds surrounded the great stone church of the Jacobites in which crowds of fugitives had taken shelter, shot into it and broke open the roof, throwing in fuel and burning torches until they succeeded in bursting the doors open. With yells of joy from the populace those within the church were hunted out into the open to be met by a storm of bullets. Pastor Yinyis Khathershian, who had come from Egypt to visit his relatives, being recognized as a clergy- 142 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East man, was thrown down and beaten with cudgels till he was well-nigh insensible. One of the sacred books lying about was stuffed into his mouth and he was mockingly requested to preach a sermon. Then burning torches were thrown upon him, and when the acute pain roused him from his state of insensibility and he tried to creep away, he was seized and thrown into the flames. Shops and houses, villages and fields belonging to Arme- nians were plundered with a thoroughness which left nothing behind. Not a rag of cloth, nor a pot nor a plate remained. Even the doors and windows were wrenched off and carried away. What was not worth taking was broken to pieces and destroyed. " We have been robbed of everything," says one report ; " they have not left us a rag wherewith to wipe away our tears." That the local and provincial authorities had a share in these horrors is beyond question. Sometimes they led the soldiers and the mob in person, more frequently they simply looked on. In very rare cases, as at Mush, they forbade the massacres and were obeyed. The only doubtful question is what share of blame attaches to Abdul Hamid himself, and, as the official correspondence between the local authorities and the Porte was secret, this question can never be definitely answered. It is certain that the authorities as well as the people were convinced that the Sultan approved of the massacres, or even that he had given special orders. It is also certain that some of the most abominable evil-doers were rewarded with orders and promotions. Eradication of Chris- tianity was an essential part of the Sultan's policy, and the massacres may well have been his reply to England's attempt to press reforms on him. Even a statesman like Gladstone did not hesitate openly to call the Sultan "the Great Assassin," who had exhausted every method of well-planned and thoroughly executed cruelty in Armenia. (Open letter to the Duke of Westminster.) Taking everything into con- sideration, it is hardly probable that the Sultan, as Hepworth suggests, had known nothing of most of the massacres Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 143 beforehand, and that he had been purposely supplied with false information (Hepworth, " Through Armenia," pp. 169ff.). According to carefully prepared statistics, 88,243 Armenians, of whom about 10,000 were Protestants, were murdered, and more than 500,000 robbed of all they possessed ; 2,493 villages and towns were plundered ; 568 churches, of which fifty were Protestant, were pillaged and destroyed, and 282 others were turned into mosques. It was characteristic that in many places the victims were offered the choice between death and Muhammadanism. It was only necessary to repeat the Muham- madan Khalima (La illah, etc.), with the knife already at their throats, or to lift a finger as a sign of assent, and they were spared. They thus became the brethren of their enemies, and, if possible, the new bond was sealed by the marriage of a convert with a Muhammadan. The massacres were not due to a question of race but to one of religion. Christianity was the enemy. "Who shall blame them, if, harassed and threatened with death, no fewer than 646 villages and even fifty-five priests joined Islam ? It is true that terrible pangs of conscience followed such apostasy when the danger was past. Apostasy from Islam is punished with death, and in their fanatical fury Muhammadans did not waver for a moment in executing the " holy law." Only in a few villages were the British consuls able to procure for Christians, thus converted by force to Islam, liberty to return to their Church. 1 The heroism of the Armenians, both Gregorians and Protes- tants, was admirable. " Death rather than deny our faith " was their motto. Many died as Christian martyrs. Twenty- five Protestant ministers and 175 Gregorian priests were massacred, often after unspeakable tortures. The names of the murdered members of the churches have to a great extent remained unrecorded ; but they are written in the Book of Life. They will receive their reward from the hand of Him 1 The most characteristic case in point was, perhaps, that of Biredjik on the Euphrates, where the entire Christian congregation of about 1,000 souls adopted Islam in the hour of danger, but through British intervention were permitted to reembrace Christianity. 1 44 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East who said, " Whosoever shall confess Me before men, him will I also confess before My Father, who is in heaven." It will strengthen our faith to read the record of some of these wit- nesses, whose names, or the peculiar circumstances of whose sufferings, we know. The Protestant minister of Sivas, the Rev. Garabed Khalujian, and his wife had laboured there for many years. On the 12th of November he preached with great power on the text : " Not a hair of your head shall perish." Two days later at midday, a mob of raging Muhammadans rushed in, plundering and massacring. The minister and some of his flock took refuge in an upper story of the house, the door of which they locked, and fell on their knees to pray. Towards evening a second crowd of Muhammadans appeared for the express purpose of murdering them all. The minister ap- proached them calmly, so that they were taken aback and offered him life and freedom if he would but deny his faith. His mind reverted to his ailing wife and his four unprotected daughters, and his heart beat hard. Yet he said : " I not only believe in Jesus Christ for my own part, but have all my life striven to bring others to faith in Him." The reply came : " Then you must die." The martyr raised his hands towards heaven and fell pierced with two bullets. He was buried next day with 800 other victims in the yard of the old Armenian church. When Sassun was attacked in the summer of 1894, some sixty young married women were locked up in a church and then handed over to the will of the soldiers. After that most of them were massacred. The most attractive of them were kept alive for a while and were promised safety if they would abjure their faith. " Why should we deny our Lord ? " they asked, pointing at the same time to the corpses of their murdered husbands and brothers. " ^e are no better than they. Kill us too." Of another Armenian woman it is told that, being pursued along with several other women by Muhammadans, she took refuge on a cliff that overhung a deep precipice. Turning to Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 145 her companions, she cried, " Sisters, you have now to decide. Either you let yourselves fall into the hands of the Turks and are unfaithful to your husbands, or you follow my example." Having said this, she leaped into the abyss with her twelve months' old baby in her arms. One after another the others followed her example. In the prison at Lemal near Bitlis, Azo, a pious Armenian, was subjected by Turkish officials to fearful torture, to compel him to swear a false oath which meant certain death to some of the best men of the village. He was bound with his arms stretched out as if for crucifixion. His teeth were smashed in by the soldiers, his moustache torn out, his body branded with red-hot irons. Yet the pious man remained firm. " I cannot stain my soul with the blood of innocent men. I am a Christian," he cried in the midst of the horrible torture. At length death came to his relief. In the monastery at Tadem the aged Archimandrite, Ohannes Papizian, when he refused to adopt Muhammadanism, had first his hands cut off, then his arms at the elbows. As he still remained firm, he was beheaded. In Biredjik an old man who refused to renounce his faith was thrown on to the ground. Live coals were heaped on to his body and as he lay writhing in agony, a Bible was thrust into his face by his tormentors, who mockingly told him to read them some of the promises on which he relied. ff Once a Turk asked an Armenian, " Will you turn Muham- madan?" The reply was a confession of Christ. At once the Turk cut out a piece of the Christian's arm with a knife and threw it to the dogs. "Will you turn Muhammadan now ? " The tortured man refused firmly. The monster cut a large piece out of the other arm, throwing that also to the dogs. Still the Armenian remained true to his faith. A certain Hagop Pattian of Marsovan, who had won the respect and affection of Christians and Muhammadans alike by his self-sacrificing services during an epidemic of cholera, found no pity. As the axe was about to fall upon his head he said, " Father, forgive them, they know not what they 146 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East do," and, "Father, into Thy hands I commend my spirit." In Itshan a number of Armenians, who with their aged minister at their head had taken refuge in a church, were dragged out one by one, and asked separately which they loved more, their lives or their faith. Fifty-two of them pre- ferred to die rather than deny their Lord. One by one they were shot or hewn to pieces with the sword. The old Armenian church was turned into a mosque and the Prot- estant church into a stable. In Urfa a 'mother had to see her two sons attacked by a savage band and given the choice between Islam and death. She appealed to them rather to die than to deny their Lord. (c) After the Massacres. The sufferings of the Armenians everywhere, but especially in the districts of Greater Armenia, were beyond description. Villages were set on fire, houses were pillaged and destroyed, even the clothes were torn off the bodies of the victims. Particularly the rich and in- fluential, the priests and merchants, the heads of families and leaders of the people were massacred. It was thought that there would not be much difficulty in dealing with the women, after the men had been put out of the way. The result was that, after the massacres, there remained probably 100,000 widows and orphans. As they had been robbed of all, even of provisions for the winter and of their cattle, very many families were threatened with death from famine and cold. The persecutions had been most violent in the last quarter of the year, just when the winter was beginning, and though Armenia lies far south, its bleak table-lands and high moun- tains are extremely cold and subject to long and heavy snow- falls. _JThe distress that followed was beyond description. "We can only listen to what eye-witnesses tell about a few villages, and even here the misery that they saw is too fearful to record in full. " How very near to starvation the poor people came may be gathered from the condition of a village called Korpey, Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 147 which I visited to-day. There were one hundred and fifty houses in it, of which only about fifteen are left standing. All the rest have been almost entirely destroyed. There are only bare walls where a beautiful village once stood. The people are in rags. There are beds in only twelve of the houses. The people are sleeping on the floor all winter with- out any bedclothes. The trees have their tops lopped off, leaving only the stems. You find no sheep nor cattle, and only two dogs there. Neither grain nor any other victual are in the houses. In some there may be a little bread, but the chief food consists of grass, which lies in little bundles on the floor. The faces of the women and children is pinched and sallow. I asked a little fellow whether he had eaten any bread that day : ' No, only some grass.' Others had pieces of bread only the size of my hand. While we were sitting on the ground surrounded by most of the village people, some of the children were continually pulling up grass and eating it, roots and all. As far as I could judge, only a few days stood between them and death by starvation." " On my passing through a village lately, all the inhabitants came out into the street, crying, 'We are hungry, hungry, hungry ! ' I am still haunted by this cry. Their fields are laid waste, their houses are in ruins and there is no hand stretched out to help them. What is to be the end of it all ? " " This morning some villagers came from Terjan, the centre of a group of villages, asking for help. Their very appearance was their strongest appeal to our pity. They had walked for eighteen hours over two snow-covered ranges of hills. One of the men, who had once been able to accommodate eighteen or twenty visitors at once in his house, was in rags that would hardly have clad him sufficiently in summer. Another man of gigantic stature had had his arms crippled by the swords of the soldiers. The villagers who had sent this deputation were in want of everything that the human being needs ; neither mattress nor bedclothes had been left them, and all through the winter months they had slept on straw and hay. This was the way they managed at night : first straw was 148 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East thrown on the ground, then all lay down on it as closely packed as possible except one, who covered them over with hay, creeping under it himself at last as best he could. Some of these villages had been pillaged by the Kurds off and on for forty days." "After the massacre in Malatiye all the Armenians who were left had fled from their burning homes to save their lives, taking with them nothing but the poor clothes that they were wearing. Of all the 2,000 plundered families, representing 8,000 souls, only fifty are living and these in the deepest despair. Delicate women whose husbands and grown-up sons have been massacred, and whose houses have been burned down, have been robbed of everything and now live in huts or damp cellars. The once rich are now in rags and have no food. Many of them have to go a-begging from door to door or stand in the market-places clamouring^for alms. There, sit- ting in their shops, the men, who have made them widows and robbed them of all their possessions, may throw them a hand- ful of copper coins while they mock them for trying to pick up some scraps like the dogs." " A short time ago I was visiting in Gurun, and found the condition of the people indescribable. Once a charming and flourishing place, it is now, as far as the eye can reach, a blackened waste, a picture of utter misery. The shattered walls of from fifteen to sixteen hundred houses that once nes- tled in well-kept orchards, are the only memorials left of de- parted happiness and wealth. Going from one ruin to another I heard only the piercing cry of woe from the lips of women who had lost their all. The surviving inhabitants were con- fined as in pens, sometimes packed together in one room, which was all that was left of a once respectable dwelling. The miserable people were clad in rags fastened round their waists with ropes, and hardly covering their nakedness. Mothers implored me to help them get their captive daughters back. A more heartrending scene than that which I beheld it would be difficult to imagine." The knowledge of all this misery made the appeal for help Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 149 to Christians the world over irresistible. England had ere this shown much sympathy with the Armenians, and it was remembered that in 1878 she had solemnly undertaken the duty of protecting this unfortunate people. Now she was doubly bound to act the part of the Good Samaritan. In ad- dition to the Anglo-American Association which had been led since 1876 by the ex-Cabinet Minister, James Bryce, in a vain attempt to secure political protection for the Armenians, the Duke of Westminster, the church historian J. Rendel Harris, Lady Somerset and other prominent members of society formed now an association, called the " Friends of Armenia," to organize the relief work. In France there had been little official sympathy with Ar- menia, in spite of the fact that for a long time this country had assumed the right of protecting Roman missions in the East and their congregations ; but now the glowing words of Pere Charmetant roused great enthusiasm for the work of re- lief. In Germany the leading statesmen, bound as they were by their pro-Turkish policy, could not be persuaded to inter- fere. But the Rev. Dr. Lepsius succeeded in rousing the feel- ings of Christians in all parts of the country, and in infusing new enthusiasm for the work of Christian charity into societies that were working in the Near East. Such societies were the Kaisers werth Deaconesses' Homes, the Syrian Orphanage in Jerusalem and the Jerusalem Union. Even in Russia pity and charity asserted themselves, though chiefly among the Russian Armenians in Transcaucasia. The Czar ordered a general collection which brought in 50,000 roubles. The greatest zeal was displayed in the United States. Here Christian circles had, since the beginning of the century, been deeply interested in the missions in Armenia. From all these sources there was collected by the autumn of 1897 a relief fund of 300,000. Every kind of help was needed. First of all the most desti- tute sufferers must be helped through the winter. True, the Turkish officials gave intermittent aid after the massacres, sometimes, however, with stipulations that were dishonouring 1 50 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East to women. Even such aid used to cease after two or three weeks, and thereafter they did but put obstacles in the way of others who wished to help. It was fortunate that the Amer- ican Board stations were distributed over the whole of the area affected, for they served as centres for the relief work. Even from such strategically situated stations as Van, Bitlis and Mush it was extremely difficult to get access to the most desolated and needy districts, accessible during the hungry winter months only by snow-covered passes and almost impas- sable mountain gorges. The absence of suitable roads, com- bined with heavy snow-storms, rendered it often quite impos- sible to convey grain and other provisions to the desolate villages. The next thing to be done was to provide the destitute with the means of earning a livelihood. There were men who, be- sides having been robbed of their goods, had had their eyes bored out, or their arms hewn off, in order to make them in- capable of supporting themselves. In still greater numbers widows and orphans were wandering from house to house, poor as beggars, and unable to earn anything. Urfa particu- larly became a centre of the industries established to meet the emergency. Miss Corinna Shattuck, an American missionary, established an extensive weaving industry and opened a large room for needlework. Dr. Lepsius* society began and fully equipped a carpet-making business on a large scale. Above all there were thousands of orphans to be gathered together, fed and educated. Orphanages opened their doors wide for the reception of crowds of Armenian orphans in the whole of Turkey from the Kussian boundary to Persia, Bul- garia and Palestine. The Kaiserswerth Deaconesses' Homes in Syria and Palestine took 200, and the Syrian Orphanage in Jerusalem 100. New orphanages were founded in great num- bers. In this work the German societies particularly ex- celled. Kev. J. Lohmann's Armenian Aid Society received 1,357 orphans from all parts into their numerous orphanages. Dr. Lepsius' German Aid Association for Armenia founded in Urfa, Khoi and Urmia orphanages for 650 children. Professor Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 151 Godet, who presided over the Swiss Aid Association, received 500 orphans, 300 of them in his large institutions in and near Sivas. Nor were the English and Americans behindhand in this work. Towards the end of 1898 there were about 6,000 Armenian children being cared for in Protestant orphanages. All this meant difficult work. First of all the children, who had been reduced to a sad state by famine, cold, and neglect, must be patiently nursed back into physical robustness and mental and moral health. The arrangements to be made for their education must also be ,free from any proselytizing tendency which would estrange them from their Gregorian Mother-Church, for the Armenian Church authorities were jealous and fearful lest an improper advantage should be taken of the miserable condition of the people. On the other hand the Protestant foster-parents could not and would not neglect to train the children committed to their care in the knowledge of Bible truth. Another important problem was how to open ways for all these thousands of poor orphans to earn an hon- est livelihood in after life. Everywhere great stress was laid on teaching trades, such as carpentry, masonry and farming. Workshops were attached to many orphanages. In some cases extensive farms were combined with them. At first it was thought that about ten years of this difficult and expensive work would suffice. But as the plundering and the ill treatment of Armenians continued, especially in the eastern mountain districts of Erzerum, Bitlis, Yan, and Mush, it has been found necessary not only to keep the^old orphanages open, but even to found new ones. Nevertheless in 1907 the number of orphans in Protestant orphanages had been reduced to about 1,000. In addition to this, every possible endeavour had to be put forth, as far as the limited means allowed, to give the ruined people a new start in life. Hundreds of wrecked houses were rebuilt, cattle and oxen were lent or given, seed-corn was sup- plied, farming implements, tradesmen's tools and supplies for shops were provided. The need was manifold, but manifold also were the methods of relief. 152 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East A decade has passed since that time of horror, and we are in a position to judge whether the Turks have succeeded in their attempt to annihilate the Armenian nation. We are able to declare that, thanks to the abundant help of Christian people and the astonishing vitality of the Armenians them- selves, the Turks have failed. It is true that the Turks and Kurds still tyrannize over and attempt to crush the Armenians, especially in their original home in the eastern portion of Asia Minor, where massacres on a small scale are reported al- most every month, and the condition of the villagers is desperate. But on the whole the Armenians have recovered in a marvellously short time from what then appeared to be a fatal blow. Untold numbers bear the scars of those fearful years upon their bodies and countenances. Yet could we but be assured that there will be no recurrence of general mas- sacres, we might safely assert that they will recover from the after effects of that terrible blow. Dare we harbour such a hope? The European Powers have unfortunately shown that they are not willing to put themselves to any further inconvenience in behalf of the Armenians. Unable to settle the matter by their interminable diplomatic negotiations, they have left the poor people to their fate. Will Turkey now pursue her policy of extermination ? For the time being she is somewhat taken aback by the merciless plainness of the reports of consuls and philanthropists concerning the horrors of her cruel misdeeds. The wide-spread publicity which has branded her with shame has touched a sore spot. Thus, even when diplomacy fails, the publicity in which every part of the world to-day lives, is to some extent a source of safety for the oppressed. Hence the rancour of the Turkish officials against the well-informed American missionaries whom they try to banish, and their intrigues against all Europeans engaged in the works of mercy. Yet they have not succeeded in preventing Americans, Eng- lishmen and Germans from settling down in the most remote valleys, whence they send at once into the whole of the civilized world reports of every massacre that occurs. How Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 153 far will this protection reach ? It is, unfortunately, not to be hoped that any change has taken place in Abdul Hamid's policy. And in the ever-increasing Kurdish Hamidiye regi- ments sharper weapons are being forged for the destruction of the Armenian race. It seems to be a fundamental convic- tion of the Porte that the Armenians are a serious danger to Turkey at her weakest point, namely, that part of the Asiatic territory which lies near the Russian border. They are a dan- ger both on account of their unwarlike character, on account of their kinship with the Armenians in Russian Transcaucasia, and on account of their religious ties with the Russians. Against Turkey's formidable foe, Russia, a defense must be provided by employing the warlike Kurds, even as Russia on her part employs the Cossacks for a like purpose. To win favour with the Kurds and to arm them, to render the Armenians powerless or even to exterminate them this seems to be the terrible policy of the Porte. This section was written before the 24th of July, 1908, when the Turkish constitution was granted. The change of policy which then occurred will naturally affect the situation of the Armenians deeply. The new era in Turkey we shall discuss in section seven of this chapter. 4- Russian Armenia It is to be deplored that for the other half of the Armenians, who live in Russian territory, the outlook has become more and more gloomy during the last twenty-five years (cf. Son- nenaufgang, 1896, pp. 139, 156, 169, 187). For the seventy- five years following Russia's annexation of Transcaucasia in 1800, the Armenian Church had trustfully accepted Russian protection. Armenians had entered the Russian army, sup- plying it with several distinguished generals, among whom may l)e mentioned Loris Melikoff, Lassareff, and Per. Gankasoff, and had proved themselves to be thoroughly loyal subjects in the midst of the restless and unreliable elements of Trans- caucasia. Thus protected they made great progress in com- 154 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East merce and learning, their schools were flourishing, their trade grew by leaps and bounds. % But in 1880, under the dreadful influence of the mighty Pobedonoszeff, a determined policy of Kussianizing subject peoples was inaugurated, in the hope of strengthening Holy Kussia by the suppression of all foreign languages and civiliza- tions. Just as this short-sighted policy of unification has wrought untold mischief in the German provinces on the Baltic Sea, in Finland and in Poland, it has also caused con- fusion in Transcaucasia. Prince Dondukoff struck the first blow in 1885 by abruptly closing 500 Armenian schools, thus depriving 30,000 children of education. A further step was taken when the order went forth that all school property should be turned over to the government. This demand, however, met with determined passive resistance. The Armenians went to the law courts in the case of every school, and their legal rights were mostly so plain that the courts could not but decide in their favour. Then it was ordered that even the name "Armenia" was to be blotted out. Armenia had no longer the right of national existence. Armenian newspapers were suppressed. Armenians who ventured to send support to their unfortunate kinsmen in Turkey were declared rebels and were banished. The final blow fell on the 12th of June, 1903. The govern- ment commanded the Armenian Church to deliver up its entire property to the Kussian State. This command fell like a bomb into a barrel of gunpowder. Not a single church nor monastery would deliver up its property. Doors, chests and locks had to be burst open. Is it to be wondered at that, when the Armenians saw sacrilegious hands laid on their sanctuary, the Church, they flew to arms in her defense)? Bloodshed soon followed. In a short time the whole of Rus- sian Armenia was in rebellion. It was then that Russia com- mitted an unpardonable act. We have seen how, after the Berlin Congress of 1878, the Armenians in Turkey hoped in some measure for the establish- ment of a principality in Armenia, which should be wholly or Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 155 partially autonomous. The Russian Armenians naturally sympathized with this idea. Such sympathy the Eussian government regarded as treason and rebellion. The Arme- nians must be taught a severe lesson. The wild hordes of Tartars in Cis- and Transcaucasia should be their teachers. Like the Kurds in Turkey, the Tartars fell upon the Arme- nians in Eussia. In their first attack, which took place in Baku, they murdered two hundred Armenians, men, women and children ; in Shusha they threatened ruin to the strong Armenian colony and cut off its supplies. But the Armenians defended themselves and even attacked some Tartar villages. The rebellion which burst forth in every part of Eussia after the unsuccessful war with Japan helped to fan the flame in Transcaucasia. There was hopeless confusion. Order was restored but slowly. In August, 1906, the government re- pealed the foolish law of confiscation and restored to the Armenian churches such property as had already been seized. But it is not easy to regain the confidence of the Armenians, once so fearfully betrayed. 5. The Work of the American Bowrdfrom 1896-1907 l The massacres dealt to the Board's mission a blow which seemed for a time likely to prove fatal. Nearly all the sta- tions in Eastern Turkey had suffered heavily. The costly college buildings in Aintab had been plundered and burned. Hundreds of churches and schools in town and country had been destroyed, the congregations scattered, and the pastors and teachers either killed or crippled. It was as if a destruc- tive hail-storm had passed over a field of ripe grain. To repair the damage and to reorganize the work was a gigantic task, rendered the more difficult by the enmity and suspicion of the Turkish government, which placed every possible obstacle in the way of the mission. No firman could be secured granting permission to rebuild the ruined houses or even to execute the most necessary repairs. The members of the congregations were not allowed to go to church nor send their children to 1 " Missions of the American Board in Asiatic Turkey." Office of the Board, 1904. 1 56 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East school. Happily the American government was at the back of the Board and extended its powerful protection to its un- justly distrusted subjects. After weary and interminable negotiations, which lasted five years, the Turkish government was induced to pay nearly T 20,000 in compensation for the schools destroyed in Aintab and Kharput, and to issue the requisite firmans for their reconstruction. American energy was now displayed in restoring the mission, so that by 1900 all traces of the disaster were wiped out in most of the sta- tions, and the work was again well under way. The educa- tion of thousands of orphans has been one of the main under- takings during the last decade, the Board having borne the chief burden of establishing orphanages. During the time of greatest distress it had over 3,000 children under its care. Orphanages were opened in all the stations, the largest being in Kharput, Aintab, Urfa, and Van. In these orphanages no effort was made unduly to influence the children to become Protestants. They were permitted to attend the Gregorian services, being even conducted thither. The Gregorian bish- ops were permitted to appoint priests to call on the children belonging to their Church, and to strengthen their attachment to it. It is worthy of note that, if one may judge from the fact that the number of the members of the Protestant Churches, which was but temporarily and to a slight degree affected by the massacre of 1895, has since that time shown no striking increase, a large majority of the 6,000 orphans, trained in Protestant orphanages, must have returned to their old Church. Two branches of the work came more and more to the fore. Higher education l is conducted with admirable energy. The Armenian people, deprived of the means of existence by the tyranny of the Turks, have thronged to the schools, till these are full to overflowing. From year to year it becomes more difficult to meet the applications for admission. It is char- acteristic of these schools that education for girls is on almost 114 The Higher Educational Institutions of the American Board." "Sivas Normal School." (Two very interesting booklets.) Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 157 as high a level as that for young men. We give a list of the colleges. The Eobert College in Bebek near Constantinople is an in- dependent institution for Western Turkey. Then there is the Anatolia College in Marsovan. In April, 1903, the institution founded in Smyrna in 1891 was incorporated as " The Inter- national College." In Scutari, near Constantinople, there is a college for girls of well-to-do families. 1 In Central Turkey the principal institutions are wisely divided between Aintab and Marash ; in the former is the Central Turkey College for boys, in the latter the college for girls. The St. Paul's College for young men in Tarsus in Cilicia, founded in 1888 by the liberality of Col. W. Shepard of New York, passed in 1904 into the hands of the Board, and a similar institution for girls is planned in Adana, the capital of that province. In Eastern Turkey the higher schools for the two sexes are united in Kharput. Here the Euphrates College with more than 1,100 students is a complex of primary schools, secondary schools and colleges for both sexes, and of institutions for ministers and female teachers. In addition there are in Asia no fewer than forty -one board- ing- and high-schools, some for boys, some for girls, not to mention 312 primary and village schools, attended by 16,191 boys and girls. The Board teaches altogether 20,861 children. The other branch of missionary work to which peculiar attention has been given is the Medical Mission. Gradually all the chief stations in Turkey are being provided with med- ical missionaries and hospitals. The older hospitals are those in Aintab, Csesarea, Mardin and Yan. Latterly others have been added, in Constantinople (Dr. Codrington's hospital with a nurses' training institution), Marsovan, Sivas, and Kharput. An Armenian now living in America has provided the funds for building a mission hospital in Diarbekr. The mission 1 Since the site on the other side of the Bosphoms did not suit the purposes of the college, it is to be removed this year or next to the European side, to Ar- noutkoyi, a southern suburb of Stamboul. 158 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East plans to build hospitals in Erzerum and Adana, where doctors have already for some time been stationed. In addition, Dr. Lepsius' German Mission in Urfa and Diarbekr, and the Lohmann Society in Marash and Mesereh, have their doctors and hospitals. The growth of the medical work has been due partly to the great amount of sickness prevailing amongst a people destitute of all medical attention, and partly to the hope that this practical evidence of Christian philanthropy may touch the hearts of the Turks. In the vilayet of Sivas, where there is a population of Y50,000, there are only about fifteen doctors with diplomas, and all of these live in the towns, so that country people have to travel for many hours, sometimes for days, in order to see a doctor, if even then they can afford to pay the very high fees. Thus there is an almost boundless field for the beneficent labours of medical mission- aries. They have formed the " Asia Minor Medical Missionary Association " among themselves for mutual consultation. They met for their first conference in 1907. The relations of the mission to the Gregorian Church are subject to much fluctuation. There are those who place the Armenian religion on much the same level as the heathenism of India and wrongly conclude that " these people are in as great need of the Gospel as the fetish worshippers of Africa or the savages of the South Sea Islands." The repeated declarations that members of the old Church can become " Christians " only by adopting Protestantism are, at the very least, open to criticism. And the prevalent feeling among the missionaries is that there must be no proselytizing. The great task is as far as possible to rouse to new spiritual life the dead Church. Accordingly, if the mission can but win the confidence of the members of that Church, if it can but gain an open ear for its Gospel message, it is no cause of grief that the number of accessions to the Protestant Church is decreasing. There are, happily, proofs that the confidence of the ancient Church is being increasingly won. In Urfa, some years after the massacres, the Gregorians and Protestants united in educational work. Missionaries and other Prot- Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 159 estant ministers are frequently requested to preach in Gre- gorian churches. In the neighbourhood of Yan and Bitlis, where the distress was particularly severe, and most effectual and self-sacrificing help was afforded, there appears to be a growing feeling of mutual confidence between the two Churches. In Yan the Protestants even seriously considered whether they should not return in a body to the Gregorian Church. The majority were, however, opposed to such a step (Annual Eeport of the Board, 190T, p. 80), the time for such a reunion being, in their opinion, not yet come. Even in places where the Gregorian clergy stand aloof, be- cause they are concerned about their loss of influence, there are Protestant tendencies at work. Thus the Gregorians ex- ert themselves assiduously to raise the status of their schools. This may be attributed to the desire to keep the Gregorian pupils out of the Protestant schools by making their own schools equal to, or even better than, those of the mission. Yet, though the missionaries may be right in thinking that the Ar- menian schools would soon be closed were it not for the com. petition of the Protestant institutions, the fact remains that there is real vitality in them. There are other vestiges of this new life in the Gregorian Church. In Aintab the Gre- gorians have begun Bible classes on Sunday, and these classes, which meet in the Protestant school, are attended by 1,000 people of the old faith. The Armenian emigrants in North America subscribe liberally to the work of the Board with full confidence. One of them, Asian Sahagian, made a dona- tion of 15,000 to a fund for extending the educational system, another bequeathed a sum of money to build a hospital in Diarbekr, others again subscribed the salary of an American professor in the Euphrates College at Kharput, paid for a gymnasium in that college and built a school for girls in Arab- kir. So the mission is in a position of growing influence and strength. Unhappily the prospects of the Armenian nation are dark and gloomy. In the Eastern provinces, in the vilayets of Yan, Bitlis, Diarbekr and Erzerum the conditions are well- 160 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East nigh desperate. Kobbery and even open murder are of such common occurrence that they are hardly noticed. In remote villages the Armenians have no security of life or property. Kuthless taxation, aggravated by the extortion of the tax- gatherers, is the last straw. This provokes rebellion, the chief centre of which is in Yan. The revolutionaries are gaining more and more recruits. It is no wonder, then, that all who can, emigrate. The peasants flee in crowds across the bound- ary into Eussia, at the risk of their lives. Tradesmen of all kinds resort to the various seaports of Asia Minor. People who have been educated in the American schools like to emi- grate to the United States. This is a great drawback for the mission. From a single college forty-four theological students went thither, only four of them returning home for lasting service in Armenia. In some districts it is no longer possible to supply the schools with teachers nor the pulpits with min- isters. Generally speaking, it is the strong who emigrate, leaving the weak old men and children in all the greater dis- tress, women being compelled to struggle with the stony fields to produce food. The increasingly impoverished congregations can no longer raise the salaries for teachers and ministers. Thus the process of self-support is arrested. All this is further complicated by the fact that the Board finds it extremely dif- ficult to obtain sufficient means for its fast extending work. According to the statistics of 1908 there are in connection with the American Board twenty stations and 269 out-stations, forty-two ordained missionaries, twelve medical missionaries, and sixty-eight lady missionaries, ninety-two ordained, and 102 lay preachers, and 728 teachers. There are 130 fully or- ganized congregations, with 15,748 communicants and 41,802 adherents; eight colleges, forty-one boarding and high schools, 312 elementary and village schools, with altogether 20,861 pupils. In nearly all these items there is a falling off as compared with 1907, and there again as compared with 1906. The Swiss Aid Association was from the beginning so inti- mately connected with the Board that its work is really a part Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 161 of the Board's mission. The two German societies have main- tained their independence in a greater degree. The Lohmann Society, still active in orphanage work, has, with increasing interest, taken part with the Board in evangelistic work. In addition to its hospitals in Marash and Mesereh (Kharput), it has taken over in the latter districts, and in the neighbour- hood of Van, a part of the congregations and schools of the Board. The Lepsius Society, following the original plans of its founder, was transformed on the llth of May, 1900, into the German Orient Mission. It has medical missionaries and hospitals in Urfa and Diarbekr, also a missionary in Souch- bulak, a town in Northwestern Persia. The latter is to learu the language of the Kurds and to do literary work, including the translating of the New Testament, in order to be able to be- gin full missionary work among the Muhammadan Kurds. The society has obtained the service of Johannes Awetaranian, a remarkable convert from Islam. Johannes Awetaranian (v. "Joh. Awetaranian, Geschichte eines Mohammedaners, der Christ wurde" Berlin, 1905), orig- inally called, while still a Muhammadan, Muhammad Shukri, was born on the 30th of June, 1861, in Eastern Turkey, of fanat- ical Muhammadan parents, and was brought up in all the observ- ances of the strictest Islam by his father, a dervish of the Bek- tashi order. The reading of the Gospels wrought faith in him. He fled into Transcaucasia, and, after many disappointments, was baptized in Tiflis. By the help of Christian friends he received a good education in a mission house in Stockholm, after which he returned to Transcaucasia as a preacher. But he soon entered the service of the Swedish Evangelical Na- tional Society as a missionary to the Muhammadans in Kash- gar in Turkestan, where he spent five years in translating the New Testament into the classic Kashgar Turkish spoken there. His translation is now being printed. Keturning to Europe he joined the German Orient Mission, becoming by his wri- tings a zealous pioneer of the Muhammadan Mission in Bul- garia. We will here enumerate some smaller missions hitherto left 162 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East unmentioned. In 1844 a society called " The German Evan- gelical Benevolent Society " (" evangelisch-deutscher Wohltdtig- keitsverein ") was formed in Stamboul, at the recommendation of the chaplain of the Prussian embassy, the Kev. Mr. Major. In 1852 three Kaiserswerth deaconesses entered its service- When the sisters removed, in 1877, into the hospital built by the German government, their work increased. The number of deaconesses is, at present, seventeen. This hospital is open to people of every nationality ; it has about 1,500 in-patients a year. In 1853 the deaconesses, at the urgent request of well-to-do Protestants there, opened in Smyrna a higher girls' boarding-school. The boarding department, however, had to be given up in 1891, owing to the keen competition of the Greek Church and the Jesuits, the institution becoming merely a day-school. An orphanage in connection with it, originally intended for Levantine girls, did excellent work after the Armenian massacres, admitting 120 Armenian orphan girls. The Friends adopted a small medical mission, begun by Miss Burgess in 1881 for the Armenian population in Con- stantinople, two lady missionaries with two native assistants being secured. Connected with it are an orphanage, a day- school, and a needlework industry, to provide work for 250 poor Armenian women. A Miss "West also opened, in 1880, a Christian refuge and coffee-room. The American Disciples of Christ (Campbellites) began in 1879 a mission in Constantinople, which the American Board justly regarded as an intrusion into its own sphere. It was in the following years extended to many stations in Asia Minor and Northern Syria, the centres being Sivas (1882), Marsovan and Tokat (1883), Aintab, Marash, Albistan, Haleb and Antioch. But there were never many Americans in the mission and it has since been given up. In connection with a vigorous Protestant propaganda pro- moted by Bishop Gobat of Jerusalem in 1863, the Armenian Bishop Megerdich, of Aintab, joined the Anglican Church. He succeeded in attracting a good many members to his con- gregation, partly from the Gregorians and partly from the Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 163 strong and influential Protestant church of his town. This naturally caused some ill feeling. With the help of subscrip- tions from England a church building on a grand scale was begun, but was never finished. The Anglican congregation still exists, but has never become very influential. An Armenian who had left the Board, the Eev. H. Jenanyan, after having enjoyed a theological training in America, founded in 1888 a free mission in Cilicia, which was by prin- ciple independent of foreign management, though, unhappily, not of American money. It gradually adopted three stations, Tarsus (1888), Konia and Marash (1889). In these stations it maintains schools for boys and girls, and orphanages. Mesopotamia has been somewhat neglected by the Protes- tant Mission, being rather inaccessible and the conditions there being unfavourable. This ancient cradle of human cul- ture proves to-day, by the desolation of its plains and the gen- eral insecurity of life within its borders, the helplessness of the Turkish administration. Its three centres are Mosul, Bagdad and Basra, towns wrapped in the glamour of fairy tale. "We have already told (p. 116f.) how, between the years 1841 and 1860, Mosul was repeatedly occupied by the American Board to serve as a centre for work among the Mountain Syrians. After their final retirement, Protestant missions were not represented for thirty years in these headquarters of -the Eoman propaganda. In 1892 the American Presby- terians, who, in the meantime, had taken over the Nestorian Mission in Persia from the American Board, decided to re- occupy Mosul. But in spite of repeated attempts they did not succeed in coming into close touch with the independent Syrians of the wild mountains, on account of the intervening plain and hills where the Roman propaganda was in full force. They therefore handed over their station in 1900 to the Church Missionary Society, which was planning to estab- lish a second station in " Turkish Arabia," in addition to their first station, Bagdad. The chief work of the Church Mis- sionary Society here was the medical mission, for which a 164 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East hospital was opened. In addition they undertook educational work, in which, however, they were much hampered by the Turkish authorities. The success of the mission was so small that, in 1907, the home committee of the society, failing to obtain sufficient financial support, seriously thought of aban- doning the station. But it now became evident what real appreciation of the work existed among the suspicious and stolid Muhammadans, for an urgent and appreciative petition was sent to the London office. The work is accordingly to be continued for the present. In Bagdad in 1834, Antony Groves, a rich English dentist, together with several friends, began a mission among the Muhammadans, but did not long persevere in the work. Fifty years later the Church Missionary Society missionary, Dr. Bruce, at that time in Persia, drew attention to Bagdad and the holy places of the Persian Shiites, such as Nejef and Kerbela, and showed how effective preparatory work could be done for the isolated Persian Mission, if the numerous Persian pilgrims were provided with the Bible. The Church Missionary Society thereupon occupied Bagdad in 1882. But the pilgrims proved unapproachable and even hostile, so that the missionaries stationed in Bagdad turned to the native Turko- Arabian population, endeavouring to win their confi- dence by affording medical aid. The medical missionary Dr. H. M. Sutton was stationed there in 1886. But it is stony ground, and the prospect of a harvest is still small. 6. Protestant Missions Among the Greeks, the Bulgarians, and the Turks a) Missions among the Greeks. We have already men- tioned the work of the Church Missionary Society in Malta and Syra (p. 94ff.). In the years 1821 to 1829 occurred the romantic War of Independence by which Greece freed herself from Turkey. This unequal struggle was keenly watched by Europe and America, the victors being warmly applauded. It seemed as if the period of the Persian wars of olden times Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 165 had returned. It was hoped that the new Greece with all the freshness and vigour of youth would promote a regenera- tion of the East. To bring the Gospel to this virile nation appeared to be an undertaking full of promise for the Muham- madan East. Bright dreams were indulged in. Consequently much zealous work was undertaken by various Christian agencies. The American Board, which had occupied Smyrna in 1820, removed its headquarters, as did the Church Mis- sionary Society in 1822, to Malta, which seemed to be the most strategic starting-point for the work on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. Other stations were soon added, Athens in 1830, Argos and Cyprus in 1834, Scios in 1835, Ariopolis, near the ancient Sparta, in 1837. Other societies also appeared on the field. About 1830 Dr. Hill and Dr. Richardson came to Athens as representatives of the Episcopal Church of America, having been strictly enjoined, however, not to found a separate Protestant congregation. The American Baptists followed in 1836. But all these hopes were doomed to disappointment. The official Church of Greece would have nothing to do with the missions. No school could be opened without the permission of the govern- ment. No missionary could even be engaged as a private tutor in a family without official permission. The sale of books was subject to a very strict censorship. 1 In the schools the only religious book which might be used was the "orthodox" catechism, with its emphasis on the veneration of images and similar superstitious customs. The missionaries met with opposition everywhere. Even when they conducted their Sunday services in their own private houses, the ecclesiastical authorities often watched the houses so that no Greek could be present. Even where the ecclesiastical authorities were not so jealous and intolerant it became evident that the Greek nation was not ready to welcome the Gospel. The Orthodox ! The ecclesiastical authorities are so suspicions that the sale of the New Testament in modern Greek is forbidden throughout the Kingdom of Greece, which is thus the only country in the world in which the reading of the Bible in the mother-tongue is a criminal act ! 1 66 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East Greeks are so intoxicated with pride both in their national history and in their ecclesiastical tradition, that they have no taste for the Gospel as offered to them by American sects. Did they need to be taught by upstart Americans, they, in whose language Peter, Paul, and John had written (though a Greek of to-day can hardly understand the Greek of the New Testament), they, the Church of Athanasius, Chrysostom and John of Damascus ? This dislike of Protestantism was so great as to cause one society after the other to leave Greece. The American Board abandoned its stations, merely leaving the missionary, J. King, in Athens until his death in 1889. The American Episco- palians likewise abandoned theirs, when the able educationalist, Dr. Hill, died in 1882. The American Baptists left in 1856, returning in 1871, only to depart again in 1887. From 1875 to 1891 the Southern Presbyterians made an attempt, only to be disappointed too. At the present day there are but a few native Methodist and Baptist preachers at work, the best known among them being the Methodist pastor Kalopothakes, now in his eighty-seventh year. There are small Prot- estant congregations in Athens, Piraeus, Patras, Larissa and Jannina. More effective was the work which the missionaries of the American Board carried on among the Greeks in connection with their labours among the Armenians along the western and northern coasts of Asia Minor, and in connection with their labours among the Bulgarians. Here, in addition to their main undertaking, they extended a hearty welcome to such Greeks as showed a willingness to come and learn, the schools especially proving to be a great attraction. The result was that Greek-Protestant congregations were formed in Turkey, in Demirji in Bithynia (1855), and, later, in Smyrna, Ordu, Constantinople, Salonica and other places. The Board has never again organized an exclusively Greek work. In 1907 a conference was held in Constantinople, attended by representatives of Protestant Greek congregations, who met to devise means for forming a union between the widely Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 167 separated and diverse congregations. Four Protestant con- ference districts were formed, with Athens, Constantinople, Smyrna and Ordu (near Trebizond) as centres. The Greek Church, while jealously shutting itself against the influences of American Methodism or Congregationalism, has shown itself more ready than the other ancient Churches to respond to the renovating power of a new spiritual life working from within. Thus there were several revivals within the Church in the nineteenth century, partly of a sectarian character. Associations for the preaching of the Gospel have been formed in some places by laymen, the oldest and best known of which, the Eusebeia, was founded in Smyrna, in 1893, by Greeks who had received education and a stimulus to a more vigorous spiritual life in the schools of the American Board. This association has already 2,000 members, and possesses a fund of over 1,500. Similar associations have been founded in Constantinople, Patras, Athens and Leucosia in Cyprus. (b) Missions among ike Bulgarians. The attention of the friends of Protestant missions, like that of the world at large, was drawn to Bulgaria with its religiously and politically progressive people, at the time when the Bulgarian nation, numbering some four millions, rose in revolt against the tyrannous Greek hierarchy and the Turkish despotism. Bulgaria first succeeded in winning ecclesiastical autonomy, founding a Bulgarian exarchate, and then gained political independence, being recognized as an autonomous principality in consequence of the Eusso-Turkish war of 1877 and the subse- quent Berlin Congress in 1878. The American Board, feeling unable to undertake the work single-handed, invited the cooperation of the Methodist Episcopal Mission, which, at that time (1851), was seriously considering a new mission on the Balkan Peninsula. An agreement was made whereby the Methodists were to occupy the greater part of Bulgaria proper between the Balkan Mountains and the lower Danube and the American Board the vast region south and west of the mountains. In 1857 i68 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East each society founded its first station, the Board occupying Philippopolis, and the Methodists Shumla. Both of these missions underwent a similar development, and suffered, alas, similar disappointments. In the troublous times before 1870 great hopes were entertained that, desiring to be freed from the Greek hierarchy without falling into the hands of Rome, a large and influential portion of the Bul- garians would adopt Protestantism. This hope was quenched when, with Russia's help, the Bulgarian exarchate was es- tablished in 1880, all hitherto Greek bishoprics being filled by Bulgarians. Then, during the disturbances of 1870-1878, which resulted in the shaking off of the Turkish yoke that had been borne for 500 years, hope revived that real entrance to the people might be gained. This hope proved vain also. Finally, the hard-won constitution of 1878, which granted religious liberty, seemed to prepare at last a highway for Protestant missions. But the Exarch, uneasy about his own influence, managed to induce the government to adopt measures to prevent the growth of Protestantism, and, when- ever a door seemed to be opening to Protestant influences, Russia, with her strong anti-Protestant instincts, was always at hand to bar it again. During the last decade the hindrances have been aggravated by what is otherwise a pleasing fact, namely, the remarkable advance made by the Bulgarians in national education. The result of this was that the American schools, which had been the leading schools in Bulgaria, were thrust into the shade. The mission of the American Methodist Episcopal Church has always been conducted on a small scale owing to lack of funds (v. Reid-Gracey, " Methodist Episcopal Missions," Yol. Ill, pp. 200-272). Generally there have been but two mis- sionaries at any one time, and for years only one missionary of this Church, in Bulgaria. Short spurts of increased activity have alternated with long and serious deliberations as to whether the work should not be altogether abandoned. In the course of time three centres of work secured a compara- tively firm footing, a secondary school for boys at Sistova Protestant Missions in Turkey and Armenia 169 (serving as a training-school for a native ministry, closed un- happily in 1906) ; an advanced girls' school at Lof tcha (admin- istered by some lady workers of the Women's Board) ; and a printing-press in Kustchuk. The great opposition, the lack of a fixed mission policy, and the want of funds have combined to make the result small. There are 432 members of the Methodist churches, including nineteen on trial; nineteen primary schools, ten churches and chapels, and, altogether, 1,000 adherents. Neither the masses nor the leaders in church and state appear to be much influenced. With more far-sighted deliberation the American Board ex- tended its work not only in the independent Bulgarian terri- tories of Eastern Eumelia (Philippopolis in 1858) and Bulgaria (Samokow and Sofia in 1867), but also among the numerous Bulgarians who were languishing under Turkish rule in Macedonia (Salonica became a station of the Board in 1894), and in Albania (Monastir in 1873), everywhere, according to the wide scheme of its work, reaching out to the members of other Eastern Churches, especially Greeks and Armenians. In Macedonia, Thrace and Albania the Board's work was seriously crippled by the restless strivings of the unruly peo- ples there for independence. The Bulgarians hoped for an- nexation to the autonomous Principality of Bulgaria, the Greeks wished for incorporation in the Kingdom of Greece, the Albanians were trying to found an independent state, and the Servians were keen to enlarge their kingdom. All were of one accord in the ardent desire to shake off the despotic rule of Turkey, but, at the same time, they were in a deplor- able degree fanatical and ruthless antagonists of one another. And all were little more than pawns in the great international chess-play of the Oriental question, moved about by the great powers at their will. It was a chaos of revolution and in- trigues, rendered the more confused by the increasing number of bandits. An American missionary, Eev. W. W. Merriam, was murdered by the bandits on the 3d of July, 1862. Miss Ellen Stone was kept a prisoner from the 3d of September, 1901, till the 25th of February, 1902, and was set free only on 170 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East the payment of a ransom of T 15,000. The American Board has the credit of having provided a wholesome Protestant literature in the modern Bulgarian tongue. The translation of the Bible by Dr. Elias Riggs in 1891 has been referred to already. The same diligent author also prepared, amongst other books, a Bulgarian commentary of the New Testament. The Methodist missionary, Rev. Dr. Long, who was for many years a professor at the Robert College in Bebek, also en- gaged in this literary work. There was a printing-press, first in Constantinople, then, for a time, after Bulgaria became in- dependent, in Philippopolis and now in Samokow. The chief paper is the Zornitza (Morning Star), published at first in Constantinople and later in Philippopolis. It is a monthly Protestant magazine in the Bulgarian tongue, with a circula- tion of 1,300 ; but its existence is at present threatened by want of funds. The educational work of the Board has had its centre since 1872 in the " Collegiate and Theological In- stitute " in Samokow, which was formerly a pattern for the Bulgarian educational system, but has now been equalled or even excelled by the government schools. Though the American school finds it so difficult to compete with the national colleges, which are amply subsidized and privileged by the Ministry of Public Instruction, yet the Board main- tains its institution, because it seems indispensable for the building up of a strong native ministry and teaching staff, and as a counterpoise against the spirit of infidelity and irreligion prevailing in the public schools. The numerical results of the Board's work are but moderate. In addition to 1,408 com- municants there are 3,954 adherents, i. e., a total of 5,362 Bulgarians and Greeks in the European Turkey Mission. "Without connection with the Board, a Bulgarian Evangelical Society is working in Sofia. Another mission was maintained by the Southern Presbyterians in Salonica from 1874 to 1892, but has been abandoned. At the urgent request of the Albanians the Board has recently decided to found a station for them in Koritza. There are also some out-stations in Servia (e. who knew the country well and went to the Kunama, an almost entirely heathen tribe in Northwestern Abyssinia. Here, in the next few years, they established four stations, suffering much in the meantime from sickness and want, but receiving strong reinforcements from Sweden. Tendur was their chief station. But their position was rendered so unsafe by the boundary disputes between Egypt and Abyssinia, that they could not settle here permanently. Consequently, being also faithlessly forsaken by the Kunama themselves, they re- tired in 1870 to the Ked Sea port Massowa. There, in the tropical and unhealthful plain along the coast, they began, with indescribable patience, and constantly contending with disease and death, a work which proved to be both difficult and unremunerative. In Massowa an unpretending school was opened, which was attended exclusively by the children of the poor and of slaves. A hospital was built near the Egypt and Abyssinia 387 thermal springs of Ailet, a health resort of the country. In Monkullo, some six miles from Massowa, a boys' school was begun, in which it was hoped that evangelists might be edu- cated for inaccessible Abyssinia. A printing-press was also set up for the production of portions of the Bible and of Prot- estant literature. In spite of most heroic endeavours, they were not able to penetrate far into the interior of the country. A station which had been begun among the nominally Chris- tian Mensa, up in the mountains to the northwest of Massowa, had to be abandoned. A deputation which was sent to the Negus John, to ask his permission to settle in Abyssinia, was detained by him for two years, only in the end to get the curt reply that he did not want two kinds of Gospel in his country. Three of the natives who had been trained by the missionaries pushed straight across the country to the Galla in the province of Jimma, and commenced a work of evangelization, which has ever since been like " a light that shineth in a dark place." In the face of many disappointments, the brave Swedes con- tinued to send the message home, " Do not abandon Africa." With the year 1882 a new day dawned for this part of Africa. The Italians founded the colony of Eritrea on the shore of the Eed Sea, and, though their intention to subdue the whole of Abyssinia was frustrated by the bravery of the native army, and Eritrea was for ten years in a disturbed state while the war surged to and fro, yet finally order was restored under the Italian flag, and the Swedes were thus en- abled to push forward. By degrees they occupied four moun- tain districts, first of all the province of Hamasen to the west of Massowa, where, in 1891, 1892 and 1908, they established four stations, in Asmara, the capital of Italian Eritrea, and in the neighbouring towns, Bellesa, Zazega, and Adi-Ugri. In this neighbourhood the main part of the Swedish work is done. The inhabitants have for ages been members of the Monophysite Abyssinian Church. They have, perhaps, been even more neglected by the Church, and are consequently more ignorant than those living to the south, where the ancient monasteries, the seats of scholastic learning, are situated. 388 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East Originally it was as little the intention of the Swedes to proselytize, and to form congregations, as it was that of most of the other Protestant missions among the ancient Churches. Nevertheless, this has been rendered necessary by the opposi- tion and the persecuting spirit of the native ecclesiastical au- thorities. In 1907 the congregations contained 1,061 members, of whom 452 were communicants. In some villages, especially in Shuma Negus, the Gospel has become a power among the people. In connection with the Swedes there is a man, highly respected for his learning, at work further south in Amhara and Shoa, the central provinces of Abyssinia. This is Debra Mariam Tayeleny, a man of extraordinary parts, who has been successful in representing the claims of Protestantism before the Negus Menelik and the highest government and church authorities. In comparison with this " Abyssinian " mission, the so-called " Tigr'e " branch of the Swedish mission work is less prominent, embracing now, as it does, only outposts in the low-lying torrid plain of Massowa (especially at Monkullo) and at Geleb in the district of Mensa, where the inhabitants, a savage, stolid tribe of hardly 8,000 souls, are nominally Christian, but have been slowly yet surely falling away to Islam. The Swedes have also renewed their work in their first field among the Kunama tribe ; there they have established a station in Kulluko, and are engaged in building a second, in Auso Konoma. They have also translated the Gospels into the language of the country. But thus far no success can be reported. We have already mentioned that, through the recommenda- tion of Dr. Krapf, the Swedes originally intended their mission to be for the benefit of the Galla. The people of this Hamitic race, scattered over a large portion of Africa, are well grown men of a warlike disposition, apparently also of mental talent, and are not without political unity, though split up into numerous nomadic hordes. Some of them in the north have, under Abyssinian influence, embraced Christianity, though a far larger number have been converted to Islam. The tribes Egypt and Abyssinia 389 in the south and southwest have so strong a strain of negro blood, through intermarriage, that they are gradually taking on negro characteristics. There are, perhaps, three and a half million of them altogether. With their northern tenacity the Swedes kept their eyes upon this people. The first despatch of three native evangelists and their operations in Jimma, a southern province of Abyssinia, have been already mentioned. The first advance, the journey of the missionary Arrhenius and his caravan, by way of Khartum, up the Blue Nile to Famaka, on the border of Egypt, in 1882, was a failure, owing to the treachery of Marno, the Austrian consul in Famaka, who led'the missionaries and the natives astray by giving them wrong information, so that nearly half of a caravan company died in the fatal climate. In 1885 the Kev. N. Hylander made another attempt, taking the new road that runs along the coast from Zeile (Sela) to Harar. But he, too, had to leave the country after a stay of twenty months, presumably owing to Romish intrigues. It is only since the beginning of the twentieth century that two really passable roads appear to have been opened. The Rev. K. Cederquist has, with the help of the intelligent Ras Makonnen, settled down in Adis Abeba, whence he makes evangelistic tours among Abyssinians and Galla. He has as assistant a converted Galla, named Ones- imus, whose sphere of work is inland at Nakamte. He is one of the mostSremarkable men in the history of the Swedish Mis- sion. A Galla boy of good family, he was kidnapped, passed from hand to hand as a slave, and came at last to Massowa, where he became acquainted with the Swedish missionaries. From them he received instruction, and was their first convert, being baptized in 1872. As the youth showed talent, the mis- sionaries paid great attention to his education, finally sending him to Sweden. He became, along with Tayeleny, the most valuable assistant the missionaries had, either as a teacher in their schools or as a language expert in the work of transla- ting into the Galla tongue. "With his help the whole of the New Testament was thus translated. Latterly he has been doing pioneer work among his own tribe, in which, however, 390 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East he meets with much opposition and animosity on the part of the Abyssinian priesthood. After the English had occupied the Somali Coast, the Swedes approached the Galla up the Juba. Their main station is at Kismayu on the coast, while out-stations have been established in Yonti and Mofi further up the stream. But the work has been much hindered by the disturbed state of the country, caused by the predatory attacks of hordes of Somali and Galla, among whom Islam has been making great prog- ress. Latterly, also, there has arisen a Mahdi, the "Mad Mollah." Some of the English officials, too, have opposed the work of the missionaries. Still, there have been a few bap- tisms. The Swedes have not been so fortunate as their pred- ecessors in getting into the country and gaining the hearts of the inhabitants. They have only touched the fringe of both the Abyssinian and the Galla population. In Abyssinia the door was shut by the influence of the ambitious Roman Catholic missionaries, and by the determination of the kings to maintain Abyssinian independence at all costs. And Dr. Krapf s expectation that the Galla would offer a promising field for mission work was not fulfilled, in spite of all the labour bestowed upon them by the Swedes. The work was thus a hard training in patience, a long sowing in hope of a harvest. Yet the Swedes remained at their post, while earlier missions were swept out of the country by political unrest and religious intrigue. VII MISSIONS AMONG THE JEWS. THE WORK OF THE BIBLE SOCIETIES THUS far two Protestant undertakings that have covered the entire field in the Near East have been left almost unnoticed, missions among the Jews and the work of the Bible societies. It seemed best to present these undertakings in a general review, rather than in connec- tion with the individual countries. (A) Missions Among the Jews As a rule missions among Jews and missions among Gentiles pursue diverse paths. They differ so widely in their methods of work, in the training which members of the mission must receive, and in the immediate ends at which they aim, that it is impossible to unite the two kinds of mission work in one place and in the hands of the same people. The Near East seemed to be an exception to this rule. Here, where the chosen peo- ple were so thoroughly scattered among the native popula- tion, with which the missions were primarily concerned, it seemed possible to bring them the message of the Gospel through the same agencies through which it was brought to the Gentiles. Several of the great societies, according^, in addition to their main undertaking, carried on work among the Jews, especially the American Board, the United Presby- terians in Egypt, and the Irish Presbyterians in Damascus. Kemarkable to say, the combination has proved to be quite impracticable. Apart from the limited operations of the Irish in Damascus, mission work among the Jews has been handed over to special Jewish missionary societies. Thus there is the strange spectacle of different missionary organizations work- ing side by side in the Near East, some for Jews, some for Gentiles. J 391 392 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East It is hard to say how many Jews there are in the Near East. It is computed that there are 110,000 of them in Euro- pean Turkey, the majority of whom live in Constantinople and Salonica. For, when Ferdinand of Castile drove the Jews from Spain in 1492, and when the Jews were exiled from Portugal in 1497, the greater part of them fled to Con- stantinople, and settled there or in the neighbourhood. They still retain, in common use, the Spanish language of the fif- teenth century, strongly intermixed with Hebrew idioms. They go by the name of Sephardim. In Asia Minor and Ar- menia there are probably not more than 100,000 Jews, the largest colony of them being in Smyrna. In Syria there are said to be from fifty to seventy thousand Jews, mostly in Beirut and Damascus. In Palestine they themselves compute their number as 87,000. The official census of Egypt in 1897 gave 25,200 Jews in that country. The estimated number of Falasha in Abyssinia is 200,000 ; this figure is too high. Bag- dad contains a Jewish colony numbering from eight to ten thousand. In Persia there are Jewish colonies, especially in Hamadan and its neighbourhood, and also in Teheran and Tabriz, numbering altogether SOjOOO. 1 Here they have been cruelly persecuted from the earliest times to the present day. According to the Annuaire des archives Israelites (1892), not more than 310,000 Jews live in Asia. Only in Palestine are the Jews to-day occupied in farming and fruit-raising, whether in ancient Jewish centres like Safed, or in the modern Jewish colonies. Elsewhere they mostly live huddled together in narrow filthy Ghettos, and, although the majority of them are in an ignorant, superstitious and poverty-stricken condition, certain of their number have ever by their commercial cleverness and by usury amassed princely fortunes. The Sephardim from Spain and Portugal form the main stock of Jews in the Near East, their language being a corruption of Hebrew-Spanish. Yet, particularly since the middle of the nineteenth century, an ever-increasing number 1 Formerly only 20,000. Of. De le Roi, " Geschichte der Judenmisiion, " Vol. Ill, p. 208. On the other hand, of. " The Bible in the World," 1905, p. 299. Missions Among the Jews 393 of the Ashkenazim from Poland and Southern Kussia have been immigrating, so that they now number more than the Spanish Jews. Their language is mostly Yiddish. On ac- count of their poverty and their filthy habits they are looked down upon as plebeian by the Sephardim, who regard them- selves as patricians. "Within the last twenty years there has also been a considerable immigration of Jews from other European countries, particularly from Germany, thus adding to the patchwork character of Jewish language and habits in the Near East. According to the general practice of the Turkish Empire, the Jews, as a distinct religious body, are al- lowed to manage their own concerns. They elect from amongst their number two superiors, the khakhams, one of whom is chosen from the foremost rabbis in Constantinople, the other from the chief rabbis in Jerusalem. This patriarchal organization, mostly under orthodox Tal- mudic rule, has been a great obstacle to the work of the mis- sions. It placed in the hands of these authorities, sanctioned by the state, far-reaching powers, which were ID considerately employed'to suppress Christianity and all inclination to listen to the missionaries. As such persecution was made the easier by fanatical public opinion, those of the same household being often the foremost in casting out and ill using converts, and the latter being deprived of the means of existence by a strict boycott, missions among the Jews in the Near East have gen- erally involved suffering. A further hindrance was the fact that by far the greater number of converts had to leave their homes, and thus the formation of congregations was almost impossible. Then again, since, in many cases, the Jewish missionary societies did not sufficiently exert themselves, in the face of undoubtedly great difficulties, to amalgamate their little bands of Jewish converts with the larger Protestant congregations, these tiny companies took no root. On the other hand, there was danger that the mission should become to the Jews, who were for the most part poor, a mere oppor- tunity for gain, since joining the Christian Church was likely to secure to the converts an easy life, and to their children, 394 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East who were eager to be educated, high and lucrative positions ; for the missionaries, with their societies behind them, obviously had it in their power to be exceedingly rich benefactors. Methods of conducting missions among the Jews do not vary greatly throughout the Near East. The first preparatory step is the distribution of Christian literature in the dialects spoken by Jews from Spain, Poland and Germany. The Old and New Testaments, which have been repeatedly translated and revised, occupy the first place. Of the books specially written for these missions, McCaul's " True Israelite " deserves to be particularly mentioned. Then, in order to gain the con- fidence and affection of the suspicious and proud Jews, medi- cal mission work was soon commenced among them. There are now hospitals and dispensaries, chiefly in Palestine, but also in the large towns of Asia Minor and European Turkey, which are meant in the first instance for Jews. The third preparatory method, that of establishing schools, was every- where difficult, and demanded much patience on the part of the missionaries. If the Jews were otherwise taught at all, it was only the Talmud and a little reading and writing. They had such a dislike for regular schools that, as late as 1881, an attempt made by the " Israelite Alliance " to establish in Jerusalem a school along modern lines altogether failed. For this reason the missionaries, especially those from Scotland, hit [upon the plan of admitting Christian children into their schools, in order, for one thing, thus to insure the further ex- istence of the schools, and, further, to arouse a spirit of emu- lation in the apathetic Jewish children. The missions of the Established Church of Scotland have a boys' school and a girls' school in Alexandria, the former having 103 Jewish boys in a total attendance of 260, and the latter 167 Jewish girls out of 233. These mixed schools have done well. The main object of all the missions is to win individual Jews, to succeed in which object optimism and wise reserve are equally necessary, and one must be " wise as serpents and harmless as doves." The more the national factor can be eliminated, the better. Certainly Jewish missions must have Missions Among the Jews the hope set before them of a Christian Israel, but any tribute paid to the deep-rooted Jewish pride of race and religion is attended by evil results. Whenever there has been any co- quetting with national ideals, mischief has come of it, even when it was done by so ardent a progressive as the convert Z. H. Friedlaender, in the Holy Land from 1873 to 1886. De le Eoi says, in his " Geschichte der evangelischen Juden- mission," Yol. Ill, p. 193, that the object of such missions must be, and remain, the leading of individuals to Jesus. If more is attempted, neither the one thing nor the other is at- tained. Subsidiary to the main undertaking there are other agencies at work, especially of an industrial nature, partly in order to enable the converts, who have lost all by their change of re- ligion, to earn a living by honest labour, and partly to accus- tom those who had up to that time lived by begging to earn their own bread in the sweat of their brow. The best organ- ized and most successful of such institutions is the Industrial Home in Jerusalem, upon which Miss Jane Cook of Chelten- ham bestowed 700 for the purchase of a site, 10,000 for the buildings and 2,000 for the maintenance of the workers. This is presumably the largest single gift Jewish missions in the Near East have received. Unfortunately there has been little success in training converts to be catechists, not one of the societies having among their converts students enough to maintain a training-school, apart from the difficulty arising from the variety of dialects spoken by the people. Nor have the missions thus far combined in a common undertaking of the kind. The London Jewish Mission opened a " Mission College " for this purpose in Jerusalem about the middle of the nineteenth century, but was not able to maintain it. The main stations in Turkey in Europe l are Constantinople and Salonica. In the former place the American Board laboured from 1831 to 1855, in addition to its extensive work 1 We omit all mention of a considerable number of unsnccessf ul attempts. It is well known that failure and disappointment have been but too common in connection with work among Jews in the Near East. 396 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East among the Armenians. In 1842 the energetic mission of the Free Church in Scotland began to work there, conducting, in addition to its two schools, attended by 500 pupils, two-thirds of whom are girls, a mission hospital and a home for destitute girls. Their work took an upward bound in 1873, when, un- der an energetic missionary, the Kev. A. Tomory, large, new premises were occupied. Special excitement was aroused by the conversion of Eliezer Bassin, one of the most striking conversions of the present day. Burning with zeal for his Talmudic theology, he had set out from his home in Mohilev in Kussia, in order to argue with the Christian converts in Con- stantinople, and to lead them back to the faith of their fathers. But D. Landsmann, one of the converts, had the better of the encounter, and, after long and vigorous disputations, con- vinced him of the truth of Christianity. Since 1859 the Established Church of Scotland, like the Free Church, has had a flourishing girls' school and a medical mission among the Jews of Constantinople. The work of the Established Church there began when the American Board, upon abandoning its work among the Jews, requested this Church to take it up. The great London Jewish Society also had work in Constanti- nople intermittently, beginning in 1826, and has maintained its work there permanently since 1851. It has had effective agents, especially in the converts, C. S. Newman (1856-1881) and J. B. Creighton-Ginsberg (since 1885). The former dis- tinguished himself by his careful attention to the Jewish schools, and perhaps still more by his conduct of some difficult legal matters, thus securing the legal status of the converts and checking the arbitrary actions of the rabbis. Whether it is wise for three societies to work in so limited a field is doubtful. It may be added that Ginsberg, in 1899, knew of only forty-five converts in the three societies together. Wilhelm Gottlieb Schauffler was by far the most important missionary among the Jews in Constantinople, in fact one of the most distinguished missionaries in the Near East generally. Born on the 28th of August, 1798, in Stuttgart, he emigrated as a child with his father to Odessa. After a defective edu- Missions Among the Jews 397 cation, but with an extraordinary gift for acquiring languages, he became acquainted in Smyrna with the American Board missionary, Jonas King, who induced him to enter the re- nowned Andover Theological Seminary in the United States, where, in a five years' stay, characterized by indefatigable in- dustry, he acquired a thorough theological and linguistic training. In 1831 the American Board sent him to Constanti- nople as a missionary to the Jews of the Balkan Peninsula, and there, amid many privations, he did a great work among the Sephardim, his activity extending to Vienna, Buda-Pest, and Odessa. He so thoroughly mastered Spanish and Spanish- Hebrew that, up to the time of his death, he wrote indefati- gably in both of those languages. At the time when the Board abandoned its Jewish mission in 1885, it seemed as if "a great door and effectual" was being opened for work among the Turks in connection with the Crimean War, which was then raging, and Schauffler, at his own request, was ap- pointed leader of a Turkish mission in Constantinople, which was carried on independently of the Armenian Mission. But when, to Schauffler's great sorrow, the Turkish Mission was also given up a few years later, he left the service of the American Board and devoted himself, in connection with the British and American Bible Societies, to linguistic labours, one of the chief of which was an important translation of the Bible into classical (Osmanli) Turkish which, however, on ac- count of its elevated literary style, was only partially pub- lished. The results of his studies were so highly appreciated that the University of Halle conferred the title of D. D. upon him. After a service of fifty years in Constantinople, he re- tired from the work and made New York his home, dying there on the 26th of January, 1883, at the age of eighty-four. In Salonica, where, according to the report of the National Bible Society of Scotland for 1907, there is a colony of 80,000 Jews, the Established Church of Scotland has the chief work, having entered upon this difficult field in 1866. Its activity extends as far as Monastir and Cassandra, which are sub- stations of the mission. There is a small Protestant congre- 398 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East gation in Salonica, and a flourishing girls' school. Adrianople is a station of the London Jewish Society. There is only one fully manned station for work among the Jews in Asia Minor, namely, Smyrna ; and here the Estab- lished Church of Scotland and the London Jewish Mission work side by side. The former began work in 1856 ; the lat- ter came in 1829, and, after some interruptions, has been steadily and permanently at work since 1860. At the head of the Scottish Mission was Abraham Ben Oliel, a talented but unstable man, who has been in the service of the most diverse societies. Flourishing schools and a hospital are the backbone of the Scottish work. The chief missionary of the London Jewish Mission in Smyrna was J. M. Eppstein (1866-1885), a faithful man, who by his medical skill found entrance among the people. In Syria, exclusive of Palestine, 1 there are only two centres of work among the Jews which deserve special mention. The Jewish Mission of the Established Church of Scotland occupied Beirut conjointly with the Presbyterian Church of Canada, in 1862, and there flourishing schools have been es- tablished. In Damascus the Irish Presbyterians devote them- selves to the Jews, in addition to their work among Oriental Christians, but do not seem to have met with much success. Here, too, the London Jewish Mission has been working since 1869, with great persistency, yet with little success, since the few converts cannot remain in Damascus. The only place in Egypt that has any importance for an ac- count of Jewish missions is Alexandria, with its more than 10,000 Jews. The first society in this field was the Glasgow Scottish Mission to the Jews. They recalled their medical missionary, Dr. Philip, in 1857, and the Established Church of Scotland took over the work in 1858. It was fortunate for them that the Viceroy Said, who was a generous friend of mission work, presented them in 1861 with a large site, on which they were able to erect mission buildings. There, as 1 For an account of missionary work among the Jews of Palestine, see Chap. IV, B. Missions Among the Jews 399 in other stations of the Established Church of Scotland, the main part of the work lies in the schools, in which as many Christian children as possible are gathered in addition to Jewish children. Cairo was a station of the London Jewish Society from 184:7 to 1867, and Alexandria from 1871 to 1874. But both these stations have been since then abandoned. Among the eight or ten thousand Jews in Bagdad, some of whom are the richest merchants of this ancient city of the khalifs, the London Jewish Society laboured from 1844 to 1866. But it neither succeeded in finding maintenance for its few converts, nor in laying the foundation of a strong Protestant congregation. And as cooperation with other existing churches was found to be impossible, the thankless task was abandoned. In Persia the missionaries of the London Jewish Society, starting from Bagdad, made missionary tours, especially to Hamad an, distributing Bibles and Protestant literature. Sur- prising success attended this work. In 1875 Ezekiel Khayim, the son of one of the richest and most respected Jews, and the physician Dr. Aghajan came to the knowledge of Jesus as the promised Messiah by reading the Bible. A small but select company of like-minded men joined them. The cruel perse- cutions which they suffered at the hands of the Jews only made them cleave the faster to their faith. After some of them had been baptized in 1878 by American missionaries, who itinerated in that region, the London Jewish Society sent them a missionary, J. Lotka, in 1881. But the persecutions were so violent that Lotka thought it prudent to leave the country in 1884:. At this juncture the Persian Jew Nurallah, who had taken a theological education in London, with a view to becoming a preacher among his own people, was commis- sioned to care for the small but faithful company of converts. The American missionaries who had maintained a station in Hamadan since 1881, also faithfully looked after the converts who were hungering for the truth, building them a Christian synagogue, opening a school for Jewish girls, and receiving the converts into their community. With the tenacity 400 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East peculiar to orientals, who hold fast to the traditional script, though they have forgotten the ancient language itself, the Persian Jews read the Persian language written in Hebrew characters. The British and Foreign Bible Society has there- fore specially prepared for them an edition of the Bible in Persian, but in Hebrew type. The Jewish colonies in other Persian towns, such as Teheran, Urumiah and Souchbulak, have also been cared for, chiefly by the American Presbyterian Mission and the London Jewish Society. The favourite plan has been to establish schools for Jewish children, in spite of the opposition offered by the Persian authorities. Conver- sions have been few, and are always accompanied by much persecution (Missionary Review, 1895, pp. 837 ff.). (B) The WorJc of the Bible Societies (1) Translations of the Bible. We have already several times referred to translations of the Bible into the native languages of the Near East, undertaken by the various mis- sionary societies. But this work is of such importance that it deserves to be considered in detail. It forms a bright chapter in the history of Protestant missions. Not one of these Oriental Churches possessed a Bible in the generally under- stood language of the country, and yet it was absolutely necessary that such Bibles should be provided, if the people were to be religiously enlightened. Protestant missions have made the Word of God accessible to the common people. An impartial criticism of Christianity was rendered very difficult to a Muhammadan on account of the century-long contempt with which he had proudly looked down upon Christians. The first step in mission work among Muhammadans was, therefore, to find a common meeting-ground for both religions. On the authority of the Koran, Moslems are compelled to recognize the Bible as the Word of God. For this reason the pioneer missionary work among Muhammadans consists in the distribution of the Bible and in an introduction to its study. Jews, it has been found, can be convinced that Jesus was the Messiah only by proving from the Old Testament that this is Missions Among the Jews 401 true. And only by diligent searching of the Scriptures can this conviction be gained. Thus the translation of the Bible is in a special way throughout the Near East the foundation of missionary work among Oriental Christians, Muhammadans and Jews alike. "We will review (a) translations of the Bible into Muhammadan languages, and (b) translations into the languages of the Oriental Churches. (a) Translations into Muhammadan languages. Three languages are here involved, Turkish, Arabic and Persian, In Turkish the predominant dialect is Osmanli Turkish. Into this dialect a great part of the Bible was translated by a court official, Ali Bey, a Polish renegade, during the reign of Sultan Muhammad IY, 1648-1687. The manuscript lay, however, in the Leyden library until it was at length printed in 1819 in a completed, revised and considerably improved form. Yet it was still of too elementary and faulty a character to be even moderately useful. The talented linguist, Dr. W. G. Schauf- fler, accordingly undertook the difficult task of producing an entirely new translation, which was printed in parts in New York between the years 1867 and 1873. But even this trans- lation did not fully come up to expectation, because it was written in classical Turkish and was therefore unintelligible to the common people. Consequently there have since been two revision committees, which met in 1878 and 1887, consist- ing chiefly of Dr. Eiggs, Herrick, "Weakley and H. O. Dwight, with a native linguist, for the purpose of perfecting and even, in some parts, rewriting Schauffler's translation. These re- vised editions are excellent. Osmanli Turkish has spread so far that in Asia Minor it has to some extent taken the place of Greek in the Orthodox Church, and of Armenian in the Gregorian Church; and mixed dialects, Graeco-Turkish and Armeno-Turkish have been formed, which are, however, writ- ten respectively in Greek and Armenian characters, and not in the Arabic characters of Osmanli Turkish. The missions have adopted both these dialects. The New Testament was translated into Armeno- Turkish in 1815 by two learned Ar- menians, and the translation was printed in 1819 in St. Peters- 402 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East burg. It was subjected to a revision by the Kev. H. D. Leeves of the British and Foreign Bible Society. But as it was not yet adequate, Dr. Goodell made a completely new translation of the whole Bible, the New Testament being published in 1831 and the Old Testament in 1841. Thoroughly revised versions of this translation appeared in 1858 and 1863. William Goodell (1792-1867) was one of the industrious missionaries of the American Board, whose translations of the Bible deserve great praise. In 1823, during the turmoil of the Greek "War of Liberation, he was sent to Beirut, where he at once devoted himself to the study of the Armeno-Turkish dialect. He was removed to Constantinople in 1831 to enter the Armenian Mission, which had just been begun, and in this mission he remained thirty-four years until 1865, that critical period in the history of the mission. 1 The British and Foreign Bible Society published the New- Testament in Greece- Turkish in 1865, the translation being subsequently revised by one of the society's missionaries, the Kev. H. D. Leeves. The next step was to rewrite and re- print Goodell's Armeno-Turkish translation in Greek letters. But as even this did not prove satisfactory, the society com- missioned the two natives, Rev. G. Casakos and Rev. A. Asadurian, to prepare what was to be practically a totally new translation (1884). But during all this work of revision, the conviction dawned upon the missionaries that, since all the three dialects are fundamentally very closely related to one another, it ought to be possible to produce one common translation, though printed in the three different types, Arabic, Greek and Armenian. With this in view a new re- vision committee sat from 1883 to 1887, and its labours seem to have been successful. This example, however, shows to what expenditure of labour and money the British and Ameri- can Bible Societies, in combination with the various mission- ary societies, went, in order to produce as perfect as possible a translation into an important language. 1 " Memoirs of Rev. Wm. Goodell, D. D.," by Ed. G. Prime, D. D., 8th ed., Boston, 1891. Missions Among the Jews 403 Another dialect of the Turkish language is spoken in Trans- caucasia, which, as it is mostly used in Azerbaijan in North- western Persia, is called Azerbaijani. A translation of the New Testament into this language, made by the Basle mis- sionaries, Zaremba and Pfander, with the help of their faith- ful assistant, Mirza Farukh, continued to be printed either in part or entire until 1875. Mirza Farukh himself later made another translation of almost the entire Bible, but the manu- script lay neglected till his son, Abraham Amirkhanyanz, found it forty years later, completed it, and, with the help of the British Bible Society, published it in 1878. Meanwhile Dr. Benjamin Labaree had begun an independent translation. After Dr. Labaree had published several books of the Bible in his translation, they wisely agreed to unite forces. Their translation was completed and printed in 1893. One of the Gospels of this translation is even printed in Hebrew type for the Jews living in the province. It does not lie within the scope of this book to give a detailed account of translations into the Turkish dialects of Kashgar, Dsagatai, Kirghiz, Kumuk, Usbeg and Yakut. Translations of the Gospels and of the Pentateuch into Persian had come down from the Middle Ages, but they were very defective. Early in the nineteenth century various Anglo-Indians made attempts at the translation of the Bible into that language, because of its importance for Northern India; among these attempts may be mentioned those of Colonel Colebrooke in 1804, and of Kev. L. Sebastiani in 1812. Then Henry Martyn set himself to the important task. His first hasty translation of the New Testament satisfied him so ill that he went to Shiraz in 1811, and there, with the help of Persian scholars, produced a translation which was repeatedly printed, in Calcutta and St. Petersburg (1816), in London (1837), and in Edinburgh (1847). To complete this work, the Old Testament was translated by the Scottish missionary, Dr. William Glen in Astrakhan (1826), and, independently, by Archdeacon Eobinson, in Calcutta. Both these transla- tions were printed, but they stood in sore need of revision. 404 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East So Dr. R. Bruce, a missionary of the Church Missionary So- ciety, and a man of great linguistic talent, undertook a thor- ough revision of the entire Bible in Persian, beginning this work in 1871. The new edition was printed under his direc- tion, in Leipsic, in 1895, at the cost of the British Bible Society. More important for the world of Islam than either Turkish or Persian is Arabic, the language of the Koran, and of Moslem culture and learning, upon which, accordingly, a cor- responding measure of devoted toil has been expended. The translation made by John of Seville (750), and the translations printed in Rome in the years 1591 and 1671, were imperfect, at times painfully literal, translations from the Yulgate. The earliest Protestant translations were the translation made by Erpenius in Leyden in 1616, the translation which appeared in Walton's Polyglot Bible in 1657, and the translation of Pro- fessor Lee, the linguist of the Church Missionary Society. These translations were still faulty, yet, in the absence of a better, they were repeatedly published. At last, however, two highly talented American missionaries in Beirut, Dr. Eli Smith (died llth of January, 1857), and Dr. C. V. A. Yan Dyck, made it one of the chief undertakings of their lives to produce a standard Arabic translation of the Bible. The New Testa- ment appeared in 1860, the Old in 1864, and the entire Bible in 1865. Even after this Dr. Yan Dyck never grew weary of improving and polishing the translation. It is regarded as a classical work, and has superseded all other translations, at least in the Protestant world. It is issued in thirty-seven different forms by the American and the British Bible Societies. Parts of it are printed in Syrian letters (Karshun), and in Hebrew letters for the Jews. Even an edition for the blind is published, the Old Testament in the Moon script, the New in Braille. The language of the Kurds is of less importance compared with the chief Moslem languages, yet a translation of the Bible is more difficult, both because the language is split up into many dialects and because the Kurds, for want of a script of their own, use Arabic characters in some districts and Missions Among the Jews 405 Armenian in others. In 1827 Shevris, the Armenian bishop in Tabriz, translated a portion of the Bible into Hakkiari, a dialect of the Kurdish, and the Basle missionaries of Shusha revised the translation. Yet it was not widely intelligible. Since then three different parties have undertaken transla- tions, the American Board, through Dr. Andrus and Dr. Barton of Mardin, in Armenian characters, while the Anglican missionary, St. Glair Tisdall of Ispahan, and the German missionary, Pastor Detlev von Oertzen in Souchbulak, have made independent translations in Arabic characters. Some of the books of the Bible have appeared in all three of these translations. It is, however, desirable that these three parties should combine their efforts. ( I) The Oriental Churches were first provided by the Prot- estant missions with Bibles in their own ancient sacred lan- guages. Even in the Churches Bibles had been scarce, since they had to be laboriously copied by hand, and consequently private persons and even some of the priests could hardly afford to acquire copies. Therefore a large issue in print was required. Theologians and philologists have given much assistance in the work, a share of the cost being borne by the Bible societies. Thus editions in Ancient Armenian appeared in 1817 in Calcutta and St. Petersburg ; the British and Foreign Bible Society published a large edition of the New Testament and Psalms ; and the American Bible Society printed in 1838 the en- tire Bible, which was subsequently thoroughly revised by a com- mittee of experts (1896). A Koptic edition of the New Testa- ment was published in 1847 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, after the British and Foreign Bible Society had printed the Gospels in 1829. In Ethiopian (the ancient Geez) the British and Foreign Bible Society issued the New Testament in 1830, and there has lately appeared a revised edition, done under the supervision of Professor Praetorius of Halle. Of far greater importance are the endeavours of the missions to supply these Churches with the Bible in the living languages, understood by the common people. This has been an integral 406 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East part, to some extent even the basis, of their work of evangeli- zation. In Modern Armenian Dr. Zohrab of Constantinople, himself an Armenian, made a beginning with a useful transla- tion of the New Testament, which was published first in 1825 and has been repeatedly revised by the American missionaries since, the British and Foreign Bible Society doing the print- ing. The translation of the Old Testament was begun in 184:0 by Dr. Elias Riggs, with the assistance of his colleague, Adger, at first. The complete Bible appeared in 1852. Up to his death Riggs continued to improve his work, which is con- sidered by experts to be an excellent translation ; the Bible societies of America and Great Britain have combined to publish it. " Ararat Armenian " is a dialect which varies considerably from the other, and is spoken in Russian Caucasia and Northern Persia. Into it the Basle missionaries, especially A. H. Diettrich, translated the New Testament in 1834, the translation being repeatedly issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society until 1879, when it was thoroughly revised by Abraham Amirkhanyanz, who translated also the Old Testa- ment. The complete Bible appeared in this dialect in 1882, the British and Foreign Bible Society publishing it in Con- stantinople. The highest praise is due to the American missionary, Dr. Justin Perkins, for devoting many years of his life to produc- ing a useful translation of the Bible into Modern Syriac. The first edition of the New Testament appeared in 1846, to be fol- lowed by the Old Testament in 1852, both editions having the Ancient Syriac and the Modern Syriac in columns side by side, though later editions contained only the latter. After Perkins' death, Dr. Labaree undertook a diligent and thorough revi- sion. "While the Urumiah dialect had been the basis of former translations, Dr. Labaree borrowed from the purer and more widely used dialects of the mountains, making use of the help of educated Syrians such as Professor Yoshana and Professor Baba. This new translation appeared in an attractive edition in New York, in 1893. Great difficulties were connected with the production of a Missions Among the Jews 407 Bulgarian version, since there are so many dialects, the chief of which are Western and Eastern Bulgarian. Under the auspices of the British and Foreign Bible Society many at- tempts were made between the years 1820 and 1858, and the Society published parts of translations made by the Bulgarian clergyman Theodosius in 1822, by Sapunoff in 1827, by Barker of Smyrna in 1836-1840, and by Photinoff in 1858. The linguistic difficulties were only overcome when the talented American missionary, Elias Biggs, in collaboration with Dr. A. Long of the Methodist Episcopal Mission, succeeded in forming a A modern Bulgarian language which proved intelli- gible to and popular with the whole nation. This translation was used from 1859 to 1864, when it was revised, Riggs him- self working at it until the hour of his death on the 17th of January, 1901. It has supplanted all the other translations, and is considered an excellent piece of work. The Albanian language has also two essentially different dialects, the Northern or GJieg and the Southern or Tosfc. Although Protestant missionaries did not begin to work here till late, and have made little headway among this ancient Christian people, yet the British and Foreign Bible Society began in 1819 to make great and continued exertions to produce the New Testament in both these dialects, entrusting the work of translation to native Albanians under the super- vision of their representative in Constantinople. The work of printing was rendered difficult in this case also by the confu- sion of alphabets. At length it was decided to use Roman characters throughout. Translations of the New Testament into the Southern dialect appeared in 1825 and 1827, by Evangelos Mexicos, in 1879, by Chris toforides, and, later, by Gerasius Kyrios ; and into the Northern dialect since 1866 in Constantinople. For the Spanish Jews of the Near East there already ex- isted a useful translation of the Bible, the so-called Ferrara Bible, which was published repeatedly in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, whole or in parts. The revision of this version is the meritorious work of Dr. W. G. Schauffler of the 408 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East American Board and the Scottish missionaries, Dr. J. Christie and Rev. D. B. Spence. Of the living languages of Abyssinia the first used in Bible translation was the widely spread Amharic, much of the Bible having been translated into this tongue by the monk Abu Euchi. His work was continued by the missionaries Isenberg and Kugler, the whole being revised by Dr. Krapf, and issued from 1844 to 1879, at the expense of the Bible Society. A second edition, revised by Dr. Krapf, M. Flad and J. Meyer, was printed in the St. Chrischona Mission House in 1888. A translation of the four Gospels into Tigre, one of the Northern dialects (the other being called Tigrina) was made by Isenberg, Kugler and Dr. Krapf (published in 1865), and the Gospel ac- cording to St. Mark was translated by Swedish missionaries in Monkullo. The New Testament was translated into Tigrina by Swedish missionaries, especially the physician Dr. Winquist. This work is being gradually published by the Swedish Mis- sion Press in Asmara. Some of the Gospels have been trans- lated into other dialects of the country, into Bogos (Bilin), into the Falasha dialect of the Agau (Professor Rheinish of Vienna), into Kunamcb (the Swedish missionaries). There are also a goodly number of translations into the Galla dialects; in Northern Galla the entire Bible, translated by the native, Onesimus, was printed in 1899 in the St. Chrischona Mission House. In the Shoo, tongue the whole of the New Testament and parts of the Old Testament were translated by Dr. Krapf and printed in 1872. In the Itta dialect a translation of St. Matthew was made by a Galla youth, Hailu. In the Bararetta dialect, St. John's Gospel was translated by the Methodist missionary, Wakefield, and printed in 1890. Considerable portions of an ancient ecclesiastical translation of the Bible in the Nuba tongue have recently been discovered. Prof. R. Lepsius has translated at least one Gospel into Fadidja, the present language of the Berbers to the south of Assuan ; the translation is printed in the " standard alphabet." In 1885 it was printed in Arabic type for use among the Beduins. (2) On this immense task of translating and printing the Missions Among the Jews 409 Word of God accurately and intelligibly in the numerous languages and dialects of Western Asia, the missions and Bible societies have spent an enormous amount of labour and money. For some decades they received considerable assist- ance from the Eussian Bible Society, founded by the Czar, Alexander I, and from the Ionian Bible Society in Corfu. But both of these societies were dissolved and the burden fell upon the shoulders of the British and the American Bible So- cieties, which were assisted to a limited extent by the Scottish National Bible Society, in Salonica, Tiberias, Safed, Aleppo and Beirut. Equally difficult was the other great task of distribu- ting the Bible. Here the two great societies divided the work, the British and Foreign Bible Society leaving the American Bible Society those districts in which the American mission- aries, especially those of the American Board, labour exclu- sively or preponderatingly, such as Turkey in Europe (the greater part), Asia Minor, the northern half of Persia, Syria and Upper Egypt, while its own extensive operations com- prise three " agencies," one in Turkey, with its chief depot in Constantinople, another in Egypt, with its headquarters in Alexandria, and the third in Persia, having its main station in Ispahan. As far as possible the distribution of the Bible is carried on in connection with the missionary societies, which take large stocks of Bibles and portions of the Bible, these being distributed by colporteurs, Bible-readers and Bible- women, who are partly supported by the Bible Society. But in addition to these, some Bible societies, especially the Brit- ish and Foreign Bible Society, employ their own colporteurs, who work in the great commercial centres, especially in the polyglot harbours of Port Said and Constantinople, where the nations of the world meet. In Port Said there is an annual sale of from fifteen to eighteen thousand Bibles and portions of the Bible, in from sixty to seventy languages. Perhaps even more important is the work of the colporteurs in pene- trating to places where there are either few or no mission- aries, as for instance in Albania, the Egyptian Sudan, Eastern Persia and Northern and Eastern Arabia. 41 o History of Protestant Missions in the Near East Generally speaking, Bible distribution is possible in the whole of the Near East, if it be not resisted by the fanatical opposition of Muhammadans, Jews and, sometimes, even of Christians, especially of Christian priests, to the Christian or " Protestant " Bible. In Turkey, to be sure, there was the petty and annoying censorship to be faced. Such geographical names as " Mace- donia " and " Armenia " were not permitted to be published, and had, therefore, to be avoided as far as possible in Bibles issued in the Ottoman Empire. Maps on which such names occurred were torn out. Even the Epistle to the Galatians roused suspicion on account of the similarity of the name " Galatia " to Galata, the name of a quarter of the city of Stamboul, and it even happened that prudent censors de- manded the production of St. Paul's death-certificate to prove that his Epistle to the Galatians is not a revolutionary article aimed at the Sultan. The censorship, also, through the law that any books introduced into Turkey, or any edition pro- duced there, has to be passed by the censor, offered a welcome opportunity to malicious officials to keep back such books as did not please them for months and years. It was also incon- venient that in the parts of Turkey which are inhabited al- most exclusively by Muhammadans, the authorities refused licenses to the colporteurs, if they would not promise to sell Bibles only in villages inhabited by Christians or Jews. In Persia trouble has latterly been caused by the Persian cus- toms officials, who will pass boxes of Bibles for that country only on condition that the missionary and Bible societies promise not to sell to Moslems, which is, of course, out of the question. Accordingly, no Bibles have entered Persia for some years, while the stock kept in the country is nearly ex- hausted. Greece is the only country in the Near East in which (since 1901) the Bible in the popular tongue has been a forbidden book, the sale of which is punishable. The question is sometimes raised whether the distribution of Bibles without explanatory preaching is wise, since, it is said, only a few of the books of the Bible are really intelligible Missions Among the Jews 411 to non-Christians. In Western Asia such doubts are little in place, for all the races there have been lovers of literature to a certain extent for a thousand years or more, and they all regard the Bible as a holy book, with an undoubted claim to be God's Word, even though Moslems believe it to have been superseded by the Koran, and Jews reject the revelation of God in the New Testament. No doubt here, as everywhere else, the explanatory teaching of the missionary is of extreme importance. But, in face of the barrier which[the prejudices of Moslems, Jews and Christians belonging to the ancient Churches, oppose to such preaching, and in view of the fact that their opposition to the preaching shuts their hearts to the simple Gospel in every form, it is of great importance, as a form of pioneer work, to supply them with the Word of God in their own language, trusting them to prove all things and to keep that which is good. Zwemer, in the Bible Society Report of 1904, p. 138, says, " The colporteur is the best pioneer for the missionary, and the Bible is its own best advo- cate, wherever it has a free field, in opposition to the Koran or any other book of religion." VIII SUMMARIES AND STATISTICAL TABLES THOUGH statistics are indispensable, they present no true picture of the work that is really being done. Nor can statistics for the same period be obtained from all the societies, and one has often to be content with figures of former years. From some of the smaller societies, also, no figures whatever can be obtained, and one can only estimate the number. Nevertheless, in spite of all their deficiencies, the tables which follow help to give a clear picture of the extent and success of missionary work in the Near East. A personnel of 299 ordained and lay missionaries, eighty-one medical mis- sionaries and 458 lady missionaries might appear insignificant in so great a mission field. Yet 395 organized congregations, with 34,606 communicants and 94,428 adherents, are evidence of real success, when one considers the extraordinary difficulties to be coped with ; and a staff of 225 ordained native assistants, in addition to 2,227 who are not ordained, prove that the congregations, which have been formed, are caring for the establishment of a Protestant ministry. Hope for the future lies in the 975 primary and secondary schools and the fifteen colleges, with their 64,016 pupils. And the forty-nine hos- pitals with sixty-three dispensaries, in which 666,975 patients are annually treated, represent the sowing of the seed of Chris- tian compassion in the stony ground of Muhammadanism. It is the conviction of almost all the Protestant missionaries that there is little prospect that the national Churches of the Near East will be regenerated by the spirit of the Gospel. Yet the Protestant congregations are centres of a far-reach- ing influence upon them. Hundreds of priests of these Churches have attended Protestant schools in their youth, and laymen, who have also been educated in these schools, de- Summaries and Statistical Tables 413 mand Biblical teaching from the priests in their sermons. Nor is it, according to the statement of Hoskins, a missionary in Syria, a rare thing to find a Greek priest preaching Moody 's sermons year after year. A great disadvantage to Christianity in Western Asia is the ever-increasing emigration, which, while also affecting Muhammadanism, is much more common among oriental Christians, and especially decimates the ranks of Protestants. Yet it is an advantage that the greatest stream of emigration is in the direction of Egypt, which has taken a mighty up- ward bound under British management, for the strength of the Christian element there is thus greatly increased. It is also a consoling thought that by means of this emigration the value of the schools established by Protestant missionaries is being recognized far more widely than formerly. This leads also to greater confidence in, and respect for, the missionaries, who used formerly to be treated with malicious hostility. The hope may also be indulged in, that Christian emigrants, after gaining education, political experience and prosperity abroad, will, in view of the better political conditions which are being established in their home, return thither to be a blessing to their country. The prospects of mission work among Muhammadans are still everywhere limited. The position in Egypt is relatively the most promising. Here there are already 1,262 Muham- madan children in the schools of the American Mission, and the lecturing tours of Douglas Thornton, who unfortunately died so soon, prove that, to a considerable extent, preparatory preaching is possible, if it be carefully prepared and prudently conducted. In the Ottoman Empire the Lebanon is the most promising district, since it is under a Christian governor. Yet even here, as in the whole of Turkey, public preaching to Mu- hammadans is forbidden. A perceptible influence, however, is exercised on the Muhammadah population by means of hos- pitals, dispensaries, Bible- women, book-shops and colporteurs. In the rest of the Ottoman Empire all work among Muham- madans has been hindered as much by the fanaticism of the 414 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East common people as by the suspicion and hostility of the au- thorities. The Panislamic movement, also, embitters the re- lationship between Moslems and Christians. This is the case most of all in Egypt, though it is very perceptible in Syria also. It is a very general experience in the Near East that missionary work among Moslems is easier where it is con- nected with a like work among Christians and Jews. Faulty as the Christian congregations may be, and evident as is the Moslem's contempt for the Christians, yet the Moslem toler- ates missions among the Christians, and cannot escape the in- fluences which go out from them. Where such a basis is lack- ing, it easily happens that Moslem sensitiveness resents his being regarded as an object for mission work by the " Chris- tian dogs," a barrier being thus thrown up, which only the medical mission with its self-sacrificing and compassionate work can hope to break down. Some parts of the Near East, particularly Palestine, Syria, Egypt and Northwestern Persia, are the working place of many small missionary societies. This has caused a great waste of energy. It is pleasing to see that the Church Mis- sionary Society in Palestine and the American Presbyterians in Syria and Persia are displaying a certain power of assimi- lating smaller missions, and are, at any rate, maintaining a de- cidedly preponderating influence by the extensive and solid work they do. Closer cooperation among Protestant missions in the Near East is extremely desirable. Only once, from the 13th to the 19th of August, 1901, at Brummana, near Beirut, has there been an international conference of these mission- aries. It is to be hoped that conferences upon mission work among Muhammadans in general may not stand in the way of the seriously needed consideration of the problems, methods and difficulties of mission work as a whole in the Near East. For Syria and Palestine particularly a close cooperation of the distracted forces in a unified and comprehensive program, with a careful apportionment of spheres of work, would be a great gain, especially in the ever-keener competition with the Eoman and Kussian Churches. Summaries and Statistical Tables 415 Oppressive as the yoke of Turkey and Persia has been, and obstructive to the development of mission work as their arbi- trary measures have ever proved, yet it is only under Muham- madan governments that work among the ancient Churches has been possible. It is a remarkable fact that, as soon as Oriental Churches obtain autonomy, as in Greece in 1829 and in Bulgaria in 1870, they obstinately shut themselves up against Protestant influence. The subjection of countries in which such Churches exist to Eussia has also meant the de- struction of Protestant missions. Even the English protect- orate in Cyprus hindered Protestant missionary work, and English control in Egypt was far less helpful than might have been expected. So it is in lands under Turkish rule, where the missions have in times of need received the powerful and benevolent protection of the representatives of the English and American governments, that mission work has been most highly organ- ized, and that Protestant congregations have been most highly developed. It is true of Churches, as of individual Christians, that they live in proportion as Christ lives in them. He does Protestant missions in the Near East a bitter injustice who refuses to recognize that the great central purpose of such missions has been to make the spirit of Christ regnant alike in church life and in the life of the individual. The missionaries are con- vinced that, unless they succeed in this endeavour, the Oriental Churches are doomed. Forced to form separate congregations, they have laid themselves open to the accusation of prosely- tism. Yet, in the main, they have been dominated through- out their work by a spirit of compassion for the old Churches which, while paying divine honours to Christ, have become Christless. And the hope survives that, when these ancient Churches shall have been permeated anew with the spirit of their Master, they will receive power from on high to fight the battles of the Lord among the Muham- madan peoples of the Near East, and ultimately to gain the victory. 416 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East Syria and Palestine SOCIETIES Stations Foreign Staff a 1 1 Ordained and Lay Medical Wives of Mission- aries Unmarried Ladies 1 1. Amer. Presbyterian Miss. Board (North) 4 1 1 1 2 1 1 9 3 1 15 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 102 5 3 2 6 2 49 6 2 20 1 3 4 2 4 2 14 1 1 1 3 2 9 9 1 1 11 1 1 46 3 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 4 2 2 13 1 2 2 13 4 14 1 8 10 2 1 55 3 2 19 5 2 29 2 5 5 15 2 2 4 4 1 5 2 40 4 1 3 55 8 3 20 10 2 56 3 18 1 6 44 2 2 6 4 3 6 56 354 3 English Presbyterian Mission . . . 4 Danish Orient Mission ... 5. Kaiserswerth Deaconesses' Homes .... Q Amer Reformed. Presbyterians 7. Scotch and Irish Reformed Presbyterians 8. British Syrian School Society 9. English Friends' Miss. Association . . . lO. Palestine and Lebanon Nurses' Mission . 11. Church Miss. Society 12. Jaffa Medical Mission 13. Syrian Orphanage 14. Jerusalem Union 15. Moravian Church Mission 16. London Jewish Mission (Asiatic Missions of the Society) 17. Mildmay Mission 18. German Order of St John 19. The Dufferin and Procter Memorial Schools 20. Edinburgh Medical Mias. Society .... 21. Tabitha Mission 22. Amer. Friends' Mission 24. Syrian Protestant College Total ... 57 204 99 23 58 175 Summaries and Statistical Tables 417 Syria and Palestine Native Agency Congregations Schools Medical Mission rJ/3 "o 1 r O IS J -S b?> QQ c a 1 Is "3 a 1 1 ~p a 1| rS a 3 | p 3 2 a ,a pS| *o P^ B OH 5 a ? 1 w 5 2 10 216 2,744 4,00 , H 1. American Board ... 20 269 49, 12 63 68 185 2 Methodist Episcopal Mission . . 1 15 1 2 4 3. Kaiserswerth Deaconesses' Homes .... 2 32 4. Lohtnann's Armenian Aid Association . . 5 10 9 1 7 33 50 5. Dr. Lepsius' German Orient Mission . . 2 4 1 2 7 6. Friends' Armenian Mission 1 1 2 7. Disciples (Foreign Christ. Miss. Soc.) . . 2 8. Amer. Ref. Presbys. (Cilioia and Cyprus) 3 3 2 1 2 8 9. British and Foreign Bible Society .... 1 1 1 Total . 35 296 61 16 72 141 255 Persia. Arabia. Mesopotamia Stations Foreign Staff * a o .8 SOCIETIES T3 i % & 8 'g -$ ,_ "sy | a I a 3 . "S 8 a a 03 02 1 8 1. Amer. Presbyterian Miss. Board (North) . 5 64 17 10 21 11 59 2. Church Miss. Society { Tb- g'*i 5 2 1 10 1 8 3 12 3 12 3 42 9 3. Hermannsburg Miss. Society 2 4. London Jewish Mission Society 1 1 1 3 4 5. Dr. Lepsius' German Orient Mission . . 2 1 2 3 6. Amer. Lutheran Mission 1 7. Minor Missions among the Nestorians . . 6 8. Assyrian Mission 3 6 6 9. British and Foreign Bible Society .... 1 1 1 10. (Dutch) Reformed Mission 3 4 9 9, 6 5 22 11. United Free Church of Scotland .... 1 1 1 2 2 5 12. Danish Church Mission 1 1 1 Total 25 79 48 25 44 36 153 Summaries and Statistical Tables Asia Minor. Armenia 419 Native Agency Congregations Schools Medical Mission -2 3 1 1 3 >> s .2 '3 3 "3 | a 1 +2 if S 'p, I 5 rr+ o O fl 43 r-H r o EL 0) 03* *rt a p 1 6 8 02 i S S 92 830 15,748 41,802 8 1,232 353 20,861 7 11 109,863 17 2 426 547 1 20 3 490 1 1 1,430 6 71 108 21 1,900 2 3 4,856 1 5 2 300 1 1 2,848 1 400 2 200 200 23 98 100 5 308 1 1 7,888 118 931 108 16,472 42,649 8 1,232 386 24,379 12 17 126,885 Persia. Arabia. Mesopotamia Native Agency Congregations Schools Medical Mission rrf | o * $ 1 Unordaine Female Comnmnic Adherents 1 Students !j 1 1 Q I 1 24 158 9 3,189 5,000 (?) 1 80 2,770 4 8 41,301 1 16 12 189 4i2 9 423 3 9 78,980 7 7 77 210 4 234 1 11,383 2 1 400 719 4 190 2 2 2 32 3 2 120 250 400 1 56 6 200 23 800 17 17 5 5 137 2 1 34,305 3 lu. 1 39,221 33 224 19 4,105 7,048 1 150 4,756 11 11 205,190 420 History of Protestant Missions in the Near East Egypt. Sudan. Abyssinia Stations Foreign Staff 1 "S I T3 SOCIETIES i SI q , _c 1 ves o ai a 1 1 & 6 S P 1 H 1. American United Presbyterian Mission . 12 125 48 12 29 35 124 2. Church Missionary Society 7 2 7 4 5 19 35 3. Netherlands Miss, to Egypt (Vereeniging tot Uitbreiding van het Evangelie in Egypte) 1 2 2 4 E^ypt General Mission ... 5 2 7 4 8 19 5. Kaiserswerth Deaconesses' Homes .... 2 30 30 9, 9 1 1 2 6 7 North African Mission . . . ... 9, 3 3 3 8 8 Swedish National Miss Soo ...... 6 8 91 14 9 44 9 British and Foreign Bible Soc 1 1 1 Total . 38 137 91 17 55 106 269 Summary of Statistics SOCIETIES Stations Foreign Staff i B Medical Wives of Mission- aries .8 | 1 1 Turkey 35 57 25 38 296 204 79 137 61 99 48 91 16 23 25 17 72 58 44 55 141 175 36 106 255 354 153 269 Persia ***...... Total 155 716 299 81 229 458 1,031 Summaries and Statistical Tables Egypt. Sudan. Abyssinia 421 Native Agency Congregations Schools Medical Mission *1 J Cj o3 C2 443 196 3,462 7,932 3 467 183 16,306 19 23 201,135 33 224 19 4,105 7,048 1 150 4,756 11 11 205,190 48 629 96 10,567 36,799 3 840 256 18,575 7 12 133,765 225 2,227 419 34,606 94,428 15 2,539 975 64,016 49 63 666,975 Index ABADIYE, 204 Abassides, The, 35, 59, 182 Abbas Effendi, 291, 338 Abdi Effendi, 173, 175 Abdul Hamid II, 35, 137-140, 153 Abdul Kadr el Jilani, 29 Abdul Mejid, 218 Abeih, 191, 194, 198, 213, 222 Abu Abdallah, 183 Abu Bekr, Khalif, 29, 183 Abu Ruchi, 379, 408 Abu Sufian, 280 Abuna of Abyssinia, The, 364, 375 f. Abyssinia, 19, 53, 57, 354 f., 371-390 Abyssinian Church, The see Oriental Churches Acca, 249, 252, 291 Adabazar, 114, 121 Adana, 115, 157 f., 214 Aden, 22, 27, 2735., 360 Adger, 406 Adi Ugri, 387 Adigrat, 380 Adis Abeba, 389 Adovva, 380 f. Adrianople, 44, 104, 172, 398 Aghtamar, 45 Ahmed Tewfik, 176 Ailet, 387 Aimerich, 48 Ain Arik, 257 Ain Karim, 257 Ain Zehalteh, 194 Aintab, 115, 125, 131, 133, 155 ff., 159, 162, 194 Akhissar, 140 Akhmed Akhsai, 286 Akhram, 183 Alamut, 185 Albania, 49, 53, 104, 169, 409 Albanians, The, 24, I7of. Albistan, 162 Aleppo, 115, 172, 194,409 Alexander I, 98 Alexandria, 45 f., 339, 345, 347, 356 f., 394, 398 f., 409 Ali, Khalif, 35, 182, 280 Ali Bey, 401 Ali Ilahi, The, 326 Ali Muhammad, 287, 290 Alliance Israelite, The, 327, 394 Alma, 1 88, 194 Amara, 277 Amasia, 117, 140 American Bible Society, 174, 216,4026., 409 American Board, Missions of, 70, 71; among the Jews, 390, 395 ; in Persia, 294-303; in Syria and Palestine, 185- 20 1, 235 f. ; in Turkey and Armenia, 56, 102, 106-135 American Colony in Jerusalem (Spaf- fordites), 234 American Sisters, The, 55 Amhara, 372, 37 8 f. Amharic language, 91, 95 Amirkhanyanz, Abraham, 403, 406 Ammiel Mission, The, 258 Amr, 26, 45, 363 Anatolia College, 56, 131, 135, 157 Anderson, Rufus, 106 Andreas, F. C, 286 Anglican Mission in Persia, 308 ff. Ankober, 381 Antioch, 162, 210 Antuf, 1 86 Anyok, The, 370 Apostles' Road, The, 262, 354 f., 379 Appia, Miss, 207 Arab Conquest, The, 13 f., 39, 45, 271 f. Arabi Pasha, 339, 360 Arabia, 17, 19, 24, 28, 105,271-278,409 Arabic language, The, 20, 39 f., 50, 57, 63,95 196,232,271^,359 Arabistan, 334 Arabkir, 116, 140, 159 Arabs, The, 23, 230 Arakel, 102 f. Argos, no, 165 Ariopolis, 165 Armash, 105 Armenia, n, 21, 24, 62, 98, 105, 118, '35 J 37> 149, 153 ff-, 159 f- Armenian Aid Society, The, 150 Armenian Church, The see Oriental Churches Armenian Massacres, The, 41, 66, 118, 140-153, 155, 162, 260, 316 423 424 Index Armenian Orphanage, The, 260 Armenian Schools, in, 159 Armenians, The, 23, 25, 43 ff., 99, 1 10, 135 f., 152, 156, 181, 233,298,318- 3 2 9 333 340 Armeno-Turkish language, The, 45, 106, 108 Arnold, Miihleisen, 210 Arnott, Miss Walker, 257 Arnoutkoyi, 157 Arrhenius, 389 Arsazides, The, 41 Artuf, 255 Asad es Shidiak, 188 Asadurian, A., 402 Asfuriyeh, 205 Ashkenazim, The, 393 Asia Minor, 23, 28, 37, 39, 91, 96, 105 f., 117, 126, 133 Asia Minor Medical Missionary Associa- tion, The, 158 Asir, 105 Asian Sahagian, 159 Assassmes, The, i84f. Assemani, J. S., 47 Assiut, 46, 56, 74, 348 ff., 352 f. Assuan, 345, 354^, 357, 369 Assumptionists, The, 55 Astrakhan, 98 Assyrian Mission, The, 309, 313 Assyrian Mission of the American Board, n6f. Atbara, 369 Athanasius, 37 Athens, 165 ff. Athlit, 232 Atil, 206 Auso Kunoma, 388 Avakian, Ohannes, 141 Awetaranian, Johannes, 161 Awishalum Mission, The, 315 Axum, 376, 378 Ayesha, 280 Azerbaijan, 279, 292, 316 f., 325 Azo, 145 BAAKLIN, 206 Baalbek, 203 f. Babism, 286-291 Babists, The, 249, 281 Babylon, 13 Badger, G. P., 309 f. Bagdad, 100, 105, 163 f., 290, 330, 399 Bahrein, 276 Baiburt, 140 Baker, Sir Samuel, 365 Baku, 99, 155 Balearic Isles, The, 21 Balkan Peninsula, The, II, 17, 23, 37, 57, 68, 89, 167 Banias, 214 Baptist Missions, 165 f., 257, 315 Baratieri, General, 375 Barclay, Joseph, 245 Bari, The, 371 Barnum, Henry S., no Barton, Dr., 405 Barun, The, 370 Basil the Great, 37, 117 Basilides, Negus, 91 Basle Mission, The, 96-103, 378 Basra, 105, 164, 27 6 f. Baz, 317 Beaconsfield, Lord, 176 Bebek, nof., 126, 130, 157 Bedouins, The, 24, 208, 2IO, 273 Bedr Khan, 293, 309 Bedros, 115 Beha Ullah, 291 Behais, The, 328 Behnesseh, 93 Beirut, 105, 178, 186, 189, 191, 203 f., 207, 217, 222 ff, 398, 409 Beirut Mission Press, The, 190, 215, 347 Beirut Seminary, The, 222 Beit Jala, 40, 260 Beit Meri, 204 Beit Sahur, 40, 260 Bellamy, 206 Bellesa, 387 Benedictines, The, 55 Benha, 35 2 f. Beni Suef, 352 Beranduz, 304 Berbers, The, 337, 408 Berlin Congress, The, 136, 154, 167 Bethany, 55 Betharram, 55 Bethlehem, 40, 55, 240, 249, 252, 259 f., 270 Beyan, The, 289 Bible, The, publication of in ancient lan- guages, 405 ; translation of into mod- ern languages, 196 f., 296 f., 325, 371, 379 f-, 3 8 5> 389, 399-408 Bible Lands' Mission Aid Society, The, 119 Bible Societies, Work of the, 400-411 Bilbeis, 356 Bird, Frank, 1 86 Biredjik, 145 Bisharin Bedouins, The, 357 Index 425 Bishop, Mrs. Isabella Bird, 308 Bishop Gobat's School, 252, 262 Bithynia, 114, 121, 166 Bitlis, 105, 116, 139 f., 145, 150 f., 159 Blind, Work among the, 203, 404 Bliss, Daniel, 213, 218 Bliss, Howard, 213 Blumenhagen, 91 Blumhardt, T., 97 Blyth, G. F. P., 234, 245, 256 Bohtan, 300 Bonar, Andrew, 205 Bor, 370 Borneo, 36 Bosnia, 19, 21, 49, 170, 179 Bottcher, Immanuel, 261 Bradford, Dr. Mary, 321 Brandeis, 383 Brethren of the Holy Gabriel, The, 52 British and Foreign Bible Society, 98, 106, 173 f., 402 ff., 409 Brothers of Christian Schools, The, 55 Brothers of Mercy, The, 55 Brown, Chaplain in India, 93 Browne, E. G., 286 Browne, W., 310 Bruce, Robert, 164, 329 ff., 404 Brummana, 204 Brusa, 114, 1 21 Bryce, James, 135, 149 Bsherreh, 47 Buchanan, Chaplain in India, 93 Bulgaria, 19, 21, 23, 38, 50, 62, 73, 104, 167 f., 170, 179 Bulgarians, The, 25, 37 ff. ; missions among, 167-170 Bulwer, Henry, 175 Burgess, Miss, 162 Butros, Koptic Patriarch, 96, 345 Butros Bistani, 197 Byblus, 48 Byzantium, 43 ff. C/ESAREA, 117, 133, 157 Cairo, 15, 46, 56, 93, 96, 344-3 6l > 399 Calhoun, S. H., 222 Calliupolita, Maximus, 90 Cantine, James, 276 Cappadocia, 117 Capuchins, The, 53, 56 Carmelites, The, 55 Carslaw, 205 Casakos, G., 402 Cassai, 378 Cassandra, 397 Caucasus, The, 44 Caucasus Mission, The, 97-103 Cederquist, K., 389 Censorship, The, 171, 216, 320, 331, 410 Central Turkey College, The, 157 Ceylon, 19 Chaldean Church see Oriental Churches Chalki, 64 Char bash, 304 Charigushi, 304 Charles Martel, 21 Charmetant, 149 Chios, 62 Christ Church, Jerusalem, 256 Christian School Brothers, The, 52 Christie, J., 408 Chrysostom, John, 37 Church Missionary Society, The, 94, 97, 103 ; Mediterranean Mission of, 94- 97 35^ J missions of, in Abyssinia, 378-382; in Egypt, 344 f., 358-362; in the Egyptian Sudan, 367, 369 ff. ; in Persia, 329-334; in Syria and Pales- tine, 205 f., 234, 242-254, 257; in Turkey and Armenia, 163 f., 173-176 Cilicia, 122, 135, 163, 209 Circassians, The, 136, 339 Cochran, Joseph, 307, 315, 321 Codrington, 157 Coele-Syria, 198, 213 Colebrooke, 403 Collegiate and Theological Institute, The, 170 Colportage, 276 f., 325, 334, 347 f., 409- 411 see also Literature Constantinople, 15, 50, 59, 91, 92, 95 f., 100, 104, 107, 119, 121, 123, 129, 132, 140, 157, 162, 166 Cook, Miss Jane, 395 Cooper, Miss, 242 Corrie, 93 Corsica, 21 Cossacks, The, 152 f. Covenanters, The see Presbyterians Crimean War, The, 36, 128, 136, 172 Crischona Brethren, The, 347, 354, 382- 385 Cromer, Lord, 79, 337, 359, 362, 367- 37 Crusades, The, 14, 47 f., 55, 184 Cuinet, 105 Curzon, Lord, 318 Cutts, E. L., 309 Cyprus, 21, 23, 38, 165, 189, 209 f. Cyprus Convention, The, 136 Cyril X, 343, 345 426 Index DAMASCUS, 43, 186, 199, 203 f., 207, 223, 272, 344, 389 Danish Mission in Arabia, 274 Danish Orient Mission, 208 Darawi, 357 Darazi, 183 Darua, 384 De le Roi, 383, 392, 395 Debs, 47 Degala, 304 Deir el Kamr, 192, 194 Demetrius II, Patriarch, 347 Demirji, 166 Derratiye, 208 Dervish Orders, 29 ff. ; Kadirija, Sanussiyah, Tiyaniyah, 31, 33 ; Aisa- wiya, Maulawiya, Rufaiya, 32 Deutsch, Etnil, 84 Dhala, 274 Diarbekr, 43, 105, Ii6ff., 122, 140 f., 157 ff., 176 Dietels, R. W., 371 Diettrich, A. H., 99, 102, 406 Dinka, The, 370 Diodorus of Tarsus, 40 Disciples of Christ (Campbellites) , 162 Disselhoff, 202 Dodge, 235 Dolaib, 370 Dominicans, 55 Dondukoff, 154 Dongola, 363 f. Dome, 91 Druses, 24, 81, 182 ff., 190, 192 f., 198, 200, 204-207, 229, 249, 281 Duleika urn el Jun, 232 Dulip Singh, 346 Dunkards, 315 Dutch Mission in Egypt, 355 f. Dutch Reformed Mission in Arabia, 276 Duzza, 309 Dwight, Harrison Gray Otis, 107 f., 1 10, 401 Dwight, Henry Otis, no EAST ROMAN CHURCH, 37 East Roman Empire, 14, 37, 43 East Syrian Church, 40 Eastern Persia Mission, 317 Echmiadzin, 44, 58, IO2 Eddy, Dr. Mary, 217 Eddy, W. W., 198 Edessa see Urfa Edinburgh Medical Mission Association, 208, 214, 258 Educational work, 65 f., 70, 74 f., 80, 96, 98 f., no, 128, 157, 164; among the Jews, 395, 398 ff. ; in Abyssinia, 386 ; in Arabia, 274, 277 f.; in Bulgaria, 170; in Persia, 295 f., 296, 306 f., 310, 317, 320, 322 ff., 331 f. ; in Syria and Palestine, 191, 202-207, 2I 7 221 ff., 228, 236, 242, 249, 25 if., 255 ff, 260, 265 f., 267 f. ; in Turkey and Armenia, 107 f., nof., 123-126, 128, 131 ff, 156 f., 162, 168 Egypt, 13, 17 f, 19, 21 ff, 29, 37,39, 43. 45, 5 8 > 6 3 9i f-, 96,!i8 3 , 337-371 ; mission work in, 78 f., 8l, 344-371 Egyptian General Mission, The, 356 f. El Azhar University, 343, 359 El Hasa, 272, 276 Elias, Bishop, 302 Emigration from the Near East, 160, 224 f., 306 f. Ennedi, 23 Ephrem Syrus, 40 Epirus, 104 Episcopalian Mission (American), 165^ Episcopate of Jerusalem, 236-239, 245 Eppler, C. F., 97, 100, 103 Eppstein, J. M., 398 Eritrea (Erythrea), 19, 53, 375, 387 Erzerum, 105, 116, 118, 140 f., 151, 158 f. Erzingyan, 140 Es Salt, 248, 252 Et Tayyibeh, 257 Ethel Pain Memorial Hospital, The, 361 Euphrates College, The, 56, 131, 135, J 57, '59 Eusebeia, The, 167 Ezra, 206 FALASHA THE, 376 f., 382-386 Falconer, Ion Keith, 273 Fallscheer, Christian, 243 Famaka, 389 Fanariots, The, 59 Fatimide Dynasty, The, 183, 342 Fayum, The, 353 Fehim Pasha, 139 Female Education Society, The, 244, 249, 253 Ferrette, 208 Fia Bey, 139 Fidelia Fiske Seminary, The, 302, 306 Fiske, Fidelia, 294, 302 Fiske, Pliny, 185, 235, 296 Fjellstedt, P., 96 Flad, J. M., 377, 383 ff., 408 Fliedner^T. H., 202, 267, 357 Index 427 Ford, Miss, 207 Fossum, 314 Fowett, William, 96 Franciscans, The, 52, 55 Frederick William IV, 237 ff. French, Bishop T. V., 75, 275 f., 330, 334 Friedlaender, Z. H., 255, 395 Friends, The, 162, 204 Frumentius, 371 Fulbe, The, 22 Gairdner, H. G., 361 Galla, The, 337, 372, 386 ff., 390 Garabed, 123 Garabed Khalujian, 144 Gass, 90 Gates, C. F., 131 Gawar, 300 Gaza, 249, 252 Geez language, 64, 376 Geiger, Abraham, 84 Geleb, 388 Geogtapa, 298, 304, 308 Gerard Academy, The, 222 German Evangelical Benevolent Society. The, 162 Ghazali, 30 Giffen, F. K., 370 Ginsberg, J. B. C, 396 Girgeh, 46 Gladstone, 142 Glen, William, 319, 403 Gobat, Bishop Samuel, 123, 162, 201, 236, 239-248, 258 f., 261, 354, 378 ff., 382 Godet, 151 Gojam, 372 Gondar, 92, 373 Gondokoro, 365 Goodell, Wm., io6ff., 186, 197, 402 Gordon, General, 364, 366 f. Gordon Memorial Mission, The, 367 Grace, Watson, 204 Gracey, 168 Graham, 207 f. Grant, Asahel, 295 f., 300 f. Greece, 21, 23, 37 f., 50, 73, 165, i66f., 415 reek Greek language, 37, 38 f., 64, 95, 232 Greek Orthodox Church see Oriental Churches Greek War of Independence, 96, 106, 164, 189, 402 Greeks, The, 23, 25, 37, 63; missions among, 164-167 Gregorians, The see Oriental Churches Gregory the Great, 37 Gregory the Illuminator, 43 Gregory of Nyssa, 37, 117 Groves, Antony, 164 Guinness, Grattan, 357 Gulpashan, 304 Gundet, 374 Gura, 374 Gurun, 148 Gwalla, 370 Hadramaut, 273 Hadj, The, 20 Hadjin, 115, 118 Haftdewan, 320 Hagop, Pattian, 145 Haifa, 55, 223, 230, 234 f., 257, 261, 270 Haig, General, 273, 358, 367 Hakim ba amr Allah, 183 Hakkiari, 300 Hakob, 102 Hakob, Abuhayatian, 102 Haleb, 105, 162, 194, 211 Hall, Dr., 370 Hamadan, 279, 318 ff., 322, 325-328, 399 Hamath, 194, 217 Hamidiye regiments, 138 ff., 153 Hamlin, Cyrus, III, I26f., 131 Hamza, 183 Harar, 389 Harpur, Dr., 273, 360, 367 Harris, J. Rendel, 139, 149 Hasan el Askari, 184 Hasan ibn Sabah, 184 Hasbeiya, 194, 203 Haskeui, no Hatti Humayoun, The, 79, 172 f., 210, 347,35' Hattin, 232 Hauran, The, 200, 249 Hausa (Haussa), The, 22 34, 337 Heber, Reginald, 93 Hebron, 256 f., 260 Hego, Cornelius, 90 Hejaz Railway, The, 178, 223, 272 Helwan, 361 Henry Martyn Memorial Press, The, 33 * Hepworth, 142 Herrick, George F., 1 10, 401 Herzegovina, 21, 62, 179 Heyling, Peter, 91-93 Hicks Pasha, 366 Hijaz, 105 428 Index Hilarion, Abbat in Constantinople, 95 Hildner, F. A., 96 Hill, 165 f. Hocker, Rudolph Wilhelm, 92 f. Hodeida, 273, 360, 367 Hoffmann, Chnstoph, 234 Hoffmann, W., 97 Hogg, John, 345, 352 Holmes, G. W., 321 Holy Land, The see Palestine Horns, 194, 217 Hornle, E. F., 330 Hoyer, 274 Hunchiagists ( Hunkachists) , The, 138 Hurgronje, Snouck, 28, 32 Hylander, N., 389 Ibrahim Pasha, 189, 192 Idlib, 211 Hat, The, 279 Imaduddin, 101 Imamites, The, 182, 184 Imams, Doctrine of the, 27, 281, 287 f. Independent missionaries, 80, 258, 314 Insane, Work for the, 204 f. International College, The, 157 Ionian Bible Society, The, 409 Iran Bethel School, The, 326 Irish Presbyterian Missions among the Jews, 390, 398 ; in Damascus, 207 f. Isaac, Deacon, 302 f. Isenberg, C. W., 354, 378-382, 408 Islam (Muhammadanism), Attempts at reform in, 28, 33; causes of decay in, 23 f. ; democratic nature of, 36 ; ethics of, 83, 86 ff., 286; in Egypt, 337 f. ; loss of temporal power by, 21 ff., 37 f. ; mysticism of, 83, 283- 286 ; propagation of, 34 f., 270 f., 370 f.; sects of, 27, 182, 280-294; sources of strength in, 29 ff. ; theol- ogy of, 30, 81-84 Ismail Pasha, 182, 338, 346, 365 Ismail Safi Shah, 281 Ismailites, The, 182, 184, 281 Ispahan, 333 f., 409 Itineration, 325 f., 347 Itshan, 146 JACOB EL BARADAI, 42 Jacobite Church see Oriental Churches Jacobites, The, 64, 117, 122, 181, 340 Jaffa, 235, 239 f., 240, 245, 256 f., 261, 270, 318, 329, 333 f. Jaffa Medical Mission, The, 257 Jalalud Din Rumi, 282 amal ud Din, 291 anissaries, The, 61, 91 annina, 166 ebel ed Druz, 182 enanyan, H., 163 Jerusalem, 15, 20, 40, 45, 55, 105, 229 f., 235, 243, 248, 255 ff., 262, 270 Jerusalem Union, The, 259 ff. Jessup, H. H., 213 Jessup, Samuel, 213 Jesuits, The, 52 f., 90 f., 134, 162,225, 248, 297, 385 Jetter, J. A., 97 Jewett, 294 Jews, The, 230 f., 392 ; missions among, 3i8f., 323, 326 f., 333, 390-400; see also Falasha [ ewish Refugees' Aid Society, The, 255 "ezreel, 23 ;ifna, 257 bhn, Bishop of Ephesus, 42 ohn, Negus, 374 f., 385, 387 John of Seville, 404 Jowett, W., 380 Julamerk, 42, 293 Junieh, 217 KADESIA, battle of, 279 Kadirija see Dervish Orders Kafr Shima, 207 Kaisarieh, 140 Kaiserswerth Deaconesses' Homes, 149 f., 162, 202, 217, 267-270, 357 Kalopothakes, 166 Kalyub, 356 Kana, 194 Kannobin, Monastery of, 48 Karabagh, 99 Karass, 98 Kasa, 373 Kasala, 385 Kasim Beg, Alexander, IO2 Kasvin, 185, 318 Kathershian, Yinyis, 141 Katshadurian, 119 Kenneh, 46 Kerak, 249, 252 Kerbela, 164, 286 Kermanshah, 326 Kesrwan, 47, 223 Keswick Conference, The, 250 Khakhams, The, 393 Kharaba, 206 Kharabeh, 207 Kharput, 56, 74, 116, 121, 123, 125, *3' 33 *35 '40, 156 f., 159 Index 429 Khartum, 354 f., 365 f., 369 Khasfin, 207 Khoi, 150, 176 Khorasan, 279 King, Jonas, 1 66, 1 86 Kirjatein, 208 Kirman, 330, 332 f. Kismayn, 390 Kitchener, Lord, 367 Klein, A. F., 245, 247, 360 Kobula, 384 Koehler, W., 47 Koeller, 173, 175 f. Komants, The, 376 Konia, 163 Koptic Church, The see Oriental Churches Kopts, The, 45 f., 63 f., 341 f., 346-351 Koraishite Khalifate, 29, 36 Koran, The, 26, 28, 78 f., 81, 84 f., IOI 288, 335; quoted, 25, 59, 172 Koreish, The, 280 Koritza, 170 Korpey, 146 Kossova, 104 Kotchhannes, 41, 293, 309 f. Kozle, 328 Krapf, 354 f., 37 *-> 381 f., 36, 408 Krose, H. A., 53 Kruse, W., 96 Kugler, 380, 408 Kuifun, 206 Kulluko, 388 Kumm, W. W., 357 Kunama, The, 386, 388 Kunawat, 206 Kurdistan, 24,^.62, 94, 105, 116, 292, 300, 309 Kurds, The, 24, 28, 43, 45, 108, 136, 138, I52f., 155, 161, 279, 293, 307, 310 f., 315 f., 325 f. Kus, 346, 352 Kuweit, 277 LA GRANGE, Miss HARRIET, 222 Labaree, Benjamin, 315 f., 403, 406 Lahiteh, 206 Lake, General, 247 f., 358 Lang, Johann Jacob, 99 Lansing, J. G., 276, 352 Larissa, 166 Larnaka, 210 Latakia, 184 Latrun, 55 Lazarists, The, 53, 55, 297, 308 Le Quien, 47 Lebanon, The, 47 f, 51, 62, 79, 105, 1 80, 182, 200, 224 Lebanon station, The, 213 Leeves, H. D., 402 Leger, Anton, 90 Lejah, The, 206 Lemal, 145 Leo XIII, 52 Lepers, Work among, 269 f. Lepsius, Johannes, 84, 139, 149 f., 158 Lepsius Society, The, 161 Lethaby, 249 Leucosia, 167, 210 Lieder, J. R. T., 96 f., 344, 382 Literature, Christian, publication and distribution of, 80, 95, 98 f., 108 ff., 135, 169 f., 185, 187, 190, 215 f., 235, 296, 37. 3i9, 33 1 . 347 *> 35 35 s * 361, 409 ; see also Colportage, Beirut Mission Press, Bible Translations Lobdell, 294 Loftcha, 169 Lohmann, 150, 158 Lohmann Society, The, 161 London Jewish Society, 236 f., 242, 254 ff., 383-386, 396, 398 ff. Long, A., 170, 407 Lotka, J., 399 Lucaris, Cyril, 89 ff. Ludolf, Jr., 92 Ludolf, Hiob, 92 Luristan, 334 Lurs, The, 279 Lutheran Mission in Persia, 308 Liittke, M., 337 Luweiz, Convent of, 48 Luxor, 349, 35 2 f. Lydda, 40, 248, 259 Lyde, S., 209 McCAUL, 394 McCheyne, 205 Mackay, Alexander, 275 MacLean, A. M., 296 Maclean, A. F., 310 Macedonia, 37, 39, 104, 119, 169 Macedonians, The, 23 Magdala, 374, 384 Mahalla, 274 Maharag, Monastery of, 342 Mahdi, The, 27, 287, 366 Mahdi risings, 27, 364, 366 Mahdists, The, 375, 385 Mahmud Effendi, 173, 175 Mahmud II, 37 Major, 162 43 Index Maku, 289 Malatia (Malatiyeh), 140, 148 Malgara, Mission of, 50 Malta, 22, 95, 106, 114, 164, 185, 189, 2 39 Mamelukes, The, 342, 364 Mamuret el Aziz, 56, 105 Mansura, 346 Mar Shimun, Patriarch, 309 Mar Yonan, 311 Marash, 115, 126, 133, I4of., 157 f., i6iff. Mardin, 43, 51, 117, 126, 133, 157 Margawar, 304 Margoliouth, 29 Marno, 389 Maron, 48 Maronite Patriarch, The, l87f. Maronites, The, 48, 53, 64, 1 1 1, 1 8 1, 190, 192 f., 198 f., 200, 204, 223, 229, 264 f. Marsh, 294 Marsovan, 56, 74, 117, 122, 125, 128, 131, 135, 140, 145, 157, 162 Martyn, Henry, 931"., 117, 319, 329,413 Maskat, 273-277 Mason Memorial Hospital, The, 277 Massowa, 354, 372, 374, 386 Matteos, Patriarch, in, 119 Maulawiya see Dervish Orders Maule, Fox, 208 Mazandaran, 290 Mecca, 20, 28 f., 272, 359 Mechitarists, The, 106 Medical work, 80, 92; in Abyssinia, 386 f. ; in Arabia, 274, 277 ; in Egypt, 352 f., 357 f - 3 6of -; in Persia, 307, 320 ff., 330 f.; in Syria and Palestine, 203 f., 206, 25 iff., 255-258, 268 f.; in Turkey and Armenia, 133, 157 ff., 161- 164 Medina, 20, 272, 359 Medinet el Fayum, 346, 352 Mediterranean Mission, The, 94-97 Megerdich, 162 Melchites, The see Oriental Churches Meluk, 370 Melwal, 370 Menama, 276 Mendez, Alfonso, 53 Menelik, 375 Mensa, The, 287 f. Meroe, Kingdom of, 363 Merriam, W. W., 169 Mesereh, 56, 135, 158, l6l Meshaka, 208 Meshhed, 319 Mesopotamia, 24, 43, 99, 105, 116 f., 163, 282 Metameh, 355, 385 Metamineh, 375 Metawileh, The, 185, 200, 229, 281 Methodist Missions, i66f., 170, 315 Meyer, J., 408 Michaelis, Johannes, 92 Mildmay Deaconesses, 256 Minyah, 46 Mirza Faruch, 101 f., 403 Mirza Ibrahim, 328 Mirza Yahya, 290 f. Mitrovitza, 170 Mofi, 390 Mollah Husein, 287 Mollah Muhammad Ali, 289 f. Mollah Muhammad Ali of Zangin, 289 Monastery of the Cross, 64 Monastir, 104, 169, 397 Monkullo, 387 f. Monophysite Churches see Oriental Churches Monophysitism, 42 f., 57 Moravian Church, 92 Morgan, Miss, 257 Morocco, 19, 23, 33, 35 Morris, Dr., 274 Mosul, 41, 43> I5 Il6f - '63. 309. 317 Mott, Mentor, 203 Mount Athos, 65 Mount Kaneesh, 217 Mount of Olives, 270 Muhammad (The Prophet), 24 f., 35, 59, 8if., 85, 101, 271, 280 Muhammad II, 37, 59 Muhammad Achmed, Sheikh, 366 Muhammad Ali (ruler of Egypt), 236, 2 38, 337 f - 3 6 5 Muhammad Ali Mirza, Shah, 334 Muhammad el Habib, 182 Muhammad Ibn el Wahhab, 273 Muhammadan World, The, 17-36; geo- graphical limits of, 17; moral condi- tion of, 27 f.; political authority in, 22; political unrest in, 36; popula- tion, 1 8, 19 Muhammadanism see Islam Muhammadans, The, conference of mis- sionaries among, in Cairo, 81, 84, 278, 362 f. ; missions among, 1 1, 72 f., 77 ff., 80, 92, 94, 97 99 f- 413 f - J in Arabia, 271-278; in Bagdad, 164; in Egypt, 78 f., 35 if., 356, 360 ff.; in Persia, 317, 327, 333; in Syria and Palestine, 247, 253^; in Turkey, 171-176, 180; Index 431 difficulties of, 78 ff., 230, 239, 276 f., 317 f. ; methods of, 8 1, 83-88 Miihleisen, 381 Muir, William, 84 Munzinger, 386 Murad, 61, 91 Musa Kasim, 182 Mush, 139, 142, 150 f. Mustafa Fazil Pasha, 24 Muzaffar ed Din, 334 NABLUS, 240, 243, 248, 252, 257 Nakheileh, 350 Napier, Sir Robert, 374, 384 Nasarieh, 277 Nasirud Din, 290 Nazareth, 40, 240, 243 f., 249, 258 Nebk, 208 Nejd, The, 105 Nejef, 164 Nestorian Church see Oriental Churches Nestorians, The, 42, 64, 117, 279, 292-. 298, 304, 310-314, 340; Mountain ; Nestorians, The, 116, 163, 292 f., 300, 37> 39, 3 l6 Nestorius, 40 Newman, C. S., 396 Newton, Miss, 257 Nicanor, 57 Nicholas I, 102 Nicolayson, J., 186, 236 Nicomedia, 105, 114, 121 Nineveh, 13; see also Mosul Noeldeke, Theodor, 296 North African Mission, The, 356 Nubia, 363 f. Nubians, The, 364 f. Nuehr, The, 370 Nurallah Bey, 292 Nusairiyeh, The, 24, 8 1, 184, 209, 229, 281 Nylandt, 355 OBEID ALLAH, 307 Oertsen, Detlev von, 326, 405 Oman, 273 f. Omar, Khalif, 26, 59, 6l, 183 Omar Khayyam, 285 Omayyads, The, 272, 280 Omdurman, 367 Onesimus, 389 Ordu, 1 66 Orientmission, The, 161, 176, 315, 326 Oriental Churches, The, 37, 67-71, 76, 112, 114; attempts at reform in, 67, 70-76, 92, 94 f., 99, in, 167, 189, 229, 233 f., 246, 299, 303 f., 308, 415 ; formation of Protestant congregations among, 69, 74ff., 90 f., H3f., 119, 134, 158, 227 f., 240 f., 245, 267 f., 299, 345 > 348, 3.88, 415 1. Monophysite Churches, 63, 71 ; Abyssinian Church, 46, 65, 371, 375 3 8 7 J Gregorians (Arme- nians), 43,46, 58f., 63, 66, 102 f., 132, 134, 156, 158 f., 162; Jaco- bites, 43, 46, 50, 64, 117, 122, l8l, 340 ; Koptic Church, 39, 43, 45 f., S 8 , 63, 65, 342 f., 344, 375 2. Nestorian Church, The, 40 f., 46, 58, 7 if., 304, 310-314 3. " Orthodox " Churches : Greek Orthodox Church, 37-40, 45 f., 64, 68, 104 f., 162, 225 f., 340; autonomous National Churches in Bulgaria, 38, 50, 167 ; in Cyprus, 38 ; in Greece, 37 f., 50, 165 ff., 415; in Hungary, 38; in Montenegro, 22, 38 ; in Rou- mania, 38; in Russia, 37, 56 ff., 311-314; in Servia, 38, 73. 4. Roman Catholic Churches= Uniate Churches=Churches of the Oriental Rites : Chaldeans= Uniate Nestorians, 41, 51, 53 f. ; Maronites, 47, 50, 54 ; Melchites, 50, 53 f., 181, 199 f.; Latin rite, 49 ; Grseco-Roumanian rite, 49 ; Graeco-Ruthenian rite, 49 ; Uniate Abyssinians, 53; Uniate Arme- nians, 50-54; Uniate Bulgarians, 50 ; Uniate Greeks, 50 ; Uniate Jacobites, 50, 53 f. ; Uniate Kopts, 49, 52; Uniate Servians, 50. Oriental Christians, Position of under Turkish rule, 58-63, 227 ; relation between Protestants and non- Prot- estants, 69 f.; 75, H2f., 156, 158 f., 225, 313 Oriental rites, Churches of the see Oriental Churches Origen, 37 Orphanages, 156, 162, 260, 315 Osmanli Dynasty, 35 Othman, 183 Ottoman Empire see Turkish Em- pire Oussani, 41 PACHOMIUS, 342 Palestine, 37, 57, 8l, 229-270 432 Index Palestine and Lebanon Nurses' Mission, The, 206 Palgrave, William Gifford, 28 Palmer, 262 Panislamism, The ideal of, 35 f., 359 f., 414 Papizian, Ohannes, 145 Parry, O. H., 310 Parsees, The, 332 Parsegh, 102 Parsons, Levi, 185, 235 Passionists, The, 55 Patras, i66f. Patterson, Dr., 256 Patriarch of Aghtamar, 45 ; of Alex- andria, 38 ff., 57, 64 ; of Antioch, 38 ff., 43 57 64; of Constantinople (Armenian), 45 ; of Constantinople (Orthodox), 37 ff. ; of Jerusalem (Ar- menian), 45 ; of Jerusalem (Ortho- dox), 39 f. ; of Mardin, 51; of Sis, 45 Paul of Thebes, 342 Paul, C., 371, 383 Pera, 120 Pera Johannes, 308 Peramos, 50 Perkins, Justin, 294 ff., 301, 303, 406 Persia, II, 17, 19, 23, 41, 44, 58, 79, 99 f., 176, 279-336; missions in, 294- 33.6 Persian influence on Islam, 280-294 Persian Parliament, The, 334 ff. Peshtimaljan, 107 Pfander, Karl Gottlieb, rooff., I73ff., 351*403 Pfeifer, 106 Pflanz, 257 Philip, Dr., 398 Philippopolis, 50, 53, i68ff., 176 Pinkerton, 350 Pius IX, 55 Plymouth Brethren, The, 315, 350 Pobedonoszeff, 154 Poitiers, 21 Port Said, 409 Port Sudan, 369 Post, Dr., 217 Prcetorius, 405 Preparandi Institute, The, 244, 252 Presbyterians, American, 212; Cana- dian, 398 ; Northern, 163, 400 ; in Persia, 303-308; in Syria, 212-223; Reformed (Covenanters), 208-211; Southern, 166, 170; see also United Presbyterians Presbyteries, formation of, in Egypt, 353; in Syria, 215 Priests of the Heart of Jesus, 55 Prime, Ed. G., 106 Prishtina, 170 Pritchet, 249 Procter, Miss Louisa, 206 RAHMAT ALLAH, 101 Ramallah, 240, 257 Ramleh, 40, 240, 248 Ras el Meri, 204 Reformed Nestorian Church, The, 304, 312 Reid, 1 68 Reshid Pasha, 218 Resht, 318, 320 Rhea, 294 Richardson, 165 Riggs, Edward, no Riggs, Elias, 109 f., 133, 170, 401, 406 f. Riley, 310 Robert College, 74, 129 ff., 157, 170 Roman Catholic Missions, 15, 46-56, 67 f., 74, 117, 135, 163, 211 f., 225, 2 95> 3*7. 332, 381, 390, 4H Rosecrucian Sisters, The, 55 Rosen, von, 102 Roumania, 19, 37 f., 73, 92 Rumelia, 169 Rumi Melleti, 37 Russian Bible Society, The, 91, 106, 409 Russian Church see Oriental Churches Russian Palestine Association, The, 333 Russian pilgrims in Palestine, 233 Russian policy in the Near East, 17, 19, 22, 36, 39, 44, 50, 57 f., 92, 102, 118, '35' *37 '49, i53 ff - l6 8, 226, 233 Russo-Japanese War, The, 314 Russo-Turkish War, The, 167 Rustchuk, 50, 169 Ruthenians, The, 37 SABAGADIS, 378, 380 Sabbatists, The, 258 Sacy, Silvestre de, 184 Sadad, 43 Sadi, 282 Safdar Ali, IOI Safed, 207, 230, 239, 256, 409 Safita, 195 Sahela Selassie, 381 Said Pasha, 338, 345 f., 398 St. Crischona Mission House, 243, 382 St. George's Hospital, Beirut, 197 Index 433 St. John, German Hospital of the Knights of, 186, 202, 217 St. Joseph's University, 56 St. Maron, Monastery of, 47 St. Paul's College, 157 Salesians of Dom Bosco, The, 55 Salraas, 304, 318 Salomo, Alexander, 239 Salonica, 166, 169 f., 392, 395, 397, 409 Samakov, 169 f. San Stephano, Peace of, 136 Sana, 105 Sandrezky, Dr., 245, 269 Sanussi, 33 Sanussiyah (Senussi), The see Dervish Orders Sarki Hambarzumoff, 103 Sassanides, The, 141, 279 Sassun, 139, 144 Saud, 273 Schauffler, William Gottlieb, 107, 396 f., 401, 407 Scheele, Bishop, 260 Schick, Baurat, 262 Schlienz, C. F., 95, 97 Schlotthauer, 347, 355 Schneller, Ludwig, 52, 55, 259, 262-267 Schneller, Theodor, 265 Scio, 176 Scios, 165 Scottish Missions among the Jews, 394> 396-399 ; in Abyssinia, 383 f. ; in Egypt, 345 ; in Persia, 319 ; in Syria and Palestine, 205, 244, 256 Scottish National Bible Society, 409 Scrimgeour, Dr., 258 Scutari, 133, 157 Sebastiani, L., 403 Self-support, 121, 160, 228, 305 Selim Effendi Williams, 173, 175 Sell, 184, 286 Sephardim, The, 392 f. Servia, 19, 21, 23, 37 f., 73, 169 f. Seyyid Kasim, 286 Sharon, 231 Shattuck, Miss Corinna, 150 Shebin el Kanatr, 356 Shebin el Kom, 356 Shedd, 294 Shefa Amr, 249 Sheikh Othman, 273 Sheikh Tebersi, 290 Shemacha, 99, 102 f. Shepard, W., 157 Sherif of Mecca, The, 36 Sheverine, 319 Shiites, The, 35, 164, 182, 184, 280 f., 286 f., 289, 326 Shimon, 41 Shiraz, 93, 319, 330, 334, 403 Shoa, 372, 381, 388 Shuma Negus, 388 Shumla, 1 68 Shusha, 99, 102, 155 Shuweifat, 206 Shu weir, 205, 213 Sidon, 194, 203, 213, 222 Sidon Seminary for Girls, The, 222 Silbernagel, 47 Simen, 377 Sinaitic Peninsula, The, 29, 271, 360 Sis, 45 Sisters of the Good Shepherd, 52 Sisters of Mercy, 52 Sisters of Nazareth, 55 Sisters of St. Joseph, 55 Sisters of St. Vincent, 55 Sisters of Zion, 55 Sistowa, 1 68 Sivas, 116, 133, 135, 140, 144, 157 f., 162 Skene, 210 Slave trade, The, 33, 364-367 Slavs, The, 37, 39, 57 Smith, Azariah, 122 Smith, Eli, 41, 106, 190, 196 f., 295,404 Smith, Dr. Mary, 321 Smith, Miss Wordsworth, 206 Smyrna, 50, 53, 96, no, 114, 132, 157, 162, 165 ff., 398 Sobieski, John, 21 Society for Promoting Christian Knowl- edge, The, 309 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, '73. '75' 2 58, 309 Sofia, 50, i69f. Somali, The, 337, 390 Somerset, Lady, 145 Sonegg, Freiherr Hans Ungnad von, 89 Sor, 105 Souchbulak, 1 6 1, 316, 326, 399 Sparta, 165 Spence, D. B., 408 Spillenaar, 356 Spittler, Father, 261, 354 f., 382 Staiger, 383 Stamboul, 20, 90, 157, 162, 178 Stephan III, Patriarch, III Sterling, Canon, 252 Stern, H. A., 377, 383 Stileman, H., 333 Stock, 235, 246 434 Index Stoddard, 294, 296, 302 Stone, Miss Ellen, 169 Stratford Canning de Redcliff, Lord, 113, 172 Strauss, F. A., 259 Streit, 47, 52 Stuart, Bishop, 276, 333 Suakim, 360, 367 Sudan, The, i8f., 22, 33, 363-371, 409 Sudan Pioneer Mission, The, 357 Sueidiye, 211 Suez, 356 Suez Canal, 338 f. Sufism, 281-286 Sulduz, 304 Sullaka, Johannes, 51 Sunna, The, 26, 281 Sunnites, The, 281 Susneus, Negus, 53 Sutton, H. M., 164 Swedish Evangelical National Society, The, 161 Swedish Missions, 260, 314 Swedish National Mission, The, 386-390 Swiss Aid Association, The, 160 Syra, 96 Syria, 24, 37, 43, 57, 62 f., 69, 81, 91, 105, 181-229, 264 Syriac language, The, 42, 295 f., 301, 37 Syrian Protestant College, 74, 186, 202, 218-221, 225 Syrian Protestant Orphanage in Jerusa- lem, 149, 258, 261-267 TABITHA. MISSION, THE, 257 Tabriz, 94, 312, 317 ff., 321, 324 f., 335 Tadem, 145 Tais, 105 Tajura, 381 Talitha Cumi, 268 Tanta, 35 2 f. Tarsus, 74, 157, 163 Tartars, The, 98 f., 155 Tayeleny, 388 f. Taylor, Miss, 207 Teheran, 94, 317-321, 323 f., 326,328, 334 f- 399 Templars, The, 234, 261 Temple colonies, 234 Tendur, 386 Tergawar, 304 Tewfik College, 343 Tewfik Pasha, 339 Theodore II, Negus, 355, 373 f., 382 ff., 386 Theodore of Mopsuestia, 40 Thompson, missionary in Jerusalem, 257 Thompson, Bowen, 203 Thompson, Mrs., 203 Thomson, Wm. M., 198 Thornton, Douglas, 361 f. Thrace, 104, 169 Tiary, 300 Tiberias, 230, 256, 409 Tiflis, 161, 312 Tigr<, 378, 38l, 388 Timbuctoo, 33 Tisdall, W. St. Clair, 331, 405 Tiyaniyah see Dervish Orders Tokat, 56, 93, 1 17, 162 Tomory, A., 396 Torrance, Dr., 256 Transcaucasia, Russian, 97, 152-155 Trappists, The, 55 Trebizond, U4ff., 140 f., 296 Trip, 208 Tripoli (country in Africa), 19, 24, 33 f. Tripoli (town in Syria), 47, 184, 186, 194, 203, 213, 217, 224 Tripoli Girls' School, The, 222 Tristram, Canon, 199, 244 Turkey, 17, 19, 22 f., 28, 37 f., 44, 65, 68, 104 f., 217; Central Turkey Mis- sion, 1 1 6, 126; East Turkey Mission, Ii6f., 126; West Turkey Mission, "7, 125 Turkish Empire, 24, 34 ff., 39, 75, 230 Turkish Constitution, The, 153, 176-180 Turkish language, The, 39, 45, 63, 95, 161 Turkish Missions' Aid Society, The, 118 Turks, The, 23, 104, 131, 138, 152, 230; missions among, 164, 171-176 Tyre, 47, 203 f. UBE, 378, 380 f. Ubeidallah, 183 United Presbyterian Missions among the Jews, 390 ; in Damascus, 207 ; in Egypt, 75 f - 344-354, 35 8 i in the Egyptian Sudan, 367, 369 f. Unyoro, 365 Urfa, 102, 105, 115, 140, 146, 150, 156, 158, 176 Urumiah (Urmia) 41, 114, 116, 150, 292, 297, 302-317, 319, 321, 335, 399 VAN, 41, 45, 105, 116, 139 f., 150 f., 156 f., 159 f., 317 Van Dyck, C. V. A., 196, 198, 217, 404 Vartan, Dr., 258 Index 435 Victoria Hospital, The, in Cairo, 208, Vienna, Siege of, 21 WADAI, Sultan of, 33 Wadi Haifa, 369 Wahabis (Wahabites), The, 27, 35 Wahhab Empire, The, 273 Wahl, 309 Wahuma, The, 337 Waldmeyer, Theophilus, 204, 383 Warka, 188 Warneck, Johannes, 87 Wartabet, Jacob, 187 Washburn, George, 131 Watson, A., 344, 35 l Watson, C. R., 344 Watussi, The, 337 Wazirabad, 308 Weakley, R. H., 101, 401 Welte, 47 Werner, 47 West, Henry, 133^ West, Miss, 162 Western Persia Mission, The, 317 Westminster, Duke of, 149 Westminster Hospital, The, 307 Wetzer, 47 Whately, Miss Mary, 358 White Fathers, The, 55 William of Tyre, 48 Williams, Fenwick, 136 Williams, Miss Juliana, 206 Wilson, C. T., 247, 254 Wilson, John, 207 Wingate, Sir Reginald, 368 Winquist, 408 Wishard, J. G., 321 Wishard, Luther, 130 Witteween, 355 Wolda Michael, 378 Wolters, Theodore Friedrich, 245, 253 Women's Board, The, 169 Women's work, 27, 80, 88 ; in Arabia, 277 f. ; in Egypt, 350, 352; in Persia, 326 f., 332 f. ; in Syria and Palestine, 204, 250 f. ; see also Educational Work Wood, Mrs. George, 222 Worsley, T. H., 206 XAVIER, FRANCIS, 93 Xenophon, 136 VAXES, HOLT, 211 Yaure Abraham, 308 Yemen, 24, 272 Yezd, 291, 319, 330-333 Yezides, The, 185 Yiddish language, The, 393 Yonti, 390 Young, Dr., 274 Young, C. G., 118 Young, John, 27 Young Men's Christian Association, 130 Yusuf Asir, Sheikh, 197 Young Kopts, The, 343 Young Turks, The, 177-180 ZAGAZIG, 352 Zahleh, 203, 213 Zalanes, The, 376 Zangin, 290 Zaremba, Felician, 99, 403 Zazega, 387 Zeile, 389 Zeitun, 115, 118, 135 Zerrin Taj, 289 Zerweck, 328 f. Zeller, Johannes, 96, 244 Ziemendorf, T. H., 357 Zimmies, The, 60, 135, 137 Zionist movement, The, 231 f. Zoar, 202 Zohrab, Dr., 406 Zoroaster, 292 Zoroastrianism, 41 Zoroastrians, The, 279 Zwemer, Peter, 278 Zwemer, S. M., 276, 278, 411 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. FtJ * - / / f / r~r ,;. '2 **v --. '3Fei 1A^/*f lAj*' ..' I^AVC ACTPf? RF'CEIP'' 1 ,"-<;-- raw -. 7 "U tttt O ft-4Qftd K'j. I/"V, QFP JUN ^ ^^ i^' M AV -') Q 1 QQ 4 JAN292006 t MAY ^ J I3o4 NOV 7 20nfi LD Zl-lOOm-T.'^^X^ (07 4927^7 / o I? -r UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY