Ex Libris 
 C. K. OGDEN
 
 CILir. lIBHUfT; 108 ARGBLT
 
 .{I**
 
 fcfcooo 
 
 THE GATE 
 
 UNLOCKED BY A NEW AND EASY METHOD OF ACQUIRING 
 
 ACCIDENCE. 
 
 BY THE AUTHOR OF THE GATE TO THE FRENCH, 
 ITALIAN, AND SPANISH, UNLOCKED. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 WILLIAM GOODIIUGII, ENGLISH AND FOBEIGN BOOKSELLER, 
 
 155, OXFORD STREET, 
 AND GOODHUGH AND RICHARDSON, 4, BERKELEY SQUARE. 
 
 1828.
 
 Priuted by W. Davy, 8, Gilbert-street, Oxford-street.
 
 JUST PUBLISHED, 
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR, 
 THE 
 
 ENGLISH GENTLEMAN'S 
 
 LIBRARY MANUAL; 
 
 OR A 
 
 GUIDE TO THE FORMATION OF A LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 SELECT LITERATURE; 
 
 Accompanied with Original Notices, Biographical and Critical, of 
 Authors and Books. 
 
 -f rc -
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 II est de fait que 1'etude de 1'Hebreu, comine celles des autres 
 langues Orientales, reprend en beaucoup de lieax une nouvelle vie. 
 La Societe Biblique couvrant le monde entier de ses presses et de scs 
 traducteurs, ran'une partout la science des livres saints. 
 
 CELLERIER. 
 
 THE very favorable reception of my little Gate to 
 the French, Italian, and Spanish Languages, (an 
 edition of five hundred copies having been very 
 speedily exhausted,) has encouraged me to finish 
 the present work adapted to the Hebrew, Arabic, 
 and Syriac. Should the present attempt meet with 
 a similar portion of public favor, it is my intention 
 to follow up the plan, by giving cards printed from 
 stone of the various declinable and indeclinable 
 parts of speech, together with the particles and words 
 in most frequent use ; likewise forms for parsing and 
 construing, thus presenting an easy introduction to 
 those languages. 
 
 The present learned Bishop of Salisbury has pub- 
 lished many useful books of this kind, at a moderate
 
 11 PREFACE. 
 
 price; but the recent invention of printing from 
 stone, has given an increased facility of producing 
 useful elementary works. If any thing need be urged 
 as motives to the study of these ancient and beautiful 
 languages, I am sure the observations \ subjoin from 
 learned and , eminent men will stimulate to exertion 
 and application. 
 
 With respect to the elegance and excellence of the 
 Hebrew language, as contained in the writings of 
 the Old Testament, Mr. Addison, in his Spectator, 
 No. 405, remarks, "There is a certain coldness and 
 indifference in the phrases of our European lan- 
 guages, when they are compared with the Oriental 
 forms of Speech ; and it happens very luckily, that 
 the Hebrew idioms run into the English tongue 
 with a peculiar grace and beauty. Our language 
 has received innumerable elegancies and improve- 
 ments from that infusion of Hebraisms which are 
 derived to it out of the poetical passages in holy 
 writ : they give force and energy to our expression, 
 warm and animate our language, and convey our 
 thoughts in more ardent and intense phrases, than 
 any that are to be met with in our own tongue. 
 There is something so pathetic in this kind of dic- 
 tion, that it often sets the mind in a flame, and makes 
 our hearts burn within us. How cold and dead doth 
 a prayer appear that is composed in the most ele- 
 gant and polite forms of speech which are natural to
 
 PREFACE. Ill 
 
 our tongue, when it is not heightened by that solem- 
 nity of phrase, which may be drawn from the Sacred 
 Writings ! It has been said by some of the ancients, 
 that, if the gods were to talk with men, they would 
 certainly speak in Plato's style; but, I think, we 
 may say, with justice, that when mortals converse 
 with their Creator, they cannot do it in so proper a 
 style as in that of the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 "If any one would judge of the beauties of poetry 
 that are to be met with in the Divine Writings, and 
 examine how kindly the Hebrew manners of speech 
 mix and incorporate with the English language; 
 after having perused the Book of Psalms, let him 
 read a literal translation of Horace and Pindar, he 
 will find in these two last, such an absurdity and 
 confusion of style, with such a comparative poverty 
 of imagination, as will make him very sensible of 
 what I have been here advancing." 
 
 The ingenious and learned Rev. Anthony Black- 
 wall, in his Introduction to the Sacred Classics, 
 observes, "The Hebrew is an original and essential 
 language, that borrows of none, but lends to all. 
 Some of the sharpest Pagan writers, inveterate 
 enemies to the religion and learning of both Jews 
 and Christians, have allowed the Hebrew tongue to 
 have a noble emphasis, and a close and beautiful 
 brevity. The metaphors in that admirable book are 
 apposite and lively; they illustrate the truths ex-
 
 IV PREFACE. 
 
 pressed by them, and raise the admiration of the 
 reader. The names of men, animals, &c., are very 
 significant. One word is often a good description, 
 and gives you a satisfactory account of the chief and 
 distinguishing property or quality of the thing or 
 person named. 
 
 " It would be no difficult matter for a man of dili- 
 gence and good taste, to prove that the Hebrew 
 Bible has every beauty and excellence that can be 
 found in all the Greek and Roman authors ; and a 
 great many more and stronger than any in the most 
 admired classics. 
 
 "One might with pleasure enlarge upon numerous 
 instances of the sublimity and admirable beauties of 
 the Old Testament, which are above imitation, and 
 defy criticism and censure." 
 
 The learned Buxtorf has proved, that God him- 
 self breathed this language into the first parents of 
 mankind. 
 
 And Melancthon says, " I prefer the knowledge of 
 the Hebrew before all the wealth of a kingdom." 
 
 Even the great reformer, Martin Luther, says, 
 "Although my knowledge of the Hebrew language 
 is but small, yet I would not exchange it for all the 
 wealth of the world." 
 
 Henry Ainsworth, the translator of the Pentateuch 
 and Psalms, observes, "that the literal sense of 
 Moses's Hebrew is the ground of all interpretations."
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 Dr. Bryan Walton, in his Prolegomena to the 
 Polyglot, says, "How absurd is it, that an ambassa- 
 dor should not understand the commands of his king, 
 but depend upon an interpreter for every word he 
 speaks at a foreign court." 
 
 The author of the Linguist observes, that "the 
 Hebrew is the most pure, simple, ancient, and radical 
 language. The Hebrew only is from God, and the 
 mother of all other languages." 
 
 And another author tells us, that t( the Hebrew 
 Scriptures contain the sum of all we can know in 
 divinity and in natural things." 
 
 Pere Lamy, in his Introduction to the Holy Scrip- 
 tures, says, that "the preachers of the gospel are the 
 more inexcusable in neglecting the Scriptures, be- 
 cause they can no where find so rich and inexhausti- 
 ble a fund for their purpose as there. All the 
 foundations of true eloquence, extraordinary actions, 
 rich expressions, fine examples, apt comparisons, and 
 striking figures, are found in them in great abun- 
 dance; and all those ornaments which give strength 
 and dignity to discourse. 
 
 The Rev. James Hervey, in his Meditations, ob; 
 serves, that " the Hebrew is so pregnant and rich in 
 sense, that no translation can do it justice. 
 
 The Rev. Anselm Bayley, LL.D., in the Preface 
 to his Hebrew and English Bible, says, "It is a 
 shame, if not a crime, for the clergy to be unac- 
 quainted with this language."
 
 Vl PREFACE. 
 
 Likewise the late Rev. Mr. Romaine, on the Song 
 of Solomon, asserts, "Without being acquainted 
 with the Hebrew tongue, no man can be a critic upon 
 the writings of the Old Testament." 
 
 The late learned and reverend Dr. John Ryland, 
 of Northampton, observes, that u no man can be 
 reckoned a scholar without the knowledge of the 
 Hebrew language: sound human learning cannot 
 exist without the clear knowledge of it. For what 
 is human learning but a knowledge of books and 
 facts, of characters, times, and ages, the original 
 springs of action, and our connection with God, and 
 all mankind? But how can this be attained, except 
 by a familiar acquaintance with that admirable book, 
 which discovers the natural and moral perfections of 
 God ; the origin and structure of the universe, our 
 incessant dependance on the universal agency of God, 
 the ultimate design of our immortal powers, and the 
 last end of the whole creation ? In a word, if there be 
 any ambition to excel, in the ingenuous part of the 
 British youth ; if there be any love and admiration of 
 vital virtue; if there be any desire to rise above the 
 vulgar and ignorant part of mankind ; if you have 
 any clear sense of the noble, the beautiful, and the 
 affecting, you will seize the opportunity of' being 
 made acquainted with the sacred literature, now the 
 thorns and briars, the brambles and stinging nettles, 
 are removed from the passage, and the path to the 
 sacred language is strewed with flowers."
 
 PREFACE. Vll 
 
 Such indeed are the testimonies of many great and 
 learned men, who have all taken a peculiar delight 
 in the study of this most ancient language; and where 
 can it be found in its purity, but in the Oracles of 
 Truth, which were dictated by God himself, and com- 
 municated to us by the blessed instruments of his 
 inspiration I In fact, the Hebrew has an emphatic 
 energy, which it is not in the power of any version 
 to equal; and if we could understand the Scriptures 
 without it, yet it would be a sufficient motive to 
 stimulate us to the study of it, because it has been 
 consecrated by the mouth of the Almighty. 
 
 The Arabic language is undoubtedly one of the 
 most ancient in the world, and arose soon after, if 
 not at, the confusion of Babel. There were several 
 dialects of it very different from each other : the 
 most remarkable was that spoken by the tribe of 
 Hamyar, and the other genuine Arabs, and that of 
 the Koreish. The Hamyaritic seems to have ap- 
 proached nearer to the purity of the Syriac than the 
 dialect of any other tribe; for the Arabs acknowledge 
 their father Yarab to have been the first whose 
 tongue deviated from the Syriac (which was his 
 mother-tongue, and is almost generally acknowledged 
 by the Asiatics to be the most ancient,) to the Arabic. 
 
 The dialect of the Koreish is usually termed the 
 pure Arabic, or as the Koran, which is written iu 
 this dialect, calls it the perspicuous and clear Arabic;
 
 Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 perhaps, says Dr. Pocock, because Ismael, their 
 father, brought the Arabic he had learned of the 
 Jorhamites nearer to the original Hebrew. But the 
 politeness and elegance of the Koreish is rather to 
 be attributed to their having the custody of the 
 Caaba, and dwelling in Mecca, the centre of Arabia, 
 as well as more remote from intercourse with foreign- 
 ers, who might corrupt their language. The Arabic 
 is harmonious and expressive ; and withal so co- 
 pious, that they say no man without inspiration can 
 be a perfect master of it in its utmost extent. 
 
 I should feel great pleasure in contributing my 
 aid in the formation of a Language Society, on a 
 similar plan to that described at the end of this vo- 
 lume ; and would cheerfully render my assistance to 
 those who might be inclined to come forward for 
 that purpose. 
 
 October, 1827.
 
 LANGUAGES. 
 
 rp 
 
 A HE similitude and derivation of languages afford 
 the most indubitable proof of the traduction of nations, 
 and the genealogy of mankind. They often add phy- 
 sical certainty to historical evidence, and supply the 
 only evidence of ancient migrations, and of the revo- 
 lutions of ages which left no written monuments behind 
 them. 
 
 " Every man's opinions, at least his desires, are a 
 little influenced by his favourite studies. My zeal for 
 languages may seem perhaps rather overheated, even 
 to those by whom I desire to be well esteemed. To 
 those who have nothing in their thoughts but trade or 
 policy, present power, or present money, I should not 
 think it necessary to defend my opinions ; but with 
 men of letters I would not unwillingly compound, by 
 wishing the continuance of every language, however 
 narrow in its extent, or however incommodious for 
 common purposes, till it is reposited in some version 
 B
 
 of a known book, that it may be always hereafter ex- 
 amined and compared with other languages, and then 
 permitting its disuse. For this purpose the translation 
 of the Bible is most to be desired." Dr. Johnson. 
 
 In a work of this kind, some notices of the literature 
 and mode of education, as practised among the Jews, 
 and several of the eastern nations, may not be un- 
 acceptable 
 
 The Jewish doctors carry their information on Ihis 
 subject to a very high antiquity, and assert that Cain 
 applied himself to the invention of mechanical arts ; his 
 younger brother Seth instructed his posterity in vir- 
 tuous practices, and was skilled in astronomy ; he 
 erected two noble pillars for the preservation of that 
 knowledge which should stand the shock of an uni- 
 versal deluge Josephus is positive that one of them 
 was extant in his time. 
 
 Noah in blessing his son Japhet, says, " that he shall 
 dwell in the tents of Sem." Several expositors under- 
 stand this of the schools of Sem, which were also 
 famous in the days of Rebecca, as alluded to in the 
 Ghaldee Paraphrase. 
 
 These schools were afterwards supported by Heber, 
 from whom the Hebrews took their name ; the Jewish 
 doctors say that Jacob studied in the schools of Sem 
 and Heber, Abraham, they say, raised himself to a 
 wonderful eminence in all branches of knowledge ; he 
 came to a knowledge of the only true God by his
 
 contemplation of the heavenly bodies, and the wonder- 
 ful harmony in the works of creation ; assisted with 
 the singular blessing of Heaven, he therefore forsook 
 his idolatrous country and became a zealous promoter 
 of the worship and service of the true God. It is said 
 that he removed the souls he had gotten ; the Chaldee 
 Paraphrase interprets this, of the souls he had subdued to 
 the law of his God ; and other expositors, of the souls 
 he had proselyted and converted from Paganism. 
 
 When Jacob journeyed to Succoth, and built him 
 a house that is, as Philo renders, it, a house and tents 
 to the Lord in the Chaldee house of learning ; as 
 also where it is said of Joseph, that he taught Pharoah's 
 senators wisdom, that is, imparted knowledge to 
 them. 
 
 After the deliverance from the captivity, no con- 
 siderable number of the Jews settled at any time or 
 place, without appointing some public teachers and 
 public schools. In particular places, every congre- 
 gation was obliged to take the care of furnishing out a 
 place of public education ; whoever neglected this, 
 made themselves liable to an Anathema. 
 
 God commanded Moses to appoint and choose se- 
 venty of the elders, men of wisdom, understanding, 
 integrity, and all those qualities that enable others to 
 judge and teach, to assist him in the government and 
 to instruct the people. He accordingly chose and ap- 
 pointed them, himself being chief, constituting a 
 senate or consistory of seventy-one, which, by way of 
 excellence, was called the Great Consistory, and lat- 
 terly, the Sanhedrim. They were the fountain source 
 of wisdom and learning to the whole nation, being in- 
 vested with all manner of jurisdiction. They had 
 B2
 
 power to depute and appoint lesser consistories of 
 twenty-three : two of which were in Jerusalem, the one 
 at the door of the court of the temple, and one in every 
 city throughout all Israel, who had likewise power to 
 teach and instruct the people in their respective dis- 
 tricts, and to approve of and promote lesser schools ; to 
 judge and answer any questions concerning the true 
 sense and interpretation of scripture, and in points of 
 great difficulty were to apply to the great consistory, 
 which was constantly held at Jerusalem, in the paved 
 chamber near the temple. This constitution first gave 
 rise to their regular schools, and lasted until the de- 
 struction of the temple. :f <j^-; 
 
 The Prophet Samuel presided in a school called 
 Naioth, or Ramab, where he instructed the people in 
 matters of policy, in which respect he was their judge ; 
 and in matters of religion as their doctor or public 
 teacher. Hence it is that the Jewish expositors, by the 
 company of prophets, generally understand the scholars 
 under his charge and tuition, (I Samuel, xix. 18, 
 19, 20) ; and by the word Naioth, a public school. 
 
 The next considerable place of public teaching was 
 the College, or school of Jerusalem, mentioned in 
 Kings, xxii. 14 ; where we are informed that; Josiah, 
 upon hearing the book of the law, presented and 
 read to him by Halkiah the priest, and reflecting upon 
 the manifold corruptions of his time, rent his clothes, 
 and sent to inquire of the Lord ; that is, sent some 
 special messengers to Huldah the prophetess, who was 
 then in the school of Jerusalem, and in conferring with 
 whom, they were instructed in the will of the Lord. 
 
 Afterwards Jehoshaphat, moved by the same con- 
 sideration, appointed not only schools in the chief
 
 cities but also in all parts of his kingdom, and sent 
 eminent men for teachers, who should everywhere 
 instruct the people in the true worship and service of 
 God. 2 Cliron. xvii. 
 
 From the time of this good prince, until the Ba- 
 bylonish captivity, schools flourished or decayed, 
 according as they were supported by good, or dis- 
 countenanced by wicked kings. 
 
 The School of the the Prophets, over which Elisha 
 presided, was so numerous, that application was made 
 for enlarging the building, which was represented to 
 him as too small ; Elisha complied with the request, and 
 encouraged the work by his personal assistance, even 
 to a miracle. 2 Kings, vi. 1 6. 
 
 During the time of the captivity in Babylon, schools 
 were kept up and supported, as the Jews were always 
 allowed the freedom of their own law. Daniel at 
 this time had acquired so great a reputation for wisdom 
 and learning, that he was consulted by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar about that remarkable vision, which all the wise 
 men of his kingdom had in vain attempted to make 
 known. His reputation was still more enhanced by 
 the great service he did Belshazzar, in regard to the 
 fearful handwriting on the wall, 
 
 When it pleased God to deliver his people out of 
 captivity, the schools began to flourish again. When 
 Cyrus had published his royal edict for the rebuilding 
 of Jerusalem, (foretold by the prophet, Isaiah xliv.45) 
 we find by the interposition of their adversaries, whose 
 services were not accepted in the building, an inter- 
 ruption for some time took place by a decree of Artax- 
 erxes, surnamed Longimanus ; but Darius, commonly 
 called Nothus, otherwise the Syrian, having rein-
 
 forced the decree of Cyrus, Ezra undertook the pious 
 work, and by an unwearied diligence brought it to 
 perfection. 
 
 Ezra is thought by some to be the same with Malachi, 
 the prophet. In Malachi, i. 1. it is said, "the burthen 
 of the word of the Lord to Israel, by the hand of Ma- 
 lachi." The Chaldee Paraphrase adds, who is called 
 Ezra the scribe. His accomplishments were very 
 extraordinary ; he is said to have been a ready scribe 
 in the law of Moses, and was a person of very great 
 abilities, which qualified him to digest the Holy Scrip- 
 tures into the order and method in which they now 
 appear. He added the points, which are used to this 
 day. And of no less integrity, for he " prepared bis 
 heart to seek the law of his God, and to do it, and to 
 teach in Israel statutes and judgements, " Ezra, vii. In 
 his time was instituted the great synagogue of the 
 hundred and twenty elders, whereof he was a principal 
 member, and which continued until the days of Simeon, 
 surnamed the just, who was one of this number, and 
 the same who received Alexander the great, upon his 
 approach to Jerusalem, in the course of his victories. 
 
 In succeeding ages many celebrated schools were 
 maintained, particularly those of Javne, Tiberias, 
 Sipora, and many more which were situated in Judaea; 
 over these schools presided many celebrated and 
 learned doctors. In this rank may justly be placed 
 those two eminent men, Hillel and Shammai. 
 
 Learning thus continued to flourish in Judasa, and 
 was promoted and cultivated until the days of Judas, 
 surnamed the Holy, who was author of the Mishna. 
 After his decease, two of his principal scholars, de- 
 parting from. Judasa into Babylon, erected schools, and
 
 drew after them the greatest part of the doctors ; though 
 it is not probable that even then Palestine was destitute 
 of learning, nor that the schools were quite shut up. 
 The Talmudists expressly assert the contrary. 
 
 The principal schools in Babylon were those of 
 Nahardea, Sora, and Pumbeditha ; they flourished in 
 Babylon until the year of the world, 4797, as appears 
 from the names of the chief rulers and doctors residing 
 there, preserved in the Chronicles of the Jews. 
 
 At this era, the Jews being dispersed all over the 
 world, these schools ceased, but wherever a competent 
 number met and settled into a community, their first 
 care was to erect schools ; many of them had great 
 renown in various countries of Europe, as Spain, 
 Portugal, Germany, and likewise in the Persian and 
 Turkish dominions. Funds were provided and settled, 
 according to the greater or lesser number of those to 
 be instructed, and in case of refusal, the greater cities 
 had power to excommunicate. Every master of a 
 family was obliged to maintain a tutor at his own 
 private charge, until his children be out of the lower 
 forms, and had, by their proficiency in learning, quali- 
 fied themselves for the higher schools. 
 
 Two of the chief men in every synagogue were 
 appointed yearly, about the day of Pentecost, whose 
 duty it was to take care of the schools ; they were 
 likewise to take care that the youth in the synagogue 
 perform their devotions solemnly and regularly, with 
 power to inflict punishment. 
 
 The qualifications of masters of schools were, that 
 they should possess considerable intellectual abilities, 
 and of known probity and integrity; their lives com-
 
 porting with their doctrine, that they might be able to 
 instruct both by precept and example. The scholars 
 were expected to be of a humble and docile disposi- 
 tion, that they should behave themselves with modesty, 
 and an agreeable reverence to their teachers ; in every 
 way to be qualified by virtue and good manners to 
 reap the benefits of their instruction. Should either 
 master or scholar be found incapable of rising to a 
 sufficient pitch of learning, he was to bu removed and 
 sent to some meaner employment, it being thought 
 inconsistent with the honour and dignity of the law 
 to be handled by persons of inferior abilities. No child 
 was to be admitted in the public schools under six 
 years of age, they were then to be prepared by being 
 accustomed to repeat some principal texts of the law, 
 as " Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord," 
 &c. Upon their first admission, they were to be in- 
 structed in the law of Moses, the text and historical 
 passages, with the writings of the prophets, it 
 being considered most proper that their first advances 
 in learning should have their foundation in religion, 
 that both might grow up together. After this, they 
 were to proceed to the Oral Law, or Mishna, whereby 
 they are to be instructed in the literal sense and 
 meaning of the written law, being already acquainted 
 with the text. The masters were accustomed to pro- 
 pound allegories and parables to their scholars, under 
 which some useful piece of knowledge was concealed, 
 and required them to find out the allusion. 
 
 On reference to history, this practice will be found 
 to have very generally obtained among philosophers 
 ana 1 poets in the East. 
 
 From this they advanced to logic, then to natural
 
 9 
 
 philosophy, and some part of mathematical science; 
 and lastly, to metaphysics. J (Jff 
 
 Natural philosophy was taught from the first chapter 
 of the book of Genesis, and was called the study of 
 the work of creation. 
 
 Their metaphysics were grounded upon the first 
 chapter of Ezekiel. 
 
 The number of scholars allowed to the care of one 
 master was twenty-five, should the number increase to 
 forty, the master was obliged to take an assistant. 
 
 In the greater schools, the number was not precisely 
 determinate, amounting sometimes to three or four 
 hundred, according to the populousness of the place; 
 in these, the masters read in the quality of professors. 
 
 The scholars were obliged to pay the same honour 
 to their masters as to their parents, upon which account 
 they were not permitted to call them by their own 
 names, but that of master. No person was permitted to 
 become a teacher, unless he had conferred upon him the 
 necessary degrees required to fit him for that charge. 
 This was done before the congregation by laying on of 
 hands, and he was then taken by the hand and placed 
 in a chair, appointed for that purpose, tn some 
 places, a book of the law was put into his hand, 
 and he was proclaimed a teacher or doctor. The title 
 was different in various places, though the most general 
 was that of Rabbi. The practice had its origin in 
 ancient times, as in Deut. xxxiv. 9, " And Joshua, 
 the son of Nun, was full of the spirit of wisdom, for 
 Moses had laid his hands upon him."
 
 10 
 
 JLtterature, anfc Heatneti Jflen of 
 
 THE MISHNA. 
 
 This great work, which is most ancient and venera- 
 ble, contains an account of all those doctrines and 
 practices which were delivered by Moses himself, and 
 continued and preserved to posterity, by oral tradition, 
 until the foundation of the second temple. B.C. 847. 
 
 In this period, the great synagogue flourished, being 
 supported by some of the prophets, and other persons 
 of eminence, such as Haggai, Malachi, Mordecai, 
 Ezra, &c. the last of this great synagogue was Simeon, 
 surnamed the just ; he was president of the great 
 school, and he was the same who is called in the 
 Mishna Iddo, or Jaddus, the high priest. 
 
 In the next period, Antigonus Sochotensis was 
 president, B.C. 308, whose scholar was Sadoc, who, 
 by perverting and abusing his master's doctrine, gave 
 birth to the opinions of the Sadducees, touching the 
 resurrection and rewards in a future state. Antigonus 
 taught that we were obliged to serve God out of pure 
 IOTC, and not out of a prospect of being rewarded by 
 him, from which Sadoc inferred, that there shall be no 
 rewards in another life, nor, consequently, any resur- 
 rection from the dead. 
 
 In the fourth period, which occurs B.C. 260, there 
 was Jose Ben Joezer, and Jose Ben Johanan ; as also 
 R. Eleazar, the high priest, who sent seventy-two elders 
 to Ptolemy, to be employed in the translation of the 
 Bible, usually called the septuagint version.
 
 11 
 
 To these succeeded, in the next period, B.C. 251, 
 Joshua the son of Perechias Johanan, the son of 
 Matthias, the high priest; and Nittai, the Arbelite. 
 
 After these flourished, B.C. 134, Judah the son of 
 Tabbai, and Simeon the son of Sattah. 
 
 In the seventh period, B.C. 38, the rulers were 
 Shemaiah and Abtaleon, who were not jews originally 
 but proselytes, and were descended from King Senna- 
 cherib, as is reported by tradition. 
 
 The next period was B.C. 32, in which the Iwo 
 eminent doctors Hillel and Shammai flourished ; as 
 also the celebrated Jonathan Ben Uziel, the author of 
 the Chaldee Paraphrase upon the Pentateuch, and 
 some other parts of the bible; together with R. Nehem- 
 nias the son of Kannah, who wrote a profound and 
 elaborate discourse on the Cabbala, or Scripture Myste- 
 ries, entitled Sepher-Habbahir, of which only some 
 parts are in print. He wrote, likewise, another book 
 concerning the Tetragrammaton. There were likewise, 
 at this time, R. Hannania Ben Hezekia, who com- 
 posed a book entitled Megillath Tannith, which gives 
 an historical relation of the afflictions and troubles 
 that have happened to the Jewish nation, and the 
 miraculous deliverances which were vouchsafed to 
 them, from whence fasts or feasts were instituted. 
 In the Talmud, this work is inserted next to the 
 Mishna. 
 
 The ninth period occurs in the year of our Lord 8; 
 at which time, Rabban Simeon Ben Hillel the elder 
 flourished ; he was the first to whom the title of Rabban 
 was attributed, which afterwards continued to the 
 chief ruler of the Sanhedrim ; before they were only 
 called by their proper names. There was also R.
 
 12 
 
 Johanan Ben Zacchee, who lived above one hundred 
 and twenty years, and bred up a great many eminent 
 and learned men. 
 
 The next period, A.D. 28, is remarkable for the 
 removal of the great Sanhedrim from the temple of 
 Jerusalem to the school of Jabne, where learning was 
 attended with those advantages and encouragements, 
 which, during the troubles at Jerusalem, could not be 
 expected; and here R. Simeon the second, the son 
 of Gamaliel, began to preside, A.D. 50, being eighteen 
 years before the destruction of the temple. He was a 
 few years afterwards one of the ten most eminent 
 martyrs who suffered for their constant adherence to 
 their religion. 
 
 The above relation mentions a few of the eminent 
 men noticed in the Mishna until the destruction of 
 the temple, from which a new era begins, and includes 
 a notice of some celebrated in their respective periods 
 until the Mishna was committed to writing. In the 
 first period, A.D. 73, after the martyrdom of R. 
 Simeon ; R. Johanan Ben Zacchee, retiring to Jabne, 
 was constituted ruler of the Sanhedrim, in which 
 honourable post he continued until his death. At this 
 time, likewise, flourished R. Gamaliel the second ; as 
 also R. Eliezer the great, the son of Hircanus, who 
 composed several treatises, particularly one entitled 
 Orchoth Charim, being a moral discourse, designed to 
 promote the government and regulation of men's lives, 
 according to the rules of virtue ; which was printed at 
 Constantinople, Venice, and Cracow; and another 
 entitled Perke Eliezer, wherein he comprises th 
 history of the world, deducing it down to the time of 
 R, Gamaliel the second. This book was printed at
 
 13 
 
 Venice in 1544; there is another book under this 
 name, quoted by the title of Tzavaath R. Eliezer, being 
 of the same argument with the first, and directed to 
 his son by way of legacy. 
 
 In the second period, which is in the year of Christ 
 80, flourished R. Akibah, and presided over the 
 Sanhedrim. He was a proselyte, and was supposed 
 to have been of the posterity of Sisera. The following 
 treatises are assigned to him: Othioth, wherein he 
 expounds, alphabetically, the Cabbala, printed at 
 Cracow. Jetzirah, or Sepher Jetzirah, that is, the 
 book of creation, a celebrated cabbalistical treatise 
 printed in the year 1560. Mechilta, a mystical com- 
 mentary, or an allegorical exposition of some sections 
 of the book of Exodus, printed at Venice 1520. 
 
 There are other books upon this subject, which, 
 though not written by him, are yet all of them com- 
 posed agreeably to his doctrine; as Siphra, Siphri, &c. 
 In this period, Onkelos flourished, celebrated for his 
 Chaldee paraphrase upon the Bible; as also R. Ishmael, 
 and R. Ishmael Be'n Elisha, who published several 
 books, particularly a cabbalistical treatise, entitled 
 Enoch, or Pirke Hechaloth, quoted in the Zohar, 
 printed at Venice; and a discourse, called the Thirteen 
 Ways of expounding the Law, which is annexed to 
 the Siphra before mentioned. 
 
 In the third period, A.D. 121, flourished R. Simeon 
 the third, the son of R. Gamaliel the second ; and 
 R. Meyr, who was a proselyte, and others. At this 
 time, also, lived R. Simeon Ben Jochai, author of the 
 Zohar, an abstruse cabbalistical commentary upon the 
 Pentateuch ; it was printed at Cremona in 1559, and 
 at Mantua in 1558. Throughout the Talmud, honour-
 
 14 
 
 able mention is made of this rabbi, not only for his 
 great attainments in cabbalistical learning, but also 
 for his extraordinary abilities and skill in deciding 
 many grave questions in the law. There is a book, 
 called Siphri, which likewise goes under his name a 
 mystical and allegorical exposition of the books of 
 Numbers and Deuteronomy. Contemporary to these, 
 was also R. Joseph Ben Halaphta, who published a 
 chronological treatise, called Seder Olam Rabba, from 
 the creation of the world, to the time of the Emperor 
 Hadrian. He was the master of R. Judas, surnamed 
 the holy; there was also R. Nathan the Babylonian, 
 who wrote a treatise, entitled Pirke avoth, containing 
 an account of the moral apothegms, and pious sentences 
 of the fathers of the Jewish church. This book is 
 inserted in the body of the Talmud. 
 
 The fourth and last period of the authors of the 
 Mishna, was A.D. 153, in which flourished R. Juda, 
 commonly styled Rabbenu Hokkadosh, that is, our 
 holy doctor, who committed to writing all the doctrines 
 and practices of the Jewish church, which had been 
 conveyed down to his time by oral tradition. The 
 great work of the Mishna was completed A.D. 218. 
 
 3n Account of tjje Books; of tijr jftfgfma* 
 
 ' , A ,bc>; 
 
 The First is entitled Zerahim, and treats of all those 
 laws, which concern seeds, fruits, herbs, &c. with their 
 uses ; this part comprises eleven books 
 
 The 1st of which is called Berachoth, that is Bles- 
 sings, containing prayers and thanksgivings for the 
 fruits of the earth.
 
 15 
 
 The 2d is called Peak, that is a corner; treating of 
 the obligation to leave some parts or corners of the 
 ground for the benefit of the poor, to be gleaned by 
 them. 
 
 The 3d is called Demai, that is a doubtful thing ; 
 treats of those things concerning which there is a 
 doubt whether or not tithes have been paid of them. 
 
 The 4th is called Kilaim, that is heterogeneous 
 things ; on the unlawfulness of mixing, or joining 
 together, things of a different nature or kind. 
 
 The 5th is called Sheviith, that is the seventh; 
 on the laws of the sabbatical year land was to rest 
 and lie fallow, debts were to be remitted and so on. 
 
 The 6th is called Teroumoth, that is oblations ; on 
 the things each man was compelled to set apart and 
 offer as holy to the Priest. 
 
 The 7th is called Maaseroth, that is the tenths ; 
 treating on the law of tithes. 
 
 The 8th is called Maaser Sheni, that is the second 
 tenths ; on the laws of the second tithes, which the 
 Levites received. 
 
 The 9th is called Challa, that is a cake ; treating on 
 the law which compelled the Israelites to set apart a 
 cake of their dough for the priests. 
 
 The 10th is called Orlah, that is circumcision. 
 
 The llth is called Biccurim, that is first fruits; on 
 what things, and after what manner first fruits were to 
 be offered in the temple. 
 
 The Second general head is called Moed, and treats 
 of all those laws which were given concerning festivals 
 and days of solemn observation ; 
 
 The 1st is an account of the Sabbath Day, and all 
 the solemnities proper to be observed therein.
 
 16 
 
 The 2d is called Eruvim, that is associations; shewing 
 how the food gathered, and put together by several 
 neighbours, should unite them in concord as if belonging 
 lo one family. 
 
 The 3d is called Posachim ; treating of all the rites 
 of the passover. 
 
 The 4th is called Shekalim ; on the shekels to be 
 paid every year, towards the daily sacrifice. 
 
 The 5th is called Junta, which treats of the great 
 day of expiation, and the solemnities to be observed 
 on the occasion. 
 
 The 6th is called Sukka ; giving an account of the 
 feast of Tabernacles. 
 
 The 7th is called Batza called likewise Jom Tofe ; 
 which shews what things may or may not be lawfully 
 undertaken on any festival, except the sabbath. 
 
 The 8th is called Rish Hoshanna ; giving an account 
 of the laws and solemnities of the feast of the new 
 year. 
 
 The 9th is called Taanith; treating of the various 
 fasts and rites throughout the year. 
 
 The 10th is called Megilla ; treating on the feast of 
 Purim, and gives directions how the Book of Esther 
 should be read. 
 
 The 1 1th is called Moedkaton ; which shews what 
 works may lawfully be done on the second, third, 
 fourth, fifth, and sixth days, when the first and 
 seventh are holy these intermediate days being lesser 
 festivals. 
 
 The 12th is called Chagiya ; giving an account how 
 persons ought to be qualified to appear before the 
 Lord at the three great solemnities of the year.
 
 17 
 
 The Third general head, entitled Nashin, treats of 
 the laws pertaining to women, as marriages, divorces, 
 &c. and are comprised in the following books. 
 
 The 1st is called Jehammoth \ on the law obliging 
 the brother to marry his brother's widow, and what 
 ceremonies were to accompany it. 
 
 The 2d is called Kethubboth; discoursing on the 
 law of dowries. 
 
 The 3d is called Kiddushin ; treating on the laws of 
 betrothing. 
 
 The 4th is called Gitlin ; on the laws of divorcement. 
 
 The 5th is called Nedarim ; giving an account of 
 what vows are obligatory. 
 
 The 6th is called Nasir ; on the laws relating to the 
 Nazarites. 
 
 The 7th is called Sofa ; on the laws touching an 
 adulterous woman. 
 
 The Fourth general head, called Nezichin, treats 
 of the injuries done either by man or beast, what 
 punishment may legally be inflicted on the party 
 offending, and what reparation to the party offended ; 
 comprising the following books. 
 
 The 1st is called Ba.va-Ka.ma \ on the damages sus- 
 tained from either man or beast. 
 
 The 2d is called Bava-Metzia ; on the laws of usnry 
 letting to hire. 
 
 The 3d is called Bava-Bathra ; on the laws relating 
 to commerce, buying and selling the laws of inhe- 
 ritances. 
 
 The 4th is called Sanhedrim ; giving an account of 
 the great senate, and other inferior courts of judi- 
 cature. 
 
 The 5th is called Makkoth ; treating of the forty 
 c
 
 stripes, and the reason the Rabbles subtracted one 
 from the number. 
 
 The 6th is called Shevrioth , treating on the law of 
 oaths. 
 
 The 7th, on the nature of evidence and decisions of 
 important questions, collected from the testimonies of 
 .some of the most celebrated Rabbies. 
 
 The 8th is called Horaioth ; on the punishment of 
 persons acting in opposition to the decrees of the 
 Sanhedrim. . ted 
 
 . The 9th is called Avoda Zara, or Avodath Chochalim ; 
 treating on idolatory. ?m ^; 
 
 The 10th is called Aboth ; giving an historical 
 account of those fathers, who, in their respective ages, 
 delivered the oral law ; with the moral sayings and 
 maxims of the fathers. 
 
 The Fifth general head, called Kodashim, treats of 
 the laws relative to sacrifices, and all religious per- 
 formances ; containing eleven books. 
 
 The 1st is called Zebachim ; treating on the nature 
 .of sacrifices. 
 
 The 2d is called Cholin ; treating of the clean and 
 unclean animals. 
 
 The 3d is called Menachotk ; treating of the obla- 
 tions of flour, oil, and wine, proper to each sacrifice. 
 
 The 4th is called Bechoroth ; treating of the first- 
 born of living creatures, and how they are to be offered 
 or redeemed with money, j>ji 3 
 
 The 5th treats of the valuation and tithing of such 
 things as are devoted to the service of the Almighty, 
 in order to their being redeemed. 
 
 The 6th is called Temurah ; shewing how far it may 
 be allowed to exchange one sacred thing for another.
 
 19 
 
 The 7th is called Meilah ; explaining the nature of 
 sacrilege. 
 
 The 8th is called Kerittoth ; explaining the nature 
 of the punishment of the law which is called, " being 
 cut off from his people." 
 
 The 9th is called Tamid ; treating of the daily sacri- 
 fice, and when it was to be offered. 
 
 The 10th is called Middoth; discoursing of the 
 dimensions and proportions of the temple. 
 
 The llth is called Kinnim ; treating of the turtles, 
 or young pigeons, the poor were obliged to offer. 
 
 The Sixth general head, called Taharoth, treats of 
 the general laws relating to pollutions and purifications. 
 
 The 1st is called Kelim ; treating of the pollutions 
 incident to vessels, &c. 
 
 The 2d is called Oholoth; shewing how such pol- 
 lutions are contracted. 
 
 The 3d is called Negahim ; discoursing on the laws 
 relating to leprosy. 
 
 The 4th is called Parah ; shewing how uncleanness, 
 contracted by approaching a dead body, may be puri- 
 fied by the ashes of a red heifer. 
 
 The 5th is called Taharoth ; treating of other kinds 
 of pollutions. 
 
 The 6th is called Mikvaoth ; on the laws relating to 
 baths appointed for purification. 
 
 The 7th is called Nidda; on the laws relating to 
 the pollutions and purifications of women. 
 
 The 8th is called Machsirin\ on the pollution 
 received by seeds or fruits in the mixture of liquids. 
 
 The 9th is called Zabim ; on purification of persons 
 afflicted 
 
 The 10th Tibbul Jom ; on uncleanness, however con- 
 c 2
 
 20 
 
 traded, that is not done away until the going down of 
 the sun. 
 
 The llth is called Judaiim; on the ceremonies 
 observed in washing the hands. 
 
 The 12th is called Oketzim ; on the touching of the 
 stalk, how any sort of fruit may derive a pollution. 
 
 This comprises the whole body of the Mishna. 
 
 When the Mishna was committed to writing, it was 
 received as an authentic body of the law, and taught in 
 all their public schools. 
 
 The Mishna being composed of aphorisms, and 
 short sentences, it was considered requisite to give 
 explanations, to render it more easy and intelligible ; 
 this is what is called 
 
 Cije <5emara, 
 
 and the authors of it, ./Emoraei, or Gemarists. It was 
 first commenced at Jerusalem, in the time of R. Judas : 
 his two sons were the first expositors. R. Oshaya 
 Rabba, also, wrote a treatise called Bereshith Rabba, 
 or an exposition of the Mishna, and another called 
 Tosaphtha. R. Johanan, in the year of the world 
 3990, composed the Talmud of Jerusalem, which 
 Talmud is very brief, and does not reach the whole of 
 the Mishna, because it was composed for the use of 
 the schools in the Holy Land ; it has been printed at 
 Venice, by Bomberg ; and at Cracow, with references. 
 
 The most celebrated of their schools were those of 
 Pumbeditha, Nahardea, and Sora. 
 
 R. Abina, who was rector of the school of Sora, 
 completed the Talmud of Babylon, A. D. 500. 
 
 The Talmud comprises both the Mishna and
 
 21 
 
 Gemara": every Mishna goes before, by way of text; the 
 Gemara is subjoined as a comment; making a com- 
 prehensive body of all the Jewish learning. 
 
 The great author of the Mishna, R. Ashe, propounds 
 four things to be insisted on. 
 
 First. The declaring the reasons, and explaining 
 the grounds upon which every Mishna is established. 
 
 Second. The deciding of points controverted 
 amongst the doctors, and directing whom to follow in 
 practice. 
 
 Third. The decrees and ordinances enacted from 
 the days of R. Juda to his own time. 
 
 Fourth. Some mystical expositions of the law, and 
 parabolical histories, not to be understood according 
 to the letter, but in a figurative sense, and with design 
 to instruct in useful precepts of morality, as has always 
 been the practice of the oriental nations.
 
 >J1O7&W^4 
 
 moo a w.iAfifn j* 
 
 PART II. 
 
 . * .] 
 
 : ; o<f lo wiluaob odf .bnooag. 
 VERSIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, 
 
 (Kerstoiu 
 
 ^-j>tVJff ?uuh 
 The Syriac version is generally acknowledged to be 
 very ancient ; according to the Syrian Christians, part 
 of the Old Testament was translated in the time of 
 Solomon. As there were in the earliest ages of 
 Christianity, some Christians beyond the Euphrates, 
 most of whom, as not being subject to the Roman 
 Empire, understood neither Greek nor Latin, M. Simon 
 supposes that they soon got a version of the New 
 Testament. 
 
 Armenian (tterstan, 
 
 Is said by the historians of that nation, to have been 
 done in the beginning of the fifth century. 
 
 Coptic aerstotu 
 
 Some authors consider it was done in the fourth or 
 fifth century; it agrees in many particulars with the 
 Armenian it was made from the Greek.
 
 23 
 
 Oersfon* 
 
 The Ethiopic version was the first of all those made 
 in the eastern languages, that ever was printed ; some 
 suppose it was done in the third century. 
 
 Ancient versions serve to clear many passages, 
 because most of them were made, if not from the 
 originals, at least from more ancient copies than any 
 we now have ; the earliest is called the Italic version, 
 because it was made in Italy, for the use of the Latins. 
 It was used till the sixth century. There are 
 some parts of it to be seen in the margins of some 
 ancient manuscripts. Dr. Mill supposes it was done 
 in the second century. To this succeeds the Vulgate, 
 or the version of St. Jerome ; towards the end of the 
 fourfh century, he undertook to revise the Italic, and 
 render it more conformable to the Greek. 
 
 rtjjtn of tfte Cfjal&ee 
 
 After the Hebrew language ceased to be the mother 
 tongue of the Jews, the Holy Scriptures, were from 
 that time forward, interpreted in their synagogues, 
 either in Greek or Chaldee, which afterwards gave 
 rise to the Chaldee Paraphrases now extant ; such are 
 those of Onkelos, and Jonathan. Some are of opinion 
 this custom was established by Ezra, it was performed 
 in the following manner : the minister (or aay other 
 person appointed to read) read one verse in the ori- 
 ginal Hebrew, then stopped to let the interpreter speak^ 
 who, standing near him, rendered the whole into the 
 vulgar tongue.
 
 24 
 
 Cije Cabbala, 
 
 Or the doctrine received by tradition it consisted 
 of two parts, one of which contains the opinions, rites, 
 and ceremonies of the Jews, the other the mystical 
 expositions of the law which they called the oral law. 
 This Cabbala was of a very ancient date, and was the 
 occasion of most of the heresies among Christians. 
 The Jews had a great regard for these traditions, 
 looking upon them as the key of the law. 
 
 of Daniel among ttje propfjets, bp 
 
 Maimonides assigns as a reason for the omission, that 
 every thing that Daniel wrote, was not revealed to 
 him when awake, and had the use of his reason ; but 
 in the night only, and in obscure dreams. 
 
 The Sephiroth of the Cabbala, were certain number- 
 ings which were used, to signify the attributes of 
 God, as creator and governor of the world ; the 
 names of these Sephiroth, were crown, wisdom, under- 
 standing, magnificence, severity, glory, victory, foun- 
 dation and kingdom.
 
 2a 
 
 jOTfioo 
 
 Cj)e Synagogue of tije 
 
 Synagogues are so frequently mentioned in the 
 New Testament, that it is necessary we should have 
 a correct notion of them ; they were considered holy 
 places ; the Greek word, as well as the Hebrew, to 
 which it answers, signifies any assembly, whether 
 holy, or profane. The Christians often gave the name 
 of synagogues to their assemblies. 
 
 They were first used by the Jews after the Baby- 
 lonish captivity ; they were erected, not only in towns 
 and cities, but also in the country, near rivers, that 
 they might always have water ready at hand. They 
 were not allowed to build one in any town, unless 
 there were ten persons of leisure in it or persons of 
 learning and approved integrity, free from all worldly 
 occupations, and disengaged from civil affairs. After 
 a synagogue was built, it was consecrated by prayer. 
 
 Belonging to the synagogues were : 
 
 First. The ark, or chest, which contained the book 
 of the law, or Pentateuch the writings of the pro- 
 phets were not laid therein. Before it, there was a 
 vail, representing the vail which separated the holy 
 place from the holy of holies. 
 
 Second. The pulpit, with a desk in the middle of 
 the synagogue, in which he who was to expound the 
 law stood up. 
 
 Third. The seats, or pews, wherein the people 
 sat to hear the law read and expounded, some of 
 which were more honorable than others, which were 
 for the elders. These elders sat with their backs
 
 26 
 
 towards the ark, and their faces to the congregation, 
 who looked towards the ark. 
 
 These seats are called in the gospels, the chief 
 seats, which our Saviour ordered his disciples not to 
 contend for, as the Pharisees did. 
 
 Eules of tlje Synagogue, 
 
 To regulate, and take care of all things belonging 
 to the synagogue service, there was appointed a 
 council, or assembly of grave and wise persons, well 
 versed in the law, over whom was set a president, 
 who was called ruler of the synagogue. 
 
 Office. 
 
 It was the office of the rulers of the synagogue, to 
 teach the people; this they did sometimes by way of 
 dispute and conference; by questions and answers; or 
 by continued discourses, like sermons. All these 
 different ways of teaching, they called by the general 
 name of searching : the discourse, they styled a search, 
 or inquisition ; and him that made it, a searcher, from 
 a Hebrew word, which signifies to dive into the 
 sublime, profound, mystical, allegorical and prophe- 
 tical senses of Holy Scripture. St. Paul asks the 
 Corinthians, " where is the profound searcher of this 
 world?" it is evident, from the epistle to the He* 
 brews,, that the apostle sometimes followed this 
 mystical method.
 
 27 
 
 Stpper Boom, or 
 
 There Were several places, set apart for these 
 searches, or expositions ; sometimes in private houses, 
 for there was no Jew of any learning, but what had, 
 in the upper part of his house, one or more rooms, 
 where he was wont, at certain times, to retire, either 
 to pray, or to meditate upon the law ; several instances 
 of persons retiring on the house-top, to exercise them* 
 selves in works of piety and devotion, are to be met 
 with in the sacred writings ; they were called by the 
 Latins Ccenacula. It was in one of these our Saviour 
 celebrated his last passover ; and in a like place, 
 where the apostles assembled together, when the Holy 
 Ghost came down upon them. 
 i'j) iuftfi fridJ ; faqmirti OJJ Irnooe c' 
 
 .KCftA) ivjHt'J *fcW ,lmrfJ SflX .WliJ Of'; 
 
 Jg)react)tng of Cftrtst (n tl)e >pna00jjue* 
 
 It may seem strange, that the Jews should suffer 
 Jesus Christ, or his disciples, to preach in their syna- 
 gogues, but our wonder will cease, if we consider, 
 first, that they were Jews, and strict observers of the 
 law; secondly, that they were well versed in the law, 
 and even were Rabbins, or Doctors that Jesus Christ 
 was so, is unquestionably certain, since "he is fre- 
 quently called Rabbi by his disciples, and even by the 
 Jews themselves. 
 
 It is evident, from the New Testament and eccle- 
 siastical history, that the sermons and discourses, 
 spoken by the primitive Christians, were regulated
 
 much after the same manner, as those that were 
 delivered in the ancient synagogue of the Jews, 
 
 of tye 
 
 In the synagogue, there were several ministers, who 
 had different employments assigned them ; First, one 
 called Sheliach Zibbor, or the messenger, or angel of 
 the synagogue, standing before the ark, repeated the 
 prayer Kadesh, before and after the reading of the 
 law. Hence it is, that the bishops of the seven 
 churches of Asia, are called the angels of those 
 churches, because, what the Sheliach Zibbor did in 
 the synagogue, that did the bishop in the church. 
 Second, another was called the minister of the syna- 
 gogue, who from the pulpit, gave the Levites notice 
 when they were to sound the trumpet ; this minister* 
 sometimes read the law. The third, was called Chaan, 
 that is, the guardian or keeper ; his business was to 
 take the book of the law out of the ark, and give it 
 to the person appointed to read, and to take it of him, 
 after he had done, and to lay it up in the chest again ; 
 he blew the trumpet upon some particular occasions, 
 to give notice of the sabbath; of the new year; to 
 publish an excommunication ; to let the people know 
 when they should say Amen, and to take care of the 
 synagogue. 
 
 The synagogue service was three times a day, 
 morning, afternoon, and evening; Mondays, Thurs-
 
 29 
 
 days and Saturdays, were considered more solemn than 
 the rest. On the Sabbath-day they had prayers four 
 times. Before the public prayers, the people repeated 
 several private ones, they were nineteen in number : 
 the first, contained praises to God ; second, the con- 
 fession of their sins; third, thanksgivings and peti- 
 tions for all the wants and necessities of this life, as 
 well spiritual as temporal ; when these prayers were 
 ended, the minister standing up, began the public 
 prayers, the people likewise standing. They had also 
 their heads covered with a vail. 
 
 Their service began and ended with the prayer 
 Kadesh, it was composed in these terms : 
 
 " Hallowed be his great Name in the World which 
 he has created according to his good pleasure, and may 
 his kingdom be established ; may we behold his 
 redemption spring up and flourish ; may his Messiah 
 suddenly appear in our days, and in the days of all 
 the house of Israel to deliver his people." 
 
 Prayers being ended, the minister took out the book 
 of the law, which consisted of several rolls of vellum, 
 stitched or placed together, and fastened to sticks, 
 neatly turned. 
 
 The Jews divided the Pentateuch into sections, 
 which they called Paraschahs, one of which being read 
 every Sabbath-day, the whole Pentateuch was thus 
 read over once a year ; after the reading of the law, 
 followed that of the prophets, before which they 
 rehearsed some passage out of the writings of Moses. 
 

 
 CEJje JLato anfc t&e 
 
 Jjslfioqs-i elqo'jr '] s.ij o-, 
 
 By the law and the prophets mentioned in the New 
 Testament, we are to understand, the five books of 
 Moses, and the Prophets, the books of Joshua, Judges, 
 Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, these they supposed 
 to have been written by prophets', which they called 
 former prophets; they next placed Isaiah, Jeremiah 
 and Ezekiel, with the twelve lesser prophets, all these 
 they called the latter prophets. 
 nTBiq 6rfJ dJiw IT T:m I>a tir.&'vl 'olrin-, -noHT 
 
 Cj)e fetofel) >ap. 
 
 There were two sorts of days amongst the Jews the 
 natural, which is the space of twenty-four hours, from 
 one sun-set to another; and the civil, or artificial, con- 
 sisting of twelve hours, from the rising to the setting of 
 the sun, which was divided into four parts, each of 
 "Which consisted of three hours ; they also divided their 
 nights into four parts, which they called watches. 
 ! The 1st was the evening. 
 
 The 2d the middle, or midnight. 
 The 3d the cock crowing, from midnight till three in 
 the morning. 
 ' The 4th is the morning, or break of day. 
 
 3fetofel) Clnl&ten taugljt bartous 
 
 It was a custom among the Jews, of what rank or 
 quality soever, to teach their children some ingenious 
 craft or art, not only as a remedy against idleness, but
 
 3i 
 
 as a reserve in time of want, Josephus relates an 
 instance of this custom in the two brothers, Chasinai and 
 Clninilai, who, though they were persons of note, were 
 nevertheless put with a weaver to learn the trade, 
 which, says the historian, was no disparagement to 
 them. Rabbi Jose was a currier ; Rabbi Jochanan, 
 was a shoe maker, and from thence surnamed Sandalar. 
 
 The difference between the Jews and Samaritans, 
 in point of religion, may be reduced to these three 
 heads : 
 
 1. That they looked upon the temple of Gerizim as 
 the only place which God was pleased to be wor- 
 shipped in, and as the centre of true religion. 
 
 2. That they received none other scriptures but 
 the Pentateuch. 
 
 3. That their worship had some tincture of paganism, 
 and of the opinions of the nations with whom they 
 conversed. 
 
 ^-nll Or.ucoDtf 
 
 C!)e ftanfefflrfnu 
 
 This assembly consisted of seventy-one, or seventy- 
 two persons, over whom were two presidents, the 
 chief whereof was generally the high priest, though it 
 was not necessary he should always be so ; the other 
 was named the Ab, or father of the council ; most of 
 the members were priests and levites. Their manner 
 o sitting, was in a semicircle ; all matters of import-
 
 32 
 
 ance, whether ecclesiastical or civil, were brought 
 before this tribunal. The term Sandhedrim, was 
 formed from the Greek <7uve^/ov which signifies an 
 assembly of people sitting. 
 
 There is frequent mention of proselytes in the New 
 Testament : 
 
 " They were heathens that had embraced the Jewish 
 religion. There were two sorts of them ; some were 
 called proselytes of habitation, or of the gate, because 
 they were permitted to live within their gates. They 
 were only obliged to forsake idolatry, and to observe 
 the seven precepts which the Talmudists pretend God 
 gave to Adam. Of this kind of proselytes are sup- 
 posed to have been Naaman the Syrian ; the Eunuch 
 of Candace, Queen of Ethiopia ; Cornelius ; Nicholas, 
 of Antioch ; and others mentioned in the Acts ; they 
 were not looked upon as Jews." 
 
 " The others were called proselytes of the covenant, 
 because they were received by circumcision, which 
 was named, the blood of the covenant; because they 
 were bound to observe the ceremonial law. There 
 were three ceremonies performed at their admission ; 
 the first, circumcision; the second, baptism, which was 
 done, by dipping the whole body of the proselyte in 
 water ; the third, was a sacrifice, generally of two turtle 
 doves, or two young pigeons ; when he had gone 
 through these ceremonies, he was looked upon as a new 
 born babe, he received a new name, and was thence- 
 forward reckoned a Jew." Maimonides de Proselyt.
 
 33 
 
 Sapttem of tljefetos, 
 
 " The origin of the ceremony of baptism, as used by 
 the Jews to their proselytes, is entirely unknown. The 
 Rabbies will have it to be of very ancient date ; some 
 carry it up to the time of Moses. St. Paul seems to 
 have been of the same opinion, when he saith the 
 Israelites were baptized unto Moses. The baptism 
 of proselytes, may, however, be more properly said to 
 have owed its rise to the Pharisees. It is manifest 
 from the gospels, that it was usual for the Jews to 
 admit men to the profession of a doctrine by baptism; 
 for the Pharisees do not find fault with John's baptism, 
 but only blame him for baptizing, when he was neither 
 the Messiah, nor Elias, nor that Prophet. 
 
 " The proselytes were baptized in the presence of 
 three persons of distinction, who stood as witnesses. 
 The proselyte was asked, whether he did not embrace 
 that religion upon some worldly view ? Whether he 
 was fully resolved to keep the commandments of God ? 
 And whether he repented him of his past life and 
 actions ?" Beausobre's Introd. to the New Testament. 
 
 Phylactery is a Greek word, that signifies a memo- 
 rial, or preservation. The Hebrew name for phylac- 
 teries, is tephillim, which signifies prayers ; because 
 the Jews wore them chiefly when at prayers. They 
 were long and narrow pieces of parchment, formed 
 with great nicety, whereon were written thirty pas-
 
 34 
 
 sages out of Exodus and Deuteronomy, which they 
 tied to their foreheads and left arms, in memory of 
 the law. 
 
 JFeast of t{je passotoer. 
 
 The guests leaned on their left arms upon beds 
 round a table, on which was set a lamb, with bitter 
 herbs, unleavened bread, and a dish full of a kind of 
 sauce, or thick mixture, wherein they dipped their 
 bread and herbs; this the Jews called charosset, in 
 remembrance of the mortar they had used, when 
 making bricks in Egypt. They made it at first with 
 dates, and dried figs, but the modern Jews make it 
 of chesnuts, apples, &c. The Talmudists pretend 
 that the reclining posture was then absolutely neces- 
 sary, as a fit emblem of that rest and freedom, which 
 God had granted to the children of Israel, by bringing 
 them out of Egypt ; but it was very common among 
 the eastern nations, to lie on beds when they took 
 their meals, as is evident from sacred as well as profane 
 history. 
 
 The feast of tabernacles lasted seven days. It was 
 instituted by God for a memorial of the Israelites 
 having dwelt in tents, or tabernacles, while they were in 
 the desert ; they were obliged during the whole solem- 
 nity to dwell in tents. One of the most remarkable 
 ceremonies was, the libations, or pouring out of the 
 water, which was performed every day : a priest went
 
 and drew some water at the pool of Siloam, and car- 
 ried it into the temple, where he poured it on the 
 altar, the people singing, in the mean time, these words, 
 out of the prophet Isaiah, " with joy shall ye draw water 
 out of the wells of salvation " Jesus Christ manifestly 
 alluded to it, when on the last great day of the feast, 
 he cried out, " If any man thirst, let him come unto 
 me, and drink." On the seventh day, they went seven 
 times round the altar, and this was called the great 
 Hosanna. 
 
 The sect of the Sadducees derived its name from 
 Sadok, a pupil of Antigonus Sochaeus, president of 
 the Sanhedrim, or great council, who flourished about 
 two hundred and sixty years before the Christian era; 
 and who inculcated the reasonableness of serving God 
 disinterestedly, and not under the servile impulse of 
 the fear of punishment, or the mercenary hope of 
 reward. Sadok, misunderstanding the doctrine of his 
 master, deduced the inference that there was no future 
 state of rewards or punishments. Their principal 
 tenets were the following : 
 
 First. That there is no resurrection, neither angel, 
 nor spirit, and that the soul of man perishes together 
 with the body. 
 
 Second. That there is no fate, or providence, but 
 that all men enjoy the most ample freedom of action ; 
 in other words, the absolute power of doing either 
 good or evil, according to their own choice : hence 
 they were very severe judges. 
 D2
 
 36 
 
 Third. They paid no regard whatever to any tra- 
 dition, adhering strictly to the letter of scripture, but 
 preferring the five books of Moses to the rest. 
 
 The Pharisees were the most numerous, distin- 
 guished, and popular sect among the Jews. The time 
 when they first appeared is not known, but it is sup- 
 posed to have been not long after the institution of the 
 Sadducees, if indeed, the two sects did not gradually 
 spring up together. They derived their name from 
 the Hebrew word Pharash, which signifies separated 
 or set apart, because they separated themselves from 
 the rest of the Jews to superior strictness in religious 
 observances ; they boasted, that, from their accurate 
 knowledge of religion, they were the favourites of 
 heaven ; and thus, trusting in themselves that they 
 were righteous, despised others. 
 
 They ascribed all things to fate, or providence, yet 
 not so absolutely as to take away the free-will of man, 
 though fate does not co-operate in> every action. They 
 also believed in the existence of angels and spirits, 
 and in the resurrection of the dead ; but, from the 
 account given of them by Josephus, it appears that 
 their notion of the immortality of the soul, was the 
 Pythagorean metempsychosis : that the soul, after the 
 dissolution of one body, winged its flight into another ; 
 and that these removals were perpetuated and diver- 
 sified, through an infinite succession ; the soul animating 
 a sound and healthy body, or being confined in a 
 deformed and diseased frame, according to its conduct 
 in a prior state of existence.
 
 37 
 
 The profession of the Scribes , as they were doctors, 
 was to write copies of the law, to keep it correct, and 
 to read and explain it to the people. This afterwards 
 gave rise to the Masorites, that is, those who criticised 
 upon the letter of scripture, upon the number of verses, 
 words, letters, and points. 
 
 t)e Galileans. 
 
 The Galileans spoke an unpolished and corrupt 
 dialect of the Syriac, compounding and using ain for 
 aleph ; caph for beth ; tau for daleth ; and also 
 frequently changing the gutturals. This probably pro- 
 ceeded from their great communication and inter- 
 mixture with the neighbouring nations. It was this 
 corrupt dialect that led to the detection of Peter, as 
 one of Christ's disciples. The Galileans are repeatedly 
 mentioned by Josephus as a turbulent and rebellious 
 people, and upon all occasions ready to disturb the 
 Roman authority ; they were particularly forward in 
 an insurrection against Pilate himself. 
 
 af 
 
 The Jews coming oat of the synagogue, brought the 
 same spirit into the church : the different sects among 
 them, proved so many seeds of discord. The Saddu- 
 cees were not easily brought to believe the resurrec- 
 tion; the Pharisees being extremely zealous for the 
 ceremonial law, and their own traditions, could not
 
 38 
 
 but give the Christian religion some tincture of this 
 zeal ; the heathens, on the other hand, that had been 
 brought up in the schools of the philosophers, intro- 
 duced into the Christian institution, the subtillies of 
 the Platonic philosophy. In those early times there 
 was no canon of the books of the New Testament, and 
 all instruction was delivered viva voce ; even after the 
 canon had been compiled, some difficult passages gave 
 rise to different notions and sects ; add to this, some 
 persons took the liberty of forging Gospels as they 
 thought fit. 
 
 portrait of a f etotsl) g>crtbe. 
 
 from Dr. Hendersons Biblical Researches, and Travels 
 in Russia. 
 
 " Having expressed a wish to obtain some Hebrew 
 manuscripts, my Jewish guide conducted me down a 
 narrow lane, to a house of a sopher, or scribe, whose 
 employment consists in multiplying written copies of 
 the law, according to the established rules of the 
 Hebrew calligraphy. His small apartment presented 
 quite a novel scene to my view on the table before 
 him, lay developed an accurate exemplar, from which 
 he was taking his copy; rolls of parchment were lying 
 about in every direction; the walls were hung with 
 compasses, ink bottles, and other implements; and, in 
 one corner of the room, a number of skins were in a 
 process of preparation, for the use to which they were 
 to be appropriated. As I entered, he looked up, wilh
 
 39 
 
 all that absence and discomposure which generally 
 characterizes those who are abruptly roused from the 
 absorption connected with deep study, or occupied 
 about some objects requiring the application of pro- 
 found attention. Some remarks, however, on the na- 
 ture of his occupation, interspersed with a few technical 
 phrases in Hebrew, soon excited his curiosity; and, 
 laying aside his pen, he readily entered into a con- 
 versation respecting his business, and the difficulties 
 inseparable from its proper and conscientious execution. 
 Unlike other employments, that of a Jewish copyist 
 absolutely and religiously excludes all improvements. 
 He is tied down to perform every part of the work 
 exactly as it was done twelve or thirteen centuries ago, 
 at the period of the composition of the Talmud; to the 
 laws of writing prescribed in which, he must rigidly 
 conform, even in the smallest minutiae. The skins to 
 be converted into parchment must be those of clean 
 animals, and it is indispensable that they should be 
 prepared by the hands of Jews only. Should it be 
 found that any parts have been prepared by a Goi, 
 (a name by which Christians, and all who are not Jews, 
 are designated), it is immediately thrown away, as unfit 
 for use. When ready, they are cut even, and joined 
 together by means of thongs made of the same material ; 
 they are then regularly divided into columns, the 
 breadth of which must never exceed half their length. 
 The ink employed in writing the law, generally consists 
 of a composition made of pitch, charcoal and honey ; 
 which ingredients are first made up into a kind of 
 paste, and after having remained some time in a state 
 of induration, are dissolved in water, with an infusion 
 of galls. Before the scribe begins his task, and after
 
 40 
 
 every interruption, he is required to compose bis mind, 
 that he may write under a sensible impression of the 
 sanctity of the words he is transcribing. Particular 
 care is taken that the letters be all equally formed; and 
 so supreme is the authority of antiquity, that where 
 letters are found in the exemplar, of a larger or smaller 
 size than the rest, or such as are turned upside down, 
 or suspended above the line, or where a final shaped 
 letter occurs in the middle of a word, these blunders 
 are to be copied with as great fidelity as any part of the 
 text. Is it not passing strange, that even Christian 
 editors of the Hebrew Bible should have servilely 
 followed these Jewish peculiarities? It is well known 
 what importance the genius of rabbinical superstition 
 has attached to such anomalies ; and it is a fact, that 
 many of them are interpreted in. a manner highly re- 
 proachful to the religion of Christ. For instance, in 
 Psalm Ixxx. 14, the word "Wo, ' from the woods,' is 
 written and printed -^o, with the letter ain suspended, 
 because it is the initial of the word V]?, ' tree,' and is 
 explained, by the Jews, of the cross; while the wild 
 boar referred to in the context, they blasphemously in- 
 terpret, of our blessed Saviour; yet this error of tran- 
 scription is printed in the editions of Opitius, Michaelis, 
 Vander Hooght, Frey, Leusden, and Jahn, although 
 corrected in Menasseh Ben Israel's edition of 1635! 
 
 " Faults that creep in during transcription may be 
 rectified, provided it be done within the space of thirty 
 days; but if more time has elapsed, the copy is declared 
 to be posel, or forbidden: a word (V'DD) used in scrip- 
 ture to denote a graven image, which the Israelites 
 were taught to hold in utter detestation. Should 
 Aleph-Lamed, (V) or Jod-He, (>~P) be wrongly written,
 
 41 
 
 it is unlawful to correct or erase them, because they 
 form the sacred names; nor is it permitted to correct 
 any of the divine names, except when they are applied 
 in an inferior sense; of this, an instance occurs 
 Gen.iii.5, where the name tDviV** Elohim is used twice. 
 The Rabbins regarding it as employed the second 
 time to denote false objects of worship, permit its era- 
 sure ; but prohibit it at the beginning of the verse, as 
 being undeniably used of the true God. When tran- 
 scribing the incommunicable name nirp, Jehovah, the 
 scribe must continue writing it until it be finished, even 
 though a king should enter the room; but if he be 
 writing two or three of these names combined, such as 
 nmny 'nVt* nirr. Jehovah God of Hosts, he is at liberty, 
 after having finished the first, to rise and salute his 
 visitant. Nor is the copyist allowed to begin the 
 incommunicable name immediately after he has dipped 
 his pen in the ink ; when he is approaching it, he is 
 required to take a fresh supply, when proceeding to 
 write the first letter of the preceding word. 
 
 " Shackled by canons of such exquisite minuteness, 
 it cannot be matter of surprise that the Dubno scribe 
 should exhibit an emaciated appearance, and affix a 
 high price to the productions of his pen. For a copy 
 of the law, fairly written in small characters, he asked ten 
 louis d'ors, and assured me that he had been sometimes 
 paid at the rate of fifty. To the intrinsic value and 
 spiritual beauty of the law of the Lord, he appeared 
 totally insensible!"
 
 42 
 
 The Jews in Bevis Marks, formerly possessed a 
 library of considerable value in their synagogue, relating 
 to their ceremonials and talmudical worship ; but 
 some narrow minds among them, conceiving, that if 
 these books should get into the hands of Christians, 
 they would be disgraced by shameful translations, 
 agreed among themselves to cause them to be burnt, 
 for which purpose they employed some of their scribes, 
 or tephillim writers, to examine into the correctness of 
 the copies ; and receiving a report agreeable to their 
 wishes, they had them conveyed to Mile End, where 
 they were all destroyed in a kiln, for it is contrary to 
 their maxim ever to make waste paper of the sacred 
 language.
 
 PART III. 
 
 Arabic literature* 
 
 This language may be justly designated as sublime, 
 comprehensive, copious, energetic, delicate, majestic, 
 equally adapted for the poignancy of satire, for the 
 mournfulness of elegy, or the grandeur of heroics, for 
 the simplest taste, or the boldest effort of rhetoric. In 
 every stile of composition, the books in this language 
 are numerous, many of them of high intrinsic worth ; 
 their books, however, and their language remain still 
 but imperfectly known in Europe, nor can we ever 
 hope for much advancement, until the fancied formidable 
 difficulties of the study are removed ; till curiosity is 
 stimulated by a hope of success ; till attention is fixed 
 by a conviction of its utility. 
 
 It has long been a desideratum, that the historical 
 works of the Arabs, should be placed within the 
 reach of the generality of readers, instead of being 
 inaccessible even to the greater number of orientalists. 
 The fact is, that the manuscripts which remain in the 
 original language, are dispersed in the great libraries ; 
 so that it is difficult to procure copies of them, and still 
 more difficult to collect and collate those copies .
 
 44 
 
 The love of knowledge, has now wholly deserted 
 the Mussulman mind, and we only know of what the 
 genius of Arabia has been capable, from the dusty 
 treasures of our libraries ; which we, forgetful of our 
 great benefactors, and proud of our superior affluence, 
 never pause to examine, and rarely condescend to 
 praise. 
 
 When I observe how rich the Bodleian Library is in 
 Arabic manuscripts, I am surprised that no one, out 
 of its numerous students, has attempted to give from 
 them, an intelligent history of Arabian literature and 
 
 The Arabs, even before Mahomet, were nationally, 
 and habitually orators in their public assemblies, but 
 it was the eloquence of natural talent, mental vivacity, 
 and excited feeling. 
 
 Clje Arabian 
 
 
 It has been surmised, that the Arabian Nights' Enter- 
 tainments may have proceeded from the old Pehlevi 
 stock, and from that have been translated into Arabic. 
 It is not improbable, the land of the fairies, the region 
 of the genii, and the king of these imaginary domains, 
 Gian Ben Gian are purely Persian ; and so much so, 
 that the first part of Firdousi's epic, Shah Nameh, 
 introduces them to our attention ; but the conception 
 of the eastern genii, seems referrible to a still older 
 source to the ancient Chaldeans.
 
 45 
 
 (KHrftfaff. 
 
 The Asiatics in general, begin their manscripts on 
 what we make the last page, and conclude where our 
 books begin. It may be observed also, they never 
 divide a word in writing, by putting some syllables in 
 one line, and the rest in that which follows ; but in 
 order to keep all the lines of an equal length, to which 
 they are exceedingly attentive, they either extend the 
 final, and sometimes the medial letters, by a dash of 
 the reed, with which they write, or when too long, 
 place those letters, which the line will not conveniently 
 hold, on the tops of the others towards the end, in a 
 manner that it cannot be imitated by types, as may be 
 observed in almost every manuscript, but more par- 
 ticularly among the poets. 
 
 JLfbrarp of jfl. Jlangies. 
 
 ^ The library of the late M. Langles was very extensive, 
 and even more select than numerous. In oriental litera- 
 ture it was superior to any private collection in Europe. 
 In every principal city of Europe, he had a bookseller, 
 who had orders to send him every thing that appeared 
 connected with oriental literature. His situation, as 
 administrator of the Royal Library at Paris, and Persian 
 professor, afforded him great facilities; whenever a 
 curious MS. was rejected from the library, for want of 
 funds, M. Langles purchased the work ; it was in this 
 way he became possessed of the unique copy of the 
 Ayeen Akbery, the only complete one known to be in 
 existence ; it is the identical copy made by the vizier,
 
 46 
 
 for the Emperor himself. The statistical tables alone, 
 would take years to transcribe. An English merchant 
 and his sons were once introduced to M. Langles, who 
 shewed them this MS., as a great curiosity, and 
 observed, that he had given above one thousand pounds 
 for it : " Bless me," said young Bill-book, " it costs 
 him above fifty pounds a year, at five per cent, interest, 
 and perhaps he does not look at it once a month." 
 There was no answering Cocker's demonstration of 
 the folly of fine books. 
 
 Oriental JLtterature. 
 
 The vast stores of the Royal Library at Paris, so rich 
 in oriental literature, are to be explored anew, and, 
 those manuscripts deemed worthy of impression, are 
 to be printed at the public expense. 
 
 CJ)e &prftn Cftttsttang, 
 
 The value of these Syrian Christians has not been 
 duly appreciated ; they not only planted Christianity in 
 India, so firmly, that we have recently found it there, 
 a thousand years after its introduction ; but by their 
 taste and labours, much of the Grecian literature and 
 science had been translated into Syriac, a language 
 which has so much affinity to the Arabic, as to be 
 easily acquired by an Arabian student, and to invite 
 him to the effort. 
 
 The best account we have of the Syrian Christians, 
 and their authors, is in the Bibliotheca of Assenanni. 
 It contains curious documents of their activity in dif-
 
 * 47 
 
 fusing Christianity in India, and even China, in the 
 seventh and eighth centuries. To the first volume, a 
 catalogue of the Syrian manuscripts, placed in the 
 Vatican Library by Clement II. is added. Some 
 Arabian Poems are among them. 
 
 " That the Syrians were the tutors of the Arabs, 
 may be known by the fact, that many of the Greek 
 mathematicians were translated first into Syriac, and 
 afterwards into Arabic." Sharon Turner. 
 
 Persian JLanguage auto JUterature. 
 
 As closely allied to the Arabic, it may not be unin- 
 teresting to give a few notices of Persian literature. 
 
 The Persian language, for sweetness and harmony, 
 has been compared to the Italian ; and for colloquy, it 
 is said to rival the French. 
 
 When we consider, that in the general dearth of 
 literature, this nation possessed authors of genius and 
 repute, that the few books which escaped the savage 
 hands of the Saracens, might have likewise perished 
 in the general wreck of Grecian and Roman literature ; 
 in such a case, we cannot but admit, that the only 
 knowledge which we could have acquired, must have 
 been from Persia and Arabia; our taste would then 
 have been formed on different materials, and we might, 
 possibly, have despised the beauties we now admire ; 
 we have, however, fortunately escaped this calamity. 
 It may be further urged in favour of the Persians, 
 that at the time when literature was secluded from the 
 western world, when the time of our ancestors was 
 employed in ridiculous crusades, and in mitigating
 
 48. 
 
 the bulls which were fulminated against them, men of 
 science and genius were patronised and rewarded by 
 the sovereigns of Asia. When our barons and nobles 
 were unable to sign their names, Firdousee wrote. 
 But the sun of eastern learning has set for ever, while 
 the one which irradiates our western sky, shines with 
 increasing splendour. , 
 
 There is a great difference between the Persian 
 spoken in India, and in Persia. The language of the 
 Persians is wonderfully laconic, while that spoken in 
 India, is ridiculously verbose. 
 
 Persian &utl)0r& 
 
 The fame of a Persian author rests very frequently 
 on the affectation of his style, and the absurdity of his 
 metaphors; he writes to be admired; and the opportu- 
 nity of adding another jingle to his sentence, could not 
 be missed, though he were to set reason and sense at 
 defiance. Their prose is much more difficult than 
 their poetry ; their historical works are written in a 
 very inflated style. Timour Shah took uncommon 
 pains in composing, correcting, and revising, the his- 
 tory of his reign: indeed it appears from Shurf ood 
 Deen's own account, that he was little more than the 
 transcriber of the king's own sentiments ; this arose 
 from the circumstance, that most of the historians lived 
 in the court, and under the protection of the prince, 
 whose actions they celebrated.
 
 49 
 
 As a specimen of their style, the following extract 
 from the Goolistan of Sadee, is characteristic. 
 
 " In my juvenile days, I recollect I went to a certain 
 street, in the month of July, and gazed on my beloved ; 
 the heat parched the mouth, and the hot wind dried up 
 the marrow of the bone. From the frailty of nature, I 
 could not endure the heat of the sun ; I embraced the 
 refuge of the shade of a wall ; I trusted that some one 
 would mitigate this excessive heat, by giving me some 
 iced water ; when suddenly, from the darkness of the 
 portal of a door, a light burst forth, namely, a beauty, 
 whose excellencies even the tongue of eloquence could 
 not detail ; she appeared as the morn after a dark 
 night, or as the water of life issuing from obscurity; 
 holding a goblet of iced water in her hand, mixed with 
 sugar ; I instantly seized the liquor, and drinking it 
 off became reanimated." 
 
 IPerstan Literature* 
 
 The Unwari Sohelee is a work much read in Persia, 
 and is considered to be one of the best productions in 
 the language. The most admired historical works are, 
 Rozut oos Sufa, by Meer Rhoond ; and the Hubeeb 
 oos Syr, by his nephew ; the Shah Ubas Namu, and 
 the Life of Nadir Shah, by Mirza Mihdee. 
 
 The principal biographical works are, the Tuzkeeru 
 oos Shoora, or Lives of the Poets, by Doulat Shah ; 
 and the Atush Kudu, a late production on the same 
 subject. 
 
 E
 
 The degree of credit which the Persian language 
 possesses in Europe, may be almost solely ascribed to 
 Sir William Jones ; and his Commentarii is the only 
 work which gives any notion of the language and lite- 
 rature of the Persians. 
 
 The most stupendous monument of Eastern literature 
 is the Shah Nameh of the poet Firdousee; a work 
 consisting of 60,000 couplets. The poem was com- 
 posed under the patronage of Mahmood, Sultan of 
 Ghizni, who appears to have been particularly liberal 
 towards learned men. Firdousee lives fresh in the 
 remembrance of the East, though kings have succeeded 
 kings, and dynasties have followed dynasties; and 
 instead of suffering by a lapse of time, his fame rests 
 upon a more solid and durable foundation. His work 
 has become a model for imitation; and although his 
 successors have partly changed his language, they have 
 not dispensed with the assistance of his images and 
 fables. The whole of the poem takes up a period of 
 not less than 3700 years, and is formed upon the History 
 of Persia. 
 
 The Odes of Hafiz have been very generally com- 
 pared to those of Anacreon, or the Lyrical Odes of 
 Horace : they appear to bear a greater resemblance to 
 the Roman than the Grecian poets. The poetry of
 
 51 
 
 Hafiz is simple and unaffected; there is awildness, and 
 often a sublimity in Hafiz, which is not to be met 
 with in any other Persian poet. 
 
 The Persians insist, and we should give them the 
 merit of understanding their own language, that all the 
 odes of their celebrated poets are mystical, and breathe 
 a fervent spirit of adoration to the Supreme Being. 
 
 The Arabs, before the era of Mahommed, were 
 Sabians ; the Persians, Magians : who, whether they 
 sought the mediation of the planets and stars, or endea- 
 voured to reconcile moral good and physical evil, by 
 the existence of two opposite principles, appear to have 
 agreed in the immutable and eternal truth of a great 
 first cause. The Sabians are commonly called by tra- 
 vellers, Christians of St. John the Baptist. The 
 Magians, Guebos, Gours, and, on the western side of 
 India, Parsees. 
 
 In the most early times, the Arabs prided themselves 
 on the purity and copiousness of their language ; the 
 poignancy of their wit ; and the unrestrained eloquence 
 of their compositions. Their generosity was unlimited, 
 and the same hospitality (observes an eloquent historian) 
 which was practised by Abraham, and celebrated by 
 Homer, is still renewed in the camp of the Arabs. 
 
 " They believe one God, and pay adoration to the 
 stars, or the angels and intelligences which they sup- 
 E 2
 
 52 
 
 pose reside in them, and govern the world, under the 
 Supreme Deity. They endeavour to perfect themselves 
 in the four intellectual virtues, and believe the souls of 
 wicked men will be punished for 9000 ages, but will 
 afterwards be received to mercy. They are obliged to 
 pray three times a day. They have a great respect 
 for the Temple of Mecca, and the Pyramids of Egypt, 
 fancying these last to be the sepulchres of Seth, and of 
 Enoch and Sabi, his two sons, whom they look on as 
 the first propagators of their religion. At these struc- 
 tures, they sacrifice a cock and a black calf, and offer 
 up incense. Besides the book of Psalms, the only 
 true scripture they read, they have other books, which 
 they esteem equally sacred, particularly one in the 
 Chaldee tongue, which they call the book of Seth, and 
 is full of moral discourses. This sect say, they took 
 the name of Sabians from the above mentioned Sabi, 
 though it seems rather to be derived from NHV, or the 
 host of heaven, which they worship. Travellers com- 
 monly call them Christians of St. John the Baptist, 
 whose disciples they also pretend to be, using a kind of 
 baptism, which is the greatest mark they bear to Chris- 
 tianity. This is one of the religions, the practice of 
 which Mahomet tolerated." Sale's Koran. 
 
 The propagation of the Mahommedan religion, 
 effected a wonderful change, not only in Asia, but in 
 Europe ; it contributed nothing, however, to the 
 advancement of science. The prophet seems to have 
 inspired his immediate successors, with the necessity
 
 53 
 
 of keeping his disciples in the profoundest state of 
 ignorance ; and to this political motive we may attri- 
 bute the memorable destruction of the Alexandrian 
 Library, which served to heat four thousand baths, for 
 the space of six mouths. 
 
 JDaroun al 
 
 Philosophy and science met a protector in Haroun 
 al Raschid, the hero of the Arabian Nights, and the 
 correspondent of Charlemagne ; and under the reign 
 of his youngest son, Al Mamon, it burst forth with, 
 increased splendour; but his memory will not escape 
 the charge of extreme barbarism, for having destroyed 
 the original books he procured to be translated. 
 
 Cije &oran, 
 
 The JVJahommedans dare not so much as touch it, 
 without being first washed, or legally purified ; which, 
 lest they should do by inadvertence, they write these 
 words on the cover or label, " let none touch it but 
 'they who are clean ;" they read it with great care, and 
 respect, never holding it below their girdles. They 
 swear by it ; consult it on weighty occasions ; carry it 
 with them to war; write sentences of it on their 
 banners ; adorn it with gold, and precious stones ; and 
 knowingly suffer it not to be in the possession of any 
 of a different persuasion.
 
 54 
 
 JHaj)0mme&an belief of tfte Scriptures. 
 
 The Mahommedans are taught by the Koran, that 
 God, in divers ages of the world, gave revelation of 
 his will, in writing, to several prophets, the whole, and 
 every word of which, it is absolutely necessary for a 
 good moslem, to believe. The number of these sacred 
 books were, according to them, one hundred and four ; 
 of which ten were given to Adam, fifty to Seth, thirty 
 to Edris, or Enoch, ten to Abraham; and the other 
 four, being the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospel, 
 and the Koran, were successively delivered to Moses, 
 David, Jesus, and Mahommed ; which last being the seal 
 of the prophets, these revelations are now closed, and 
 no more to be expected. All these divine books, 
 except the four last, they agree to be now entirely lost, 
 and their contents unknown ; and of those four, the 
 Pentateuch, Psalms, and Gospel have undergone so 
 many alterations and corruptions, though there may 
 possibly be some part of the true word of God therein, 
 yet no credit is to be given to the present copies in 
 the hands of the Jews and Christians. 
 
 
 Ci)e Arabic 
 
 The Arabian language, one of the most ancient, has 
 had the fate of other living languages which have been 
 spoken through many ages, and by the inhabitants of 
 different provinces and countries, remote from one 
 another. It has gradually undergone such an alteration, 
 that the Arabic spoken and written by Mahommed, 
 may now be regarded as a dead language.
 
 55 
 
 The old Arabic language is, through all the East, 
 just like Latin in Europe, a learned tongue, to be 
 acquired only in colleges, or by the perusal of the best 
 authors. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no other language diversified by 
 so many dialects, as that of Arabia ; the pronunciation 
 of one province, differs from that of the other provinces ; 
 letters and sounds are often changed in such a manner, 
 as to produce an entire alteration upon the words. 
 
 In Syria and Palestine, no language is to be heard 
 but the Arabic, and yet the Syriac is not absolutely 
 a dead language, but is still spoken in several villages 
 in the Pashalik of Damascus. 
 
 The Arabic character, which was anciently in use, 
 but is now entirely lost, was the Kufic; it seems to 
 have been been the alphabet of the Arabians of Mecca, 
 for the Koran was originally written in Kufic characters. 
 The invention of modern characters, which are very 
 different from the Kufic, is ascribed to a vizier. The 
 Arabians, Persians, and Turks, write Arabic in sets 
 of characters, differing in several particulars from one 
 another. They have also modes of writing for different 
 forms of business, each of which, has its particular 
 name. 
 
 The hand writing of the Arabians, in the common 
 business of life, is not legible. The Orientals, how- 
 ever, value themselves on their writing, and have 
 carried the art of making beautiful written characters 
 to high perfection. The Arabians value chiefly a 
 species of elegance, which consists in their manner of 
 joining their letters ; the want of which, makes them 
 dislike the style in which Arabian books are printed in 
 Europe ; they sign their letters with a sort of cypher,
 
 56 
 
 to prevent the possibility of their counterfeiting their 
 signature ; their letters are folded an inch in breadth, 
 and their leaves are pasted together at one end ; they 
 cannot seal them, for wax is so soft in hot countries, 
 that it cannot retain an impression. 
 
 education an& >ci)00l3 of tlje Arabians, 
 
 In cities, many of the lowest of the people are 
 taught both to read and write ; the same qualifications 
 are also common among the sheikhs of the desert; 
 and in Egypt, persons of distinction retain preceptors 
 in their families to instruct their children, and young 
 slaves as appear to possess natural abilities, like chil- 
 dren of the family. 
 
 In almost every mosque is a school, denominated 
 Moeddrasse, having a foundation for the support of 
 teachers, and the entertainment and instruction of 
 poor scholars. In great towns are likewise other 
 schools, to which people of middle rank send their 
 children, to receive religious instruction, and likewise 
 to learn reading, writing and arithmetic. There are 
 also schools of this sort in the market place ; they are 
 open like shops toward the street ; the noise and 
 appearance of the passengers does not seem to divert 
 the attention of the scholars, who sit before a small 
 desk, and read their lessons aloud, balancing them- 
 selves constantly in their seats ; to such a degree does 
 motion appear requisite to rouse, and keep up the 
 attention of the inhabitants of hot countries. No girls 
 attend these schools, they are privately taught by 
 women.
 
 57 
 
 In some great towns of Arabia there are likewise 
 colleges, in which the sciences of astronomy, phi- 
 losophy, and medicine are taught; in these, the Arabians, 
 though possessed of natural abilities, have, for want of 
 good books and masters, made but little progress. 
 
 The interpretation of the Koran, and the study of 
 the ancient history of the MahommedanSj are the prin- 
 cipal employment of men of letters. These studies take 
 up much time ; for the student must not only acquire 
 the ancient Arabic, but also make himself familiar with 
 all the commentators of the Koran, the number of 
 whom is very considerable. 
 
 In a country like Arabia, where occasions of speaking 
 in public seldom occur, eloquence is a useless accom- 
 plishment, and therefore cannot be much cultivated. 
 The Arabians say, however, that they hear great orators 
 in their mosques. As Europeans are not admitted to 
 hear those sermons, it is not possible to give any 
 account of the sacred eloquence of Arabia. 
 
 The only theatres for the exercise of profane elo- 
 quence, are the coffee houses ; the guests are served 
 with pipes and a cup of coffee. As the Arabians 
 never engage in any game or conversation with one 
 another, they have readers, or orators, who attend in 
 the coffee houses to amuse them; they are called 
 Mullachs, or poor scholars. 
 
 They select chosen passages from some favorite 
 authors, such as the History of Antar; the Adventures 
 of Rustan Sal, a Persian hero; or Beber, king of 
 Egypt; the history of the Ayubites, anciently sove- 
 reigns of Arabia ; and the Life of Bahluldan, a buffoon 
 in the court of Haroun Al Raschid. Others, who 
 aspire to the praise of invention, make tales and
 
 58 
 
 fables, which they walk about and recite, or deliver 
 discourses upon any subjects they choose. 
 
 Arabic literature, 
 
 The unfortunate traveller, Burckhardt, in a letter 
 from Aleppo, addressed to Mr. Hamilton, the secretary 
 of the African Association, makes the following obser- 
 vations. 
 
 " I am now so far advanced in the knowledge of 
 Arabic, that I understand almost every thing that is 
 said in common conversation, and am able to make 
 myself understood on most subjects, although some- 
 times with difficulty. I have made acquaintance with 
 some shiekhs, and some of the first literati among the 
 Turks of Aleppo ; who, from time to time, visit me. 
 I owe this favour principally to Mr. Wilkins's Arabic 
 and Persian Dictionary ; *the common manuscript dic- 
 tionaries or Kamus, being generally very defective. 
 The learned Turks are often very glad to consult 
 Wilkins, and never do it without exclaiming, ' How 
 wonderful, that a Frank should know more of our 
 language than our first Ulemas.' Learning at Aleppo, 
 is in a very low state ; no science, the Turkish Law 
 excepted, is properly cultivated, not even that of Arabic 
 grammar, which is so necessary to the interpretation of 
 the Koran. I am assured by the best authority, that 
 there are now in this town only three men (two 
 Turks and a Christian) who know this language 
 grammatically. The chief quality of a literary man, is 
 that of getting by heart a great number of verses made 
 upon different occasions, and of knowing the proper
 
 59 
 
 opportunity of reciting them ; to this must be added, a 
 knowledge of the different learned significations of one 
 and the same word, and of words which express the 
 same idea; for example, the word adjuz, which in 
 common language means a decrepid old man, has in 
 the learned language about sixty other different sig- 
 nifications ; and there are in Arabian poetry, about one 
 hundred and fifty words for wine ; but to interpret 
 passages of difficult grammatical construction, or ration- 
 ally to amend errors, or even to compose prose or 
 verse free from grammatical blunders, is a task much 
 above the capacity of an Aleppine Ulema." 
 In another letter from the same place, he says 
 " My long stay in Syria, having been determined upon 
 in consequence of the absolute necessity of my fami- 
 liarising myself with the idiom of these countries, I 
 shall deem it my duty to send you, from time to time, 
 some vouchers of my application to Arabic literature. 
 I have, for some time past, been engaged in an Arabic 
 exercise, which has proved of great utility to me ; it is 
 the metamorphosis of the well known novel of Robinson 
 Crusoe into an Arabian tale, adapted to eastern taste 
 and manners. A young Frank, born at Aleppo, who 
 speaks like a Native, but neither reads nor writes it, 
 has been my assistant in the undertaking. 1 take the 
 liberty of sending you here inclosed a copy of this 
 travestied Robinson, or, as I call the book in Arabic, 
 Dur el Baheer the pearl of the seas." 
 
 " The library of the convent of Mount Sinai, contains 
 vast number of Arabic manuscripts and Greek
 
 60 
 
 books; the former are of little literary value; of the 
 latter, I brought away two beautiful Aldine editions, a 
 Horace, and an Anthology. The priests would not 
 show me their Arabic memorandum books, previous to 
 the fifteenth century. From those I saw, I copied 
 some interesting documents concerning the former 
 state of the country, and their quarrels with the 
 Bedouins." 
 
 " Has certainly every characteristic of an epic poem ; 
 it is throughout of high interest, and often sublime. I 
 have attentively read little more than one twelfth part 
 of it. The copy I bought at Aleppo, is among the 
 manuscripts which 1 sent to England, from Syria. The 
 style is very remarkable ; without descending to the 
 tone of common conversation, as the one thousand and 
 .one nights often do, it is simple and natural, and clear 
 of that bombast, and those forced expressions, and far 
 fetched metaphors, which the orientalists admire, even 
 in their prosaists ; but which can never be to the taste 
 of an European critic. I believe Sir William Jones 
 was the first to call the attention of the public to this 
 romantic poem, in his Comment. Poes. Asiat. He pos- 
 sessed only one or two volumes of it." 
 
 " By the present opportunity, I transmit to Sir 
 Joseph Banks my journal in the peninsula of Sinai, 
 and to you a volume of proverbs and popular sayings,
 
 Gl 
 
 current at Cairo. I am afraid the committee will be 
 startled at all the Arabic it contains, and exclaim, that 
 the writer was sent to these countries, not to become a 
 translator, but a discoverer. I can assure you I have 
 derived essential benefit from this compilation, while, 
 at the same time, I hope that a knowledge of the Arab 
 nation, and of their present language, may be some- 
 what advanced by it, and facilitated to others. In 
 translating and explaining these sayings, I wished to 
 leave a memorial with my employers, as well as with 
 the public, that I had acquired a competent knowledge 
 of the vulgar dialect of the people, whom I have des- 
 cribed in my journals." 
 
 education among t&e 
 
 The few Nubians who know how to write, and 
 who serve the governors in the capacity of secretaries, 
 are taught by the Fokaro of Darner, south of Goos, 
 who are all learned men, and travel occasionally to 
 Cairo. On their way thither, they alight at the houses 
 of the rich inhabitants, and teach their children to read 
 and write. Many of the children of Sukkot, are 
 likewise sent to the school of the Arabs Sheyga, where 
 they remain for ten years and upwards, and are fed 
 and taught gratuitously by the Ulema of that tribe. 
 
 The best Arabian historian of Nubia, is Iber Selym 
 el Assouary, but I never saw his book either in Syria,
 
 or Egypt. There are also details of the History of 
 Nubia, in the History of the City of Behnese, (Oxyrin- 
 chus) sent to England by Burckhardt. 
 
 Burckhardt says, that " numbers of pilgrims, after 
 having learned to read and write a little, proceed to 
 Mecca, in order to study the Koran and Commen- 
 taries ; and it is their belief that they can never forget 
 a chapter which they have once learned in the Beit 
 Ullah the House of God." 
 
 of Ctwcatton among tjje jfflalapa (n 
 Penang, 
 
 There is no fixed standard as to ages ; all are admitted 
 from six years old and upwards, just as circumstances 
 may direct. The parents at the time they deliver up 
 a child to the master, offer a small present of planta- 
 tions, tobacco, &c. Sometimes, when they can afford 
 it, a rupee or a dollar. They then say to the master, 
 " this child we entirely surrender to you ; he is not 
 now ours but yours ; we only ask for his eyes and 
 limbs ; and that he may not be crippled, or severely 
 wounded in chastisement." In every other respect he 
 is solely at the disposal of the teacher. 
 
 After these ceremonies, the child is regularly received 
 by the master into the school, and entitled to all the 
 advantages of the institution. 
 
 When a boy has gone through the Koran, which is 
 considered as a kind of finish to his education, his 
 parents give sedekah, or alms ; which, in this instance, 
 has a special reference to what is given exclusively for
 
 instruction. The parents reward the teacher according 
 to their ability ; the rich will give from twenty to 
 seventy dollars, and upwards ; and if they consider the 
 master as having done his duty, frequently add a new 
 turban, a gown, and a piece of white cloth. A feast 
 sometimes follows, when a company of old men are 
 invited, who are supposed to know the Koran well ; the 
 boy is called into the presence of these old men, and his 
 master, when, with an audible voice, he is ordered to 
 read a chapter or two from the Koran ; after which 
 the judgment of the old men, which is mostly favour- 
 able, stamps dignity on the teacher as being very 
 learned. 
 
 In many cases, however, the schoolmaster does not 
 succeed so well ; and not unfrequently fails to obtain 
 any emolument whatever, from parents whose children 
 he has instructed. The custom of paying nothing till 
 the education of the children is completed, often proves 
 very injurious to the teacher. 
 
 In case the father dies, or becomes very poor, the 
 master either loses the expected reward, or has great 
 difficulty in obtaining it; it being perfectly optional 
 with the parents, whether they give any thing, or not ; 
 extreme poverty is always considered a sufficient 
 excuse. Very poor people can take their children to 
 a Mahommedan teacher for instruction ; and should he 
 refuse, or ask for wages, be is liable to be disgraced- 
 be is obliged to receive them. The Islams say, that 
 all good teachers, who fear God in truth, will not, dare 
 not, ask for any recompense for instructing the 
 ignorant. 
 
 SCHOOL HOURS. It will appear that the poor 
 schoolmaster has plenty to do. The schools open in
 
 64 
 
 the morning at seven o'clock, and close at eleven ; 
 when the children go home to eat rice. At two o'clock 
 the schools are reopened, and the children read till 
 five ; when the master's ordinary work for the day is 
 done. The time also of continuance in school is quite 
 uncertain ; some boys who are of very bright intellect, 
 will go through the Koran in one year ; but many 
 require a much longer space of time, and some even in 
 ten years do not finish the book. The children receive 
 no rewards whatever for making progress in learning ; 
 on the contrary, their punishments are very severe. 
 
 MODE OF TEACHING. The boys are first taught 
 the Arabic alphabet, which is mostly written on a 
 board for that purpose ; when they know all the cha- 
 racters, the Koran is put into their hands, and they 
 read a chapter which treats on prayer; but if the 
 teacher does not explain the same to them, they are 
 just as wise when they have read the chapter, as they 
 were before ; and as the Koran is in the Arabic tongue, 
 the teacher himself is frequently unable to explain it. 
 Great numbers read the Koran who are not able to 
 explain a single chapter. It is the principal book 
 read in the Mahommedan schools ; nothing more is 
 taught, unless the teacher is desired to do so by the 
 parents. In some instances the children continue at 
 school after they have read the Koran, when they 
 proceed to Al Kitab, or the book which explains the 
 doctrines and ceremonies of Islamism, and is con- 
 sidered by some an explanation of the Koran. 
 
 This may be viewed as one of the means employed 
 for propagating Mahommedanism. Five leading tenets 
 are principally insisted upon, and care is taken to 
 impress the minds of the children with the importance
 
 65 
 
 of them ; and frequently these doctrines are interspersed 
 with the regular lessons of the day. It is no uncom- 
 mon thing, when passing the schools, to hear the 
 children singing praises to all the prophets ; and they 
 are thus supposed to have made considerable progress 
 in their learning. 
 
 Writing is also taught in the natfve schools, as soon 
 as the boys can read with tolerable facility. They 
 commence by writing the characters on boards, which, 
 when full, are washed, and used again, and again; and 
 so they proceed by degrees to the use of paper, and 
 write what the master may order. In seventeen schools 
 there were only three in which the Malay language, 
 formed a branch .of the regular course. 
 
 iHa|)ominetiau J3f oraes at fcamalfa* 
 
 Mungo Park, says the schoolmaster at Kamalia, 
 possessed, exclusive of the Koran, a variety of manu- 
 scripts, which had partly been purchased from the 
 trading Moors, and partly borrowed from Bushreens 
 in the neighbourhood, and copied with great care; 
 on interrogating the schoolmaster, I discovered that 
 the negroes are in possession of an Arabic version of 
 the Pentateuch, which they call (Taureta el Moosa); 
 this is so highly esteemed, that it is often sold for the 
 value of one prime slave. They have likewise a ver- 
 sion of the Psalms of David, and lastly the book of 
 Isaiah, and it is in very high esteem ; I suspect, 
 indeed, that in all these copies there are interpolations 
 of some of the peculiar tenets of Mahommed ; for I 
 could distinguish in many passages the name of the 
 p
 
 Prophet. By means of these books many of the 
 negroes have acquired an acquaintance with some of 
 the remarkable events recorded in the Old Testament. 
 
 eastern jHotie of education* 
 
 We may, perhaps, gain some notion of the ancient 
 mode of teaching, from the present method adopted by 
 the Malays, at Malacca. 
 
 The regular time for entering school is at the age 
 of seven, when the boy enters the school room, he 
 prostrates himself, and embraces the master's feet ; the 
 master recites fatihat the first chapter in the Koran. 
 
 The period at school depends upon circumstances. 
 The Malays do not write upon sand like the Malabars. 
 For paper they use a thin board, made of a very 
 light wood, called puley, with a fine grain, and rubbed 
 over with white wash made of pipe clay ; for pens they 
 use a hollow reed, or the kalam of the sago tree. 
 Their ink is made of rice, burnt over the fire till it is 
 quite black, and when pounded, fine pure water is put 
 on it, and then it is strained through a cloth. They 
 use the Arabic characters. The boy begins with writing 
 the alphabet on the board, at the top of which they 
 never omit to write 
 
 In the name of the merciful and gracious God. 
 
 When the board is full they go to the well, and 
 
 wash all clean off. The Koran is exclusively taught in 
 
 the school, in Arabic ; and without explanation. The 
 
 children sit flat on the ground, or flooring, in a hut
 
 G7 
 
 covered with the attap leaf. The morning begins with 
 a new lesson ; in the afternoon they repeat what they 
 have learned, which exercise is called ^-^IklJuo 
 mendras, ready off; then they write the beginners the 
 alphabet, the more advanced copy out of the Koran ; 
 thus they learn the whole of the Koran from the board 
 by piecemeal. 
 
 Hariri, who lived in the 446th year of Hegira, 
 developed all the richness of his language, in a happy 
 melange of prose and verse ; containing stories always 
 agreeable ; full of antitheses, and play upoi words ; 
 his harmonious and rich language, presents to those 
 who are desirous of translating it, difficulties that are 
 almost insurmountable. These difficulties, however, 
 Lave not deterred several German, English, and 
 Spanish authors, who have made Hariri's work known 
 to us by extracts. A Jew among them, published a 
 Hebrew translation, under the title, Mechaberot Ithiel. 
 
 ifloUe of education among tlje CJnnese. 
 
 The children, when they first enter school, have to 
 gain the first rudiments of knowledge in a language 
 they have hitherto, in a great measure, been unac- 
 quainted with ; dark, dreary, and toilsome is the journey 
 they have to pursue through an immense labyrinth of 
 difficult and uncouth characters, and harsh and unusual 
 F2
 
 68 
 
 sounds, without one single ray of light to direct their 
 steps, or reward their toils, the difficulties of which are 
 heightened by the unsystematic method of education. 
 
 Fifteen years ago, at Malacca there were eight 
 Chinese schools, containing about one hundred and 
 fifty scholars ; of this number scarcely one in ten con- 
 tinue long enough to derive any essential benefit from 
 the school; the poorer class cannot afford to keep 
 their children at school longer than two or three years, 
 during which time they are scarcely able to learn any 
 thing useful, having only time to get the first rudi- 
 ments ; and being taken from school at an early period, 
 before they have learnt to apply their acquisitions to 
 practical uses, all that they have gained is soon 
 forgotten. 
 
 CEREMONIES ON ENTRANCE. It is customary on 
 this occasion, for the scholar to bring a few articles as 
 a present to the master, among which are, an egg, and 
 a cup of dried pulse ; the one indicating the clearness 
 of intellect necessary for learning, and the other implying 
 a wish, that the master's instructions may flow with 
 ease into the scholar's mind, as the pulse flows from 
 the cup when it is inverted. In China the scholars 
 provide even the master's clothes. 
 
 At the head of the school there is generally an altar 
 piece, with the words, " The ancient teacher Confucius, 
 who has eminently attained the rank of the most holy 
 sage, or, the teacher and pattern for myriads of ages." 
 written in large characters ; an incense pot is placed 
 before it, and candles are kept constantly burning on 
 the altar. The scholar on his first entrance must bow 
 before this altar, as also every day on coming to school. 
 This is considered not merely as a tribute of respect to
 
 the deceased sage, but as an act of worship to him as a 
 demi-god. 
 
 SCHOOL MONEY. The average sum paid as school 
 money, is, for the poorer children, about eight dollars 
 a year ; the rich give double that sum, and often more 
 than double, according to their ability, and the care 
 they wish to be taken of their children ; in addition to 
 this, the parents provide the children with books, ink, 
 ink-stones, paper, pencil, tables, and stools, and every 
 thing requisite for a school, except the bare apartment. 
 The school money is paid at the end of the year, and a 
 whole year's school money is expected, whether the 
 children attend the full time or not. The schoolmaster's 
 stipend is called, in polite language, Sew-kin, regulated 
 gold. 
 
 SCHOOL HOURS. These are, from six in the morn- 
 ing, until six in the evening ; allowing two or three 
 hours in the morning, and at noon, for meals ; in the 
 evening, the scholars attend to their lessons at home, 
 that they may bring them perfect the next day. 
 
 Their holidays are not numerous ; they consist merely 
 of the four feasts at the four seasons of the year, 
 various other feasts, and the birth day of Confucius. 
 The schools break up about the twelfth month, and do 
 not re-open till about the middle of the first month of 
 the ensuing year. 
 
 MODE OF EDUCATION. Reading. The scholars 
 read aloud, both when studying, and repeating their 
 lessons ; in this each one seems to strive to outvie the 
 other in noise, which in a school containing thirty or 
 forty children is extremely loud, and may be heard at 
 a great distance. The first book they commence with, 
 is the San-tze-king, or the three character classic ; a
 
 70 
 
 book which has nothing more to recommend it for the 
 use of children, than that it is written in a sort of 
 rhyme ; but the style of which is difficult, and the sub- 
 ject, in some parts, abstruse and distant from their 
 thoughts ; they of course do not understand it, neither 
 is it the care of the teacher to make it intelligible to 
 them. When they have committed this little book to 
 memory, which, though it contains but one thousand 
 and fifty six monosyllabic words, yet takes many of 
 them six months, and some a whole year, they then 
 proceed to the four books of Confucius ; these they 
 first read over, and afterwards commit to memory, 
 without having a single character explained to them ; 
 they labour early and late at this toilsome task, and 
 yet it is four or five years before they can accomplish 
 it. When the four books are finished, they then begin 
 the commentary on them, written by Choo-foo-tze, and 
 commit that likewise to memory. Having arrived at 
 this period of their studies, the teacher begins to 
 explain to them something of what they have been 
 learning for the last five years, and to make it a little 
 intelligible to them ; to do this sooner is considered by 
 the teachers to be but lost labour, as the children are 
 not^till then capable of understanding, and appreciating 
 their instructions. The work of the teacher being now 
 increased, his salary must also be raised ; otherwise 
 the unfortunate scholars are likely to continue in the 
 same state of darkness and ignorance. After the four 
 books, with the commentary on them, are finished, the 
 scholar next proceeds to the Woo-king, a very ancient 
 composition, and very difficult to understand. Having 
 passed through this series of studies, the young man is 
 considered as " paou keoh," i. e, " having a bellyful of
 
 71 
 
 learning," and is sent ont into the world to do for 
 himself. 
 
 The practice of committing to memory whatever they 
 learn, is of great importance in Chinese, and would be 
 extremely useful, were the teachers but to explain the 
 meaning of the books to the pupils as they go on ; but 
 at present it is a heavy burden laid on their shoulders, 
 which they find it difficult to bear. Interested motives 
 first gave rise to this useful practice, otherwise it would 
 not perhaps have become so general ; in China, no one 
 can lawfully be raised to any office under the state, 
 who is not able to repeat the sacred books, and to 
 compose some piece on the doctrines contained in 
 them, which undergoes a most rigorous examination. 
 
 In schools among the Fokien people, the practice of 
 committing much to memory is not attended with that 
 benefit which might be expected; from the circum- 
 stance of their colloquial dialect, being entirely dif- 
 ferent from that in which they read and learn, in so 
 much, that though persons may be well acquainted 
 with the colloquial dialect, yet the dialect in which 
 they read is so different, that much may be committed 
 to memory, without its being understood. This forms 
 a great barrier to improvement in Fokien schools, as 
 the scholars have two dialects to acquire, before they 
 can understand, or make themselves intelligible to 
 others. The same is the case in Canton schools. 
 
 WRITING THE CHARACTER. This is a most essen- 
 tial practice for those who study Chinese, as well for 
 natives as foreigners; the symbols of the language 
 being so numerous, that without constant and uninter- 
 mitted practice, it is impossible to rivet them in the 
 mind. In Chinese schools this forms a part of every
 
 72 
 
 day's labour, but it is not so fully attended to, nor 
 such facilities afforded for it, as the nature of the dif- 
 ficulties to be encountered require. They have copy 
 books, as in European schools, the paper of which 
 being thin, the copies are placed underneath, and the 
 pupil is made to decypher the characters on the upper 
 sheet ; but the master does not point out the com- 
 ponent parts of the character, nor trouble himself to 
 make the scholar acquainted with the radicals of the 
 language ; and no exercise of mind being required in 
 mere copying, the scholar is some time before he 
 begins to think for himself, or can decypher the cha- 
 racters, without the help of the copy. Both in reading 
 and writing the children are taught individually, there 
 being no classes in Chinese schools, by which much 
 advantage is lost, and no laudable emulation excited. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. This is nottaught in Chinese schools, 
 the teachers themselves being generally ignorant of it, 
 they consider it rather the business of the shop than 
 the school, where the children must go to learn it. 
 
 PUNISHMENT. The punishments inflicted on the 
 idle and disobedient, vary according to the disposition 
 of the master : they employ the rattan, and a flat piece 
 of bamboo, about an inch broad, and two feet long, 
 which they call a choh-pae ; those masters who are 
 more cruel, strike very hard with these, so as even to 
 produce blood ; when the scholar has not got his lesson 
 perfect, he is obliged to kneel down, and learn it on 
 his knees ; the more incorrigible are made to kneel on 
 gravel and small stones strewed on the floor, or on a 
 couple of cockle shells inverted, to increase the pain. 
 In some instances, fines are exacted on the elder boys, 
 who are more sensible of shame, and the money is
 
 73 
 
 appropriated for the purchase of paper, ink, &c. which 
 are distributed among the more deserving ; these fines 
 however, are not imposed in every school, and when 
 they are not, there are no rewards which the deserving 
 can have to look for, except exemption from punish- 
 ment.
 
 74 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 NOTICES OF REMARKABLE LINGUISTS. 
 
 JOHN FOWLER HULL. 
 
 John Fowler Hall was the son of Samuel Hull, 
 an eminent miller at Uxbridge, and a member of 
 the Society of Friends. At an early age he had a 
 strong desire to go abroad, but the thought of 
 crossing the water to Calais appeared an insuperable 
 obstacle ; he at last overcame his fears, and having 
 obtained the permission of his parents, undertook 
 a journey overland to India with a view of im- 
 proving his knowledge in some of the Oriental 
 languages, in which he had made a remarkable pro- 
 gress before he left Europe, and had read nearly the 
 whole of the Greek and Latin authors before he 
 left school, which was in his sixteenth year. At 
 the decease of his father he became possessed of a 
 handsome fortune, a great portion of which he ex- 
 pended in his favourite studies, and the purchase of 
 valuable books and manuscripts. To great literary 
 attainments (for his knowledge was by no means 
 confined to languages,) this extraordinary young
 
 75 
 
 man united a simplicity of manners and a goodness 
 of heart, which will long endear his memory to all 
 who knew him. He died on the 18th of December, 
 1825, in his26th year, after a short illness, at Sigaum, 
 a small village about forty miles south of Dharwur 
 in India. He bequeathed all his manuscripts, books, 
 and papers, to the British Museum, and they are 
 now deposited in that vast collection. 
 
 Amongst the manuscripts, one of his executors 
 informed me, there were many very curious and 
 valuable in the Sanscrit, Hindostanee, Arabic, Per- 
 sian, Chinese, and Malay languages, which he had 
 collected in his extraordinary pedestrian journey 
 through India. His manuscript journal would be 
 highly interesting to the public, and would well re- 
 pay the visit of an industrious biographer to the 
 British Museum, in order to the publication of a 
 more extended memoir of the life and travels of this 
 singular and most exemplary youth. 
 
 THOMAS ZOUCH, 
 
 AN UNKNOWN POET AND TEACHER OF LANGUAGES. 
 
 Thomas Zouch was born at Saffron Walden, in 
 Suffolk, in the year 1750 ; his father was born in 
 the reign of William and Mary, and was one of the 
 first clerks to the bank of England, which situation 
 he held for about forty-five years, and was buried 
 in Lothbury church-yard, which was afterwards 
 desecrated for the purpose of increasing the offices 
 of the bank. Thomas Zouch was educated at Ches-
 
 76 
 
 hunt, under the care of a Mr. Williams, who kept a 
 boarding-school at that place. After various attempts 
 in trade, which proved unsuccessful, he applied 
 himself more sedulously to the acquiring a know- 
 ledge of the French language, with a view [to gain 
 a livelihood by teaching it. He possessed a remark- 
 ably tenacious memory ; his company was at all 
 times amusing and instructive, and from his long 
 residence in London, he acquired a fund of anec- 
 dote, both political and historical, of his own times. 
 
 At the period of the French Revolution he taught 
 the English tongue to a great number of the French 
 emigrant nobility and dignitaries of the Gallican 
 church. Amongst his pupils were the Vicomte 
 Chateaubriand, the Duke de Berri, the Due de 
 Chartres, with all of whom he was upon terms of 
 the greatest intimacy whilst in this country. Lat- 
 terly, from his advanced years, he obtained but 
 little employment, though he was remarkably quick 
 and active, and in full possession of all his facul- 
 ties. 
 
 As a resource against the infirmities of old age, 
 he had paid a subscription to a club, for about 
 twenty-three years ; during which period, from his 
 uniform excellent state of health, he had never oc- 
 casion to apply for any assistance. 
 
 From the scantiness of his resources he had fallen 
 into arrears for rent, and his landlord demanding 
 immediate payment, he was compelled, to satisfy 
 those demands, to part with all his books, (in num- 
 ber about three hundred volumes,) and philosophi- 
 cal instruments. This proved a severe trial to him, 
 and his health from that time visibly declined.
 
 77 
 
 In his last illness he was compelled to ask relief 
 from his club ; when, as the preliminary to such as- 
 sistance, he was visited by the secretary, who found 
 him sitting up writing a letter to a friend, upon 
 which he thought proper to report him able to get 
 his bread ; he was therefore refused all aid, and 
 was entirely dependant upon the bounty of his 
 friends for the common necessaries of life. 
 
 On his death, application was made for the sum of 
 thirty pounds, stipulated in the articles, to pay for 
 a decent funeral, which they also, at first, refused ; 
 and not until a threat of an appeal to a magistrate, 
 would they make the grant for paying the expences 
 incurred. 
 
 I applied for him to the literary fund, but I was 
 informed relief was only afforded to those who had 
 written and published one or more works. 
 
 For nearly two years before his death, he had 
 always a plate at my father's table, which he fre- 
 quently availed himself of, having often not where- 
 with to purchase a dinner. 
 
 He died on the 15th of February, 1823, aged se- 
 venty-three, and was buried in St. James's burying- 
 ground, Hampstead Road. 
 
 He had a competent knowledge also of the Latin 
 and Greek languages, mathematics, and use of the 
 globes. He had also obtained a great proficiency 
 in the Hebrew and Arabic languages. 
 
 He frequently amused his friends with pieces of 
 poetry, of a humourous kind, of his own composition; 
 he has left four volumes of manuscript poems, writ- 
 ten at various periods.
 
 78 
 
 For a very curious memoir of an illustrious ob- 
 scure, who obtained a remarkable proficiency in 
 languages and mathematical science, I must refer 
 the reader to my little Gate to the French, Italian, 
 and Spanish Unlocked. 
 
 MUTUAL EDUCATION SOCIETY. 
 
 A writer in the Monthly Magazine, for May 
 1821, communicates the following curious insti- 
 tution for acquiring knowledge in sacred litera- 
 ture. 
 
 A few years since Dr. Spencer, then a resident in 
 Bristol, conceived the idea of forming an institution 
 in which the languages of holy writ and scriptural 
 knowledge should be taught gratuitously, and this 
 institution he proposed to found upon the following 
 principles ; 
 
 First That which a person is competent to learn, 
 if he be properly instructed, he will be able to 
 teach. 
 
 Second That after a person has learnt any thing, 
 it will be highly conducive to his improvement if he 
 begin to teach it. 
 
 Third That a person will learn more easily 
 and expeditiously in a class than individually. 
 
 Fourth That it is more pleasant and easy to teach 
 a class than one alone. 
 
 Upon these principles the doctor commenced his 
 plan, which he denominated an institution for ac-
 
 79 
 
 quiring and communicating an accurate and critical 
 knowledge of the Holy Scriptures in their original 
 languages, free of expence, by taking four young 
 men as students, whom he instructed in their own 
 language grammatically, in rhetoric, logic, the 
 Hebrew of the Old Testament, the Greek of the 
 Septuagint and of the New Testament; besides 
 which the students read with him the History of the 
 Empires with which the Jews were connected, with 
 the customs of the Jews and other eastern nations? 
 Christian ecclesiastical history, &c. &c. 
 
 Previously, however, to his taking this class, he 
 obtained from each individual a solemn promise 
 that he would, at the expiration of three years, take 
 other four pupils, and instruct them in all those 
 things which should be taught him in the institution 
 he was then about to enter. 
 
 When a student has completed his studies, at the 
 end of three years he takes a class of four, who each 
 engage to teach four others as the last did; and 
 when they have arranged amongst themselves the 
 days and hours of meeting for the week, they proceed 
 to business, which consists in reading 
 
 Watts's Logic, 
 
 English Testament, 
 
 English Grammar, 
 
 English Bible, 
 
 Scripture Geography, 
 
 Rhetoric, 
 
 Learning Hebrew Grammar, 
 
 Translating Hebrew Bible. 
 
 This constitutes the work of the first year ; it is, 
 however, by no means necessary that the task should
 
 80 
 
 be read a great many times through; others are 
 sometimes introduced at the discretion of the 
 teachers : thus in a class-book is contained the fol- 
 lowing arrangement, dated March 3, 1821. 
 
 Read Locke on the Human Understanding, four 
 
 pages. ,. 
 
 English Grammar, two chapters. 
 English Bible, two chapters. 
 French Testament, seven chapters. 
 Hebrew Grammar, four chapters. 
 Hebrew Bible, one chapter, and parsed. 
 This is the business of one evening, in a class 
 which meets twice a week ; the plan requires six 
 hours in the week to be devoted to it, but the 
 division of this time is quite immaterial. 
 
 At the expiration of a year from the time of the 
 class commencing, the teacher introduces the Greek 
 language, and the arrangement then is 
 
 Greek Grammar, 
 
 Greek Testament, 
 
 Shuckford and Prideaux, 
 
 Scripture Geography, 
 
 Josephus. 
 
 Septuagint, 
 
 Hebrew Bible, 
 
 English Bible and Testament, 
 
 Locke. 
 
 These works are not all introduced at once to the 
 pupils, but in succession. When a work has been 
 read through, the teachers examine the students as 
 to their knowledge of its contents, and if satisfied, 
 introduce another.
 
 The third year is employed in gaining a more com- 
 plete, correct, and critical knowledge of the Hebrew 
 and Greek languages, in comparison of different 
 passages with each other ; arid of the Septuagint 
 with the Hebrew. 
 
 The increasing character of the plan will be seen 
 in the annexed calculation, where, supposing each 
 individual to have adhered to his engagement, and 
 to have taken his class at the expiration of his term 
 of three years, we shall have 
 
 Founder 1 
 
 In three years completes 
 
 the education of .... 4 students. 
 Who finish in 6 years ... 16 
 
 9 64 
 
 12 ... , . 256 
 15 .... 1,024 
 18 .... 4,096 
 21 . v . . 16,382 
 24 .-',' . 65,536 
 27 . ; . ' 262,144 
 30 ... 1048,576 
 
 The principles of its future government were, 
 First A general meeting of members and teachers 
 to be held annually on the first Tuesday in July, 
 when a committee is to be formed from amongst them 
 by general suffrage, on wbich day a report of the 
 last committee, and other business of a general na- 
 ture considered. 
 
 Second All propositions made at the general 
 meeting to be carried by votes. All questions of 
 the committee to be determined by the ballot of the 
 majority.
 
 The business of the committee is to receive re- 
 ports from the teachers of the progress of their 
 respective classes. To examine into and decide upon 
 the eligibility of persons applying for admission. 
 
 The writer says, some of the most distinguished 
 dignitaries of the church have sanctioned this un- 
 dertaking. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
 o) 
 
 W. DAVY-, Printer, Gilbert Street, Groivenor Square.
 
 POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 IT is my intention to publish a sheet of verbs, on a 
 plan that will considerably facilitate their acquisi- 
 tion, and likewise some of the particles of each lan- 
 guage. I do not pretend to supply the place of a 
 grammar, but merely to shew that, by having cards 
 written out from the various grammars, much time 
 may be saved ; and an easier method of acquiring 
 those languages will at once be evident from their 
 affinity to each other. 
 
 FOR THE HEBREW I must recommend the begin- 
 ner to obtain a sheet of letters and vowels, by which 
 he will more easily acquire the habit of correct pro- 
 nunciation. Professor Lee's Hebrew grammar must 
 next be procured which contains much valuable 
 information. 
 
 There is an excellent grammar by Gesenius, which 
 has not yet been fortunate enough to meet with a 
 translator from the German. Begin early to trans- 
 late, for which you will find great facilities in the 
 purchase of Montanus's Hebrew Bible, with an 
 interlinear literal translation in the Latin language, 
 which originally formed a part of the Complutensian 
 Polyglot. Hutter's Hebrew Bible has the servile 
 letters printed hollow for the use of learners,
 
 84 
 
 whereby they may at once see the roots of the words. 
 I do not consider, however, there is much advantage 
 in this plan. 
 
 There is an excellent stereotype edition of the 
 Hebrew Bible, in one volume 8vo., published by Mr. 
 Duncan, for 25s. 
 
 Bythner's Lyra Prophetica is an excellent book on 
 the Psalms : there is a new edition, edited by Dr. 
 Sleath. 
 
 IN LEXICONS There is an excellent old book by 
 Avenarius, in folio, 1587; the roots are printed in 
 large letters on the margin, and the various readings 
 are given underneath : very useful for a beginner. 
 
 That of Buxtorf is remarkable for its extent of 
 Rabbinical learning, but it is not so well calculated 
 for a learner. 
 
 There is an excellent little pocket manual, by 
 Reineccius, JLeipsic, 1735 ; containing all the Hebrew 
 roots, entitled, Index Memorialis. 
 
 An octavo edition of Gesenius's Hebrew Lexcion, 
 edited by Gibbs, has j ust appeared. Gesenius, it must 
 be observed, has adopted the etymological form, as is 
 the case with the dictionaries of the modern lan- 
 guages. It is admitted the old method of finding 
 words by their roots is often very perplexing to a 
 learner. Gesenius has also admirably illustrated the 
 use of the Hebrew words, by their affinity to the 
 Arabic and Syriac. For a learner adopting my 
 method, I must strenuously recommend this Lexion ; 
 he will find it invaluable; the price is 25s. ; beautifully 
 printed. 
 
 IN ARABIC The grammar of Richardson is well 
 known, yet in many respects objectionable and un-
 
 85 
 
 satisfactory : that of Erpenius, though much older, is 
 far superior, in all respects. 
 
 Amongst the moderns, none rank so high as that of 
 Silvestre de Sacy, in two vols. 8vo. 1810, 36s. : he is a 
 most profound Arabic scholar. I am surprised we 
 have not had an abridgment of this excellent gram- 
 mar, done into English. 
 
 There is another, by an anonymous author, pub- 
 lished in Paris, in 1824, for 21s,; with Exercices 
 d'Arabe litteral, 8vo. 4s. The Lexicon used by the 
 servants of the East India Company, is that of Richard- 
 son's, in Persian, Arabic, and English. There is an old 
 one by Willemet, which I understand is reprinting. 
 
 I have a curious grammar which belonged to the 
 poor old Cobler, mentioned in the Gate to French, 
 Italian, and Spanish, which is thus entitled, Gram- 
 matica Hebreo Harmonico cum Arabica et Ara- 
 maea Methodo Logico J. G. Kals, Amsterdam, 
 1758. If something on the same plan could be done in 
 this country, it would be a treasure to the biblical 
 student, divested of the absurdities and conceits which 
 depreciate the value of this book : it is, however, very 
 curious, and even entertaining. 
 
 FOR THE SYRIAC The grammar of Mr. Yeates 
 is the best that can be named. I believe he is pre- 
 paring a Lexion. There is a good Lexicon attached 
 to an edition of the Syriac New Testament, by Gut- 
 birius, I2mo. 1668. However, the invaluable Lexi- 
 con Heptaglofcton of Castell, will supply all the wants 
 of the biblical student in this department : it is an 
 honor to this country to have produced such a work ; 
 but the poor man was ruined, and died in abject 
 poverty.
 
 86 
 
 In recurring again to the helps for the Hebrew lan- 
 guage, I cannot omit noticing the advantage I have 
 derived from a little book by Paul Tossano, called 
 Dictionum Hebraicarum quae universo sepher tehil- 
 lim continentur, Syllabus geminus ; every word in 
 the Psalms is to be found at the end, alphabetically 
 arranged and numbered, referring to its root, whereby 
 the learner may, without the least difficulty or fear of 
 mistake, translate for himself the whole book of 
 Psalms. Those who are acquainted with Greek, 
 would derive much pleasure from the use of the Con- 
 cordance, by Conrad Kircher, 2 vol. 4to. 1608, with 
 all the readings of the Greek Septuagint. That of 
 Trommius's is more esteemed, but especially that 
 invaluable book, Taylor's Hebrew Concordance, 
 2 volumes, folio.
 
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 Ff gj 
 
 Beth 
 
 'often. V 
 
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 D 
 
 Ti 
 
 He 
 
 H aspirated 
 
 Van 
 
 I 
 n 
 
 C/iet/1 
 
 u 
 
 Tctk, 
 
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 X 
 
 Capk 
 
 K 
 
 Jj timed 
 
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 K
 
 fl.Z. 
 
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 18 
 
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 M 
 
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 Final 
 
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 JJ -D 
 
 Jim 
 
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 n 
 
 Tan 
 
 T/ut 
 
 Yn, 
 
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 Lam 
 
 _[/07ruui 
 
 LamElif 
 
 Jlfi 
 
 m 
 
 m, 
 
 (r/lOifl 
 
 Fa/ 
 
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 Sad 
 
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 Jin. 
 
 
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 Tev 
 
 A 
 
 //< 
 
 , tvAt'ab are usuattv arranged tJiffirent fivm tfu>se 0f 
 stit/as-fJifrrtif/rnr arc v&tced fm/clAer.-in tfi 
 siw/tf/ H-'lA Mf ffccretv. 
 
 siw
 
 6. 
 
 The Heb 
 
 rew 
 
 1. Five fony.- 
 
 TT _ _ _ Tlfiri ___ ft I _ 0r f 
 -r ____ IFTiiriJt foTiy _ ^ _ t&s in 
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 z. 
 
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 v" . _ _ 
 
 Jfififiufc _ it, 
 
 Mappik; 
 
 ~*~t*. 
 
 tSt-an- ^T'O .A&U. 
 
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 cL''d!cJ^ 
 /e
 
 
 
 are,- 
 
 I. 
 
 2. S^if Te<?c7ui( ( ) aj ^At 
 
 x _ \ / i^ 
 
 (^ A .j' ) v ^.J 
 
 \ t-mAtj e*#&ri*'t<m<, 
 
 . 
 
 -) ^ 
 
 e AA^rK^un&'d' et*S , t& , efts, /Z 
 u^ 
 
 " 4S
 
 ff.8. 
 
 c^W^Z/X* 
 
 
 Z& 
 
 
 t-tA/i&t vy/ 
 
 o &r o j 
 
 o- - 
 
 O O 
 
 O 7- O T- 
 
 fl/t*sf~tt : u'&> may 
 
 ff ^ 
 
 frl _ f ~\ ft *~> $f 
 
 -GC*rmfmts?2^g^, 
 
 j ___ _ a 
 
 J _ 
 
 1,7 nea 
 
 {** a< J-nsrt/ '-/t-rtfs 
 
 <*u>/-' der /f 'A^ 
 tt'J , 2.' r > t^a^ J?a/ls 'M'f (^JSartk ) DauyTtter. 
 
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 l&e Jfea 
 
 I ^^ 
 
 Gender. 
 
 A.^ J'emtntsie -fas' 
 
 v, t^/ratsm*f 0r''e4se>-r*is&nS . . . e&4 r$ O ' - 
 
 Jtiruuin. 
 
 fr^ 
 
 jp 
 ^Wt&&L-' vfy/ ft&Ltffev-Z^ys ) I /s&''AA4&tt<ri0 
 
 s ' /? 
 
 JfalcaA- a, 
 
 t /em,: H 3 1
 
 ft.io. 
 
 faz/t^C' e~?i^i/, f?- 
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 Jf The 
 
 '-/A^ tn9^e&/t-z* 
 T/ie -Zipu.ul 
 
 
 
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 JjJ) or J.XUI Tfo 
 
 (render. 
 
 isfi/ 'fewwrz 
 
 f,/' 
 
 - 
 
 / ' 
 
 Z 
 
 $ , 
 ^ tkeee.
 
 PL 12. 
 
 !\ i<j tT-fi&riS 4<ct*e<!i. 
 ; 
 
 Gender. 
 
 iw <Z&n*&&U 
 
 'rem-7'i-j tzte- 1 < 
 7 t?r 4*strm&M~'j <&*/ \ A 
 
 / / 
 
 otisn^ err 
 
 '_A.*J^ n-0-sto-. a man/; ' {2. Ajl 
 H^ tarn _ #> Mrn-- ; \ 2. 'r& 
 
 , a?m0lner. 
 
 r^4u*u* no*.** -'/>> '/n^e^rtb-tJ, ^{^ / ^J^iaM^r^ awid rs? su 
 
 _ ^ S/ 
 
 ^JA^ L'u^&. fitisfrt-b't 4sn/4rt~e>i!?l~LSf / e-e4>rtJ &s*t<0d r ~ 
 
 fr, f'Lm44i4t'/r{rn/' > fru^?^M^ 
 
 J'/iyiw _ yeunip G&i/drrn -.
 
 -u, em^at^O' - 
 T[ ^^ ex fCiru? , 
 
 v&tJ ', c_ 
 
 ^/^U' ez 
 
 z^yL- tts F&tfaaJij-'- t&nd&t-' rdie/ fi4^4&it<rtsa/ -&efe4s, a^ f - PJ F 
 rul D*"r* Yat&zytm/, (we ha,nds . 
 tLS-n^ c/emt^m-i^- < rtr&m<s -& ^y^d^a^^ 
 
 T"l 
 
 // S 
 
 * * 
 
 ^^t^ &t/ C4r 
 c^c^e^t^ ' 

 
 . 23. 
 
 Fvr vttafi&n 0f Femi/tzn e . 
 
 tmtd firm t /l 
 
 rL.-^\~J Lo a.-J5 
 
 fa/a , a litt&! 6<y G&*t9&6it\g.&' ] 
 
 " 
 
 /f.'/fic oi7~<f : _ rfu/ tifo^stwa/pi/u/ &rn&t*J 
 
 J X 
 
 ,^^^ 
 t /& ^&' ^6<ri 
 
 '*&>/ &CU4i4&6'l>4&C& v^, 
 
 X -? ^ 
 
 -?w 
 
 w0?mn; _ tf^-fr- 
 
 S 
 
 /. 
 
 2. Gakf**/ 
 
 Tfa> Letters. fc> rntz
 
 ./& 14. 
 
 S '' 
 
 G. 
 
 J). 
 Ac. 
 V0&. 
 
 Case . 
 
 ^t4?/&&t^yS<St^&!!i6k0L/, 
 ' ^t'^jb ** '' 
 
 Sfce.'-2>l6ta<c/ tzwoC L/s6>, 
 
 I JTotcje. 
 
 jr. 
 
 D. 
 
 Ao. 
 
 Atl. 
 
 PluraZ. 
 
 D *J1 2 - JH > jffeutes 
 
 <?. 
 
 D. 
 
 A 
 
 Tor.. 
 Att. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 *j , n>^
 
 J) ecl 
 
 * 
 
 
 Sn& ae*t^Asi 
 *** 
 
 
 Jfasc. 
 
 flwral. 
 
 jJU^ of a 
 
 j). 
 
 ec. 
 AU. 
 
 (r. 
 JD. 
 
 Jee. 
 A6Z. 
 
 ^O . of Houses 
 
 The 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 0. 
 
 a, Qiteen. 
 of a, .... 
 ft) a .... 
 
 
 & /ro 
 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 AH. 
 
 ( <(' 
 L A^U^ i
 
 Case. 
 
 , vflJus earth . - 
 
 * 
 
 in info , 
 
 , i/t Me fanue .- _ 
 
 &a,-m0, amtmp ike people . 
 
 Tlural 
 
 D. 
 
 Ace. 
 Tec 
 
 
 J A O 
 
 Houses 
 
 . . o a . . or 9 
 
 D. 
 
 Aco. 
 
 Jrerrv. 
 
 fturat 
 
 JV. 
 
 J>. 
 
 Ace. 
 Toe. 
 
 Queen 
 
 JV*. 
 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 Ace. 
 
 Toe. 
 A61. 
 
 Quee
 
 Jle&rew 
 
 /Sfyriack 
 
 -is tj 
 
 <fe - far 
 
 &6c?# 
 
 T 
 
 n 
 
 Feminine 
 
 
 ma* 
 
 n a 
 
 nlrti 
 
 DX 
 
 f'
 
 PI. 
 
 
 L^T^iA 
 
 _ g 
 
 chink 
 
 
 d the 
 /M*sfe 
 
 "nxn- 
 
 'svi^t' i X7<J UA> 
 
 veryywel, 
 
 _ ^/^ fr&sfr afrutTtar 
 
 * 
 
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 JT/L? faaven- e 
 
 er
 
 ^ 
 
 JPI. 
 
 0< 
 
 / tzsm&< 
 
 ^ KV 
 
 L 
 
 '*u> fib 
 
 Jfy offence 
 
 J)e<Z7&r # me tfuin- tfie apjaZe efifvy eye 
 
 
 
 f Mw .jkuik 
 
 ^f / Ui/j>/ ^ -s 
 
 j L_^p I A <* I f
 
 n. zo. / 
 
 ' t^r6C'9rw- 
 
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 /LO >0 i 7 ^. O 2. f firtrotJw raMtoffo; jrreaf <$i<?n<? _ 
 
 ^O men/, 
 . . . ai& 010 eh 
 
 than, / S f 0&m0ns e*f fare. 
 
 wAich ij fAt r?fi cam.??? a Ji<?m.en? tn^ Ms ?<
 
 fl. 22. 
 
 Be&rwp 
 
 Person 
 
 floral. 
 
 1* 
 
 w na H 
 
 -e.c. 
 
 I* 
 
 ir. 
 F. 
 
 2<. 
 
 ys 
 
 on or n ^ n 
 n < 
 
 7n& es^&t&Wj 
 
 '^rtmwv 
 
 
 \J 
 
 . J?. 
 
 2* 
 
 21 lira, 
 
 We 
 
 You ... F. 
 
 F. 
 
 J.J) . I. Com,. 
 
 1 s 
 
 . J O . We 
 
 M. 
 j 7 . Itum, F. 
 
 Z* 
 
 F. 
 
 o in 
 
 Jr. 
 F.