u ion of 
 
 . 
 
 -are i - 
 
 vorn f'ir. i ... . specien 
 
 "been r ; in v 
 
 it i;i " it,- i/.iar .. it can 
 
 '."ecto animals in the for 
 
 soun tr ie a , 
 
 lac-re vigorous niuoion of 
 
 f for*. . 
 
 r ,,h, taia&racJc crv/-fly, etc. 
 
 ice of ? I'crc 
 
 Oil] . aw in the! south 
 
 , . mosquito ; -;".(. 
 
 .i-i, ially in tjtio 1'a.r nortir; 
 
 . north! 
 . 
 
 .Lil'v.. 
 
 iterii , j-e&o irie 
 Ion, .... 
 
 . 2 la UG.._S organic ui -vis 
 
 '>t 02 . . -I coils all rnuloii i.s , tntc-n, 
 
 trr d ivith inor;-j---nic . e i n 
 
 i ur_ c L ii 
 
 - _ x.i L-^uru Lo.iiio; oil is sel- 
 
 . uy 13 ijoinji cm; i/i& ci^ 6'ife-i "i'^en up, ana 
 
 &-ie0 les.t ueli better ; or oh; 
 
 . if io . . . ->er for tit.v, 
 
 re durable ij. u.uc jiui-oh u^- t 
 c; 1 oico than in 
 
 : rn uf rocJc I in fche soil. 
 
 ; the ;e ^c: i.i and 
 
 oxidation. Also formation^ of ?icic- r aubaLances, as 
 
 .5 of ', cteria, rid re.. - . . r"bonic acid is i . '. ueue are 
 
 , m arc bctt^. 1 i . , e/cupt froat, 
 
 n effect . Influential j lortli, ,ock 
 .: disi t .'icily in 0.1*5 south c-^oept- in certain c.- - 
 
 r. It is slow in dry counori<;ts, W.K in - 
 
 10} ^por-^-.ure of t.;-; t. ..r^iCi-os, ieavoo, (3tc., 
 
 fcurfl - - i ,(of one aoii wiUl ioot:.:). 
 
 s wood i . -ed "by warm nir. re >t cr-^. . .jn in tne 
 
 ^pcil :nu- ... . ] - tt ta b ac-Uiori- 
 
 .':.ks; this i' incorrect (hot air;, i^^cl. in w.iu --inucr is 
 
 : of fro- . . r; in very low t ax-G t oe bu- - 
 
 'jat erne- heril ov 
 
 Lly trcje'.' i.c'o inj , c - c 
 
 , .. rodaC'. / . in- - 1< 3, on 
 
 . 
 
 .3t3 inc ioi blurt, - use of the 
 
 cti-; ion 01 ... jifiXcta 1't.. '-. ..ith 
 
 more 
 
i. C1J . ' -or of 
 
 , ftion and rel^iiv -uity 
 
 at 
 
 __. ; : : condition in the United States snd Korth America. 
 
 1) t ion in the uni . es ii 
 
 Q inch* . r) or I -^.th of the .'t. -unurence una <&&& 
 
 in river rur.r t'.ie line of 40". To the north and north- 
 
 i 30". The 20 H line runs from the 
 
 ; the various 
 
 -^1 of . ^ific od 
 
 . 
 
 of r- 1 thru tii-e ye . .nry's 
 
 
 ^j >n occ- 
 
 . tel i - ity indexes both 
 
 .1 vrliey to the co-^tLi. 
 
 j . iiorth^v^.A-ci: tli ere is.?? small 
 
 ITO portion of auri,. 
 
 -,\ from ;^y to 3eptc-:ib--:r. Tli relativ 
 'ft *vind nnd tlieroi'orc fc^'/ tree . 
 
 cj . re rains, 
 
 iu lov?, i 
 
 . ..... - % 6 
 
 ... . -aoiiuit 
 
 -.rairi . -ort; forest (live o'-^cs) occurs only on 
 
 . . 
 
 ) , Liforni t^ rc,-;iou I > irraa . *i:c pre- 
 
 Xo\ ... r the Ir-na is ccoleu. 
 
 ity, rand t.- tli ' f n.irly rt. 
 
 . 
 
 _^> tfortl 'liforn.!-- to ft. Precipitation occurs dur- 
 
 :y north of Port: . rela- 
 -t. to: J to treo f,ro--. 
 
 ^ f C>liforn.l-. to . In the fsou-.-.ern por- 
 
 .o ) f the .rniure is -. 
 
 too dry for , . growth. In a tue 
 
 is r-crr -rr . r prec ..;.', t, -3 1 ion 
 
 ',de; t] less precipita- 
 
 tion an ...... - ; --- result is a heavy 
 
 t slo , ^inery On ; 'at side. 
 
 ^ . or; fr to . riti-.-.. l i Columbia. The 
 
 , ,u no lo-vor ti 
 
 liforj i ^ }ic 
 
 -.ide, ai;:d lov, 
 
 . Xhie cr. . dense ruixed for <- side 
 
 iaivy rains nnd exc ; ; on, 
 
 O f \ . : . iremenaoas 
 
 flooc* r Dpe, 
 
 :is, Puetlo to out . . J reoipita- 
 

 li iRuiv 
 
 . , have a 
 
 I 
 jt sicie and slo^eo, oat- 
 
 , , *y 
 
 . .. 
 
 
 _ ' 
 
 of 
 
 r .*!. ,u~ 
 
 vo. 
 
 ~3> i '*"*. --.V- 
 
 ocially of mountain cuu;,w. . As a 
 ?;i' iw ^rccipit-'ition^ c .-ill^ in r-;.;iofie of 
 
 ,.}.y froa year 
 
 T oon i L&! rai;i 
 
 it)3 ii> ],racti- 
 .; to t;t 
 
 . ; uf. 
 b3 : it- of toil facility . | oi* 
 
 1 ..: I . . 
 
 Of 
 
 .t fac , .11 - 
 
 , . u ooi ...... . 
 
 1} , A inciii^ i in io , -'ih^; the t-v 
 
 , fo .. ..-refit 
 
 2; wur3> lil;i": tor .: , t 
 
 I i.-. Uxtfu^t 
 
 , ...-.^uitc 
 . : iryrnio in 
 
 nco J tV. l.o^ 
 
 ( in 
 
 16 r tl . . ry c). i. w and 
 
 . ,. : . . . 
 
 t . 
 
 3) t--olBtur< --^prodMction: ea^i^r i;i vet ri 
 
 ..... ...... ,cv. r- 
 
 i; . 1'0'cli i..*i*.u/ j.cial 
 
 1 . . . r,. prudm. &in 
 
 . 
 
 : r&ticn:;: 
 
 . 
 
 . -.jfy 
 , - 
 
 
 
 for 
 

 - in ury , stnut. u-ik also 
 
 onl.Y r lir to 
 
 too r.'Miy 1' v 3, vlii cii ro .la t'tke too muc}i v/atar. uUiervise 
 ondi t . . . 
 
 4} l-.olp.ture host one ^ro*vth. It Ftiirair 
 
 . Keifiht growth nuff^rn mot in a 
 lJ*t ' -.;. ] tirr.ofi the vol nv? in ". 
 
 to e i. o-tf r-ite of gr 1 . Go or. . vith 
 
 . 
 
 . et s I . . B I tua- 
 
 , crowns, short ' . 
 
 jcrub c squite 
 
 . 
 
 - founci only in huiMo -Ji ;.;tricte. 
 
 6} ;-'3 inc.: r -- IQ. favors 
 
 rt^iit . i'ftve no tolermit s^enios^ in dry re t iic:.s. 
 
 . oiKt in volume -ic-r ?vcro. 
 
 f'cei 
 
 1st localitd A t. not neceesari- 
 
 . o?t junipers in o-l r. : -. tenet? v?- r? in ^. Nevada 
 
 L- . 
 
 it forest ijoco i.;u^.lity of r. In 
 
 cleannef-B it .r,'y oe s^ici t/:?rt only a moist co ;utry 
 Lai. In rc ( ';"n,rd tc f ine--.*r-i. I rnd 
 
 dry localities oft^n nj-oo.acc r fine qur.lity of rr.ater- 
 
 : o"bt^T i cli- 
 
 :-/n in t ^e locality. In dry localities tJit le,ss 
 i in w et placer, but t . the hardest as w-.-ll se 
 )ocib. A veTy oo.lo clisi^te does not : -.;.iv'w i specie;! .)f ru 
 cod Irrch is c ;ed in the AI ;o. 
 
 9) '-*' rc'-'-ices fro?t d.in/'cr. "ois>t r 
 
 dry r-r.^ion?. Ice normally liurtn tree . . nerally 
 
 11 ^ injure i* i'crcst trees, and cnus^ ^ive 
 
 . 
 
 10} koieture r,ff /cts le-vres, brus^, ct . e 
 
 ^ees t . Jt often f vcds, -il of 
 
 lifornia, . -. relntive harfiidity I'lorc ti 
 
 . , g 3 -illy dry foront 
 
 oisture helps fiuigi, a^aay and disease. % /ot tlie sun 
 '. is t: arc 1 in 
 
 . There are more defects in wet Ian a fore- t, rut more tiiuber. 
 
 11) ' r oirjtur ... aniraal troublen. '/o^ernll/ ins .utn and 
 ..les nr(j lerjo senoiio in v'/t, t:;r.n i-. ivry format 3. --ry i,j.tua- 
 
 ins'iCts, an there nr? fer/er oner f insect a. In 
 
 7 , mointure in riot '.-..=? etr,- . vr r; 
 
 < i o . 
 
 12) moisture ftTfecta ^::j"l. Prccir : o- 
 
 , l--cr | lly 
 
 in :.:;. - nic --and ir terini . :'ici-'l 
 

 >n 
 ; 
 
 . In cold districts he-.vy precipi -, 
 
 .' , , i hinders or .11 li 
 
 It t .r condition, or at - to low ao^gy 
 
 c. "aisturs conditions? ted b^ the forest. 
 
 ce of 
 
 , or i' :.-- .liiv-vinouB 
 
 increano of ov lion duo to t: - .'.ration is 
 
 , . > - U.MC for- 
 
 n old one r-nd a 
 
 ,1 an o . reforo t: . -ion 
 
 ; ion to t ; . ^nt or Koliir.e of vood foria- 
 
 . . . Ill tri: ,,re 
 . 
 
 '. r ;^ . _-J_^_ i^Ji itaelf i_a nt'ilurl-illff legs.gn 
 io i:- .port-nt, but is not often cl reu. It 
 
 . .. . 
 
 4; 7V*e fcrc-.t r -ir ci.rcul- li, , /crc io less 
 away of f<- foro the r xty is 
 
 . 
 
 ^trol'-tic: 
 
 ji-jurlly less frozen ij: the lorcct tii- 
 - often hi*;. 
 
 \ -now : . t for -id t/u 
 
 in effect is duo to she , lack -1 
 
 , - c, 
 
 7] ?r. . ion f r 
 
 This Leaves, tox , 
 
 l uf , 1 for .. . ; . " . ' .' rti nt 
 
 ' - 
 
 ntuff . . :. . in gt* 
 
 t off Den 
 
 e {^ro *nd .. olctin^ il L:* : ia '-o the li? 
 :. nlly nyr'jc tore 
 
 I ',.-.;. , 
 
 . 
 
 4. 
 
 foT( 
 
 . ' ^8 
 
 . 
 
 ,1 lllC t - '- - ''* 
 
 . ' , 
 
 . Alon . -iy fri. to ^ 
 
 ,, cole but ' . ^ in our 
 
 ion - . 
 
 . , 
 
v;y gout :'requ , 
 
 0ft , . ,outh i'r . .LUIS i. 
 
 .. w 01' p,tor..; in one unites It . I I . Hy woe 
 
 >j. I aumin'T monsoons } are common ii- ; 
 
 the uuif o- -^co to Arizo/i'-' oloruo . ^ winds co, 
 
 heavy , and norih- 
 
 , , corny, oft era 
 
 , 
 
 . , i tjie "norther^ 
 
 old winds r>receaec, ilt . . ,ey 
 
 3 trie cr, tt 
 
 c. hy t occur in the 
 
 ;s from 
 
 . , . . -on the pl--> j re 
 
 ; '- uold ( 
 
 . " ^ir r-'oviujj c^pwn, 
 
 r 'f ore *j in t . r ?>.IRO in tiie 
 
 -n current, . is 
 
 ^fteri sever . iary thaws* IM >& si 
 
 . 
 
 '.1C C ,') 
 
 t};e i ii*uc 
 
 orju. fh : ctron. , 
 
 uinein^ iiigi-i rc-ln tive }iu/{i:.c.'-i t.y , and 
 
 : ; act t. t,. 
 
 overe stt 
 p,re fo..ina in the Gulf states, in su 
 
 ir on n . dependent on 
 
 oriR. A hurricane ir .rai^it^atm; . .ocity 
 
 01 ov ous. 
 
 .3 1^5 
 111 ^o 
 
 . 
 
 rcnv . 
 
 v/inue 
 
 ', cxt^n 
 . -, 
 
 .>rtmve;3i c coai - 'their crlrr.s, 
 
 !" nt a time. : - .e traffic 
 
 . 
 
 3) In nil rrountnins rll -e wore or in air- 
 
 oottion, oit ; ier up or down t-ie mountain, or up of d .79. All 
 
 Lor , : -"inc. i . ! ip, ir. notice- 
 
 ; urric c-ui occrjr n,v , s;eciili.y - 
 
 c>:D-'Mun in t.ne inert stormy p-irts of 
 
 try, or trie scorm cent . corny T 'i rse in ni^iier 
 
 inyaa inor' ; -SOUL . . , . .? 
 
 
 o ts of v-i Jiu 0:1 for : 
 
 I :? soil, plant : r . 
 
 i firyi: in c,ir; .: , 
 
 id oven in t . 
 
 .1'ic coa t, th< '-3 bri. nd i'lcrc-'K. relative 
 
t . .... rid f ru i t w~' 
 
 - , 
 
 Ln 86 t f dryin - ~ 
 
 in reduced the evr.porr.tion to 
 
 tuiil i . ... cn 
 
 - uo-.ir, ju^t ordina: i . A fc 
 
 r Lt tc / , or 33, . 
 
 , in liOt tl-:n jr: CO 
 
 __. . .... ol Ui v;inus ( ; LI ij.^ on 
 
 driven the \ - plains. Thus 
 
 f^ii ; ; 
 
 t. 
 
 ^ y/ A . > composition, ' ; 
 
 jfluct, vith a 
 reduce the cc 
 thic r marked int 
 
 and U;e 
 
 by Li,.iCjr. 
 
 prouacc; croo.. , f;nnrly, iir.otu,/. 1 ana 
 
 ..-ptio ..... I gro 
 
 . 3 
 
 n.-t.,ao l j- i- j - iUS "^ 
 
 . 
 
 uO\;r., ... oyfl ti hind' 
 
 *r inport'Jit ( ,iona in tiic i'ore./-, sspeci ... 
 
 i repa 
 
 10, -. -- ^^iu. out IQ<5 wa cvcni>, ^ j . o: .:-..odli-i 
 
 . . 
 
 Leuo than it 
 
 . r t '<- i'orcf . 
 
 drift . ' ... .. it up in 
 
 tr; ..... > - - Then 
 
 roia it i ad runs away -.^ 
 
 
 
 lj ; ..iiiC. /;=utii" ui. b tret; c., in the a /is Uie v/ 
 
 , . U3 .Ly on ._ouu Bites. *:ii sstrj. .. 
 
 _. . o .L , y fungi itt -r;; plttcea -ire 
 
 . . . 
 
 . ilty in :.- .rotectiu.i. i rairie 
 
 3 up un- 
 
 it r< . . - . 
 

 nor c: 
 
 1; ie n< tor : . ... . ruin 
 
 , ; , orutsl : Ji, 
 
 , ffec'. 
 
 into^ 
 
 nd direct li*rht. 
 
 . ' cl 
 
 Be lint; bctt. 
 or.e. 
 red fit c -ont lotitucr , att 
 
 level for rr ce. 
 
 Lntit, to 6o u : 
 : -t. 
 
 30' : 500 unit . 
 
 : ". ftrov.-fi lu GO to , 
 
 t. 30 : 
 
 
 
 ., . 
 
 ; 
 
 - 
 
 d ligfct rt-Tit 
 
 . * is i ore 
 
 b nt - ol h; 
 
 crow/i.M f ihiuk w . 
 , , Colored 
 
 or, fa 
 
 . of 
 
 l8 trcr.. -U't i.c . . I 
 
 t f or ahotc - . ' ach 
 
 no ai\. . 
 
 4) to 
 
 ....... . .:iC 
 
 w . ili . ry 
 
 vv:...^..... piii Tri 
 
 jly ' iA clilw- 1 , , v_ vC . 
 
 1 1 e c I 
 tat , oil, - , tr 
 
 A M 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 . , 
 
 . 
 
 : t JL 11 
 
 >f lii^it 111 . i'- 
 
 - er, 
 
 . 
 u -Jiie n 
 
jos normal 
 
 - ' 
 
 ,__j32^^t^- . inus, 
 
 Jiis lir 
 
 .un the working 
 
 . -: 
 
 b. 
 
 , ince>. , , 
 
 , 
 
 I 10-1 ';f or 
 
 > 
 
 p 
 
 4. ^ f\ ^* "' 
 
 W ^ 
 
 . 
 
 , : .. 1 '' 11 li : 
 
 diff . r the li,^it ia 
 
 of t>.e : little in 
 
 , . . red i'ir, 
 
 nor " as * J 
 
 ' 
 
 .1 y ; t- ( - - 
 
 ciiff 
 is io Lol.r- 
 
 1 r-rrnco r. viit- . ; - toi 
 
 350 unitP of i . unit.-. 
 
 ce, buv the 01 . 
 
 .1 cov .;rtional to 
 
 . 
 
 itli tolorpnce r.t~tictien ft 1 way lati 
 
 , i.mi . - 
 
 , - 
 
 rnnce 13 Incr- - not, t 
 
 iunt of t." 
 
 , 
 
 In oo Hil it \; be 
 
 '.'ir is n no.t into? .r. 
 
 , 
 
 ct(jr of ."oil. 
 
 JL 
 
 : jt . creet- 
 
 ry. All* - tc 
 
 11,0'' 
 
 : . 
 
92. 
 
 c In no at countries coils vary in "'ide limits even on no small 
 n's 40 acre lot*, i-evcral kinds of soil may be on : lands. 
 -oil quality -ind kind is rcfl by th - therton, especially in 
 force' iculnrly i" r.oiuit^in country. 
 
 3. l n i ..... ->rtions of the land surface of the northern hemi- 
 sphere "soils I oved by -lacier:-, ice, -vine <md \vr.t wr. 
 therefore large portions of land arc deficient in soils, bare rock 
 
 ft by th ciers, or nt lei soil depths. Slit condi- 
 
 tion may be Men near . t,her places, on the contrary, may have 
 /y deposits o: .*ier a over the re-;ul?xr soils. 
 
 mter transport v?.j.3t quantities of soil, particularly 
 fcch cov 11 oy lands, "inds especially are important in aria 
 semi-arid inr.da and in coast regions. Wind can often cover the land 
 with t idly, ially on railroad lines in fills and cuts 
 
 in the ec - 
 
 .cli of follows is a part of a Review of Soil frow the 
 
 Forester's 3 1': rid-point. 
 
 In roost of our land the soils are still in place and are called 
 aedent-r, soils, bi ce on the underlying rock. The quality of 
 the soils depends on the kind of rock which produces tfcem. Uock, 
 
 ^ ) f 
 
 n how to make soil maps and soil reports from the Bureau or 
 
 .t of Agriculture. Vhcy have made aoil mnpa for about 
 
 e~\- '- 
 
 "-) ^iotril-ution of the Great Soil Areas in the United :;tntes and 
 
 'a. ].abrador, uebec nnd the Maritime I rovinces, part of -ew jfing- 
 "** ntario: this is a glaciated &4ft& area from *iich the soils 
 iy been removed, leaving bare rock, or thin soils on level 
 -I elevated ground, filling depressions -with noils of 
 characters fro?^ coarse sand to clay. 
 
 b. South along the sea coast from new Jersey to Texas: this is a 
 va- ~a of sandy lands crossed by river bottoms and Interrupted by 
 
 B. The river bottoms have rich alluvial soil. The sands are mostly 
 poor sands. :hia area include? the Southern pinery. 
 
 c. North of the Southern pine sands: a lr> i-ea of soila in 
 pi- mostly loam, clay and limestone areas. This includes the Appalo 
 
 .3 and the Centra,! i!ardwood. Nearly -til the river valley a nre in 
 bottv. .do with deep alluvial soils, 
 
 d North of the Central Hardwoods region of . : a large area 
 
 icial drift v^iere ice and vr.-tcr h--ve arr- the mater- 
 isually in deep layers. It is a large area, in 
 
 lly lands uouaily predominate! often the heaviest Imi4fi occupy, 
 not the bottoino, but the rid,:; B. It is quite a contrast to the ; >outham 
 ids. L Jack pii glaciated l^nda. ^rids o.re usually poor 
 
 ions, as they leach readily. They may reach depths of 200 
 feet or -'ore. 
 
93 
 
 . The .is country: h-?re ?*re for the EH ~t fine 
 
 lands, ^.cc ,; ..uln.ted _ __^ui and wfit . robably much of the effect 
 
 .iridfj ' .ru ail If ting, ; ui v/-tor influenced the ''rran^orucut of 
 
 soils. .-5 fro iy flocculated, lii;e of bre . .j.c 
 
 chfcftf fc .n is loams and cl-v/^, --i th h. id there sands. ..'ere come 
 
 the sana iiille of r.ebrasica. Alknli l-rnda occur in restrict .rtions of 
 
 ; c tea are conspicuous, and the land IB poor for 
 
 . .rid I?nidf3 of fc t, west: these are very variable in 
 aeter, f'rc the cu^.Eoest 3 ->f Uie northwest to the finest and heav- 
 iest cl^ye (adobe clays) of t)ie south^e.'jt . Uniformly, tlie soils are 
 
 : on restrict -a occur alkali ooils, as in the Bad 
 
 &. :>oils of t nuntaina of the went: In t. rras^ Cascades, 
 and ^ockies the soils are extremely variable, ranging froni newly disin- 
 
 ic mat in sand, to Uie very "best of clay and 
 land. 
 
 h. the liiijaid and arid far Northwest: ( N. ual. to 
 
 ) : there i3 iiere a lar^e slieet of erupted rock* It is a basalt 
 country, and a territory of deep soils and fertile lands, a good coun- 
 try. . i^inte^r*- 1 lor; of soils is the main feature. 
 
 On U .t arid side the soils are relatively little disturbed. 
 
 Ins ana on the coa^t plains the soils have been greatly 
 diaturbc and ice. The soil has been much washed by rainfall. 
 
 C). noil affects the Character of Forests, 
 
 su 'Die ."Southern pinery is entirely a soil forest both in regard 
 to mory proper, , f \nd the bottoro and swnmp lands. 
 
 ]}. Vue raixture of scrub pine, shortlenf pine and hardwoods is 
 , not by climate, but by soil. This occurs just north of the 
 ry, in the hardwoods re ;icn. 
 
 . i.iraestone soils have given us Juniper stande in Tennessee. 
 
 Tlie '9 also af fee ted the forest growth of a largo part of r..eatucky. 
 
 jd. Sand soils produce the pinery of the Great Ltakes country; a 
 of dry -ind sand gives belt ~ri;- inlands of hardwoods forest. 
 It is soil T iiich detcrmiMea by itr, character and moiisture the t.^iaarack 
 '.wnn^po nnc 4 . even oetwraten tliese two. 
 
 1 modifieo the pinery, changing it from a mixed f or r t of 
 poMorway pineo to Jac): pine; soil rnd soil moisture are the potent 
 influences in the composition of hardwood foreata. 
 
 e_. ;r\nds produce the croeB-tirabers of Texas in the widut of 
 --irie (aloo in OklaJ\ona), ^,nd roper, 1 9 the same thing in Wisconsin, 
 Minnesota, and the North. 
 
 . :iolls have but little affected the forests of tlie Greo.t ./eat, 
 3n th clin^t- i c)iief In . -.or, producing .nd dif f .-r- 
 
 enti-tiii..; for.- 1 3. 3oil may influence quality aorue-v;hat. 
 
 ^. Viewing soil moisture independently of climate, w niay say 
 . I k of foreat is due to soil moisture, but it is better to say 
 
94. 
 
 i. this is uuc- to 
 ;, clirar . 
 
 effect is shown by 
 aa on the 
 
 climate r- soil. Irrigation cor.ou in hen 
 iture . -ice versa. 
 cottonwood in 
 
 i . 
 
 Th~t soil does have 
 
 vadi 
 
 tho 
 
 D) Relation of '/nrious noils to Tree Growth W ;ricultur . 
 
 a.. Good no lot loam lands I ood for raising all the species 
 
 .ro'nr i : :i f-li 1 i . Timber ood growth and reproduc- 
 tion. Vitli - >;ocd cli^nte nnd favorable topography such lands are nor- 
 
 ly a^ricul: . .in nature they are stocked with hardwoods 
 until an aver iy temperature below ^'0 F, is reached, vhen they 
 ,o conifer, -,, in the nort 
 
 JD. j'eavy olnys.iro hard for tl.e farmer to handle; they are 
 stron ; and endure. I'uch organic fertilizer is requirea to keep them 
 
 . :hoy ar-.-' fair for forent. Hardwoods gro',v readily oven on Uie 
 hardest of clys, especially in Michigan and Ohio. But these lands us- 
 
 .i cultural 
 
 . Lean clays^ which arc derivative of shales, occur in iJ 
 
 Carolina, arid luiv-: a fair growth of hardwoods, but often 
 o a ocrub ^ro^fth ' sc . and usually to a mixture of liardwoode 
 
 ny nre nor really clay lands, but are soils in which 
 r si 1 t;i predominate and are really aificient in true clay. 
 
 &. "-ands tend to pine. The coarser and leaner of ther-e sands are 
 
 ed with scrub pi ;id other forms of ho.rd pinen. unly 
 oak ir. tiitj United otates coiapetcg aa a scrub on these snndy lands. They 
 arc ri cultural lands unless the climate and markets make certain 
 as po. , as intensive work for certain induatrien. They are 
 largely forcot lands. In arid districts the sands are not poor, but are 
 . ch chc,:dcally, bee of the Irxck of moisture to iSRCh the 
 a of the soil; irrigation trniasfornis tliese sands to fertile 
 soi ; . 
 
 . Very dry soils raay be either poor sands, as in humid country, 
 or ari4? lands in dry country of deficient rainfall. 
 
 . Swamps, or -et soils furnish a variety of conditions: 
 
 1) Good clny or oilt soils, the boat of agricultural lands, 
 often stocked with normally big timber, largely hardwoods. Only in ex- 
 
 ve cases do they tend to conjf- x, -/liidi then are cypress, cedr,etc 
 
 2) Jluck soils, containing a jnodornte Amount of inor^nic con- 
 stituents, arid stocked with hardwoode. If organic material predominates 
 
 ;s these soils tend to pent; the h.'irdv/ocda recede and cedar, 
 id spruce coino in, in the United States. In the , lu v/orld 
 . ne roplacos t .-k, ^itJi "birch. 
 
 U) History and Literature of ^oils and Soil Vtudy. 
 
 idy ;. follov/ing topics: 
 
 a. '.hat soils are made of. 
 
 b. How they ars made. 
 
 . uoil characters and qualities: chemistry, pliycics, biology, 
 fertility, arrangeioent and topography. 
 d. 3oil cover. Forest cover. 
 
. Sands, 7her variation in sandy lands; narmally they 
 
 are free fror> larger stoneo. Pefore t2ivi>u5 analyses of some sandy ooils 
 
 > veil to say a "?ord n.~: LO the oi~e of the. idea (textur 
 of these vnriouu mat I. Coacae ^rit is 1-3 torn* in : .er; ordi- 
 nary sand is 0,1-1 BM or 100-1000 microns; ailt is 0.01-0.1 nsm or 10- 
 100 microns; Band ia 100-1000 microns. The best known classification is 
 tint of the -..'nil. reau oi ".oils, as follov?a: 
 
 Fine gravel 2,000-1.000 millimeters (mi.} 
 
 'Joarae sand (a) 1. 000-0. b'OO im, 
 
 'liugi sand jbj OoOC-0.^0 ram. 
 
 110 sand (c) 0,2^'O-O.IQO mm. 
 
 I'ine sand (d) 0. 100-0. O^'O m; . 
 
 It 0.0 r ;o-0.005 rnm. 
 
 0,005-0,000 QU. 
 
 A classification given by i rof eseor iiot)i i8 ae follows: 
 it ft. 0-3, 00 ram. 
 
 id (a) O.J-1.0'. 
 
 id (b) 0.3 EBB. 
 
 ;d (c) 0.1^-0.16 n . 
 
 It (a) 0.0? mra. 
 
 It (b) (qunrtz) 0.01 j$eu 
 Clay ---- 
 
 is latter classification is the on referred to in the follow- 
 ing samples of aoils from the ikmthorn pinery on: 
 
 Sample 1: t ;rit 7; ; sands: a) l r /;:, b)19^ t c)10/ ; silt 35^; clay 
 
 ;t sand 
 
 In icaking these sample analyses they used sieves for the fine 
 particles, and water for clay. The particles are classified by the 
 
 y take to fall t'aru a certain distance in tlie water. Dumrnlng up 
 sample, we notice that the Bands form 57;.", silt 35/ f and clay L . 
 
 2: grit 3/ ; sands: 7/ 3; , ^/ , ^-' silt 69,; clay E . 
 
 Sample 3: grit 4^. f ; aands: 0.8; , O;., 6/ , 4>.; silt 69; ; clay 4 . 
 
 7e have had much sand and little clay. Finer sands vary 
 
 much in wide limits even in the sr*mo neighborhood, silt or quartz varye 
 to 70.. . 
 
 In making the analyses the grit io sifted thru different sized 
 raeahea to separate it. Clay settles in water about i> iuchea per day. 
 
 ^d. Loam soils. Loain is a combination of sand and ci?;y. 
 Saraplea: 1 
 
 .nd 1'j/ A/ 
 
 Silt (fine) 6Z/ 62; W 
 
 Silt (coaraeryBx I// 
 
 Clay IO/ 17>^ 1 
 
 The clay here forma about 10- 20^ of tlie loam. Silt preaoininatea. 
 
 S.. Clay soils. 'Die following is^an average of several clays: 
 Clay proper forma 2^-- 
 3ilt " 24-3; 
 
 nd " 1- 
 
 Oxidee (hurnua)** tterin^* KeO, etc. 
 
 even in clay soil, the clay doen not form tlto bulk of the 
 soil. 
 
97. 
 
 . I-er cent of clay in various soils. 
 
 Generally we can say th*.-.t clay forms, in; 
 
 ry sandy soil, about 1-3- 
 Ordinary sand 3"1^/ 
 loom 10-1 1//'. 
 Clay loam 15-25/ 
 
 '-I' . Is 2i>-3. 
 
 heavy clays 35*4 5/.< 
 
 v*;ry lev soils in I over J>0/ . '*'he 
 
 lass than 30; of clay. Heavy adobe clays 
 
 of the . lands of 'yoming, Kan- 
 
 s and Texas arc very hoAvy clays; they look loke organic matter and 
 
 Lu. , , *t arc ro-'.lly clay. 
 
 ;_. oinuB content of v?rrio^ ID. 
 
 .11 the organic matter in the soil, t'ost soils con- 
 
 '.n soruc organic jaat oriels, In clay lands a larger amount of humus is 
 required to produce any effect than in sand land, In clay land there 
 
 .us; s:\ndc ar-...- ,;oud with lialf t.l .ourt 
 
 or l-3/' A ci 11 can, or, take care of as much aa 10-1^ of 
 Jiout : Eiuck; 8/ of hu. --Jces t I mucic soil. ?ree 
 sk suffer on ov^-r 1^ of muck, therefore pe^t soils do riot raise good trees 
 k l.Pat f-.icl may cc ,,, or less of organic material* 
 
 ju iiust soils. 
 
 jnt soils are very interesting to t)ie forester. Such are the 
 3 and putty soils of the .loath, and 30 e of tiie ;jl- ; ?cial 
 
 ... They are regular milky rivers, formed from the finest 
 ;e soils are lar.je aiiiOjnt of vor^; uniform fine silt forming 
 ervious eoil, due to the property it possesses of pack- 
 iiiij i or into a very coherent inasa on account of the fineness and 
 unif c . of the particles. Cypress ponds of the south with cypress 
 
 are due to t of t*= I ..*o uniform silt pr event- 
 running of water, 
 
 .e following of a putty soil is given from Hilgard 
 
 Soil separates ^iam. 
 
 Sand 0.1- 0.1> 44 * characteristic 
 
 silt () 0.070 7 
 
 " (b) 0.050 
 
 (c) 0.036 b.5 
 
 (a) 0,025 this 
 
 11 (e) 0.016 18 -*odd thing in soil 
 Clay 7-5 
 
 The?e duRt or putty soile behave very ciuch like heavy clay, tho 
 7 contain t'sunh n^nd wnd little clay. Iliey aro very aifficult to plow, 
 y become impervious in spite of tillage, and act like putty. If till- 
 ;>ecome like extremeiy )in.rd clods. They occur often in pine lands 
 and ai-v very rich in t)\e finer 
 
 Kardpan in California and otlier places underlies snnay loams. 
 Tni? ImrdpB.ri oet ircperviou^ to water, nnd when dry is as hard as a 
 rock. It is rich in the finest silts, and lacks clay. An analysis of a 
 haroonn is ^iven at the top of tho next p^ . 
 
Analysis of a hardpan: Cal.: 
 Sand 37 A 
 Silt (a) 30 
 Silt (e) 14 
 Clay 8 
 
 Dust soils are much ground up and worked over by shifting v/inds 
 and is worn very fine. It causes much trouble to irrigatorn in Washing- 
 ton thru its tendency to suddenly become impervious. Dust soils are 
 peculiar and interesting soils. They contain a relatively large amount 
 &&&&& of very fine silt which is all of a size, and layers very close- 
 ly. Hilgard suggests that the small amount of clay which is present acts 
 somewhat like the linseed oil in putty. 
 
 j[. Iron rust sands arid other Hardpans. 
 
 The true iron rust and other hardpans are of a different ori- 
 gin from the above hardpans. They occur on the northern German plains 
 and in the Baltic region. There is usually a bed of coarse sand; under- 
 neath thin a.t a depth of 2 to 3 feet is a layer of hard rusty material. 
 Humic acid gets down and form hard layers by acting as a glueing cement 
 which cements 1 together the particles, making a hard compound. It occurs 
 in cold countries and is best in damp climates; the upper soil bleaches 
 to a lead s-md, and all of it is thoroly worthless and useless. It is 
 hard to reforest on, and is a great obstacle to the forer-ter. To get 
 rid of this hardpan tremendous steam plows are used in Europe, with a 
 double engine on each side of the plow. It breaks up the hardpan, but 
 if the action is not repealed the hardpan glues together again in a few 
 years. 
 
 G) Composition of Soils 
 
 is the soil made of? "3iat are its consituents? 
 
 si. Composition of the earth's crust in general 
 
 The earth is estimated to be composed of : 7% air and water 
 
 93^ solid. 
 
 The cruot at a point six miles down is supposed to be about as 
 follows: 
 
 5Q/5 0. It has also been estimated that the crust 
 
 27 Si in this six miles is composed as follows: 
 
 5.5 ye 15 
 
 4 Ca 6 Fe oxides 
 
 4 MgO 
 
 5 CaQ 
 
 I>. Principal minerals in the soil: 
 
 1) quartz: forms practically all of our sands, the larger part 
 of our silts, and in the form of a fine flour (very fine silt) makes 
 materials closely resembling clay. Quartz is very constant in soil, and 
 is not affected by weathering: it is persistent and uniform. In the 
 form of Bind nd silt it forms the principal body of soils and of sands, 
 
 and olays. 
 
 2) Feldspar: there are two varieties of feldspar: 
 
 Orthoclase: potash, good for soil;monoclinic. 
 Plagioclase: soda (lime); triclinic. 
 Potash feldspars are the most common, but are none too resistant 
 
99. 
 
 to weathering. They decompose gradually, a pure potash (K) feldspar 
 will weather in place and change to kaolin, which is more like chalk 
 than clny. 
 
 Clay is a remarkable substance; there is nothing just like it. 
 Kaolin when pulverised vill, with the addition of water, form clay. 
 Clay in fresh water does not settle easily. Clay in a fresh water river 
 may strike the salt water of the ocean, and then it precipitates like 
 the curdling of rrdlk (f locculation) . It joijjs together in flakes or 
 crumb a. Two phases of f locculation may be expressed thus: 
 1) Clay s*4zes silt particles nnd incrustif them; 
 2} It joins two particles of clay together. 
 
 iie above action of clay frequantly takes i lace in the Mississi- 
 ppi River in the south. 
 
 Here also are rnud banks penetrated by steamer channels. They 
 really are clay banks with variable amounts of silt from the river. If 
 pressure be added they form shale; add water and he?>t and this produces 
 a metamorphosis to hard bare rock back to feldspar (?). (Quartz, mica, 
 silicates of ( Al) ,f eldspar.and back again, etc.) 
 
 3) Hornblende and pyroxenes: hornblende represents the amphi- 
 boles, augite represents the pyroxenes. They are silicates of Mg with 
 also CaO, Pe, and Al. present. 
 
 There ^ro t > o types of these minerals one being rich in Al, the 
 other being poor in Al . The black color is due to Pe and therefore they 
 ther readily with water and air, as the iron oxidizes. Thus the soil 
 recruit; it;-> If with minerals from the decomposition of rocks. 
 
 Those minerals give color to soils. They are generally associa- 
 ted with quartz and feldsoar . 
 
 4) I'icas: micas occur in granites, especially gneisses and 
 schist o, in which latter they are the most abundant. Mica and quartz 
 form most of the schists. Micas do very little for our soils; they 
 occur in connection with quartz, and therefore a poor soil may be due 
 
 to * $&&& coarse quartzite. 
 
 5) Zeolites: are silicates containing water (hydrous sili- 
 cr-tes), and are secondary forms. They may be spoken of as the original 
 rocks in process of decompositions. They occur everywhere with decom- 
 posing feldspars. Zeolites are very important because they prevent 
 leaching of salts in the soil; they readily remove bases with the sub- 
 stitution of other bases, and aince they are rather easily soluble in 
 strong mineral acids, the bases so combined are more readily available 
 to plants than in most combinations found in the soil, and yet are not 
 readily leeched out of it. 
 
 6) Calcite (CaCO^): often limestones come from the shells of 
 animals, as snails and mussels. Diatoms build walls of silica which are 
 ordinal! ty Indissoluble. Nature works under tremendously long periods 
 of tire. 
 
 ''rater containing carbon dioxide (CO^) will dissolve shells and 
 thus limestones often do not show shells. Shells in river and ocean mud 
 are not pure but are mixed with silt, sand and clay; they arc ,.;ood for 
 soils. 
 
 7) Dolomite (MgfCaJCO^): may contain as high as 4^ of lig. 
 
100. 
 
 Dolomite soils are in "bad repufe, in both the United States and 
 Europe. They are barren soils. MgO "becomes poisonous to plants unless 
 CaO is present. 
 
 8) Gypsum: ( CaSG^J : does not occur extensively. In gypsum lands 
 it trices the form of a sand. GyjDsum is a good fertilizer for bad alkali 
 lands; it acts as a corrector of the alkalies. 
 
 9) Iron oxides and hydrates: these substances are freed from 
 rocks "by decomposition. They give color to soils, and form an important 
 part of the soil by becoming colloid materials with large water capaci- 
 ties. Hut too much of these substances is not good; some salts of J?e ar 
 injurious. 
 
 . Various rocks contributing to soil and the Value of their pro- 
 duct."" 
 
 ^^ Rocks: are of three classes: eruptive, sedimentary, and 
 :.nrr.orphic. Van Hise considers that sedimentary and metamorphic rocks 
 ire not different from ea.ch other except in degree. 
 a) :;edimuntary rocks: 
 
 (1) Limestones *>.re frequent and of many varities. They 
 
 may contain as much as ^'O/i of foreign materials. They occur everywhere, 
 all over the earth. Garble is considered as metamorphic rock. Limestones 
 are found in all stages of development, and in general it may be said 
 thp,t they nmke ood soils. There are some exceptions; limestone bluffs 
 are not good soils: the drainage is poor, the soils are washed. Water 
 runs off easily, and carves out underground runways and caves, with ver^ 
 rapid circulation. Limestone regions are apt to be poor in well and cis- 
 tern supply. 
 
 In decomposition soil loses a large part of its lime and becomes 
 silt and clay. In non-glaciated country we may have: 
 
 Indissoluble 
 
 material Lime 
 
 Soil 
 
 Sub-soil ?1> 1. 
 
 Limestone 11# 80.0; 
 
 Limestone soils are apt to sometimes be too good for forest pur- 
 poses. In order to make 100$ of limestone soil it was necessary to dis- 
 solve upwards of ?00# of original rock. Leeching must occur simultan- 
 eously with '^oil formation. Lime leaches out of limestone when it dis- 
 integrates; this is an important process. 
 
 (2) Sandstones:, conglomerates, etc., to quartzite: these are 
 composed of sands and gravels which originated from the eruptive rocks, 
 \?ere decomposed from these rocks, washed over and cemented into new 
 rocks. The cements varied vrom iron or pure silica to clay, and often 
 varied with the coarseness of the sand. Soluble materials leach out in- 
 to the soils, which is a good process for the soils. Sandstones vary in 
 hardness to f? Ise quartzita. Calc limestone makes a good soil. 
 
 (3) ^ales, clays, slates: are hard, with a metamorphic ten- 
 dency. They are of the same composition as granites, with 50-7t>/< 3i02 
 Their decomposition leads to a variety of soils. They vary in resis- 
 tance to decomposition, as some are very soft; they usually make stony 
 lands, and are very variable in quality from good fertile soils to poor 
 and extremely lean soils. Ordinary slate lands are good enough for hard- 
 
101. 
 
 woods, and affect drainage and water circulation. The Appalachian slates 
 when slanting let lands slip, and thus give riss to slips. 
 
 b) Metamorphic rocks. 
 
 Ketamorphic rocks undergo changes from their original struc- 
 ture of igneous or sedimentary rocks thru the agencies of heat, pres- 
 sure, -^nd water. Practically all of the mnterial in metamorphosis be- 
 comes crystalline. Here \?e find quart zite; granites weather slowly and 
 deeply, producing a deep and good soil. Grthoclase yields potash, as al- 
 so doon syenite. They may tend to heavy clay l^nds. 
 
 Diorites and diabases give more potash than the last named rocks, 
 the diabase being the "better of the two, tho not very extensive; they 
 are good for soils, vica schists and gneisses are modifications of gra- 
 nite "/ith much niicr. layered. They consist of mic^ and qjjactz, with lit- 
 tle feldspar; they produce lean and coarse soils. 
 
 c) Eruptive rocks. 
 
 Eruptive rocks may be either acid or basic. Silica is found 
 here. They usually produce good soils, tho sometimes stony in character, 
 They may be considered as occurring in three forma: 
 
 1) Massive forms; basalt is common here, particularly in 
 columnar form. 
 
 2) Broken lava, sometimes in cracked layers, in Northern Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 3) Spongy form or pumice stone. Large areas in the northwest, 
 nr> in the Cascades, are covered with pumice sands. 
 
 H) Methods of Soil Formation, or. How Soils are tfade. 
 
 There are three general phases in the formation of soils: 
 Physical changes: weathering, disintegration . 
 Chemical changes: decomposition, recomposition. 
 Transportation. 
 Physically 
 
 li.^Rock breaks up due either to change of temperature or to 
 freezing of >^ter in crevices. Chemical action by water dissolves it 
 and transfers it. (v/ith plenty of time and plenty of water almost any- 
 thing will dissolve, even the most indissoluble of substances, to some 
 extent). Leeching of materials is important. 
 
 Rock weathers faster in a hot and desert country,; also by freez- 
 ing; by being broken mechanically; and by being ground by glaciers, wa- 
 ter and winds. Huch rock is worn and dissolved by water, especially suci: 
 as contains acids (C02) Part of the rock is carried in solution; this 
 is very important in connection with the formation of fresh soil. 
 
 Plants assist the physical work; they protect arid hold the rock 
 surface, and their roots hold the soil. 
 
 b > . Chemical action is one of decomposition and recompositiori. 
 This prcTceas is aided by temperature in some parts of the country, and 
 by humidity. Egyptian monuments which lasted for thousands of years in 
 the dry climate of 3gypt were brou^t to America, and they undoubtedly 
 will not last in our humid climate; they have already shown signs of 
 giving way. ater and carbon dioxide are again the main agents in che- 
 mical decomposition of rAcks, together with other acids, soluble salts 
 and alkalies. Plants aid physically, but also add chemicpl substances 
 
102. 
 
 or secretions which are able to dissolve other substances. Fungi dis- 
 solve rock and wood alike. There is a continual proces.:. of chemicr 1 
 disorganization and of recoraposi tion to other forms, and to new forms. 
 
 These processes are now going on as in the pant and they will go 
 on indefinitely. Leaching is a good example. 
 
 . Soil transportation. Many soils are not in place, especially 
 in gla.cir.ted ru/jioris; a great pnrt of the surface of the earth is over- 
 laid with alluvial or wnter soils; wind-carried soils nnd loess cover 
 over 1/6 of the land area, which rep.lly is an immense area* 
 
 All riv.-ra and other run-off s carry away materials and soils 
 "bodily, and deposit them as sorted materials, classified to coarse, fine, 
 and he-'v/y soils, and characterized by deposition of like soils. Ground 
 water constantly carry away a part of the soil; the amounts are usually 
 small individually, but the aggregate is large. Leaching plays an irapor- 
 tnt pn.rt here. This action is faster in a wet country than in a dry 
 one. Both surface and underground run-off s or transportations are in- 
 fluenced by the character of the soils thru which they pass, and by 
 absorption anci solution. 
 
 <i. Humus formation. The formation of humus is due to the actions 
 of livirT ni si-is, especially "bacteria which decompose organic ma- 
 terial. The chief product of this action is CG2. H^COj or carbonic acid 
 is used .iure of decomposition. This process is influenced by 
 
 the influences of bacteria life. Any injury to bacteria injures humus 
 formation, vhich depends on. 
 
 temperature 
 
 moisture 
 
 freedom from poisonous materials (iron salts) 
 
 mineral iwi 
 
 Kuinus formation takes place ten times as fast at 80 summer than 
 at 50. Cry soil stops the formation of humus. 4J of water content gave 
 an action which 1? primes as fast as was obtained from 7% with humus $Jfctt 
 (compos). Oxidation is an important factor in forming humus. If humus 
 be left in a pile for a sufficient length of time it will change to 
 port, then to lignite, and to anthracite. 
 
 Nutritive salts necessary: bacteria need K, JNaO, etc., for growti 
 Plenty of lime allows an easier formation of humus. Oxygen gives aera- 
 tion, which is very favorable to the process. 
 
 A distinction should be made between decomposition and ferraen- 
 tion: the former often includes the latter: fermentation produces a 
 change to: 
 
 1) marsh gas 
 
 21 to ? 
 
 3) to hydrogen, 
 
 The change of leaves to humus is interesting. The steps of this 
 process are substantially as follows: 
 
 Leaching out of salts. 
 
 Leave* are more or less broken, by animals, etc. 
 
 Decomposition by filamentous fungi. 
 
 4) Further decomposition to humus by bacteria. 
 
103. 
 
 In 1000// of white onlc leaves there are: 90//' mineral salts 
 
 including 23 
 
 During the first about 3o to 4 pounds are dissolved. 
 The following table shows thJa contents in C,H,0,and K of cellu- 
 lose, oaks, peat, brown coal and anthracite: 
 
 lOO,/ : 
 Harae Cellulose 
 
 TABLE 
 oaks 
 
 
 peat brown anthracite 
 ground 6' below coal 
 surface 
 
 c 
 H 
 
 o 
 c 
 
 4^; 
 
 6 
 
 49 
 
 6 
 43 
 
 39 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 0.8 
 
 64# 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 4.1 
 
 24 
 0.6 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.5) 
 ) 
 
 Oak gains C and loses 0. 
 Peat gains C, loses 0, ^ 
 
 H; valuable for humus. 
 
 Hutnic acids. 
 
 pert bog is sour below the surface, because of humic acids, 
 of which there are several: ulmic, humic, crenic and apocrenic acids. 
 Ulmin compounds are injurious to the soil; hurain compounds are benefi- 
 ci-1. With much w.iter the bacteria produce ulmin substances which soon 
 attain a concentration that kills the bacteria and then is purely che- 
 mical in nature. It is brownish (seen in swamps, etc.). The solution 
 gives a litmus reaction indicating acidity, therefore the soils are calfc* 
 ed sour soils. The acidity is due to: ulmic acid, and to apocrenic acid, 
 reacting easily with alkalies to form alkalic compounds. Ulmin is itself 
 indissoluble, but io soluble with an acid. These soils produce sour soil 
 vegetation. In reclamation lime is used. All soils tend to sourness un- 
 der cultivation, especially when very wet. Calcareous soils resist this 
 action longer and arc longer lived and more fertile than non-calcareous 
 soils. Ilumic acids are poisonous to plants; strong, & attack minerals. 
 
 Properties and nature of Kumus: humus is distinctly a colloid; it 
 swells and shrinks with water. Peat shrinks very much; if it is thoroly 
 dried you cannot swell it again. Humus increases with the number of 
 roots gro ;in,v in it. It is porous, plastic, adhesive, colloidal; its 
 volirne increases several times upon absorption of water; it is very 
 absorptive of gases and moisture; its dark color absorbs heat and it 
 warms readily. Its density is 1.4. It is composed of C,N,and 0, and has 
 a complex formula. It may be produced: 
 
 &u&&& 1) Artificially by caustic alkali on sugar or cellulose; 
 
 2) fl*&lft&fc&& Change in fibre by bacteria and fpngi pro- 
 ducing ulmin and humin; 
 
 3) Oxidation of ulmin and humin acids to crenic and apo- 
 crenic acids; 
 
 %% Ulmin and humic acids form indissoluble salts with Ca 
 Crenic and apocrenic* 1 ** soluble w * H 
 Therefore the absence of Ca arid Mg from clayo by leaching, gives 
 f ire 
 
 Humus is important in regard to nitrogen. The amount of li varies 
 according to the locality. Stable manure humus gives 4-8/t- W t wood gives 
 
104. 
 
 2/i, straw gives 2-4> . &&& Much loss of humus t'ikes place under tilling. 
 The continual raising of one cereal depletes the soil of N. vVhen, in 
 one cage, wheat was raised continually for 8 yc , there was a total 
 loss of 1700# of N per acre for soluble nitrates (Schneider). Only 
 of it was utilized for the product. The huinus loss was 1 ton per acre 
 per ye^r. ''ith rotation an equlibriura obtains with N. 
 
 Humus decreases downwards. Drier soils are apt to contain more 
 
 N. 
 
 All humus with moisture and oxygen is unstable s.nd is worked over 
 by bacteria. Some Pfclypora work the material over to humus and then 
 quit, leaving it to other fungi to finish. First come filamentous fungi; 
 then bacteria; then humus destroyer^ "bacteria which completely destroy 
 the hirrius an such ->nd transform it back to its chemical constituents, 
 and finally th-.re is no humus loft. Or if the humus is not destroyed it 
 becomes sour; this sour huir-us and peat ara injurious to plants: 
 
 1) They prevent plants from getting water. They -produce a 
 physically dry and arid soil. 
 
 2) They are deficient in nutritive salts. 
 
 3) They hold nutritive salts with a treiaenuous tenacity, so 
 that plants are unable to get them. 
 
 Effects of Humus on Soil: 
 1) Beneficial: 
 
 "oisture. As a colloid it takes and holds moisture readily 
 
 Turn! she a material for soil activity, for bacteria. 
 Colloid helps to loosedn soil, and thus increases aeration 
 Colloid helps to hold plant foods. 
 2) , Injurious: 
 
 a) Muck heats up, dries to a powder; sour acids injure plants 
 Humic acid develops to " cement and forms a hardpan. 
 
 I) Physics of the Soil. 
 
 a,. Composition and structure. Discussion was &*&&&&&. omit ted. 
 
 ]b. Nature of sand and silt. Sand and silt ar made up of small 
 individual particles, vdiich do not form a lump structure, and therefore 
 will "pack" readily. There are two characteristics of packing: 
 
 1) Individual grain gives a small surface and therefore less 
 wnter holding power, and surface tension; sand has leas surface than clay 
 
 BO clay holds water better than sand. 
 
 2) Bad aeration. 
 
 With sand and silts there are certain characteristics: 
 
 More leaching 
 Less plant food 
 Less humus 
 
 4) Less water 
 
 5) Less organic life* 
 
 . Clay and its part in physical composition; colloidal charac- 
 ter of clay. 
 
 Clays act as a cement and past, enwrapping particles of sand 
 and nodding them together. These particles cling and form lumps, giving 
 good tilth snd a mellow soil . 
 
 Clay is characterized by small particles, good capacity for 
 holding water, good mineral salts; it contains more plant foods, more 
 humus, more organic substances and plant and animal life; it has better 
 
105. 
 
 aeration, which helps smaller forms of life. 
 
 A large amount of extremely fine silts in thes clay uoil gives 
 the putty soil, which differs from the pure clay both in composition 
 nnd in action with respect to site and plants growing on it. The par- 
 ticles are about 25 microns in diameter. 
 
 Clay is very plastic, this "being a characteristic property, sin- 
 ce clay is * hydrous aluminum eilcate. This plasticity is restricted to 
 particles of very small size; n. plastic clay will not hold 8 inches of 
 water in 24 hours. The addition of salt ( ImCl } will flocculate clay. 
 Sodium carbonate (l\a 2 COo) will prevent f locculr>tion cf clay. 
 
 Further information in regard to clay and its properties may be 
 found in references on Soils as mentioned nbove, arm also in Bulletin 
 388, J, .Geological G-urvey, entitled: The Colloid Matter of Clay and its 
 
 ent . 
 
 ci. \Veight of Ciils. is 
 
 The average specific gravity of rocks about 25 Heavy rocks 
 contain iron. Soils have half the volume weight of the soil rocks. In 
 other words, they are half rock and half atmosphere. 
 
 The weight of soil is the result of two factors: the absolute 
 specific gravity, and the volume of pore space in the mans. An average 
 specific grnvity of r.oil material is often Accepted ^s 2.65. The weight 
 of n givcm volume of soil may be determined from the pore space and spe- 
 cific gravity of the materials, by use of the following formulae: 
 
 .1) V/3 * Jw x (2.65' x (100 ~ \. 
 
 Where vvs * Height of given volume of soil 
 
 /v; = Weight of volume of water equal to volume tff soil 
 
 P r Per cent of pore space 
 
 (100 - P) a Per cent of volume occupied by soil 
 
 2) Or the following formula may bs used, and is often more 
 convenient : 
 
 We * Ap.Sp. x Ww. 
 -re WB r height of soil 
 
 Ap.Sp. Apparent specific gravity 
 
 Ww r v.eight of volume of water equal to that occupied by 
 the r>oil. 
 
 Following ia a table of weights of a few soils: 
 
 Vol.Wt. ft. per Wt.per 
 
 Soil or apparent cu.ft. acre-ft. 
 
 Sp. Gr. 
 
 1. Clean sand l.?6 110. 0# 4,800,000 # 
 
 2. Coarse sand 1.60 100.0 4,3^6,000 
 
 3. 'odium sand 1.J4 96.0 4,200,000 
 
 4. Fine s*nd 1.48 93-0 4,o60 t OOO 
 
 5. Sandy loam 1-30 61.0 3.5!?Q,000 
 
 6. Pine sandy loam 1.32 82.5 3.590,000 
 
 7. Silt loam 1.24 77-5 3,400,000 
 
 8. Clay loam 1.22 7^.0 3.330,000 
 
 9. Clay 1.17 72.6 3,150,000 
 10. "Gumbo" clay 1.10 Ou.i>' 3,000,000 
 
 --Lyon and .Pippin. 
 
106. 
 
 This table shows that the finer the soil the li^iter its abso- 
 lute -weight. Clay soils may range from 60 to 90 pounds in weight, accor- 
 ding to their fineness and state of granulation, linn a soils weigh from 
 90 to 110 pounds. In practice, oils are spoken of as "light 1 * and "hea- 
 vy", but tli is use of these terras does not apply to the weight of the 
 soil. The term light is applied to sanoy soil bec-iune the particles 
 move freely; on the other hand, a clay is termed heavy because of its 
 cohesiveness, ^nd difficulty in working by the fanner. 
 
 A dry sand may weigh 89//J a dry clay may weigh 
 
 e > . Pore space and arrangement of particles in various soils. 
 
 .re space is apace riot occupied by soil pnrticles. In a mass 
 of particles there is some unoccupied or pore space. It the particles 
 are fine, then the intervening spaces are correspondingly small; if 
 large, the spaces are large. Theo.r e t i cally . pore space is independent of 
 the ni^e of the particles, with any given arrangement. There would be 
 as much pore sr>ace in a cubic foot of uackshot as in one of marbles. 
 But in the coil this ie not true. For, the finer the particles, the lar- 
 ger the proportion of pore space is f o md to be. 
 
 A clay has much more total pore space than a sand, 41tho the in- 
 dividual spaces or openings between the particles are much smaller in 
 the clay. The approximate ^ of pore space in a soil may be calculated 
 by use of the following formula; 
 
 Vw 
 
 * 100 . x 100 
 
 >re P rPer cent of pore space 
 
 Vs * Volume in c.c. occupied by the soil 
 Vw Weight of water equal to weight of soil in grams 
 Vp r Volume in c.c. of pore space in soil 
 2.65 = Specific gravity of soil particles. 
 
 Another and more simple formula which may be used in the calcu- 
 lation of the pore space is aa follows: 
 
 P s 100 - Ap. SP. _Kr. x 100 
 Ab . sp . gr . 
 
 Where P * Per cent of pore space 
 
 Ap. sp. Apparent specific gravity or volume weight 
 Ab. sp. s Absolute specific gravity of soil material 
 Total space occupied by soil mass. 
 
 The different amounts of pore space in soils change/ the charac 
 
 ter of the soil materially. Hilgard gives the following figures which 
 
 may be used as convenient standard figures, for % of pore space in 
 various soils: 
 
 Packed sand soil has less than JO/ pore spce, 
 
 Ordinary * " " " " 6c;: " w 
 
 Clay aoilft * A 47- 50;' 
 
 Forest soil has 50- 6 
 
 Farm aoil has 35- J> " " 
 
107. 
 
 Lyon an. ;^in give the following relations between texture and 
 pore opaCf- for soils in field condition: 
 
 by volume 
 
 1. Clean sand 33 .W 
 
 2. Coarse sand 40.00 
 
 3. Medium smid 41. bO 
 
 4. Fine snnd 44.10 
 I?. Sanely loasa i?'l00 
 
 6. Fine sr-ndy loaiL >0.00 
 
 7. Cilt loom ^3- 00 
 
 8. Clav loam . 
 
 . Clf?.y .00 
 
 10. "Gunsbo* clay 58.46 
 
 11. Heavy clay 47.19 
 
 12. Very horr/y cl; 6^.12 
 
 5on for the ^re' ter porosity of the finer soils appears 
 to be, that the smallest particles are so li&ht that they do not settle 
 so closely together in proportion to their &&& aiae a& do the sand par- 
 ticlee, becnusrr of the greater friction between their surfaces. Mien 
 thia i overcome by mixing in wattr, such material becomes uena. Xrea% 
 ment grontl. ta th Qtructure ana therefore the porosity of the 
 coil. 
 
 m*ter of tlie individual pore spaces id of importance, a* 
 1 ns the total volume of pore apace, sine theae determine the cr pa- 
 city o: oil to retain and r&ove water and to permit the? circulation 
 of gnr: i the soil maas, as well as to facilitate the extension of tfee 
 " ; nt root;-. 
 
 best arrangement of the soil is that of "crumbs". There are 
 veral possible arrangements of the soil particles, belonging to the 
 folio 2 ;>.i forme.: 
 
 i; In columnar order, with each particle 
 ite ncigiibors at oniy four points. I'ho 
 unocc . or pore space is 47.64> of the total 
 volume occ 
 
 In oblique order, with each particle 
 touching i Labors at six points, t^ie pore 
 space is 2t>.9b, of the total volume. 
 
 3) Vheo^ spheres ma> be gati^ered into 
 larger spheres vshich r^-at together in the 
 
 oecon r. Tlie pore space ia greatly increased, 
 ing 74. 
 
 4) On Uie otaer hand, if there ore 
 spheres of several sizes so that Uie small ones 
 may rv;at in the spaces between the lar^e ones, 
 
 1 pore spaco will be reduced below 2>.9: 
 and the spaces may continue to te filled in by 
 
 spheres until the mass is practically 
 soliu, without pores. 
 
 It is of course re cognised that under field conditions these 
 iderl nrrangemento do not pertain, but these figures illustrate the 
 
108. 
 
 underlying factor* which determine differences in pore space, and, alsg 
 differences in other physical properties. 3oil pnrticles are irregular 
 in Bhai>e and uneven in size, llien brought very close together, as occurs 
 in mixing in a wet consition, th&ir molecular attraction is brought intp 
 operation and, especially when dry, they are held together very secure- 
 ly. In this wry the normal molecular attraction of the soil pnrticles is 
 increased "by the deposition around them of the material in solution. 
 
 Applying these principles to the soil, it is observed tht there 
 / be two general rrrn.mi;er<ents of the particles. 
 
 1} :jla.cl} particle mny be free and separate frorc itn neighbors. 
 This is a separate-.:jr.-?.i.i structure. That is, each particle of soil fun- 
 ctions separniely. lien by proper uanipulaticn the particles are so pack 
 ed together th.t the small particles quite completely fill in the spaces 
 between tlu? l?.rge ones, so that ? very dense raass is formed, the struc- 
 ture i? ten ed "puddled*. The terrr. puddled, in this connection, is rela- 
 ted to the fact that such an arrangement aan be obtained only in fine- 
 textured soils 'vhen they arc mixed (puddled) in a very wert condition, 
 so Dint the fine particles will move into the large spaces. 
 
 2) On the other hand, the small particles may adhere to the 
 large oMc-n, or a number of small particles may adhere together as a 
 group or granule. Mien a number of united particles function together 
 as a single larger particle or granule, the structure is termed "granu- 
 lar". This arrangement is also termed the crumb structure. According as 
 
 :^o grout-3 are prominent or inconspicuous, the soil is said to be well 
 or poorly gr?.nul". t'"d. 
 
 i the granules reach large size, so that they interfere 
 with the b..st functioning of the soil, they are termed clods. That ia, 
 a clod is an un sizable granule. 
 
 It is well known that n box of baseballs, or a pile of boulders, 
 or over, a box of sand, doer? not adhere together to any appreciable ex- 
 tent. I , ill the co arse -textured classes, Certainly down to 
 the size of very fine sand, there is very little tendency to granulate. 
 But in the- silt, to e. small extent, and in the clay, to a very great ex- 
 tent, granulation is strong. 
 
 :. a crumb arm;, t, then, la the most desirable; the parti- 
 cles are glued together by clay and other agents into lumps or crumbs. 
 This lumps may take very irregular shapes. This structure is desirable 
 for all soils. Ml of our arid soils are rich in lime, much of this be- 
 
 .jlucin t r by lime carbonate. The crumb structure nay be changed by 
 in torf ererice vrith the character of the clay. It is advisable not to 
 plow wet soil: the clay puddles and formo baked lumps. Inundation also 
 produces baked clay. 
 
 In Mature the roots give the soil good tillage; the roots conti- 
 this tillage, and protection of the soil by mulch is maintained. The 
 mont important function of mulch in the foreut i to protect the soil, i 
 It prevents packing by water, etc. 
 
 A certain amount of moisture and cold is often desirable, for 
 till .- r^f. Freezing helps the crumb condition and destroys the puddled- 
 condition of clay. The soil expands in frost, and cracks in dry weather. 
 Clay will not crack when there ia less than a minimum of l^'/V clay in the 
 soil7in good land; the minimum is less on poor land. 
 
109- 
 
 . Color of soil. Cause, effect. 
 
 Pure quartz, limestones, and similar soils ft re almost color- 
 less; white sands are good examples. A great variety of colors are, how- 
 evor, exhibited by most soils. These colorss are not usually the result 
 of the color of trie individual particles -which make up the bulk of the 
 material, but is rather the result of material which adheres to the par- 
 ticles. 
 
 Color in soil is due to Uvo lu^in causes: iron compounds, and 
 organic nn.tl-:r. Iron ccMpoands produce reel, yellow, blue and gray col- 
 ors; organic mi r, an humus, produces a u- rk color, often acme shaae 
 of blnclc or brov/n. *$ien these are coi-i'oiiifcu, various intermediate tints 
 arc cbt , or ex^uple, ?;hen a rod soil is rich in decayed organic 
 r--] ~ .: e comes of r-, rich brown color. 
 
 / of organic matter will change a gay clay to a black 
 "waxy" l^.n; ; 11 amount will give a strong color. J&rown soils are 
 common over the 1 u L portion of the United States, ited soils are found 
 in the Jouth from Me--- "n^land to Texas, and also in arid countries and 
 in the tropic 3. Gr^y soilo are found in s e xndy lands, especially in the 
 far North-west, in regions of ^reot rnin. 
 
 The color of soils, especially ae regards iron compounds, is not 
 fully understood, but it is safe to say that much color is the result 
 of different forms of iron in the soil. In the boulder clay of the gla- 
 ciateci nectiv-c;:.j a bluish color ia common, which seerr.s to i- due to the 
 presence of ;rotoxid of iron (I^eO), resulting from the ^r^at deficiency 
 n. ,re this cornes in contact with carbonated water, it may be 
 ch^n.rod to the car"= onnte of iron, which is gray, and consequently along 
 the .r.o,.Q t& line of roots and in the Dot torn of ponds this gray color may 
 bs f o . rid . 
 
 Ihere there is an abundant supply of oxygen, the iron takes on 
 the seoquio, id (Fe^O^) form, which haa a deep red color, typified by 
 iron rust. Wuere the red soil stands much in contact with water, it may 
 become yellov by the hydration of the iron (Pe^G-j plus H^O). In many 
 regions a dark- colored soil is looked upon as a fertile soil. This rela- 
 tion has developed because of the association of a dark color with the 
 presence of organic .matter, with i,&fe all its beneficial effects, while 
 the lirjht color iridicp.tes its absence. This relation doew not nold uni- 
 versally, but it ia iuite a reliable guide. 
 
 The only instances where the color of the particles themselves 
 give color to the uoil is in some of the clean quartz sands mentioned 
 
 ve, Ther-i the white color of the dominant mineral gives color to the 
 maer>. In son.e dark elialey sands this same principle obtains. 
 
 Soils may be classified by their color; color of soils is con- 
 nected with their temperature and physical condition; ihe&c two points 
 are useful in the field. To the experienced person, the color of the 
 soil is a valuable guide to its condition and productiveness. Bottled 
 anci uneven color, for instance, indicates poor aeration, frequently the 
 rerult of deficient drainage. 
 
JLJLU. 
 
 g. Area of surface of soil particles. 
 
 The surface area of soil particles bears fin important relation 
 to the capillary action of that soil; the greater th<: area of the sur- 
 face of the particles, the icore i.:oisture is held on their Burfaces. A 
 large surface nlso increases the rate of chemical solution, by which the 
 food constitutes contained in the mineral particles become available for 
 tho plant's use. Another important property of an ir-'Tnonse surface area 
 of soils is to retain food materials in a. semi- available form,. In ca- 
 Tull'Ty wter the wter is practically held between two plates, and the 
 larger t plates the more v/ter v/ili be held. Consequently the more 
 surface per pouna of dirt holds more \mter; dry t;oil& absorb water. 
 
 There art.- here two classes of soil... 
 
 1) Crystalloids: sand. 
 
 2) Colloids: clay, iron hydrates, zeolites, hun'us. 
 
 e crystalloid has only the outside surface; the colloid has 
 particles composed of smaller particles (It JOG} ^nd a lot of inside 
 surfaces 11 accessible to water. Those inside surfaces of immeasurable 
 surfaces (particle*?) <;re greater than the outuide surfaces of measurable 
 particles . 
 
 .rface may be measured by its hydroseopicity. 
 Given 1 gm. soil: area of particles in metres is: 
 moderate fine sand 1.3 square metres 
 loamy sand ~j6. 
 
 sandy loam 8>. '* 
 
 mi la clay 120. * 
 
 heavy clay 2o^. 
 
 extreme: heavy potter 's900 * " 
 clay, Fe hydrate 
 
 A few standard figures (or stocjt figures) may be given: 
 
 so il surface 
 
 1 sand jiPO square yards 
 
 1 loam 20,000 r< , raoro than 4 acres. 
 
 1 hesvy clay M rt 20 acres. 
 
 ood 
 
 e surface area of a fine-textured soil is greater than the first 
 thought indicate. This immense area exposed by oolls is slgovrn by 
 the following table, which gives: (1} The area in square feet of one 
 gram of the soil; (2) The surface area per pound of the same soils; 
 J3) The approximate weight per cubic foot of the material in the field; 
 (4) The approximate are-i of surface in one cubic foot of these soils as 
 tlie^JL- o cciir in thf> *' i eld . , 
 
 
 
 
 Area per grn. 
 pfq. ft r 
 
 11 
 
 Area per 
 >b. ^q.ft-. 
 
 in 
 
 Apprcx.wt 
 
 prjr cu.ft 
 
 IV 
 Surf .area per 
 cu.ft. Sq.ft. 
 
 1. Co^rpe sand 
 2. Medium 3^nd 
 3. -andy loam 
 4. Pine s f dy loam 1 
 5. ( -ilt loqra 
 6. Clay loam 
 7- Clay 
 8. Sand hill 
 9. Hobart clay 
 
 0.8900 
 1.0440 
 1.8000 
 i 1.6600 
 2,9600 
 4.0250 
 4.4130 
 0.0708 
 7-?b20 
 
 40b .0 
 473.0 
 
 aio.o 
 
 7^"o.o 
 1,340.0 
 
 l,d2J?.0 
 2,000.0 
 
 32.2 
 
 , i.rA^.o , 
 
 100 
 96 
 
 ^ 
 
 82 
 
 77 
 75 
 
 71 
 
 110 
 
 60 
 
 40,^00 
 44,500 
 66,600 
 62,000 
 104,000 
 136,500 
 142,000 
 
 3tiKO 
 
 200,000 
 
111. 
 
 From this t-t.le it appears that one pound of the average agri- 
 
 cultur-<l soil may have from nbout 400 &&& square feet, in the case of 
 coarse sand, to 2000 square feet internal surface area, in the case of 
 the avenge clay. A more rear->onabl* basis of comparison, oecause of di 
 ferences in volume weight, is th^.t of one cubic foot of Uie material, a 
 as shown t>y the fourth column, Iron, which it appears that these soils 
 have from one to three acres of surface area. These -\re otrikin differ- 
 ences, particularly those "bet-ween soils i 9 ^lich represent extre- 
 mes in li.iit and h il3, respectively. l<ombyr 8 is the sand-hill 
 soil of the Cp.rolirrTi, "-na is of ly lo^v agricultural value. 
 Number 9, !-ioh- :t cl~y, occurs in L rn llorih Dakota, -md is derived 
 from shnls rock. The ran^ in surf rea per cubifi foot of these soife 
 <i frorn 1/12 acre, for the s^i'iiH, to almost 5 ^cres f r - il{ - clay. The 
 latter contains ?6;' of clay in the subsoil, the former 2, 
 
 ,e surface area of the particles in a given wei'jht of soil may 
 be c^lcul : t.ed froic the formula: 
 
 where 
 
 .. s Surface are in square centimeters 
 v * Vean difirrieter in centimeters 
 .tTT^ber of particles in the c 
 ii - "5 1AiA fPnrfcin 
 
 : 3.1416 
 
 in the clnn or separate. 
 (Farticleff supposed spiieiical) 
 
 h. Hel?=tion of water to soil. 
 
 Water as a substance is v-::ry remarkable. It i., used as a unit 
 of weight, of , -.fid br;in,j; a poor conductor of he--t ia raucli used 
 che.ric-'lly . Other characteristics will readily occur to the reader, as 
 resistance to compression, thirst qusnching, f ire -extinguishing, etc. 
 
 soil 
 
 There ?.rcj three forms in \vhich water may exist in soils; 
 
 1} Gravitational or free water, which free to move thru the 
 under the influence of gravity. 
 
 2) Capillary or film water, v/hich is helfl against gravity by 
 
 surface tension of the films of >/-: -er surrounuing tht 
 3)" Hygroscopic moisture, taken fron the air; it 
 . tamo sphere on the surface of the soil particles, when 
 allowed to become air-dry. 
 
 soil particles 
 condenses frora 
 the soil is 
 
 .e hygroscopic power of taking water from the air is proportion- 
 al to the surface. 
 
 dy lew; trkes 2\% of its weight from the 
 Clay " 8 * w " !t M 
 Fe hydrate " 
 
 From i-.ilgard- 7/e lenrn that hygroscopic water is of great impor- 
 tance in regard to plants and treca. :3ach, in an experiment, showed that 
 he could raise plant.- in dry soil, by the aid of water from humid air. 
 In California people do the same thing with oranges, spruce, etc., on 
 1 nd that W-K formerly desert land, v;ith no irrigation. They did this 
 by utilizing hygroscopic water, which is not only iiapur t: nu, but is 
 often fully sufficient for the purpose. 
 
 Hygroscopic ^ater Day be said to be related to teiaperature of the 
 soil, as it prevents over-heating of the soil. The amount of moisture in 
 the soil nay" be misleauin^, for a Band with only 8/' water may produce 
 better crops than a heavy clay with \y/l water. This is because the sand 
 
1 12. 
 
 its wmt< r f o the plants; the clay holds on to its hygroscopic 
 water and gives but a small amount to the plfntr. 
 
 The hygroscopic capacity of a soil depends on the texture of tie 
 particles find, the content of or^nnic matter. tince hygroscppic moisture 
 is a. function of the surface exposed, it results th" c the larger the 
 surface nrea exposed by Uie soil particles, the greater the hygroscopic 
 capacity of the soil. Reference to the t??ble on pa-.;e 110 shows fine- 
 textured soils or clay ^oils to have the greatest surface . . , nd 
 these hold the -root hygroscopic i/ioiature. Sand soil:*., with a relatively 
 small eurf.-ctt -G-, hold a sir^all -mount of tiiis forr;,: of water. Vhis fact 
 is illustrated bj te foliovvi.x; w^ble: 
 
 hygrosc. water 
 at 21 U C. 
 
 Very fine sand 
 
 -.ck 
 
 7-3 
 16.^' 
 
 46.0 
 
 the 
 
 The *bove soils were pure separates derived by mechanical analy- 
 sis. Vhe, uras s :rve to show the direct relation between; 
 
 1) The surface area exbibitc-:! by Uie soil particles and 
 j;rosco'.;aO i.oioture retained. 
 
 2) Jly^roecopic moisture a/id temperature 
 
 3) Hygroscopic moisture and humidity of th-? atmosphere. 
 
 roscopic ..oisture decreases with increnye in temperature. 
 It varies directly P.S the relnivu liuinidity of t)ie acr.iOBp}ior -vith which 
 soil is in contact. Consequently, in the fiir-dried condition, while 
 
 ys r oor;.<: moifcture, it suiuom exliilite its maximum 
 
 hygroacu . pacity. Under average conditions of humidity, a light sand 
 
 may retain fro 0.5 -o 1> , a silt loam 2-4/T and a clay u-1^/ . Tiiis is 
 course uiiJ-vailablo I'or plant a. 
 
 Capillary water is used for plant food. It ia Uic film or capil- 
 lary noifctu supports planty. The roots of ordinary crops are 
 
 \-.c tiit; moisture needed by thros cling their way between the 
 soil particleo, v:here Diey may come in intimate contact with t,heoe 
 moisture fil s and r>;sorb the needed uppl^ of wciter, witli bwin^ exclud- 
 ed fro.u tlie r-.ir aupply wliicii promo tee tiicir growth. Fox, in the capil- 
 lari/ly moiut yoil, tlie water i; ret.uivicti chiefly in the very tjnaall spa- 
 ce a, -- . U large spaces occupied by air. 
 
 .axinui:. diauunt of capill;iry completely fill the pore spaces. 
 T}ie pore/ : .ipace may range from y/^ in a clean s? nd to 60-70>. in a well 
 granulated clay, and 80-90/ in a muck aoii . The following table gives 
 
 spjnple figures 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "'t.per cu. 
 
 ft. rf 
 
 11 ; 
 space : 
 
 III 
 
 f water 
 
 % water in soil 
 ,;at satur.it ion 
 
 Dune sand 
 Coaree sRnd 
 Fine BHndyiLoajn 
 it silt loam 
 Clay 
 Humus 
 
 8o-/ 
 81 
 
 68 
 
 50 
 
 59 
 
 bo 
 
 32.0 
 
 31*5 
 37.0 
 b'o . o 
 
 40.^', 
 
 39-5 
 38.0 
 36.0 
 5^.5 
 
113. 
 
 |?0/ of pore spRce per cubic foot gives 30,.; of i , The opti- 
 mum content lies between 4Q/..' and o(X of filling up, equivalent to at. oat 
 2 l j/' of the volume or l^",/ w.^-ter. Ordinnry noil has IQ-l^ ,-r per cu- 
 bic foot. 
 
 1 cu.ft solid dirt -^0/f water 
 
 1 M H water 60| (or 62.^,i : , more precisely) 
 
 1 cu.ft.ciirt (porous) 75# wr.ter. 
 
 In etrting the ^ci stare content of soils five different methods 
 r e been used. "rose ni 
 
 1) in terr.s of Vnscd on the dry wtd^it of the soil. 
 
 2) In t - on th ' " . 1. 
 
 3) In trrms of ' of volume on the tot?.! volume 
 occupied by the soil. 
 
 4} In cubic inches por efcbic foot, or cuhic centimeters per 
 liter or '">or cui i. c 
 
 ^) In inches in depth o:'. 3r over the surface of soil. 
 
 140. 
 
 '"or a dl ion of the- .hods see Lyon & Fipp^n, pages 138- 
 
 re readily xilled by inundation, or too much water, es- 
 
 pecially wont fa] nts. It Is a Eia-tcr of general experience that for 
 for most f.^TT/i crovs the saturated condition of th . soil is unfavorable 
 to the bc~t development. , of course, many plants whicli are 
 
 r.ted to 'ionr,, as for ux?aiaple the swamp type of vegetation. 
 
 About the c enltiYnted crops of sort arc rice ^.icl cranberries; 
 
 , r oak, . , - . j.ress arid the syca-Tiorc c,^ also stand 
 . Other plants and trees will be killed in one season if flooded, 
 
 building of a darn, no happened at Ann Arbor a couple of decad- 
 es = {o, on the Huron River. 
 
 Practically -11 of the cormnon cultivated crops, from vegetables 
 to fruit t: 3,re p:i' ; r;tc:d to ;> rov,ing in soil froi;i *;jich the gravita- 
 tional moistur." hso b en removed. The gra.yitatioaal water is directly 
 injuri; growth of Dies: plants, and its practical removal from 
 the soil constitutes the practice of a^ricul Laral drainage, which may 
 
 as a phsse of ?oil nianage^ent. It may therefore be stated 
 th-'t grp.vit-'tion-l -- -t--r in the root zone is injurious to most farm 
 crops, and consequently it is in n sense unavailable. It is the film 
 or cs.pillp.ry r which supports plants. 
 
 Gravitational water nny be defined as that portion in excess of 
 the hygroscopic and cn.pillary cppacity of a soil. It is not reta/ined 
 by the s^me forces, and is, therefore, free to move under the influence 
 of gravity, in so f'-r ae the condition nnd tlie character of the soil will 
 permit. Vhe amount of grc.vi tio]i--;l \v- ter depends on the total pore space 
 of the soil on one hn.nd, ana on the total hygroscopic n/iu capillary ca- 
 
 e on the other hand. It is the difference between trie tots! c 
 
 city of tb-? roil for water, and thai hold in the other tv;o forms. It s 
 .ed by Lhn r, amount v#hic}i will flow from a soil havi/,, 11 ito pores 
 
 ir,h vnter. Under such conditions the soil is said to be satura- 
 ted. Tho.t pln,ne in the soil to vhich level all of the pores are filled 
 with v, f -. ter--r> ^ed--is kno\ s /n HS the water-table, 'ill is region of sa- 
 tur-"j~.ion is rone Times kn ; the t4 giound-v/ater2. 
 
 Cjr.vit'''; io 
 en it exists 
 
 -.l ; ter is directly injurious to upland crops, but 
 depth o-f 4-6 feet below the surface, it may serve 
 
114. 
 
 as a resr-rvoir from which moisture is withdrawn by capiUar/ity, to off- 
 sot losses by evaporation. Water may be removed by capillarity from tfce 
 saturated zone to the point where the loss is trking nlace, and under 
 the so conditions the ground WRter--vrhen then becoir es capillary water-- 
 is directly beneficial, and the proc^r-..-: constitutes a form of natural 
 eub-irri :.;"' ti n . 
 
 Hise of capillary water. 
 
 In this connections look up the diagrams in Hilgard : Soils, on 
 
 04 . 
 
 ,er rises fastest in sand, from 0.45 mm. to 15 M -l8". In salty 
 soils tlir; rise is rapid and to a grerat height, especially in the south- 
 western soils of lime and potash. In clay the rise of crater is slow but 
 it continues to a good height. 
 
 Soil lji.se Time, 
 
 .&&,$. &JuVl 4-&.04J& Ait^ ^2" 
 
 ft&ac& to.oaj m). 120" 
 
 Clay 60* in 250 days 
 
 fine silt (0.016 rcm) 120" in 475 days 
 
 silt (0.025 mm) 10!;'" in 300 d<*ys 
 
 fin ,d (0.075 ram) 36" 144 days 
 
 (0.3 Tom) 15" in 180 6 
 
 r-holJin,: cnp city of Soil. 
 
 .r-lioldir.,j o-.^aiity of soils Biiould vary v/ith the 
 of ;is. Pinir particles give a greater capacity. 
 
 .Diain. in vol. 
 
 n. cu.in. 
 
 1 - 2 rmn. 3.; 
 
 250 - 50C microns 4.6 
 
 100 - 170 " 6.0 
 
 10 - 70 " 35.0 
 
 cl- y -eked 43.0 
 
 clay tilled 32.0 
 
 nee and movement of v; tcr in soil: 
 
 ter in the soil is derived mainly from precipitation. The 
 entrance of this ws-.ter may be hindered by ground cover; it may be faci- 
 litated by coarse gr?es and a mellow stags (mulch helps in this), and 
 o prevents runoff. 
 
 oveiuent is soil is fastest in coarse sand, and slo'v.'est in 
 y. It if- faster in the be^innifi^ and then gets slower; it is faster 
 in ivan:i th.i.n in cold weather. 
 
 Liquid water ie not quite separate from capillary water. 
 ler levels are variable. 
 
 vr/oor -tion frorr the soil may take pl?.cu: 
 
 1) .From dirt 
 
 2) Prom plants (transpiration) 
 
 ion fro/r, dirt depends on: 
 
 1) Temper-iture. 'I'v/ice as raucli water will evaporate at 65 F. 
 as at 50 ?. 
 
 2} Relative humidity of air. 
 
115- 
 
 Table 
 
 Given 100 sq. cm. of moist enrth 12 H deep 
 iCvapo ration per hour in grains 
 
 ./incl blov/s at 
 
 Sandy 
 
 Clay 
 
 
 6 
 12 
 18 
 24 
 
 0.25 
 3-0 
 
 4.5 
 
 5*5 
 
 6.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 4.5 
 6.0 
 8.0 
 
 Evaporation also depends on the lay of the land and varies with 
 the cover. For instance, 1 H mulch may "be reduced 1/3 or 4. It depends 
 on ho-* dry the soil is, and on the tillage. It varies also with the 
 character and also with depthshallow limestone soils "burn out". 
 
 A living cover invariably reduces evaopr^tion from the soil it- 
 self altho the transpiration plus evaporation from the soil is greater. 
 The general average precipitation is about 30** 2JL this 50> evaporates, 
 runs off, yynd. Ifffe is, unaccounted for . 
 
 Another source of loss of soil water is percolation, which is 
 the downward movement of water by gravity. The amount of loss in this 
 way is very gre- t; water percolates most rapidly in large spaces, and 
 whether these l^rge spaces are the result of coarse texture or of a 
 loose, cloddy structure, the final result is the loss of water. The rapi- 
 dity of such loss id directly dependent on the size and volume of the 
 pore spaces in the soil. 
 
 jl. Temperature of soil. 
 
 Soil temperature depends on watei*. sun and wind; on the color 
 of the soil, and other characteristics. The factors affecting soil tem- 
 perature may be mentioned as follows: 
 
 1) Heat supply 
 
 2) Specific gravity of the soil 
 
 3) Specific he*t of the soil 
 
 4) Color of the soil 
 
 5) Attitude of the surface 
 
 6 Conductivity of the soil 
 
 7 Circulation of air above the so 1 
 
 8 Water-content of the soil 
 
 For further discussion of these factors read Lyon He Fippin, pa- 
 ges 4^3-463. 
 
 Water is the, great regulator of soil temperature. In June, I8b9, 
 the following figures were obtained (Germany): 
 
 
 :: Max. : 
 
 Time 
 
 * 
 
 Win. 
 
 : Time 
 
 Air 
 6" 
 12 H 
 24 * 
 
 :: 22.5C: 
 :: 22.9 : 
 :: 18.0 : 
 :: 16.0 : 
 
 2 pm. 
 4 pm. 
 10 pm. 
 6 am. 
 
 * 
 
 * * 
 
 * * 
 
 * 
 
 170 
 16.5 
 15.7 
 
 : 4 am. 
 : 6 am. 
 : 10 am. 
 : 6 pm. 
 
 Diurnal changes practically disappear about 3 feet down in the 
 soil. Yearly changes may be noticed as far down aa 75 feet. At 3 feet 
 down the temperature the temperature is about 2 F. 
 
116. 
 
 j^. Aerntion of soil. 
 
 There are tvo process by v, r hich aeration of the soil may be 
 iirprov : 
 
 1) Bring oxygen into the soil 
 
 2) Take C02 out of tiic soil 
 
 From 8/ to 10^ of the soil volume Must be air, to benefit gras- 
 ses; belo-? this point good grassen wither, and sedges and 3MHfijStk hollow 
 stemmed plants of interior aeration come i . 
 
 Air ;r.ove!r-ent lay be produced by &ny one or more. 1 of the following 
 phenomena : 
 
 1) r-aseous duffmnion 
 
 2) T 'o~ 7 'efn-:' > nt 
 
 3 
 
 .j 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 CV l ~ri"~' Of '" '1C 
 
 Change of temper- lure in .a oil or a.traor?pher< 
 "uction pr rind. 
 
 Air motion in the noil depend.?, on the soil; it is better in 
 coars i tixnn in fine clay. ATI experiment showed that: 
 
 flowed 1.6 litre oir to pr.r s thru; 
 ';11 tilled clay *llo--/ed 100-4-00 litres .air to pass thru, 
 
 Air 1-r.ny occur ir ttion in r.cil; ?ir in globules is very re- 
 nistar.t. The amount of $ air in soil depends directly on pore space and 
 water. ~! v "j?l containing f jO-6of' of pore apace, the air space should 
 occupy 1; , ^nn the remainder of th s pore space should, be water. The 
 co: T tb~t ^-ir in the pore spaces verier; it contains more 
 
 th---n thi cat^ide air; it hni3 ?. hi h relative humidity (often satura- 
 i i thf forest); t? . ; orally less oxygen and more nitrogen 
 n in tha outride ir. 
 
 The outeidc cair is by wei^it: ?^A N-, 25^ 0. 
 
 ooil R'Dsorbp ,^asen. ? aaily compressed ases are eailly absorbea; 
 ammonia in n:or easily absorbed than and JU A soil can absorb enor- 
 mous amounts of CO _,, ao much, even, that it can be leached cut. Abeor- 
 
 ion is helped, by*" the presence of mineral compounds in the noil. The 
 three colloids mofit important in aiding absorption in the soil are clay, 
 humus, and iron oxides. 
 
 Oxygon is necessary for bacteria action, deficient air gives 
 reductive fermentation, *nd waptoe nitrogen salts, 
 
 H this point -re will digress from Mr. Roth and insert some dis- 
 cussions of this matter of soil, froin ?.!r. Lei^ J. 
 
 does seven things for the forest cover: 
 
 1) Oivea mechanical support 
 
 2J -Vurninhes v/ator 
 
 3) Furnishes mineral plant food 
 
 4) burnishes organic plant food 
 5J Furnishes free oxygen 
 
 6) Temp err- tare 
 
 7) T/ust be absence of poisons (alkali). 
 
117- 
 
 Soil is apt to "be deficient in potash (K) and phosphorus (P). 
 
 There are 3 classifications of soil: 
 1) Physical. 
 
 Texture, sine o." particles: gravel, r.r.nd, silt , clay. 
 
 2} Chemical 
 
 ind, lonrn, clay, etc. 
 
 In 
 
 .11=3 in pl??ce; transport .uti, water, ice, or gravity. 
 
 ; thre; s main constituent! 3 of soil are: cant?, clay and humus. 
 Loarr. ic :.l i'cnej; may contain all three constituents. 
 ieultur-'l soil; 1 2-2j million grains. 
 
 Origin ci> cnti: ':? c:i ossified according to their trans- 
 porti;- 
 
 llurialJ by ",--. tor: fine, stratified. 
 Colluvial: by gravity: coarse. 
 
 j) . "by wind: very fine. 
 \1; by ice: irrsgule*. 
 
 So i 1 - s : 
 
 1) le soil .':'-;. ter ) 
 
 tion ) Important factors. 
 
 lure } 
 
 ess of "i*: tor to pi ^.n t s . 
 
 1) CV lly: furni;3}ies ?.?nd N. 
 ration current . 
 
 An B 3? ^ood forest uoes pOOO,? water per year chemically and 
 -7b'0 tonr :e-^r for tr- r,i ?ire. tion currents. /-. beech in Europe lost 
 
 10 torus of --tor per day during the grov/in^ sear.on. A layer Of 1* of 
 
 v/ater over an aero weisha 113 tono. 
 
 ter ia loot to plants in three ways: 
 
 1} aun-off 
 
 2; .- -tioii froK. soil 
 
 3} Water that sin/.o inlo Uia ^ro-ind to tlio water- table ( 
 lon) . 
 
 :oodo transpire iauch mo re v.'nt.er t)ian conifer a, as a class, 
 latter have shallow root aystei/is and arc able to live on less 
 
 . 
 
 A/aount of \vater UISGU on Forest, and Farm 
 
 jjocation : Tens dry natter: Indies vator 
 : : produced per A : needed par 
 : ; per year ; year 
 
 ; Forest : 1-^ : 2-7 
 ; Farm 4-9 : 16-40 
 
Factors affecting available ooil moisture: 
 
 1) Precipitation 
 
 2) Catchment \ 
 
 3) 'ater holding capacity of soil 
 4} Evaporation from soil 
 
 5 | ter withdrawn by plant roots 
 
 Ability of soil to raise water by capillarity ana other 
 mo ..s. Jlei^ht of water- table. 
 
 7) ifridergrourid seepage 
 
 1) Precipitation is affected, by go. r *r?.T)h.lcpl loo-r-tion and topo- 
 phy. 
 
 2} Cat&runent /< isa i. of all precipitation Actually entering 
 ,/il. It depends on; 
 . Joii cover. 
 
 b) Degree of slope. ' ivr^ter slope hfl or; runoff and there 
 fore a email e r c ... ; , 
 
 c) Texture of soil. 
 
 d) Character of precipitation. 4= 
 
 Auio un t 
 
 Mature ( sudden, fant, or glow) 
 e; Character of ^ro'ind surface 
 
 plowed, baked, dusty, etc . 
 
 3, r holding capacity of soils. 
 
 -ilia depends on texture, depth, nd amount of or^ajde Batter 
 '.' s soil, 
 
 texture may be considered in two parts: 
 a) Physical composition: si^e of particles. 
 Consistency of soi"' . : 
 _i density of particle arrangement 
 iT structure of soil 
 
 i locculent, simple, compound, etc. 
 
 Floccuiency decreases the water holding capacity of soil 
 it increases tlie air spaces; the resulting ventilation is the desirable 
 feature of flccculent Boil, especially in clay. Clay is the cementing 
 
 it oi the particles and crumbs in clf?y and loam; calcareous material 
 in sand protases tiie snm^ effect. 
 
 occurs 
 
 pillary water/, in smaller Dre spaces or oft<-;n as forming a film 
 about hygroscopic water, the films clinging to particles. Capillary wa- 
 ter is available to plant roots; hygroscopic water usually is not. 
 
 or hydrostatic water occurs in the larger pores in the upper 
 oo 1 . It sooner or later gravitates toward the water- t".l>le. In an imper- 
 vious layer is present above the water table the WRtsr gathers just 
 ove this layer. 
 
 Hygroscopic water; film digging to particles. 
 
 Hydrostatic water: free or gravitional water moving down to the 
 water* table. 
 
 Water holding capacity of soil is effected by pore upace 'tmd the 
 size of soil particles. The arrangement of particles affects the pore 
 space (s e page 107). ^0 s^ize. of the particles theoretically has no 
 effect on pore apace. 3aft& Small particles really tend sornev/}iat to more 
 
119 
 
 surface, because they are li$it and not packed down by gravity. 
 
 a average dry soil requires 4 ( *-6 w of r^in to saturate the first 
 
 foot of surface soil or from 20-32$ per cubic foot. One cubic foot of 
 
 ordinnry ^n,rden soil loara has about 1 sere or surface exposed by the 
 partic : en. 
 
 Amount of surface is important because: 
 
 iSttS 
 
 TJ More surface more capillary wstor. 
 
 2} Cher?ic*>.l effect on ourfrcc ir-i re"i--r with greater surface 
 of particles . 
 
 . r-holdin[f capacity is of txto kinds: 
 1} ..laum: when saturated. 
 
 2f I'inimum: contains only capillary water; this is the usual 
 -^cily i unlens o th 3 r-vi s ? c^ 
 
 nsil.y of -r rrr;n,;xi?';ent of soil particles: 
 
 Increases minimum -winter holding capacity, therefore cultiva- 
 tion decreases va trrho3 ding capacity. 
 
 reel? of forest cover: "Plocculstion in noil increased "by: 
 ixture of organic life, 
 
 2) 'Action of root* 
 
 Ch.'lc'i ) ons u *> aud- 
 
 3) Cover favor* orgrnic life, a. nacteria. 
 4} Cover favors* underground anixrale, 
 
 '"vaoor^tion is affected "by 4 f^ctorr: 
 
 1} Climate: tempcriture, humidity, wind. 
 
 il: neture: text u r e, , d e p th t c^o^l o^r , a a 1 1 s v/ith affinity for 
 wat> . 
 
 3) Cover: vegetation, humus, etc. 
 
 4) Topof^phy: nlop*, erpopure. 
 
 Relation of Evaporation to Relative Humidity ana lemperntuc. 
 
 Relative hurndity 
 
 Ave . Temp . 
 
 Am*t H'vajp.per 
 
 day 
 
 1 If 
 
 a 84 
 
 10.7C 
 12.0 
 17.0 
 
 0.24 Ecra. 
 50. 40 
 .50.^0 
 
 
 4$ 7^F 
 79 
 
 89 
 91 
 
 17.6C 
 
 117.7 
 f 17.0 
 
 S 17.2 
 
 ,.0.93 Jran. 
 
 e 0.62 
 
 0.36 
 
 <w n '>c,' 
 
 u -q; v <--> 
 
 
 Effect of Texture or '?vq..por-".tlcri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Egg 
 
 aller 
 
 volumes. 
 
 
 
 
 Soil 
 
 m 
 
 .4. 
 
 irae 
 
 : ?. of 
 
 Yol, 
 
 ^ t * 1 r 
 
 .... v. U V X ^ 
 
 }3 Of 
 
 sue c GO 
 
 siv 
 
 ?I:/A : 
 
 : 1 o 07" 
 
 : 5> y "- 
 
 QC 1 '"-* 
 
 : t l j/..- 
 
 : 80/, 
 
 ; '^ 
 
 x O/ : 
 
 Lirr.e 3 \nd 
 Course sifted } 
 
 : 16 
 
 days 
 days 
 
 i 1330 
 : 19/6 
 
 23.603 
 
 :2219 
 
 :l?51 
 
 :2^42 
 
 :1?03 
 :246l 
 
 :lb6o 
 : 2625 
 
 1C 
 
 \2i 
 
 300 : 
 
 6 days difference. 
 The figure-;? in the table are the evaporation per 1000 
 surf.->C3 exuoiKi in ra^s. 
 
120 
 
 iffect of Till inn: of Soil on \vapo ration 
 
 
 
 7 p. o I, 
 
 j.i -i fc> o - 
 
 or acre 
 
 
 : Soil 
 
 Tilled 
 
 : Untilled 
 
 Time 
 
 : Clay 
 : vindy loam 
 ; heavy loam (clay) 
 
 129 obis. 
 
 77 
 158 
 
 : 167 lob Is. 
 : 172 * 
 : l8p * 
 
 7 days 
 
 7 ^spye 
 
 7 days 
 
 : Average 
 
 121 1/'1 H 
 
 : 179i M 
 
 
 Iran spire froxr; 2'>G to '/!>C tuns of water per acre per year. 
 mitt v/iLh <..- /ci.]>i.:r-itiun experiments: 
 
 ru 
 
 .is 
 
 dopt.. 
 
 of 1 ft. 2.37/y per day per sq.ft. 
 
 2 ft. 2.10 
 
 3 ft. l. 
 
 4 ft. 0.91 
 
 n diatinct decreaae of evaporation fro.a i 
 
 In 3neral the - -i 1 tree roots do not go aown n-ore than 3 ^ 
 - n^> . On the av- the wnuer table io about 20 ft. below the sur 
 i:e in soila. Vhis lea/oa a gap between the roote r-nu. the water 
 table. 
 
 of: 
 
 Meeting Available 3oil V/ater: 
 1) Precipitation 
 2} Cat clanen t 
 Joil a) slope 
 
 receives u> character of precipitation 
 c/ soil cover 
 
 dJ character of aoil (chiefly physical; 
 e) character of surface (frozen, dusty, eie.; 
 Soil 3) ater hoidir;^ capacity 
 
 holds a; texture (pore ^pace anu surface of ^>: r-^fcies, etc. ) 
 "b) uepth 
 
 c) amount of organic matter 
 4) .^vapor' lion 
 Soil a) aoil cover 
 loses b) climate 
 
 i i . temperature 
 iii .relative 
 
 c) topo^-fapiiy 
 i^. slope ana 
 
 d) soil factors 
 JL. texture 
 
 l r i color 
 ojLJL. depth 
 
 iv oliaractsi- of surface (rou^i or 
 ( amount of water already in r joil 
 ( j/i. ciiemical composition 
 ( y_i i. certain so^. X< op.lts 
 J> ) Amount withdravm by plant roots 
 6) Replacement of raaJtife^A water by capillarity. 
 a) Rise from water table 
 i depth of water taole 
 
121. 
 
 6) P ii texture 
 
 i^i Arrangement of soil lasers 
 b) "Equalization 
 i. texture 
 
 7) Underground seepage thai comes near surface ~.t foot of 
 slopes, etc. 
 
 now return to 'r. 
 
 J) Chemistry ' iil.{aa mi 
 
 ?j. l.T^ovtanCG of &ft&tt.0j it food in ;>oii. 
 
 f l-itoj-est to UFJ iy t ..oant of plant food in the 
 
 soil, ho 1 ? lonr it --ill last, --nd how beat to replace i, i>o not favor 
 the extreme notion that the physic idition of the soil io more imp- 
 
 ortant th chariic--.! condition. 
 
 Forest t /it foods, less of chemical materi- 
 
 als, PJTK ri eh to th .1. But they are grateful for sup- 
 
 plies, nnd r : ly to vils. - r or nur series we always want 
 
 good Roil. 
 
 2>. Poret vs. other crops with respect to chemical needs. 
 
 re the test growth of timber and vegetables. 
 
 Fertile 1-nd is noceonary for profit. The soil replenishes chemical 
 ri' tfcrinl ; rat'ior clcv/ly. Hopkins in Illinois studied the problem as to 
 
 ither :s v/oald last in i^e soil; he claims 
 
 th-* the euppli i: 1; . .vioul ture is 
 
 oils will, j ; up, but only if Uie farmers do 
 
 thing by fchfj soil. Qiina hao gooa soil, and it ii^.s been kept 
 7 400 ra of silling (Illng of "is.}. 
 
 ! lean of pineries evon wie fo ,r must Iiandle the soil care- 
 
 fully to let; op it in ^ood contition. 3ut generally he need not bother 
 
 out t} 
 
 ondi tl . aoile 
 
 Tnble 
 
 te rials 
 
 Bicli dark 
 land: Cal. 
 
 * 4 i O **'"*('." 
 
 1 J- J Vv * .4. A i V- 
 
 1-ilvi 
 
 ^iicii red 
 
 land: Hawaii 
 
 
 insoluble rraaterial 
 
 t? 
 
 95-6 ; 
 
 15*80 
 
 
 terials 
 
 
 
 
 
 silica 
 
 1$.OO^M19 ) 
 
 0.8 
 
 14 . 00>- 
 
 
 Dotaiji 
 
 o.6y 
 
 0.12 
 
 0.45 
 
 
 
 2.11 
 
 0.00 
 
 0.26 
 
 
 Kg 
 
 ^.2o 
 
 , .4 
 
 0.67 
 
 
 I-^e peroxiue 
 
 5*23 
 
 0.22 
 
 ^ c "'. O l j 
 
 
 AloOo ? 
 
 7.40 
 
 0.4^> 
 
 14.6 
 
 V i 
 
 Phoajpiioric acid 
 
 0.071 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.19 1 
 
 j ah 
 
 iB 
 
 3. Ob 
 
 mere trac 
 
 3*35 
 
 eh 
 
 litrogen 
 
 O.b? 
 
 r. <| 
 
 u.ii 
 
 
 2iydrocco7>ic ii^o 
 
 10.70 
 
 lees-- 
 
 18.5 
 
 
 gures 
 
 .d be 
 checked up. 
 
 C;, the riL-ovc soila with e^.oli other. Lime takes the control- 
 
 ling position clje.'fiically; clay, humus, *.nd iron salts are important 
 phycicallj. i th tiieae four present tho noil cantdo r.7ith n comparatively 
 smnll t of j 1. 
 
122, 
 
 ;-:o:.l thru is poor in its physics is apt to get poor in its 
 che; - : ;. one :,h'\t is poor on its chemistry is poor in ite physics 
 and io hnrci to mnk'.> r:ood. 
 
 cK Ability of forestur to remedy soil tiia.tia chemically poor. 
 
 The forester does not fertilize or do anything with the che- 
 mic^l concition of the soil ,-: n .ral tiling. He affects the physical 
 condition; he .keeps a good stanu of timber and humus, ana thiM results 
 also in _cai condition, besiucs proviuin^ pro uoc Lion to 
 
 . and soil oovc . . 
 
 /: natural be I mt oi c . and ^oil by protection, increas- 
 ing -nipility of timber, , ,..., ..udei^i-ov/t^, resulting in the so- 
 called "C1.L orcat . 
 
 . d by soil a. ^.nd plants. 
 
 e :"ollov_ .. ;ur* ftrti ^iven for northern countries (Not 
 
 the trox i c : 
 
 O.v j-jiniiii'ajfl for upel'ajL agriculture. 
 
 . . " " ; Oil " 
 
 Ich are wet, c^n uu witli leba A; such are Hawaii, 
 the , udii, and ^JLC ^0^1.. cm r*, of 
 
 1,- is alkali lands. 
 
 iO'jpliorio aciu: minimum lor j0a results 
 
 ..1 ,. nitrogen: minimum for good farming. 
 
 : rjaxi;:iuw , rich. 
 
 0.1 ; iirne: ininimmu for sandy land. 
 
 0. : clay 
 
 f. /ffects of alts on :,oil. \v7aat do the salt a do fot the soil 
 
 Lime- c-..rooriai*c it- -"h..".uiiy uiaGolveu by wiiter cont4ining ^1/2, and 
 Is readily distributee: thru the soil. Lime produces floccula- 
 tion of ,1 bo tii produces and assists in tlie conuition of tilth., 
 
 .ice. In dry lands it also acta as a cement to hold the 
 
 particles together. It helps to form crumbs of soil, making larger open- 
 
 ings and helping the movements of wvter .in a nir. It makes the soil mellow 
 
 PS aeration anil water movement. About 2, of lime is sufficient for th< 
 
 9 O x 1 . 
 
 riiicrl lime helps to maintain the neutrality of soil by binding 
 the acicia which form in the soil; it uelps bacterial life ana the devel- 
 opment of hurr.us. It is a necessary ingredient of soil with direct nitro- 
 ring by bacteria; this is rlso true of tubercle bacteria. Otlier- 
 v/ise t'nerc v;oulc. be no ^ork. It helps to make plant food available, espe- 
 1 ly if: i to pctPs>: and phucphoric acid, it offsets the injurious 
 effects of r.n^nesia anu. the aiAiilios; g>peur. iy ruuch usea in this respecl 
 
 ;j: j ;;i; .ount of l,i:;.e for ^ood effect ie 8/. ; above this point lime 
 itself beco;r,efj injurious to the soil. 
 
 nesia is one of our import'int incredients in Uie soil; it is 
 more i.op- in the eastern United States than in the v/est. It acts in 
 the soil as lirce d.)o, in looner.i/i.^ it for air and water. It enters as 
 
123. 
 
 a re*i^ent in freeing p -ic n.cid rind making it -vr liable, "but it 
 
 readily becomes n nuisance. L'.uch jna^rKJcia is injurious to the soil. It 
 is mischievous to plnnt ,-r-.. . , es.iecial.ly if th ao.'. 1 "be deficient in 
 . It may interfere with imbibition (?). 
 
 Insoluble residues (lliCAt) vary in Inr&e lii.-.i^s; thny are 
 greater in huriid than in arid .ri.-'a. 
 
 id cnst v J-3rt B^'/. of indi a soluble ra.-iteriala. 
 
 L ibl . - - wcvirxls. 
 
 jrn i) it in rivery soil. 
 1'uch of the- a from el rs. 
 
 Potaal >da :o r , solution, act us rengonfcu in tlae 
 
 soil, 12 of decor :,poeition rmd recom- 
 
 pcsiticf.s. In ari ; to ft .j.Jlphlates and eoda 
 
 phosphate, oil, I -^ying the floceulcnca of .-oil, 
 
 me >ct - ., ;:.iGC}iiev/ous both pliysically 
 
 >)i"n . of the torup crate zone, especially 
 
 i noils in 1/Kii'i are good; they raay have a low % 
 
 of * .. , ; adi/ig opposes 
 
 alic^li f :. ; oil :b . cam 
 
 1} It decreases ^vriporation ana prevent 3 the alkali from gath- 
 
 er i j r til e 3 u , 1 in e xc e ^ s i ve run o tin 1 3 . 
 
 .'COL of . t . >n of ti-.v... is increawea and bring 
 
 level I-* : :;iv LL the deposition of alkali at 
 - , . 
 
 . una 13. ta in the ?:o:l on ^ra^ing areas. 
 
 cerra IIUKUS . o to the entire mass of decayed vegetation 
 
 on the to _r:ce plant r.if.tcri^lo in the huiaus r : .re coniplex producte 
 
 of ; / ns the kind, ^roporiion r >/id ni io Io,.v.r orga- 
 
 this decay ana the conditions under ivhich they work. The 
 '. ity of luu-ius i- del rmined :.,. tho nature of tl^e original plant mater- 
 condition of dec-'.y. The identity of plant life io lost in 
 Is significant of t; I .-ortance of humus. 
 
 3 cipy be coiix-idered ay a "3tre-^ of material" compared with 
 litutijt: oi' the jull. 
 
 7i nitrogen of the soil is held almost entirely in the humus. Th 
 
 ;,lilj of e in a ^raaa lands r .:0il ia J-^/ 
 
 >0-, . is t>/.'t;anic C. 
 
 .146?) -ir4> tl JSJ. Very low; o.ry ^.o.,l surface. 
 
 (0.066?) 0.166,:, :f rt "' W. Subsoil. 
 
 in an old niondow you nay often find 0.;^ . low 
 
 only iBodc-r-te grov/tli texture influences decay. 1'he, presence of 
 mfavo to th cay of )un.. . ie low nitrogen supply 
 
 due to t .nil proportion of clover cov-sr. 
 
 Conciitiora of huriut;; the el-j^ents in IX^HUL; n.'-y be uivided in two 
 grc able in d insoluble in Ikali ^&ii.fr. solutions, 'i^he aoluble 
 
 lly richer ir. l and is often more inilaontial on the soil 
 
 inriolublt.' ^ro .. - -oiuc MOU-JIT. wrl confine the use 
 
 of the terra "humuo" to this .ciore soluble division of hun.ua matt --..v. .Less 
 thnn . I huniurs is . - -s fort., ing -4.29;;; in 
 
124. 
 
 humus of tfr- (>.. 
 
 Cultivated l--:nd: soluble -ir l.i (nil:.) form '?$/ in the humus. 
 
 art of the huraua ia-iy exint in ihe soil in corn i nation .ith lime 
 and ol; , beconing soluble only af tc . ction occurs. 
 
 In gr land only 3350 o^ !' ( l : '-racted rith ^.cicL . 
 
 is land v in d.. n'C ar 
 
 'Jot ^1 organi< - . 
 
 acj .8-1. 
 
 need? roper lion ift i o the cjnoant of free huraic 
 
 acid 
 
 K; Biology of th<> :;cil. 
 
 .-oil . i :t in regard to the dt cay and pro- 
 
 Btion , , riti the action of bac'ccria. Study why 
 
 c^rtr-iti r ;o : Lo certain U : i .;on f t know yet &urely; analyses do 
 
 not '-.Iv-'aya e>. rerytl. 
 
 Clr- --cial]. j sture ?xnd temperature) f;nd >"ooa Materials 
 
 I pre the most it. portrait factors in determining UJB life in 
 the tj;e founcirtion of Soil Biology. 
 
 .re are Tour a^cir-a to te considered in Loil I'.iolo . 
 
 t eria 
 
 b. cut cue fun^i 
 . or plants and their effect on soil 
 
 : i . 
 
 a. Bacteria. 
 
 tevia preourtinate mostly in rich tillec, soils, v;hich con- 
 : Lc lifo. 'lliei arc lesu in 'forest soils, but &&& this 
 
 varit-a. Kev.rly all brvcterir- crc sensitive to lijit; i.hey vary in oxygen 
 
 li , . u it in ^oijcrfil; they pro neneitivc to chs.nsfej-? in 
 
 moi. concitione, - i< in very dry conuiLions. All bacteria have 
 
 tor.^u Vhey are sensitive to the action of acids; sour humus 
 'rr lively free from bac-eria. 
 
 cteria excell in h ,<.\^..^\, -..ion ano. u*tili/;-.aiun of all fori.;e of 
 
 ir.on^ ihcicselV'.. i-; ay to wheir /orkan^; torapt.rn.ture, from 
 to very hieUi L sr.pcr ^uic&; some are capable of much higher 
 are th --.-. r* Oti 
 
 -.cteria life is ^enc-rally v.ell uietribu^ea tliru soils except 
 under peculiar conditions, v^here they secrete something which is detri- 
 tal to tlxefiiselves beyond a certain point; oruinjirily tliey are asso- 
 o it3/ other or&ani3ij-B vliich ciay work over these secretions ana thu 
 
 . Thus bacteria may Lc oc. tive in a BGnse. Vliese secre- 
 
 tione are hj.ov?n as toxin ,ti-to;:i. 
 
 .r;e bacteria needing o>:y^cn r.;ay be CGaociauec. -/ith others which 
 rict need oxygen and v/hich r;.r t y j. erh^r.t- e 1 ui prodacu it r.s a by-product 
 
 /tr.n change, due LO uciapera^ure and moisture changes: 
 1} Hinds in soJl 
 
 ortion of kinds 
 
 3) Total nuyther 
 
 4) Activity. 
 
125- 
 
 The bulk of bacterial action tnkes place In the upper 12 M of 
 gs or agricultural lands; in forer.ta it goes i little deeper. Bacteri 
 ye abound, in lr..r^e numbers, ?Sien present; the greatest number per 
 centU.fcter in rich clay was 600 million b^cterir; tne upper inch usually 
 contains ..loct. The abundance of bacteria varmes widely, even in adjacent 
 localities, <~nd yields from soili? vnry in rbout the r ,-roportion. 
 
 -production of "bacteria is v,rry rapid: cell civision may be com- 
 -,lcteu i/; _>0 minut J, .,.-;; id produce JO generations in 24 hour 
 if en.rriet-. on continual!./. t nu of the c:a^f values of stable manure is 
 the fact uitf ret bacteria life in the soil (Hilgard 
 
 , t\vo i 3 Vrctc: 
 
 i; - : f organic 'ial i/ l.^oth r>riimn.l and plant. 
 
 2} Secretions act on inorgnnic minerils both physically and 
 
 cherr.icnl the nitro^n -up^ly in soil. 
 
 ct^ria Biay ije Divided irjtu .-jccirairi^ to the work they dfl 
 
 i;. . n cellalcsc, chiefly by fermentation. 
 
 2/ :;ccc;.'-;^se protein bcdi action occur?, in all soils, 
 
 .tter of .11 3ci. v j 
 
 litrifying bacteria; a very ccir^ion forto. I need lots of 
 nir to c ' an thei] " , require a tercpi - of over ^0 I 
 
 Tiie soil be cither neutral or alkaline. ?hn Dacteria prefer soil 
 
 v?ith ;'lGntj' oi 1 li::'o and organic food. They use tl:a free nitrogen of the 
 
 i i r . 
 
 4, ; t-, : rclci bactcrJ.".: take free- nitroc n ^r-o "bJnf^ it; they ao 
 title, o;,i j Abiotic rel-.UioriS. Th^y an figl myC< ' ;*, as some people 
 have Tnifi; ht. They ar fo 1 .iefly on the Leguminoaft*, arid 
 
 . .-/Jhe tuborcl 13 ' .i:', :; they then cease, be- 
 .- - -- , nd are absorbed, 
 
 .rily . (.cteria take nitroen fr --oil, and are very 
 
 Ly do not do very ruuol: uar^cr, ae they ar-.- not plentiful, anc 
 en only under certain conditions. 
 
 Other groups -^e aul^liur bacteria, iron bacteria, etc. 
 
 ,-roJC3 of bnc. the isoil; tliey occur by tone, ever actii 
 
 ready to do a variety of thiri^a vith or^.nic tilings. They accom- 
 pli I" ; idou-3 'u'.iuunt of " 
 
 . 
 
 b. 
 
 These fungi s.rc more common in fcrer,t or uutilled so^l than 
 in the fan&ei' f a tillaa law - -- - ^'^Ipa to vlimBte tha, 7hcir chief 
 valu^ lies in the di-c. ->n of iiQ natter; Die formation of 
 us is largely due to fuiifci . They penwtrate theu the soil ami distri- 
 
 ir fil ^feBi-y evenly thru tl il, h to feea other 
 
 fun ,;llo"'intj the ;-cil. 
 
 . mor : ..-; i in the mulch of hrvrdvoud:- Lhnn vith conifen 
 The liT; -ma ^ruv/th of funrji are almilar ^o that of bacteria, bui 
 ore limited. They need or^.nic, ?md arc helpleas v/ith inorganic ma- 
 :v are largea and men ..... 'outli th-^.n are b* 
 
 ria. They ta3 .frjanic mt-rial (and ccimcnt it) only thru a dis- 
 
 tinct 'process, leaving till job for another fungus to '.--ork over in the 
 x t step c f dec o^rp o s i o i o :i . 
 
 gi livv: part of ttieir lift In - 11, and part as parasites 
 
126. 
 
 on plarjL.- , H < itli the rut <! wauti . V . , 50 thru-, regular life cycles, 
 
 wit) i rltern f -' t'j ^eTier^tio 
 
 Al^ne in the soil n.r t in cold or hu^id countries 
 
 "but able to live in tho tropic.:'.. Symbiotic r-vln t.io;.:s mark the first 
 
 I . -.i.1 scounuln ti 
 
 . riant rj. This tppie v;as passed over. 
 
 a.. 
 
 Th- ::onsidere-.- iu gjrc pt.J 
 
 1) Livl- _____ >.'. ..io/ li:^. aa the inci-.:, i^.tjfch worms, and 
 
 p - ;.' . 
 
 2) Living in tiie ooil #?.r r t of vh^r 111 /c . an Junebug, and 
 
 1 OOii. 
 
 3) : - ir A.9^ L . jLu . jund but fee-uu./^ ; .i;CY.e the 
 gro nd: burr< . . .. ,. , -., etc .4 bumble bees. 
 
 . ir tj . round for food: from the beetle to the hog; 
 lizaru, Q , , tc, 
 
 'T- ' 1 to the; coil: 
 
 1} . jrnic notarial of II, e t;oil ana tranoform 
 
 l!.eLiicr.= l form. 
 
 Oil, o ../r, ground squirrel. 
 s thru wliich wflter and roo- ] .- a for a 
 , '-'feet. r rriovojaont . - , " ; , *;tc. 
 
 nure fro; .re^t-nt, r.nc alec le deccjnp02ition 
 
 .Btiri^ experiment t?l,e 1 squf*rr- ^/.'>rd of earth and see 
 !.<. o jou CPH fine. 
 
 Is develop rapidl^ , are bi^; ecitei^', - short lived, 
 as moth . Die worms hr<.ve been i.cet otudied of these forms of life. 
 
 Tlie ~a; bacteria ev:. i> where; they are jr>ost common 
 
 in U-- fanner's til virtu. Tropical c? rthworme are Irrger; lengths 
 
 12" pro ruit- iinon ther . 53 n been .. yoh studied in 
 
 . 7-.t .- :id c}.tv ? up I./ of dry leaves in 1 year. 
 1 --ere ol od sho^l" ^ivc 2 tono of leaves (bfeech); It tone of 
 
 m 1 acre; agpuine ^000 :-.q.^ r aero; this; jivt.s C.^' per sq. 
 
 . , c only 20 ear ch\;orjLi3 to \vork this material ovei 
 
 ii. of > , yjculu be able to UOr<- Ljiaii trice care of all thnt 
 
 i. Sucli figures as thct?^ brin^ the actual conditions 
 ,'ividly to our cdnd . 
 
 j in the tj , . They a*e ijcrt: coruiion in loam. 
 
 titudu fictiac to have soru ifftct on vo rr.it-:, t,s thetse figureo 
 \vill incJ 
 
 In Switzerland; at 4000 f : -AJfc&^.t 
 
 ow: 6400 anii.ir-lH, lnoluc:)ig 4CO worrus. 
 
 forest: 4^00 ani.r;.rls, including ^00 v/ornis. 
 
 -t 6000 f : 
 
 .-w: 13^0 tan , r.cluding 6l worms. 
 forest: ^1CO nii;inlp f including ICO 7, f orruS. 
 
 Insect r, ,};cir Inrvae, a.;' tho June^ug, iar.l;e passages in the 
 nd to n c ; tht?oe pocket H frequently fill up. Ants and 
 
 mny nlt.o " . d. 
 
 n discouragoa insecti.-, .. , ;, the removal of crops, and other 
 
12?. 
 
 oonditiona fnvoring or discouraging insects or animals in t}ie field as 
 against tho forest. The ho formerly used very extensively by the 
 
 f orestc r. 
 
 .':i,rhor animal a. 
 
 , voles, etc. "break the ground, and "break up the n-.ulch. 
 
 Cattle QHt reproduction ana trarnpl thin go dovrn into the ground. In soft 
 so-1 they tramp down hard; they make trails, stir up mulch and work it 
 down, which retards deeav . Sheep ' -r-o more injurious to the fo- 
 t than are cattl . 
 .n: 
 
 & ib Vv.fr, irji 1., - r;t.ial in i-oil. It .ien both its physics 
 
 /. tillage mello* T F and improves plov/ed soil, tut neglects 
 ri ;.- jw it. i^io'/in^ may nrocsuce *o ^raat ^ change in roil 
 tha , ., refus-- to , .en. Continued tilln t ;c modific, the 
 
 coil, the, . idt r-,I favorably. 
 
 'tirt.: ..i is one thni i-f c?xlin.u3ted for crops requiring cer- 
 nts, .-is) spruce, or sonethitic; r-inil-T. A raixea forest has often 
 "by en (;;. . . ii crops excrete toxins. 
 
 L) ''.. and 3oil. 
 
 oreet jj'ccts the formation of soil fron: rock, the transpor- 
 t'. Lion of i-joil ;7:at ( .!riHl, soil biology, goil ^hyf*icr, nnd soil chemistry. 
 
 1,. i'orec't i .nntion. 
 
 a,. Die foreet Adfct^ protect?? rock ^^ninrtt r^pid chan^ea in tern- 
 
 i;a.-:t frop,t>, mechanioal ctfern of 7?p.ter, ice ana ;;ind. By 
 30 doing it r<-, c:\rda the phyaic"L and 'nechnnicil diointcgration of rock. 
 
 b,. J:ie foreBt keeps t)ie soil moist and the Ccr dppliod to the 
 rock, there i>y a88urin f ? continual action in dianolving rock material. 
 
 jc. iioot:^ of treew enter cleavage lines or orrck^: in rocks, and 
 by h and oxp-.naion PSBiBt in t^.e bren>ins of ^ro i.id. 
 
 ci. rue forest acids lrg Tia . B c 3 of orr^iic . k and thereby 
 
 adds l;ouj.x, to tiie soil, 'i'hie effect varies with the climate nnd condi- 
 tion . 'ock t a a uoee the total effect of the .t'or^.t. New England, has 
 
 nite, Pennsylvania haa shale, Kentuclcy bae limestone. 
 
 2. /jie forest retard or t?revent? entirely tho transportation of 
 soil by vreter, ice ??na wind. v?ator transportation :.-c corses very slow j 
 
 .vciuded. All the r*d jjnndfj formations, BS in Wyoming, the 
 ck .ills, Texas and New ? s exico, are curved in aharp hills and ravines; 
 sue"., conformations never exist in forest 
 
 Cutting Uie forest at oncechan t -eB it. Forest countries have nor- 
 Ll^ ro nded topography nnrt nil changes -ire " . ~:<: ' ississippi H. 
 
 In regions like trie Alpp? ^Thp-r- r 'lily disint e^r^ te, a 
 
 tough forc-sL cover often holds tho ^oil no lon(?; that landslides occur 
 ...... aiaiiiiie^rati on and decomposition. 
 
 y: 1) forest nccunulatee and Vuildn up tl-.o isoil. 
 
 2j >'orenL A^JbA4i ^**Aft^fe && WM& irakes for permanent 
 soil conditions, . 
 
128. 
 
 3.. Forest *=md Soil Physics. 
 
 The forent ns a tall shelter protects the soil against 
 sun, wind and r*.in; against rn.pid changes in temperature, ana 
 
 2} The forest effects the entrance of water into the 
 soil, water contents, and percolation, *nd therefore it affects le 
 solution of ealts and the movement of those salts. 
 
 ^} TV,- for^ft protects t: a ~ir in the forest. It shades 
 it, and modofiee i -' nt > r * nd "umidity, ana tins 
 
 reacts u^on tr.e soil. 
 
 forest evapo* I trennpir-- l".rse amounts of 
 wp; reduce* so ture* but it nlao cools the M air 
 
 ant ' ' d 
 
 51 The for I s organic matter which may ce worked 
 ov-- into mulch ind cover to soil, ond thereby aids in its protection 
 inrt evV .-ion nnd in maintaining its rnellownese and permeability. 
 
 forr^t furniehea materipl for humus, vfcich aifectg 
 
 th ng cnpncity of the soil, both in regard to hygroscopic 
 
 ?l!^ry wn tcr. 
 
 7> ?orrnt rootr^ prrrr.-epte the roil nt various depths; ge- 
 they till the noil deeper than is the c*ee in ^rftculture. 
 
 e i* ?)'- for^Bt a* t^ll shelter: t*;e forest air is shadec 
 Bll . terially affecting plant and animal M th 
 
 -.ntoriPlly Tflodafied. A -wind 
 
 - 
 
 plsn t., 
 
 tree, 
 
 V Summer mins do not ntrilcn Die ground, hut the trees 
 .refSre^ greater portion of the precipitation comes in th 
 /dr4in;:s from the foliage Heavy raine tena to har 
 '. -.* o-r tl c^ ^I'.en evppor f! o, oo. .- -s mucn as AU 
 
 7" -iior^e: this seeming loee a<Jd fi to tlin humiflity * t ^.^ Bt 
 
 , Hiep/thft "tree-, flomp. wid le^ ? en the tmnanirntion, ana this in 
 turn reacts on the soil. 
 
 4) The Profit is less deep in/ the fore^. -his *tt**** 
 M..1 nd slant life and especially the entrance rind movements of wat 
 In tho w?l! S ii &ortt in regard to s,rin,r thawe. open lanas have 
 flood ' frozen -ro;.n . 
 
 ,~ f tflBmePa ture of Oil is mor" uniform, r.no. generally lowei 
 
 ir er in^the forest, th< thout the forest. Therefore all P'ocee 
 
 I 
 

 wet sit '.I'li; ions mule}), can readily V;et too ci->.-p, especially in northern 
 
 clijTi" 
 
 5} The effect of the forest is in proportion to the den- 
 sity of the forest, and the kind of timber. It is more conspicuous in 
 o more extreme climate. This may be illustrated by conditions in expo- 
 sures on the sides of hills. 
 
 ^- . Entrance of r-Ur Vj ' ., rmtfeT contents, and w??ter move- 
 
 ment . 
 
 <-ds is nv .y uneven, humps an< 
 
 epreeeion I oHs3. i ; tnnd to hold water in r--j;is 
 
 ItUAtion ' ' . . . .. igr ; .:y. Mountai 
 ;il<! e 
 
 - in V7oodrj ie normally abunur,nt. This debris tak 
 up water (liv- t drie:.; clown to about 20;- or 
 
 ris pr<r Ike entrance cf v;rvtcr to the soil *nd 
 
 . It? ili- . . e sir in the weeds moist and 
 
 cool, aoil. lebris retards the flcv/ of ;vater on the sur 
 
 ; thifl i^ very :r; P ort*nt in regard to r-irifall. A vreeded ditch may 
 
 . Co* pare the pr.ved street 7-ith a grass law; 
 
 3) riie roulch, as a normal part of the forest, acts just 
 ic"brir. irface is irre t .. '. , irulch aaterlala : VI sort- easily an< 
 
 of ;.- -! , 1 ,reat difference between sod 
 
 ... A fll of l n in 2 hours is exceptional; more thaj 
 flood. ... . ,rtic/i liuld by th3 foliage, sod, 
 
 r ; . 
 
 is influential in holui ier. Jn the 7/estern coun- 
 
 try of Vunv.: lie cunui tion of no sod and little rainf^l effect 
 
 . 
 
 Lucre -i:.o the actual O rncient ul' vater flow; water reachei 
 
 ".lies; jflost of the water falls on the steeper 
 
 si-- lly. C;. . t}io diff<. ., -ffec-tf of cloudburats on prai- 
 
 ri*; r part? of tha country. 
 
 Ich atsor'n? nn<3 hold reach Tatar, obstruct 3 inechanioally the 
 
 -:, prcv^>:tc 1C fror.; refojiin^ the i'round, and 
 
 : '"^- - Rl cifec: uf mulch varies in wide 
 
 is scant mulch in spruce forests comport vi th harowoocs. 
 Both, d.c.- : -.-ig. q.n_d Tziulcih jyv; g^rmnnunj: c_uridi-uioris_ in. .th^e. forest, and are 
 
 e, ,-ty and a ' ,-]i t . They ar,: difft-i.onc from Uie farner' 
 Inno; till:.n; its here merely a temporary condition. 
 
 4 i ^EO^.g &. .fc-^i^e^t tr.ocs U.JL1 U.fc so 11 .The ffiellowness 
 ore -,t sail is due to fore^v trcs roots, ilulcli keeps 
 -oou afford chnni^lB fo. .r to criuer and run in, 
 
 J) Organic matter ir> converted to hmjus and therefore aj 
 v .'iclin- of u. .: . feer-flow, wad th 
 
 teen up "by the w t,cr arc- re-distriouted, prtventing 
 
 6} "reefc take : the soil for thwir own use. Ag- 
 
 . - that for pound of dry organic substance 
 
 r< ..,;. red 3 C '^ -' - : from ths ^oil. jfcrt-jt trees ^et along 
 
On -?1 "beech land a 60 year old beech stand produces about 
 wood per acre per year, and over ^OUO// ol leaves ?md small twi~,s, 
 or about 10,000f/ of organic matter all tolci. On the basis of 300// water 
 per pound dry matter, this would require 16 H rain. 
 
 On ;fl pine land half as much material is produced, but even thai 
 would require 8 M of r^in. 
 
 -At or taken up by the roots leave the soil driest in the localij 
 of the meat roots. S>'Rllo" rooter? dry out the top layers, deep rooters 
 the lov;or layers. In forert the tor> lr?.yer? contnin rr.oro v:atcr than the 
 lot? liyt- , Boil 1 il in bare land, as indi- 
 
 cated by exrcerirrents. There hr-.s been much diecueoion on this point, and 
 much misinterpretation of fact:, experiments. 
 
 jlpr the ye-tr. in water in the soil . 
 
 
 Srr 
 
 uce 
 
 
 Depth 
 
 25 yer 
 
 : 120 year 
 
 Bare land 
 
 6" 
 12 
 
 19. 
 19.1 
 18.4 
 18^0 
 
 3 
 : 20.2 
 
 : 21.1 
 
 20.6; 
 
 20.5 
 
 20.2 
 
 is ^rc-"t-:r Ii st disappears 
 
 . ; up the previous t'Vblc of aiioa^ts of v.ntcr in the onj 
 the amounts .-v-iporMtsd by trees. { -op. 112, 11?, 119, etc , . 
 
 of 
 
 : differ in the it'jMNratar tail on from t,ho soil. The 
 
 ftstywill I .*o-v on jack pine land, as the latter cannot furnish as much 
 
 wa-- .aeda, v/hich majtti the ash & sensitive tree. The ash 
 
 c^n bring . viore or^-.nic material, but needs racr<. r to do it with. 
 
 r it :.iay not die, but it v?ill not much or 
 
 good wood (thinner rirrr-, etc.). 
 
 it of soil -rater, or free ground , r. 
 
 A general claim is rrade that the forest leaaens tlie su-^ount c 
 fro r. This -is ^-?nerally conceded woday, but V.r. Roth thini x .e 
 
 '.otion is -ibsol ;toly .-rr-ig. It contradicts actual experience, ^ich- 
 :i for exvjrr/l'.?, in the p^ct ind th.: -/nt, and also in Wisconsin and 
 
 .T country. r.vrsjcpQ, ':tc. actually do not have as much watc 
 .'ly; th- re.-:;OT?jil of forest dried out th.s l-.ind, ^afl tliis fact 
 contradicts tl'o , : ."on evilly ncceptevi c?. . ;r->3t losssns the .-mount 
 
 of free ^r o .m d 17??. t e r . 
 
 This same claim is contrary to the conditions found by Uie 
 U, ''.Geological Survey in prairie^ regions. Prairie rivcra are not regula 
 they ar-^ oither a flood or ?. drouth. 
 
 Hydraulic en^i^eers are co.::i:}^ to believe strongly in Uie influ 
 '5 o^ ' or^L't in steadying stre- 1 ::- 1 flow. 
 
 st ref-ul 11 "iter nov r J;irit, and rankos it more steady. The 
 condition^ of Tnter nv i ;t here continue 1^ undisturbed for rva/ty years 
 In thia reopect they differ rndic->lly from -i^rioulLural lands, where the 
 conrtitiona of witer rnove.'ie'jt are disturbed coniitantly. 
 
 Tlie importance of water regulation is far greater in poor land 
 than in r.:ood Innd. 
 
The forcf-t regulateo the aor;...tio;i of lands. There is ;nore GU2 in 
 the ^ir of forert soils than in the air cf open or br.re lands. The 
 follcvan; table l:)e number of cubic feet of c?>r-on dioxide in 
 1000 cubic feet cf air in soil in Lhe first $Q n of soil for spruce woods 
 of 2^ t 60, and 120 . respectively, and in bare land: 
 
 re land : 
 
 7.0 cu.ft. 002 
 
 2> yr. 
 
 spruce : 
 
 wS 
 
 
 ; 
 
 12. > 
 
 120 * 
 
 
 
 10.2 
 
 . co*.if..rs; 
 y. 1 / Ctt.ft.G p v iw^o cu.ft. air. 
 
 cu.ft.Cv>2 per 1000 cu.ft. air. 
 
 The Fiitiyun >IA Uae soil air is in a certain pro- 
 
 port Lor, to i .* less itaj^am anu others have called 
 
 atti--.- to 1 vuwoodQ )iave more fertile land ^&4^fclyc 
 
 ir ti( . ;iiore; Uiis aeration is better under hard- 
 
 woods than un-.' : % ruce , KinuL- of land, iro&ac'ly much of this 
 
 cor) tent ion ia tr .--.. cunt of soil life depends closely on the amount 
 
 _e. ire of coil in tilth. 
 
 ..^.v^iiiii soil from puddlin ( ; r?nd frum pounding by 
 
 . jcion of the mulch ia not to <**&& 
 
 : - i;">; -y* condi tion I* a ciean*cuc forest vvjiere the 
 
 . .* .. jet is iroPai on ciay wian on sand. Prairie 
 
 . .in tiiwh li^.u tlia forest. 
 
 . 
 
 ri.. Vue -production of or^iiiic Material by the forest in usually 
 oi t-.. of salta *ii.ic>i the forest must take 
 
 fro 
 
 ^e I : oc'U produced 
 
 -jecji : >'>00# wo co : Spruce outgrew 
 
 .;ruce r 65 i pine nd beech. 
 
 ; 
 
 It uao often been buggested that site be clppsifind by the amount 
 
 II or^nic matter produced by the forest: 
 Conifers: 
 
 line twigs produce 25~3^/ or -^-1/3 of totfi. 
 
 ood H 75 
 
 rd woods: 
 
 and t^igs over -nore thnn 
 
 l(Rr5 thn 5' 
 
 (to next page] 
 
132. 
 
 Mineral salts are mostly in the leaves. 
 
 From Buesgen we obtain the following figures: In IQOf of dry 
 
 leaves: , 
 
 Conifers: ashes form **^j 
 
 Hardwoods: ashes form 4--7> 
 
 In some species, as ash and black locust, the abhes run as :iigh 
 
 as & ' -9/ , or 8-9# per 100#. 
 
 The young bark is mostly ash. 
 Ash in bark of conifers forms 1-2; 
 M hardwoods 2*4/*. 
 
 The smallest amount of ashes is in the limbs: 
 
 Pine 0.2-0. 2V 
 
 Hardwoods 0.3-0.4 %. 
 
 b.&. The mineral matter taken from the soil per yenr by forest tre 
 is largely spent in building up leaves and small twigs; only a small 
 amount 'ifi used in building up wood. 
 
 In 100J of dry substance: 
 
 1) Hardwoods: . 
 
 Leaves and twigs: 50#, of which 6% or 3# are ashes. 
 Wood (timber) : 50$ 9 of which 0.4# or 0.2# are aafc 
 
 Total ash is 3.2# per lOOa 
 
 Therefore from 32# of salt: 30# goes to leaves and twigs, and 2g 
 to timber; therefore only 1/16 of all mineral matter goes to timber, tt 
 other 1^/16 to the leaves and twigs, the bulk of which is dropped ever^ 
 year. 
 
 2) Conifers: (kept 4 years) 
 
 Leaves and twigs: 2?#,of which 3>< or 0*75* B ash. 
 Wood : 75tf, of which 0.2 or Q.15* **** 
 
 Total ash is 0.8^ per 100* 
 
 There are here only i# of ashes as agaiufct 3^ ashes in hardwoodi 
 therefore conifers can do better on sand than hardwoods. 
 
 N. forms 16^ of dry protopias^i and therefore is absolutely 
 essential. No N and no growth. Gather ^reen leaves: 
 Young leaves contain 4>. N. 
 Old leaves are poorer: 2-0. ^A ** (Heavier in minerals). 
 
 It is an old story that one acre needs a minimum of 40-^'0# of 
 per year. Conifers need less than hardwoods, supposedly 35-40$ per yea 
 
 The amount of K and P 2 5 increases in each leaf from budding to 
 dropping of leaf. They are carried to it by solution and am left by 
 evaporation, as are also other minerals, tho most of them decrease. 
 
 In 1000$ beech leaves: May O.Jl gnu K 
 
 Oct. 0.80 gnu and more,K. 
 
 This increased the amount almost double. The same was true of 
 phosphoric acid. 
 
 In 100# leaf ash : Ca and Mg are richest in fall; 
 
 K and PpOt; are richest in spring. 
 May K: 31^ P20J: 21# 
 July 7 
 fall 3 
 
133. 
 
 About 90^ of the ash goes "back to the ground, or Ii;/l6 of the 
 salts in the leaves and twigs. This is a large proportion. In this 
 respect hardwoods are very good for the land. Conifers return about 1%^ 
 
 The salts are given back to the ground regularly every ye?r, wit* 
 the leaf f.-.n. This is no fe^st and famine affnir. 
 
 Much matter fro; fruits go to the ground, also, as with nuts, etc 
 T ey frequently are rich in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and so give 
 the soil high grade material. Crops of fruits are repeated agnin and 
 
 in. Begin, s^y, n,t 40 years. Then to 100 years of ag ; there may be 
 12 crops of fruit (5 year seed periods). This meaBs that loss of litter 
 in the forest is robbing the land. This is an import nnt extravagance. 
 
 The forest protects the soil; it allows uniform chemical decom- 
 pos/ition of rocks and retards the leaching &&& of salts. 
 
 , The forest adds organic material, aids soil life, aids the 
 water-he^, dim?; capacity of the soil, aids the production of compounds, 
 and aids chemic- 1 decomposition. 
 
 The forest may add too much to the soil, as with Ca and clay. 
 7/hen the soil lacks lime, or when the climate is cold, as in the north- 
 west, trees may fail entirely to reproduce. 
 
 . Forest and Soil Biology, 
 
 The most important factors are temperature and moisture. 
 
 ia. Boil temperature changes less in the forest than outside. 
 Forests have cool but even climates. This reduces the number of species 
 and the number of individuals, but keeps more uniform conditions than or 
 agricultural or bare land. 
 
 b. Koist arid cool forest air favors plant and animal life in 
 the upper layer of the soil. It obviates the alternate f rests and hot 
 sun, etc. which are met with on fcare land. They are fewer but more regu- 
 lar. 
 
 . In humid districts the soil is more moist in the forest; 
 in less humid districts the layer is less moist, perhaps because the 
 trees draw heavily on it for water supply. The forest also helps on 
 poorly drained lands, as on the verge of a swamp; it keeps them from 
 getting soggy and enables the soil to produce growth. 
 
 cU The forest has a large body of fauna and flora above and 
 below the ground. It is inhabited by thousands of insects and fungi, etc 
 It thus bears more or less relation to the surrounding fauna and flora. 
 Log tops are breeding grounds for many species. The cleaner a forest is 
 kept the more this condition disappears. 
 
 M) Kind and Condition of Forest in relation to Soil. 
 JL. Individual tree of scattered stand. 
 
 a,. The seedling is of little consequence to the soil. Kinds 
 differ in importance. One seedling is not very essential in its effect. 
 A 2- year oak seedling has more effect on the soil than a 2- year spruce. 
 An oak seedling has already a big root system, and produces a tilling 
 effect, besides the leaves it drops for mulch. 
 
 b.. Young tree J-20 feet high; There is considerable tillage 
 by the roots. Little mulch is supplied. The crown is being shaped during 
 
this period. Species fliffer materially. A 5 f Scotch pine makes a cover, 
 tills the ground and Tnakes mulch. The ground gets a little shade. 
 
 . Larger and older trees continue the sme notion. The indi- 
 vidual tree does not influence the ground outside of its own reach. 
 
 2. Stand of Trees. 
 
 a. Stand of seedlings: varies with the density of the seedlings. 
 \Vhen seedlings are planted 4 f apart they do not take up much room, pro- 
 "b^bly not over Q.l/t of the total area. Seedlings do not help the soil 
 except in a dense stand. In dense stocking, the sfcand shades the soil, 
 the leaves make mulch, the roots till the soil, and there is some slight 
 protection from snow. A dozen seedlings per square foot can produce these 
 effects; then they begin to help the soil. 
 
 b. Stand of young trees 3-3.0 feet tall: have a large amount of 
 growth; much organic stuff ia produced each year. Consider the proportion 
 of leaves and twigs to the total growth in the young and the old tree: 
 does the yo mg stand do more for the land than the old stand? 
 
 The young stand forms a densr cover close to the ground, and shel- 
 ter? it from rnin, wind, sun, snow, and reduces the waste of water. 
 
 The care of the soil by the young stand is good. In this respect 
 compare scotch pine and spruce, and these with locust, ash and elm (not 
 so good protection, "jatig sod grows). At this age there is no sod under the 
 Scotch pine, as may be witnessed at the Saginaw Forestry Farm west of 
 Ann Arbor. 
 
 There is an immense difference between a stand of conifers and of 
 hard-'ooas. A leaf cover keeps the ground warmer, the snow melts faster, 
 and flows faster in the spring; it warms the soil quicker; it freezes in 
 winter. Grasses are encouraged by the warming and moisture before the 
 hardwoods leaf out. This affects soil life, ^onifer^ have a comparatively 
 soil. 
 
 The intolerance of the pine is not so marked at this early age as 
 it is lat< r. Hie same is tnue of oak, which may have thickets as thick 
 as beech, up to this age. Lodg pole and Jack pine also, and tamarack, may 
 have as many as a dozen trees per square yard. 
 
 . Stand of trees 10-30 f high: Growth in volume and other 
 growth is greater than in stand 3~!0 f high. The stand is now approaching 
 its maximum growth. On account of cleaning this stand put- the largest 
 amount of litter on the ground. Decay ordinarily is rapid. Along with 
 organic matter comes an increase in insects and fungi. Suppressed trees 
 are attacked by organic life. (Forest Sanitation: getting rid of these 
 organisms), tfince the crown cover is complete we have good protection 
 
 iu-t sun, wind, etc., but not as good as in the younger stage. At this 
 sta,: we get the most intensive till^o of the soil. At this stage we get 
 the first danger of duff, organic matter which falls on the ground but 
 does not rot, as the needles of the donifers, etc. 
 
135. 
 
 cU Pole sta^e, 30-50* high: At the end of this staje the crowns 
 begin to open up. In intolerant species the stand itself opens up. The 
 crown is even higher than in the preceding stn^e. The maximum growth per 
 acre of the stand has "been reached and pa; sed in this stage. Litter and 
 leaves are not so -bundn.nt. Roots are larger and/ interfere. 
 
 Results of this stage: 
 
 1) Less perfect use of soil. 
 
 2) Greater air movement, therefore more drying out of soil. 
 
 3) Wore rain .riving thru cover, which tends .to harden soil. 
 4} Diffused light mostly at ground. 
 
 5) Temperature effect is more pronounced; i.e., lower and 
 more uniform than outside. 
 
 Maximum growth, mulch and cleaning, root development and fertilit 
 drain on land and loss of isHtsr and redistribution of salts. 
 
 . Tree stage proper, 60-100 years and over. 
 
 The intolerant stand opens up decidedly. 3^~50^ of the la 
 is opened up to the rain, sun and wind. The crown opens up more decidedl 
 Th/e trees are teller; the canopy is higher, and gets the effects that 
 go along with it. Growth in height and volume per acre haa fallen off. 
 Weeds are apt to core i ;, etc. 
 
 ffect on soil is: 
 1) Hardened. 
 
 Dried out. 
 Less mulch 
 Less life (bacteria, fungi) 
 
 5) Less tilth by roots 
 
 6) Only partial use of soil, less demand on soil 
 
 7) On account of decrease in growth, less demand for salts and 
 WR t er . 
 
 hese effects are more pronounced in open stands. Old stands are 
 less able to take care of the lands than younger ones. 
 
 Ji. Special Cases of Forests. 
 
 When forest trees are unable to compete with and suppress fore 
 growth, weeds, grass, bushes, etc., come in. The soil is affected more 
 by the undergrowth than by the trees themselves. 
 
 ;a. Grass and weed cover on good soil, especially in cases of 
 reforestation of farm lands, yellow pine areas, in parks of the Rocky 
 ? ountains. The effect of the grass 6f to form a sod which consists of a 
 dense mass of roots limited to the upper 6 inches. This hardens and drie 
 out the upper layers. 
 
 On good land grass does not exhaust plant foods, but it does draw 
 upon the water. In dry and cold situations this effect may become very 
 gr t. The chief harm is that it checks reproduction. 
 
 ^. &OBS cover. There are two groups: 
 
 1) Ordinary moss. 
 
 2) Sphafflium moss . 
 
 Ordinary moss is not injurious; it prevents hardening of the soil 
 from rain impact and keeps the soil cool. In a cold climate, however, 
 keeping the soil cocl may check the bacteria, thus leading to a duff for 
 mation. 
 
Sphagnum mosses take up moisture easily but they hold it. They 
 do not need mineral &&1AA soil and dislike potash and lime. They do need 
 Iii3.it, however; since they do not need K and Ca they are found on poor 
 Innds. In cold arid humid climates they go into the n'oods and turn the 
 forest into marshes and moss-bogs. Thousands upon thousands of sjjuare 
 miles of such areas may be found, conspicuous among !iieh ar;; the muskeg 
 of Canada, in the spruce. 
 
 . Small bushy, woody plants, etc. 
 
 Such are huckleberry, heather, bramble, etc. Huckleberrie 
 dislike rich soil; they tend to form dense mats on the soil, and form 
 sour humus. Their effect is to: 
 
 1) Hacden sand 
 
 2) Destroy f locculation, thus reducing the pore space, and 
 therefore the a r tion. 
 
 Heather is worse than huckleberry. 
 
 The tota.1 effect, however, is not injurious to the soil, as con- 
 sideration must be given to the protection given against rin, holding 
 snow, and forming some littor. 
 
 <1. Chaparral. 
 
 In California, Washington, etc. See Forest Service Bul- 
 letin 85. 
 
 This condition of chaparral occurs on good soils in arid re- 
 gions. It consists of a variety of species of trees. In San Gabriel 
 co nty they are permanent. They resist frost. In the It. Shasta region 
 they come in on old burns. 
 
 The form of chaparral is much like a forest cover. The growth is 
 like th.nt of forest trees growing near the timber line. Such a cover 
 keeps the soil in good condition. It is a better preventative of erosior 
 than the forest. This cover resists forest growth more in arid regions. 
 They are, intolerant and cannot stand shade. 
 
 4. Cases of very Typical forest in regard Soil. 
 
 This will be a comparison of different forms of forest, to 
 some extent, 
 
 1) Pine forest on sandy land in both north and south. 
 
 a.. Case of young growth 3 f high: Growth rapid, stand dense, 
 good production of mulch, roots get down; effect good, soil well tilled. 
 
 b. Sapling stand: Maximum growth. The stand opens up a 
 
 little; the crown rises. The soil is still helped, but not as much as ir 
 the former stage, so far as regards cleaning and mulch. 
 
 c. Pole stage; About the same as given before (under 2d, 
 page 135). 
 
 d.. Tree stage: Same as before (2e,page 135 ) 
 
 . On poor sites; poor, cold, etc. 
 
 On such lands we have to get such stands as lodgepolfc/ 
 pine, Jack pine, etc. These sites may stagnate. The trees are stunted. 
 Such a stand may be old and yet very small. The crowns are poor, deform- 
 ed; the mulch on the soil is almost lacking; there is poor soil life, 
 much leaching, mosses and lichens, etc., and no growth. Often the cli- 
 mate is cold, preventing small and brush growth. The soil hardens and 
 
137 
 
 leaches. Often there is no ground cover except lichens and scrub huckle- 
 berry. The forest and the soil-cannot help each other until burned over 
 or mntil it dies. Then Jack pine comes and rejuvenates it. 
 
 (quite common in reforestation) 
 
 f. From the nbove conditions, the roots often get diseased and die 
 out, killing the forest. Trees die and thin out; the root disease does 
 not show much nTjo'tr-e the ground. Pine and spruce in Switzerland are good 
 examples. There they improved spruce temporarily by manual tiltfc, with 
 hoes' and mattocks. The condition was probably due to insufficient aer-tic 
 fro 1 -- ;;ricultural lam, . 
 
 K. Cared-for stand-s of pine. These are pure and thrifty, tho 
 fewer in number; the total growth is the s^me as in the dense wild stand, 
 but 'abundant thinnings are made, so there is less mulch from leaves, 
 twirB. bark, etc. Is the forest soil here as well benefited as the uncaret 
 for stand with more mulch? Consider this point; &ayr said not: that wild 
 woods without thinning by man is better in soil; when man thins it out 
 the soil decreas s and no longer improves and holds the land. .Duff may 
 corne. This is an interesting question. 
 
 h. Lack of assistance tfl soil in these pineries has led to the 
 practice of underplanting pine with beech. This adds a new young stand 
 with more and better mulch arid better tillage and helps the soil. 
 
 i. The clear-cutting and planting method is now common. The so 
 is opened up and exposed to sun, wind and rain. The humus burns out. The 
 soil heats, dries, freezes, settles, hardens and leaches. Soil life is 
 decre co a small % of the normal, therefore fertility is seriously 
 reruced. #he soil being a poor sand y light), the changes are all the mor 
 disastrous. The -ind is the rcost import -nt factor. It is better to cut 
 small ar t a time, ttulch blows in too. A larger area has worse con* 
 ditions of soil than a small area when cut cl> an. 
 
 i. Cle-tr-cutting; the young plantation takes 5 years to make 
 a cover, and several years mor to being the soil back to normal. This is 
 a loss of growth to trees themselves. This loss of fertility is felt for 
 years afterwards. The loss from badly 3bfe&3fci ft & leaching sands is never 
 regained, 
 
 2) Spruce Forest. 
 
 a. Young stand 3' and over: is dense; the cover is perfect. 
 The shallow roots till the soil near the surface, the growth is rapid, 
 there is moderate mulch. The mulch of the leaves is inferior, packs 
 closely, and resists dec-iy. 
 
 b. gapling and pole stand: there is a very large growth per 
 acre per year. The debris and mulch are abundant, the root system con- 
 tinues shallow, and uses the top soil; it even works in duff or mule* 
 itself. Ther is good cover, the mulch is faiily abundant, but of inf 
 riot quality; the shallow tillage dries and exhausts the top soil. 
 
 is poor aeration and poor soil life; therefore the soUlsettles, tends to 
 leach, and becomes deficient in salts, especially nitrogen. 
 
 c. Pole or tree ^tagc: spruce continues without material 
 change; it~keeps a very dense cover, preventing all kinds of herbace6us 
 growth and reproduction (grass, etc.). 
 
138. 
 
 d. Generally spruce requires special climatic sites, does not 
 help the soil, r\nd tends to convert the land to a form supporting only 
 spruce (toxins). On large acres of beech land, the introduction of sprue 
 drove the beech out. This was probably due to a change in the physical 
 condition of the soil. Lands sometimes get "tired" of spruce, and then 
 it is difficult to grov other species there. Haraam applies this to all 
 s ecies, but this is a doubtful policy, for beech and certain species 
 will put the soil in a condition good for anything. But large arer?s are 
 abused by certain species; spruce, heather in Europe, and moss s, which 
 deaden the soil, hardens it and kills bacteria. So Raiaam is partially 
 correct. Get the hardwoods back on the land; they will help the soil 
 even if the venture is not financially prof it--;^le for direct crops. Hard 
 wood foresters believe in rotation; this can be done but is difficult. 
 Spruce in southern &erraany gro /s 10.00 per acre, which is $6.00 net ove 
 all expens s; few foresters will give up such an income for beech on a 
 long-time rotation, for beech does not pay as well as that. 
 
 ) Beech Forest. !ixed hardwoods. 
 
 a. Young growth; The roots are dense, deep and intensive; 
 there is much growth per acre, &&&& a large proportion of the growth is 
 of the best mulch; the stand is deciduous, and the sun gets to the groun 
 in the fall and spring; consequently there is always some spring herba- 
 cious vegetation. The winds affect the ground part of the year. There is 
 better ventilation of the woods, toetter mulch nnd better aerntion of soi 
 
 The soil is benefited by excellent tillage, there is much mulch o 
 high quality, good aeration, abundant soil life making for fine soil, an 
 great moisture capacity. 
 
 b. The saia conditions continue to mature timber. The time of 
 maximum growth in b- ech comes late. Mulch material always forms more the 
 half tfean half the growth. The till^e os good, there is good soil life. 
 A large proportion of the mold and top-soil is made of the excrements of 
 animals. 
 
 , On poor land, especially sand with little lime and much 
 mulch, beech sometimes grows well and yet is unable to prevent turf fom 
 ing and growing under the stand, this is rare even in Europe. A longer 
 season and higher temperature obviates this difficulty. 
 
 4) Oak. 
 
 Oak is3imilar in its behaviour *o beech. 
 
 a. Young stand: dense growth, planty of mulch, deep roots, 
 starts late in the spring. 
 
 b. Pole stand: the stand and the crown open up, so vegetation 
 comes in; The soil dries and hardens for lack of protection. 
 
 . From now on the oak is unable to care for the soil. There- 
 fore underplanting is used. Kature normally does the same thing herself, 
 
 d. On poor sands in moderate climates oak can do more for the 
 soil than o"ther hardwoods, because of its deep rooting. 
 
 5) Mixed forest and all-aged forest in regard to soil. 
 
 a. A mixed forest of several species makes various demands on 
 the soil, "soil quality and soil moisture; it differs in the size of the 
 
139. 
 
 trees, in density, and therefore in tillage and in the mulch produced. 
 It stinulates soil life, owing to the variety of mulch. Where the mixture 
 is part deciduous there is the advantage of greater soil formation, ae- 
 ration, and soil moisture, and herbaceous plants come in and assist in 
 working up the humus, therefore the action is beneficial. This is valu- 
 able in spruce woods, as it affords a means of cleaning out the debris. 
 
 TD. In an all-aged stand, even if pure, there is a variety of 
 tree sizes, from brush to timber; therefore there is a variety of cover, 
 shape, protection from wind and rain, a difference in tillage and use of 
 soil, and a difference in mulch production. Unf ourtunately, lean sands 
 are driven to pine; others vfill not cone. Pines do not do well as un- 
 even-aged stands. An extreme case of this is the Jack pine in the north. 
 It will not grow in uneven-a^e<l stands; it will come in on burns, but not 
 under an old stnd. It gives the least amount of help to the forester. 
 This is also true of hard pinos, It is largely a matter of tolerance. 
 
 K) Physiography of Soil. 
 
 i. Depth of soil depends on its origin and manner of building up. 
 
 a,. Y'ater and wind transportation give large areas of uniform 
 deep soils, sands, and silts. 
 
 b,. Water transportation gave and gives smaller areas of such 
 uniform soTls in valleys, etc. 
 
 di. Glacial drift gave large areas of unusually deep soil 
 accumulations, very variable in kind and structure of material, 
 
 ei. Soils in place usually vary in wide limits, even on small 
 areas, in keeping vdth the variation of the rock material itself. 
 
 e_. Shallow soils are more variable than deep soils; this vari- 
 ation is felt more by plants. This is also true of hardpan. 
 
 j2. Topography affects soils. 
 
 ji. Steep grounds tend to wash off bodily. Agriculture ceases 
 at 3/ slopes, cultivated forest at 6o/ . Beyond this point woods are 
 "protected forests* 1 , rocks holding the sand, etc. 
 
 b.. All slopes wash (this 10 axiomatic), and the best soil 
 
 tends to go down to the bottom. 
 
 . Soil on slopes is normally over-drained/ water moves faster 
 and soils Teach more than on the l 
 
 <1. Slope affects soil temperature. Cold and warm sites on east 
 and west slopes. Following is the order of the different exposures in 
 regard to warmth and coldness, beginning with the warmest and ending witli 
 the coldest; SW, S, SS, W, a, NB f NW, H. 
 
 The effect of the direct sun in latitude 48 K. is practically 
 nil in January, when the angle of slope is 55 <> r more, for north slopes. 
 The soil warms up in summer: 
 
 June : Jan. :: 8 : 7 
 
 Sept. : Jan. :: 3 : 1 on the level. 
 
 e,. Slope, by affecting temperature, affects soil evaporation, 
 
140. 
 
 and transpiration from plant , nnd therefore affects the moisture 
 contents and condition of soil. A warmer slope dries more and there- 
 fore grows wanner. This may often reach an aggravated condition. 
 
 jf. Topography affects transportation of soil. It is the 
 gre^ t influence. 
 
 . Topography determines drainage and water distributiona and 
 levels, the abundance of moisture, and therefore the moisture contents. 
 Topography locates swamps, and it may fill them up bodily with soil 
 material, also lakes, and peat bogs, 
 
 3.. Climate ( temperRture.moisture, wind) affects soil. 
 
 ii. Arid soils are rich in salts regardless of temperature. 
 
 To. Humid soils are constantly leached and must rebuild. In 
 deep sands rebuilding is a precarious process: there is little to build 
 from, and the soil must stay poor, often too poor for any vegetation, 
 
 . Low temperature and low (great?) soil moisture aggravate 
 the c?se and give cold sour dead soils. 
 
 cl. Wind affects soils in arid countries and with very poor 
 soils it transports and drifts the soil. In mountains with&i&fc S# expo- 
 sures the wind aids drying, especially in the upper soil layers and 
 therefore it affects most the reproduction of growth. Keating aggravate 
 wind circulation, 
 
 e,. Snow affects soil temperature in winter and spring, pre- 
 v-ints frost and affects percolation and saturation of the soil, and the: 
 fore Mffectn the underground runoff. 
 
 . otony material left by water &&a& protects the soil from 
 erosion, and evaporation, and tends to raise the soil temperature. In 
 Pennsylvania and the Appalachians it tends to warm the soils. 
 
 0) Biotic Factors of Site. 
 
 Here will be discussed the effects of plants and animals. 
 
 ]L. Plants and animals may help, hinder, and sometimes prevent 
 forest growth. 
 
 a,. Plants and animals bearing some relation to the fertility 
 of the soiT have been discussed before, and so here we will discuss 
 only those? -.-hich are not connected with the soil but which affect 
 trees and their development directly, 
 
 la. livery forest tree 100 years old has probably been attacked 
 somewhere by insecis and fuftgi for more than 75 years. 
 
 . ivery forest tree 100 years old has shed leaves, baric, roo 
 and has beeri mutilated by the wind, and therefore portions have been 
 broken away and destroyed, 
 
 ci. .iSvery kind of forest tree is suoject to attacks of many 
 fungi and insects, and most trees are eaten in parts by animals. 
 
 . More than ?00 species of insects attacks the oaks in the 
 United 8t*T*s They destroyed completely the tamarack, and the pine in 
 
141. 
 
 parts of the west over large are*s. The "beetle hinders the black locust 
 all thru the eastern United States. The gypsy moth is now endangering 
 all the spruce all over the United States. The bark disease of the 
 chestnut threatens to annihilate it. The fungus Pisisa stopped the ex- 
 tension of -'uro^ean larch in Germany and France. The bamboo exterminates 
 whole forento in part? of the tropics. The Sphagnum moss has and is now 
 destroying million* of acres of forest. 
 
 f . This matter is wore serious on poor soil and in cold cli- 
 mates because here we have little choice of species. Those same condi- 
 tions' are found in hot countries: moss in the north, chaparral in Cali- 
 fornia, bamboo and cnnes in the tropics. 
 
 g. En general the forest is not driven out permanently by 
 other biotic factors. The forest is itself a tremendous biotic factor. 
 But it may be temporarily driven o.it, except in the cases of Sphagnum 
 and chaparral, which are on or less permanent. The extent of the effect 
 is therefore not emtim-vtaole, in general. Buffalo and other game animals 
 furnishc food, multiplied and became potent biotic factor :, together 
 with grazing animals, 'as they prob-bly checked forest growth and encour- 
 aged grasses. The fringe forest was restricted. 
 
 Dually the effect is the loss of one or tv;o species and a tem- 
 porary change in composition. 
 
 Biotic factor- are universally and always on hand; they every- 
 where tend to interfere Kith growth, with development in size and form, 
 and with reproduction. They are as import-nt to the woods as soil. 
 
 2. Fungi and larger plants (herbaceous). 
 
 >?/ fungi and bacteria actually help trees; most of them injure 
 trees. /-11 wood-destroying fungi are a necessary scavenger feature in th< 
 economy of the forest. It is necessary for Nature to employ such agents. 
 
 ^. Insects and larvae arc generally injurious, and next to man 
 .T. the great enemy of the forest. They are, however, useful as side 
 factor^ in regard to cross-f ertilization, and they are an especially tre 
 mendous factor in fighting each other. They may be adapted, therefore, ai 
 biotic factors in combating injurious insects. 
 
 4. Rodents and browsing animals are generally injurious, but of- 
 ten are~useful bictic factors. Beechnuts and other seeds are frequently 
 planted by these animals, &&&&& including squirrels. Larger animals 
 act as a check on insect ravages. 
 
 . Man is an important regulator and the worst destroyer of the 
 forent. He has removed the forest over enormous areas, he has destroyed 
 it by fire, he has used its wood, and introduced new species. 
 
 Pf Classify, Judge, and Use the Site. 
 
 A good reference is Hilgard, page 48? and following. Copy the 
 t-'ble from page 497 in that book. 
 
 1.. Usually we classify sites in five classes. Ordinarily three 
 claf. ses"""are sufficient. 
 
 a. The classif ication of site by volume of useful material is 
 scientific~and probably will be the final form everywhere. It is dif 
 cult to apply in the wild- oods because stands growing under reasonably 
 
142. 
 
 average conditions are (rt/X) uncommon. Conditions are better in Europe. 
 Different nations hove different methods, but they all agree on site 
 if icption. 
 
 b. The classification of site by size of the individual tree 
 (stem analysis) is easier to apply ?.nd simpler for the vdld-v/oods condi- 
 tions. 
 
 . The study of composition, stand, and herbacious flora && 
 and shrubs is helpful. If a species will or will nor quit, it indicates 
 sour soil, or some such clew. Local studies are necepg^ry, but may not 
 be satisfactory or convincing, especially if curried on too large a sca3> 
 or not exact or definite enough. Such are studies of topography, site, 
 etc., which are carried an by some farmers. The presence of Jack pine 
 shows poor land. 
 
 d. The study of the site factors themselves is laborious, and 
 should include an analysis of soils, etc. Of the site classifications in 
 'urope, not I in 1000 was determined by the studjr of the site itself. 
 This is scientific study, arid ia often good for preliminary work, 
 
 je. The study, classification and mapping of sites is always one 
 of the important tasks of the forester in the field. Sites, especially in 
 regard to soil, topography and exposure, vary in wide limits on both 
 small and large aro- . intakes in European >ork occur because they gen- 
 erally do not take these v-v.riaoions into consideration/. 
 
 In the Jnitod States we do not plant && big areas with one species 
 as lias been done in Europe, but we have tended to other mistakes of our 
 own. 
 
 2. Variations in site. The forester and the site. 
 
 a. These variati* as, as mentioned above, results in different 
 growth ant different kinds of timber, volume, quality, size, and rate of 
 growth, which affects the money question. Here was an important case in 
 
 ... : arope raised oak on different classes of lands; it was good on 
 sites I and II, but it was not profitable even on II at 3^. Sites III, IV 
 and V wer>: not profitable. 
 
 b. These variations demand different species and proper choice 
 of specie. 
 
 . These variations demand different treatment for different 
 
 kinds of atfinus, as selection, etc. 
 
 %. Site and the Forester. 
 
 make site: we irrigate, till, manure, give it organic and 
 inorgnnic matter, and even change the topography. 
 
 The forester affects site only thru the forest cover itself. His 
 means are; 
 
 1) A choice of species. Avoid poor trees of poor cover; expos- 
 ed or poor lands, etc. 
 
 2) Keep the cover in the best shpe possible to keep the soil 
 alive --nd ctive, and do not waste the soil moisture. 
 
 3) Avoia even temporary breaks in soil protection unless the 
 climate and soil are amply able to stand it. 
 
Forestry 2b. 143. 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 VIC 3 OF THK 3TANJ3. 
 
 :i. The Tree. 
 
 The tree starts as a sssdling and parses thru several stages, 
 sapling, pole, standard, veteran. There is no special stimulus for heigh 
 hrovrth; there is ^ood diameter growth, the stem is thick at the butt, 
 the tree is windfirm; the final form is typical of the species/. 
 
 ith plenty of food the volume growth i fast and is kept up to 
 old oe, with no maximum for ordinary ages. The fruiti- are ample and the 
 reproauc tion is vigorous. 
 
 The tree in the open depends on itself, as it gets no help from 
 the outside in the beginning or in its development. 
 
 g. The Stand of Trees. 
 General development: 
 
 a,. At first there is a dense stand of natural reproduction, 
 with several trees per square yard. 
 
 1). A struggle for soil moisture begins early, followed by 
 
 a stru^l'. f-or li;jht ?:nd crown space. 
 
 jc. At a height of 5 feet there are about 10 trees per square 
 ya d, and adl trees suffer from the crowding. tfo tree has the space, the 
 soil or the li>;ut which it wants and can make use of. 
 
 cU 'Jtronc trees outgrow the weaker trees, while both suffer 
 
 and ar retarded in growth nnd development . They cannot spread their 
 
 root. c ; or the-ir tops according to their nature, because they are BO 
 crovde . 
 
 . The results in the sapling age are: a thin weak stand, a 
 contracted sparse crown, less food arid therefore less root growth; a 
 weaker tree, less v;indfirm and. resistant to snow, less vigorous in its 
 ovn anatomy and leas resistant to fungi and even to insects, 
 
 For this stage of the tree Sanitation of the forest is especially 
 beneficial. 
 
 . The feeding is small and insufficient for growth, therefore 
 thero is lesn and slower growth per tree. '%en the limit for the twig 
 is re died it dies, /lien the limit for the tree is reached it dies, from 
 starvation. 
 
 g. Thus a separation takes place in the stand, some trees 
 dropping out and dying: the strong portion of the stand continues, faste; 
 at first and gradually getting slower in its growth with age until it 
 ceases to grow any raore at about 100 years; in 10,1!), or 20 years more 
 they begin to die out again. 
 
 This results in the production of a Principal and a -Secondary 
 stand: the principal stand is composed of healthy arid actively growing 
 
144. 
 
 trees; the secondary stand is formed of trees which began to lose in the 
 race, were dropping behind in ^ro^tli and general progress, and were 
 to be culled oat. 
 
 h. The number of trees per acre in the stand necessarily 
 decreases as the stand grows older. The rate varies with species and witl 
 site. The following tnble gives the number of trees per acre of spruce 
 on the first four sites, and of pine, beech and oak, on site I, at dif- 
 ferent ages, assuming that 5^00 trees per acre were planted of each 
 species: 
 
 
 
 
 Spruce 
 
 
 
 
 Pine 
 
 Beech 
 
 Oak 
 
 Age 
 
 
 Site Ii 
 
 I Site 11 
 
 Site 111 
 
 Site IV 
 
 
 Site I 
 
 3ite 1 
 
 Site I 
 
 1 
 20 
 40 
 60 
 80 
 100 
 200 
 
 
 5000 
 2500 
 900 
 450 
 300 
 220 
 
 5000 
 3000 
 1600 
 700 
 
 380 
 260 
 
 5000 
 4000 
 3000 
 1000 
 
 500 
 310 
 
 5000 
 4500 
 
 4000 
 1400 
 600 
 360 
 
 
 5000 
 
 1800 
 620 
 290 
 170 
 136 
 
 5000 
 2400 
 
 900 
 
 400 
 260 
 190 
 
 5000 
 3000 
 680 
 240 
 130 
 88 
 : 45 j 
 
 the elimination on Site I. An average of 2500 trees 
 dropped out in 20 years. More elimination had taken place on 3ite I 
 at 20 years than on Site IV at 40-60 yenrs and above. Conservative 
 thinnin t . effect. 
 
 Poor nites have less growth, even with more room. These ate all 
 
 i figures. 
 
 It will be noticed that the pines dropped out rapidly, because 
 of their intolerance. Site I pine land is nevertheless poor land. 
 
 Die oak site is good land and there is less decimation. 
 
 The besch follows the spruce; it is fully as tolerant, but has 
 a larger crown and demands more room, otc. 
 
 A 100 year oak is only half grown. It requires a 2-century rota- 
 tion, so the above figures for oak are not quite in the same class as Hi 
 the othfl. .;',. Oak at 20 years still has enormous numbers of trees per 
 acre, and the big drop comes at 20-40 years. 
 
 i. A similar decrease in numbers takes place in wild-woods, 
 tho here it is more erratic, slower or faster in different ca.^es. If it 
 is too slow for the good of the stand, the stand is stagnated, usually 
 on poor sites. But lodgepole on a good site may do the sa^d thing. Jack 
 pine, .Norway pine, and spruce also show this effect. 
 
 J_. The forester is interested in the amount of growing space 
 necessary fot the tree at different periods of its life on properly 
 stocked land. One acre contains about 4900 square yards (70 x 70); call 
 it 5000 aq.yda. Then 
 
 >flPQ no. of sq. yds. growing space per tree. 
 
 no. of trees per A 
 
 In the wild-woods the trees are placed more irregularly than in 
 a cared-for stand, and they grow more irregularly. The freeing and rid- 
 dance of suppressed trees takes plAce by fits and $erks. Groups of 
 trees are separated out. They lack balance or adjustment; there is a 
 greater number of trees ftn a young stand, and they clean more thoroly 
 than in the old stand, where there is a smaller number. 
 
Growing space is important. How much room should the different 
 species have nt different ages? A few figures are given for reference: 
 
 1) Pine ) -t 20 yrs. 2 yds.sq. or 6 ft. sq. 
 Beech) Site I : 40 3 9 
 
 Maple 60 4 "12 
 
 80 5 " 15 
 
 100 6 " 18 
 
 120 7 "21 
 
 160 8 * 24 
 
 200 9 " 27 
 
 2) Spruce) 
 
 Balsam) 2 5$ less than above. 
 
 3) Oak: 25;" more than above, especially after 60 years. 
 
 These figures should be helpful to give some idea. They ^ are 
 er.sy to remember in sequence, if the run of the figures be noticed, 
 
 k. The stand forms a cover on the land. Is it fully or parti- 
 ally stocked and "/hat is its expression? A crown cover is shading. It 
 may be one- storied, two or more storied, or it may form an irregular 
 canopy. This differs for pine and spruce. The spruce has a better and 
 more perfect cro^Ti cover than pine. 
 
 The -crown cover must be estimated; it can not be measured. A 
 convenient standard of estimate should be used. 
 
 I. Best way: In order to arrive at definite measurements we 
 commonly employ the sum of the area of the cross- sections of trees. 
 Caliper the* tress and get their areas (in cross-section). Assume such 
 a figure as 200 ft.; perhaps a good fully stocked stand should have 220 
 ffet." This gives us a means of comparison: Europeans divide this by 
 the n.rea of an acre, 43000 feet, say. Then: 
 
 Sft. - -3L - , 2.15^, ratio of sum of areas and land. 
 43000 22p 
 
 This ratio ordinarily ought to vary between 0.15$ and 0.50$, as 
 trees grow larger in area as they grow older. 
 
 Another European method is the use of the distance factor. This 
 is a different point of view. As before, calipering gives the average 
 CL i n .m 6 1 G r s t 
 
 185 trees per A at 20" ave. diam. gives 1.6 ft. 
 
 
 SQ.QQ.S no. of sq.yds. per tree, gives distance between them; ab- 
 out 25 sq. yds. or 5 yds.sq. Call this "e" a 15 ft. 
 
 , AS.,., m o.9ft. or over, which is the distance factor. 
 d i am . 1 o 
 
 The following table shows how this works: 
 Beech (an actual case): 
 
 Age in yrs. 
 Ave, cross-sec . 
 pj stance factor. 
 
 TJcT": So : 100 : 120 : 
 100 : 120 : 140 : 160 : sq.ft. 
 17.5 16 : 14. 14--declines. 
 
 If a stand at 80 years had a distance factor of 23, it was under 
 stocked, as may readily be perceived from this table. Thus the distance 
 factor gives a clue as to the condition of the stand. 
 
146. 
 
 m. The behaviour of the tree in the stand is partly good and 
 partly badT Trees help each other: 
 
 1) They protect the site for each other. 
 
 2) They protect each other from the wind, snow and frost. 
 
 I) Treee force each other to take on betexf form, a/ cleaner 
 bole and higher ounlity. The tree itself cares nothing about the last 
 point; the first two only are important to the tree itself. Here the 
 forest is * grert factor of site; they help each other, and afford 
 mutual protect if- . 
 
 Trees hurt "each other: 
 
 1) Competition for soil, moisture and light. 
 
 2} Retard, each other's growth, fruiting or reproduction, and 
 in very dense stands 'whey fti&l&Ik diminish each other's vigor and safety. 
 
 3} Smaller individual ^rov/th a longer time elapses before 
 they are valuable to nrm. 
 
 n. The edge of the stand presents important peculiarities, yet 
 they hr.ve never "been dealt with extenoively. Mayr was the first to treat 
 of thin point. It has "been stmdied by practioners but not much by 
 writers. It forms a line of contact of dissimilar elements. 
 
 Two trees close together force the development of one* sided 
 crowns. This is of universal occurrence* 
 
 The 0ame if true of the spreading tree in the forest. It affects 
 others unpleasantly and injuriously. 
 
 The edtfe of an opening in the woods: develops poorly cleaned 
 timber; it ifTa border where the trees differ from those within, with al. 
 species. They are lirnby all the way down, are one-sided, and therefore 
 there sre no sstrc-i/->it Voles, But the border is valuable and necessary to 
 the stand. You^ trees on the edge have to grow outward to get a fighting 
 chance, as for intBC, the fight between oak and Scotch pine, or 
 
 tween birch and spruce or whit pine, they are whipped, crowded, and 
 dief igur 
 
 Such edges are more injurious with mixed stands on opposite sides 
 less injurious vdth pure stands on opposite sides. Hardwoods are more 
 
 -ressive than conifers, especially beech. The condition along the 
 r'dge are aggravated with respect to the north and south aides. They are 
 worse on the north or shady side than on the sunny or south side; the 
 fight is e?sier on the south side. 
 
 In general the edge of a group, line or point of contact of lar- 
 i*r or Dissimilar elements or stiff results in a difference in develop- 
 
 it, injures growth, fora, and quality, just as with small groups. 
 is less growth per acre, more deformed and less perfectly cleaned timber 
 This is important, and is well appreciate- by European practitiensrs. 
 They often cut young balsam clear off of an area to avoid such trouble. 
 
 Fire lines and compartment lines also present the above difficul- 
 ties, as does the strip system forest. Choose the least of several evils 
 According to whether you want the timber or the reproduction, etc. 
 
 The edge in the foreat is one of the important silvicultural 
 phases with which the forester must deal. 
 
147. 
 
 o,. Growth In the ft&Oarcu-for U-tand. Schwappach's figures \vill 
 be used irf~the tholes given here. He worked them up for spruce, pine, 
 beech and for oak, in separate book^s. A few have been selected "by fcr. 
 Roth for t'iis topic. 
 
 Volume growth of stand. This table gives the average volume of 
 cordwood on Site I, on fi fully stocked acre; the figures are based on 
 nctual measurements taken every 5 years & under the direction of the 
 German Experimental Stations. 
 
 L'pruce . Vo 1 . gr o v; tj I c d wd . Site I. 
 
 : : Av e . t r e e in at a n d 
 
 
 : Sum of 
 
 Currtmj 
 
 \ gt*wtli 
 
 : 
 
 trees: Ht.:Iiiam.: Vol. 
 A^e : P er A, : f t . : DBH . : cu . f t . 
 
 Vol. of 
 main otand, 
 
 : thinning 
 : cu.ft 
 
 1 
 
 cu.ft . 
 
 rV 
 
 1 
 
 Ave. 
 
 growth 
 
 a$: 2600 : 22 : 3.0 : 0.25 
 40: 900 : 55 : o.O : 6.3 
 60: 450 : 33 : 9-5 :21.0 
 320 :100 ;12.8 ;3?.0 
 100: 220 :112 :15.6 :46.0 
 120: 180 ;122 :1?.J :8?-0 
 &6ou6b6oo6uk6ooou^uu^u& 
 
 650 
 5700 : 
 9600 
 12000 
 14000 
 16000 
 T>er acre . 
 
 : 
 : 500 
 :2000 
 :3oOO 
 ;5000 
 :6lOO 
 
 
 200 
 : 310 
 220 
 130 
 150 
 125 
 
 14.0 
 4.6 
 
 1-9 
 1.2 
 
 0.8 
 0.6 
 
 22 
 
 155 
 193 
 195 
 190 
 
 184 
 
 The "main stand* is the Principal stand; the secondary stand is 
 the thinnings, 
 
 Notice the current growth: at 120 years it grew 1/3 aa much as at 
 40 yea:-3. At 60 years it grows leoi> than 2>* in volu/oe; this is a small 
 interest on the capital after 60 years. 
 
 It ia greatest at 80 years, 
 
 The averagg growth le tot A 
 
 which is later than the cur ---- S-.rent growth. 
 
 The next table ia for spruce on Sites 1,11,111,17,7, trees above 
 #2 es in diameter: main stand plus thinnings;in hundred cu.ft.: 
 
 Total growth per acre . 
 
 :Age 
 
 Site 1 
 
 Site II; 
 
 Site III 
 
 Site IV 
 
 Site V ; 
 
 : 20 
 : 40 
 : 60 
 
 :100 
 :120 
 
 6.5 
 62.0 
 116,0 
 156.0 
 190.0 
 215.0 
 
 0.8 
 3 3 ' 
 
 So. 
 
 120. 
 150. 
 
 173- - 
 
 0. 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 86 
 113 
 
 140 
 
 0. 
 
 6.5 
 29 
 
 56 
 
 83 
 
 !, 9i 
 
 : 
 1.8 : 
 14 : 
 34 : 
 
 53 
 no more : 
 
 ^e 1: at 60 years there were nearly cords per acre. This is 
 about the maximum, 
 
 Site II should have f the timber on Site I, ) 
 
 Site III should have J the timber on Site II.) Stock figures. 
 
 (To next page) 
 
148. 
 
 Current, 
 
 Pino, beech, oak, 
 
 . ite I. 
 
 (in cu.ft, } 
 
 Ajze i 
 
 ; Pine 
 
 Beech 
 
 Oak ; 
 
 20 
 
 4-0 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 120 
 140 
 
 
 160 
 
 uo 
 
 100 
 
 64 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 170 
 180 
 
 165 
 1*5 
 125 
 
 100 _.._, 
 
 
 200 
 180 
 1JO 
 116 
 
 s 
 
 I Jffi. 
 
 current growth coiaee to o ouudiuin vea.^ Qfir^ff in the life of 
 the stand; **t 40 yoars with pi#e and spruce; Soyewra with beech; at 12( 
 
 (and oak) 
 
 Total Growth 
 
 in hundred cu.ft. 
 
 A 
 
 Pi lie 
 
 ; Beech 
 
 ; Oak 
 
 20 
 ~ 40 
 60 
 Lo 
 100 
 120 
 
 16 
 
 67 
 91 
 109 
 125 
 
 19 
 
 55 
 
 91 
 
 121 
 
 146 
 
 * 
 
 
 : 27 
 
 1 112 
 
 : 1^2 
 
 14 
 
 J3S 
 
 168 
 
 ; 14 
 
 /c a cert an age the maximum drops off and the timber gets ol< 
 Beech starts slowly but passes pine between 60-1QO years. Hie 
 > true of oak at 120*140 years, Then it reaches its maximum. 
 
 Growth 
 
 Value per cu.ft. in cente* 
 German prices lor 3ite 1, 
 
 u 
 
 ; Pine 
 
 Spruce ; 
 
 , Begch 
 
 : Oak : 
 
 20 
 
 * 
 
 6j/ 
 
 
 
 - * 
 
 40 
 
 6ff 
 
 9 
 
 ^0^ 
 
 : 9-8/sr 
 
 60 
 
 n 
 
 10 
 
 5*o 
 
 : 12 : 
 
 * 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 5o 
 
 JwJ 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 13 TAX 
 
 5*2 
 
 : 16 : 
 
 120 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 5-2 
 
 : 19 : 
 
 140 
 
 11 
 
 no r more 
 
 ^'1 
 
 f 21 . 5 
 
 max* 
 
 Pine adds heartwood as it gets older; it is different from sprue* 
 .3 is not regarded in the United states. 
 
 Beech is used for firewood i;: northern Geroieny, In this respect 
 they are behind Michigan today in the proper Utilisation of beech tirabe] 
 The figures show it, too. 
 
 Oak varies in different parts of Germany, It is often rejected ir 
 or of beech, which wg, would be glad to use. It ia raised for big tim* 
 ber (200 years for 25X ave.) in the Khine country and .France. Its chief 
 is vender. 
 
 flhen a man pays $10 per K feet he pays 6.5 per cu,ft of logs, 
 counting 10 logs per ?.:, Tiiis ^iYe.s us & "basis? of comparison between the* 
 -uropean figures and our figures. 
 
149. 
 
 j>. Growth in Uncared-for Land: The trees all proceed similarly 
 at the otart; they must fight, success is variable, in spots and clumps 
 where the stronger trees go ahead. At a certain age the acre is stocked 
 as fully a it can be stocked. A portion of the stand is being annihila- 
 ted during -h, to be thinned out. If the stand is not cared for, will 
 this ^annihilation go on side by siue v;ith growth? At what time would 
 you have the maximum amount of timber QJI the acre . with spruce, Scotch 
 pine, etc.? Annihilation finnlly takes the whole stand at the end, 
 
 have renched the no at interesting part of ."orestry, the devel- 
 opment of stands of timber or 71 10 b.tuajr ojf the L_ife. of the Forest .Notice 
 the client fc- tare- of this development and study them more in detail. 
 
 aoid. >, there eoneo a ii/ae when the maximum stand is reach- 
 ed, and it "/ill deteriorr- te afterwards. At isihat age is this? 
 
 ".h Lk-otch pine in I'icli. ihi:.? age is reached at 60 yearo, if un- 
 carea for. Thinning heirs, but not indefinitely; the limit is again 
 reached at - years* You must either thin the stand or have it die on 
 your h^.ndij. The limit cones later on in tolerant trecc. 
 
 3o there are t/ ro factors v:ith v-hich the forester must deal: 
 In early life: competition. kills trees. 
 In maturity: tr ie naturally. 
 
 An .-.-ven- \jed stand: the trees come up together. They generally axe 
 not all one size, "out develop size da sea. The difference is greater 
 in wild-'voodo. :;ven in cared-for woodu in Germany, in a 100 year st-uid 
 of spruce '.-n ..-itc I: 
 
 Hei^it varied from 100 * down to 70 f 
 Volume " n 100 cu. ft .down to 30 cu.ft. 
 
 This siloes a rac>ier astonishing variation between a small and a 
 tree in the same stand. 
 
 In lOO^year pine hei^it varied from 90 to 00 ft. 
 In 90-60 year beech height varieu from 80-60 ft. 
 Generally the difference is greater in tolerant trees than in 
 intolernnt treey. Vhe hei^lit difference here v/as less tlian in spruce, 
 
 . The development of a atand of timber is never uniform on a 
 large area; it varies from acre to acre, according to site, accident, ete. 
 Disturbance may be by single trees, by clumps, or by tracts* A large 
 stand rarely has the s^ma requirements in different parts, ^v'ind, frost, 
 ice, etc., are normal conditions; insects, hail, etc., all affects the 
 tree. 
 
 One hundred acres of 60 year spruce densely planted is sensitive, 
 and as soon as it is broken nny here trouble comeo. The jlluropean forester 
 uses .-.mail compartments, Find develops strong borders with good crowns. 
 It is ^ood Silvicultural practice to havu as small patches as possible. 
 The German forester today is going dpwi. not up, in the size of his pat- 
 ches, of tisn even to 20 acre lot;, in b4g forewts. Small lots are easier 
 to handle. If it is injured, it is easy to cut it clean and reforest, 
 easier than if it was on a large lot. This method gives a lot of inde- 
 pendent pieces, which may be separated by a lane wide enough to separate 
 the cro'wns, :ay about a chain (66 feet). 
 
 (Insert : Dorr Skeelo and Lodgepole pine). 
 
 Shelterwood J-plat forests near the Black Forest. 
 
 Nature does the s^ine tiling, but is wasteful. 
 
ijo. 
 
 (Different Forms of Forests and their jJevelopnieat) 
 j^. All-a^ed or '.'any-aged Stands. 
 We will consider the puae forest. 
 
 &. For this discussion we will assume reproduction by seed pri- 
 marily; we will not incln.de 'jproats, tho they occur sometimes. There are 
 three conditions which arise: Seedlings: 
 
 1) Reproduction under the mother tree. The young stuff here 
 l^cks li^ht, suffers from severe root coiapctition, is deprived of rain 
 that is shed fron the treo, i-.ay bs stunted for years, may barely live 
 v/hen finally freo, nnd ra^y : : ;Q on rus n. runt or may recover and grow to be 
 *?. tree. ;fo3te.rn ajjruce and southern pine are good examples. Austin Cary 
 sent ' r. Kotli a stem which -ns l jQ years old and less than 3 inches in 
 diameter; what v;o,'ld. each a tree o.o if released fron binding conditions? 
 
 Id it yet form f^ir tree' Jhere is always a severe struggle for the 
 young trees; their t :rov;t}i is slow and more or lean deformed; it rarely 
 ever forraa ,;oorl ti: V< / uu d before it is 2 { ; years old even with 
 toler- nt specie. . 
 
 2) Reproduction in gaps between larger trees. The seed from 
 the crown dro;r> into ihc "trough". 'Jhe young trees has a hard struggle, 
 with especially cr^.ve rciojt competition . It receives 
 
 some li ; ht ?nd rain thru the gap; it pushes toward 
 the 1 i,-;-}-- 1, fight? the edge conditions offered 'by 
 the mother conditions, and in general is obliged 
 to bend, nd becor;;.;s distorted or one-sided. 
 
 3) Ths young stuff comes up in larger jgaps between the tree 
 It cornrno.-ly forms a dense tiiicket, is of small form; they fight among 
 thenoelv'?s nd tho big atuff at the edge. In this group a few go ahead 
 and they Mnke fine trees; those at the edge always suffer from competi- 
 tion v/ith olx trees n.nd young stuff. 
 
 4) Occasionally only a few trees start thus, grow up as in 
 the or>en and develop into large apreaders, big-crwon stuff. They are 
 under r. Lrnost ideal conditions of space and protection. Mature keeps up 
 her influence and out of many trials a few succeed. 
 
 It ia the business of the forester to help the trees. If he has 
 more trees than is desirable lie has the axe. But is it easy for him like- 
 vise to affect reproduction iri the manv~a^ed stand in a large forest? 
 The selection system le?ua to this condition. In general it is not easy 
 to rraterially inf33uence reproduction in the many-ar-ied stands. 
 
 b.. Vl/hen these trees become saplings they are all right if in 
 groups where they get normal competition, whenever they border an open- 
 
 they tend to spread one-sidedly; they normally clean one-sidedly, ter 
 to produce a bent stand, and even a crooked stand in many species, even 
 with sood trees. Often the sapling remains stunted, defective, and hope- 
 lenp. Under good conditions for growth, the growth is of the best, be- 
 vauae the site conditions aro maintained. 
 
 jc. The pole and tree stage. The timber is good; the runts are 
 dea- or have been culled out. The fow tree? which did start right grow 
 well because of gooci protection a&ainst wind, etc, and protection of site 
 Usually the timber in all-aged stan'ds is especially sound, it has gre-t 
 vigor and is able to live to s gro-^t age, but always a goodly per cent 
 are spreaded, limby and while hardy is deformed timber. Good illustra- 
 tions of these conditions are to be found in the wild-*woods. 
 
cl. The statements in the previous paragraph (cj apply to tolerant 
 nnd mixed hardwood species. In pine and oak of h& similar tolorancy a 
 number of trees usually give up, the ground does not fill with reproduc- 
 tion, many weeds and brush corne in, ?nd the soil becomes hardened. 
 
 Stands start in the open and come up in even-aged thickets, -rid 
 go down together, giving rise to fungi. 
 
 . Mixed Stands. 
 
 a,. Kixed even-aged stands. 
 
 Different kinds start and grow differently even in the same 
 acre. There is a difference in the rate and persistence of growth in the 
 crown. One species mny ;;r>in iri height, top development and spread, and 
 modifies in denning. This tends to an unequal arid therefore unsymmetri- 
 c-^l deve.l ,t; it produces poor, crooked, bent timber, often a result 
 of suppression. Under suitable conditions the best of timber results, 
 because the rite is maintained by the mixed stand: this produces rapid 
 growth, health *>.nd longevity, at the beat. Help is not easily given to 
 a stand of this kind, because each species has its own needs, differ/ing 
 from the other species. 
 
 ID. I'ixed many-aged stands . 
 
 Here may be applied all the statements under (&), emphasize* 
 ?rywhere the edge conditions develop: cleaning, reproduction and growtl 
 of seedling, sapling -^nd pole arc as described before but subject to a 
 rcore severs struggle because to unequal Bize is added, unequal kind. They 
 mast nl?io fi,-.:-.t grass !=md weeds. 
 
 In a mixed stand the seed years come often, with the different 
 species, therefore there are many starts and trials; some succeed. A large 
 proportion of the stuff becomes mutilated and disfigured by the tremen- 
 dous struggle bet 1 '/ en the different ages and ki/ida. The volume of good 
 merchant- tie materials suffers materially. 
 
 . Vila-woods Stands. Salient features. 
 
 -a. There has been much misconception in regard to \vild-woocLs 
 from the silvacultural standpoint. It has been usually assumed: 
 
 1) That they are all-aged. 
 
 2) That they are mixed. 
 
 3J That they are mixed singly or in small groups. 
 
 4) That reproduction is under other trees. 
 
 5) That this form of forest is rigidly Adhered to. 
 Most of this is only partly true. 
 
 b. Reproduction is mainly from seed, and yet there is much 
 sprouting, i any species sprout: basswood, redwood, poplar, willow, etc. 
 
 Layering is important in some places. Aspen and pure white birch 
 in the Thumb of Michigan propagate by layering. There are almost no trees 
 but many young stands. 7liite cedar also layered to a surprising extent. 
 "any of the young growths there could be traced to an origin by layering, 
 In the Cascades the spruce, balsam and hemlock ofton produce dense 
 clumps by layering, especially in Alpine woods. 
 
 Reproduction in the form of sprout /oods takes place over a large 
 aren,, especially on wind-fall areas. They often folio a seed forest. 
 
 . .Vila-woods forests are well defined in older and younger 
 timber. It is rare that uniform age and composition occur. They are 
 
poorly defined along the edge. Often they give an impression of greater 
 uniformity th^n really exists, tho clumps may be uniform. 
 
 Perfect single tree mixture in regard to age or kind is exceptio 
 al, as are also mixtures of pure groups. 
 
 (1, Large rren.B of hnrdv/oods are many aged in the proper sense 
 of the orcf; even so it is common for stands to separate into older and 
 younger timber. ;.'ven-a^ed stands occupy a very large portion of the are 
 in the went, especially short-lived species, as the aspen, tamarack ^nd 
 allies; also on fvpecir.l r^itos: an lor^epole and Jack pines, on mountain 
 sides and o-n(. . 
 
 also ooour in the wild- woods quite corrii-ionly, stands which 
 called "All old stands" or all-old timber. They are not even-aged stand 
 but ore composed. entirely of c^ld stuff, '-uch occur in western yellow pi 
 suf. ' -nG 9 roohvo >(,', rert fir, the southern pinery, I-Jorway and white pin 
 eastern spruce, hemlock, arid some harav/oocis. 
 
 o all old ' in the end of r.ny stand under ordinary condi- 
 tions, if no injury of calamity happens 10 the faresc. *o the young man 
 they m ;/ Appear even-a^ed, "but they may vary from l^'O to 3^0 years in 
 
 . ".-inally decay aots./in, ana they break up rapidly v/h?n they do 
 br.. . t of the lumberman's logging timber is this all-old timber, 
 
 The"reserve tree" form also occurs in the west. Here the bilk of 
 the st'-.nd en dropped, leaving a few old ones standing. Then seed 
 blown in, fta elr:, a.v^en, etc., nnd soon produce a cecondary stand, with 
 one or two old pines towering over it. .This is coirjuon in Michigan. 
 
 '-he two-story forest is *lso a natural form of wild-woods. This 
 form is often found in pine and hardwoods in the Great Lakes states, an 
 with pin -ma hemlock in .New York. This form may be produced in two way 
 1) All-old, simply differing in height: white pin? *nd hardwo 
 Natural/ under -pi anting, r.s vritli beech under oak. 
 
 j3. Pure and f/ixed 
 
 1) Hardwoods arc generally mixed; they are pure only on 
 special nit -a, often as temporary stands. Aspen ."rid. vfoite birch form 
 such t^r; y stands. Scrub oak is permanent. In sou them swamps 10-20 
 -or' r, of pure black gum are often found as a permanent form. 
 
 2} Coniferous forest are largely pure. Usually they are 
 of bettnr than 7K'' of one species. Over ^"0> of our coniferous 
 
 ., poosibly 80/ : '. X}iio aliov/s indisputably that in the 
 Jnitdd states wild-woods are not nixed. 
 
 . Tlie reproduction of \7ild-\voods is largely fron seed. A lar, 
 amount of reproduction takes place from ttie sides, blown in on bare larii 
 Such is the c-iae vrltli lod^epolo ??.nd Jack pine.?. Reproduction may also 
 occur fron artificial seeding, from birds, and from some sprouting. 
 
 g; . \Vild- voodn keep the land pretty well covered and over larg< 
 areas. They are continuous in arer. and continuous in time, large areas < 
 bare lane are duo to failures of forests; they are more common in coni- 
 ferous forests and especially on bad sites. , uch i-.ay be illustrated by 
 Ontario and its white pine, which has been burner over repeatedly. The 
 Rocky !'ount<-,ino ;;PVO such situations r,lso r and the Fringe forest is an- 
 other ex-nple. 
 
 Growth in the wild-woods is continuous and large. If the soil is 
 
153- 
 
 good, the trees are healtfry, there is good active chlorophyll producing 
 food| anci then later the decay is tremendous. Hardwoods in southern J ic 
 make* wood at the rote of 1 cord per yenr, and then later decay sets && 
 at the same rate. How much must the Forester leave on the land to keep 
 the conditions for fertility? Should he leave just the leaves and bran 
 che s, or more? 
 
 l-;ven-aged and all-a-cd stands in wild-woods go out rapidly when 
 decline sets in. Lumbermen have furnished valuable Information in this 
 spect. In wild-woods of n certain rotation it sometimes happens that t 
 ordinary lif of the species is longer than that usually set by men, an 
 it goes farther than the net volume of the stand reached by growth. Thi 
 may often be doable or even thrice as much. 
 
 h. Wild- woods vary from place to place and from time to time. 
 There is often great variety to be met -1th, sometimes so bewildering t 
 we lose si^it of certain forms which, after all, make up the body of th 
 forest. The natural forest makes a dense cover, introduces insects arid 
 other agencies to break it up, and then patches of reproduction come ir 
 Thus Mature varies her program almost indefinitely, with both conifers 
 and hardwoods. 
 
 B. 37 G r_ ; ASP RfiSULTiyq FORKS POKBSY. 
 
 This subject may also be called "Silviculture! Systems", which J 
 nicer and better; it may also be called "Silvicultural methods" or Me1 
 s of Treatment? They have sometirr.es been called "Systems" or f'ethods 
 Management", which is not accurate. 
 
 1. In silviculture we take over from the forests of Kature cert? 
 forms, ~nd we modify these forms. In Agriculture, in a similar way, the 
 took over plants of Nature, rearranged, pnd spoiled them. 
 
 Lodgepole pine is a good example of a form of forest: it is pur< 
 and even-aged; this is very apparent here, and also with tamarack. In 1 
 wild-woods it is not so striking; man^ forms are here present. 
 
 Form of forest: forest which during a certain definite part of I 
 lifetime lias a definite form; example: ^.odgepole pine. 
 
 a. Forms recognized in wild-woods and adopted in Silviculture: 
 These may be considered under three heaas: 
 
 aged, etc. 
 
 Composition: pure or mixed 
 
 Origin: seed or sprout 
 
 Age: development: ^ven-aged, two-aged or storied, many- 
 
 In detail: 
 
 &. 1) Pure and mixed forms* are always distinguished sharply 
 
 from beginning to end. 
 
 2) Seed and sprout forests tend to reoenble each other. A 
 20- year old coppice does not differ from seed forest at 20 yards away; 
 in early life there is a sh*.rp distinction at close range, which is no' 
 so evident in later ages. 
 
 3) Jven-aged stand, or form at 40 years, either of conifer; 
 or hardwoods, has just the sarue appearance, character and development 
 
154. 
 
 regardless of origin, whether from seed blown in, planted, or shelter- 
 --ood. The resemblance follows from the 20-3$ year on, there being then 
 no points of difference, either advantageous or disadvantageous. 
 
 4) Two-storied form starts as even-aged forest, later 
 underplanted, either naturally or nrtif icially . When its real character" 
 develops, this form is very distinct, not at all like the even-aged stan 
 The reserve tree form is merely an extreme form of the two-storied fores 
 in v:hich the upper story is thinned to the point where there is merely a 
 lot of ecattcrin, d treen. They are' often left for seed trees and are 
 harvested vdth the next generntion. 
 
 5) All-??.e or many-aged form is always distinct; it is the 
 only form that is continuous in its physiography and development. 
 
 The all- old form is conspicuous in wild- woods, and forms a large 
 -r-r cent of the merchantable timber. It hn.s not been adopted in Silvi- 
 culture, because it requires too long a rotation. 
 
 b.ln later ye?irs fiil vi cultural authors classified forms. Gayei 
 i a not? ; le example. 
 
 Of the older authors, Lorey did not classify f orms; he classified 
 simply the methods used to get these forms of forests. 
 
 1) Gayer ! s Classification: 
 
 A) Timber Forest (the Seed Forest of the Forest oervice) 
 X. Fundamental Forms 
 
 a* TT Q )"\ ^j T t li 1 1 T f% T^T*"i ct 
 j . ' v \* i A *" . \ ^ w W. A W Ju I* i r3 
 
 1,. Clear cut 
 j|. 31ielter-wood 
 3.. Strip syste./i 
 
 b) Uneven-aged forms 
 
 4. Selection form 
 
 ^. Irregular forms (Gayer wis indefinite; on a 
 
 100 acre lot tltere may be many small stands differing radically from the 
 main st^m- ; 9 "higgledy-jpiggledy" affair). 3ee Graves, later. 
 
 . Selection-shelterwood combination, ao balsam- 
 spruce combination. The ehelterwood is extended over many seed years, an 
 le^ds to a peculiar form of forest in its physiography. It looks like a 
 selection forest on a short rotation, at an early age. At a late age it 
 look?-- even-agou, >vith an immense difference in the age of the timber and 
 :Q ol^. . Gayer bases his classification of a -^e . 
 
 11. Auxiliary Forms. 
 
 7. Reserve tree forms 
 jo. Two-story forms 
 
 B) 2 Coppice form 
 
 c ) 10 Standard coppice. 
 
 Judging from the above classification, Gayer ru^it have made thre 
 is under age: even, uneven, nna many-aged. 
 
 2) $rfiwt$sj Classification (Principles of Handling v/oodlanus 
 page 31) This a motiAf ica r 
 
 A) High Forest FOJCBL^S*^^^ Timber forest) 
 
 ^. . ,lar or even-aged form 
 3,. Irregular form 
 
2) Graves* Classification (Principles of Handling Woodlands, 
 e 31). This is a Modification of Gayer. 
 
 A) High Forest Form ( 3eed or Timber forest) 
 _!. '..'election form 
 j2. iiogular or even- aged form 
 ^. Irregular form 
 4. Two -story form 
 *[. He serve form 
 
 Graaey leaves out the distinction "between fundamental nnd auxilia: 
 
 form. 
 
 > Coppice Forms 
 
 1^. ,-ir coppice (even-aged) 
 ( 2. Irregular coppice (uneven-aged) 
 JL. Standard coppice 
 
 All these forms differ from each other; you cannot have similar 
 forms of forest from absolutely different origins. Kven Gayer confused 
 anc f orrn. A system (or method), leads to a form. 
 
 . These forms of forests, as taken from Kature, have been 
 modified in practice to suit site, species, and the notions of practione 
 These modifications may be: 
 
 1) In composition. As fron pure to mixed forests and betwee: 
 
 2) In area arrangement. Any form of forest can occupy a lar. 
 area or a small aroa, or it may take a whole Compartment, strip, or irre 
 gulpr . -'his area modification led to much Codification in writings 
 and U SB in regard ->o tiie different systems, ?,nd in literature are 
 to he found many different systems and combinations with pure and mixed 
 forests. 
 
 3) The form of forest may be frequently modified in regard 
 to its adherence to a definite form. It may stn.rt one way and may deviat 
 fro form adopted. An even-aged stand way be later underplanted and 
 Tbec0iBea Ifroyi0ied form. A shelterwood form gives an even-aged stand 
 in about 1>" years; it may be extended intentionally, with light cutting, 
 and become a combination of selection and sholterwood forest. All gra- 
 d-tions ara- possible between these. 
 
 In Germany they combine the selection and sheltwrwood forms on th 
 ede of a forest. In France there is a variety in coppice practice; much 
 is clear-cut and even-aged; in some parts of France they cut only part, 
 which produces a two-storied form, or even a selection form. 
 
 >yr classified 72 different Gilvicultur.il systems, each with a 
 name, which had been introduced and practiced for some reason or other; 
 all were successful, and had good standing in literature. 1'ut all of the 
 forrr.s of forest produced may be classed under one or other of the few 
 groups above mentioned; they are merely variations/ or modifications of 
 the few primary forms. 
 
 J2. Systems o Methods. 
 
 a. .Mature produces the principal forms of forest by dinstinct 
 73 of reproduction* rather than by influence or care after the stand is 
 started. 1 
 
 1 By sprout or seed. 
 
 2 Restocks burns or clear areas by seed from neor-by trees 
 
 3 Starts young growth in the open parts of the stand long 
 
156. 
 
 before the old stand dia- , - s in the ehelterv/ood form. The old 
 
 stand m.-r/ remain till the' twc-storied form comes. ?7ith a small part of 
 the old et^nd the reserve form appears. 
 
 4)By the n-me form of seeding in irregular areas and at 
 
 various times, thus producing irregular forms, while in other pl~cee for 
 certain periods it continues to give n even distribution. This produces 
 characteristics of anall-a^ed or many-aged form. 
 
 b. Van has only modified these methods; he has systematized tJa< 
 work, extended nrid perfected artificial ac against natural reproduction, 
 tho he has not welded any radical improvement. Like Mature he depends 
 primarily on the ;r.:Uiod of reproduction which gives tlie particular form < 
 fore t desired. 'Jhe methods of reproduction are therefore so intimately 
 wrapped up with the forms of forest desired thst the classifications of 
 forms hs=! not r if from the methods. Tims the methods of re- 
 
 production took on the dignity and importance of Silvicultural Systems; 
 eo in speaking of ^ys terns v/e mean primarily Reproduction arid not Care. 
 
 These methods may be modified: 
 
 a) In rt to coraposition. 
 
 It) In regard to origin or Manner of starting, aa seed or 
 rout, ^eed v\uy oe classed under three heads; 
 
 1} Seeding or planting in the open; reproduction after 
 
 the stand 
 
 2) Seeding under trees befores the otand goes. 
 
 3) deeding under trouo continuously v?ithout the removal 
 of the stand . 
 
 c) In regard to tlie time employed. Clear cutting may thus b< 
 modified for some cases. Some stands seoci from the aide, o there seed 
 gradually, 10-lb' .' according to tlie seed yenru. Uhe shelterwood syS' 
 
 , with one seed fall, may take kO-k^' yearr> . Tliis may be modified by 
 -tific. iction, A slielterwood. on slope land may have seed years 
 every { ) or 6 yoors, and continue, for ^0 years in all. A selection system 
 seeding ycr-r by year has continuous reproduction. Thun these methods may 
 led R greau ueal, in: 
 Area, 
 Size, 
 
 id the Sli? id position 
 'vhich is taken in liand at any one time. 
 
 le examples will fee given as found in practice: 
 
 A simple case: clear cut form with natural or artificial 
 reproduction on a good sized tract. A vdiole-40 acre plot is cut over at 
 one time. On a small piece may ur,e artificial reproduction, except that 
 
 ny foresters are afraid of small stride; they like large pieces. On 
 small plots there is not enough work to keep gangs of men busy, there is 
 a smrll -mount of r,tock and transportation for each plot; they are claim 
 to be expensive and "puttering*. 
 
 The regulation way nov is to take it by 
 strips in successive periods of ye^rs. 
 
 In intensive tracts as in 
 ii, odd blocks of I? 
 to 10 acres could Vie treat- 
 ed thus. 
 
 Compartments may be formed on a large property, and each compart- 
 
157. 
 
 ment may be 
 taken in strips. 
 
 They may ap- 
 pear even- aged, 
 but in cross- 
 section they 
 will look some- 
 
 l like the 
 following 
 Sketch: 
 
 This is Ac- 
 tually done in Europe. 
 
 Another modification is snail patches of defective timber. Clear- 
 cut ti is actually used vfrien the forester gets 
 rid of this defective timber on tnose plots, and he prac- 
 t i eally re s to c.k 3 . 
 
 If in 4 or ^ years he finds the same disease spreading 
 he way cut along the dotted lines. This cutting will 
 
 really take the form of a atrip. So he has here changed from the patch 
 
 to the atri^ method, but he has not changed to a new method; he has mere. 
 
 modofied 1 neral method in regard to the shape and area and position 
 
 of cut. 
 
 A few definitions may be of convenience here: (U.S.F.S.) 
 
 1) Grcrip method: a method of conservative lumbering in which 
 y;roa-s of youru 1 ; trees which have sprung up in openings caused by logging 
 insect dww , windfall, sncv/break, or other agency, are taken as atart- 
 ing points for the future forest; or if these are insufficient, small 
 openings are purposely made. Reproduction by self -sown seed from the 
 iturt itand at the edges of these groups is secured by careful cuttings 
 ich extend the groups until they join. 
 
 ; Patch method; The clean cutting of small patches to invite 
 reproduction by self-sown seed from the surrounding foreut. 
 
 }) Strip method: That method of conservative lumbering in whic. 
 reproduction is secured on clean-cut strips by self-sown seed from the 
 
 sd joining forect. 
 
 4) Stand method: That method of conservative lumbering IB 
 
 Ich reproduction is secured from self-sown seed by means of successive 
 cuttings made thruout the mature stand, thus leading to the production 
 of a new stand approximately even-aged. These successive cuttings encour 
 
 9 seed production, dreate conditions favorable to the growth of seed- 
 Ung, and gradually remove the remaining crees of the mature stand as 
 tlie youn^: growth develops. 
 
 In the West other modifications are used* Some- 
 times a whole eighty acres may be cut but in an irregular 
 f orm. 
 
 Scattered seed trees method (Graves): Patches may be left 
 with seed trees, say 2 per acre, vould there be too many 
 seed trees to be a clear cutting? Hot with lodgepole pine. 
 With yellow pine 40-50 seed trees are too many for clear 
 cutting: it becomes the shelter-wood system, .^upersisor 
 
 W.N.Miite, on the JUtterrot National forest, uses this scattered seed 
 
 tree method. 
 
3eserve stand method: leave trees which you are sure 
 will stay for a long time. Select unusually good arid haraj 
 trees. This is a different choice from that which obtained 
 in the scattered seed tree method. Here the quality of the 
 trees modifies the system, but does not alter it. 
 
 Groups of seed trees may be left when the clear cutting 
 system with natural reproduction (which is the fundamen- 
 ts ays tew) in employed. This iB simply another modifi- 
 
 tion of tile fundamental system 
 
 Sped tree: a left in blocks is another modification of 
 
 r cutting system with natural reproduction. The 
 difference between a group and a block is the difference 
 in their sixes. A block M is the unit of management trentec 
 in a v.'orkim; vlan", and contains at least two compart- 
 ment- . xere are, therefore, MO re trees in a. clock than 
 in a gro-jy, and the size of the plot is larger. So here the size of the 
 plots 'mo:;i.1'i' fundamental system. 
 
 Thus we see thnt there are many mociif icrxtions of the f uridamental 
 c?epr cutting Syste i either natural or artificial reproduction. It 
 is t } ir , 88 in all cases, out is Applied differently in details. 
 Thewe modification? ->re based on: 
 
 1) .distribution of seed trees 
 2- 'it/ of need trees 
 11 :f seed trees 
 4) distance of seed away 
 J ) Area 
 
 -a. Shape 
 
 b. Size 
 
 _c. orntion 
 
 system 
 
 2) l>helter-wood form is just the same in practice as the clear 
 cutting; system. For instance, on this 40 acre plot, 
 the forester might cut for light in 1910 
 
 cut for seed in 1915 
 cut clenr in 192C 
 
 Another and a very common modif icrtion, is to cut 
 P.B above in R moderately sized comp-irtment . The same can 
 
 done with a big set of compartments. It may also be 
 trird with patches of defective timber, often with natura 
 reproduction already started in beech or balsam. 
 
 A common modification of this is: to be sure that you 
 systematically cover your compartment, use strips. 
 
 Some people modify modify this in still another way, 
 in the sketch at the left. 
 
 In this modification the idea is to get less of a 
 sweep of wind, especially when the windr, are hot and ury. 
 
 The silvicultural system used here is the same in all 
 cases. r ^he difference ia the area arrangement: the way in which you 
 attack your land. This depends on the aize, shape and position oi 
 
159- 
 
 v/ith a ntronrr border it i? veil never to disturb tt> disturb the 
 border at first, but to begin inside and cut a strip clean, then begin a 
 sort of selection system on the border, but not as long as its protestior 
 is needed. 
 
 3) Selection System: the same modifications apply here as before. 
 
 forester may cut it over all in one winter and then 
 let i t go for 15 
 
 Or .he nay u--o corriv^rtrnoiitr!, cut one at a time, and come 
 bpck in IJ year?. The bulk of uhe reproduction comes right 
 after the cutting. If cut .i.iin in 19^5 ue rnay expect the bulk of the 
 reproduction in , in other words, the reproduction after the &a 
 first two cut',", - Co :3 in 1911-191!?, -nd 1926-1930, so thrrt in reality 
 we do not have <jn ovr^-n ;r-d stand, but a several- 3 &ed stand on the same 
 plot. Then roul >ut 6 distinct types, 
 
 Selection c-attin^s: the et*?nd tends to ^roup itself 
 'A mor- . 
 
 Various other modifications of the Selection System ar 
 TTiR.de as with the other t\vo systems. 
 
 t'--n French and Corr.-?.n terms are used. "Cculisnenschlf 
 
 oh of t>i confusion current in booko in regard, to Silvicultural 
 t -TS i^ bane^i on thin *re r^lition. 
 
 4} ? 
 
 5j liethods daturally vary but often ^rgde into each other. 
 
 ( ? ) The cle <a r-f3ut v:ith seed trees system readily merges into 
 th e r?i . 
 
 (b) Likewise, fter a Ion-; time, the shelterv/ood system tends 
 to nier/-:e i-ito the selection sy stern. 
 
 It will be interesting to note the ground we have covered thus fai 
 '."'e fir:vt considered the sfclient features of tlie stand, tlien tlic 'Vild-v/ooc 
 Mnd ity varl.ous forrr.n, then we told vrhich of these forms had been adoptee 
 and. then the methods used to et these forms, and then the way in which 
 these methods have been modified according to conditions. 
 
 6) These modifications *r<*. interesting to the United ijtntea: we 
 3 just developing our literature and our methods, and so we must under- 
 st^nd clearly: 
 
 (a) T/nyr enumerated 70 methods, falling under the fundamental 
 P, viiich are modif icn tions of the fundamental metliods according to 
 and time (speed). 
 
 (b) The fundamental forms or systems group as follows: 
 
 (1) Clear cut with reproduction after the crop is removed, 
 leac'ing to -n even-n^ed form of forest. 
 
 (2) Shelter^vood &ftSt&& v;ith reproduction before trie entire 
 crop is removed also le^ds to an evcn-a^cd form of forest. 
 
 (3) 3e3 action system with reproduction continues all the 
 time; where the stand is n^ver removed entirely it leads to a many-aged 
 form of forest. 
 

l6o. 
 
 (4) CoTJpice where cut clear, represented "by sprouts, lends 
 to an even-:iged 8tand. 
 
 (>} Standard coppice may be a combination of 2 distinct 
 systems on the same area: 
 
 i.. Ordinary coppice leads to an even-aged stand . 
 i i . A modification of the election system leads to a 
 stand on the same nrep. 
 
 7) 'Ve lenrn much from classification?.. The following are classi- 
 fications from L,oT( from ur"vr% and shcv ho 1 ? those men looked at 
 the subject from different angles. 
 
 a } Lorey in --n older edition of his famous lianobuch classified 
 Bilvicultur 1 in 1 . sarten" (tt system of Management). 
 the a terminology is not in favor now; we should 
 
 use y.ilviC'.- '-y E? t ';.'. s, not -nt systems. Yet Lorey is a good 
 autlior, in pi uiie f net that he did not h'.tvc C-hc ri^tit poiritt of 
 vie . 
 
 A.. .;-ii 61 Forest or Seed Forest. 
 
 e tree originntes from saed and tlie tree; is used but 
 once. A nprout nta-ip -?i.ll Inot tliru many plrintin . 
 
 1,. vicproduction .^ooa on thru the entire rotation. 
 
 li The selection syst-:r. ^roducee an (il]L-agod or many- 
 aged Gt.-i^a. 
 
 2. Reproduction occupies only part of the period of rota- 
 tion n.nd lends to an even- r i ; j;cd or nenrly even-^.^ d fonn of stand. 
 
 1) Clear cut systtem r?ith artificial re orodution. 
 2} 
 
 3) Shelterwood oyster;. 
 
 4) >elecction-shelter^ood systerj. Tliis is tlie siielter- 
 'jrn rjrolon^eci over 40-^0 fears, 
 
 Coppice Syste 
 c; . .itnndnrd Coppice i^ystcn. 
 
 rey felt th.t )ie ought to sep^rRte the Delect/ion- Slielterv/ood 
 
 UTP other?? . 
 
 b) Gayer: nearly follows th^ classif ication of ?orms as given 
 before ( 
 
 c) iiajir in hie classification afjRin npeaks, not of n. Silvicul- 
 tur? , hut of a system of ?.Janamont and Reproduction, following 
 Lor^ 
 
 i^. Clof:r cut system, with J modif icaiiions . 
 
 _2. olielterwood system, including the selection system as a 
 form or method of ahelterwood on smallest areas and for long time periods 
 
 _ch is quite curious. ?he selection system should be kept separate 
 from the shelterwood as 2 diatinot ayntcrcs: they ^ivc different Forms of 
 'Joret-:t, ana, also, 'v'&yr makes his classif icaticn more complex than neces- 
 /. It all deperidK on the point of view. 
 ^. Coppice 
 4. Coppice. 
 

 
161. 
 
 d) Graves (in IT of ' : a^uli.'.;, W6< is/ 
 I, By tec* depending on Xc^roduotiGj- .'. iie^u. 
 A.. Selection -rj'st;. 
 3. Clear cutting BV : 
 
 ]L. Clrrr cut vrith Artificial reproduction 
 
 .'hole ct^./id 
 (b) atrip 
 (<:} l-ritch 
 
 < 2. Glaar cut with aaturn.1 reproduction 
 
 t once 
 
 " scattered seed treerj 
 
 ,>ups cf sued trees 
 '* fifty strmuards 
 
 (f) Clear cut in 
 lear 
 rood i?ys'' 
 
 . I unif ox*mly 
 ng in i;ro.,ps 
 : ,rips 
 
 I 
 
 ) Modifi- 
 
 } cations, 
 
 ) 
 
 - on Reproduction 
 
 in pnrt : . } . 
 
 i ce 
 
 ^. Coppice 
 
 ^ : . . "i -rod coppice; sprutits arid aeed 
 (long rotation 
 
 .jprouts (Wholly or 
 
 Q-6Q years 
 
 v-int here ie distinguisliing between ^uetema depending 
 on seed and on sprout . Ilie seed syetow^ a; according ao the 
 
 reproduction follows the cut ?*.t once, precedes the cut for ^ome time, or 
 til the time, 
 
 8) On every lar^e prop/erty ri coi r *i1>i nation of these different sys- 
 tewB of tr-. uttj is employed. Thin is a,xi OHIO tic, "because condition 
 
 t different tr:3*it;:ior;&a -:rc r^-uirea. This is found even 
 to extrr-. i on l.atioiifrl : ? o.. pour timber, uae LUG selection 
 
 rod. timber uae so;-" oilier ^.yavOi.'i. 'ilit: choice of system de- 
 pendo on th: site -nd on tlift speciea. 3pecia favor or are easier to hancS 
 ?ri th ^.Js^feftAi certzin sy*teai9, flie c}ioice also depends to eorae extent on 
 the . ;-i object of rai ..ml; or: for protection, for 
 
 lumber, for secondary uses, for j\eot}ictic yurpoc'-is on private property 
 or in ,c. 
 
 H'e hn.ve 
 duction of the for- 
 
 ex- o rid ovcr- 
 
 not only Reproduction 
 icipo r t R n i . C'xrts t ? 
 pi ; job; t)iinnin 
 
 brain work. Pl,rit 
 
 that 8ilTioulturl ay stems are based on the Hepro- 
 
 , thorrfore ro production ia iniportant, but ia easily 
 rntf.'C. . .In Ir.to yf-.rs wo h-w J.AH to realize that 
 
 is important, but Ct^re of the forest IB even more 
 
 e mid thcr-.;foro coot;. ;'ore than i\ **little H 
 -s, etc., nust be looked after. C^are taxes judgement 
 : s oifpl'2 . f -nd v.'oll knov;n. l^iinning ?md caring foi 
 
 accidents requiro 
 not to e; r.-'te or 
 
 , cxporinnce, 
 
 over-. 
 
 and 
 
 It would be well 
 
 10} Vopt of t; : 7iculturr*j .'-.yel'.^'S *ir intimately rel??.ted to 
 
 id up vd Ih the Care of t res;t. In the ehelterv/ood and sclectior 
 
 systems the sue;. ;-rk ie bound up with Forest utilisation f j t ^ 
 
 1 o log on the selection system, Borntiraes, and this operation is not 
 
162. 
 
 successful. Thic . . ethelterwood ^y 
 
 t rh CM we cr 11 U ys terns of Conserv-.- Live- Lumbering, in 
 
 some- "books (Sec 0,3, ulletin 6l, Terms ueed in Forestry and Bogging, 
 
 p^gcs 7,13,18,19,21/22,23,24; ".nd oil rr coirs) .. arc t^olm; too far. )>y 
 usinc such nomenclature, ;c j n, inducing ^en in hi^i positions, "in- 
 
 come misinformed thru tho zincs, and think it is merely a matter of 
 
 lumbering. Lumbering i c toda, - ily j-'ore^t ^ff.strujc/tiojfl. . Our busi- 
 
 ne?p of thfc jro-.-iri of the Fortu . 
 
 ; th the car Sui .. B no ixlrticn to us. 
 
 A* ''eserirticr 1 of tl c :'il vicuitur?-.! Oyotems; their Operation; the 
 Resulting Forests, an< Lh 1. a r.ia di . iito t ;es. 
 
 in rcv^i.ru to the systems them- 
 Lvec -nd tl.-eir rcriil^-r; ve r.uct first '..^ve curtyin criteria: 
 
 JL. Appl .lity of system to various species ana sites. 
 
 l . , of succtcs of the uy stern, especially in repro- 
 
 d act ion. 
 
 jc. Ke.-'jlip -jf t)ie system in the quality of the stand as 
 regards growth in volume nd vnlu. . 
 
 d_. Ability of tlie ey^ . rid tfc g Term of forest 
 
 tc -.in the site. 
 
 IB. Value of the resulting forest from uie "busineas stand- 
 point . 
 
 . "- 1 . :; of the forest from the political ecoiioruic stand- 
 point, ;Cially niirket, industry, labor, protection of watersheds, 
 
 capitnl, utilisation of poor lands, -xna finally tiie stability wliich the 
 < P . -o u r e f > . S o.nj e n y s t ort s d G go n e r a t e . 
 
 ^ _. f:peci.l Caset* of second?* ry benefits MS -iffcctea by these 
 
 ^ systerr.-F. : pfa: I , I . c, .-.nJ nlso trio raatt-ir of boauty and 
 
 ^ park us oc. 
 
 2) . Forest co;; ; ;)-Mre'l /i"cli ."jprout "'OQUO. Vhuir nd 
 
 S and disRdvn.nt.-v:c8: rantaae of soed foro/.t: 
 
 ^ a.. The seed forsst is applicable to nearly all species and 
 
 ^ all site-..-. Ct nnturs.lly occupies Ir-r-ge arena ana involves large forest 
 
 f r fit only for scco. forei-t. 
 
 , 
 
 ]b. i;.iture if-sintpined. seed foreste for ages; uian-Ccired fore* 
 are lr>. -,'rely seed forest: therefore there is or--' ; t assurance of success 
 an-. --'.anence, the ordinarily cpppice is Die < of the tv/o to re- 
 produce. 
 
 . The seed forest produces th largest volumes and the besi 
 
 d,. '.'he R^ed forest runantnina the site, soil, and leaves the 
 forest undisturbed for Icn^ periods; it furnishos aenae cover, much 
 mulch, ; "GOd tillage. Coppice reqairet; ^ocu 1-ind ana e;--Jiausts the land. 
 
 e,. In businesn, the seed forest requires a large capital, 
 am.d therefore gives opportunity for larger investment, and requires larg( 
 are^p- for renl businesfl. '.Che iriterv-^lw butw.. _ . theoretically 
 
 norr.ally lon^ (this in eruiil 9>r$tated; Lc cautious in sucii statements, 
 especially in arguments: investors are easily sc-vred) but are riot so in 
 practice: al'ter the ^ of 2^-30 years you can get something fron: your 
 forest every ten years. Vith large prcp/erties yearly crops can be 
 
163. 
 
 obtained f .: ifforent portion*. 
 
 AsBRid before, the seed forest I more cr.pitr.l. In coppice 
 you or-ri gt do'vn to : alf-aore, Seed forest gives a larger net income 
 per acre por yo? r, by <_;ifciritj us better timber. 
 
 vantages: It is claimed that the seed forest makes a smaller 
 interest on the iiive, . Va soon ao the property pays a net income, up 
 goes the land value, i-'ine ia usually land on R net income--the hi t >jher 
 the net income Lhe higher the cost. The human element enters independent- 
 ly. 
 
 The t?<:9<l forest produces rnorw readily salable material than cop- 
 pice, and a raupj ; -v Her amount of c.-teap unmerchantable goods. It require; 
 moro 3l:ill an 3 to J. icofl ;:<f ully. -'.intakes which the for- 
 
 est Ft- seed fore ( >t to live longer tiiari those made in 
 
 coppice; - tf 'uttii^er fron star;:*, insects, etc. The crop is 
 
 in lri ,;-! boc. .'. c. . 
 
 . As a \vholo, the aeeu forest is more important and valuable 
 than the c- c^-n be; it supplies the marJcet "better; it can supply 
 materials 'vhich coppice cannot; it affords more labor and gives a chance 
 for mo:;.; invr it of capital; it touilus up a big property per acre. The 
 
 te forepti- uf 3-iden ond. Saxony could not be "bought at v l.;?0 per acre. 
 If they -o triea to put in coppice, a largo portion would have become 
 valuelese. The sesd forest builds up a property worth 6 times as much as 
 coppice . 
 
 JiL-at is gener^Ii.y more stable ^,s a forest propoerty--it 
 
 receive B care even from private individuals; it is more important as 
 v;at. protection; todiy it utilizes large areas of non-agricultural 
 
 land vharc- cj;;ice would be of r'.uci; less vyl - . 
 
 oecial crisea of usefulness are not comparable. Grazing 
 co-vr-ice acre but coppice will stand more abuse, than seed forest. 
 Turpentine optics only to species v.'hich grew in seed forest. Tanbark to- 
 
 ed froru seed for^iic. Khen prices so up we may raise tanbark 
 coppic . r parks ^nd pie.-' sure grounds coppice drops out: it is not an 
 attractive fc u:iie people rt,. - the Adirondack 8 ae more important as 
 a play^roui. A as a watershed and for timber, rvaiericans could buy up 
 iui i use tht-u 1 aa iuixtur-je bet/.vc.-jn v/rter protection and playground. 
 .-d forv' it ould be the more satisfactory for such a purpose. 
 
 h. 7he Bccd forest is acin^ more for the n.'iiue of Forestry 
 :i is 
 
 3) Clear Cutting. 
 
 a,. The forest starts from seeds, or A volants nt^rted artifi- 
 "lly. If planted, Boctis r*rc spared, you oav- sev^rr;! yonrs '.vithout a 
 cov:r, and t)ie crovms fonn ri n even cover; Etrat ri forjp., trees be^in to 
 cro" r d, tiiers is ^rc-^t ,:ei^:lH. , .u tht-rt- are nu edge conditions 
 ey.c t t the ocige; the canopy pushes up, the development of individual 
 cro"'nn is hindci't-c, ft 1-eii-jht ^rov.'tL cunlinuos. '-he trees are slen- 
 
 c t and are . -ly cleaning. In Uie sapling and pole stage ligjit is 
 effective only in tJLe upper Ktrata uf iVie canopy. There is equal reduc- 
 tion in numbers, the largest growtii in quality, the stand becomes largely 
 cleaned, the canopy rises iiiiiii above the ground; soil protection diminish- 
 es; the depth and density of the cro\vn become variable, depending on 
 species ana site. 
 
16'i . 
 
 The secondary etano becomes? ci : .p"ptesi-cd ano i:: removed; tiie 
 stands be^in to open; the jrrcntest thrift is past, r.nd the rntc of vol- 
 ume growth rapidly decline, 
 
 In the trr e st-w.;^ the maximum volume per acre is readied and pass- 
 ed. the r-trsnd opens up', the crows are relatively small, and do not 
 readily fill gaps, Any openings which occur now must remain as gaps. 
 Growth becomes slcr-or -nd slower; only put on a smaller number of the 
 l:e?t treer-*> nhich form tlie final ore . injury ->.nd stagnation require 
 underplrntir : . . to help itself. 
 
 b. rhic system is applicable to any species which tterives 
 j ,1 u ' o ru" si - . All os$ all of our forest 
 
 tre in tills m t ir or ^ood sites. 
 
 If reproductio : is .^tur-l fro.ii the side or from seed trees, this 
 .<3 i e appli< to in. ^G "bruai' and. to tiiose species whicr 
 seed abundantly. is also restricted to suitable sites elm, ash, etc, 
 Larch (?) is <^; it is not too lirsby, and occurs on burns, 
 
 . 'Die clanr cut -with artificial reproduction system has 
 proven successful v)".rever tried, and has almost coiupletely replaced 
 
 :er s .rope. C/dtoeJpall'a yo fig plantations 
 
 FU ff r ^ . . c .- hoi :inu dry. In northern countries they alsc 
 
 suffer froM frost nr.ci fron the freezing of the ground, ana the sapling 
 and $61. all pole ;t-\;e suffer from snow. Small tender ones grow 
 close t( -'i'nr frora stoi-m, but more so in the small 
 
 tree etrv:e. I t'ions ^Iscr suffer from fun^i ;ind insect?!. In very dens< 
 
 ? i an opening lor insects and fungi. 
 
 e biotic factors and wakes less use of variatioi 
 in the soil. 
 
 d. - th in voli-.^e ahd quality is in the clear/' cut syster 
 t-> . st o'f any system Tor species, site and tiirie. i.Vcn tlie secondar; 
 
 st.'-i; "icli is oat-to.u)co., yield tlilnnlng material of well cleaned 
 
 . 'Jhc clej-'T cat r?. not alWRys produce great 
 
 rery tree pfter it-> 40 t] r is a vmlttftfcle stick of 
 tiro"c--r. conditi i ~nd lihilny stuff, 
 
 normally consists of a lar^- nui.-.'ber of troec of moderai 
 , . it often hac Loo much defective material if kept 
 too denne. 
 
 jj. 'Jh<.? ability to inaintain Ui; soil is g*ej t, especially i] 
 
 ..; it decreases v;ith trev a fc 'c and is iiero in 
 
 loci b : cutting aria Uie clo^ia^; ap of the next youri stand. Tiiii 
 
 feature ia charged j-.ie of t, gr --Moat cLisauvantM^c:*, of the clear cut 
 
 . The ability to preserve the soil varies with the species, as to- 
 n -1 iritolornrit, ana tlii:: difference is gr< "ler-j than in other 
 
 :IB. For long rotrtioiis, n. 200 ye^rs find over, where reproduction 
 
 interval.;, t>iia dif f ure/ice ia r-rat,. . 
 
 Tlie difficulty of rr:,'U.n-;cU.ii^ e ; the soil increases with the diffi- 
 culty in r action. ?ho . t you cut clean the less 
 
 rfeot the re H iction and tlie more tlie land differs. 
 
16'j. 
 
 f_. 8 prefers the clonn cut nnd planting system 
 
 and has caunod it t !.<; other systems. *Wio main };ointf3 v.'hieh busi- 
 ness con- 'ire: 
 
 (1 ty of control, perfect control, simple book- 
 keeoinr. 
 
 " ; ^?^: .2JlA 'J-liLilH i/JVvAlg e^ny r- . : y laennure- 
 
 (3) -M e:l - reproduction (?). Some question this 
 
 c 1 - i . 
 
 r chance in planting stuff 
 
 i antly of s :i-^r to m->y.e fi$it against fungi and 
 
 i'lr, .2ctf, . lATQ rial. 
 
 industry of foresters. One 
 ivoly in t)ie ?i!ielterwooi 
 
 . 
 
 md net incopjes ; '/astly increased with 
 
 j t . . 
 
 1 frorc .'ts M.nc. from snow and 
 
 of the cl#n.r cut system. But stress 
 be laid j>)on the los.^ inoectn, 
 
 t-ie str'ndr)oi./it ' i e "t-- s .te this s:/3tem nbd the 
 
 .*enl fo. ?nd do tV>e rj?ne ; j s under Eeed forest 
 ), ercept tht the Mernanency of the forent is questioned 
 
 rnd nl3o fro-'n deteriorntion of land. In the supply 
 
 of ds this system xnnd its resulting forest excell 
 
 ^ode more extensively mid effaciently than they 
 c want 3 feet of BoMv/oods to 1 foot of j^^tt&&A hard- 
 is Ki id y ^ise it in the the clear cut system. 
 
 h. n '" i' cut vfltli nutural reproduction systems 
 
 (1) > r as proven - failure in (.*ntral ;urope; it haa auc- 
 ceecc : well in ; : c.^ncinavip Ana parts of '\ussia. It may be that 
 
 infT to '."nit, becnuBe t)ie noil is poor arid rocky, and 
 it otherwise nn w rw..y. firowth is nlow; they have: to wait 
 
 , GO peo "'ililinr to vnit. in France 
 
 le coolly, t)iey cannot *fj'orc to wait, or could 
 o, in Cent" POpo, 
 
 IP no "beeo:r. tt v de^d, brushy; tlio seec.. yer.rr ; ore not 
 on they come nrc dependent on the werj.tlier. Thin By stem 
 has .'Oned. in 'entr^.l ..uro - 
 
 forest l^nd is ^ort>i ><.^0 avei .Cental. Then: 
 
 -nt 
 
 production . . 
 
 Rent r ( j_ p r O ^^.0.0 
 
 Total for 10 yr$2i>'rbo ^^b'.OO 
 
 ultB: f-na variable iJtand veil stocked 
 A*- 10 yr 12 yrs. 
 
 e: ( 
 
 ark 
 
 ;aal Yrrlu^: -00.00 ir. 
 
 Co ;ld not r.u<a r,ri!cies you 
 want; stand very irre 
 
166. 
 
 It is hard to -plant foil -places in natural reproduction. (Pail 
 spot: a pl^ce where natural or artificial reproduction has failed). 
 
 (3) If successful in reproduction the stand is too dense, 
 e,t lenst in spots,, competition in too ;,-ret for successful growth, and 
 may easily lead to a break-down, and therefore to the introduction of 
 fungi, insects, and in some cases to stagnation (in lodgepole). To avoid 
 these 'e should use early attention, vhich is expensive. 
 
 (4) If the st-vid recovers fully the development goes on 
 i n th e planter 1 e t B ^ d . 
 
 (!>') ThiB Triethod be nucj\ BOG if led, varying from one 
 
 ; tree per n.cre to solid "bun chen on one sids--a shelterwood standing 
 ever the ' a. 
 
 () 1r is method n so auoli praised and condemned 
 
 th.t we need caution .-/--inst extreme vie x ?s. Loblolly, Jack pine, lodge- 
 pole, \ rack, Iv-ifiscr extent r-^ruce, are suited to this method. 
 
 -tern ye. lie is perhaps not so w- 11 suited to seeding frorr the 
 
 side. - lees diotance to which, it will seed, iifred 
 
 H. Ihi1 In usi: . r ood for yeliov: pine. In Arizona 
 
 they feel I y, but ther-.- shelter ngainat hsct is the nain t^ing. 
 
 4) Slic?lt(?rwoocl ryatem or :-tand i'.etliod ('Of. 
 
 ycr call !? this a nr?tur^l forra jf an even-aged timber 
 
 fore;- . , .1.3 qualified in tlie United ?tr,te i j, : -vhcre they seed in from 
 
 the side; lod-v^-.-jc-l? 1th natural undergrowth iu sn e simple, or often 
 
 roducticr: . 
 
 a. r : i\cl od v/ith n?.turr>.l reproduction developed largely 
 
 i. It has "b'if.n 1 ./ n.b--.- . ruce, and entire 
 
 ly for pi illy the 3t.-ind i i r. .inned to i late trees to special 
 
 growth. . .n heavily thinned Vv'l\en the sejd yc-'-r coriep. The remain- 
 
 in .-:d removed ^ft^r '-orvinf, as a shelter, w^ien the v -our;g stand is 
 
 thorol ibli^iod. Tnen the tliinuin^ is done properly this a/iitcra re- 
 
 id in 3 cuts. 
 Cut for lint: 1/3 of the timber is rat J?'-lu years before 
 
 t'l' 1 : 8 CUt. 
 
 Cut for seed: another 1/3 is taken out when the beed ye?,r is ex- 
 
 tlie seed is already on the trees or on the ground, 
 
 tly, removal n.t the finr\l cj'w when -:ho yuun^ stand is 1-3 feet 
 HtflS. 
 
 In ordinary practice more th^.n 3 cuts arc required, ana especially 
 t!i^ first cut is replaced "by govern! outs at vrrious i:. 6, .fter 
 
 5, rfter beech hr.s responded to stiuulus finotJier cut is made 
 for li -' ; \t, and then finally the tiiird cut is i;i-":,de. If beech v;ere to be 
 thinned too much nt one thinning havoc would be created. The less care 
 in the sapling Uio jmore :fort:>itive it itj. 
 
 you ---th from seed cor. in dense patents; even 
 
 jes it; thi with J-ight seeot 
 
 trees becnuao t3 "ids don't go t-:c fnr av-r-y. Inv^ri^i;!/ (?> there are 
 
 r! -'ithov. -id ^tujiipB of t)ie biggest 
 
 timber, i . on pocr or 1 irby '3;:cln; such ^pot-; noed artificial work. 
 
 Tho .you)i -neltrrec ; the amount of .pencils on Liie notior 
 
 of the fore. lie if . .e ar;u .,nt the species will endure. 
 
 Shelter in provi? -\f-t v.dnd; be< ' ., ith it the soil is 
 
 parotodted . 
 

167. 
 
 The growth of the seedling is slow due to competition. In less 
 tolerant species like pine there :'.? ^rent danger of injury to young 
 growth from too much shade, even to the point of loss of reproduction. If 
 the shelter is removed the stand starts ns clear cut, --but starts too 
 densely in 3T)ots nnd ^"ints early help. In patches of more or less spindly 
 growth: r Buffer from snow and storms, -hen 20 years old it ought to 
 resemble an artificial stand; the rest follows the system of clear cutting 
 
 b. This ni is applicable as follov/s: theoretically it 
 i.-.-! j-tood for all species; practically it is applied to but few. It is pos- 
 sible with ~I1 STJCC nd on p.ll sites, if you have to use it. Hartig 
 prescribed th m for all the : forests of Prussia; they worked 
 in pi;, - r is lenst --lap ted to this syate . 
 
 To cuc'ce 
 
 (1; J3 -. tree must be tolerant si it v:ill grow under the 
 er tr 
 
 (2) The tree ruust have sufficient seed yt-*rs and be a gooa 
 r. 
 
 (3) The seed' .jrust reat for a long time- -and still 
 recover 1'ror, r,.;. -_:resei . 
 
 The tre< . t still "be v/Iridf ina enough so you can 
 at CD- r id expose the tree. This can not be done with spruce. 
 
 . 'Till i- syst meraily advocated and officially ordered 
 '13 i .. It ~.s the synter? v;hich hoc! the most universal applica- 
 tion of t; ] -19 been largely abandoned for most species in Cen- 
 tr?.;l 56 : 
 
 (1) '"he se^d yenrs tliere ire far apart; some of Uie best 
 oion, 1J cech, are poor seederrj. 'llien, the stand opens; much 
 
 bio-'s dj-.Tij :; . ;3oil deteriorate "beco-:.es li/nby, and closes up; there 
 is much losi? of r.ctu-.l incorae o.nc. rent *ltho the last third of tlie stand 
 3 
 
 (2) The reproduction is dense, and requires artificial 
 
 v-s 
 
 i^ -u . . 
 
 (3) dge conditions obtain in f-;,il spots, and they are not 
 flY. i c'_v f ^ : " - lji ^ thrt can be rernidied. Above tlie height of 20 feet this 
 cannot be helped; the land is practically waotcc. 
 
 (4) The system did not rvork well in important species: 
 
 pine either either refuses to seed or the reproduction dies, from shading 
 o r t i o n . 
 
 d^. Grovth, development and reproduction of the stand. 
 
 r. 1 ^A&ft places p.re incurs-ble, and normally cause consi- 
 derable lose. If the reproduction is ood ana the stand variable, it 
 
 overdenoe to normal, needing early attention, expense and 
 c^re for dense stands. The remaining development anci results are as be- 
 fore because the stand io even-a^ed. Tliis system lias produced some magni- 
 ficent stands of timber. 
 
 <2. This system protects the soil better than the clear cut. 
 The nlovr process is better. It needs tcl :r; where tlie process 
 fails and artificial help in not given the soil ir.ny suffer as much as in 
 r cut 
 
 . Intensive good business rejects the iaielterwood system. 
 
 (1) .-eproduclion is too uncert-iin, too slow, uneven, 
 and dependent on need years. 
 
 (2) The young stand requires too ruuch care in Uie bush 
 
end sapl._ -; 
 
 (3) The loss of ro',7th uuff ;.roci by the reproduction is not 
 always made ;ip by the growth of the old stand as shelter-rood. 
 
 (4) It incren-scjR the cost of logging piecemeal, and causes 
 an extra cont to prcvcrt injury to old snd yo.^i& Lr.us. tfhis difficulty 
 ro7?s, the clover the fore velo s. 
 
 (*;\ --UGC of the injury to the old stand as shelterwood, 
 especially thru blowdo-vna, aunsc . nd the dyin^ of the soil. Beech 
 suff . ;;uch froia c. , .-.jutij, pine from Bpiketops; 
 
 hemlock 1 . re is no reproduction and shelter, 
 
 6 attention and unusual 
 
 knowle .id experience to re success, business tolerates and uses 
 the nyst- 
 
 is expensive 
 or in\pos:?i":. J.G ^o 
 
 b; Tiie reprO'-. - -.. jn anu the uoii BUTt siicitered, wiiich 
 ia CBpeclnlly valuaMe in dry hot, alec dry cold i our.'. -ions, and with 
 
 . 
 
 cj Vi'tto t, it cunditiions of site, a large light 
 
 .1 of 'j'jonci- ^, -it. system may prove profitable. 
 
 d) V:iLh -ecie.s, as bcecli, balsar::, hemlock, 
 
 ti*o c- it doea not -ork well ^nd the forester is obliged to 
 
 ;d. 
 
 ud due a not produce the net in- 
 
 ,r cut sya , xc . in bee . sstra, Tiiis has 
 
 been ni^jiLed tho deTaonotr- .. . . *lie clt?sr cut and planting 
 
 sy r monc-y for t. n forester than the sBielter-A'ood 
 
 oinee.. . t of vieifrl 
 
 &. ?roo Llio . . point of the >.ltai,u Iho shclterv;ood system 
 cloacj./ ;yi th t,.c clcsr cut sysiiofii. it has tii .-.<< / .^age of a little 
 -i.ity; it . en till rc-pl-. cou. -..ioC.uv^nu^e: the shelterv^ood 
 
 not been -v-lc to 2: od foreco on poor si tea as well as 
 
 o.vj. ouch aittiti are sand, muok,- etc. 
 
 h. The sholterwood systen is old practice, especially in 
 bee i, :ind is still used in the orcst of ^aden. They 
 
 use several a- nd thUv leisurely take out tiic &&wk& old staiid 
 
 3 time in a vari-'.^o number c: uuts. j.cre the success of thif 
 . The soil is perfectly pro tec tea but the stand is normal^ 
 un. be conBiderr,',;le a(jc hns ed^e condi-icne firici poorly cleaned tim- 
 
 ber. Tli is form, or variety of system, is callo>. by the Germans 
 and 13 clr.:ise^ by Gayer as un ., aiiu by Lurey as 
 
 by ;<ouli: he ^.-.l.iJis it .ids on the lime of tlio 
 
 i. The ahelterwood vjiui artificial repi'oduction system is 
 extenaively used especially in -jenn.'i.rk, to & leus extent in ^ortli Gerriiany, 
 Holland, -'elgiur.i, and : ! orth Trance. JB6 Li lls tl^e BO^il thoroly.. Often 
 artificial IAft&&&&&&&6& fertilizers are us-:Ci by t)ie banes; the seed is 
 put in, I in thic. , t ;:>ucc(ios io t*- '- nc >- certain. U'he 
 
 stand: ...... aifoiv.., ana the t ;rov/th anu ue-vclopntaii is like the 
 
 cle-'t* cut except th^Lt tlie y. .nd needs more care in the bush and 
 
 iihg . . nctliod is primarily i;u.. lo beech, also can be 
 
 used :"or ni.i . . , ih and clri. >lie system is aiv/ays costly, pays crily on a 
 rear-onahly good . ..ua in a t ;oou locality, and v;orks in the airuction 
 of a clear cut fit and. 3ii*ce i nea u?;e a uv/o cut performance they thin 
 
 out and this leaves only a shelterwood. 
 

169. 
 
 j_. The phcltor-'jood nyatem applies to lar ; ;e and to small areas 
 in the strir>, patch, group or any combination, "but it always remains the 
 8 system in the characteristic method and result. 
 
 5) Selection ^yetem or Single Tree method. 
 
 This is Gayer f s Mature ?orm; it is Nature's form of forest. 
 . Theoretically all ages, from the seedling to the mature 
 tree, exist on n.ny one acre; mired, single, etc. 
 
 Practically this is rarely if ever the case. The timber is usually 
 in ?r iriany- -\cred for- . ;her the youn<', Iddle-ag^d or the old stuff pre- 
 ils and for . l ; of the stand. This ie equalized on larger area, 
 of a thousand or iac ores, so th ;e &ifc-l&"6 classes appear in 
 
 fairl, feet , recent'. tion is not numerical, but 
 
 i" - n area representation, as ther.* must always be a Is-r^er proportion of 
 young than of old trees; nor \ representation indicated by what is 
 in the e veto -:;.; and always atv.rts vri'ch larger num- 
 
 bers than - this crn v.ry. If you plant 3 X 3^ or 10x10, you will 
 nor i/ferent sxtrv-. proportion for tJie two c.^nea. 
 
 .Iortf:.".lly natural reproduction gives much young stuff wherever it is 
 . 
 
 .le tree mixture piclcs up in spite of the forester's effort. 
 It tends to an ;>;ed st*?nd. A period of over 70 years may pass, during 
 
 :o reproduction till the ;:;t'incl ie over; v/hen this is once 
 done . ts in all over the stunc ins drifts in the 
 
 direction of an even- -c alielterv-'ood, ?.r, soon as the stand is opened up 
 frc 
 
 30d ny^tcma grade into and replace 
 
 in tliig system. Here is \ typical c-ise: young trees start in 
 or ^ings. Usually groups of thrifty seedli.-ic^ t .:ro\v near the 
 
 - oat;, tc the light. Such a small &reR is hidden 
 receives no attention -oii^lly till t id of the next 
 
 fore perish entirely, it may be stunted beyond reco- 
 y, or conposea of P. fev specimens m.'iy ;:;ro"/ up limby. This 
 
 ong the (?TO ^ ; edge ru.way v:xisttt N-.nd leads to regular edge 
 cor: , 146). if the opening is small and the trees about the 
 
 oung enough, as ;n h".'ru- i: oods sorc^ti: : 03, they pusli toward the 
 
 ~ht into ti.e opening snd may entirely close up the gap or close so much 
 
 of it ress the yo 
 
 If tiie forenter f oresccd the situation he helps, by thinning about 
 the ifficiently to protect the reproduction. In this manner the 
 
 -;>:: he bnrvestr,, thin:.:, .?.,nd works for reproduction 
 cut . 
 
 anally in the selection system the yoang growth starts and grows 
 clov/ly '?.nd. cnly tlie better survive, and ranch of this is stunted. They are 
 crowded /'i^ded . ?he youn^ trees push up but their neighbors are tall 
 
 e them and compete ^ritli them. On the other hand, the neighbors 
 protect the ycirn^ st-iff fr. :id frost, . . protect tiie site. 
 
 t they do not Afford rrotec Innt sno-r in openings; snow fills up 
 i n r- 1 e r d . 
 
 ee gro7?s, the croons puoai up against and into the 
 
 crowns of the old timber, therefore edge conditions follow. Those 
 along; the . .In the center they push out, 
 
 clean well, -o, healthy timber. 
 
Various variations of the Selection system occur. The nearer to 
 t'-G strict selection ay 3 ten the stand is, the more single tree cases trier 
 are; there is -r.ore fight, more edges, large crowns, poor cleaning; but on 
 the other hand there is more eneven &&&$&& canopy, more windf irmness, and 
 more protection. 
 
 stand becoiACB even-'^.ed it roscrcoles a shelterwood: && 
 there is lean fir:ht, and cleaner timber, 
 
 ]3. In ordina"/ r- \ctice every lar^e tract and prop/erty on 
 the ^election system ir? divided up i- itj'ber of pieces; the forester 
 
 tea to each I of ' of yerrs (cutting return or 
 
 cutting cycle). At each cut he harvests. The reproduction theoretically 
 ractically . on "11 the tl-- 
 
 e character of the selection fore-t depends on the cutting cycle 
 to r, lar^ro extent, If yc turn to I ! acre every 10 years, the 
 forest t ;he sh.i ao desired "by the foresters . If you return every JO 
 
 'vely, to>: sa on the character of the 
 
 . If i ; other hand you cut heavy every ;<0 years the forest 
 
 ted fom T/hi . -raced the selection system ae 
 "iculture, liko the cloar cut and the shelterwood systems, 
 
 .stera be applied to l*v --'id to sm3.il areas, 
 bo,, "-hio\> nay modify the appearance of the forest. It is 
 to ."O.l kinds of forest because it i'.i a modification of Nature. 
 7inanci-ll,y it i o ;plicille a i producer of foresc. It must be used 
 for . :trie^, because it is cheap; the so? sons are short 
 
 anO is very expensive . 
 
 In hard -.-ino and ot)ier species the selection fails because of 
 
 reduction, unless v:e drift toward tlie clear cut system 
 
 t the f?i de. 
 
 ;llectior '-i.ycteir. is ad;-iirn -le for berch, maple, and tolerant 
 Iso for " mixture of hardwoods ff.nct tolerant conifers, as 
 .jdel in the 'Vild-v-'oods. 
 
 . The ^election system, if used judiciously, is very safe, 
 i forest stays, re.eardlt-ss of reproduction. In active prac- 
 tice, ;ver, the selection yyrjtem drifts t' devastation. The fores- 
 
 to cut sue! product a crop. !*e >:co;.>e on cutting, while the 
 re; .: tiorj f-ils to make .^ood the loss. This ?T.C the great trouble with 
 th rrTlectio;-j pystc-T,. The forootor trusted to Providence to make good 
 
 >t in or n-.uch of a hurry he; s-.'-ic ie sure, but slow. In 
 the thir " ] ic-r. i:''ie for^r-t IF Tone. 
 
 d,. Grov'th in Volume ti^.eoreticclly ie ,,,!;' t; there is much 
 1 i^h t ; 1} crovn surf act is exposed, to li~;ht. Excellent si t e pro t ec t ion 
 obtains, -mo rlso th cri:- is constantly on the land, a^ lar^e amount of grow.- 
 
 t _:: ck . Tlier:'. e thre^ ecsenti$.ls. In practice it has never been 
 proven that the selection systc- : es more forest than the other systems 
 It .ener.:-l?.y ;.d, e.-.,p^ci- lly even . uropean otntis- 
 
 tici; sho- c?.c drop l^Vrind. 
 
 Crov/Ui in quality ,s is behind; this -. ^IttecL even by the 
 advocate H c f f- 1 i a s y & t ^,-m , bee au f.- c : 
 
 ero ie r;;uch fi^lit between the- lar^e and small materials. Ther 
 IE: rriuch eclre bueinesc, i -me spreading ?.nd deformed stuff; we 
 ratr.rd th young ntuff, the ground cover is less perfect and les& readi- 
 ly controlled, ^ees are loo - easily helped and help is more 
 
 t'? r-T t.Vi i e? n vs t. p>Tn . 
 
171. 
 
 e. The nysten protects the cite an dees no ether system; 
 it produces much mule!:, ,ood cover Benching right down to the 
 ground. 
 
 f . Cood ' nes8 rojocted the Shelterwood system and gave 
 it up in all lar^e enterprises, especially Stftte enterprises, because: 
 
 (1 Thure ig. no. satisfactory. 2J2l2i S*. p 
 42$ " " uniTo :"i. : . by 
 
 I-;o *%"j --.cr. '.lice 
 
 .. . 
 
 mt I" rt possible. This affects 
 
 _ 
 
 (2 - -.tract: . "actory. 
 
 ifficult and injurip.us.. 
 
 In bhia systo.ii vary large tree t to oe separately inspected 
 d niarkeci ' sat.lon . 
 
 .... Plra in the selection sys- 
 :unt of hush stuff on the ground 
 to re frc -iti to the to^s. 
 
 ic less in Volume and ^uailty, 
 (o) Ihli ty1 --ich c-re, ^nd much knowledge 
 
 en tV 
 
 ^ r busin< .?cnuse: 
 
 (l - II o\;ner -ivc v i r. 
 
 (2) -c iieufc ?.rid hae on hMiid n variety of stuff 
 
 ,. , vl CJM A 
 . outlay at ^,ny tine ior plant; 
 
 uctiun, etc. I -P le but is not 
 
 Bi; . to c,re of?; 
 
 .. ock C3 . ,cticed with care 
 
 and sucoess thi c moat interlsiYe of ell systems. But it posnitol 
 
 e a lore., i . fore . !^S! - ;na , 1 f as ; * a * e j. 
 
 th true and falee, Michigan hardwcoda raus^ be cared fo 
 No oecsary for 1 *d otto m the .^ck.ee. vhe 
 
 die v-luc. t: ,11, : yotcm IB practiced 
 
 Ly. You can't clajir cut and plant extensively; BUOh a system 
 ve: ;2 - -ust Le -;;cll d I I i: *1 - 
 
 , tKi s< ; lucL.ion sycton. in : ; . : It presents the. 
 
 grc-t method fos'our Pro - i* ^ ** Acceptable metho 
 
 3 , 
 
 6) Socond.'iry era a in Uio Seed Tcreat. 
 
 niefeQ 3yt*a --re distinct in their final product ana in 
 
 i0r '^irservTtre* system (U... ,rve ,eed tree method) 
 
 (1) In tlv- clear cut, nheltorv/ood raid selection nystei 
 intain treea or groups of trees iO ^rov; to a special size. 
 
 :-ivei the fcrestffor a time, I o.rance; it modi- 
 
 f iea the v .3 and affect the work of reproduction. 
 
 (2} If orl -' c ^t -y uscd and only a ** 
 
 trees are left they are rarely able to go thru the entire rotation, me 
 e Ipt , and are normally out; 1O*20 f^^^J^ 6 ^ 
 
 sfora the removal doea too inucn damage to the yoiLig stand. 
 
(3) In the shelterwood system we merely leave the "best 
 
 trees for the last, instead of the poorest for shelter, e may keep them 
 20-30-40 yenrs, according to circumstances, vfliere oak and beech are used 
 in ciisture, it is common to lenve the oak thru the second rotation of the 
 
 "bech. 
 
 (4) In the selection system no particular or special tree 
 is necessary. Simply leave as many of the "best as you choose. 
 
 ([?'} The method of reproduction is not modified* It may be 
 planting, seeding, shelterwood or selection* 
 
 (6) To be successful, the system requires that the reserve 
 trees be vigorous, that they do not suffer by the exposure of their 
 crowns, that they be windfirm, and that they be trees worth while. The 
 soil must be kept in good shape right along. This system may not be good 
 for hard oods; woodlots frequently dried up and became sodded. Therefore 
 the reserve tree system is not as good in connection with the clear cut 
 and plant system; it is better with the shelterwood; it is best with the 
 selection forest. 
 
 (7) Advantages of the reserve tree system: 
 
 a) It raises only specially heavy sizes. The timber 
 
 os often great and means money. In Europe it may change the value of tim- 
 ber from 12/ to !{# per cubic foot, a change of 3X P** <*u. ft. o* 25#* 
 which is good business. 
 
 Disadvantages of the reserve tree system: 
 
 a) The reserve treesafeade the young stuff, and prevent 
 them from growing around the foot of the reserve trees. 
 
 b) The logging of the reserve stuff means breaking 
 down the young stuff. 
 
 c) The timber often blows down all the time, making 
 logging out constantly necessary all the time. 
 
 (8) In seeding from the side, the reserve tree method has 
 an additional advantage in so far as the reserve tree performs two 
 distinct functions: 
 
 a) It seeds the land. 
 
 b) Sxtra growth of timber of reserve trees is obtained. 
 
 b. Two-storied Forest. 
 
 (1) In south German oak forests they start a dense oak 
 
 forest by artificial seeding in rows or drills; they thin early and often 
 According to the species and at 50 years of age they underplant with 
 beech. Thus the beech grows up under and into the oak and is handled on 
 the shelterwood plan. It reproduces at 80-120 years and a second genera- 
 tion of beech comes up under the oak. All this time the oak is protected 
 against the beech, and is treated as the preferred stand or final crop. 
 Thus the oak normally goes thru two or three generations of beech, and 
 finally the beech and oak are completely harvested and a new stand of oak 
 is started. 
 
 (2) Ordinary form: Seebach's Form of two- story Forest: this 
 consists of a stand of beech or other hardwoods, which is opened up at 
 the age of 20 to 60 years and is underplant ed with beech or some other 
 tolerant species* After the underplanting there are two forms of treat- 
 ment possible: 
 
tc 
 
173- 
 
 a) The lower story is left to shift for itself. It 
 receives no care. The uppee story grows rapidly, closes up the openings, 
 
 and practically kills the lower story out by the end of the rotation. 
 
 &4 Advantage: rapid growth in the upper story is ob- 
 tained and therefore a shorter rotation is &&&&&& possible; there is good 
 protection of the site by the upper story and a large amount of firewood 
 is obtainable from the upper story, This form of forest is especially 
 good for pine for improving the site, 
 
 b) The upper story may be thinned out to make room for 
 the under story trees. Both stories are thus oared for together. 
 
 In either case there is always a definite end of the rotation. 
 Vfoen the upper story matures, both stories are cleared off, 
 
 . Method of Light Accretion or Accretion Cutting. 
 
 The Forest Service definition of an accretion cutting 
 
 (or accretion thinning) is: n thinning made specif ically to increase the 
 rate of growth in diameter of the trees which are left standing, 
 
 (1) The accretion cut is an accessory enterprise in the 
 
 clear cut and shelterwood systems tenon it is used at all. It occurs to a 
 leas extent in the selection system. It means a specially severe thinning; 
 and is often classed as a thinning method rather than as a Silvicultural 
 system, as is indicated in the above definition. That is the better term. 
 The stand is opened beyond the point of further closing. The accretion 
 cut gives openings which are beyond the maximum closing by the stand. 
 
 (2) As in the reserve tree system, the site must be cared 
 for by underplantirig. In case the remaining stand, after an accretion cut, 
 consists of but few tree per acre, the method practically becomes the 
 reserve tree method. 
 
 (3) The accretion cut means greater growth, fewer trees, 
 and therefore a larger size of timber obtained, and a shorter rotation 
 is possible. 
 
 Hote: These extra methods: two- story, accretion cutting, etc., are 
 not common; they are not much used except in pine. They are promising for 
 valuable forests of large sized timber. 
 
 The Germane give the Accretion Cut two names: 
 
 1) Lichtungsauwacha: opening for growth. 
 
 2) Lichtungsbetrieb: opening the way of management. 
 These are different meanings for the same system. 
 
 These secondary systems are not so much systems of reproduction 
 ae they are systems of caring for the forest. They apply more to older 
 stands which are nearing maturity. 
 
 7) Coppice System, 
 
 a.. The coppice system has a great variety of forms according 
 to the tirnber~rai0ed and the object in view. 
 Timber: short rotations. 
 Eucalyptus I firewood system. 
 Others for shelter-belts and wind-breaks. 
 Others for tanbark; willows for baskets, etc. 
 
174. 
 
 Ordinarily the stand is cut clear: the aprouts come principally 
 from the stump, always a number of them for each stump. Some get ahead 
 and suppress the re.it. There is rapid growth, 6 to b feet in one season, 
 even 12 feet. Therefore in the first year there is a stand of bushy appea 
 ranee. Thus the soil is not exposed. The stand goes up in the air rapid- 
 ly, the trees growing in clumpa of 3 to 5; therefore the crowns are unsy- 
 metrical and one-sided, and, also, the trunks are bent toward the light. 
 Cleaning is always variaMe. There is more cleaning in tolerant species. 
 Rapid growth end early, the old stump decays away, and the sprouts may 
 or may not suffer. 
 
 The sprout stand is distinctly even~aged. The rotation is short, 
 the thinnings are restricted, and severe, vtoere a long rotation is used, 
 the tops "become long, some seed is produced, and seedlings start up. This 
 frequently happens in chestnut. 
 
 A modification of the coppice is used in France and southern lu- 
 rope: two cuts are made; the first cut is for the best timber, leaving 
 the rest to grow, and new sprouts also come in. Object: the soil is pro- 
 tected from dying out. 
 
 jo.ju The coppice is the safest of all the systems we have. We 
 know its effect on site. It occurs under thriving conditions. The fact 
 of its safety shows itself in that the reproduction is safe; there is 
 no risk of cutting clear and having no reproduction for a time. 
 
 b. The coppice is applicable to but few of the conifers; the 
 redwood is the" only good conifer in tno United states. Shortleaf pine is 
 not >uter. The Japanese Cryptoraaria is a good sprouter, it must have 
 a mild climate, good for grapes, and good soil, '-/e can often use overflow 
 bottoms, wet lands, and gully, rocky, and shallow soils, according to 
 the species. Coppice is good for a soil binder. 
 
 d.. The volume growth is very great from the start, therefore 
 the growth of the ten years after reproduction may be ten times as great 
 s that of se dlings produced. 
 
 The quality growth also is rapid; the trees are slimmer; most cop- 
 rice does not make saw timber. The heartwood has a variety of uses. It 
 is very useful stuff: poles, handles, posts, ties, firewood, etc. 
 
 . Coppice is restricted to good soils. A short rotation 
 takes off more young stuff and exhausts the soil. The stand opens because 
 of intolerant species and is not sufficiently cared for, therefore the 
 soil is apt to dry out, tho this is a necessary part of the system. There 
 is good reproduction and it ought to have good protection of the site. 
 
 jT. Ordinary business rejects coppice systems in large enter- 
 prises, as State, etc., because: 
 
 (1) Coppice needs good land. (Agricultural) 
 J2) It raises poor cheap stuff which is not acceptable 
 to the general market. 
 
 (3) It yields a small gross income per acre per year. 
 
 (4) The stand easily depreciates; there is a tendency to 
 overcut the stand. 
 
 (5) The coppice system is unable to serve most of the 
 
 important forest species and sites. The most important forest species are 
 the conifers, which are not served by this system. 
 

175- 
 
 On the other hand, the coppice system is recommended, because: 
 
 (1) A small capital only is needed, the returns are fre- 
 quent, and therefore it leads to a big industry. 
 
 (2) There are few dangers in a stand of this kind. 
 
 of stuff. 
 
 3) It affords simple, cheap handling. 
 
 4) It allows simple harvesting, by clear cutting, etc. 
 (5J It may be used as a method for raising particular kind* 
 
 . The 3tate always will be more or less interested in the 
 coppice system: 
 
 (1) It is good for the fc&AJcJb small man. 
 
 (2) It provides local people with small timber, which is 
 nevertheless necessary for the locality. 
 
 (3) It takes possession of sites and protects them against 
 erosion. 
 
 (4) It is adapted to grazing uses, particularly sheep on 
 grass lands. It can be alternated with agriculture. 
 
 8) Coppice Standards or Standard Coppice. 
 
 This has also bcsen called Composite Coppice. 
 &. Standard Coppice may be illustrated by a concrete case: 
 Assume a standard of different species. Suppose we have 100 acres of beed 
 or maple; make an annual cut of 5 acres, or a 20-year rotation. After 
 each cut plant in on that area 20 pine seedlings (or locust, etc.). Say 
 the first cut is in 1912; this is a 5~ acr e cut; plant in twenty 3-year 
 old pine seedlings or transplants. Then the same 5 acres will be cut again 
 in 1932, and now we will have a stand of 20-year pines plus 29 new seed- 
 lings. Thus we will have in: 
 
 1952: 20 of the 40-year pines 
 20 of the 20-year pines 
 20 new seedlings 
 
 and therefore in 2 coppice rotations we will have 60 pines on that 5- a re 
 area. Thru another rotation: 
 
 1972: 20 of the 60-year old pines 
 20 of the 40-year old pines 
 20 of the 20-year old pines 
 20 new seedling 
 
 This gives us a stand of 60 trees varying from 20 to 60 years of 
 age. These then are the standards. If the pine were cut on a 60 year ro- 
 tation we would plant first in 1912 and cut in 1972, and plant new pines 
 right along addition to the coppice till it is exhausted. 
 
 (in) 
 
 To show how much area standards take up we may refer to the follow- 
 ing figures: 
 
 20-year pines need 80 sq.yds. each 
 40-ye^r pines need 180 sq.yds 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 each 
 
 
 60-year pines need J20 sq.yds. each 
 
 pines need 580 sq.yds. on 5 acres, or 1/8 A. 
 
 Therefore in this illustration 1/8 acres is actually covered by 
 the standards, out of an area of 5 acres. Thus practically 4 7/8 acres 
 are left for coppice and others. The standards grow open and above the 
 coppice and therefore develop larger crowns than in normal woods. There 
 are here 60 standards in three age classes. 
 
 . Variations of this method are possible according to the 
 individual id*eas. There are gradations between straight coppice and tim- 
 ber. 
 

176. 
 
 Some of the common forms of standard coppice follow: the standards 
 may be a part of the coppice; the standards may be of a more tolerant 
 species; the standards may be intolerant and the coppice tolerant, in 
 which case we can use more standards without hurting the coppice. This is 
 better than having to use more coppice, which may hurt the standards. 
 
 The French and Germans make a specialty of standard coppice, and 
 frequently cut in 20-40 year rotations. They often produce two distinct 
 stands on the ground. The standards may be of one or several age classes. 
 
 Disadvantage of standard coppice: The upper story of the standards 
 is too open, the trees get limby; the lower story is held back by the 
 standards. In spite of this limbiness the standards are long-lived, and 
 healthy because they get much light . 
 
 The standards in high forest are flifferent. They are exceptionally 
 good trees which have been left. They grew in a closed stand; on opening 
 up the stand we may have Jrrouble. In standard coppice the trees grow up 
 in constant conditions: there is no sudden change, and therefore there is 
 better health. 
 
 . The standard coppice is as safe as the ordinary coppice 
 but in practice it needs more care and knowledge. It is apt to go back 
 to straight coppice. There is a tendency to abuse it just because it is 
 safe. 
 
 el. The volume and quality growth is large; it is even claimed 
 to beat that of the even-aged stand. A high quality of timber and a large 
 amount of smaller stuff is obtained, but this never compares with spruce, 
 balsam and pine in the amount of medium sized shapely building and saw 
 timber. In practice it is sure to get limby. 
 
 . The standard coppice system may change the wite well; && 
 there is nothing better if well handled. 
 
 jT. Business reasons for rejecting this system: 
 
 (1) All the same reasons as with ordinary coppice (page 
 tho better. crop and money is obtained if it is good. 
 
 (2) It requires greater care because every standard needs 
 watching. 
 
 (3) It is liable to injury from exposure in open stand 
 conditions . 
 
 4) There is danger of many water-sprouts in oak, etc. 
 
 5) There is danger of aun-scald in beech, because of its 
 thin bark, dry tops, etc. 
 
 Business reasons in favor of standard coppice: 
 
 1) All the good points of the ordinary coppice (p.l?5)- 
 
 2) It produces a certain amount of large timber in good 
 condition. 
 
 It gives a larger yield per acre per year for the money 
 It pilows a production of conifers and hardwoods on 
 the same land. 
 

177. 
 
 JJ. Choice of Systems. 
 
 a. Matter of species dealt with. 
 Site conditions. 
 
 c. Safety and dangers, including characters under species an< 
 
 site, "biotic factors, etc. 
 
 d. Reproduction or hard, etc. 
 
 e". Objects of the business, Public Forests, etc. 
 7. Intensity of the enterprise. 
 
 Amount of capital 
 
 Labor necessary or available 
 . Secondary uses of the forest. 
 
 a. ratter of the species dealt with. 
 
 1) Certain species, as roost conifers, exclude the use 
 
 coppice or standard coppice in the woods on account of the nature of the 
 species. Certain other species practically demand the coppiceL willow, 
 alder, chestnut, catalpa, black locust and euaalyptus. This is probably 
 the best and easiest method to use here. 
 
 2) Hard pines, tamarack, cypress, oak, walnut, hickory, and 
 most of the intolerant species do not make a satisfactory selection, for- 
 
 and so the choice here is limited to a few species. These species 
 tend to open m> and the stand opens up. A selection stand requires a 
 tolernnt species mixed with an intolerant species. The above named specie 
 usually need different systems. 
 
 3) Hemlock, balsam, and beech have a dislike for the clear 
 cut system, and so we cannot use this system fot these species unless the; 
 are very small. They are good for the selection and shelterwood systems. 
 
 4) Hard pines, tamarack and intolerant species are not able 
 to hold out as seedlings under the mother trees and so are gJl^tiiL* 
 satisfactory in shelterwood. SU **& && &^A *& ***&&& M M* *****?** 
 They are shut out from the two systems of selection and shelterwood, but 
 can be used under the clear cut system. 
 
 5) All seeded trees, as hardwoods, are of no use in natural 
 reproduction by seeding in from the side. 
 
 6) In general: the species is the first consideration in 
 determining the method of treatment. 
 
 b. Site conditions. 
 
 ' Site conditions limit the species in their possibilities. 
 They affect the distribution of speoles, etc., and thus affect the syste] 
 
 1) On poor lands we usually use only pine and therefore onl} 
 the systems suited to pine, or the clear cut with natural or artificial 
 reproduction. This is very useful on poor sites, as sandy lands. 
 
 2) Swamp lands have peculiar species: tamarack and cedar in 
 northern swamps and cypress in the south. Some black spruce and ash oc 
 -urs on the edges. The intolerant tamarack and cedar are not for the 
 lection and shelterwood systems, but include the jtse of seeding from the 
 side methods: strip, seed tree, or clenr cut methods. 
 
 3) In Northern countries (N. Canada, N. New JSngland), and 
 high altitudes we are limited to spruce and therefore to the syste] 
 
able to spruce and similar species. The selection and shelterwood sys- 
 tems are especially good for high mountains. It is impossible to seed in 
 from the side. 
 
 4) Many of the higher ridges in the Kockies exclude the 
 Yellow pine and take the lodgepole pine, which is very intolerant. 
 
 5) Good moist soil and mild climate take any system. On 
 poor land, even in a mild climate, use a system that will keep up the 
 site. Compare timber and seed trees versus coppice. The selection ss best. 
 
 6) Sand in the Southerribinery excludes the hardwoods and 
 white pine because of the soil and site together. Hard pines and their 
 systems are used here. 
 
 7) Dry situations, as yellow pine in the west, need to keep 
 moisture in the soil, therefore the clear cut system would not be used 
 here. The shelterwood system is particularly applicable, and is much used 
 by the Forest Service. 
 
 8) On steep slopes and soils which wash easily and gully, 
 the clear cut system is risky. The selection system is best. 
 
 9) In general: follow Nature wherever the site is difficult, 
 whether in climate 6r in soil, topography or even bad biotic factors 
 
 and competition of animals (insects). Insects stopped the use of the ta- 
 marack, because of the tamarack saw-fly. The black locust borer made it 
 almost impossible to have any success in planting black locust. These are 
 treated as distinct dangers, not as part of the site. 
 
 . Choice affected by safety and dangers. 
 
 1) Safety from theft is not considered in this connection, 
 but even here there is some difference in the systems. The selection is 
 easy to stepl from. 
 
 2) Safety from fire. In the hardwood district there are many 
 possibilities; there is less danger than in conifers, and you can use 
 almost any system you desire. It is claimed that the coppice system is 
 Ic-st dangerous. It is simply a part of the larger hardwood feature. 
 
 An even-aged otand should be in small bodies, then the fire will 
 not spread. The young stuff is in danger; it is drier, the crown is close 
 to the ground and the fire spreads to a top fore. The stand is more jam- 
 med. 
 
 In a coniferous district there is only one choice between an even- 
 aged and a many-aged stand: the even-aged stand in small bodies is safer 
 than the many-aged stand. Yellow pine in the southwest or in the southern 
 pinery at 40 years of age is safe. A ground fire does not hurt these trees 
 In Colorado fire can be used safely at any time. 
 
 3) Safety from storms, snow, etc. Coppice is the best, then 
 the selection system, then the even-aged stand. The shelterwood is worse 
 than the clearcut, as the trees which have been closed up are exposed and 
 tend to be wind-blown. It is good for timber to be in small bodies or in 
 compartments. Avoid lines making the mature cutting stuff face the wind. 
 This is bad, especially in 3 ruce, particularly in the prevailing winds. 
 

179- 
 
 4) Safety from snow damage. All dense stands, and tall and 
 slender saplings, suffer regardless of the system used, so that protec- 
 tion from this danger is chiefly a matter of spacing to make the trees 
 resistant and become stiff. 
 
 5) Frost hurts mostly in reproduction. The shelterwood is 
 best for the protection of young stands; the selection system also is 
 good. The clear cut system is not good, iilven coppice is bad with some 
 
 s ecies. 
 
 6) Insects attack all kinds of timber regardless of system. 
 They are worse in conifers than in hardwoods, and in the pure forest than 
 in mixed forest because each insect has its pet species, and takes the 
 whole stand. This is not so bad in a mixed stand. 
 
 The site tells whether to use a pure forest. Most of these stands 
 are pure sind so tun right into danger. We have the choice of the clear 
 cut, shelterwood and selection systems. Large areas of young trees and 
 large bodies of old trees are more attacked. To avoid these conditions 
 use the selection or clear cut systems with the timber in small bodies. 
 The greatest damage is done to reproduction and to over-mature stands. 
 

,U C.BERKELEY LIB 
 
 M740389 
 
 SD391 
 
 R52 
 
 Forestry