THE MENTAL AND 
 PHYSICAL LIFE OF 
 SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 PETER SANDIFORD
 
 TATE 
 
 SCHG, 
 
 TATE NORMAL SCHOC 
 
 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 
 
 I JLJJl
 
 .
 
 THE 
 
 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL LIFE 
 OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 BY 
 
 PETER SANDIFORD 
 
 M.Sc. (MANCHESTER), PH.D. (COLUMBIA) 
 
 LECTURER ON EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 
 
 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON 
 
 NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA 
 
 1913 
 
 All rights reserved
 
 Education 
 Library 
 
 TO 
 MY FORMER TEACHER 
 
 EDWARD L. THORNDIKE 
 
 THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY 
 INSCRIBED
 
 PREFACE 
 
 MY object in writing this book has been to present a com- 
 prehensive account of Child Nature for the use of students 
 in Training Colleges for Teachers. The experience I have 
 gained during the past seven years with students in England 
 and America is embodied in this work. 
 
 The book is intended to serve as a text-book, i.e. it aims 
 at giving, in as brief a space as possible, a large number of 
 facts which may be utilised in class discussion. Some 
 parts of the work may appear too difficult for the young 
 student, but the method of treatment seems justified by 
 the great advance which scientific investigation has made 
 in this branch of Education. Some of the topics discussed 
 are of a controversial nature, and where this is the case, 
 I have endeavoured to present both sides of the question 
 in a frank and dispassionate manner. 
 
 It is an axiom of Science that if two hypotheses explain 
 certain facts or phenomena equally well, the simpler 
 should be chosen. Believing that the mechanistic con- 
 ception offers the simplest explanation of mind, I have 
 assumed throughout this work (though not without con- 
 siderable misgivings in places) that all mental action has a 
 physical basis. This has led me to give a more detailed 
 treatment of the structure and functions of the nervous 
 system than is usual in books of this nature. The technical 
 terms, which are of necessity introduced, will probably be 
 found confusing at first, but experience shows that the 
 initial bewilderment soon gives way to clearer knowledge. 
 
 Mind tends to express itself in action ; a study of the 
 mind in action (Dynamic or Functional Psychology) 
 occupies the major part of these pages ; Descriptive 
 Psychology is relegated to a very secondary position. 
 
 In the development of child nature, change and growth 
 are the outstanding features. These aspects I have 
 endeavoured to emphasise throughout the whole book.
 
 viii PREFACE 
 
 The arrangement of topics discussed in the various 
 chapters calls for a note of explanation. The book is divided 
 into three main parts. In the first, the physical life of 
 the child is discussed, because facts falling within this 
 category are usually comprehended more easily by the 
 young student. The second part deals with the physio- 
 logical basis of mental life and serves as an introduction 
 to the more strictly psychological treatment which follows. 
 In the third part, the mental life is described in some detail. 
 Illustrations from other fields are freely used and the 
 results of experimental investigations are included wherever 
 possible. The later sections of the book are applications 
 of the findings of previous ones. 
 
 I have opened with a discussion of the problem of heredity 
 and environment from the standpoint of the educator. 
 The importance of this topic cannot be over-emphasised, 
 for the conclusions which the people of a nation reach with 
 regard to it consciously or unconsciously affect the whole 
 of its educational organisation and procedure. Chapter III. 
 on " The Statistical Treatment of Educational Measure- 
 ments " is for reference purposes only, the statistical terms 
 used in other parts of the book being there explained. 
 
 Sensation logically belongs to the section on Descriptive 
 Psychology. It is discussed in the chapter on sense organs 
 to preserve a simplicity of arrangement. No difficulty 
 should be found with the order of the other chapters. I 
 have made no attempt to make the reference lists exhaus- 
 tive, but trust nevertheless that they will be helpful for 
 further study. 
 
 I have received help from every previous writer on the 
 subject whose works I have read, but I should like to 
 acknowledge my especial indebtedness to the writings of 
 Dr. E. L. Thorndike. The inscription of the book to this 
 highly original thinker and investigator is but a poor recog- 
 nition of the help and stimulus I have received from him. 
 
 The manuscript has been read by Dr. I. L. Kandel and 
 my wife, and in part by Mr. T. H. Pear ; the proofs have 
 been corrected by Mr. S. E. Maltby and Mr. A. E. Codd. I 
 wish to express my thanks to them all for their generous 
 help and valuable criticisms. 
 
 P. S. 
 
 MANCHESTER, 1913.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 SECTION I. 
 THE PHYSICAL LIFE OF THE CHILD. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT - 1 
 
 II. THE PHYSICAL GROWTH OF THE CHILD - 26 
 
 III. THE STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF EDUCATIONAL 
 
 MEASUREMENTS 44 
 
 IV. MEDICAL INSPECTION OR HEALTH EXAMINATION 64 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MENTAL LIFE : 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 V. THE EVOLUTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM - 81 
 
 VI. THE CONSTITUTION, FUNCTIONS, AND ACTIONS 
 
 OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM - 92 
 
 VII. THE END ORGANS AND SENSATION - - - 108 
 
 SECTION III. 
 DYNAMIC OR FUNCTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 VIII. INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES - 124 
 
 IX. HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS (PRACTICE, 
 
 FATIGUE AND METHODS OF LEARNING) - 142 
 
 X. ASSOCIATION 174
 
 x CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XI. MEMORY - 186 
 
 XII. SUGGESTION AND IMITATION - 202 
 
 XIII. ATTENTION AND INTEREST - - - -'214 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 DESCRIPTIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 XIV. PERCEPTION - 237 
 
 XV. IMAGINATION AND IMAGES - - 249 
 
 XVI. THE EMOTIONS - - 264 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 XVII. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF BABYHOOD AND ADOL- 
 ESCENCE - - 277 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 XVIII. EXCEPTIONAL SCHOOL CHILDREN - - 296 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF A SPECIAL SUBJECT. 
 XIX. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 314 
 
 INDEX 340
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 1. The dotted " circle " at B represents a completely 
 
 developed individual. Such a person, of course, is 
 purely imaginary. The " circle " at A, for a person 
 say of 40 years of age, is far more true to facts - 2 
 
 2. Each vertical line represents a man. Only a small 
 
 fraction of the 10,000 men is represented. The curve 
 joining the tops of the lines is known as an ogive - 6 
 
 3. A Normal Distribution Curve or a Normal Surface 
 
 of Frequency. The Theoretical Distribution of 1,000 
 persons is shown - - 7 
 
 4. Distribution Curve for the stature of 8,585 adult 
 
 males in the United Kingdom - - 9 
 
 5. Diagrammatic representation of a typical Mendelian 
 
 experiment with round and wrinkled peas. " Round- 
 ness " is dominant and " Wrinkledness " is recessive 12 
 
 6. Diagram to illustrate how the various percentages are 
 
 obtained in Mendelian experiments - - 13 
 
 7. Median Ratio Table - - 63 
 
 8. The Amoeba - - 81 
 
 9. The Paramoecium - - 83 
 
 10. The Hydra. I. General view (semi-diagrammatic). 
 
 II. Diagrammatic representation of a part of the 
 ectoderm showing a sensory cell, a motor nerve cell, 
 an interpolating nerve cell, and a muscle cell - - 84 
 
 11. The Medusa or jelly-fish (schematic) - - 85 
 
 12. The Earthworm. I. Anterior end of worm. II. 
 
 Diagrammatic representation of nervous system - 86 
 
 13. Elliot Smith's " tree " of the later evolutionary forms 
 
 of man - - 89 
 
 14. Simple auditory apparatuses. I. Simple auditory 
 
 sac. II. A primitive form of ear showing division 
 into two parts - 90 
 
 15. View of upper surface of brain showing fissures, gyri 
 
 and lobes - - 92 
 
 16. View of under surface of brain with nerves numbered 
 
 (after Henle and Van Gehuchten) - - 93 
 
 17. View of left side of brain showing cerebrum and cere- 
 
 bellum ....... -.94
 
 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIO. PAOE 
 
 18. View of mesial section of brain showing right hemi- 
 
 sphere (after Edinger and Retzius) - 95 
 
 19. Two views of spinal cord showing white and grey 
 
 matter, and motor and sensory fibres - - 96 
 
 20. (Lapage.) Diagram to show the position in the brain 
 
 of the four centres that have to do with the recep- 
 tion, the production and the storing-up of memories 
 of speech, reading and writing. Note the associa- 
 tion fibres joining up the four centres, each with the 
 other three - - 100 
 
 21. Curve to indicate the Weber-Fechner law of a loga- 
 
 rithmical relation between excitation and sensation 
 (from Waller). The excitations are indicated 
 along the abscissae, the sensations along the ordi- 
 nates. The increase in sensation is represented as 
 taking place in equal steps, " the minimal percep- 
 tible difference," while the corresponding excita- 
 tions require an increasing increment of one-third at 
 each step, namely, 1, 1'33, 1-77, 2'37, etc. That is, 
 for equal increments of sensation increasing incre- 
 ments of stimulation are necessary - 111 
 
 22. I. Horizontal section through the left eye (schematic 
 
 after Gegenbaur). II. Meridional section to show 
 
 the position of the ciliary muscle (Schultze) - - 113 
 
 23. Semi-diagrammatic section through right ear (after 
 
 Czermak) - - 117 
 
 24. Curves showing the improvement in sending and 
 
 receiving telegraphic messages (Bryan and Harter) 153 
 
 25. Typewriting practice curve, showing average im- 
 
 provement of five subjects during thirty days - 155 
 
 26. Typewriting practice curve of re-learning (one sub- 
 
 ject) - 158 
 
 27. Curve of Freshness : average for 50 students - 167 
 
 28. Curve of Forgetting (Ebbinghaus) - - 197 
 
 29. McDougall's Dot Figure - - - 220 
 
 30. Hering Figure . 242 
 
 31. Vertical Distance Illusion - 243 
 
 32. Ring Illusion : Confluxion and Contrast - - - 243 
 
 33. Angle Illusions : 1. Double angle illusion ; 2. Simple 
 
 angle illusion ; 3. Poggendorf Figure ; 4. Hering 
 Figures ; 5. Zollner's Pattern - - - 244 
 
 34. Reversible Perspective Figure - 245 
 
 35. Curves showing heights and weights of adolescent 
 
 boys and girls - - - 287
 
 SECTION I. 
 THE PHYSICAL LIFE OF THE CHILD. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT. 
 
 The Correlative Nature of Heredity and Environment. A 
 human being at any time of his life is the product of two 
 influences heredity and environment. The zygote (ferti- 
 lised ovum) from which he grew and developed possessed at 
 the moment of its formation the finite and fixed hereditary 
 possibilities which might or might not be realised during 
 subsequent existence ; his environment, on the other hand, 
 has never been identically the same for two consecutive 
 seconds, and never will be. Yet it must not be thought 
 that hereditary influences ceased at the moment of ferti- 
 lisation and that chance environments alone have made 
 the individual what he is to-day ; rather must we think of 
 environment as the field in which hereditary traits and 
 capacities are developed, of heredity and environment as 
 strict correlatives, and as inseparable factors in organic 
 growth and development. 
 
 Definition of Heredity. The term heredity has been 
 variously and often loosely defined. By some writers it 
 is looked upon as a force moulding the offspring in the 
 likeness of the parent, by others as the antithesis of varia- 
 tion, i.e. heredity is the resemblance, and variation the 
 dissimilarity between progenitors and descendants. Per- 
 haps it may be best defined as the complete potentialities 
 of an organism at the moment of impregnation, but for 
 practical purposes we are forced to accept the definition 
 that heredity is the complete congenital equipment of the 
 individual. Hence, if we study a man's native endowment, 
 
 A
 
 2 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 we study his heredity. The study usually takes the form 
 of comparing an individual's traits, both physical and 
 mental, with the traits of some of his ancestors, immediate 
 or more remote. 
 
 Specialisation of Heredity. The primary fact about 
 heredity is that " like tends to beget like," that there is an 
 inherent tendency of the offspring to resemble its pro- 
 genitors both in form and function. A closer examination 
 reveals the fact that the likeness is only superficial, for 
 there are numberless small differences or variations. This 
 leads us to suppose that heredity is highly complex and 
 specialised, and that there may be relatively large variations 
 of minute parts without affecting the structure in gross. 
 We may look upon an individual as a bundle of thousands 
 of mental and physical traits. And no two bundles are 
 alike, not even in those cases of extraordinary likeness 
 sometimes found in twins. Some children are born to be 
 tall, others to be short ; some to be intellectual, others 
 to be stupid, and so on. Given sets of traits are often 
 found in correlation, yet it is helpful to look upon each 
 trait as separate and independent. If we represented the 
 heredity of individuals by diagrams, we should get some- 
 thing like the following : 
 
 FIG. 1. The dotted " circle " at B represents a completely developed 
 individual. Such a person, of course, is purely imaginary. The " circle " 
 at A, for a person say of 40 years of age, is far more true to facts. 
 
 In the diagram a capacity or trait is represented by an 
 arrow. (There ought to be thousands of arrows but the 
 diagram will not permit of them being drawn.) Each trait 
 in itself is a compound of many simpler traits, e.g. a man's 
 weight is a compound of the weight of bones, muscles, fa't,
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 3 
 
 etc., or is a compound of the weight of his head, trunk, 
 neck and limbs. These simpler traits are analysable into 
 something still more elementary and so on ad infinitum. 
 The length of the arrow represents the amount of endow- 
 ment in any given trait. Thus A, on the whole, is exceed- 
 ingly well endowed ; B moderately so ; while C is extremely 
 deficient. If mental traits alone are considered, A repre- 
 sents the type known as genius, B the average person, and 
 C the mentally defective. But there is no sharp line of 
 demarcation between the types ; all tests and measurements 
 show that there is a continuous scale of variations from the 
 dullest idiot to the brightest genius. A man may be quite 
 dull along some lines and brilliant along others ; thus a 
 genius at mathematics or at music may be quite hopeless 
 where leadership of men is concerned. Generally speaking, 
 however, nature does not work on a plan of compensation : 
 she seems to say that " unto every one that hath shall be 
 given, and he shall have abundance," so that we usually 
 find a clever man gifted in many directions, though never 
 in all. (See Fig. 1.) 
 
 Heredity as a limiting factor. Heredity not only deter- 
 mines what traits a man shall possess, but also limits 
 their possible development. This fact is often overlooked 
 in discussions about the development of mental traits, for 
 we are apt to suppose, because we never reach the limit 
 of nature's mental and moral gifts, that there is no limit 
 to them. Yet all teachers know that different individuals 
 have different mental equipments just as they have different 
 physical equipments. It is evident to all that, no matter 
 what stimulus is applied, a child cannot be made to grow 
 to 20 ft. in height ; yet a similar situation with respect to 
 mathematics, music or piety is seldom realised. No one 
 observing a mentally or morally defective child can deny 
 the existence of his limitations. If such limitations of 
 nature are not accepted, we must hold to the view that, 
 given sufficient time, all people can be taught all knowledge 
 and can develop all virtues. 
 
 Environment. Environment may be looked upon as the 
 sum of the stimuli tending to develop the inherent traits or 
 capacities of individuals. Environment may also destroy 
 traits and capacities that have already been developed. 
 A blow on the head may destroy the mental capacity of the 
 greatest genius : a shot in a war may reduce a man's
 
 4 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 stature by the length of his legs. Environmental stimuli 
 cannot develop traits which are not potentially present. 
 A person who is stone deaf must for ever be insensible 
 to the charms of grand opera ; a boy with defective motor 
 control can never make a skilled craftsman ; while all of 
 us are uninfluenced by the waves of wireless telegraphy 
 because no recording apparatus for such has yet been 
 evolved in human beings. A musician, such as Beethoven, 
 if born in the depths of the African forests or in the wilds 
 of Patagonia could never produce beautiful sonatas, although 
 he might, perchance, become the best tom-tom beater of 
 his tribe. In just the same way a child born in slumdom 
 and poverty might have valuable powers atrophied or 
 destroyed. It is not given to educators to create powers 
 in individuals but, by supplying suitable environmental 
 stimuli, they can prevent their waste or deterioration. 
 Education, in its widest sense, is thus synonymous with 
 environment, although in the narrower sense of schooling 
 it is restricted to the specialised environment artificially 
 created by adults for the development of the innate powers of 
 the young. Since the wider environment cannot always 
 be relied on to stimulate those powers which we, as adults, 
 consider the essential attributes of human beings, we create 
 and direct stimuli in school so that they literally bombard 
 the individuals undergoing treatment. It would be a long 
 time indeed before a child, if he ran wild on the streets, 
 would learn that 9 X 7 = 63 or that William the Conqueror 
 landed in 1066, yet such facts as these are taught with 
 relative ease in the school. 
 
 This view of heredity and environment will explain some 
 of the fundamental defects in our current conceptions of 
 education. The fact that a teacher or inspector demands 
 of each and every member of a class four sums right, a 
 dictation or a composition without a single spelling mistake, 
 writing that approaches a copperplate standard, and draw- 
 ings of equal degrees of merit can only be explained on the 
 assumption that the idea of different hereditary endowments 
 of scholars has either not been grasped or has not been put 
 into practice. Why should all children be put through 
 exactly the same mill ? Why should we expect them to 
 develop at equal rates when experience shows that at the 
 end of a course, in spite of all our wisdom (or stupidity) 
 children differ far more than they did at the beginning ?
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 5 
 
 Babies are far more alike than are children of thirteen or 
 selected students of twenty. The same fundamental error 
 was at the basis of the monitorial and the pupil-teacher 
 systems in England, as well as of that great educational 
 backsliding known as the system of " payment by results." 
 
 Variation. It has been pointed out previously that 
 although offspring tend to resemble their progenitors, and 
 that somewhat closely, differences or variations also occur. 
 In biology a variation is defined as a filial departure from 
 the parental type which is founded on a germinal change. 
 The important part of the definition is that which insists 
 on the germinal change. An accident which destroyed or 
 injured part of an individual, e.g. the amputation of a 
 finger or the scalding of the face, would not be looked upon 
 as the cause of a variation, because the scars or mutilations 
 are not inherent and would not be reproduced in the 
 succeeding generation. If, however, by the stimulus of 
 food alone, and quite apart from the influence of use or 
 injury, a person grew an extra (sixth) finger, this departure 
 from the normal would be a true variation and consequently 
 would tend to reappear in subsequent generations. The 
 higher the animal and the more varied the environment in 
 which it has to survive, the greater is the number of its 
 variations. The power to vary is probably a " survival 
 factor." In the case of lower animals living in a uniform 
 and constant environment such as is furnished by a large 
 expanse of water, there would seem to be no variation. 
 The two daughter amoebae formed by " fission " of the uni- 
 cellular parent are almost identically alike. Non- varying 
 organisms demand a non- varying environment ; an un- 
 favourable change in the environment would annihilate 
 the species. Such a situation, owing to variations, is practi- 
 cally impossible in the higher animals. A change in the 
 environment, while unfavourable to some, would certainly 
 favour others, and these would survive to impress their 
 distinctive characteristics upon succeeding generations. 
 
 The mechanism of variation lies in the germs. The 
 separate germs may be looked upon as different combina- 
 tions of possible characters : should one germ be the cause 
 of fertilisation one set of characters will appear in the 
 organism ; if another germ a correspondingly different 
 set will appear. The variation in germs will explain why 
 tall lean parents may have a short fat child, red-haired
 
 6 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 parents a black-haired child, and stupid parents a brilliant 
 child. In general, however, variations obey two laws : (1) 
 The law of distribution in a form resembling that of mere 
 chance ; (2) The law of regression towards the normal of the 
 species or race. 
 
 (1) The law of chance may best be illustrated by an 
 example. Suppose that all the men (10,000) of a given town 
 were arranged in a long row beginning with the shortest 
 and ending with the tallest. We should find that a line 
 joining the tops of the heads would rise sharply at first, then 
 remain almost horizontal for a long time, and finally take 
 another sharp turn near the end. The reason for this is 
 obvious ; there are but few very tall or very short men in 
 a given community, the majority are of " average " height. 
 If we represented each man by a line* we should get'a figure 
 somewhat like the following : 
 
 M.en arranged according to Keroht>-^- 
 o o o 
 
 FIG. 2. Each vertical line represents a man. Only a small fraction of 
 the 10,000 men is represented. The curve joining the tops of the lines is 
 known as an ogive. 
 
 The peculiarly shaped curve obtained by drawing a 
 smooth line through the tops of the perpendiculars is known 
 as an ogive. A more usual way of representing such facts 
 graphically is shown by Fig. 3. 
 
 The curve is obtained by plotting out the numbers of 
 men whose heights fall between the various consecutive 
 inches. It is known in statistics as a Normal Distribution 
 Curve ; a Normal Surface of Frequency ; a Curve of Chance ; 
 or a Gaussian Curve. Such a curve could be obtained 
 experimentally by plotting, in similar manner, the numbers 
 of " heads " obtained when thirty coins are tossed a very
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 7 
 
 large number of times, say 10,000. Fifteen heads would 
 turn up most frequently, none and thirty extremely rarely, 
 while the bulk of the results would cluster round the average. 
 
 J 
 
 oQ 
 
 ' 
 -C 
 
 c 
 
 O +P-E +2.P-E +3P-E +4P-E +5P-E 
 
 -5P-E-4PE -3P-E -2.PE -P-E 
 Heights of Men >~ 
 
 FiO. 3. A Normal Distribution Curve or a Normal Surface of Fre- 
 quency. The theoretical distribution of 1000 persons is shown. 
 
 That the statures of adult men approximate this normal 
 distribution curve is shown by Table 1 and its graphical 
 representation Fig. 4. 
 
 Many of the measurements of variable traits, both 
 physical and mental, approximate to this type of curve if a 
 sufficient number of cases be taken. Complex mental 
 abilities, as for example, general intellectual capacity, are, 
 so far as is known, distributed in like manner. 
 
 (2) The second law of variation is more difficult to under- 
 stand and explain. It would seem as if nature abhorred 
 extremes or large variations of any kind ; as if the average 
 or normal were to be preserved at all costs. Keeping to 
 our illustration of stature we find that tall parents have 
 taller offspring than the average of the whole population, 
 yet shorter than they themselves are ; conversely, short 
 parents are found to have shorter offspring than the average
 
 8 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 of the population, yet taller than their own average. In 
 an actual measurement, fathers seventy-two inches in 
 height had sons of average stature 70-8 inches, while fathers 
 
 TABLE 1. 
 
 Showing the Stature of 8,585 Adult Males (age from 23 to 50) of the 
 Population of the United Kingdom, arranged according to Place 
 of Birth. Final Report of Anthropometric Committee to the 
 British Association, 1883, p. 256. 
 
 Height without Shoes. 
 
 Number of Men within said limits of Height. 
 Place of Birth. 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Wales. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 
 57- 
 
 1-448 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 58- 
 
 1-474 
 
 3 
 
 'i 
 
 . 9 
 
 
 4 
 
 59- 
 
 1-499 
 
 12 
 
 . . 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 60- 
 
 1-525 
 
 39 
 
 2 
 
 
 . , 
 
 41 
 
 61- 
 
 1-550 
 
 70 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 83 
 
 62- 
 
 1-575 
 
 128 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 169 
 
 63- 
 
 1-601 
 
 320 
 
 19 
 
 48 
 
 7 
 
 394 
 
 64- 
 
 1-625 
 
 524 
 
 47 
 
 83 
 
 15 
 
 669 
 
 65- 
 
 1-653 
 
 740 
 
 109 
 
 108 
 
 33 
 
 990 
 
 66- 
 
 1-677 
 
 881 
 
 139 
 
 145 
 
 58 
 
 1223 
 
 67- 
 
 1-702 
 
 918 
 
 210 
 
 128 
 
 73 
 
 1329 
 
 68- 
 
 1-728 
 
 886 
 
 210 
 
 72 
 
 62 
 
 1230 
 
 69- 
 
 1-754 
 
 753 
 
 218 
 
 52 
 
 40 
 
 1063 
 
 70- 
 
 1-779 
 
 473 
 
 115 
 
 33 
 
 25 
 
 646 
 
 71- 
 
 1-804 
 
 254 
 
 102 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 392 
 
 72- 
 
 1-830 
 
 117 
 
 69 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 202 
 
 73- 
 
 1-855 
 
 48 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 79 
 
 74- 
 
 1-881 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 
 32 
 
 75- 
 
 1-906 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 16 
 
 76- 
 
 1-931 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 77- 
 
 1-957 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Total, 
 
 6194 
 
 1304 
 
 741 
 
 346 
 
 8585 
 
 of sixty-six inches had sons whose average height was 
 68-3 inches. The coefficient of correlation (see p. 55) for 
 height between brother and brother will thus be greater 
 than that between father and son. Pearson 1 found the 
 former to be -5 and the latter -3. This law of regression 
 
 1 Biometrica ; Vols. III. and V.
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 9 
 
 towards the normal seems to be quite general for all the 
 mental and physical traits of organisms ; it holds for 
 intellect as well as for length of legs and explains why races 
 of giants, physical or intellectual, cannot be produced. 
 
 5? 59 6l 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 
 Stature in inches 
 
 FIG. 4. Distribution curve for the stature of 8,585 adult males in the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 "Variation as the basis of Evolution. Variation in the 
 organism makes evolution possible. By organic evolution 
 is meant an adaptive change that is undergone by a race. 
 Animals and plants were not always as we now know them ; 
 they have gradually changed from some simpler form in 
 response to a changing environment. This principle is the 
 greatest generalisation of the present scientific era, and it 
 is to Charles Darwin that we owe its clear enunciation. Man, 
 who occupies the summit. of the tree of evolution, is no 
 exception to the rule. Comparative anatomy shows him 
 to be a blood relation of the monkey and a more distant 
 relation of other mammalia, reptiles, amphibia and fishes. 
 Embryological evidence shows that in his development he 
 passes through many simpler animal forms, vestiges of 
 which remain after birth. Palaeontology the study of 
 fossil remains while giving evidence of a more fragmentary
 
 10 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 nature, also supports the principle, all the records found 
 being favourable to this theory. 
 
 Variation in itself is unable to effect an evolution of 
 species. There must be in addition, as Darwin pointed 
 out in his Origin of Species, a struggle for existence and 
 the elimination of the unfit. Organic evolution has thus 
 proceeded through the natural selection of suitable variants. 
 A few brief examples must suffice. The giraffe has de- 
 scended from a comparatively short-necked animal that 
 fed on the leaves of the lower branches of trees. We can 
 imagine a descendant of a primitive giraffe having a varia- 
 tion in the direction of a longer neck. He would thus be 
 enabled to reach more food, grow bigger and stronger, and 
 defeat his companions in love and war. Since the change 
 was a germinal one, his descendants would tend to inherit 
 the variation and those doing so would obtain additional 
 advantages in the struggle for existence. This process 
 would go on through the ages and eventually the long 
 neck of the giraffe would be evolved. The development of 
 the neck would cease as soon as the advantages and dis- 
 advantages of its possession balanced each other as survival 
 factors. In exactly the same manner the present day trunk 
 of the elephant has been evolved from the " mere-smear " 
 nose of his prehistoric ancestor. With man there is much 
 greater difficulty in tracing the stages of his evolution. 
 Certain it is that at some period in his history the variation 
 of his brain in size and complexity became effective as a 
 survival factor, for man found himself able to gain by 
 cunning and strategy what he had formerly gained by 
 force. In evolution a short view shows little change : 
 observation over a long period of time gives marked 
 indications of the process. Man is estimated to have been 
 on the earth at least two hundred and fifty thousand 
 years : even this period is none too long for all the 
 changes to have taken place. 
 
 Mendelism. The foregoing explanation makes evolution 
 dependent upon the successful influence of small variations. 
 It matters not whether the mechanism is the selection of 
 favourable chance variations, or if ortho-genesis the 
 tendency to vary in a positive rather than a negative 
 direction so far as useful functions are concerned plays 
 its part. There are, however, many difficulties in the way 
 of this explanation. Why should a small variation possess
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 11 
 
 such a great survival value ? The whole of the difficulties 
 are not explained away even by the hypothesis of Lloyd 
 Morgan, which states that slight variations which have in 
 themselves small survival value, may, if possessed by an 
 organism which has great power of accommodation or 
 learning, be developed and so attain a value as a survival 
 factor. The theory of heterogenesis, which supposes that 
 large variations occur and so produce entirely new and 
 stable varieties (pure lines), has not yet been proved, though 
 evidence in its favour is on the increase. It finds great 
 support from the biologists of the Mendelian school, whose 
 experiments seem to indicate an evolution by a series of 
 jerks or jumps rather than by a steady, progressive and 
 almost imperceptible change. They postulate the inheri- 
 tance of unit characters which are stable and constant, and 
 the production of new varieties by different combinations 
 of these hereditary elements. 
 
 The founder of the Mendelian School was Johann Gregor 
 Mendel, a monk of Briinn in Bohemia, who performed a 
 classical series of experiments with the edible pea in the early 
 sixties. This work was forgotten, or at least not recog- 
 nised at its true worth, until it was repeated in 1900. The 
 following may be taken as a type of Mendelian experiment : 
 If a pea (W) which has a wrinkled skin when dry is sown 
 and crossed with a pea (R) which remains round when dry 
 (owing to the nature of the starch grain), the resultant 
 peas (F a ) of the first filial generation are all round, no matter 
 which way the fertilisation is performed round to wrinkled, 
 or wrinkled to round. If now the F a peas are sown and self- 
 fertilised or crossed indiscriminately between themselves, 
 the resultant crop F 2 is composed of twenty-five per cent, of 
 wrinkled peas and seventy-five per cent, of round peas. 
 But the roundness is now of two kinds. Twenty-five per 
 cent, when self -fertilised or crossed with the original round 
 pea breed true with respect to roundness through practi- 
 cally an indefinite number of generations. The other fifty 
 per cent, are not pure " rounds," for on self -fertilisation or 
 on crossing with F ; there is a repetition of the behaviour of 
 F! when it was self -fertilised, i.e. twenty-five per cent, pure 
 " rounds," twenty-five per cent, pure " wrinkled " and fifty 
 per cent, of the mixed variety are obtained. These pheno- 
 mena may be obtained so long as the experiment is con- 
 tinued. Fig. 5 gives the result in diagrammatic form.
 
 12 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The Mendelian explanation is very simple. There exist 
 in the germs of the peas two varieties of characters in one 
 wrinkledness, in the other roundness. But roundness 
 predominates in the crossings, hence this character is said 
 to be dominant, while wrinkledness is said to be recessive. 
 Each germ, so far as peas are concerned, may be said to 
 have two unit characters or determiners. The crossings 
 which produce the Fj generation can only produce one type 
 
 F 3 
 
 F+ 
 
 Fia. 5. Diagrammatic representation of a typical Mendelian experi- 
 ment with round and wrinkled peas. " Roundness " is dominant and 
 " wrinkledness " is recessive. 
 
 of offspring, the (Rw) type. Self-fertilisation of the F x 
 generation can produce three types, as will be seen from 
 Fig. 6 (II.), namely (RR), (Rw), and (WW); and the (Rw) 
 type will be twice as numerous as either of the other two, 
 providing the fertilisation is according to the laws of chance. 
 Other dominant characters found in peas are long stems 
 over short stems, yellow cotyledons over green cotyledons, 
 purple flowers over white flowers, inflated ripe pods over 
 constricted ripe pods, green unripe pods over yellow unripe 
 pods, and axial flowers over terminal flowers. If, however, 
 a variety has one character dominant, say tallness, it does
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 
 
 13 
 
 n 
 
 not follow that its other qualities, e.g. colour of flowers, 
 etc. , are also dominant. Hence by judicious crossings many 
 different varieties may be produced. 
 
 Similar experiments have been performed on animals such 
 as mice, guinea-pigs, fowls, pigeons, canaries, sheep, etc., 
 and the results show that while unit characters, for the 
 most part, are inherited as 
 wholes, the strict Mendelian 
 dominance is not preserved ; 
 the Mendelian dominance seems 
 to be a matter of degree only 
 and not of kind. The number 
 of determiners or unit charac- 
 ters seems to increase as the 
 scale of evolution is ascended. 
 In man, if Mendelian inheri- 
 tance be followed, the number 
 of unit characters must be very 
 great. Still, certain features, 
 such as eye-colour, hair colour, 
 polydactylism, brachydactyl- 
 ism, haemophilia, chorea ("St 
 Vitus' Dance"), some forms of 
 colour-blindness, some forms of 
 feeble -mindedness and night- 
 blindness (the inability to see 
 in a dull light), seem to follow 
 Mendelian laws. Other traits 
 
 such as skin colour, insanity and imbecility are much more 
 doubtful and complicated. It is worthy of note, however, 
 that the normal surface of frequency so often found by 
 biometricians when measuring a given trait in a large 
 number of individuals, is easily explained on the assumption 
 that the number of unit characters is very great, and that 
 chance alone determines fertilisation. 
 
 Inheritance of Acquired Characters. Another question 
 which vexes students of heredity and drives them into 
 hostile camps is that of the inheritance or non-inheritance 
 of acquired characters. It has been shown previously that 
 environment can either develop or prevent the development 
 of innate powers. It may also destroy them after develop- 
 ment. The environmental stimuli may be classified under 
 three heads nutrition, use and injury. No character de- 
 
 FIG . 6 . Diagram to illustrate how 
 the various percentages are obtained 
 in Mendelian experiments.
 
 14 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 veloped by nutrition or by use plus nutrition can possibly be 
 an acquired character ; * while characters obtained through 
 injury are always acquired. The capacity for large develop- 
 ment of muscles found in an athlete is innate ; use and 
 nutrition have simply developed them to the fullest possible 
 extent. The loss of a finger or the distortion of the spine 
 are acquired characters because nature did not from the 
 beginning intend such loss or distortion. Hence the usual 
 definition of an acquired character, as one that is not 
 germinal but arises under the stimulus of use or injury, 
 needs modification. In the first place, " use stimuli " can 
 never develop anything unless nutriment is also present ; 
 secondly, they can never develop powers which are 
 not already present. The real questions at issue are the 
 following : (1) are characters acquired by injury in this 
 generation, developed by nutrition alone in the next ? 
 (2) are characters abnormally developed by nutrition and 
 use, developed by nutrition alone, or by nutrition and a 
 smaller amount of use, in the succeeding generation ? 
 
 The answer to the first question seems to be decidedly 
 in the negative. Mutilations, even when practised for 
 many generations, are never inherited. Sheep, horses and 
 dogs have had their tails docked for generations, yet tail- 
 less breeds have not arisen ; Chinese babies are born with 
 feet of normal size in spite of foot-mutilation by generation 
 after generation of Chinese women ; and English girls do 
 not inherit the eigh teen-inch waist of foolish mothers. The 
 experiments of Brown-Sequard on guinea-pigs seemed to 
 prove that mutilations of the central nervous system were 
 inherited, but repetition of his experiments have failed 
 to confirm the results, and other equally plausible explana- 
 tions are possible. 
 
 The second question is more difficult to answer because 
 of the difficulty of isolating the various factors involved. 
 For example, a man studies science or mathematics and his 
 children also turn out scientists or mathematicians. The 
 most obvious explanation is that exercise along these lines 
 on the part of the parent has been beneficial. But other 
 explanations are possible. It may be that both parent 
 and child come of stock that has long devoted itself to 
 scientific or musical pursuits. Absence of stimuli may 
 have been the cause of its non-appearance in earlier genera- 
 
 1 This is a slight variation from the Lamarckian use of the term.
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 15 
 
 tions. Again the trait may have been a variation which 
 appeared for the first time in one of the parents, and being 
 a germinal change it re-appeared in the offspring. And 
 so with other characters like the large muscles of the 
 athlete. The son of an athlete would never develop into 
 a man as strong as his father if he led a sedentary life. 
 Crucial experiments such as could be performed on quick- 
 breeding animals like mice, rats and guinea pigs are needed, 
 but they have not yet been performed. 
 
 Weismann's Theory of the Germ-Plasm. This theory, 
 put forward by Weismann in 1885, lends support to the 
 preceding arguments. According to Weismann the germ- 
 plasm is the originator of the individual, for only when a 
 portion of the parent germ-plasm is separated off can the 
 daughter organism arise. The germ-plasm is thus con- 
 tinuous, everlasting and immortal so long as the race sur- 
 vives. But this does not mean that the germ-plasm of 
 man is the same as the primordial protoplasm which floated 
 in the primitive ocean ; rather must we think of it as con- 
 tinuous in the same sense that a man is a continuation of the 
 boy. Part of the germ-plasm may, in the subsequent 
 development of the individual, change or " differentiate " 
 to various forms of body-plasm, but body -plasm may never 
 revert to the germ-plasm from which it was formed. The 
 somatic (body) cells serve as a means of shelter and nutri- 
 tion to the germ cells and it is the latter alone that are the 
 bearers of heredity. The body cells cannot give living 
 elements to the germ cells, for there is no mechanism by 
 means of which such a transference may be effected. In 
 other words, the theory of the germ-plasm implies the 
 non-inheritance of acquired characters. 
 
 Acquired Characters and Education. If the contention 
 that acquired characters are non-transmissible be true, it 
 follows that Education, in the popular sense of the term, 
 is for one generation only, i.e. an abnormal development 
 of any capacity in the parent by excessive stimulation 
 will not develop to an equal extent with less stimulation 
 in the next generation. No amount of learning on the part 
 of the parent will make the offspring less innately stupid ; 
 property may be " willed " to offspring and so make his 
 struggle for life easier, but mental acquisitions can never 
 be " willed " they must be obtained by struggle and effort 
 as they were by our parents before us.
 
 16 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 How can such a statement be reconciled with the fact 
 that the intellectual struggles of parents do help the children 
 and in a very real way ? The reconciliation is found in 
 what has been termed " social heredity." Though the 
 parent may not influence the germ-plasm of his offspring 
 in any direct fashion, he can, by surrounding him with the 
 desirable stimuli of culture books, schools, travel and 
 so forth facilitate the development of his natural powers. 
 Hence we see why it is that cultured people usually spring 
 from cultured homes, that sons so often follow the pro- 
 fessions of their fathers and that there is an apparent 
 inheritance of acquired characters. 
 
 The whole tendency of modern civilisation is to extend 
 the sphere of influence of social heredity. Education is 
 now compulsory in all the leading countries of the world. 
 Free art galleries, free libraries, cheap newspapers, and 
 rapid transit place before the humblest and poorest persons 
 the luxuries of the aristocrats of a previous generation. 
 Never in the history of the world has a " lad of parts " 
 found it so easy to rise in the social scale. The stimuli to 
 development are well-nigh omnipresent. Hence we may 
 expect the culture of the home to diminish in influence 
 and the apparent inheritance of acquired characters to 
 become less noticeable. 
 
 But this does not get over the main contention of this 
 chapter that like tends to beget like. Gifted persons 
 acquiring culture with little effort will probably have 
 children who acquire it about as easily ; the struggles of 
 parents of puny intellect, even though they ultimately 
 command an honourable position in the world, will not 
 ease the burden for their offspring. Hence the claim of the 
 Eugenists that improvement of environment alone will not 
 produce a higher and permanently better race receives great 
 support. 
 
 The relative influence of Heredity and Environment. 
 The position that has been maintained in the foregoing 
 sections indicates that a discussion of this subject is some- 
 what beside the mark. It has been shown that both 
 factors are necessary and must be taken into account. 
 Either without the other is useless. Yet many wars have 
 been waged on the question. The issue is always in doubt 
 because of the impossibility of isolating the factors. The 
 influence of environment could be investigated in such an
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 17 
 
 institution as an Orphan Asylum, for there the environment, 
 so far as we are able to make it, is the same for all, while 
 the child inmates have each a different hereditary equip- 
 ment. The other side of the question the influence of 
 heredity can best be studied in the case of tAvins, especially 
 in those cases where each of the two members are reared 
 in separate homes or localities. 
 
 Unfortunately there are no scientific researches of the 
 former kind. We all know that " institution children " 
 tend to resemble one another and to get the " institu- 
 tional mannerisms," but it is debatable whether the 
 resemblances are greater than are those between Eton 
 or Rugby boys. Scientific researches into the question 
 ought to be carried out ; they would be difficult but not 
 impossible. 
 
 Of the latter type of studies those of Galton x and 
 Thorndike 2 are the best known. 
 
 Galton firmly believed that heredity was much the 
 stronger factor. But since he relied on statements made by 
 parents, his conclusions have not much scientific value. 
 He states (p. 172), " The impression that all this leaves on 
 the mind is one of some wonder whether nurture can do 
 anything at all, beyond giving instruction and professional 
 training. . . . There is no escape from the conclusion 
 that nature prevails enormously over nurture when differ- 
 ences of nurture do not exceed what is commonly to be 
 found among persons of the same rank of society and in 
 the same country. My fear is that my evidence may seem 
 to prove too much, and be discredited on that account, 
 as it appears contrary to all experience that nurture should 
 go for so little." 
 
 Thorndike's study is much more valuable from a scientific 
 standpoint, for objective measurements only were made. 
 The subjects were fifty pairs of twins chosen at random 
 from the schools of New York City. The tests employed 
 were 14 in number, 8 physical and 6 mental. The physical 
 tests included measurement of height, width of head, 
 
 1 F. Galton : " History of Twins," in Inquiries into Human 
 Facility and its Development ; London, 1883. Reprinted in Dent's 
 Everyman Series, pp. 155-173. 
 
 1 E. L. Thorndike : Measurement of Twins ; Columbia University 
 Contributions to Philosophy and Psychology, Vol. III., No. 3, 
 1905. 
 
 B
 
 18 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 circumference of head, cephalic index, i.e. the ratio of the 
 breadth to length of head, length of forearm, etc. The 
 mental tests were (1) "A" test ability to mark A's in 
 a page of mixed letters ; (2) " a-t " and " r-e " tests 
 ability to mark words containing a and t or r and e ; (3) 
 Misspelled word test ability to detect mistakes in spelling ; 
 (4) Addition tests ability to add correctly ; (5) Multiplica- 
 tion test ability to multiply correctly ; (6) Opposites 
 test ability to give the words meaning the opposite of 
 the words in the list (e.g. up down ; inside outside ; 
 good bad, etc.). 
 
 The argument used was as follows : If the resemblances are 
 due to original nature, then the resemblance of twins should 
 be greater than that of siblings (any children of the same 
 parents) ; the resemblance of twins from 9-11 years of age 
 should be equal to that of twins from 12-14 years of age ; 
 and the resemblance between trained twins should be 
 equal to that between untrained twins. If, on the other 
 hand, environment is the more potent factor, then the 
 resemblance of twins should be equal to the resemblance of 
 siblings ; the resemblance between twins of 9-11 years of 
 age should be less than that between twins of 12-14 ; and 
 the resemblances between trained twins should be greater 
 than those between untrained ones. The results, as 
 measured by the Pearson coefficient of correlation (r) 
 (see Chap. III.), were all in favour of the former argument. 
 In both the mental and physical tests the resemblances of 
 twins were about twice as great as those of siblings, and the 
 resemblances did not alter with age or training. For 
 twins r was about -78 and r for siblings, as measured by 
 Pearson and others, is approximately '50. Thorndike 
 states in conclusion that " the mental likeness found in the 
 cases of twins and the differences found in the case of 
 non-fraternal pairs, when the individuals compared belong 
 to the same age, locality and educational system, are 
 due, to at least nine-tenths of their amount, to original 
 nature." 
 
 Other investigators have approached the problem of 
 the relative influences of heredity and environment by 
 endeavouring to estimate the effects of the various factors 
 which have moulded the members of certain well-defined 
 groups of people. Perhaps the mqgt interesting of these 
 studies from an educational standpoint are those of
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 19 
 
 de Candolle, Odin, Galton, Galton and Schuster, Woods 
 and Cattell. 1 
 
 De Candolle. The persons studied by de Candolle were 
 the past and present associates and corresponding members 
 of the Academy of Science, Paris (founded 1666), the 
 corresponding members of the Royal Society, London 
 (founded 1662), and the foreign members and correspondents 
 of the Royal Academy, Berlin (founded 1700). In all, the 
 members studied were 212 for Paris, 235 for London, and 
 195 for Berlin. He concludes that the following eighteen 
 influences were favourable to the progress of the sciences 
 and hence to the development of genius : 
 
 1. A considerable proportion of the people belonging to the 
 rich and leisured classes relative to those who needs must work 
 constantly in order to live, and especially those who work at 
 unskilled manual labour. 
 
 2. A considerable number of intellectual men of easy circum- 
 stances who are willing to devote their lives to scientific 
 pursuits. 
 
 3. An ancient culture of the spiritual sides of one's nature 
 directed for several generations into right channels. 
 
 4. Immigration of intelligent families having a taste for 
 intellectual work. 
 
 5. Existence of several contiguous families having favourable 
 traditions towards science and to intellectual occupations of 
 every kind. 
 
 6. A good system of education, especially secondary and 
 higher education, organised independently of politics and 
 religion. 
 
 7. Abundant material means in the shape of libraries, 
 laboratories, observatories, and so forth, for the pursuit of 
 science. 
 
 8. Public curiosity for truth, rather than fiction. 
 
 9. Freedom of opinion. 
 
 10. Public opinion favourable to science an " L ^ scientists. 
 
 1 Alphonse de Candolle : Histoire dea sciences et dea savants depuis 
 deux sticles ; Geneva, 1873. 
 
 A. Odin : Gentse des grands hommes, gens de lettres franqais modernes; 
 Paris, 1895. (Candolle's and Odin's works are summarised in Ward's 
 Applied Sociology.) 
 
 F. Galton : Hereditary Genius : An inquiry into its laws and con- 
 sequences ; London, 1869 and 1892. 
 
 Galton and Schuster : Noteworthy Families ; London, 1906. 
 
 F. A. Woods : Mental and Moral Heredity in Royalty ; New York, 
 1906. 
 
 J. M'Keen Cattell : " A Statistical Study of American Men of 
 Science " ; Science, Vol. XVI., 1906, pp. 732 ff.
 
 20 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 11. Liberty to exercise any profession. 
 
 12. Religion not placed upon an authoritative basis. 
 
 13. Clergy the friends of instruction. 
 
 14. Clergy not condemned to celibacy. 
 
 15. Habitual employment of one of the three principal 
 languages English, French, German with as full a knowledge 
 of non-native tongues as possible. 
 
 16. Small independent countries or a union of same. 
 
 17. Situated in temperate zone. 
 
 18. Proximity of civilised countries. 
 
 Switzerland was found at the head of countries producing 
 scientific genius and de Candolle explains this by saying 
 that she had a greater number of favourable conditions than 
 any other country. 
 
 De Candolle is thus an " environmentalist " ; nearly all 
 of his eighteen factors are environmental. 
 
 Odin. Investigating the conditions which seemed to 
 favour the development of literary talent, Odin found 
 that urban life tended to produce and foster literary genius. 
 The greater proportion of the 5620 notable French authors 
 whom he studied was produced by Geneva, Paris, Mar- 
 seilles, Dijon, Avignon, Lyons, Orleans, Metz and their 
 immediate surroundings, and his conclusions again favour 
 environment as against heredity. The criticism that 
 Thorndike levelled at CattelTs results (infra] is valid here, 
 namely, that the towns tend to attract the able and so 
 would seem to produce more genius ; that at bottom, the 
 real cause of the supremacy is heredity. 
 
 Galton. Galton's Hereditary Genius is important because 
 it embodies one of the first investigations of this nature. 
 The faults in it are numerous, but may, for the most part, 
 be excused on the grounds that the author was breaking 
 new soil in a difficult subject. He studied the family 
 relationship existing between a large body of fairly eminent 
 men Judges of England from 1660-1868, the Statesmen 
 of the time of George III., the premiers for one hundred 
 years prior to 1868, commanders, literary and scientific 
 men, poets, painters, musicians, divines, modern scholars, 
 oarsmen and wrestlers. His method was to inquire 
 whether these men had a much greater number of eminent 
 relations than the generality of the population or that 
 statistical estimates would accord them. As a result of 
 his investigations he concluded that hereditary influences 
 were more powerful than environmental ones.
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 21 
 
 For example, the 977 men examined had relatives of 
 the same degree of eminence to the following extent : 
 fathers 89, brothers 114, sons 129, all three together 332 ; 
 grandfathers 52, grandsons 37, uncles 53, nephews 61, all 
 four together 203. The probable numbers of relatives of 
 that degree of eminence for 977 average men are as follows : 
 fathers, brothers and sons together, 1 ; grandfathers, 
 grandsons, uncles and nephews all together, 3." x 
 
 The chief faults of the investigation are : (1) unfair 
 selection : neglecting to take into consideration the whole 
 of the members of a given group ; (2) assuming that the 
 true value of a man is given by contemporary public 
 opinion ; (3) neglecting to take into account the political 
 nature of the office of judge ; and (4) assuming that " genius 
 will out " a contention not yet proven. (There may be 
 the swamping effect of poverty and other environmental 
 factors.) Consequently his conclusion that the three 
 factors found in practically all his cases ability (intellec- 
 tual), zeal (emotional) and capacity for hard work (will) 
 are hereditary is hardly justified by his evidence. 
 
 Galton and Schuster. The data of their study were the 
 answers to a questionnaire sent to all the Fellows of the 
 Royal Society, London, whose names appeared in its 
 Year Book for 1904. Their results confirmed a previous 
 research by Galton. 2 They show that able parents produce 
 able children in a much larger proportion than the genera- 
 lity. They also think that genius seldom lies dormant, 
 for they state that " the demand for exceptional ability, 
 when combined with energy and good character, is so great 
 that a lad who is gifted with them is hardly more likely 
 to remain overlooked than a bird's nest in the playground 
 of a school." 
 
 P. A. Woods. In Mental and Moral Heredity in Royalty 
 Woods sets himself the task of tracing the influence of 
 heredity through the whole of the members of a number 
 of royal families. He thus got rid of the influence of 
 selection but he introduced another possible error, namely 
 that of personal bias, for he alone graded the subjects for 
 intellect and morality each on a scale of ten. Ten marks 
 for intellect represent genius, one mark represents feeble- 
 mindedness or imbecility, while 5-6 represent mediocrity or 
 
 1 Thorndike : Educational Psychology ; 1903 Edition, p. 53. 
 * F. Galton : English Men of Science ; London, 1874.
 
 22 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 the average. Similar ratings are given for morality. How- 
 ever, in fairness to him, it should be pointed out that his 
 scores have never been questioned. The ratings were 
 given after reading the easily available biographical material 
 about each subject. 
 
 So far as intellect is concerned he found that particular 
 values existed in clusters. Thus high values centre around 
 Frederick the Great of Prussia, Gustavus Adolphus of 
 Sweden, and Isabella of Castile ; low values cluster around 
 George II. of England, Louis XVI. of France and in the 
 royal lines of Spain and Russia where insanity and de- 
 generacy persist through many generations ; while medium 
 values are found in the houses of Hanover, Denmark, 
 Hapsburg in Austria, Saxony, Savoy and modern Portugal. 
 He finds that hereditary traits and abilities, in spite of 
 environmental influence, persist in families to a most 
 remarkable degree. 
 
 Neither primogeniture nor periods of turmoil, stress and 
 adversity have any appreciable effect on the production of 
 ability. 
 
 Environment seems to have a greater effect on the 
 morality of the royal persons studied. Morality also 
 correlated highly with intellect. 
 
 In conclusion, he states (p. 286) : " The upshot of it all 
 is, that as regards intellectual life, environment is a totally 
 inadequate explanation. If it explains certain characters 
 in certain instances, it always fails to explain as many more ; 
 while heredity not only explains all (or at least 90 per cent.) l 
 of the intellectual side of character in practically every 
 instance, but does so best when questions of environment 
 are left out of the discussion. Therefore, it would seem 
 that we are forced to the conclusion that all these rough 
 differences in intellectual activity which are susceptible 
 of grading on a scale of ten are due to predetermined 
 differences in the primary germ-cells." 
 
 J. M Keen Cattell. This study is the best of its kind 
 because errors of selection and of personal bias were 
 rigorously excluded. A thousand American men of science 
 were selected ; " the number in each science was taken 
 roughly proportional to the number of investigators in that 
 science, the number being : Chemistry, 175 ; physics, 150 ; 
 zoology, 150 ; botany, 100 ; geology, 100 ; mathematics, 
 1 See Thorndike : Twins (supra).
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 23 
 
 80 ; pathology, 60 ; astronomy, 50 ; psychology, 50 ; 
 physiology, 40 ; anatomy, 25 ; anthropology, 20." 
 
 " The individuals were selected by asking ten leading 
 representatives of each science to arrange the students of 
 that science in order of merit. There were, for each science, 
 slips made with the names and addresses of all those known 
 to have carried on research work of any consequence. The 
 ten positions assigned to each man were averaged, and the 
 average deviations (see Chap. III.) of the judgments were 
 calculated. This gave the most probable order of merit 
 for the students in each science, together with the data 
 for the probable error (see Chap. III.) of the position of each 
 individual. The students of the different sciences were 
 then combined in one list by interpolation, the probable 
 errors being adjusted accordingly. The list contains 1,443 
 names, of whom the first thousand are the material used 
 in this research." 
 
 " It should be distinctly noted that the figures give only 
 what they profess to give, namely, the resultant opinion 
 of ten competent judges. They show the reputation of the 
 men among experts, but not necessarily their ability or 
 performance. Constant errors, such as arise from a man's 
 being better or less known than he deserves, are not elimi- 
 nated. There is, however, no other criterion of a man's 
 work than the estimation in which it is held by those most 
 competent to judge." 
 
 From the data obtained, the place of birth of the scientist, 
 university from which he obtained his.first degree, institution 
 in which he was working, etc., were worked out for each 
 man. The results showed that " The main factors in pro- 
 ducing scientific ability seem to be density of population, 
 wealth, opportunity, institutions and social traditions and 
 ideals. All these may be ultimately due to race, but, given 
 the existing race, the scientific productivity of the nation 
 can be increased in quantity, though not in quality, almost 
 to the extent we wish to increase it." Yet in another place 
 Cattell, after giving a table of institutions at which the 
 men of science pursued their studies, is forced to admit 
 that this part of the evidence at least " favours the 
 theory that men of science are born such and are not 
 dependent on the environment for the quality of their 
 performance." 
 
 Thorndike's criticism (given previously) is that certain
 
 24 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 districts produce greater abundance of genius because the 
 greater opportunities attract the abler men. 
 
 Galton's Law of Ancestral Heredity. The above studies, 
 so far as they are concerned with heredity, take into account 
 only immediate ancestry ; the question of race or remote 
 ancestry is not dealt with at all. Galton tried to evaluate 
 the contributions of the various ancestors to the make-up of 
 a given individual. He concluded that on the average half 
 the heritage of an individual may be taken as derived 1 
 from the two parents, one quarter from the four grand- 
 parents, one eighth from the great grandparents, and so 
 on in arithmetical progression. The series is thus , ^, f , T \, 
 or for each individual, -5 2 , -5 4 , -5 6 , . . . ancestor of nth place 
 (5) 2 . 
 
 Pearson, however, in his researches has shown that the 
 parental contribution is greater than that assumed by 
 Galton. His series runs -6244, -1988, -0630. 
 
 Influence of Remote Ancestry or Race. Very few studies 
 have been made on this important topic. Galton after one 
 of his researches came to the conclusion that if the Greeks 
 of the Golden Age were placed 14 on a scale of 14, modern 
 Europeans would be represented by 12, and modern 
 Africans by 10. 
 
 Thorndike 2 summarising an unpublished study by Mayo 
 on the relative abilities of whites and negroes entering the 
 High Schools of New York City, states : " whatever be the 
 difference in the selection of the two groups, coloured 
 beginners in high schools of New York City differ from 
 whites in their careers there as follows : 
 
 (1) On the average they are eleven months older, only 
 
 36 per cent, of them being as young as the median 
 (see Chap. III.) white. 
 
 (2) They continue in high school longer. 
 
 (3) In achievement in the different studies they are 
 
 somewhat, but not very much, inferior. The 
 general tendency is for only three-tenths of them 
 to reach the median record for whites. 
 
 1 He really discusses the degree of resemblances found, which is 
 not quite the same thing. 
 
 2 Educational Psychology ; 1910 Ed., p. 52 ff. It should be noted 
 that the High School of America is superimposed upon the elementary 
 school. Children first complete the elementary school and then 
 pass on to the High School at an average age of fourteen years.
 
 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT 25 
 
 (4) The difference is greatest in the case of English, in 
 which only 24 per cent, of the coloured pupils 
 reach or exceed the median for whites." 
 
 The same small racial differences are shown to hold by 
 Woodworth x in his excellent summary of researches into 
 racial differences. But it must be remembered that small 
 racial differences have profound social significance. A 
 slight mental superiority makes a ruling and dominating 
 race : a slight inferiority in ability may, and does, condemn 
 a whole race to be " hewers of wood and drawers of water." 
 
 Conclusion. The problem of heredity and environment 
 has been shown to be extremely complex. Present day 
 schooling largely neglects the factor of nature (or heredity) 
 and tries to develop all to an equal degree irrespective of 
 endowment. A much more subtle analysis of the capacities 
 of children is needed in schools in order to prevent the waste 
 of much valuable time and effort. 
 
 References. Cattell : A Statistical Study of Eminent 
 Men ; Pop. Sci. Mo., 62. pp. 359-377. Cattell : A Statistical 
 Study of American Men of Science ; Science, XVI., 1906, 
 pp. 732 ff. De Candolle : Histoire des Sciences et des 
 Savants depuis deux Siecles. Doncaster : Heredity in the 
 Light of Recent Research. Dugdale : The Jukes. Ellis : 
 A Study of British Genius. Galton : English Men of 
 Science. Galton : Hereditary Genius. Galton : Inquiries 
 into Human Faculty. Galton : Natural Inheritance ; p. 259. 
 Galton and Schuster : Noteworthy Families. Henderson : 
 Text Book in the Principles of Education ; Chaps. II. 
 and III. Mark : Unfolding of Personality ; Introduction 
 and Chap. I. Pearson : On the laws of Inheritance in 
 Man ; //. On the Inheritance of the Mental and Moral 
 Characters in Man ; etc., Biometrica, III., Part II., pp. 
 131-190. Reid : The Laws of Heredity. Thorndike : Edu- 
 cational Psychology ; Chaps. IV., V. and VII. Thorndike : 
 Measurements of Twins. Ward : Applied Socioloay ; part 
 on Achievement. Watson : Heredity. Woods : Mental and 
 Moral Heredity in Royalty. 
 
 1 R. S. Woodworth : Racial Differences in Mental Traits ; Science, 
 New Series, Vol. V. pp. 81-88.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE PHYSICAL GROWTH OF THE CHILD. 
 
 MAN, when compared with some animals, seems to be at 
 a great disadvantage. The horse is stronger and swifter ; 
 the hawk possesses far more acute vision ; and the dog 
 has a keener smell. Yet man, slight in stature, weak 
 in strength, and deficient in sensory powers is the highest 
 product of organic evolution. And the reason for this is 
 that in his growth and development he produces a greater 
 proportion of nerve matter, in relation \o other bodily 
 tissues, than any other animal. The growth and develop- 
 ment of nerve cells is a very slow process and hence the 
 infancy of man the period of growth and development 
 is longer, comparatively speaking, than that of any other 
 animal. Since this period is so closely associated with 
 the problem of growth, it will perhaps be wise to spend 
 some time on its discussion and elucidation. 
 
 Infancy. Different writers attach different meanings to 
 the term infancy : to some infancy is the period of help- 
 lessness ; to others it is the period in which physical growth 
 takes place ; while to a third section it is synonymous with 
 the period of economic dependence. Thus, according to 
 these views, the period of infancy ranges from one to 
 twenty-five or even thirty years. Thorndike 1 divides up 
 the period of physical growth of man into the following 
 
 Infancy - - birth to 
 
 Babyhood - lJto 51 
 
 Childhood - 5ltol2l 
 
 Transition - - 12 1 to 14 1] One year 
 
 Early Adolescence - - 141 to 18 ? [earlier 
 
 Late Adolescence - - 18 ? to 25 ?J for girls. 
 
 1 Notes on Child Study ; p. 13.
 
 PHYSICAL GROWTH 27 
 
 Clouston l subdivides life into : 
 
 Childhood - - birth to 7 
 Boyhood and Girlhood 7 to 15 
 Adolescence - 15 to 25 
 
 Manhood and Woman- 
 hood - - 25 to 55 
 Decadent Period 55 to death 
 
 With respect to infancy three questions may pertinently 
 be discussed : (1) Why should there be a rejuvenation of 
 man at all ? (2) Why should man be born so helpless ? 
 and (3) Why should the period of infancy be so long ? 
 The second and third are seen to be closely related, and may 
 be answered together. 
 
 (1) The fact of infancy is so familiar that it is difficult 
 to conceive anything different which could take its place. 
 Yet it seems a wasteful process. From all points of view 
 it would seem to be far more economical to the race for man 
 to go on developing for ever. Apparently it is a " setting 
 back of the clock," for only through painful struggles do 
 children reach the point of development attained by their 
 parents. Decay, which ends in death, oftenest sets in just 
 when man has become of the greatest service to society, 
 when he has reached his maximum development, and when 
 he has changed from being merely a receiver, both of goods 
 and ideas, into a producer and giver. Age, however, 
 brings with it an increasing rigidity both of mind and body, 
 which is reflected in decreasing physical activity and in 
 increasing conservatism of thought. Infancy, on the other 
 hand, is the period of plasticity and adaptability par 
 excellence. The rigidity of age means a widening gulf 
 between the organism and its environment. Old people 
 are notoriously bad at adapting themselves to the changing 
 world. Hence age makes progress difficult or impossible. 
 At this point the rejuvenation of the race takes place and 
 saves it from decrepitude and destruction. Infancy is 
 thus the means of exit when age has become a bar to progress. 
 The young alone are able to adapt themselves to the pro- 
 gressive evolution of the race. 
 
 (2) and (3). In 'the lowest animals there is nothing 
 that can justly be called infancy. To all intents and 
 purposes the amoeba is born grown-up. The two daughter 
 amoebae are exactly like the parent in every particular 
 except size. As we ascend the animal scale we find that a 
 real infancy develops although in many animals it is 
 comparatively short. A chicken can peck and fend for 
 
 1 The Hygiene of Mind ; London, 1906.
 
 28 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 itself as soon as it is hatched ; a calf can stand as soon as 
 it is born ; while kittens and puppies, although helpless 
 at first, soon develop beyond the need for parental care. 
 With the higher apes and man the need for parental care 
 and oversight extends over a considerable portion of life. 
 Fiske places it for man at almost one-third the natural span. 
 In general, therefore, we may say that the higher the animal 
 the more helpless it is at birth and the longer is its period 
 of infancy. This is shown in the subjoined Table 2. 
 
 TABLE 2. 
 
 Comparative Adolescence and Longevity (abridged and adapted 
 from A. F. Chamberlain : The Child ; a study in the. 
 evolution of Man, p. 8). 
 
 Animal. 
 
 Authority. 
 
 Length of 
 Adolescence. 
 
 Length of 
 Life. 
 
 Ratio of Length 
 of Life to 
 Length of 
 Adolescence. 
 
 Dormouse, - 
 
 Hollis. 
 
 3 months. 
 
 4-5 years. 
 
 16-20 
 
 Guinea-pig, - 
 
 Flourens ; 
 
 7 
 
 6-7 
 
 10-2-12 
 
 
 Hollis. 
 
 
 
 
 Cat, - 
 
 Mivart. 
 
 1 year. 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 Cat, - 
 
 Jennings. 
 
 2 years. 
 
 15 
 
 7-5 
 
 Goat, - 
 
 Pegler. 
 
 H 
 
 12 
 
 9-6 
 
 English 
 
 Hollis. 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 Cattle, - 
 
 
 
 
 
 Large Dogs, 
 
 Dalziel. 
 
 2 
 
 15-20 
 
 7-5-10 
 
 Hippopo- 
 
 Chambers' 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 tamus, - 
 
 Encyclo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 paedia. 
 
 
 
 
 Lion, - 
 
 Mivart. 
 
 6 
 
 30-40 
 
 5-6-6 
 
 English Horse 
 
 Elaine ; 
 
 6* 
 
 35 
 
 6-6 
 
 (Hunter), - 
 
 Hollis. 
 
 
 
 
 Camel, 
 
 Flourens. 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 Man, - 
 
 Buffon. 
 
 25 
 
 90-100 
 
 3-8-4 
 
 Man (Eng- 
 
 
 
 
 
 lishman), - 
 
 Hollis. 
 
 25 
 
 75 
 
 3 
 
 Elephant, - 
 
 Darwin. 
 
 30 
 
 100 
 
 3-3 
 
 Elephant, - 
 
 Holder, etc. 
 
 35 
 
 120 
 
 3-4 
 
 The reason for this seems to be two-fold. Man has been 
 selected because of brain-power and as a result of this 
 selection, life has become enormously complex. To meet 
 life's complexity man is now forced to have complex mental 
 powers. While man's physical body has hardly evolved 
 beyond that of the simian, his mental powers are separated 
 by a gap which is immeasurably great. Mental power is
 
 PHYSICAL GROWTH 29 
 
 dependent upon a slow-developing nervous tissue, hence the 
 period of gestation, long as it is, is totally inadequate for 
 its complete growth. An infancy, with plasticity as its 
 main feature, has therefore developed. This period of 
 infancy is constantly extending as civilisation advances and 
 more than one sociologist has feared the ultimate con- 
 sequences to the race. Society, in a vague and undefined 
 fashion, now realises the situation which infancy forces 
 on us, and tries to make provision for it. Factory Acts 
 prohibiting child labour, and Education Acts compelling 
 children to attend school are the legislative results of this 
 realisation. It is not a far cry in history from Peel's 
 " Health and Morals of Apprentices Act " of 1802 to the 
 " Scotch Education Act " of 1908, yet the difference in 
 social conscience as represented by the two measures is 
 great beyond compare. 
 
 Secondly, infancy is a period for selecting desirable and 
 eliminating undesirable inherited tendencies. For not all 
 of nature's gifts are unmixed blessings ; harmful atavistic 
 traits often persist. By this selection, infancy adapts the 
 child to a changing environment and makes him a fitter 
 subject than his parents before him. 
 
 Another aspect of infancy of great sociological importance 
 is its supreme moral significance. It was the helplessness 
 of infancy that created the family, and the bond of the 
 family is the one permanent moral basis of society. 
 
 Growth. By growth is meant increase of size. A child 
 grows ; a crystal, a bank-balance, a snowball, all are said 
 to grow. In the latter cases the growth is by accretion : 
 in the special case of the crystal successive layers of solid 
 matter are deposited from solution in regular fashion around 
 a central nucleus and, so long as a constant strength of 
 solution is maintained, there is no reason why the crystal 
 should not go on growing indefinitely. In the case of the 
 child the increase in size is due to two factors, first an 
 actual increase in the number of the cells composing the 
 body ; secondly to an increase in their size. Thus the 
 unit of growth in the organism is the cell. A cell grows by 
 intussusception, that is, by the absorption of food material 
 in solution through the walls of the cell. But, owing to 
 the fact that the volume of a cell increases more rapidly 
 than its absorbing surface, the growth of a single cell can 
 never go on indefinitely ; the starvation point is soon
 
 30 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 reached. The process which prevents such a calamity 
 happening is that known as fission, whereby a cell divides 
 into two daughter-cells each approximately one-half the 
 size of the parent. Cells grow old, lose in weight and 
 finally die. Hence the apparent rate of growth of a child is 
 the true rate of growth minus an amount due to atrophy 
 of cells. In infancy the balance is plus ; in senile decay 
 the balance is minus ; while in middle life a general state 
 of equilibrium is preserved. 
 
 The ultimate size to which a child grows seems to be 
 pre-ordained by nature. It is difficult to prevent a boy 
 whom nature intended to be a six-foot man from attaining 
 that size. Starvation and sickness have some effect, but 
 if these hindrances are removed, the recuperative power 
 of the body is often found to be enormous. 
 
 Growth and Development. The distinction between growth 
 and development is that growth is quantitative, while 
 development is qualitative and depends upon a change 
 in the constitution of the cells. Growth and develop- 
 ment are, however, closely associated. They are almost 
 contemporaneous, although growth usually takes place 
 first. If we exercise the biceps muscle it grows bigger and 
 hardens. The hardening is the development. Nerve cells 
 and certain other cells of the body chiefly grow before they 
 develop, but if, after growth, they are not developed, they 
 tend to atrophy. 
 
 The Measurement of Growth in Children. Two kinds of 
 error are liable to occur in the measurement of growth in 
 children. The first is the failure to preserve constant con- 
 ditions in the actual measuring process. For example, 
 in measuring height, children are apt to " stretch up " ; 
 the horizontal bar which is part of the standard for measur- 
 ing heights is apt to slip and to make an angle greater or 
 less than 90 with the upright ; children's hair, especially 
 that of girls, tends to get in the way ; and the measuring bar 
 tends to be pushed down either too tightly or too lightly 
 upon the heads of the children. A combination of such 
 errors as the above could easily give a final result at least 
 an inch from the true one. Other things that may be 
 overlooked are the necessity for taking heights without 
 boots, and weights with clothing including boots, although 
 the practice has arisen in England, since the advent of 
 medical examination of school children, of taking both
 
 PHYSICAL GROWTH 31 
 
 heights and weights without boots. Boots, however, are 
 clearly part of the clothing. In measuring " sitting height," 
 chest girth, vital capacity, cephalic index (ratio of breadth 
 to length of head), and circumference of head even greater 
 precautions are needed. 
 
 The second type of error is in the interpretation of the 
 results. A training in statistical work is not only desirable 
 but absolutely essential if errors of this kind are to be 
 avoided. The following are some of the errors likely to be 
 made in interpreting statistics of height : 
 
 1 . The assumption that the difference between the average 
 heights of six year and seven year old boys represents the 
 average growth for one year. This is not necessarily the 
 case unless the same set of boys were measured after an 
 interval of a year. The seven-year-olds are less numerous 
 than the six -year-olds because some of the six-year-olds 
 have died before the age of seven is reached. The result 
 is unaltered if the children who die are of normal height. 
 If they are taller than the average, the registered growth 
 for the year is too small ; if they are smaller, the result is 
 too great. There is some ground for believing that the 
 latter condition usually holds. 
 
 2. Failure to get homogeneous groups. It will be shown 
 later in the chapter that height is affected by race, social 
 position of parents and so forth. 
 
 3. The attendance of poor children at the elementary 
 school is not so regular as that of the more well-to-do ; 
 hence the average height of school children is affected by 
 the more frequent inclusion of the measurements of the 
 latter class. The same line of argument applies to the 
 sickly children as opposed to the healthy ones. Both 
 factors tend to make the results too high. 
 
 4. Children whose age was eight last birthday are often 
 put down as 8-5 years of age. A curious fallacy may creep 
 in owing to the fact that more children of 9-11 years of 
 age attend school than any other. The reason is that the 
 sickly ones do not begin to attend until 7 or 8, while those 
 of 12 and 13 are already beginning to leave. This fact 
 causes the average ages of all 11, 12 and 13 year old school 
 children to be less than 11-5, 12-5 and 13-5, while the average 
 ages of 6, 7, 8 and 9 year-olds are greater than 6-5, 7-5, 8-5 
 and 9-5 respectively. 
 
 Factors influencing the Growth of Children. The main
 
 32 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 factors are age, sex, heredity (race), disease and nutrition 
 (social position). Other factors of minor importance are 
 exercise, place of residence (climate), order of birth, time 
 of year, time of week, and time of day. 
 
 Age. In general, it is true to say that children grow abso- 
 lutely and relatively more quickly the younger they are. 
 From impregnation to birth a child grows 905,600,000-fold 
 in weight. The rate of growth diminishes, with the excep- 
 tion of a few spurts, from the beginning of life to the moment 
 of death. Hence the truth of the statement " we begin to die 
 as soon as we are born.' : 
 
 TABLE 3. 
 
 Table showing average height, weight, chest-girth and span 
 of arms of both sexes in British Isles at different ages 
 (from Report of Anthropometric Committee of British 
 Association, p. 294). 
 
 Age last 
 Birth- 
 
 Height without 
 shoes in inches. 
 
 Weight with 
 clothes in Ibs. 
 
 Chest -girth 
 empty in inches. 
 
 Span of arms 
 across the back 
 in inches. 
 
 day. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 Birth 
 
 19-52 
 
 19-31 
 
 7-1 
 
 6-9 
 
 13-25 
 
 12-65 
 
 
 
 *0-1 
 
 27-00 
 
 24-83 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *l-2 
 
 33-50 
 
 27-50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *2- 
 
 33-70 
 
 32-33 
 
 32-5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3- 
 
 36-82 
 
 36-05 
 
 34-0 
 
 31-9 
 
 
 
 
 
 4- 
 
 38-46 
 
 38-13 
 
 37-3 
 
 35-5 
 
 
 
 
 
 5- 
 
 41-03 
 
 40-82 
 
 39-9 
 
 39-6 
 
 
 
 
 
 6- 
 
 44-00 
 
 42-63 
 
 44-4 
 
 42-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 7- 
 
 45-97 
 
 44-45 
 
 49-7 
 
 46-7 
 
 
 
 43-10 
 
 45-83 
 
 8- 
 
 47-05 
 
 46-60 
 
 54-9 
 
 52-2 
 
 
 
 47-56 
 
 46-50 
 
 9- 
 
 49-70 
 
 48-73 
 
 60-4 
 
 55-5 
 
 
 
 49-07 
 
 48-39 
 
 10- 
 
 51-84 
 
 51-05 
 
 67-5 
 
 62-0 
 
 26- lo 
 
 
 50-64 
 
 49-92 
 
 11- 
 
 53-50 
 
 53-10 
 
 72-0 
 
 68-1 
 
 26-53 
 
 
 51-98 
 
 52-41 
 
 12- 
 
 54-99 
 
 55-66 
 
 76-7 
 
 76-4 
 
 27-20 
 
 
 54-03 
 
 55-04 
 
 13- 
 
 56-91 
 
 57-77 
 
 82-6 
 
 87-0 
 
 28-03 
 
 
 55-51 
 
 58-06 
 
 14- 
 
 59-33 
 
 59-80 
 
 92-0 
 
 96-7 
 
 28-46 
 
 
 57-15 
 
 59-04 
 
 15- 
 
 62-24 
 
 60-93 
 
 102-7 
 
 104-8 
 
 29-74 
 
 
 
 60-79 
 
 16- 
 
 64-31 
 
 61-75 
 
 119-0 
 
 112-7 
 
 31-53 
 
 
 
 61-66 
 
 17- 
 
 66-24 
 
 62-52 
 
 130-9 
 
 114-9 
 
 33-64 
 
 
 . 
 
 62-52 
 
 18- 
 
 66-96 
 
 62-44 
 
 137-4 
 
 117-7 
 
 34-19 
 
 
 
 62-50 
 
 19- 
 
 67-29 
 
 62-75 
 
 139-6 
 
 123-7 
 
 34-49 
 
 
 
 62-69 
 
 20- 
 
 67-52 
 
 62-98 
 
 143-3 
 
 123-2 
 
 34-98 
 
 
 
 62-49 
 
 21- 
 
 67-63 
 
 63-03 
 
 145-2 
 
 121-2 
 
 35-25 
 
 
 
 62-19 
 
 22- 
 
 67-68 
 
 62-87 
 
 146-9 
 
 124-2 
 
 35-33 
 
 
 
 62-35 
 
 23- 
 
 67-48 
 
 63-01 
 
 147-8 
 
 126-4 
 
 35-62 
 
 
 
 62-36 
 
 24- 
 
 67-72 
 
 62-70 
 
 148-0 
 
 120-6 
 
 35-82 
 
 
 
 62-22 
 
 NOTE. The figures for ages marked * are extremely doubtful 
 because so few cases were taken.
 
 PHYSICAL GROWTH 
 
 33 
 
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 P &! H 
 
 JH <o <q 
 
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 34 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 TABLE 5. 
 
 Relative Weight and Height Table for Boys. The figures 
 represent weight in Ibs. without clothing. (From. Wood : 
 Health and Education ; 9th year-book of the National 
 Society for the Study of Education.) 
 
 Height 
 in 
 inches. 
 
 Age in Years. 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 39 
 40 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 45 
 46 
 47 
 48 
 49 
 50 
 51 
 52 
 53 
 54 
 55 
 56 
 57 
 58 
 59 
 60 
 61 
 62 
 63 
 64 
 65 
 66 
 67 
 68 
 69 
 70 
 71 
 72 
 73 
 
 35 
 38 
 39 
 41 
 42 
 46 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 39 
 41 
 
 42 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 43 
 46 
 48 
 49 
 54 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 48 
 50 
 53 
 54 
 57 
 59 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 53 
 55 
 58 
 60 
 62 
 62 
 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 55 
 58 
 60 
 62 
 65 
 68 
 69 
 71 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 61 
 61 
 
 65 
 68 
 71 
 
 77 
 77 
 78 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 67 
 70 
 75 
 
 76 
 79 
 84 
 
 84 
 85 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 67 
 71 
 75 
 
 78 
 80 
 85 
 86 
 91 
 98 
 99 
 100 
 
 67 
 71 
 76 
 79 
 82 
 86 
 90 
 94 
 97 
 103 
 107 
 114 
 122 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 79 
 82 
 87 
 91 
 95 
 99 
 106 
 112 
 118 
 119 
 121 
 128 
 133 
 
 Vo 
 
 96 
 104 
 112 
 120 
 122 
 125 
 129 
 133 
 134 
 136 
 
 104 
 110 
 117 
 122 
 125 
 128 
 130 
 136 
 140 
 140 
 
 118 
 120 
 120 
 126 
 131 
 136 
 139 
 143 
 146 
 
 120 
 126 
 129 
 136 
 136 
 139 
 144 
 146 
 149 
 
 125 
 130 
 136 
 136 
 139 
 145 
 146 
 154 
 165 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 PHYSICAL GROWTH 
 
 35 
 
 From Tables 3 and 4 it will be seen that the average 
 child at birth has a stature of about 19| inches and a 
 weight of about 7 Ibs. Growth in height practically ceases 
 at 25 for men and at 23 for women, although the average 
 amount of growth in the last four or five years is extremely 
 small and may be due, in part, to a selective death rate 
 among individuals. Growth in weight may continue to 
 middle age, although it is doubtful if increase after 25-30 
 is normal. 
 
 TABLE 6. 
 
 Relative Weight and Height Table for Girls. 
 
 Height 
 in 
 inches. 
 
 Age in 
 
 Years. 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 12 
 
 13 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 39 
 40 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 45 
 46 
 47 
 48 
 49 
 50 
 51 
 52 
 53 
 54 
 55 
 56 
 57 
 58 
 59 
 60 
 61 
 62 
 63 
 64 
 65 
 
 34 
 37 
 38 
 41 
 41 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 37 
 39 
 41 
 43 
 45 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 42 
 44 
 45 
 47 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 42 
 45 
 47 
 49 
 51 
 53 
 56 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 51 
 53 
 56 
 59 
 63 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 57 
 58 
 62 
 64 
 69 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 62 
 63 
 68 
 70 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 66 
 69 
 71 
 
 75 
 78 
 83 
 88 
 94 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 65 
 68 
 73 
 76 
 80 
 86 
 89 
 94 
 99 
 104 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 78 
 83 
 88 
 93 
 96 
 100 
 104 
 107 
 112 
 114 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 89 
 97 
 100 
 102 
 106 
 109 
 118 
 118 
 
 100 
 104 
 109 
 111 
 116 
 116 
 121 
 
 109103 
 109 106 
 110107 
 110112 
 117114 
 125 120 
 
 99 
 105 
 111 
 113 
 119 
 123 
 
 99 
 111 
 114 
 114 
 115 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NOTE. The table reads thus : A girl of five years of age and 39 
 inches in height ought, if normal, to weigh 34 lb.
 
 36 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The relationship between heights and weights at different 
 ages is extremely complicated. Tables 5 and 6 are probably 
 the best, for practical purposes, that have yet been made. 
 
 Sex. The British Anthropometric Committee in their 
 report (p. 288) come to the following conclusions with 
 respect to the rates of growth of boys and girls : 
 
 " (1). From birth to the age of five years the rate of 
 growth is the same in both sexes, girls being a little shorter 
 in stature and lighter in weight than boys. 
 
 (2). From 5 to 10 years boys grow a little more rapidly 
 than girls, the difference being apparently due to a check 
 in the growth of girls at these ages. 
 
 (3). From 10 to 15 years girls grow more rapidly than 
 boys, and at the ages of 11 1 to 14| are actually taller, and 
 from 12 J to 15| years actually heavier than boys. This 
 difference appears to be due to a check in the growth of 
 boys as well as an acceleration in the growth of girls incident 
 on the accession of puberty. 1 
 
 (4). From 15 to 20 years boys again take the lead, and 
 grow at first rapidly, and gradually slower, and complete 
 their growth at about 23 years. After 15, girls grow very 
 slowly, and attain their full stature about the twentieth year. ' ' 
 
 Practically all observers report the same phenomena. 
 The interesting feature, from an educational point of 
 view, about sexual differences in rates of growth is the 
 prepubertal acceleration. Two diametrically opposed con- 
 clusions have been arrived at from the same facts. The 
 first is that since physical growth is closely paralleled 
 by mental growth, girls should be given more difficult 
 mental tasks than boys between the ages of 10 and 14. 
 The second view is that there is only a given amount of 
 energy in the body at a given time and consequently, if it is 
 used up in physical growth, it is riot available for mental 
 tasks ; adolescent girls ought, therefore, to be given only 
 the minimum amount of mental labour. The present state 
 of knowledge prevents us from saying which is the more 
 correct view. Common observation . fails to detect any 
 serious differences in mental power between boys and girls 
 of any age. 
 
 Heredity or Race. Probably this factor ought to have 
 been placed first, for, as Thorndike says, " the fact that we 
 
 1 A better explanation is that the adolescent spurt of girls takes 
 place some two to three years earlier than that of boys.
 
 PHYSICAL GROWTH 
 
 37 
 
 have men as ancestors decides that we shall, if we reach 
 adult age, not be as small as rabbits or as big as elephants." 
 Our treatment, however, assumes the human inheritance, 
 and the problem then is how does a different racial 
 inheritance affect growth ? The following tables indicate 
 a solution. Table 1 (page 8) ought also to be consulted. 
 
 TABLE 7. 
 
 Table showing stature of adult males of various races and 
 nationalities. (Abridged from Anthropometric Report 
 of British Association ; 1882, p. 269.) 
 
 Race or Nationality. 
 
 Authority. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Polynesians, - - - - 
 
 Various. 
 
 1-762 
 
 69-33. 
 
 English Professional class, 
 
 Anthropom. Comm. 
 
 1-757 
 
 69-14 
 
 Negroes of the Congo, 
 
 Topinard. 
 
 1-752 
 
 68-95. 
 
 Scotch, all classes, - 
 
 Anthropom. Comm. 
 
 1-746 
 
 68-71 
 
 North American Indians, 
 
 Baxter. 
 
 1-726 
 
 67-93; 
 
 Irish, all classes, - 
 
 Anthropom. Comm. 
 
 1-725 
 
 67-90 
 
 United States (whites, all 
 
 
 
 
 classes), - ... 
 
 Baxter. 
 
 1-719 
 
 67-67 
 
 English, all classes, 
 
 Anthropom. Comm. 
 
 1-719 
 
 67-66 
 
 Norwegians, immigrants to 
 
 
 
 
 U.S.A., 
 
 Beddoe. 
 
 1-717 
 
 67-62 
 
 Swedes, immigrants to U.S.A., 
 
 Beddoe and Baxter. 
 
 1-700 
 
 66-90 
 
 Welsh, all classes, - 
 
 Anthropom. Comm. 
 
 1-695 
 
 66-66 
 
 American negroes, - - - 
 
 Baxter. 
 
 1-693 
 
 66-62 
 
 Australian aborigines, 
 
 Various. 
 
 1-669 
 
 65-68 
 
 Japanese, - ... 
 
 Ayrton. 
 
 1-604 
 
 63-11 
 
 Lapps, - - - - 
 
 Horch. 
 
 1-500 
 
 59-2 
 
 Bosjesmans (Bushmen and 
 
 
 
 
 S. Africa), - 
 
 Various. 
 
 1-341 
 
 52-78 
 
 Difference between the tallest and shortest races, 
 
 421 
 
 16-55 
 
 Average stature of man according to above, 
 
 1-658 
 
 65-25 
 
 It is probably correct to assume that the shorter races 
 have a slower rate of growth, although the fact that tropical 
 peoples mature earlier, that is, complete their growth in 
 a fewer number of years, will tend to hide the fact. The 
 tallest race is the Polynesian of Samoa ; the smallest is 
 the Bushman of Africa. The difference between the 
 average of the shortest and tallest races is less than that
 
 38 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 between individuals of the same race. The order of magni- 
 tude in stature is, for the races of the British Isles, Scotch 
 Irish, English, Welsh ; and for weight, Scotch, Welsh, 
 English, Irish. The differences, especially for height, are 
 somewhat small. 
 
 TABLE 8. 
 
 Table showing the weight of 7,749 adult males of the popula- 
 tion of the United Kingdom, arranged according to place 
 of birth. (Adapted from Anthropometric Report, British 
 Association ; 1883, p. 256.) 
 
 Weight with Clothes. 
 
 Number of Men within given Limits of 
 Weight. Place of Birth. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Wales. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 
 90 
 
 40-9 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 45-5 
 
 26 
 
 'i 
 
 *2 
 
 '5 
 
 34 
 
 110 
 
 50-0 
 
 133 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 152 
 
 120 
 
 54-5 
 
 338 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 390 
 
 130 
 
 59-1 
 
 694 
 
 63 
 
 68 42 
 
 867 
 
 140 
 
 63-6 
 
 1240 
 
 173 
 
 153 
 
 67 
 
 1623 
 
 150 
 
 68-2 
 
 1075 
 
 258 
 
 178 
 
 51 
 
 1559 
 
 160 
 
 72-7 
 
 881 
 
 275 
 
 134 
 
 36 
 
 1326 
 
 170 
 
 77-3 
 
 492 
 
 168 
 
 102 
 
 25 
 
 787 
 
 180 
 
 81-8 
 
 304 
 
 125 
 
 34 
 
 13 
 
 476 
 
 190 
 
 86-4 
 
 174 
 
 67 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 263 
 
 200 
 
 90-9 
 
 75 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 107 
 
 210 
 
 95-5 
 
 62 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 85 
 
 220 
 
 100-0 
 
 33 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 
 41 
 
 230 
 
 104-5 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 16 
 
 240 
 
 109-1 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 250 
 
 113-6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 
 8 
 
 260 
 
 118-2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 270 
 
 122-7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 280 
 
 127-3 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 i 
 
 Total, 
 
 5552 
 
 1212 1 
 
 738 
 
 247 
 
 7749 
 
 Average in Ibs., 
 
 155-0 
 
 165-3 
 
 158-3 
 
 154-1 
 
 158-2 
 
 Disease and Overpressure. Most diseases retard growth. 
 Recovery from disease is followed by an accelerated rate 
 of growth. The healthiest growth is that which takes place 
 at normal times and at normal rates. Hence heights and 
 weights are exceedingly useful indications of the state of
 
 PHYSICAL GROWTH 39 
 
 health. School children ought to be weighed from four to 
 six times a year. 
 
 Overpressure has the same effect as disease. In the 
 Fielden School, in connection with Manchester University, 
 the weights of the children were found to decrease during 
 term time. The deficiency was more than made up during 
 holidays, hence it was assumed that the school-work was 
 too arduous. This led to a lightening of the tasks, with 
 most beneficial results to the children concerned. Many 
 observers state that the periods of rapid growth are the 
 periods of freedom from disease, but the records are not 
 unanimous. 
 
 Nutrition. Nutrition is largely dependent upon the 
 social position of the parents. This, however, is not 
 invariably the case. Poor Scotch children are probably 
 better fed than better class artisan English children. 
 Imperfect nutrition, as the subjoined tables show, decreases 
 the rate of growth. But it is probable that it affects 
 development more than growth. 
 
 TABLE 9. 
 
 Table showing the relative statures of boys of the age 11 to 
 12 years, under different social and physical conditions 
 of life. (Adapted from Anthropometric Report of British 
 Association ; 1883, p. 283.) 
 
 Class of School. 
 
 Average height 
 in inches. 
 
 Public Schools in country districts, 
 
 54-98 
 Middle Class Schools in towns ' ^^ " " " 53 ' 85 
 
 (.Lower, - 
 
 Elementary Schools 
 
 Factories and Workshops /Country 
 
 Industrial Schools, 
 
 (Town, 
 
 53-70 
 53-01 
 52-60 
 52-17 
 51-56 
 50-02 
 
 Bowditch * found that boys attending certain schools 
 in Boston, the attendance at which indicated the pro- 
 bability that they represented a favoured class, were about 
 
 1 H. P. Bowditch : The Growth of Children ; Eighth Annual 
 Report of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts.
 
 40 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 an inch taller and from 4 to 10 Ibs. heavier than the average 
 of the population. 
 
 TABLE 10. 
 
 Table showing the relative statures of adults of the ages of 25 
 to 30 years under different social and physical conditions 
 of life. (Adapted from Anthropometric Report of British 
 Association; 1883, p. 284.) 
 
 Social Class. 
 
 Average height 
 in inches. 
 
 General Population : all classes, - 
 Class I. : Professional classes, 
 
 - 
 
 67-43 
 69-14 
 
 Class II. : Commercial classes, clerks and shop- 
 keepers, 
 
 67-95 
 
 Class III. : Labouring classes : 
 Miners, Sailors, - 
 
 Agricultural, 
 
 67-51 
 
 Class IV. : Artisans in towns, 
 
 ... 
 
 66-61 
 
 Class V. : Sedentary occupations 
 Tailors, 
 
 : Factories, 
 
 65-92 
 
 Class VI. (a) : Prisoners, all classes, 
 (b) : Lunatics, all classes, 
 
 -. 
 
 66-16 
 65-65 
 
 Exercise. The result of exercise is to tone up the muscles 
 and to increase the effectiveness of the circulatory and 
 excretory systems of the body. All parts of the body are 
 better fed and the waste products of oxidation and decom- 
 position are rapidly eliminated. These things favour 
 growth. Whether exercise in excess favours growth is 
 exceedingly doubtful. It is as easy, especially in England, 
 to get into the habit of exercise and games as it is to get 
 into the habit of smoking or drinking. Much less exercise 
 is necessary to keep the body fit in a physiological sense, 
 than is generally supposed. And, in the case of girls, medical 
 opinion is steadily growing stronger against vigorous 
 exercise during adolescence, such as is obtained by hard 
 games of hockey. Girls must be anabolic during this 
 period, that is, the body must store up food for the emer- 
 gencies of later life. Vigorous exercise tends to make them 
 katabolic, wasteful of energy, like boys, and it is doubtful 
 if this is beneficial in the long run. A milder form of 
 exercise would seem to favour the growth of girls. 
 
 Place of Residence (Climate). Generally speaking, resi-
 
 PHYSICAL GROWTH 
 
 41 
 
 dence in the temperate parts of the world" seems to favour 
 growth, for it is in these parts that the bulk of the bigger 
 races are found. It is impossible, in the present state of 
 knowledge, to say whether a child of a big race would grow 
 more slowly if removed to the torrid or frigid zones, but the 
 probabilities are that he would. 
 
 Order of Birth. Little information has been gathered 
 on this point. A priori reasoning would lead us to expect 
 that first-born children would be bigger than others for 
 they are usually born during the period of greatest vigour 
 of the parents, especially of the mother, and during the 
 period when food is relatively more plentiful, for it is shared 
 by a smaller number in the family. From measurements 
 given below it would seem that such is the case, although 
 the amounts both for heights and weights are extremely 
 small. 
 
 TABLE 11. 
 
 Table showing the influence of order of birth upon the height 
 and weight of children in Oakland, Cal. (Adapted from 
 Boas : Growth of Toronto Children ; U.S. Education 
 Commissioners' Report II. , 1896-7, pp. 1569 -70.) 
 
 Height. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Order of birth. 
 
 
 
 Increase or decrease (in mms.) 
 from general average of 
 population (ages 6-16 years). 
 
 Increase or decrease (in Ibs.) 
 from general average of 
 population (ages 6-16 years). 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 First-born, 
 
 4-5 
 
 7-1 
 
 0-82 
 
 1-12 
 
 Second-born, - 
 
 4-0 
 
 -2-8 
 
 0-60 
 
 0-48 
 
 Third- born, 
 
 1-9 
 
 -4-5 
 
 0-32 
 
 -1-71 
 
 Fourth-born, - 
 
 -7-9 
 
 -3-3 
 
 -1-58 
 
 -0-72 
 
 Later-born, 
 
 -6-9 
 
 -2-3 
 
 -0-44 
 
 -0-12 
 
 NOTE. The table reads thus : between the ages of 6 and 16, boys, 
 if first-born, are on the average 4-5 mms. taller and -82 Ibs. heavier 
 than the general average of the population. 
 
 Time of Year. Malling-Hansen 1 found that the period 
 of greatest growth in weight for boys was from August 
 
 1 Perioden im Gewicht der Kinder und in der Sonnenwarme.
 
 42 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 to the middle of December, while the period of least growth 
 was from the beginning of May to the end of July. The 
 maximum growth in height was from April to the middle of 
 August ; the minimum from August till near the end of 
 November. Thus boys grow alternatively in height and 
 weight. These results have not been confirmed. 
 
 Time of Week. Vierordt 1 found weekly fluctuations 
 but there is no conclusive evidence on the point. Medical 
 men, however, report that children's bilious attacks are 
 more numerous after the heavy Sunday dinner than at 
 other times, and hence growth during the early part of the 
 week tends, for these children, to be arrested. 
 
 Time of Day. From the time of rising to the time of 
 going to bed a person's height tends to decrease. This 
 is due to the compression of the elastic cushions of cartilage 
 found between each pair of vertebrae of the spinal column. 
 The difference is usually about half-an-inch. Measure- 
 ments of height are, for this reason, best taken about noon. 
 As measurements of weight are by far the best indications 
 of the state of the health of children, these differences in 
 height are not so serious, except on the grounds of statistical 
 uniformity. 
 
 Growth of Parts. If all parts of the body grew in equal 
 ratios an adult would be a monstrosity for he would repro- 
 duce the large head and short legs of the baby. The 
 following table, abridged from Vierordt's Physiologie des 
 Kindesalters (p. 254), shows the relative growth in weight 
 of certain organs from birth to maturity : 
 
 fold. 
 
 - 136 
 
 - 125 
 
 - 12 
 
 - 7 
 
 - 37 
 1-7 
 
 Sex differences in the growth of parts, especially of the 
 skeleton and muscles, are also most marked. The whole 
 problem is exceedingly difficult and exactly what har- 
 monious development means, nobody at present can say. 
 
 Physique and Mental Ability. The studies referred to in the 
 
 1 Phyaiologie des Kindesalters, in Gerhardt's Handbuch der Kinder- 
 krankheiten, Vol. I. 
 
 
 fold. 
 
 
 Muscles 
 
 - 48 
 
 Liver 
 
 Pancreas 
 
 - 28 
 
 Heart 
 
 Skeleton 
 Lungs - 
 Stomach and ali- 
 
 - 26 
 
 - 20 
 
 Kidneys 
 Spinal cord 
 Brain 
 
 mentary canal 
 
 - 20 
 
 Eye
 
 PHYSICAL GROWTH 43 
 
 footnote below bear upon the question " Are bigger 
 children more capable, mentally, than the less favoured 
 ones ? " but the conclusions reached are most conflicting. 1 
 
 Porter, using coarse age and grade groupings, found that 
 large children are intellectually superior to small ones. 
 Beyer also found a positive correlation between physique 
 and mental ability, while Boas found in Toronto that " the 
 children pronounced by the teacher bright were less favour- 
 ably developed than those called duU." "Galton found 
 eminent English men of Science to be half an inch taller 
 than their fathers." 2 College students are taller than the 
 average of the population. The evidence is so conflicting 
 that it is difficult to say on which side the truth lies. It 
 is very probable that there is a slight positive correlation 
 between physique and mental ability. This should lead to 
 feelings of satisfaction when children are found to be above 
 the average both in height and weight. 
 
 References. Butler : Meaning of Education ; Chap. I. 
 Chamberlain : The Child. Drummond : Ascent of Man ; 
 Chap. IV. Drummond : The Child. Fiske : The Meaning 
 of Infancy. Hall : Adolescence ; Chaps. I. -III. Kirk- 
 patrick : Fundamentals of Child Stiidy. Reid : Laws of 
 Heredity ; Chap. I. Thorndike : Notes on Child Study ; 
 Chaps. III. and VI. Tyler : Growth and Education. 
 Wells : Mankind in the Making. Whipple : Manual of 
 Mental and Physical Tests ; Chap. IV. Wood : Health 
 and Education ; Chap. I. 
 
 1 Porter : Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Science ; VI., 
 161 ff. 
 
 Gilbert : Yale Studies, Vol. II., and University of Iowa, Studies, 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Boas : Science, New Series, IV., pp. 225-230. 
 
 West : Science, New Series, IV., pp. 156-159. 
 
 Beyer : Journal of the Boston Medical Society, 1900. 
 
 * Thorndike : Educational Psychology ; 1st Ed., p. 145.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF EDUCATIONAL 
 MEASUREMENTS. 1 
 
 IN the preceding chapter attention was directed to the 
 necessity of interpreting carefully the results of educational 
 measurements in order to prevent erroneous conclusions 
 from being reached. The aim of the present chapter is to 
 give an exposition of the treatment of the simpler statistical 
 summaries. 
 
 In the physical sciences the development of measurement 
 has been a comparatively simple affair, although the 
 invention of satisfactory electrical standards gave physicists 
 a great amount of trouble. The task was, however, simpli- 
 fied by the kind of things the scientists had to measure 
 constants for the most part. Length and weight, the 
 principal objects of their attention, are constant under 
 constant conditions. And fairly constant conditions are 
 relatively easy to obtain. Even errors of observation could 
 be estimated and allowances made. But when we come to 
 measurement of variable objects and phenomena, such as 
 are illustrated by mental traits in animals (with man as the 
 highest type), the task is complicated in many ways. In 
 the first place, we have no standards at least, no objective 
 standards which can be used as measuring sticks ; in the 
 second place, the things we measure are constantly varying 
 because we cannot preserve or re-establish identical con- 
 ditions. What standards can we use in measuring memory 
 or piety, or excellence in school subjects ? How impossible 
 it is to make the memory of to-day equal to the memory of 
 
 1 Portions of this chapter have appeared in The Journal of Experi- 
 mental Pedagogy and are now reprinted by kind permission of the 
 Editor. The chapter should be used for reference purposes 
 only.
 
 EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS 45 
 
 yesterday ! Memory is a variable quantity. And so with 
 all mental traits. 
 
 As measurement in education is chiefly concerned with 
 measurement of mental traits, the problem reduces itself 
 to measurement of variable quantities, the results of which 
 must be treated statistically before the mind can grasp their 
 significance. Recent text-books in education, and especi- 
 ally those in the field of educational psychology, are filled 
 with formulae and statistics illustrative of modern attempts 
 to introduce measurement into this field. These formulae 
 and statistical results often appear difficult, but they are 
 not really so ; the difficulty disappears as soon as they 
 become intelligible. The absence of elementary, non- 
 mathematical text-books on statistics has been the chief 
 source of the trouble, but this deficiency bids fair to be 
 remedied in the near future. 
 
 Before proceeding to the definitions and calculations it 
 may be as well to point out some of the difficulties in the 
 way of measurement in education. These are : (1) Diffi- 
 culty of the units of measurement used. The unit for 
 spelling, one word ; for arithmetic, one example ; for 
 school-administration, one scholar ; for auditory memory, 
 one word remembered, are all fictitious. Unequal things 
 are counted as equal because they are possessed of the same 
 name. As for school marks in general they are quite 
 arbitrary, and not only does the standard vary between 
 different conditions, but also at different times. Further, 
 we have no units at all for measuring the degree of goodness, 
 or badness, or timidity, or even the merit of handwriting 
 or drawing. (2) The difficulty that numbers representing 
 measures of mental traits seldom stand for exact quantities. 
 For example, 5 may represent from 4-5 to 5-5 as in the 
 measurement of length, measurement of reaction times, or 
 in measurement of wealth in pounds sterling ; 5 may mean 
 from 5 to 6 as in the matter of problems right in an arith- 
 metical test, or in the number of words remembered in a 
 memory test ; and 5 may also mean from 4 to 5 as in the 
 recording of errors made in drawing one line equal to 
 another, or in the recording of times in races. The third 
 method, that of the point just not reached, seldom occurs 
 in educational measurements ; the second, where 5 stands 
 for 5 to 6, is by far the most common. " It is necessary to 
 get into the habit of thinking of figures as measures on a
 
 46 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
 
 EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS 
 
 47 
 
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 48 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 continuous scale representing the quantities between two 
 limits." (3) Mental measurements often exhibit an undis- 
 tributed zero, i.e. a zero which is not absolute, but which 
 may extend for some indefinite distance below a theoretical 
 zero. For example, a group of 1 ,000 pupils may have a test 
 in the shape of 20 arithmetical examples to be done in a 
 certain time. Some of the pupils will get 20 right, others 
 19, 18, 17, and so forth to zero. But the pupils who fail 
 to get no examples in arithmetic correct are not of equal 
 degrees of weakness below those who get only one example 
 correct. The zero in this case is undistributed. (4) Mental 
 measurements are usually in a continuous series (as opposed 
 to discrete). Intellect, wealth, reaction-time, timidity, 
 velocity, time, length, weight, goodness and badness are 
 theoretically capable of any degree of subdivision. (6) The 
 difficulty of getting a reliable scale of measurements. Scales 
 are so often the result of an individual's chance bias, or they 
 are influenced by some constant error, or they are not on a 
 sufficiently minute scale. 
 
 As was previously stated, mental traits are variable. 
 They are, therefore, best graphically represented by a 
 " surface of frequency " or " distribution curve." Such 
 a surface of frequency was shown in Chapter I. (p. 9). 
 
 The preceding table (Table 12) gives in columns (2) and 
 (5) the heights and weights of fifty boys of the Manchester 
 Grammar School between the ages of 14 and 14-25. Boy 
 number 26 was 60 inches in height and 89 Ibs. in weight. 
 
 Table 13 gives the same information with regard to heights 
 condensed into a table of frequencies. 
 
 The table reads that there was one boy of 53 inches, one 
 boy of 53*25 inches, and so forth. 
 
 Both tables are obviously clumsy although they have 
 the merit of giving the whole of the available information. 
 Even a graphical representation, such as is given by a 1 
 surface of frequency, is too cumbrous to use with freedom. 
 Hence numerical summaries of the main features of such 
 tables of measurements have been evolved. Two such 
 statements or representative measures are necessary to 
 give the main facts of the distribution : 
 
 1. A number representing the central or general 
 
 tendency of the measures. 
 
 2. A number representing the degree of variability of 
 
 the measures.
 
 EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS 
 
 49 
 
 TABLE 13. 
 Table of Frequencies. 
 
 Frequency 
 No. of Boys. 
 
 Quantity 
 Heights of Boys. 
 
 Frequency 
 No. of Boys. 
 
 Quantity 
 Heights of Boys. 
 
 1 
 
 53 
 
 (21) 4 
 
 61 
 
 1 
 
 53-25 
 
 2 
 
 61-25 
 
 
 
 53-5 
 
 (15) 2 
 
 61-5 
 
 
 
 53-75 
 
 1 
 
 61-75 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 (12) 1 
 
 62 
 
 
 
 54-25 
 
 2 
 
 62-25 
 
 
 
 54-5 
 
 
 
 62-5 
 
 1 
 
 54-75 
 
 
 
 62-75 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 1 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 55-25 
 
 
 
 63-25 
 
 
 
 55-5 
 
 
 
 63-5 
 
 
 
 55-75 
 
 
 
 63-75 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 56-25 
 
 
 
 64-25 
 
 
 
 56-5 
 
 1 
 
 64-5 
 
 1 
 
 56-75 
 
 1 
 
 64-75 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 67-25 
 
 1 
 
 65-25 
 
 2 
 
 57-5 
 
 1 
 
 65-5 
 
 (9) 2 
 
 57-75 
 
 
 
 65-75 
 
 (14) 5 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 58-25 
 
 1 
 
 66-25 
 
 (20) 5 
 
 58-5 
 
 
 
 66-5 
 
 1 
 
 58-75 
 
 
 
 66-75 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 1 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 59-25 
 
 
 
 67-25 
 
 (23) 2 
 
 59-5 
 
 1 
 
 67-5 
 
 (24) 1 
 
 59-75 
 
 
 
 67-75 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 
 
 60-25 
 
 
 
 68-25 
 
 (22) 1 
 
 60-5 
 
 
 
 68-5 
 
 
 
 60-75 
 
 1 
 
 68-75 
 
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY. 1 
 
 There are three measures of central tendency in common 
 use the average or mean, the median, and the mode. 
 
 1 The fact that the height was determined to the nearest J*, and 
 weight to the nearest Ib. has not been taken into account in the 
 subsequent calculations. This would unnecessarily complicate 
 matters for beginners. 
 
 D
 
 50 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The ordinary arithmetical mean (M) is obtained by dividing 
 the sum of the individual measures (m) by their number (n). 
 
 This method is long and tedious. The labour of calculation 
 is minimised if the following method is adopted : " Arrange 
 the numbers in the order of their amount ; choose any 
 number likely to be nearest the average (M approl ) add 
 together, regarding signs, the deviations (d) from it of all 
 the numbers ; divide this result by the number of the 
 measures the average of which you are obtaining (n) ; add 
 the quotient to the chosen number." 
 
 2d (algebraic) 
 
 "'act -"-"-appror < 
 
 Thus, in column (3) of Table 12 are given the deviations of 
 heights from M approx , which, in this case, was chosen as 59. 
 The algebraic sum of the deviations is 63-25 ( 35-25 +98-5). 
 
 fiO.OK 
 
 hence M^ = 59 +^^ = 59 + 1 -26 = 60 26. 
 
 o\) 
 
 The weighted arithmetical mean, the third method of 
 calculating the average, is serviceable as a short cut in 
 dealing with a large number of measures. The formula 
 is the following : 
 
 where m = measure of a limited group. 
 
 f = frequency of measure of limited group. 
 n = number of cases. 
 
 In finding the weighted arithmetical mean of the heights 
 of the 50 boys, take measures 53, 55 and 57 as measures of 
 the limited group. There are thus 2 cases at 53, 1 case at 
 55, 6 cases at 57, 15 cases at 59, etc., hence 
 
 M _ (53 x2) +(55 x 1) +(6 x57) (3 x67) +(1 x69) 
 
 50 
 =604. 
 
 The method of the guessed average is the quickest of the 
 three. Moreover, it has the special advantage of calculating 
 the average deviation (see below) at the same time. 
 
 The median is the measure above and below which an 
 equal number of the individual measures lie. Thus, a
 
 EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS 51 
 
 perpendicular erected at the median bisects the surface of 
 
 frequency. The median is the ~ th measure. 
 
 X 
 
 The simplicity of calculation of the median and its 
 unambiguity makes it the most desirable central tendency 
 to use in statistical investigations. 1 
 
 The method of calculating the median is to take a table 
 of frequencies (e.g. Table 13) and to count in from either end 
 of the frequencies until half way (25 in this case) is almost 
 reached ; 24 brings us, counting in from the lower end, to 
 the end of the measure (59-75). It will thus be seen that 
 the median falls in the group " 4 at 60." Since, however, 
 60 means from 59-875 to 60-125 we must find out how far 
 into this group we must go before the 25th case is reached. 
 Obviously we have to go J of the distance between 59-875 
 and 60-125, i.e. -0625. The median is thus -0625 past the 
 end of the 59-875 measure, or is at the point 59-875 + -0625 
 =59-9375. 
 
 The mode is the most common of the individual measures. 
 In the table of heights the mode is not well defined. It 
 may be said to lie between 58 and 58-5. 
 
 In normal distributions, the mode, median and average 
 coincide. 
 
 MEASURES OF VARIABILITY. 
 
 There are three measures of variability in common use 
 the average deviation, the standard deviation, and the 
 probable error. 
 
 The average deviation or mean variation (A.D. or m.v.) is 
 the average (arithmetical) of the deviations (d) of the 
 individual measures (m) from their average (M). 
 
 2(M-m) 
 A.D. or m.v. = - 
 
 1 The median is not so greatly affected by extreme measures as is 
 the average. An average income of 200 per year of ten men may 
 mean that one has 2,000 per year and the remaining nine nothing. 
 The Hindoos have a proverb which states that " the cow was drowned 
 in water of average depth up to the hoofs." The sportsman who 
 shot a yard to the right of the duck with the right barrel, and a yard 
 to the left with the left barrel, shot the duck on the average, but 
 nevertheless it flew away and escaped.
 
 52 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Between M- A.D. and M + A.D. are 57-6 of the cases if the 
 distribution is symmetrical and the observations sufficiently 
 numerous. 
 
 In the case of heights, the sum of the deviations from the 
 guessed average (this is approximately equal to the sum of 
 the deviations from the actual or true average) was 98-5+ 
 35-25 or 133-75, 
 
 hence A.D. = ^-^ = 2-675 
 
 The wider the distribution the greater is the A.D. or other 
 measure of variability. 
 
 The standard deviation or error of mean square (S.D. or o-) 
 is the square root of the average of the squares of the 
 individual deviations from their central tendency (usually 
 M is used). 
 
 S.D. or 0-=. 
 
 The S.D. of a given series is somewhat larger than its A.D. 
 Theoretically, and practically also if the distribution is 
 symmetrical and the observations sufficiently numerous, 
 the relation is constant at 
 
 A.D. = 1-25331 A.D. 
 
 and conversely A.D. = "7979 o-. 
 
 Between M - a- and M + o- are 68'2 % of the cases. 
 
 Column (4) of Table 12 gives the squares of the individual 
 deviations. 1 The sum of these is 644- 77. Hence 
 
 50 
 
 = v/12 7 89l 
 = 3-59 
 (a- calculated from formula o- = 1-25331 A.D. is 3*55). 
 
 The probable error (P.E.) of a distribution is the amount 
 of difference from the average (or other central tendency) 
 such that 50% of all the individual measures lie between 
 M P.E. and M +P.E. In other words, the P.E. is a value 
 
 1 The squares of all integer numbers up to 10,000 are given in 
 "Barlow's Tables."
 
 EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS 53 
 
 such that the number of measures that exceed it is the same 
 as the number of measures that fail to reach it. For a 
 normal distribution 
 
 P.E. = -6745 a- 
 
 0- = 14825 P.E. 
 P.E. = -8453 A.D. 
 A.D. = 1-1843 P.E. 
 
 There are many methods of calculating the P.E. Probably 
 the simplest method is to take the 25 and 75 percentiles 
 (these are found in exactly the same way as the median, 
 only 25 and 75 are taken instead of the 50 per cent.) and 
 divide the difference between them by two. Hence 
 
 .^ 75 percentile 25 percentile 
 P.E. = -g- 
 
 In the case of heights in Table 12. 
 
 _3-95 
 
 : 2 
 = 1-975. 
 
 CORRELATION. 
 
 Up to the present we have been dealing with the dis- 
 tributions of single traits. It is often found, however, 
 that traits, both mental and physical, tend to vary together. 
 For example, we know that there is a tendency for weight 
 to vary with height. But the relationship is not perfect, 
 or we should always find that the tallest man was the 
 heaviest, the shortest man the lightest, and so forth. This 
 tendency towards concomitant variation, or the tendency 
 of two or more traits to vary together, is called a correlation. 
 A correlation coefficient is a measure of this tendency. This 
 section will deal with the methods of finding correlations, 
 i.e. of finding how far the variates in one series vary con- 
 currently with those of another. 
 
 In the realm of physics the relationships are easy to 
 determine, because they are constant. The physicist
 
 54 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 knows that the relationship between the pressure and volume 
 of a gas is constant, and may be expressed by the formula : 
 
 P x V = a constant. 
 
 The variation of the length of a metal rod with temperature 
 is also constant. If measures of volume and pressure, or 
 of length and temperature, are plotted along axes of X and 
 Y, we get figures such as the following : 
 
 t 
 
 Pressure 
 
 X 
 
 Temperature 
 
 In the first case the graphical representation of the facts 
 is a curve ; in the second, a straight line. Deviations of 
 experimental measures from the smooth curve or the 
 straight line would be looked upon, and rightly so, as errors 
 of observation. 
 
 But in the case of all mental measures the relationship is 
 never, or almost never, the same it is variable. Hence 
 the difficulty of measurement arises. Some of the diffi- 
 culties that must be overcome are : 
 
 (a) The difficulty of an undistributed zero. This is 
 overcome by using the deviations from the central 
 tendencies of the distributions instead of the 
 crude measures of the two traits. 
 
 (6) The difficulty of the form of distribution. In 
 general, measures of mental traits approximate the 
 normal distribution, and hence most measures of 
 relationships assume that such is the case. (The 
 Pearson coefficient assumes normal distributions ; 
 the Spearman method of ranks, however, assumes 
 that the distribution is rectangular.)
 
 EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS 55 
 
 (c) The difficulty of the form of the relationship. The 
 Pearson coefficient, r, assumes that the relation- 
 ship is rectilinear, i.e. like the length-temperature 
 of metal bar ; the correlation ratio, 77, measures 
 the correlation correctly, even if it is non -recti- 
 linear or skew. 
 
 The following are the more important methods of finding 
 correlations : 
 
 1. The Pearson or Product-Moments Method (r). 
 
 2. The Spearman Foot-Rule or R Method. 
 
 3. The Method of Unlike Signs. 
 
 4. The Correlation Ratio Method (17). 
 
 5. The Median or Mid-ratio Method. 
 
 1 . The Pearson Coefficient of Correlation (r) is of historical 
 interest, because it was the first mathematically accurate 
 method found of dealing with the problem. The method 
 of calculating it is long and tedious. Its value ranges from 
 + 1 -00 to 1 -00. A correlation of -f- 1 -00 would mean that 
 the two series varied from the central tendencies in exact 
 proportions ; a correlation of 1 -00 would mean that the 
 two series varied from the central tendencies in inverse 
 proportions, i.e. in the case under consideration the lightest 
 boy would always be the tallest, the heaviest the shortest, 
 and so on ; a zero correlation would mean that there was 
 no causal connection between the two series, that one trait 
 had no influence upon the other. 
 
 The formula given originally by Pearson is : 
 
 r= 
 
 n . (T! . <r a 
 
 where x = the deviations in the first series, 
 
 y = the corresponding deviation in the second series, 
 
 n = the number of measures, 
 o-j = standard deviation of the first series, 
 o- 2 = standard deviation of the second series, 
 
 since <r, = A / and <r 9 =. 
 
 \ n V n 
 
 the formula may be written :
 
 56 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The second form is the easier one to use. A good arrange* 
 ment of the columns in the calculation is shown in Table 12 
 The squares of x (or d t ) and y (or d 2 ) may be read direct 
 from Barlow's Tables, while Crelle's Rechentafeln or a slide 
 rule may be used to find the products of x and y. A 
 Pearson coefficient of such an example as the one under 
 consideration, can be worked by a fairly proficient worker 
 in about an hour and a quarter. The final part of the 
 calculation, the labour of which could be reduced by using 
 approximations, is as follows : 
 
 r = -7= 
 
 163049 
 
 x/644 -77x14642 -06 
 _ 1630-49 
 
 = 3073 * 
 
 = -53. 
 
 2. Spearman's Foot-Rule or R Method of finding correla- 
 tion depends on comparison of the ranks (grading) in the 
 two series. The formula given is : 
 
 where g is the numerical gain in the rank of an individual 
 in the second as compared with the first series, and c is the 
 mean value of 2g by mere chance. For c, Spearman uses 
 the formula 
 
 n 2 -! 
 
 -g- 
 
 where n = the number of cases. When this value of c is 
 substituted in the original formula * we get 
 
 R-l 6>2g 
 
 ~ 
 
 In the example (Table 12) the 10th individual in height is 
 4th with respect to weight. The gain is thus 6 places. 
 
 1 Pearson's Modification is 
 
 ,_ 6Sd 2 
 n(n 2 -!)'
 
 57 
 
 Only gains are recorded, and these are set down in column 
 (9). The total gain is 150. 
 
 Hence R-l 6xl5 
 
 ' ~50 2 -1 
 
 = 1 
 
 900 
 
 2499 
 = 1 - -36 
 = -64. 
 
 The Spearman coefficient (R) bears a direct relationship 
 to the Pearson coefficient (r), which enables the worker to 
 convert the results obtained by the Foot-Rule Method into 
 those which would have been obtained by the Product- 
 Moments Method. Spearman's Conversion Table is given 
 below : 
 
 TABLE 14. SPEARMAN CONVERSION TABLE. 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 R 
 
 r 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 40 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 81 
 
 80 
 
 95 
 
 01 
 
 01 
 
 21 
 
 32 
 
 41 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 96 
 
 02 
 
 03 
 
 22 
 
 34 
 
 42 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 83 
 
 82 
 
 96 
 
 03 
 
 05 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 43 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 84 
 
 83 
 
 96 
 
 04 
 
 06 
 
 24 
 
 37 
 
 44 
 
 64 
 
 64 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 97 
 
 05 
 
 07 
 
 25 
 
 38 
 
 45 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 97 
 
 06 
 
 08 
 
 26 
 
 40 
 
 46 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 98 
 
 07 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 41 
 
 47 
 
 67 
 
 67 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 
 98 
 
 08 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 43 
 
 48 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 98 
 
 09 
 
 14 
 
 29 
 
 44 
 
 49 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 99 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 
 99 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 31 
 
 47 
 
 51 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 99 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 32 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 92 
 
 99 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 33 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 74 
 
 73 
 
 91 
 
 93 
 
 99 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 34 
 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 75 
 
 74 
 
 92 
 
 94 
 
 1-00 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 76 
 
 75 
 
 93 
 
 95 
 
 1-00 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 -36 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 77 
 
 76 
 
 93 
 
 96 
 
 1-00 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 37 
 
 55 
 
 57 
 
 78 
 
 77 
 
 94 
 
 97 
 
 1-00 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 38 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 79 
 
 78 
 
 94 
 
 98 
 
 1-00 
 
 19 
 
 29 
 
 39 
 
 57 
 
 59 
 
 80 
 
 79 
 
 95 
 
 99 
 
 1-00 
 
 Serious objection has been taken to the Spearman formula 
 by Pearson and Brown because it assumes the rectangular
 
 58 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 distribution, a form of distribution never, or but rarely, 
 met with in practice. 
 
 3. The Method of Unlike Signs. The formula for this 
 method is 
 
 where U = the percentage of unlike signs in the deviations 
 of the two series, and ?r = ISO. 1 cos TT is constant, hence 
 
 1 This formula may be derived from Yule's formula for correlation 
 of presence and absence. 
 
 r _ad + bc 
 ~ ad - be 
 where a = number of cases in which both traits are present. 
 
 b= number of cases in which first trait is present and second 
 
 absent. 
 
 c= number of cases in which second trait is present and first 
 absent. 
 
 d = number of cases in which both traits are absent. 
 The above formula may be modified thus : 
 
 Since sin A= cos ( ^ - A ], 
 
 ~TT v \/ad - \/bc~l 
 
 ----=: - 
 
 1C 
 
 \/bc 
 
 - = - - - , 
 
 Vad + vbc 
 
 and by practically substituting the arithmetical for the geometrical 
 mean we get 
 
 where U= % of unlike signs., 
 
 L = % of like signs, 
 and since L + U = 100, 
 
 r-.oo.rjgj.
 
 EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS 
 
 59 
 
 a table giving r for the various percentages of U may be 
 constructed. Such a table is given below : 
 
 TABLE 15. TABLE FOB Cos TT U CORRELATION. 
 
 If U is greater than 50, first subtract it from 100, then 
 prefix the minus sign to correlation indicated. 
 
 %u 
 
 R 
 
 %u 
 
 R 
 
 %u 
 
 R 
 
 
 
 1-0000 
 
 ' 17 
 
 8602 
 
 34 
 
 4819 
 
 1 
 
 9996 
 
 18 
 
 8439 
 
 35 
 
 4542 
 
 2 
 
 9982 
 
 19 
 
 8268 
 
 36 
 
 4260 
 
 3 
 
 9953 
 
 20 
 
 8089 
 
 37 
 
 3973 
 
 4 
 
 9924 
 
 21 
 
 7902 
 
 38 
 
 3682 
 
 5 
 
 9880 
 
 22 
 
 7707 
 
 39 
 
 3387 
 
 6 
 
 9826 
 
 23 
 
 7504 
 
 40 
 
 3089 
 
 7 
 
 9762 
 
 24 
 
 7293 
 
 41 
 
 2738 
 
 8 
 
 9688 
 
 25 
 
 7074 
 
 42 
 
 2485 
 
 9 
 
 9604 
 
 26 
 
 6848 
 
 43 
 
 2180 
 
 10 
 
 9510 
 
 27 
 
 6615 
 
 44 
 
 1873 
 
 11 
 
 9407 
 
 28 
 
 6375 
 
 45 
 
 1564 
 
 12 
 
 9295 
 
 29 
 
 6129 
 
 46 
 
 1253 
 
 13 
 
 9174 
 
 30 
 
 5877 
 
 47 
 
 0941 
 
 14 
 
 9044 
 
 31 
 
 5620 
 
 48 
 
 0628 
 
 15 
 
 8905 
 
 32 
 
 5358 
 
 49 
 
 0314 
 
 16 
 
 8757 
 
 33 
 
 5091 
 
 50 
 
 0000 
 
 In the example, the unlike signed pairs of columns (3) 
 and (6) of Table 12, number 17. This makes 34% which 
 corresponds to r = -4819. 
 
 4. The Correlation Ratio Method (57) . The correlation 
 ratio (rj) is defined as the ratio of the standard deviation 
 of the means of the arrays (2) to the total standard devia- 
 tion (a-). 
 
 2
 
 60 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The following example (slightly modified) taken from 
 Brown, Mental Measurement (p. 136) will illustrate the 
 method of calculation. 
 
 TABLE 16. 86 BOYS, AGED 11-12 YEARS. 
 
 Correlation between speed and accuracy in the addition 
 of groups of 10 single digits. Two tests of five minutes' 
 duration each. 
 
 Speed of addition (x) >- 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 TOTALS 
 
 (Ny) 
 
 0-4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 2-5 
 
 1 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-6 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-6 
 
 5-5 
 
 5-5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 2-5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 2-5 
 
 2-6 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 TOTALS 
 (Nx) 
 
 3-5 
 
 18-5 
 
 14-5 
 
 18 
 
 15-5 
 
 10-5 
 
 2-5 
 
 3 
 
 86 
 
 Means 
 of 
 Arrays 
 
 8-3 
 
 7-5 
 
 8-9 
 
 8-8 
 
 8-7 
 
 8-5 
 
 10-3 
 
 6-7 
 
 
 o 
 
 r 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 53 
 
 It is rather unfortunate that a boy has been divided 
 between two scores, but the table is almost self-explanatory. 
 Thus, a boy scoring 4 for speed obtains 5 for accuracy ; 
 3 boys obtaining 6 for speed score 8 for accuracy, and so 
 forth. A vertical or horizontal column is known as an 
 array. The means of the vertical arrays are 8-3, 7-5, 8-9, 
 etc. If these are arranged in order of merit the S.D. may 
 be easily calculated, as is shown below :
 
 EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS 
 
 61 
 
 
 Frequency. 
 
 Derivations (d) from 
 guessed average 
 
 n xd 2 
 
 
 
 of 8-5. 
 
 
 3 
 
 cases at 6-7 
 
 -1-8 
 
 9-72 
 
 18-5 
 
 7-5 
 
 -1- 
 
 18-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 8-3 
 
 *2 
 
 14 
 
 10-5 
 
 8-5 
 
 
 
 15-5 
 
 8-7 
 
 + -2 
 
 62 
 
 18- 
 
 8-8 
 
 + -3 
 
 1-62 
 
 14-5 
 
 8-9 
 
 + -4 
 
 2-32 
 
 2-5 
 
 10-3 
 
 + 1-8 
 
 8-1 
 
 TOTAL, 
 
 41-02 
 
 The total standard deviation (o-) calculation is given below : 
 
 Frequency (n). 
 
 Deviation of y (d) 
 
 nxd 2 . 
 
 6 
 
 -5-5 
 
 181-5 
 
 4 
 
 -3 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 -1 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 + 1 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 + 2 
 
 84 
 
 86 
 
 Total, 
 
 347-5 
 
 hence 
 
 = 2-01, 
 
 201 
 
 = 34. 
 
 5. The Median or Mid-ratio Method. This fifth method 
 of finding the correlation (Galton) between two distributions 
 is heartily approved by Thorndike, both on account of its 
 reliability and of its simplicity of calculation. The method 
 is what it professes to be, namely, that of finding the mid- 
 
 ratio of the - and the ? ratios. 
 
 y * 
 
 Let us take the following
 
 62 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 example from Thorndike's Empirical Studies in the Theory 
 of Measurement, where these paired values for x and y are 
 given : 
 
 y 
 
 -5 
 -5 
 -3 
 -1 
 -7 
 -3 
 -3 
 -1 
 + 1 
 -5 
 
 -1 
 -1 
 -1 
 
 + 1 
 +1 
 + 1 
 + 1 
 
 + 1 
 
 y 
 
 3 
 -1 
 
 +1 
 + 1 
 +3 
 -3 
 -1 
 + 1 
 +3 
 +5 
 
 x 
 
 + 1 
 +3 
 +3 
 +3 
 +3 
 +3 
 +5 
 +5 
 +5 
 +7 
 
 y 
 
 +7 
 
 -1 
 
 +1 
 +1 
 
 +3 
 
 +5 
 -1 
 +3 
 +3 
 
 +5 
 
 The directions for calculation as given by Thorndike are : 
 " First, one makes an exact median sectioning of the x's 
 and the y's and then counts the cases that give negative 
 
 ratios. 
 
 By inspection one then chooses for the ^ ratios an 
 
 X 
 
 approximate median (say |), and for convenience draws 
 a fine to include these cases and counts them. One then 
 increases their number by adding the cases of the next 
 smallest ratios not included, or by taking away the cases 
 of the largest ratios included until one reaches the Median 
 ratio. One then repeats the process of guessing at an 
 
 approximate median for the - ratios and correcting it." 
 A sample calculation of the above is given below : 
 
 -7 -5 -3 
 
 -1 
 
 + 1 
 
 +3 
 
 +5 +7 
 
 r -7 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 -511 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 -3 1 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 -1 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 > +1 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 +3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 +6 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 +7 
 
 
 1 
 

 
 EDUCATIONAL MEASUREMENTS 63 
 
 N = 30 iN = 15 
 
 negative ( < o) 8 
 
 y 
 
 X 
 
 hence, Median - = f 
 
 negative 
 
 Median - = 
 
 x 
 
 /. Median Ratio = -6. 
 FIG. 7. Median Ratio Table. 
 
 The above examples give illustrations of the calculation 
 of the three things central tendencies, variabilities, and 
 correlations which occur most frequently in mental 
 measurements. But the maxim " learn by doing " has 
 peculiar applicability to statistical treatment of measure- 
 ments, hence the reader is strongly advised to make simple 
 calculations of the type shown. He is also recommended 
 to make a careful study of two or three typical investiga- 
 tions along these lines. The study of Thorndike on " Hand- 
 writing," l in which a measuring stick or scale for children's 
 handwriting is made, and Cattell's " A Statistical Study 
 of American Men of Science," 2 can both be confidently 
 recommended for the purpose. 
 
 References : Bowley : An Elementary Manual of Sta- 
 tistics. Bowley : Elements of Statistics. Brown : The 
 Essentials of Mental Measurement. Elderton : Primer of 
 Statistics. King : The Elements of Statistical Method. 
 Myers : Text Book of Experimental Psychology ; Chap. X. 
 Thorndike : Educational Psychology ; 2nd Ed. Chaps. II., 
 VIII. -X. and appendix III. Thorndike : Mental and 
 Social Measurements ; 2nd Ed. Whipple : Manual of 
 Mental and Physical Tests ; Chaps. I., II. and III. Yule : 
 An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics. 
 
 1 Teachers' College Record, Vol. XI., No. 2. 
 
 1 Science, New Series, Vol. XXIV., Nos. 621, 622, 623.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION OR HEALTH EXAMINATION. 
 
 THERE is undoubtedly a close connection between physical 
 well-being and mental progress. We cannot expect a 
 child suffering from disease and physical defects to make 
 normal progress in his mental development. Medical 
 Inspection or Health Examination of school children 
 endeavours to discover these defects and to reduce their 
 influence to a minimum. The subject, however, has 
 assumed such great importance in recent years that only 
 a few of the more important points can be dealt with in a 
 single chapter. Detailed knowledge, especially with respect 
 to the symptoms and the duration of diseases, must be 
 obtained either from medical treatises or from books deal- 
 ing with medical inspection and school hygiene. Of the 
 latter type, the books in the list given in the footnote l can 
 be confidently recommended. 
 
 Types of Medical Inspection. Medical Inspection, as 
 carried on at the present time in English schools, falls 
 fairly sharply into two divisions. The first type is the 
 medical inspection as carried out under the regulations of 
 the Board of Education, where the scholars, for the most 
 part, are only examined two or three times during their 
 school career at entrance and on leaving with perhaps 
 an extra examination when the scholars reach the age of 
 ten or thereabouts. The second type is found where the 
 medical officer is definitely attached to a school and visits 
 
 1 Porter, Charles : School Hygiene and the Laws of Health ; London, 
 1906. 
 
 Lyster, Robert A. : School Hygiene ; London, 1908. 
 
 Mackenzie, W. Leslie : The Medical Inspection of School Children : 
 Edinburgh, 1904. 
 
 Hogarth, A. H. : Medical Inspection of Schools Oxford, 1909. 
 
 Laurie, A. P. (Ed.) : The Teacher's Encyclopaedia ; Vol. IV.
 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION 65 
 
 it regularly either daily or weekly. This second type is by 
 far the more effective and beneficial and it is to be hoped 
 that the first the compulsory type will supersede it in 
 course of time. With the multiplication of school medical 
 officers and school nurses, far more attention is now being 
 devoted to the problem than was conceived to be possible 
 half-a-dozen years ago. 
 
 History. Health examinations of an elementary nature 
 have been made by teachers and parents throughout the 
 ages, and not a few educators have placed the health of the 
 scholar in the forefront of their theory and practice. But 
 medical inspection as we know it to-day is a development 
 of the last thirty years. France, Germany, Switzerland, 
 and the Scandinavian countries, until recently were all 
 ahead of England. Such progress, however, has been made 
 in England during the past five years that she now bids 
 fair to lead the world. The awakening came at the time 
 of the Boer War, when more than half the persons applying 
 for enlistment had to be refused on grounds of physical 
 defect. In 1904 appeared the three- volume Report of the 
 Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration. 
 One of its recommendations was the systematic inspection 
 of school children by medical men. This was followed by 
 a second interdepartmental committee (1905) which had for 
 its reference : " (a) to ascertain and report on what is now 
 being done, and with what result, in respect of medical 
 inspection of children in elementary schools, and (6) to 
 inquire into the existing arrangements of voluntary agencies 
 for provision of meals to school children, and to report as 
 to the possibility of its better organisation." 
 
 Their report l was issued in the same year, and so 
 unsatisfactory was the condition of affairs which it showed, 
 that its recommendations were immediately acted upon. 
 BirrelTs Bill of 1906, which failed to become law, contained 
 a medical inspection clause. The difficulty was overcome 
 by introducing a similar clause hi the non-contentious 
 Education (Administrative Provisions) Act of 1907. The 
 clause dealing with medical inspection is as follows : 
 
 " The duty to provide for the medical inspection of children 
 immediately before or at the time of, or as soon as possible 
 
 1 The Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Medical Inspec- 
 tion and Feeding of School Children attending Public Elementary 
 Schools Wymans, Vols. I. and II., 1905. 
 
 E
 
 66 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 after, their admission to a public elementary school, and on 
 such occasions as the Board of Education direct, and the power 
 to make arrangements as may be sanctioned by the Board of 
 Education for attending to the health and physical condition 
 of the children educated in public elementary schools." 
 
 To prevent defection, the " Code " for the following 
 year threatened the withdrawal of grants from those 
 authorities which did not set up the machinery of medical 
 inspection. Explanatory Circulars l have facilitated the 
 introduction of inspection and in less than five years it has 
 become complete for England and Wales. Two financial 
 drawbacks hinder the efficiency of the scheme, viz. : (1) the 
 refusal to reintroduce the " epidemic grants " which were 
 withdrawn in 1903 ; and (2) the tardiness in giving an 
 additional grant from the exchequer for the work of medical 
 inspection. The former is prejudicial in two ways, for it 
 not only makes Local Education Authorities hesitant 
 about the closing of schools when infectious diseases are 
 rife, but it also penalises all head teachers whose salaries 
 are dependent upon the average attendances of their 
 scholars. 
 
 Need for Health Examinations. That medical inspection 
 was not made compulsory too soon is shown by the reports 
 of the medical officers engaged in the work. The Chief 
 
 1 Circular 676. Memorandum on Medical Inspection of Children 
 in Public Elementary Schools, 1907. 
 
 Circular 582. Circular to Local Education Authorities. Schedule 
 of Medical Inspection, 1908. 
 
 Circular 596. Circular to Local Education Authorities under 
 Part III. of the Education Act, 1902, on certain questions arising 
 under section xiii. of the Education (Administrative Provisions) Act, 
 
 1907, and the Code of Regulations for Public Elementary Schools, 
 
 1908, viz. : (a) The functions of the " School Medical Officer " ; 
 (b) Provision for Medical Inspection of School Children under the 
 Code of 1908 ; (c) The Local Education Authority's Annual Report 
 on Medical Inspection to the Board of Education ; and (d) Arrange- 
 ments for attending to the Health and Physical Condition of School 
 Children, 1908. 
 
 Circular 728. Provision for Medical Inspection for the Year 
 ending 31st July, 1910, 1909. 
 
 Circular 792. Grants for Medical Treatment of children attending 
 Public Elementary Schools, April 9th, 1912. Enclosing a copy of 
 " Regulations under which Grants in respect of medical treatment 
 and care of children attending Public Elementary Schools and certain 
 Special Schools in England and Wales will be made by the Board of 
 Education during the year ending March 31st, 1913."
 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION 67 
 
 Medical Officer of the Board of Education makes the 
 following statement (p. 27) in his Report for 1909 : 
 
 " It may, however, be generally stated that, in respect to 
 the six million children in the Public Elementary Schools of 
 England and Wales, about 10 per cent, of them suffer from 
 serious defect in vision, from 3 to 5 per cent, suffer from defec- 
 tive hearing, 1 to 3 per cent, have suppurating ears, 8 per cent, 
 have adenoids, or enlarged tonsils, of sufficient degree to 
 obstruct the nose or throat and to require surgical treatment, 
 20 to 40 per cent, suffer from extensive and injurious decay of 
 the teeth, 40 per cent, have unclean heads, about 1 per cent, 
 suffer from ringworm, 1 per cent, are affected with tuberculosis 
 of readily recognisable form, and to 2 per cent, are afflicted 
 with heart disease. It is to be feared that in the aggregate 
 this formidable category of disease and defect means a large 
 degree of suffering, incapacity, and inefficiency." 
 
 Objects of Medical Inspection. Wood * says that health 
 examinations of school children have two purposes : 
 
 1. "To detect, at as early a stage as possible, cases of 
 infectious and contagious disease, so that by exclusion and 
 isolation, the rest of the pupils and the community may be 
 protected. 
 
 2. To discover physical defects and chronic ailments of 
 importance, in order that the limitations of the pupil may 
 be understood and that curable defects and disorders may 
 receive appropriate attention." 
 
 To these must be added a third, namely : 
 
 3. To amass a body of information, statistical and other- 
 wise, which shall be a true guide to further preventive 
 measures and legislation. 
 
 So far as England and Wales are concerned, purpose 1 and 
 to some extent purpose 2 have been inadequately fulfilled 
 owing to the long periods between the visits of the medical 
 officer and to the paucity of available centres for medical 
 treatment and school clinics. Purpose 3 has been carried 
 out, but the present expenditure on medical inspection, 
 estimated at about 1,000,000, is far too great if statistics 
 are to be the only results. 
 
 Persons involved in Medical Inspection. The people 
 concerned with medical inspection are : (a) the School 
 Doctor ; (6) the School Nurse ; (c) the Teacher, especially 
 
 1 Wood : Health and Education ; p. 13, University of Chicago Press, 
 1910.
 
 68 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 the Head-Teacher ; (d) the parents and the scholars ; (?) the 
 Care (or Health) Committee ; and (/) School Attendance 
 Officers. 
 
 (a) The School Doctor is the ultimate authority on all 
 questions concerning the health of the scholars. He must 
 see that the sanitary arrangements of the school are satis- 
 factory. (Unfortunately he has little power to alter bad 
 lighting and bad ventilation in schools because the buildings 
 are erected before he inspects them. Far too often, badly 
 planned schools and furniture are the cause of defects of the 
 eyes and of the skeleton, and these defects it is the doctor's 
 duty to detect.) He must examine all the children medi- 
 cally, although much help may be obtained, especially in 
 the selection of special cases, from the nurse and the 
 teacher. The responsibility for diagnosis rests with him 
 and must never be delegated. If the teacher and nurse 
 render assistance he must exercise supervision and control 
 over them with respect to this branch of their work. He is 
 responsible for the individual records of the children and 
 for the Annual Report sent up to the Board of Education. 
 If no dental surgeon is employed he must also examine the 
 teeth of the scholars. The onus of excluding scholars on 
 the grounds of health or of closing a school during an 
 epidemic of disease rests on him. As he is often the Medical 
 Officer of Health, this particular duty occasions but little 
 trouble. He must, so far as he is able, train the teachers 
 and nurses and, incidentally, the parents of the scholars 
 in matters relating to inspection and to preventive measures. 
 But he is not expected to cure he diagnoses and recom- 
 mends treatment. Treatment is reserved for hospitals 
 and clinics and private practitioners. 
 
 The qualifications of a school doctor are thus very 
 exacting. He must understand children, must be quick at 
 diagnosis, and must be enthusiastic and original. The 
 experience gained at a general hospital, at a children's 
 hospital, at hospitals for diseases of the ear and of the eye, 
 and at a fever hospital is not too wide for the task. He 
 should possess the degree of D.P.H. and above all, he 
 must be devoted to the cause of prevention of illness. A 
 knowledge of Education and Psychology would also be of 
 great assistance to him. 
 
 (6) The School Nurse occupies an intermediary position 
 between the school and the home. At the school she may
 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION 69 
 
 give assistance in the examinations and attend to the 
 treatment of minor injuries. Visiting the school far more 
 frequently than the doctor, she is often able to detect early 
 signs of ill-health, and to refer these cases to him for dia- 
 gnosis. She can also give demonstrations on the care of 
 the teeth, of cleansing of heads and of care of infants' to 
 the children in the school. These lessons can also be taught 
 to the mothers in the home. It is the duty of the nurse 
 to see that the treatment recommended by the medical 
 officer is carried out. She assists the doctor in his routine 
 examinations and " follows up " the special cases to see that 
 the cure is complete. Her duties are thus more those of a 
 special administrative officer than of a nurse in the general 
 acceptance of the word. If she is wise, she enlists the 
 sympathy and co-operation of the school attendance officer. 
 Nurses should be from five to ten times as numerous as 
 school doctors. 
 
 (c) The functions of the teacher, who comes into such 
 close and frequent contact with the scholars, are most 
 important. Although it is not his province to diagnose 
 cases, he may bring to the attention of the medical officer 
 and the nurse all cases of chronic and croupy coughs ; sore 
 throats ; neck swellings ; flushings of the face ; skin erup- 
 tions ; colds in the head, with running eyes and nose ; general 
 emaciation and lassitude ; physical defects like lameness, 
 and spinal curvatures ; mal-nutrition ; constant headaches ; 
 cases of pediculosis ; pallor ; puffiness of face and eyes ; 
 shortness of breath ; sore eyes, squint and defective vision ; 
 suppurating ears and deafness; abnormal twitchings and 
 other evidences of defective nervous organisation. 
 
 He may also test the eyesight and the hearing of his 
 pupils. The former is usually done by means of a Snellen's 
 Test Card, which has on it letters of various sizes, visible 
 by normal people at 60, 36, 24, 18, 12, 9, 6, 4-5 and 3 metres 
 respectively. The card is usually placed at a distance 
 of six metres (20 ft.) from the pupil and in a good light. 
 Each eye is tested separately ; the one not being tested 
 is covered with a card and not by the hand. The scholar 
 is asked to read the letters, and the last line read correctly 
 (to within 10 per cent.) is noted. If scholars are too young 
 to read, cards with E's turned in different directions may 
 be substituted. The scholar in this case indicates which 
 way the E's point. The record is made as a vulgar fraction
 
 70 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 the numerator of which is the distance, in metres, of the 
 chart from the eye ; and the denominator the number of 
 the last line read. A record would show a normal eye ; 
 TjV would mean that a child read, at a distance of 6 metres, 
 the line marked as 36 metres for the normal eye. In no 
 case must the teacher attempt to say whether a defect is 
 due to hypermetropia (long sight) myopia (short sight) or 
 astigmatism ; the defect must be brought to the notice of 
 the medical officer. , 
 
 Hearing is best tested by the tick of a watch, if a special 
 room is available for the purpose. The pupil does not face 
 the watch, but sits on a chair sideways with one ear plugged 
 with cotton wool or a finger. The teacher then finds if a 
 watch can be heard at a distance from which normal people 
 hear it. This distance is marked off previously in the quiet 
 room which is reserved for this test. The distance at which 
 the watch is heard distinctly is recorded as the numerator 
 of a fraction, of which the normal distance is the denomi- 
 nator. The best practical test is that of the whispered 
 voice, which ought to be heard at a distance of 18 ft. The 
 whisper is made with the traces of air left at the end of 
 an exhalation. A little practice makes a teacher quite 
 competent to detect the bad cases. The records in this 
 second'case are simply those of " heard " or " not heard." 
 Scholars found to be defective in hearing should be placed 
 in the front of the class, and those defective in eyesight 
 should be provided with spectacles. 
 
 (d) The parents ought to be invited to attend the examina- 
 tion of their children. Advice as to treatment can then be 
 given by the medical officer. 
 
 (e) The work of the Care (or Health) Committee is to 
 support the School Nurse and teachers in their endeavours 
 to secure the cleanliness and the physical welfare of the 
 children. The members of the committee ought to be pre- 
 pared to visit the homes of the children and to assist in every 
 possible manner in securing a healthy environment for them. 
 
 Common Diseases and Defects. The commoner diseases 
 and defects found in school children are : 
 
 1. Diseases of Posture : 
 
 a. Round shoulders (often caused by Myopia). 
 
 6. Curved spine (often caused or exaggerated by badly 
 
 fitting desks). 
 c. Flat foot.
 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION 71 
 
 2. Diseases of Nutrition : 
 
 a. Rickets (a disease of childhood leaving permanent 
 
 defects). 
 6. Debility. 
 c. Anamia. 
 
 3. Diseases of the organs of digestion : 
 
 a. Carious teeth. 
 6. Indigestion. 
 
 c. Constipation. 
 
 d. Diarrhoea. 
 
 e. Intestinal worms. 
 /. Appendicitis. 
 
 4. Diseases of the bones and joints : 
 
 a. Periostitis. 
 6. Tuberculosis. 
 
 5. Diseases of the Lymphatic System : 
 
 a. Enlarged Glands. 
 
 6. Circulatory System : 
 
 a. Defective circulation (shown by blue extremities). 
 6. Heart strain (often due to overstrain in Athletics). 
 c. Heart Disease (often a result of rheumatism and 
 rheumatic fever). 
 
 7. Diseases affecting Respiration : 
 
 a. Nasal obstruction. 
 
 6. Cold in the head (may be due to a fever). 
 
 c. Adenoids (a frequent cause of deafness). 
 
 d. Enlarged Tonsils. 
 
 e. Various lung diseases, including consumption. 
 
 8. Diseases of the skin : 
 
 I. Those caused by Animal Parasites, and contagious : 
 a. Pediculosis (lice). 
 6. Scabies (itch). 
 
 II. Those caused by Vegetable Parasites, and con- 
 tagious : 
 a. Ringworm. 
 6. Favus. 
 
 III. Those caused by Microbes, and contagious : 
 
 a. Impetigo (scabs). 
 
 IV. Non-contagious diseases : 
 
 a. Eczema. 
 6. Nettle-rash, 
 c. Warts. 
 
 6. Chilblains (often associated with defective 
 circulation).
 
 72 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 9. Defects of Sight and Eyes : 
 
 a. Myopia (short sight : concave lenses). 
 
 6. Hypermetropia (long sight : convex lenses). 
 
 c. Astigmatism (irregular sight : cylindrical lenses). 
 
 d. Trachoma (granular eyelids). 
 
 e. Conjunctivitis (disease of the conjunctiva). 
 /. Squint. 
 
 g. Ulcers of the cornea. 
 
 10. Defects of the Ear and Hearing : 
 
 a. Deafness (caused by cerumen (wax), punctured 
 eardrum, inflammation of the middle ear, block- 
 ing of eustachian tube, etc.). 
 
 11. Diseases of the Nervous System : 
 
 a. Habit spasm or Tic (usually as facial contortions). 
 6. Chorea (St. Vitus Dance). 
 
 c. Epilepsy (Falling sickness). 
 
 d. Hysteria. 
 
 e. Headache (not a disease but a valuable symptom 
 
 of disorder). 
 /. Nervousness and neurotic tendencies. 
 
 12. Fevers (tending to be epidemic) : 
 
 a. Measles. 
 
 6. German Measles. 
 
 c. Chicken Pox. 
 
 d. Scarlet Fever. 
 
 e. Whooping Cough. 
 /. Mumps. 
 
 g. Diphtheria. 
 h. Smallpox. 
 
 Of all the diseases and defects, probably malnutrition, 
 tuberculosis, defective eyesight, defective hearing and 
 dental caries are most injurious during the school life of 
 children. 
 
 In 1909, 42,365 children of school age were examined 
 for vision by the medical officers of Blackburn, Bolton, 
 Brighton, 1 Cambridge, Cardiff, Edmonton, Gloucestershire, 
 Lancashire, Salford, 1 and Southampton, and the following 
 percentage results were obtained : 
 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 Tff 
 
 A 
 
 e 
 5 
 
 A 
 
 Right, - 
 
 69-5 
 
 14-3 
 
 6-4 
 
 4-4 
 
 2-3 
 
 1-8 
 
 1-3 
 
 Left, 
 
 68-5 
 
 14-7 
 
 6-5 
 
 4-3 
 
 2-3 
 
 1-4 
 
 1-3 
 
 1 With spectacles on.
 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION 
 
 73 
 
 The commonest eye defect in children is hypermetropia, 
 in fact, the eyes of children below 9 years of age are usually 
 hypermetropic. At 9 years of age the majority of eyes are 
 emmetropic (normal). From 9 years onwards the eyesight 
 tends to become increasingly myopic. This defect tends to 
 correct itself between the ages of 40 and 50 owing to the 
 flattening of the lens which normally takes place during 
 that period (presbyopia). It is found that rural populations 
 have better eyesight than urban ones, and suburban popula- 
 tions better than city ones. 
 
 About 4 per cent, of boys and -4 per cent, of girls are 
 colour-blind (red-green), but this defect does not seriously 
 handicap the school-work except, perhaps, the drawing and 
 the nature-study. As 80 to 90 per cent, of all the things 
 we know are learnt through the medium of vision, the 
 importance of preserving it in as good a state as possible 
 is seen to be great. No book should be used which does not 
 satisfy Cohn's test. 1 
 
 The British Association Committee on the Influence of 
 School-books upon Eyesight recommended that the follow- 
 ing minimum requirements with regard to type should be 
 met by all school texts : 
 
 
 Minimum 
 
 Minimum 
 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Maximum 
 
 Age of 
 Reader. 
 
 Height of 
 Face of 
 Short 
 
 Length of 
 Alphabet 
 of Small 
 
 Minimum 
 Interlinear 
 Space. 
 
 No. of 
 Lines per 
 100 mm. or 
 
 Length or 
 Measure of 
 Line. 
 
 
 Letters. 
 
 Letters. 
 
 
 4 inches. 
 
 
 Under 7 
 
 3-5 mm. 
 
 96 mm. or 
 
 5 mm. or 
 
 12 
 
 
 years, 
 
 
 272 pt. 
 
 14 pt. 
 
 
 
 7 to 8 
 
 2-5 mm. 
 
 72 mm. or 
 
 3-6 mm. or 
 
 16 
 
 100 mm. or 
 
 years, 
 
 
 204 pt. 
 
 10 pt. 
 
 
 4 in. 
 
 8 to 9 
 
 2-0 mm. 
 
 55 mm. or 
 
 2 mm. or 
 
 20 
 
 93 mm. or 
 
 years, 
 
 
 156 pt. 
 
 6 pt. 
 
 
 3$ in. 
 
 9 to 12 
 
 1-8 mm. 
 
 50 mm. or 
 
 2 mm. or 
 
 22 
 
 93 mm. or 
 
 years, 
 
 
 143 pt. 
 
 6pt. 
 
 
 3fin. 
 
 Over 12 
 
 1-58 mm. 
 
 48 mm. or 
 
 1-8 mm. or 
 
 24 
 
 93 mm. or 
 
 years, 
 
 or ^j in. 
 
 133 pt. 
 
 5pt. 
 
 
 3$ in. 
 
 1 inch =25-4 mm. 1 point = 7 ^ inch = 0-353 mm. 
 
 1 This consists of a square hole of 1 cm. side cut in a piece of card- 
 board. When the bottom of the square is placed just above a line 
 of print, not more than two lines should be visible within the square. 
 Almost one half of school and college texts at the present time fail 
 to pass this test.
 
 74 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Defective hearing is somewhat difficult to detect. If 
 careful examinations are made, defects are found to exist 
 in about 8 per cent, of the scholars. Many of these, of 
 course, are temporary and disappear with the removal of 
 the cause. In about 1 per cent, of cases the defect is 
 permanent and of such a nature as to necessitate special 
 provision being made for it. In congenital deafness the 
 subjects are also mute and have to be taught lip-reading. 
 It is certain that a great deal of the apparent stupidity 
 of scholars is due to defective hearing. 
 
 So far as can be ascertained the English have the un- 
 enviable reputation of having the worst teeth of all the 
 nations of the world. In comparatively superficial examina- 
 tions by medical men the range 1 for " leavers " with sound 
 teeth is found to lie between 2 3 and 38 per cent, in various 
 districts of England. In fact, it may be taken as correct 
 that 90 per cent, of school children have defective teeth and 
 that more than half have four or more defective. If the 
 examination is made by a dental surgeon, the number of 
 children with sound teeth is found to diminish. In Cam- 
 bridge, Gant found 2 per cent, sound, and 2 per cent, were 
 also found in Kettering. The amount of suffering, general 
 inefficiency, and actual bodily disease which these statistics 
 represent is truly appalling. And it is nearly all prevent- 
 able. Children ought to be made to eat hard food such 
 as crusts, dry toast, and hard biscuits, and to be taught 
 the use of the tooth-brush. It is a simple thing to tell 
 children to brush the teeth with precipitated chalk every 
 evening and to wash the mouth after meals, and this simple 
 procedure would make a great difference in the dentition 
 of the next generation. Since caries soon spreads from one 
 tooth to another, the importance of dealing with it in its 
 early stages is clear. The milk teeth are, in this respect, 
 most important, for they tend, if carious, to infect the 
 second set. The influence of the teacher ought to be freely 
 exercised during the next twenty years for the purpose of 
 getting better dental conditions among the elementary school 
 children of the country. 
 
 Clinics. The law of England at the present time compels 
 medical inspection but leaves treatment optional. Treat- 
 ment in the out-patients department of a hospital is unsatis- 
 factory because these institutions are already overcrowded, 
 1 Chief Report of Medical Officer ; 1910. Cd. 6925.
 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION 
 
 76 
 
 and consequently there is great waste of time in getting 
 any treatment at all. Further, it is nobody's business to 
 see that the cases are followed up. Especially is it difficult 
 to secure dental treatment. To remedy these defects, 
 about sixty (in 1912) of the more enlightened education 
 authorities of England have instituted school clinics. The 
 essential feature of a school clinic is that it provides treat- 
 ment in addition to inspection. The minor ailments can 
 be treated regularly, followed up, and prevented from 
 becoming permanent defects. The more serious cases can be 
 sent on to the hospitals. The school clinics prevent leakage 
 between inspection and treatment. They insure a more 
 regular attendance at school and in this way partly pay for 
 themselves from the increased attendance grant of Govern- 
 ment. They have been especially successful in the treat- 
 ment of dental caries, ringworm and adenoids. Ringworm, 
 in the better clinics, is now being treated by X-rays instead 
 of by the old-fashioned drugs. The clinics are not expen- 
 sive. A clinic of eight rooms with a whole-time medical 
 officer, two nurses, a dental surgeon, and a caretaker can 
 be established for 250 and run at an annual cost of 800 
 to 1,000. Such an institution is capable of giving treat- 
 ment to many thousands of cases each year. 
 
 Records of Medical Inspection. The form of record 
 prescribed by the Board of Education and printed below 
 is an exceedingly good one, although it errs on the side of 
 over-elaboration. 
 
 TABLE 17. 
 SCHEDULE OF MEDICAL INSPECTION. 
 
 I. Name Date of Birth 
 
 Address School 
 
 II. Personal History : 
 
 (a) Previous Illnesses of Child (before admission). 
 
 Measles. 
 
 Whooping 
 Cough. 
 
 Chickenpox. 
 
 Scarlet 
 Fever. 
 
 Diphtheria. 
 
 Other 
 Illnesses. 
 
 (6) Family Medical History (if exceptional).
 
 76 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 1. Date of Inspection, - 
 2. Standard and Regularity of Attendance, 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. Age of Child, 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. Clothing and footgear, ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 [III. General Conditions.] 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. Height, ...... 
 
 
 
 
 
 6. Weight, 
 
 
 
 
 
 7. Nutrition, 
 
 
 
 
 
 8. Cleanliness and condition of skin, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Head, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Body, 
 
 
 
 
 
 [IV. Special Conditions.] 
 
 
 
 
 
 9. Teeth, 
 
 
 
 
 
 10. Nose and throat, - 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tonsils, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Adenoids, - - - - - 
 
 
 
 
 
 Submax. and cervical glands, 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. External eye disease, - ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 12. Vision, - 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. 
 
 
 
 
 
 13. Ear Disease, 
 
 
 
 
 
 14. Hearing, ------ 
 
 
 
 
 
 15. Speech, ------ 
 
 
 
 
 
 16. Mental condition, - ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 [V. Disease or Deformity.] 
 
 
 
 
 
 17. Heart and circulation, - 
 
 
 
 
 
 18. Lungs, ------ 
 
 
 
 
 
 19. Nervous system, 
 
 
 
 
 
 20. Tuberculosis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 21. Rickets, 
 
 
 
 
 
 22. Deformities, Spinal Disease, etc., 
 
 
 
 
 
 23. Infectious or contagious disease, 
 
 
 
 
 
 24. Other disease or defect, ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Medical Officer's initials, 
 
 
 
 
 
 General observations. 
 
 Directions to Parent or Teacher. 
 
 A simpler form in use at the Fielden School, University 
 of Manchester, where physical measurements are taken six 
 times a year, where the medical officer attends one half -day 
 per week and where the dentist is in regular attendance, is 
 given below :
 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION 
 
 77 
 
 a . 
 
 5 3 
 
 8 3 
 
 &d 
 
 ? 
 
 S 
 
 1 I 
 
 HO 
 
 PM 
 
 O 
 
 w a
 
 78 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The form of the dental record is shown below : 
 TABLE 19. 
 
 
 Date. 
 
 Teeth requiring Treatment. 
 
 Mastication. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION 79 
 
 The forms of communication between the parents and 
 the school are as follows : 
 
 TABLE 20. 
 Name 
 
 It will greatly help the school authorities in their care 
 of the children if parents will kindly state whether the pupil 
 has already had any of the following illnesses : 
 
 Measles Scarlet Fever Diphtheria 
 
 Mumps Whooping Cough .... Rheumatism 
 
 Growing Pains Chicken Pox 
 
 TABLE 21. 
 
 HEALTH CERTIFICATE. 
 
 (To be brought by each Pupil to the School at the commencement of 
 the Term.) 
 
 I hereby declare that there has been no infectious or con- 
 tagious illness in the house in which my j ^auditer ^ or war( *) 
 .................................... resides, or has been 
 
 residing, for a period of .................... and that to my 
 
 knowledge has not been in contact with anyone suffering 
 
 from such illness. If any such illness should occur in the house 
 from which the above Pupil attends School, I will at once 
 
 Signature of Parent or Guardian 
 
 Address 
 
 Date 
 
 N.B. The quarantine period, or the period of isolation of children 
 who have been exposed to infection, is, for 
 
 Diphtheria and Scarlet Fever - - - - 14 days. 
 Measles and Whooping Cough - - - - 18 days. 
 Chicken Pox, Mumps, and German Measles - 21 days.
 
 80 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 TABLE 22. 
 Dear Sir, 
 
 Your daughter was examined on 
 
 in accordance with the arrangements described in the Pros- 
 pectus. 
 
 gh ^ is reported to be in need of dental treatment, and we 
 
 recommend that you take j^ m to see a dentist. The enclosed 
 
 chart indicates the teeth requiring treatment, and should be 
 handed to the dentist. 
 
 Please acknowledge the receipt of this note. 
 Yours faithfully, 
 
 Superintendent. 
 
 TABLE 23. 
 Name 
 
 R 
 
 These records and report forms have proved extremely 
 useful, and similar ones could probably be used with success 
 in all secondary schools and in many suburban elementary 
 schools. 
 
 References. Board of Education : Annual Reports of 
 the Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education. Gulick 
 and Ayres : Medical Inspection of Schools. Hogarth : 
 Medical Inspection of Schools. Kelynack : Medical Exami- 
 nation of Schools and Scholars (contains excellent Biblio- 
 graphies). Laurie (Ed.) : The Teacher's Encyclopaedia ; 
 Vol. IV. Lyster : School Hygiene. Mackenzie : The 
 Medical Inspection of School Children. Porter : School 
 Hygiene and the Laws of Health. Report of Interdepartmental 
 Committee ; 1905, Medical Inspection and feeding of Children 
 attending Public Elementary Schools (Cd. 2779). Whelpton : 
 Physical Education. Wood : Health and Education.
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MENTAL LIFE : 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 A.MCEBA 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 THE EVOLUTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 THE nervous system of man is so exceedingly complex 
 that a study of simpler nervous systems is not only desirable 
 but absolutely necessary if its form and functions are to 
 be understood. Believing that man is the highest product 
 of animal evolution and that he has evolved through 
 countless generations from a primordial living cell, we 
 endeavour in this chapter to give an account, if only in 
 outline, of how his nervous system has come to be. The 
 elaboration and filling in 
 of details must be left 
 to the further studies of 
 the reader. Many of 
 the natural orders of the 
 zoologist will be omitted, 
 but a few examples or 
 types will be considered. 
 
 Amoeba. The lowest 
 forms of animal life 
 known to the zoologist 
 are the unicellular animals classed as protozoa, and of 
 the protozoa the amoeba or proteus animalcule is one of the 
 simplest. 
 
 The amoeba, which is just visible to the naked eye, 
 consists of an irregular mass of protoplasm slightly 
 differentiated into an outer clear protective portion and 
 an inner granular portion. Near the centre may be observed 
 
 Clear ProtopUf 
 
 FIG. 8. The Amoeba.
 
 82 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 a nucleus and there is also a primitive excretory organ 
 known as a vacuole. If the amoeba is cut in two, the part 
 containing the nucleus continues to live, hence the nucleus 
 is necessary to the life of the cell. The granules are for 
 the most part undigested food remnants. The amoeba 
 moves by throwing out pseudopodia (false feet) and it eats 
 by wrapping itself around its food and digesting it. When 
 the limit of growth has been reached, the amoeba divides 
 itself into two parts through the centre of the nucleus and 
 two daughter cells are thus formed. The amoeba exhibits 
 all the functions of animals it is reproductive and irritable, 
 it can digest, breathe and move. It is diffusely sensitive 
 to contact, changes of temperature, light, and chemical 
 and electric stimuli. Yet no part of the animal is superior 
 to another ; the amoeba may be said to be all digestive 
 apparatus, all nervous system, all muscle, etc., at one and 
 the same time. 
 
 The evolution of the nervous system consists of the 
 differentiation of parts. Instead of the whole animal 
 being sensitive as is the case with the amoeba, we get 
 certain parts specialised to receive sensory stimuli. These 
 parts are known as receptors. Other parts become muscular 
 and are specially concerned with movements and other 
 responses to stimuli ; these are known as effectors. A third 
 portion of the animal organism becomes specialised to 
 conduct the stimuli received by the receptors to the move- 
 ment-producing effectors ; this portion becomes the nerve 
 system proper and the parts concerned are known as 
 conductors or connectors. The amoeba is quite unspecialised 
 so far as receptors, conductors and effectors are concerned. 
 
 Paramoecium. The paramoecium is a slightly higher 
 type of protozoa. It has a definite shape (oval) and moves 
 by means of cilia arranged in a spiral form on its surface. 
 
 There is a definite opening for the ingestion of food and 
 a primitive alimentary canal. As in the amoeba there is 
 a contractile vacuole. Two nuclei are present a micro 
 and a macro nucleus ; the former is concerned with repro- 
 duction only and the latter with the ordinary functions of 
 the cell. Special sting cells or trichocysts occur among 
 the cilia. The reactions of this animal to stimuli are, 
 however, far more complicated than those of the amoeba. 
 If a paramoecium in its more or less forward corkscrew 
 movement meets an obstacle, it backs, stops, turns through
 
 EVOLUTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 83 
 
 PARAMCEC1UM. 
 
 MoutK 
 
 Macro-nucleus 
 
 -Trichocyst 
 
 a small angle and then forges ahead again. The reactions 
 to temperature are also perfectly definite. In water of 
 19 C. paramoecia scatter themselves fairly regularly. 
 If one end of the vessel is heated or cooled they strive to 
 reach that part which is nearest in temperature to 19 C. 
 If acetic acid is poured into the tank, the animals cluster 
 together and thus tend to 
 preserve the lives of those 
 in the centre of the clump. 
 The reactions to light and 
 electrical stimuli are also 
 fairly elaborate. 1 We thus 
 see that although the effec- 
 tors of the paramoecia are 
 somewhat specialised and 
 they behave in a far more com- 
 plex fashion than amoebae, 
 they can hardly be said to 
 show even the beginnings 
 of a nervous system. 
 
 Sponge. The sponge, one 
 of the lowest of the metazoa, 
 is interesting from the fact 
 that it is the first animal to 
 attain any success in the Mier - nv - 
 formation of a " body," 
 though this body shows little 
 unification and correlation. The lack of co-ordination of 
 parts is shown by the fact that if the sphincter at the 
 mouth of the sponge is closed by touching it, the cilia of 
 the pores are not checked but go on lashing the water 
 inwards and towards the mouth, in spite of the fact that 
 there is no outlet and the action is therefore useless. Here 
 again we get specialised effectors but little specialisation 
 of receptors. The sponge is on a sideline of evolution and 
 does not lead to higher forms. 
 
 Hydra. The hydra (Coelenterata) is a multicellular 
 animal showing distinct receptors, conductors, and effectors. 
 The hydra has thus a primitive nervous system which serves 
 as the connecting link between primitive sense organs and 
 primitive muscle cells. 
 
 The hydra consists of a two-layered tube with a crown 
 1 See Jenning : Behaviour of the Lower Organisms. 
 
 FIG. 9. The Paramoeclum.
 
 84 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 of sensitive tentacles around the mouth. The great 
 simplicity of structure is made evident by the fact that if 
 the hydra is cut into two parts each portion has the power 
 of growing into a complete hydra. The inner layer of cells 
 or endoderm is chiefly concerned with the digestion of food 
 
 and with respiration, and 
 hence remains soft and in- 
 sensitive ; the outer layer 
 or ectoderm contains epi- 
 thelial supporting cells, 
 muscle cells, nerve cells 
 and sensory cells. The 
 latter are scattered irre- 
 gularly through the ecto- 
 derm, but are invariably 
 connected with a muscu- 
 lar cell. The nerve cells 
 proper maybe looked upon 
 as peripheral sensory cells 
 which have migrated to 
 the interior and become 
 still more specialised. 
 They are of two kinds: 
 (1) motor nerve cells which are directly connected with 
 muscle cells, and (2) connecting or interpolated nerve cells 
 which serve as the connecting links between sensory and 
 motor nerve cells. The conductors of the hydra are 
 connected up throughout the length of the animal into 
 a simple cord and the larger ganglia (masses of nerve cells) 
 found near the mouth may be said to be the primitive 
 beginnings of a brain. 
 
 Medusa. The medusa or jelly fish (Coelenterafa) may be 
 looked upon as an inverted free swimming hydra. The 
 " umbrella part " has a ring or network of nerve tissue 
 around the edge and this is connected up with the motor 
 organs and with the sensitive tentacles and the specialised 
 receptors placed around the rim. The nervous system is 
 not yet essential to the life of the animal : it simply enables 
 it to react more rapidly. The specialised receptors of the 
 rim are concerned with the rhythmical muscular movements 
 of the animal, and so long as one is left, the movements 
 persist. Cut all of them away and movement ceases. 
 Conduction is thus general and takes place in both directions. 
 
 FIG. 10. The Hydra. I. General view 
 (semi-diagrammatic). II. Diagrammatic 
 representation of a part of the ectoderm 
 showing a sensory cell, a motor nerve cell, 
 an interpolating nerve cell and a muscle 
 cell.
 
 EVOLUTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 85 
 
 " Universal and indiscriminate conduction, limited only by 
 a dying out of the influence connected with the distance 
 traversed, is the characteristic of this simplest type of 
 nervous system/' l 
 
 Earthworm. The next group which shows any marked 
 specialisation is the Annelida. This consists of animals 
 with a bi-lateral symmetry and exhibiting a tendency 
 towards segmentation. Each segment is only partially 
 controlled by the head. This segmentation persists 
 
 MEDUSA. 
 
 Imbrella 
 
 .Sub' Umbrella 
 
 Circular band 
 oFjslerveTtss 
 
 "Receptors" 
 
 T 
 
 VI 
 
 XUy 
 \ 
 
 1 j 
 
 V 
 
 Fio. 11. The Medusa or Jelly-Fish (schematic). 
 
 throughout the whole of the animal kingdom and even in 
 man himself it is not wholly lost, for the chest has circular 
 muscles and the spinal cord is distinctly segmented. The 
 nervous connections in the higher animals are, however, 
 so numerous that, from a single stimulus, we get responses 
 extending over a very wide area. 
 
 As an example of the Annelida we may take the common 
 earthworm. The earthworm has a cylindrical body com- 
 posed of numerous segments with a food canal running 
 from end to end. The animal moves by the contraction 
 of its muscular tissue, which is arranged in circular and 
 
 1 Ladd and Woodworth : Elements of Physiological Psychology ; 
 p. 20.
 
 86 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 longitudinal bands beneath the skin. Special muscular 
 tissue occurs round the mouth in connection with the 
 organs for seizing food. In each segment along the mid- 
 ventral line a pair of nerve ganglia occurs which is con- 
 nected with the succeeding segments by means of nerve 
 cords. These two segmented cords diverge at the anterior 
 end to form a ring or oesophageal commissure round the 
 pharynx. They come together on the dorsal surface and 
 
 Braii 
 
 EARTHWORM 
 
 I 
 
 Brain 
 
 FiQ. 12. The earthworm. I. Anterior end of worm. II. Diagrammatic 
 representation of nervous system. 
 
 form the cerebral ganglia in the first segment of the animal. 
 The cerebral ganglia give off nerves to the sensitive cells 
 which occur in the skin on the dorsal surface of the head. 
 
 The destruction of the spinal cord makes little difference 
 to the earthworm, for each part continues to move when 
 it is cut in two. This shows that the segmental ganglia 
 are centres of co-ordination of nervous action. 
 
 The annelids are a distinct advance on the coelenterates, 
 for the nervous fibres are banded together to form nerves 
 instead of being diffused to form a nerve net. The con- 
 nection between the receptors and effectors is invariably by 
 way of the central nervous system. The cell bodies of the
 
 EVOLUTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 87 
 
 receptor cells are external to the ganglia, while the cell 
 bodies of the motor nerves are in the central ganglia. This 
 arrangement of sensory and motor nerve cells persists in all 
 higher forms. 
 
 Arthropods. The next higher group showing a centralised 
 nervous system is the arlhropoda. This group is sub- 
 divided into various sub-groups of which the Crustacea 
 (crabs) and insects are the best known. The animals of 
 this group preserve the segmented form of the worms 
 although their nervous system is superior in many respects. 
 There is a higher development of the cerebral ganglia, and 
 the connecting links of the ganglion chain are far more 
 numerous. The commissure is still to be found in all 
 members of this gioup. 
 
 Vertebrates. We now arrive at the vertebrates or animals 
 possessing a backbone. These, hi order of complexity, are : 
 fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds and mammal*. 
 
 The complexity of these animals is so great that detailed 
 descriptions are out of the question. Only a few of the 
 more important features of the nervous system can be 
 mentioned. 
 
 In the annelids and the arthropods we saw that there 
 were two symmetrical segmented cords arranged ventrally. 
 In the vertebrates these cords have not only developed to 
 such an extent that they appear continuous, but they have 
 also fused together to form a single cord with a central 
 canal. This central canal can be traced to the foremost end 
 of the brain. The whole central nervous system has also 
 changed its position and now lies dorsally above the 
 alimentary canal. It is also surrounded by a bony covering 
 to protect it from injury. In one of the lower fishes the 
 Balanoglossus the transitional form of nervous system 
 is seen, for it has both a ventral and a dorsal cord. 
 
 The vertebrates also show an increasing domination of the 
 brain over the rest of the nervous system. In the Amphi- 
 oxus (a fish) there is little differentiation between the brain 
 and spinal cord ; in the craniata (animals with skulls) the 
 two are distinctly marked off from one another. 
 
 There is also a difference in the position and arrangement 
 of the sensory cells. In the worms and crabs the sensory 
 cells were placed at the periphery and the connections with 
 the central system were made by long cell processes. The 
 vertebrates, however, have the sensory nerve cells placed
 
 88 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 near the spinal cord and these connect up with specialised 
 receptors at the periphery by nerve fibres, called axons. 
 In the sensory nerves of smell the primitive invertebrate 
 form still exists and the connection with the brain is still 
 by means of sensory cell processes. 
 
 The brains of the higher vertebrates are invariably com- 
 posed of the following five parts : (1) the myelencephalon 
 or medulla oblongata ; (2) the metencephalon, which is roofed 
 over with the cerebellum. The cerebellum is supported by 
 pillars which thicken ventrally forming a protuberance 
 known as the pons varolii ; (3) the mesencephalon or mid- 
 brain. The dorsal wall is divided longitudinally by a 
 furrow into two optic lobes, and again transversely, thus 
 making four bodies which are known as the corpora quadri- 
 gemina ; (4) the diencephalon or inter-brain, the lateral 
 walls of which form the optic thalami. The optic tracts as 
 they enter the inter-brain form a cross at what is known as 
 the optic chiasma ; (5) the telencephalon or fore-brain, which- 
 is greatly enlarged in the higher animals and constitutes 
 the bulk of the brain. The fore-brain of all animals above 
 reptiles is divided into two lateral lobes known as the 
 cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres are con- 
 nected one with another by bands of commissural fibres, 
 the chief of which is the corpus callosum. The cerebrum 
 is divided into the neo-pallium that part of the brain 
 which is concerned with " visual, auditory and general body 
 sensations, with voluntary actions and with all the complex 
 associational processes involved in our more highly organised 
 activities, and in the formation and expression of ideas " ; * 
 and the archi-pallium that part which is devoted to 
 olfactory and, possibly, gustatory functions. The neo- 
 pallium divides its labour and so we get the " localisation 
 of brain functions." The cerebral hemispheres are con- 
 nected with the rest of the brain (vi& thalamus) by a thick 
 bi-lobed mass consisting of collections of nerve cells and 
 pierced by numerous large bundles of fibres known as the 
 corpus striatum. 
 
 In the lower vertebrates the brain is little more than an 
 organ for the reception of sensory stimuli. The fore -brain 
 is mainly concerned with smell, the mid-brain with visual 
 impressions, and the hind-brain with hearing, taste and the 
 vital functions of the body. In the higher vertebrates 
 1 Johnston : The Nervous System of Vertebrates ; p. 343.
 
 EVOLUTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 89 
 
 more complex functions develop owing to the large increase 
 of the number of association fibres. 
 
 RECENT 
 
 MAN. 
 
 Orang Outang 
 
 \ 
 
 Gorilla 
 
 Chimpanzee 
 
 PLIOCENE 
 
 OLIGOCENB 
 
 Gibbon 
 Catarrhine Ape (Primitive Old World Ape) 
 
 EOCENE 
 
 Platyrrhine Ape (Primitive S. American Ape) 
 Spectral Tarsier Lemurs 
 
 CRETACEOUS 
 
 Tree-shrew (Tupaiidae, Insectivores) 
 
 Marsupial. 
 
 FIG. 13. Elliot Smith's " tree " of the later evolutionary forms of Man.
 
 90 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Quite recently 1 Elliot Smith has traced the later evolu- 
 tion of man by means of a comparative study of brains. 
 His genealogical tree is roughly indicated in the diagram 
 (Fig. 13). 
 
 Eyes and Ears. The development of specialised sense- 
 organs such as the eye and the ear is also of interest. We 
 saw that unicellular organs responded to light. Some even 
 react to colours. As the number of cells in an animal 
 
 1 
 
 OtolitK 
 
 II 
 
 Pn'mitive Ear 
 
 Organ of 
 _o 
 
 Equilibration 
 
 rganoF Hearing 
 
 Simple auditory Sac 
 
 FlG. 14. Simple auditory apparatuses. I. Simple auditory sac. II. A 
 primitive form of ear showing division into two parts. 
 
 increases, a specialisation of functions occurs. The first 
 development towards a sensory organ for light is the 
 formation of pigment spots with specialised sensory cells 
 beneath them. The pigment probably absorbs light. 
 Above the pigment spots simple lenses develop and these 
 concentrate the light. Development also proceeds in the 
 receptor cells, and mechanisms for the enhancement or 
 reinforcement of the delicate light stimulus are evolved. In 
 the insects there is a fixed eye with an enormous number of 
 facets, each of which is complete in itself. The vertebrate 
 eye has evolved in the direction of a single organ with power 
 of movement. It has accessories for concentration of the 
 rays (cornea), for focussing (lens, etc.) and for movement 
 or direction (muscles). 
 
 1 Presidential Address to the Anthropological Section of British 
 Association at Dundee, 1912.
 
 EVOLUTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 91 
 
 The ear has developed out of cells which became special- 
 ised to respond to movements in water. The first ear 
 consisted of a simple sac filled with a fluid and lined with 
 special sensory cells. 
 
 The sac was at first open, and consequently solid particles 
 (otoliths) would enter by accident and serve as excellent 
 indicators of movements in the water. When the sac 
 became a closed one, the otoliths had to be grown by the 
 animals, for they were by this time indispensable. Such an 
 organ would respond to two types of stimuli : (1) to move- 
 ments outside the body and (2) to movements inside the 
 body. The sac in its evolution divided into two parts 
 one of which was concerned with hearing and the other with 
 balance. The hearing part ultimately became the cochlea, 
 while the part concerned with equilibration developed into 
 the semi-circular canals. 
 
 References. Crichton Browne : Growth, Somatic and 
 Cerebral ; Child Study, IV., Oct. 3, 1911. Donaldson : The 
 Growth of the Brain. Foster : Text-Book of Physiology. 
 Jennings : Behaviour of the Lower Organisms. Johnston : 
 The Nervous System of Vertebrates. Ladd and Wood worth : 
 Elements of Physiological Psychology. Loeb : Comparative 
 Physiology of the Brain and Comparative Psychology. 
 McDougall : Physiological Psychology. Sherrington : The 
 Integration of the Nervous System. Thorndike : Elements 
 of Psychology ; Chap. IX.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE CONSTITUTION, FUNCTIONS AND ACTION OF 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 Gross structure of the Nervous System. In tracing the 
 evolution of the nervous system the following parts were 
 noted : (1) The central nervous system, consisting of the 
 
 Frontal Lobe 
 
 - Pracentral Gyru$ 
 ^-Central Fissure 
 Post central Gyrus 
 
 Parietal Loba 
 
 'Occipital Lobe 
 Fro. 16. View of upper surface of brain showing fissures, gyrf and lobes. 
 
 spinal cord and the brain ; (2) the nerves or bundles of 
 nerve fibres which connect the central nervous system to 
 the periphery of the body ; and (3) the specialised end 
 organs at the periphery which receive the stimuli external 
 to the nervous system. To these three parts must now be
 
 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 93 
 
 added a fourth, namely, the sympathetic system, which is 
 mainly concerned with the control of the muscles of the 
 circulatory system and the viscera. 
 
 The Brain. The brain or encepkalon consists of those 
 parts of the central nervous system which are contained 
 
 'ammillary 
 body 
 
 Medulla 
 
 oblongj 
 
 Cerebellum 
 
 The>4umtrals indicate 1V 
 tKe. twelve cranial nerve 
 
 FIG. 16. View of under surface of brain with nerves numbered (after 
 Henle and Van Gehuchten). 
 
 within the cavity of the skull. When in its normal position 
 the brain (and spinal cord also) is surrounded by three 
 membranes, namely, the dura mater, which lies next the 
 skull and remains attached to it when the brain is removed, 
 the arachnoid, and the pia mater a vascular membrane 
 full of minute blood vessels.
 
 94 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 On the removal of the brain from the skull the most 
 conspicuous parts are the cerebrum and the cerebellum. The 
 former is convoluted and is divided longitudinally into the 
 two cerebral hemispheres by a deep median fissure. The 
 fissures and convolutions (lobes and gyri), though varying 
 slightly in different brains, remain fairly constant and hence 
 may be named and classified. The most noted of the 
 
 Post-ccntral GyruS 
 Precentral Gy r H s V Central Fissure, Supra marginal tyru* 
 
 Middle VA^T^T^^AnouUr Cyrus 
 
 Frontal 
 
 Inferior Frontal 
 
 r .- r. c i ' / \ Cerebellum 
 
 Fi ssure of Oylviu-y / _ _. \ . _ 
 
 / Inferior Temporal Uyrus 
 Middle Temporal Gyrus 
 
 Fio. 17. View of left side of brain showing cerebrum and cerebellum. 
 
 cerebral fissures are those of Silvius and Rolando. The 
 fissure of Rolando is also known as the Central Fissure. 
 A mesial section of the brain shows that the cerebral hemi- 
 spheres are united latitudinally by the corpus callosum. 
 Any other section of the brain shows that it is composed of 
 two layers an outer grey layer from " to J" thick, known 
 as the cortex, and an inner white mass composed mainly of 
 medullated (or myelinated) nerve fibres. The cortex 
 controls the higher thought processes. The fibies are 
 grouped into three systems : (1) the Projection System, 
 which connects the cortex to the lower parts of the nervous 
 system ; (2) the Association System, which connects the
 
 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 95 
 
 various parts of the Cortex both near and remote one 
 with another ; and (3) the Commissural System, which 
 connects the left and the right sides of the brain 
 together. 
 
 Twelve pairs of nerves are directly connected with the 
 brain six with the medulla oblongata and six with the" 
 parts of the brain anterior to the medulla. The first is the 
 olfactory nerve or nerve of smell ; the second is the optic 
 
 Paracenrral 
 
 lobul 
 Limbic Lobe 
 
 ntral Fissure 
 
 Supra frontal 
 
 Cinoulate fissure 
 Precuneus 
 
 Pariero-occipital 
 ^/ rty.su re 
 
 Calcanne 
 'Fissure 
 
 halamus 
 
 Corpus Callosum 
 
 Fornix 
 Optic nerv 
 
 Cerebellum 
 
 FIG. 18. View of mesial section of brain showing right hemisphere (after 
 Edinger and Retzius). 
 
 nerve ; the third, fourth and sixth are the nerves which 
 supply the eye muscles ; the fifth is the trigeminal ; the 
 seventh or facial nerve goes to the muscles of the face, 
 mouth and lips and so controls facial expression ; the 
 eighth is the auditory or nerve of hearing ; this has two 
 distinct groups of fibres one connected with the cochlea 
 (hearing), the other with the semi-circular canals of the ear 
 (equilibrium) ; the ninth or glosso-pharyngeal goes to the 
 tongue and pharynx ; the tenth is the vagus nerve, which 
 supplies motor and sensory fibres to the larynx, windpipe, 
 lungs, heart, gullet, stomach, pancreas and the upper part 
 of intestine ; the eleventh or the spinal accessory supplies 
 the muscles of the neck ; and the twelfth or hypoglossal 
 is the motor nerve of the tongue.
 
 96 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The cerebellum consists of three lobes two large lateral 
 ones and a small middle one known as the vermis. The 
 surface is folded into numerous fissures, but these are not 
 so deep as in the cerebrum. There is good reason to suppose 
 that the cerebellum is concerned with the co-ordination of 
 
 Dorsal fi 
 
 (sensory) 
 
 Fio. 19. Two views of spinal cord showing white and grey matter, and 
 motor and sensory fibres. 
 
 the muscles of the body, and hence with all bodily move- 
 ments and with the maintenance of the upright posture. 
 The exercise of these functions as a rule is not attended with 
 consciousness and consequently does not arouse our atten- 
 tion. 
 
 The spinal cord in fishes extends from the brain to the 
 end of the spinal column ; in man it ends in the lumbar 
 region, except for a fine continuation (filum terminale) 
 which runs to the end of the coccyx. Its method of evolu- 
 tion is shown by two fissures which almost divide it into 
 two parts along its whole length the ventral or anterior 
 in front and the dorsal or posterior at the back. A section
 
 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 97 
 
 of the spinal cord shows that it is composed of two parts, 
 the white and the grey matter. The white matter consists 
 of nerve fibres connecting up the various parts of the cord 
 with the other parts and also with the brain above. 
 
 The grey matter, shaped like the letter H, is composed 
 of motor and connecting nerve cells. Each spinal nerve 
 as it enters the cord divides up into two parts. The 
 sensory fibres enter the dorsal horn of the grey matter, 
 which is long and narrow, and the motor fibres leave by 
 the ventral horn, which is short and thick. The thickness 
 of the ventral horn is due to the fact that it contains the 
 cell bodies of motor cells in very large numbers. 
 
 The Sympathetic System. This consists for the main 
 part of two chains of nerve ganglia running parallel and near 
 to the spinal cord. The sympathetic system was evolved 
 contemporaneously with the central nervous system, and the 
 connection between them is still a close one. The ganglia 
 of the sympathetic system are, as a matter of fact, the 
 result of migrations of nerve cells from the dorsal and 
 ventral roots ganglia of the spinal cord. The branching 
 nerves of the sympathetic system are connected with the 
 viscera and blood-vessels of the body on the one hand, and 
 with the spinal cord on the other. The sympathetic 
 system, through its control of the blood supply and the vital 
 organs of the body, is closely associated with our emotional 
 life. 
 
 Localisation of Brain Functions. The fact that the cortex 
 of the cerebrum is the organ of the higher thought processes 
 and that certain fairly well-defined areas are specialised 
 for certain functions is now removed beyond the region of 
 speculation. The evidence obtained from partial injuries 
 to the brain, from diseases of parts, from experimentation 
 by electrical stimulation and extirpation of parts, from 
 experimentation with anthropoid apes, from comparative 
 anatomy and from the actual tracing of nerve fibres, is now 
 conclusive. 
 
 As was pointed out earlier in the chapter, the convolu- 
 tions of the brain are fairly definite in man. In order, 
 however, to make the description of parts easier it is usual 
 to divide up the cerebral cortex into four lobes. These 
 are : (1) the frontal lobe, which lies in front of the Rolandic 
 fissure and above the fissure of Silvius ; (2) the parietal 
 lobe, lying behind the fissure of Rolando and above the
 
 98 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 fissure of Silvius : it is partially divided from the occipital 
 lobe by the parieto-occipital fissure one of the deep 
 fissures of the mesial brain surface ; (3) the temporal lobe, 
 lying below the fissure of Silvius and in front of the occipital 
 lobe ; and (4) the occipital lobe, which forms the posterior 
 part of the cerebrum. The lobes are again divided into 
 gyri, each of which is named, so far as is possible, from its 
 position on the brain surface (see Figs. 15 to 18). 
 
 The motor area. This was one of the first to be mapped 
 out and is one of the best known by reason of the ease of 
 its exploration by electrical stimulation. It lies in the 
 pre-central gyrus of the frontal lobe along the fissure of 
 Rolando. The upper parts of this area control, through the 
 lower motor nuclei of the spinal cord, the muscles of the 
 lower limbs ; as we descend the gyrus the muscles of the 
 trunk, arm, neck and head are controlled in what may be 
 roughly described as an ascending order. The muscles of 
 the eyes, however, are not controlled by this area of the 
 cortex but by an area lying in the middle and inferior 
 frontal gyri. Disease or injury of the left motor area 
 causes paralysis of the right side of the body. 
 
 The sensory area. This area is parallel to the motor 
 area and lies on the opposite side of the Rolandic fissure in 
 the part of the parietal lobe known as the post-central 
 gyrus. It is concerned with cutaneous and muscular sen- 
 sations. Neighbouring areas of the parietal lobe probably 
 help in the elaboration or perception of the sensations, but 
 nowhere do the sensory and motor areas overlap. 
 
 The visual area. Practically the whole of the occipital 
 lobe is concerned with vision, but more especially that part 
 lying on the mesial surface near the calcarine fissure. The 
 optic nerves at the optic chiasma suffer a partial decussation 
 (crossing) and the fibres, now known as the optic tracts, 
 pass on and divide themselves among the thalamus, the 
 lateral geniculate bodies and the upper parts of the corpora 
 quadrigemina. From these three mid-way stations the 
 tract continues as the optic radiation until the occipital lobe 
 is reached. Injury to the visual area causes cortical 
 blindness or inability to see things, although the eyes are 
 perfect. Injury to the right side of the cerebrum in this 
 region causes a semi-blindness, and nothing lying in the left 
 field of vision can then be seen. 
 
 The auditory area. The superior temporal gyrus and the
 
 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 99 
 
 transverse gyri extending from this into the fissure of 
 Silvius are universally acknowledged as the centre for 
 hearing. As animals move their ears when this part of the 
 cortex is stimulated, it is more than probable that the area 
 is motor as well as sensory. 
 
 The olfactory centre. This centre is not definitely known. 
 Certain it is that the sensory olfactory fibres first pass to 
 the olfactory bulb and thence along the olfactory tract to 
 the hippocampal lobe. This lobe, which is most probably 
 the seat of smell, is both sensory and motor. The olfactory 
 centre is in the archi-pallium ; the others mentioned 
 previously are parts of the neo-pallium. 
 
 The gustatory centre. The centre for taste is not 
 definitely known. It probably lies in the hippocampal 
 convolution. 
 
 The association areas. The brain of man differs from that 
 of the highest ape mainly in having larger " silent areas " 
 or parts of the cortex apparently unconnected with sensory 
 or motor stimuli. These areas have been called association 
 areas because of the well-founded belief that they are 
 concerned with the association (in a physiological rather 
 than psychological sense) and unification of the sensory 
 and motor functions of the brain. Three of these areas 
 have been named. The largest is that found in the frontal 
 lobe and is known as the frontal association area. The 
 other two are the median association area and the posterior 
 or parieto-temporal association area. The fibres of the 
 association areas become medullated (myelinated) at a 
 later date than the motor and sensory fibres of the brain, 
 hence Flechsig assumed that these centres were the organs 
 of the higher thought processes. 
 
 Centres connected with Language. Four areas of the 
 brain closely connected with speech, writing, auditory 
 perception of words, and visual perception of words have 
 been partially mapped out. The exact localisation of the 
 centres is still very indefinite owing to the fact of our 
 dependence upon pathological conditions for the study of 
 them. Moreover, the inter-dependence of the various 
 centres seriously complicates the process of demarcation. 
 In the study of the various aphasias (defects connected with 
 speech) a body of undoubted facts has come to light. It 
 is now fairly certain that the inferior frontal convolution 
 of the left hemisphere is especially concerned with the power
 
 100 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 of speech in right-handed persons, and the corresponding 
 part of the brain with the speech of left-handed persons. 
 Injury to this region produces a motor type of aphasia or 
 
 FIG. 20. (Lapage.) Diagram to show the position in the brain of the 
 four centres that have to do with the reception, the production and the 
 storing-up of memories of speech, reading and writing. Note the associa- 
 tion fibres joining up the four centres, each with the other three. 
 
 inability to utter articulate language. A person suffering 
 from this defect may still be able to understand what is said 
 to him and to express himself intelligently in writing. 
 Pierre Marie (1906) considered that there must always be
 
 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 101 
 
 a more deeply seated injury (sub-cortical) before an aphasia 
 of this type resulted, but opinion is now veering around to 
 the original view of Broca the discoverer of the speech 
 centre (1861-5). 
 
 The writing of sounds heard depends upon the integrity 
 of the motor centre for the arm. The writing centre is 
 generally supposed to lie in the second frontal gyrus just 
 in front of the motor centre for the hand and above the 
 speech centre of Broca. Injury to this centre produces a 
 second type of motor aphasia (agraphia) the inability to 
 write language. 
 
 Injury to the cortex in the inferior parietal convolution 
 contiguous to the occipital visual centre produces a peculiar 
 type of sensory aphasia known as alexia or inability to 
 recognise printed words. This word-blindness or inability 
 to read is not due to any defect of vision ; the patient can 
 see the words quite clearly but they are now quite meaning- 
 less. The inability to learn to read which is found in some 
 apparently normal children may probably be due to 
 alexia. 
 
 A sensory aphasia of the auditory type (word-deafness) 
 is produced by lesions of the superior temporal convolution 
 contiguous to the auditory centre in the temporal lobe. 
 The patient can hear spoken words but they convey no 
 meaning. Much work remains to be done both by ana- 
 tomists and physiologists before these important problems 
 of language functions are finally solved. 
 
 The finer structure of the Nervous System. Having 
 obtained a general idea of the nervous system as it appears 
 to the naked eye, we now proceed to a description obtained 
 through the instrumentality of the microscope. The whole 
 nervous system is composed of minute nerve cells called 
 neurones. These are extremely numerous, and although the 
 number can only be estimated, it is known that there are 
 several thousand millions of them. The orderly connection 
 of this vast array of neurones is at the basis of all our mental 
 life. 
 
 According to function, neurones may be classified as 
 sensory (afferent or centripetal), motor (efferent or centri- 
 fugal), and interpolating (connecting or associating) neurones. 
 But whatever the function, all neurones consist of a cell 
 body, which contains the nucleus, and two or more branch- 
 ing processes of a fibre-like nature. The number of the
 
 102 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 processes determines the polarity (number of branching 
 processes from cell body) of the cell. A sensory neurone 
 is bi-polar, while motor and interpolating neurones are 
 multipolar. One process in sensory and motor neurones 
 is much longer than the other and is known as the axon 
 or axis-cylinder process. 1 All the other cell processes are 
 known as dendrons or dendriles. These are much shorter 
 and are usually branched like the boughs and twigs of an 
 oak tree. 
 
 The axons are composed of neuro-fibrils and neuro-plasm, 
 and there is reason to suppose that only the former are 
 concerned with the conduction of the nervous impulse. 
 They are often sheathed with two coverings the sheath of 
 Schwann on the outside, and the fatty medullary or my din 
 sheath on the inside. As the axons are bundled together 
 to form nerves, these sheaths serve as insulators and help 
 the neurones to preserve their individuality. The axons 
 of a nerve fibre may thus be compared to the separate 
 wires of a trunk telephone line. It is probable that the 
 medullary sheath in addition to insulation assists also 
 in the nutrition of the cell. Axons may, however, be 
 connected with other axons by means of fine connectors 
 known as collaterals. Collaterals are most numerous in 
 the central nervous system and especially in the brain. 
 Section of an axon or dendron causes degeneration (Walle- 
 rian, from its discoverer) of the fibre on the side remote 
 from the cell-body. 
 
 Cell-bodies of motor and interpolating neurones are 
 irregular in shape and are invariably constituent parts of 
 the central nervous system. Those of sensory neurones are 
 fusiform (tapering at both ends like a spindle) in shape and 
 are external to the spinal cord. The cell-bodies of sensory 
 cells form the posterior root ganglia of the spinal nerves. 
 
 Specialised forms of motor and interpolating neurones 
 have been discovered in various parts of the central nervous 
 system. The most interesting of these are the Purkinje 
 cells of the cerebral cortex with then: large cell-bodies and 
 their enormously complex network of nerve fibres, and the 
 Pyramidal cells of the same region, which are the elements 
 of the projection system of nerves. 
 
 1 Some authorities call the branched process of the motor neurone 
 the axon, in order to bring all processes receiving stimuli within the 
 same category.
 
 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 103 
 
 The junction of one neurone with another is known as a 
 synapsis (or synapse). Such junctions are invariably within 
 the central nervous system. Whether or not there is a con- 
 tinuity of nerve substance at the synapsis is still open to 
 doubt. Actual connections have been observed in the 
 spinal cords of animals, but even then the substance joining 
 the two neurones seems to be of a different constitution 
 from that of the neurones. If we suppose that at first there 
 is a minute gap between all neurones and that the passage 
 of nervous impulse from one to the other becomes easier 
 with use (from the actual growth of connecting links or in 
 other ways), we can explain most of the phenomena of nerve 
 conduction across a synapsis. There is no doubt that there 
 is a resistance at the synapsis to the passage of nervous 
 impulses, that this resistance decreases as the number of 
 nervous discharges across the synapsis increases, that the 
 resistance is increased by certain drugs such as cocain, 
 chloral, chloroform and alcohol, while it is decreased by 
 others such as strychnine and tannin (tea), and that the 
 discharge takes place in one direction only. Some writers 
 have looked upon the -synapses as the seat of consciousness. 
 It is certain that they are intimately concerned with the 
 formation of neural habits. 
 
 The medullation (myelination) of axons is closely asso- 
 ciated with the functioning of the neurones of which they 
 form part. It is certain that functioning is possible before 
 the axons myelinate, but, on the other hand, it is prob- 
 able that myelination increases their efficiency. Flechsig, 
 from his studies of myelination, came to the conclusion 
 that the development of the functional power of the brain 
 areas was contemporaneous with the medullation of the 
 nerve fibres supplying those areas. If this be the case, 
 we can argue that the mental tasks of school children 
 should be arranged so as to correspond somewhat with the 
 order of the myelination of the fibres they are chiefly 
 dependent upon for their correct performance. 
 
 The action of the Nervous System. Neurones are parts of 
 the body which have become specialised for sensitivity, 
 modifiability and conductivity. 
 
 Sensitivity. In our study of the evolution of the nervous 
 system we found that in the lowest of the multicellular 
 animals certain cells had become more sensitive than others. 
 They existed for the purpose of informing the remainder of
 
 104 
 
 the body what was the condition of, and what changes were 
 taking place in, the environment. This sensitivity in 
 higher animals became still more specialised. The neurones 
 of man are far more influenced by what happens to them 
 than are muscle or bone cells. 
 
 Modifiability . This means that the passage of a nervous 
 impulse through a neurone changes it in some peculiar 
 manner which is not yet understood. The resistance at 
 the synapses is reduced. The passage of a similar current 
 along the same track tends to arouse in us a knowledge of 
 the cause of the first current. 
 
 Memory is thus intimately associated with the modifi- 
 ability of neurones. In the same way habit and association 
 and in fact all mental life is bound up with this basic 
 function of neurones. 
 
 Conductivity. Although nerve tissue has the greatest 
 power of conductivity, it is not unique in this particular 
 property : muscle cells will conduct. Nerve fibres as a 
 rule are only stimulated- at the ends, motor at central, 
 sensory at the peripheral end, yet any nerve fibre may be 
 stimulated artificially at any point of its course by any 
 of the following stimuli : chemical stimuli, such as acids 
 and alkalies, mechanical stimuli such as jolts and jars (cf. 
 the so-called " funny bone "), thermal stimuli (ineffective 
 so far as motor fibres are concerned, but very effective with 
 sensory fibres, cf. fingers numb with cold), and electrical 
 stimuli both at the make and break of the current. The 
 impulse is not conducted instantaneously. With suitable 
 instruments its velocity can be fairly accurately determined. 
 Helmholtz found that between 11 C. and 21 C., it passed 
 at the rate of 24-6-38-4 metres per second along the sciatic 
 nerve of a frog, and that the rate in man was about 34 
 metres per second. Piper, however, by using a more 
 refined method of measurement, found that the velocity 
 was from 117-125 metres per second. Hence the phrase 
 as " quick as thought " must not be interpreted to mean 
 a velocity infinitely great. It is worthy of note that the 
 velocity of the impulse is one of the factors in reaction-time, 
 i.e. the time it takes to react to a given stimulus. 
 
 There have been three theories of conduction, namely : 
 (1) that it is due to the flow of animal spirits or a nerve 
 juice or fluid through the nerves ; (2) that it is of a nature 
 comparable to the transmission of light or electricity ; and
 
 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 105 
 
 (3) that it is of the nature of the energy of chemical action. 
 The first is known to be false ; contemporary scientific 
 opinion wavers between the electrical and the chemical 
 theories and tries to effect a combination of them. What- 
 ever the nature of conduction certain facts with respect 
 to it deserve notice. These are (1) Conduction takes 
 place usually, if not always, in one direction only, and that 
 a forward one ; (2) Sensory and motor axons behave 
 differently with respect both to temperature and to direc- 
 tion ; (3) Certain influences modify conduction drugs, 
 temperature and pressure ; (4) It is very difficult to fatigue 
 a nerve fibre and so prevent conduction from taking place. 
 Either nerve fibres cannot be fatigued or else they have the 
 power of very rapid recovery. It is probable that the 
 latter statement represents the facts more correctly. 
 
 Specific energy of Nerves. The doctrine of specific 
 nervous energy states that each sensory nerve gives rise to 
 its specific sensation no matter what kind of stimulus is 
 applied. The apparent similarity of action under different 
 stimuli may be a fundamental property of the nerves or the 
 unifying factor may be the central nervous system to which 
 they are attached. Experiments on the " crossing " (i.e. of 
 attaching sensory to motor fibres by first cutting and then 
 allowing the ends to grow together) of two nerves seem 
 to show that it is the organ to which they are attached 
 and not the specific energy of the nerve, which leads 
 to the similarity of results under different stimulations. 
 There is little doubt, however, of certain facts connected 
 with the problem. Excitation of the optic nerve by 
 electrical and mechanical stimuli is invariably followed 
 by sensations of sight ; dust and other mechanical stimuli 
 are effective in stimulating the sense of smell ; while the 
 cold spots of the skin give rise to feelings of cold even 
 though they are touched with a hot body. A hot bath 
 often produces feelings of chilliness when the water first 
 touches the lumbar region (small of the back) where cold 
 spots are known to be very numerous. 
 
 There are difficulties in the way of a complete acceptance 
 of the doctrine if we consider the separate fibres of the 
 nerve as conducting qualitatively different sensations. 
 Are there fibres in the optic nerve which respond to one 
 only of a thousand possible colour stimuli ? Are the 
 apparently simple sensory fibres of the nose differentiated
 
 106 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 to respond to all the gradations of recognisable smells ? 
 It is true that the difficulties with respect to hearing and 
 cutaneous sensations are not very great, for it is known 
 that there are from 16,000 to 20,000 distinct units of 
 auditory end-apparatus corresponding to the different 
 musical tones, 1 while the sensory " spots " of the skin are 
 so numerous as to defy counting, yet the doctrine in its 
 widest meanings cannot as yet be accepted. Further 
 investigation is needed to establish it completely. 
 
 The Laws of Brain Action. Thorndike 2 gives the follow' 
 ing laws of brain action : 
 
 1. The law of expression. Every stimulus of a sensory 
 neurone must have some result : it cannot come to nothing. 
 This does not necessarily mean that the result is visible 
 in some movement or other. The result may be a hidden 
 modification of the nervous system or may be some inhibi- 
 tion of movement. 
 
 2. The law of least resistance. When any neurone is 
 stimulated it will conduct along the line of least resistance, 
 or in other words along the line of strongest connection. 
 Habitual use of a nerve tract so alters its substance that 
 it becomes the line of strongest connection. It is then 
 difficult to act in any but an habitual manner when this 
 tract is stimulated. 
 
 3. The law of inborn connections. This law runs : 
 ' that, other things being equal, any neurone group will 
 discharge into the neurone group with which it is by the 
 inner growth of the nervous system connected.' Generally 
 speaking, the sensory nerves from the periphery are naturally 
 connected with motor neurones running to muscles in the 
 same neighbourhood. Because of inborn connections we 
 move the hand when it is pricked or tickled, rather than 
 other and unrelated parts of the body. 
 
 4. The law of acquired connections. " When any neurone 
 group, A, is stimulated, the nervous impulse will be trans- 
 mitted to the neurone group which is most closely con- 
 nected with group A, which has been aroused by A most 
 frequently, with most satisfaction to the individual, most 
 recently, most energetically and for the longest time, and 
 which is the most sensitive at the time." 
 
 1 Ladd and Woodworth : Elements of Physiological Psychology ; 
 p. 351. 
 
 1 Elements of Psychology ; p. 162 ff.
 
 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM 107 
 
 This law, subject to modification induced by fatigue and 
 the various " moods " of an individual, is undoubtedly of 
 the greatest service to psychology, inasmuch as it provides 
 us with a physical or mechanical explanation of some of the 
 most abstruse and difficult mental phenomena. 
 
 References. Donaldson : The Growth of the Brain. 
 Ferrier : Functions of the Brain. Howell : Text-Book of 
 Physiology. James : Principles of Psychology. James : 
 Text-Book of Psychology. Ladd and Woodworth : Elements 
 of Physiological Psychology. Loeb : Comparative Physio- 
 logy of the Brain and Comparative Psychology. McDougall : 
 Physiological Psychology. Sherrington : The Integration 
 of the Nervous System. Thorndike : Elements of Psychology.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 THE END ORGANS AND SENSATION. 
 
 Sensation. In order that I may hear the watch which 
 lies before me on the table, several concomitant factors are 
 necessary. In the first place the air must vibrate so that 
 waves of sound may beat upon my ear drums. Secondly, 
 the mechanism of my ear must be perfect. Thirdly, the 
 auditory nerve connecting my auditory mechanism with 
 the central nervous system must be intact and undiseased. 
 And lastly, that part of my cerebral cortex concerned with 
 hearing must be in active working order. If any part of 
 the chain is missing or defective, no sound is heard, although 
 the remaining parts are in perfect condition. For example, 
 remove the air by placing the watch under the bell -jar of 
 an air-pump. The sound becomes fainter as the air is 
 removed and eventually ceases. Stop up my ears with 
 wax, or puncture my ear drum, or displace the ossicles 
 (see later) of the middle ear and each will be found effective 
 as a means of destroying the sound so far as I am concerned. 
 Injure my temporal lobe and though the vibrations of the 
 watch are transmitted as physical and nervous stimuli 
 right up to the cortex, no sound is heard. If, however, 
 the chain is complete, the sound is heard. I, of course, 
 hear it as the sound of a watch and not as the sound of a 
 church bell or a human voice, but if one can think of me 
 hearing it simply as sound without reference to any previous 
 experience, I should get a sensation of sound. 
 
 A sensation then is the simple consciousness aroused by 
 the transmission of nervous energy from a receptor or 
 sense organ to some part of the cerebral cortex. Before 
 such transmission can take place the sense organ must be 
 stimulated. In their evolution sense organs became 
 modified according to the energies of the physical world.
 
 THE END ORGANS AND SENSATION 109 
 
 The ear, as we have seen, is now adapted to receive air 
 waves of sound, the eye is affected by extremely rapid 
 vibrations of ether ; while some of the receptors are 
 sensitive to slower vibrations of ether known as radiant 
 heat. 
 
 But such a simple mental process as a sensation, owing 
 to the complex nature of the cerebral cortex, is never 
 experienced in ordinary life. Other forms of consciousness 
 are aroused concomitantly, but the basis of all knowledge 
 is the simple sensation that fiction of psycho-physical 
 science. 
 
 Sensation arises as the result of the excitation of a sense 
 organ. We are accustomed to speak of the five senses or 
 of the " five gateways of knowledge " (Milton). Modern 
 investigation, however, has shown that fifty is nearer the 
 mark than five. For example, we now recognise organic 
 sensations such as thirst, headache, fatigue and nausea 
 which are due to the state of the internal organs ; and 
 kinaesthetic sensations due to the varying states of muscles, 
 tendons and joints. It is customary, however, to classify 
 sensations according to the sense organs through which 
 they come. 
 
 Attributes of Sensations. Sensations are usually deemed 
 to possess the following characters quality, intensity, 
 protensity and extensity. These will best be understood 
 from examples, for they are extremely difficult to define. 
 By quality is meant the aspect of sensation which enables 
 the distinction to be made between different colours, 
 different tones, different tastes and so forth. The quality 
 of light sensations depends almost wholly upon the wave 
 length of the excitatory rays. Blue rays have a shorter 
 wave length than red rays. Quality, then, makes one 
 sensation different from another. By intensity we mean 
 a peculiar kind of quantity (strength) of sensation. Colours 
 differ in brightness while maintaining the same colour-tone 
 (i.e. colour-quality other than that which is constituted by 
 degrees of paleness or darkness), cold may be more or less 
 cold, sour may be more or less sour and so on. These 
 are different intensities of sensations. The sensation 
 is practically the same kind of sensation only there seem 
 different strengths of it, as it were. By protensity is meant 
 the aspect by means of which we experience a difference 
 between sensations because of their duration. Protensity
 
 110 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 cannot be measured by a clock, for it is not a physical thing, 
 but we all know that a prolonged shriek is different from a 
 short shriek and chiefly because of its duration. By 
 extensity we understand that character of sensations which 
 enables us to perceive, for example, differences between 
 a square centimetre of pink paper and a square yard of 
 the same substance. It should be noticed that intensity, 
 protensity and extensity of sensation correspond to energy, 
 time and space of physical science. 
 
 The Weber-Fechner Law. The character of sensation 
 known as intensity is interesting from a scientific point of 
 view because the stimuli which produce different intensities 
 lend themselves to measurement fairly easily. Innumer- 
 able experiments have been made to determine the upper 
 and lower limits of intensities of sensation (such, for example, 
 as the highest and lowest pitch, the limits of the spectrum, 
 etc.), and to discover the relationship existing between 
 changes of intensity of sensation and changes of intensity 
 of stimuli. Weber was the first to work upon the second 
 problem. He tried to determine, by the method of least 
 noticeable differences, the ability of the skin and " muscle- 
 senses " (those which make us aware of the position and 
 movements of our limbs, tension of our muscles, etc.), to 
 discriminate weights. He found that a weight of 30 half- 
 ounces could just be distinguished from one of 29 half- 
 ounces, and that, when working with drams, 30 drams 
 could just be distinguished from 29 drams. The least 
 noticeable difference, therefore, varied with the stimulus 
 and was not a fixed quantity. Experiments with other 
 senses showed that the generalisation was fairly true 
 although different fractions were obtained. He therefore 
 stated that the least noticeable difference, in each kind of 
 sense-perception, is a constant fraction of the stimulus. 
 Fechner tested this generalisation and modified it to the 
 following : to make sensation increase in arithmetical 
 progression, the stimulus must increase in geometrical 
 progression, or, in a neater phrase, sensation is proportional 
 in strength to the logarithm of the stimulus. 1 The follow- 
 ing diagram (from Howell's Text-Book of Physiology (p. 269) 
 illustrates the Weber-Fechner Law : 
 
 1 For an excellent criticism of the Weber-Fechner Law, see Myers : 
 Text-Book of Experimental Psychology ; Chap. XIX.
 
 THE END ORGANS AND SENSATION 111 
 
 w o i i s 4- 5- 6 r & 9 10 11 - 13 14- is (6 /r is 
 FXCITA.TIOM vr 
 
 FIG. 21. Curve to indicate the Weber- Fechner law of a logarithm! cal 
 relation between excitation and sensation (from Waller). The excitations 
 are indicated along the abscissae, the sensations along the ordinates. The 
 increase in sensation is represented as taking place in equal steps, " the 
 minimal perceptible difference," while the corresponding excitations 
 require an increasing increment of J at each step, namely 1, 1'33, 1'77, 2'37, 
 etc. That is, for equal increments of sensation increasing increments of 
 stimulation are necessary. 
 
 That there is much truth in Weber's generalisation all will 
 be ready to admit. A pin is easily heard to drop if the 
 room is quiet, but the noise of a cracker is hardly noticed 
 at a scholars' noisy Christmas party. A candle makes a 
 great difference to a badly lighted room, but 40 candles 
 make no appreciable difference to a small room lighted by 
 an electric arc lamp or by brilliant sunlight. One potato 
 added to the weight of a sack of potatoes is not perceived, 
 while one potato added to a small bag of potatoes makes 
 an appreciable difference. But too much importance must 
 not be attached to the exact mathematical relationship. 
 It is fairly true for most sensations in the centre of the 
 scale of intensity, but only approximately true for sensa- 
 tions near their extreme limits. For differences in weight 
 it is far from exact even in the centre of the scale. Cattell's 
 modification, namely, that the just perceptible differences 
 increase according to the square root of the stimulus is 
 more true to experimental fact. 
 
 According to Wundt, the figures which express the 
 constant ratio between increase of stimulus and increase
 
 112 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 of intensity of sensation for several senses are as fol- 
 lows : * 
 
 Sensation of light 
 Muscular sensation 
 Feeling of pressure 
 
 warmth 
 
 ,, sound 
 
 The Eye and Sensation of Sight. It is estimated that 
 eight-tenths to nine-tenths of our total experiences are 
 obtained by means of vision, while it is certain that the eyes 
 of modern man are suffering rapid deterioration. Hence it 
 may be profitable to devote a few paragraphs to the dis- 
 cussion of vision. 
 
 The eye, as we all know, is a spherical body placed in 
 the cavity of the head. This cavity, however, is not 
 spherical but conical in shape in order to accommodate the 
 muscles of the eye. The space not filled up by the eye-ball, 
 muscles and lachrymal gland, is occupied by fatty tissue 
 which forms a cushion on which the eye-ball rolls easily. 
 The eye is furnished with six muscles four recti or straight 
 muscles, and two oblique muscles superior and inferior. 
 These muscles, singly or in various combinations, turn the 
 eye upon four axes of rotation and cause the characteristic 
 movements of the eye. 
 
 If the eye is removed from the socket, it is seen that 
 the outer coat is composed of two parts the white of the 
 eye, known as the sclerotic, and a protuberant transparent 
 part known as the cornea. Beneath the sclerotic is another 
 coat known as the choroid coat. This membrane contains 
 numerous blood-vessels which, however, are hidden in 
 normal eyes by black pigment cells. If a person is defective 
 in pigment he has the " pink-eye " of the albino. This 
 choroid coat corresponds to the dead-black lining of a 
 camera. Within the choroid, but not quite co-extensive 
 with it, is the inner coating of the eye. This is the deli- 
 cately sensitive retina upon which the visual images are 
 thrown. 
 
 The contents of the eye-ball are equally interesting. 
 The choroid coat at the ring of junction of the cornea and 
 sclerotic, changes its character and forms the coloured part 
 of the eye known as the iris. The iris, with the exception 
 
 1 James : Psychology ; I., 537.
 
 THE END ORGANS AND SENSATION 113 
 
 of a communicating hole known as the pupil, divides the 
 eye into two chambers. The anterior chamber in front of 
 
 1 
 
 Fovea 
 centralis 
 
 Optic 
 Nerve 
 
 Pupil 
 
 Cornea 
 
 Aqueous 
 ' humour 
 ris 
 
 Ciliary Process 
 Conjunctiva 
 
 II 
 
 Gli 
 
 Border oflris 
 
 Ciliary Process 
 
 Pigment 
 epithelium 
 
 Choroid 
 coat' 
 
 FIG. 22. I. Horizontal section through the left eye (schematic after 
 Gegenbaur). II. Meridional section to show the position of the ciliary 
 muscle (Schultze). 
 
 the iris is filled with a watery substance known as the 
 aqueous humour, while the posterior chamber is filled with 
 the crystalline lens and its ciliary muscle, and a transparent
 
 114 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 jelly-like substance known as the vitreous humour. The 
 iris is composed of two sets of contractile tissue radiating 
 and circular which enable the pupil to be enlarged or 
 decreased according to the brilliance of the light. The 
 lens is composed of fine yet transparent and elastic material 
 of moderate optical density (index of refraction is 1-39 at 
 edge, 141 in centre). It is enclosed by a transparent 
 membrane, known as the capsule, which is attached to the 
 circular ciliary muscle fastened to the ciliary process. The 
 contraction of the ciliary muscle pulls the capsule towards 
 the front of the eye, that is, towards a decreasing section 
 of the eye. The consequence of this tension on the capsule 
 is a relaxation of the lens, which therefore swells and 
 becomes more convex. The eye then becomes " accommo- 
 dated " for near objects. 
 
 The retina is a specialised continuation of the optic 
 nerve, which pierces the sclerotic and choroid coats of the 
 eye and spreads its fibres over the interior surface of the 
 eye-ball. These fibres turn their ends outwards towards 
 the sclerotic and change their character, becoming first 
 granules and nucleated cells, and afterwards the sensitive 
 (bacillary) layer of the retina known as rods and cones. In 
 order that light may excite the rods and cones it must first 
 pass through a layer of nerves, granules and nucleated 
 cells. From this it follows that the nerves themselves are 
 probably insensitive to light. That this is really so is 
 proved by the existence of the " blind spot " (lacuna) where 
 the optic nerve enters the eye. At one point of the retina 
 fovea centralis, which is a depression in the macula lutea 
 (yellow spot) cones only are found, and this part of the 
 eye, which is exactly behind the pupil, is especially sensitive 
 to light. There are probably no less than a million cones 
 to a square tenth of an inch in this spot. The manner in 
 which an image is thrown on the retina can be understood 
 from any elementary treatise on light. It may, however, 
 be noticed that the eye acts in a manner very similar 
 to a photographic camera, except in the method of 
 focussing. 
 
 The rods and cones act differently towards light. The 
 rods are far more sensitive to light and darkness than the 
 cones and hence in daylight are in a constant state of 
 fatigue. They possess a red pigment which is bleached 
 by light, known as visual purple or rhodopsin. If we pass
 
 THE END ORGANS AND SENSATION 115 
 
 from a brilliantly lighted room into a dimly lighted one, we 
 are at first unable to see anything because the light is too 
 feeble to excite the cones and the visual purple of the rods 
 is exhausted. In a short time the rods recover and we are 
 able to perceive the shapes of objects within the room, but 
 there are no colours visible ; everything appears in various 
 shades of grey. From this we may conclude that the rods 
 are insensitive to colour. 
 
 The questions of binocular vision and after-images are 
 too complicated for discussion in the brief space at our 
 disposal. Defects of the eye were treated briefly in Chapter 
 IV. 
 
 Colour vision is, however, so important in school-Life that 
 a brief description of the various theories will now be 
 attempted. The colours of the spectrum are probably 
 those best known by mankind, though only one person in 
 three thousand is able to distinguish indigo in the spectrum. 1 
 These colours are not simple, but are fusions of certain 
 so-called primary colours. The primary colours, according 
 to Clerk Maxwell, are red, green and violet (which he called 
 blue). How shall we explain colour vision ? Three main 
 theories have been propounded, namely, the Young-Helm- 
 holtz, the Hering and the Franklin Theories. 
 
 The Young-Hdmholtz theory, proposed by Thomas 
 Young (1809) and modified and expanded by Helmholtz, 
 rests upon the assumption that there are three photo- 
 chemical substances in the retina corresponding to the three 
 fundamental colours red, green and violet. Decomposi- 
 tion of these substances causes impulses to be carried to the 
 cortical centre of sight and corresponding colours are per- 
 ceived. When all three substances are equally stimulated 
 white is produced, just as it is produced by mixing the 
 three primary colours. Black results from the absence of 
 such stimulation. All other colour sensations are produced 
 by stimulation of different proportions of the photochemical 
 substances in combination. The weaknesses of the theory 
 are almost self-evident. We are certainly not conscious 
 that white, yellow and orange are compounded colour 
 sensations. Nor does it explain why the edge of the retina 
 is colour-blind and yet perceives whites, blacks and greys. 
 And in the perception of black, why should the central 
 nervous system be active while the eye is inactive ? Lastly, 
 1 Edridge-Green : Colour-Blindness ; p. 103.
 
 116 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 it is anti-evolutionary, for, in the history of the race, whites 
 and greys are seen before colours. 
 
 The Hering theory also assumes three photochemical 
 substances or receptors, but these are capable of giving 
 six fundamental sensations. The photochemical sub- 
 stances are the white-black, the red-green and the yellow- 
 blue. During dissimilation or katabolism by the action of 
 light, white, red, and yellow sensations are produced. When 
 undergoing recovery from light, i.e. when assimilation or 
 anabolism is taking place, black, green and blue are the sen- 
 sations which are obtained. Hering's red must be slightly 
 purplish and his green slightly bluish in order that they 
 may be exactly complementary and therefore antagonistic. 
 The theory certainly explains most of the facts of colour 
 vision, but what the processes of assimilation and dis- 
 similation really are, Hering does not explain. He simply 
 needs two opposed and neutralising effects. 
 
 The Franklin theory has the advantage of being an 
 evolutionary one. It supposes that the eye in earlier times 
 could only perceive blacks, whites and greys. There was 
 in fact only one " grey substance." As the eye evolved, 
 this grey substance became sensitive to vibrations of other 
 wave lengths first yellow, and then blue. This stage of 
 evolution is still found on portions of the periphery of the 
 retina. This " yellow substance " again develops and 
 becomes sensitive to red and green. If the red and green 
 are both acted upon it is just as if the original yellow was 
 affected. Blue still remains undeveloped. The scheme 
 is as follows : 
 
 red ->yellow-<- green 
 
 grey-> \ white white 
 
 t 
 
 The primitive grey substance" first differentiates into a 
 yellow- and a blue-perceiving substance which in com- 
 bination give white. The " yellow substance " has differen- 
 tiated still further into a red- and a green-substance. These 
 in combination give yellow. 
 
 This theory, while explaining the normal phenomena 
 of vision, is especially useful for explaining the facts of
 
 THE END ORGANS AND SENSATION 117 
 
 colour-blindness and the variations in quality of our visual 
 sensations in the peripheral areas of the retina. 1 
 
 The Ear and Sensations of Sound. The parts of the ear 
 will perhaps be best understood by means of the following 
 diagram : 
 
 Pinna 
 
 Auditory | 
 Vestibular 
 
 .ranch op 
 
 t-ory nerva 
 
 Eustachian tvtbe 
 FlQ. 23. Semi-diagrammatic section through right ear (after Czermak). 
 
 There are three main parts, namely, the external ear, 
 the middle ear and the inner ear. The external ear is 
 composed of the pinna (the "ear" of the layman), the 
 external auditory meatus (the " ear-hole "), and the tympanic 
 membrane or ear-drum. The middle ear is a cavity which 
 is connected to the outside world by means of the Eustachian 
 tube, the throat and the mouth. It has a chain of bones 
 or ossicles connecting the drum to the inner ear. These 
 
 1 None of the theories is absolutely satisfactory. If some person 
 skilled in making microscopical sections would only work on those 
 of the retina, perhaps some difference of structure in the rods and 
 cones of different parts of the eye would be revealed. It is difficult 
 to conceive differences of function without corresponding differences 
 of structure. The task would be difficult because the sclerotic, 
 which would have to be sectioned at the same time, is one of the 
 toughest membranes of the body.
 
 118 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 bones, from their shapes, are known as the malleus (hammer), 
 incus (anvil) and the stapes (stirrup). The hammer is 
 attached to the tympanic membrane : the foot-piece of 
 the stirrup fits the fenestra ovalis (oval- window) of the 
 vestibule of the inner ear. The inner ear, or labyrinth, is 
 composed of three parts the vestibule, the three semi- 
 circular canals and the spiral-shaped cochlea. The vestibule 
 is the central part of the inner ear. It is connected with 
 the semi-circular canals on the one hand and the cochlea 
 on the other. The semi-circular canals are arranged in the 
 three dimensions of space and are the organs of equili- 
 bration. The cochlea is the organ of hearing. It is 
 embedded in bone and consists of a spiral of 2| turns 
 resembling in shape the shell of a snail. The spiral is 
 divided into three passages or canals by means of Reissner's 
 membrane, and by the bony lamina spiralis with its con- 
 tinuation the basilar membrane. The three passages are 
 called the scala vestibuli (because it opens into the vestibule), 
 the cochlear canal, and the scala tympani, which is separated 
 from the middle ear (tympanic cavity) by the round window 
 (fenestra rotunda). The vibrations of the ossicles pass from 
 the oval to the round window by means of the passages of 
 the cochlea. These mechanical vibrations are converted 
 into nerve impulses chiefly by means of the basilar mem- 
 brane and the organ of Corti. The organ of Corti is attached 
 to the basilar membrane and is composed, in part, of cells, 
 to which short hairs are attached. Around these cells the 
 terminal arborisations of the cochlea nerve fibres end and 
 so we may be sure that the hair cells are the instruments 
 for conversion of physical into nervous stimuli. 
 
 Many theories of this conversion have been put forward. 
 Helmholtz l thought it was due to resonance or sym- 
 pathetic vibration of the fibres of the basilar membrane, but 
 the explanation is now known to be unsatisfactory because 
 of the discovery of radial fibres in this organ. Ewald, 2 
 after experimenting with a model of the basilar membrane, 
 came to the conclusion that fixed vibration figures were 
 produced by each sound the components of which could be 
 analysed. The vibrations of a given rate would cause the 
 
 1 Helmholtz : Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen ; 1895, tr. by 
 Ellis as Sensations of Tone. 
 
 2 Ewald : Pfluger's Archiv /. d. gesammte Physiologic ; 1899 and 
 1903.
 
 THE END ORGANS AND SENSATION 119 
 
 basilar membrane to vibrate in certain places not simply 
 in one place, as the Helmholtz theory suggests and the 
 corresponding parts of the sensory apparatus would be 
 excited by each vibration rate. Combinations of nerve 
 fibres would be excited by a single tone. This conception 
 is more difficult than that of Helmholtz, yet it is probably 
 nearer the truth. But no theory is as yet quite satisfactory. 
 The impulses, however started, are transmitted to the brain 
 by the cochlear branch of the auditory nerve. The other 
 branch of this nerve, the vestibular branch, runs to the 
 canals and vestibule and is concerned with equilibration. 
 
 The ear gives sensations of noise and sensations of tone. 
 A noise is harsh and due to aperiodic vibrations. A tone 
 is smooth and is due to periodic vibrations. Most sounds 
 are combinations of noises and tones. The human ear and 
 brain distinguish about 11,000 tones, but music utilises 
 only 90 of these. Some tones, separated from each other 
 by an interval of an octave, are more similar than others. 
 The same note sounded by different musical instruments 
 sounds different because of differences of noises and over- 
 tones. A high tone has a shorter wave length than a lower 
 tone. A loud tone has vibrations of greater amplitude than 
 a softer tone. Loudness or intensity, pitch, phase, and 
 timbre are the properties of musical sounds which affect 
 the vibrations of the ear-drum. 
 
 The Skin and Cutaneous Sensations. The skin is not 
 merely a sense-organ like the eye or the ear ; it has pro- 
 tective and other functions. It has within it at least four 
 different kinds of sense organs. There are receptors for 
 pressure, heat, cold and pain. These receptors are exceed- 
 ingly numerous and are dotted in haphazard fashion over 
 the surface of the body. The punctiform distribution of 
 any one type of receptor is not uniform ; there are places 
 where they are crowded together. Thus the tip of the 
 tongue, the lips, and the ends of the fingers are specially 
 sensitive to pressure ; the tip of the tongue and the eyelids 
 to heat and cold ; and the membranes of the eye to pain. 
 
 Pain spots may be discovered by " exploring " a portion 
 of the skin with a stiff bristle or a needle. Some parts 
 will be found to be far more sensitive to pain than others. 
 Immediately beneath these parts are the receptors for pain. 
 If a fine hair be used instead of a needle, spots which are 
 sensitive to light pressures may be discovered. On hairy
 
 120 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 parts of the skin a " touch or pressure spot " is found over 
 each hair root. Cold spots may be demonstrated by 
 exploring with a cold bluntly pointed metal rod, and warm 
 spots by means of a metal rod warmed to about 45 C. 
 Warm spots are the least numerous and pain spots by far 
 the most numerous and most variable of the cutaneous 
 sense -spots. The specific energy of the cutaneous nerves 
 (see Chap. VI.) may be demonstrated by touching a cold 
 spot with a warm rod, when a sensation of cold and not 
 warmth is aroused. It should be noticed, however, that 
 intense stimulation of any spot probably causes pain. 
 
 If a cutaneous nerve fibre is severed the skin becomes 
 completely anaesthetic. Strong pressures and movements 
 may still be felt, but it is by means of sensory fibres to 
 the underlying muscles. This is the " deep sensibility " 
 discovered by Head and Rivers. 1 As the nerve heals, 
 sensitivity of the skin returns, but in a somewhat peculiar 
 way. There seem to be two systems of sensory fibres which 
 regenerate at different times. The first system conveys 
 sensations of a diffuse, low, imperfectly localised kind such 
 as extremes of heat and cold (above 37 C. and below 26 C.), 
 and pain. This is called protopathic sensitivity since it 
 seems to be of vital importance to the life of the organism. 
 The second system of fibres, which regenerate more slowly 
 than those concerned with protopathic sensitivity, is 
 sensitive to moderate temperatures (26-37 C.) and to 
 light pressures. Unlike sensations of the protopathic kind, 
 these are perfectly localised. This is called the epicritic 
 system of cutaneous sensibility. It is probable that the 
 epicritic system is the more recently evolved since it is the 
 last to be regained. 2 The epicritic system also is probably 
 instrumental in enabling us to recognise the size and shape 
 of objects. 
 
 The Nose and Mouth and Sensations of Taste and Smell. 
 In addition to pressure, heat, cold and pain, the mouth 
 (aided by the nose) gives us four sensations of taste 
 sweet, bitter, sour and salt. The ends of the nerve fibres 
 of taste, localised chiefly in the tongue, are roughly oval in 
 shape. They lie at the base of the large circumvallate 
 
 1 Head and Rivers : A Human Experiment in Nerve Division ; 
 Brain, 1908, XXXI., 323-460. See also Brain, 1905, p. 99. 
 
 2 For a description and discussion of Head and Rivers' work see 
 Myers' Introduction to Experimental Psychology ; Chapter I., 1911.
 
 THE END ORGANS AND SENSATION 121 
 
 papillae, and some of the fungiform papillae (the small 
 ' pimples ' of the tongue). The action is chemical, since 
 insoluble matter is invariably tasteless. The " feeling " 
 of food (oily or astringent, for example) and the smell of 
 it (aroma of coffee, for example), are instrumental in aiding 
 taste. If the nose be closed, the eyes shut and food made 
 into a pulp before being placed on the tongue, it is impossible 
 to tell the difference between onion and apple, or coffee and 
 quinine. Bitter tastes are best tasted at the back of the 
 tongue, sweet tastes at the tip, sour and salt tastes at 
 intermediate areas. It is probable that the specific energies 
 of the nerves (supra) hold for taste. 
 
 The end organs for smell are confined to the upper nasal 
 cavity and, according to von Brunn, to the nasal septum 
 and the upper turbinate bone. The fibres connecting these 
 to the brain through fine holes in the base of the skull are 
 the shortest in the body. In order that we may smell, the air 
 must diffuse or pass up as currents into the nasal chamber. 
 The classification of smells is exceedingly difficult. The 
 best, perhaps, is that of Zwaardemaker, which is as follows : 
 
 1. Ethereal odours, including the odours of fruits which 
 
 depend for their smell upon ethereal esters. 
 
 2. Aromatic odours camphor, citron, bitter almond, 
 
 resinous bodies, etc. 
 
 3. Fragrant odours, comprising the scent of flowers, 
 
 vanilla, tea and balsam. 
 
 4. Ambrosial odours typified by musk and amber. 
 
 5. Alliaceous or garlic odours such are found in the onion, 
 
 india-rubber, sulphur compounds and the halogens. 
 
 6. Empyreumatic or burnt odours, including burnt foods, 
 
 tar, phenol, tobacco smoke and roasted coffee. 
 
 7. Hircine or goaty odours. The odour of goat is due to 
 
 caprylic acid in the sweat. These odours include 
 cheese and rancid butter. 
 
 8. Repulsive odours, as of some insects and certain nar- 
 
 cotic plants. 
 
 9. Nauseous or foetid odours, as of decaying flesh and 
 
 organic matter. 
 
 Both taste and smell are extremely sensitive. It is 
 usually stated that -00005 grms. of quinine dissolved in 
 100 cc. of water can be detected on the root of the tongue, 
 and sugar to the extent of -5 grms. in 100 cc. of water can
 
 122 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 be tasted on the tip of the tongue. Smell is even more 
 sensitive. Musk, 1 part to 8,000,000, and mercaptan 
 TffTnrwinrff milligram in 50 cc. of air, are perceptible. 
 The threshold of smell for dogs is beyond computation. 
 
 Smell (and taste ?) is probably decadent in man. Both 
 smell and taste tend to be associated in modern life with 
 over-indulgence and over-gratification of bodily appetites. 
 
 Development of Sensory Powers in Children. A child at 
 birth is almost deaf and, to all intents and purposes, is 
 smell-less, sight-less and taste-less. The sensory powers 
 are of gradual development, and the problem of tracing 
 their growth is one of extreme difficulty. When does a 
 child begin to discriminate between colours ? between 
 smells ? and between musical tones ? When do percep- 
 tions of space and of time arise ? Yet answers to these 
 questions are of extreme importance to education. From 
 the researches of Preyer, Baldwin, Myers, McDougall, 
 Miss Tucker and others we are led to the conclusion that 
 brightness is perceived at about 5 or 6 months and that this 
 is immediately followed by discrimination of reds and 
 yellows from all other colours. With older children 
 discrimination of blues present more difficulty than reds 
 and yellows. Sound perception is not highly developed 
 when children reach school age. Only | of the children 
 entering school can sing a song from memory and only f 
 can sing a melody after it has been sung to them. The 
 greater percentage of deafness among younger children 
 is probably due to their inability to discriminate between 
 sounds. Judgment of distance with the eye is non-existent 
 in young babies (they grasp at the moon), but by the time 
 7 or 8 years of age is reached, it is probably as accurate as 
 in adults. The ability to appreciate time is of extremely 
 slow development. " Once upon a time " is the child's 
 notion of the past, and uneducated adults are probably 
 not much more advanced. The Montessori system of 
 education, whatever its faults, is extremely valuable, 
 inasmuch as it insists upon the separate and systematic train- 
 ing of the sensory powers. Such training in the past has 
 either been neglected altogether, or given in a haphazard 
 fashion. 
 
 References. Angell : Psychology ; Chap. V. Betts : 
 The Mind and its Education ; Chaps. IV., VI. Drummond :
 
 THE END ORGANS AND SENSATION 123 
 
 The Child : Chap. VI. Ho well : Elements of Physiology. 
 James : Psychology, Briefer Course ; Chaps. XV., XXI. 
 James: Text-Book of Psychology ; Chaps. II. -VI., and XX. 
 Judd : Psychology ; Chap. V. Ladd and Wood worth : 
 Elements of Physiological Psychology. McDougall : Physio- 
 logical Psychology ; Chap. IV. Myers : Introduction to 
 Experimental Psychology ; Chaps. I. and III. Myers : 
 Text-Book of Experimental Psychology ; Chaps. II. -IX., 
 XV.-XXIII. (contains a valuable Bibliography). Rusk : 
 Experimental Education. Seashore : Elementary Experi- 
 ments on Psychology ; Chaps. I., II., III., V., VII. Stout : 
 Groundwork of Psychology : Chaps. IV. and V. Titchener : 
 Primer of Psychology ; Chap. III. Thorndike : Elements 
 of Psychology ; Chap. II. Thorndike : Notes on Child 
 Study ; Chap. VII. Whipple : Manual of Mental and 
 Physical Tests ; Chap. VI.
 
 SECTION III. 
 DYNAMIC OR FUNCTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES. 
 
 Definition of Instinct. We have seen from our studies 
 of the finer structure of the nervous system that certain 
 connections of neurones are made in the normal course of 
 growth, without the intervention of external stimuli. The 
 sympathetic system at birth has become definitely con- 
 nected with the blood-vessels and other organs over 
 which it exercises control. Consequently the physiological 
 functions of breathing, perspiring, digesting and so forth 
 are natural from birth and need no learning. In exactly 
 the same way connections are established between groups 
 of sensory neurones, which run to the periphery, and 
 corresponding groups of motor neurones, which are united 
 to muscles lying in related areas. In consequence of this 
 second type of innate connection a baby can wink, snuffle, 
 sigh, sob, cough, snore, vomit, withdraw the hand when it is 
 pricked, withdraw the foot when the sole is tickled, all 
 without being taught. But there is a third type of reaction 
 which is just as much unlearned as the physiological functions 
 of breathing and digesting or the so-called reflexes of cough- 
 ing and winking. When appropriate stimuli are given, a child 
 walks, is acquisitive, curious or pugnacious according to the 
 type of stimuli given. Such unlearned reactions are known 
 as instincts. They are easily distinguished from innate 
 physiological functions, but the line of demarcation between 
 them and reflexes is not so* easily drawn. Herbert Spencer 
 looked upon instincts as compound reflex actions, and there 
 is much to be said for this point of view. All that we can
 
 INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 125 
 
 say at present is that, in general, instincts are more complex 
 than reflexes and that they are attended with greater 
 degrees of consciousness. 
 
 As a definition we may accept that of Lloyd Morgan, 1 
 who states that instinctive behaviour comprises " those 
 complex groups of co-ordinated acts which are, on their 
 first occurrence, independent of experience ; which tend 
 to the well-being of the individual and the preservation 
 of the race ; which are due to the co-operation of external 
 and internal stimuli ; which are similarly performed by 
 all the members of the same more or less restricted group 
 of animals ; but which are subject to variation and to 
 subsequent modification under the guidance of experience." 
 
 Instincts and Capacities. Capacities are those native 
 abilities which are of the same nature as instincts but are 
 somewhat vaguer in character. We talk about an instinct 
 of fear, but capacity is the term we use when we speak of 
 rote-memorising, music, leadership, drawing, management 
 of ideas and the like. We could, however, interchange 
 the terms and talk about a capacity for fear and an instinct 
 for language. Custom alone dictates the use of the two 
 terms. A capacity needs a more highly developed stimulus 
 than does an instinct to stir it into action. Capacities are 
 also more variable than instincts. Instincts as a rule 
 appear earlier in life than capacities and pass away more 
 rapidly unless hardened into habits. 
 
 The Number of Instincts and Capacities. Earlier psycho- 
 logists 2 were prone to think that, whereas the instincts of 
 animals were exceedingly numerous, those of children were 
 comparatively few in number. The error arose from the 
 fact that the life of animals is largely a life of instinct while 
 that of a man is so complex as to hide its fundamental 
 instinctive basis. The following lists 8 of instincts and 
 capacities of man prove that they are far indeed from being 
 few in number. 
 
 INSTINCTS (those marked D are doubtful). 
 
 1. Sucking. 
 
 2. Biting an object placed in the mouth. 
 
 1 Animal Behaviour ; p. 71. 
 
 2 For example, Preyer in The Mind of the Child. 
 
 * From Thorndike : Notes on Child Study ; Chap. V., and Thorn- 
 dike : Principles of Teaching ; Chap. HI.
 
 126 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 3. Chewing and grinding the teeth. 
 
 4. Licking. 
 
 5. Making characteristic grimaces, over bitter and sweet 
 tastes. 
 
 6. Spitting. 
 
 7. Clasping things which the palm of the hand touches. 
 
 8. Grasping at certain objects, e.g. small, bright, or 
 moving objects. 
 
 9. Carrying to the mouth the object when grasped. 
 
 10. Pointing. 
 
 11. Making a peculiar sound expressive of desire. 
 
 12. Crying. 
 
 13. Protrusion and puckering of the lips. 
 
 14. Turning the head aside. 
 
 15. Holding head erect. 
 
 16. Sitting up. 
 
 17. Standing. 
 
 18. Creeping. 
 
 19. Walking. 
 
 20. D. Following objects which are going away slowly. 
 
 21. Retrieving ; that is, getting an object and bringing it 
 back. 
 
 22. D. Running from objects which are coming towards 
 the child quickly. 
 
 23. Climbing. 
 
 24. Vocalisation ; that is, the general babbling of infants. 
 
 25. Emulation or rivalry ; that is, the tendency to do 
 what others are doing in such a way as to get what they 
 get. 
 
 26. Pugnacity and mastery. 
 
 27. Resentment. 
 
 28. D. Sympathy. 
 
 29. Hunting ; that is, the tendency to catch, play with, 
 
 and tease small living things. 
 
 30. General physical activity including manipulation ; 
 that is, the general tendency to move in all sorts of 
 ways, not to keep still, to do things to things, to avoid 
 bodily torpor. 
 
 31. General mental activity ; that is, fondness for having 
 ideas, pleasure at the presence of feelings or thoughts, 
 delight in mere thinking irrespective of the con- 
 sequences. 
 
 32. Fear of noises. 
 
 33. Fear of strange men and animals. 
 
 34. Fear of black things. 
 
 35. Fear of the dark. 
 
 36. Fear of open places. 
 
 37. Fear of high places. 
 
 38. D. Fear of spiders and other vermin.
 
 INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 127 
 
 39. Fear of snakes. 
 
 40. D. Fear of solitude or sociability. 
 
 41. Acquisitiveness ; that is, the tendency to take what 
 
 one sees. 
 
 42. Miserliness or ownership ; that is, the tendency to 
 keep what one takes, to resist attempts to take away 
 anything one has had about him. 
 
 43. Unreasoning collecting and hoarding of objects. 
 
 44. Fear of exposure ; that is, the tendency to feel com- 
 
 fortable and to repose when sheltered. 
 
 45. D. Cave dwelling. 
 
 46. Play. 
 
 47. D. Constructiveness. 
 
 48. Curiosity. 
 
 49. Secretiveness. 
 
 50. D. Cleanliness. 
 
 51. D. Modesty. 
 
 52. D. Shame. 
 
 53. Love. 
 
 54. Jealousy. 
 
 55. Kindliness. 
 
 56. Independence and Defiance. 
 
 CAPACITIES. 
 
 A. Fundamental Capacities : 
 
 1. Impression, the capacities for sensitivity of the 
 different sense organs. 
 
 2. Expression, the capacities for arousing movement 
 of the different motor organs. 
 
 3. Connection, the capacity to form habits. 
 
 4. Selection, the capacity to maintain and strengthen 
 one mental process in preference to others. 
 
 5. Analysis, the capacity to break up a fact into 
 elements, to think of and react to parts and 
 aspects. 
 
 B. Special capacities which are either sub-divisions of 
 
 fundamental capacities or complexes of different 
 capacities. 
 
 1. The management of things. 
 
 2. ,, men. 
 
 3. ,, concrete ideas. 
 
 4. ,, abstract ideas and symbols. 
 
 5. Self-control. 
 
 6. Energy. 
 
 7. Precision. 
 
 8. Thoroughness. 
 
 9. Originality. 
 10. Co-operation.
 
 128 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 11. Leadership. 
 
 12. Self-denial. 
 
 13. Self-reliance. 
 
 14. Refinement. 
 
 15. Sympathy. 
 
 16. Rote-memorising. 
 
 17. Observation. 
 
 18. Various complex capacities connected with 
 
 school work such as drawing, music, mathe- 
 matical reasoning, language and others almost 
 too numerous to mention. 
 
 Attributes of Instincts. At birth a child can suck, and 
 can grasp with both fingers and toes, but he cannot walk, 
 climb, play, or feel attracted by the society of the opposite 
 sex. Yet we say that instincts are innate. So they are, 
 but this does not mean that all are perfect at birth. They 
 develop slowly in fairly regular sequence and always in 
 conjunction with the muscles which enable the instinctive 
 act to be performed. It is useless to dangle the feet of a 
 two months' old child on the ground in the hope of stimu- 
 lating the instinct of walking, simply because the muscles 
 of the leg and back and the nervous system controlling them 
 are insufficiently developed at this age. Yet a similar 
 procedure a year later will probably be effective. We must, 
 however, await nature's time. 
 
 Instincts are transitory, they are not given for all time. 
 Spalding x has shown that chickens when born have an 
 instinct or tendency to follow. They follow most naturally 
 the mother hen, but, if she is absent, they will follow a man, 
 a cat or a dog. Three or four days later the instinct of 
 fear develops. If, therefore, the following instinct is 
 inhibited by covering the heads of the chicks with hoods 
 for three or four days, the instinct of fear will cause them to 
 run and hide. Spalding describes their behaviour as 
 follows : 
 
 <c Each of them, on being unhooded, evinced the greatest 
 terror to me, dashing off in the opposite direction whenever 
 I sought to approach it. The table on which they were unhooded 
 stood before a window, and each in its turn beat against the 
 window like a wild bird. One of them darted behind some 
 books, and, squeezing itself into a corner, remained cowering 
 for a length of time. We might guess at the meaning of this 
 
 1 Spalding : Macmillan's Magazine ; Feb. 1873, pp. 287-9. Quoted 
 by James, II. , p. 396.
 
 INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 129 
 
 strange and exceptional wildness : but the odd fact is enough 
 for my present purpose. Whatever might have been the 
 meaning of this marked change in their mental constitution 
 had they been unhooded on the previous day, they would have 
 run to me instead of from me it could not have been the effect 
 of experience ; it must have resulted wholly from changes in 
 their own organisations." 
 
 After four days it is practically impossible to get chicks 
 to follow : the optimal time has passed and the instinct has 
 faded away. 
 
 Another remarkable instance of the transitoriness of 
 instinct is given by Francis Ward, 1 but in this case the 
 instinct was wooed back. An otter was kept from baby- 
 hood in a rabbit hutch, and at the age of two years had never 
 been in water. She was then placed on the banks of an 
 observation pond which contained two dozen J-lb. trout. 
 The instinct to fish had passed, for not only did the otter 
 fail to fish for herself but she also showed the utmost 
 aversion to water. Starvation for three days failed to 
 make her catch a trout, and only by placing food further 
 and further down a sloping shingle beach was she induced 
 to enter the water. Still she did not swim. She first 
 swam by jumping into the water when surprised by the 
 owner. After this she would dive for food. Soon after- 
 wards a number of J-lb. roach were introduced into the 
 pond and these aroused the latent instinct of fishing. From 
 this time onwards all fear of the water disappeared and she 
 became a normal otter. There seems to be no doubt that 
 even such a strong instinct as fishing, which is necessary 
 to the life of the otter in its wild state, had almost faded 
 away. The treatment undertaken with the otter coaxed 
 the instinct back to life. 
 
 Children may, in the same way, have instincts which 
 gradually fade away. Practically all children are born 
 with a capacity for oral language, but if, through deafness, 
 a child does not learn to speak before the age of four or five 
 years, the capacity rapidly disappears. Teachers of the 
 deaf are unanimous in saying that seven years of age, the 
 normal age of entry into schools for the deaf, is much too 
 late if adequate progress in speech is to be made. Infinitely 
 better results are obtained when children are introduced to 
 the school at three or even as early as two years of age. 
 
 1 Teaching an otter to take to water ; Country Life, March 23rd, 1912. 
 
 I
 
 130 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The reason is that the capacity for language has its optimal 
 time between the ages of one and four years and, if advan- 
 tage is not taken of it, the power gradually fades away. It 
 is practically impossible to teach a deaf boy of more than 
 ten years of age to speak. 
 
 City children again are often denied the joys of climbing, 
 especially climbing trees, because there are no opportunities 
 for the exercise of the instinct when it duly makes its appear- 
 ance, sometime between the ages of four and six years. 
 
 So we are led to the important conclusion that we must 
 await the optimal times for desirable instincts and then give 
 them as much exercise as is humanly possible. For 
 example, curiosity about the mechanism of the human body 
 does not awaken before adolescence, hence it is worse than 
 useless to try to teach physiology to ten-year-old children. 
 But physiology to fifteen-year-olds is one of the most 
 fascinating subjects of the curriculum. 
 
 Instincts harden into habits. The reason why instincts, 
 such as were enumerated in the preceding paragraphs, 
 apparently do not disappear is that they are conserved 
 as habits. Although a child, who had never walked before 
 reaching the age of four, would have great difficulty in 
 learning, a normal child learns to walk between the ages 
 of one and two and thereafter retains the power of walking 
 as a permanent possession. The instinct of walking has 
 1 disappeared but the habit of walking is retained as its 
 1 substitute. The same line of reasoning applies to drawing, 
 music, language, rote-memorising, leadership, curiosity and 
 so forth. These instincts and capacities undoubtedly 
 fade away if not hardened into habits, and it is greatly to 
 be feared that many schools are open to blame for delibe- 
 rately killing off such desirable capacities as originality, 
 self-reliance and leadership. 
 
 Instincts are indefinite, variable and may be transferred. 
 The definiteness and invariability of instincts were favourite 
 themes of the earlier animal psychologists. But some of 
 their statements have been controverted as a result of more 
 careful observation or experiment. Thus we find that 
 Lloyd Morgan x makes the following observations : 
 
 " Romanes thought that the manner of stinging (by solitary 
 wasps) and paralyzing their prey might ' be justly deemed the 
 most remarkable instinct in the world.' Spiders, insects, and 
 1 Animal Behaviour ; p. 73.
 
 INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 131 
 
 caterpillars are stung, he says, ' in their chief nerve-centres, 
 in consequence of which the victims are not killed outright, 
 but rendered motionless ; they are then conveyed to a burrow 
 and continuing to live in their paralyzed condition for several 
 weeks, are then available as food for the larvae when these are 
 hatched. Of course the extraordinary fact which stands to be 
 explained is that of the precise anatomical, not to say also 
 physiological knowledge which appears to be displayed by the 
 insect in stinging only the nerve-centres of its prey.' Eimer 
 thought that it ' is absolutely impossible that the animal has 
 arrived at its habit otherwise than by reflection upon the facts 
 of experience.' ' At the beginning,' he says, ' she probably 
 killed larvae by stinging them anywhere, and then placed 
 them in the cell. The bad results of this showed themselves 
 the larvae putrified before they could serve as food for the 
 larval wasps. In the mean time the mother wasp discovered 
 that those larvae which she had stung in particular parts of the 
 body were motionless but still alive, and then she concluded 
 that larvae stung in this particular way could be kept for a 
 longer time unchanged as living motionless food.' 
 
 " Now, since these wasps, when they have stored their nests 
 and laid an egg on one of the victims, close it up at once and 
 for all, and take no further interest in it or its contents, there 
 seem no opportunities, at any rate in the existing state of 
 matters, for the acquisition of that experience on which Eimer 
 relied, but both his explanation and Romanes's difficulty are 
 based on the following assumptions : first, that the victims 
 are instinctively or habitually stung in the chief nerve -centres ; 
 secondly, that when thus stung they are not killed but remain 
 paralyzed for weeks ; and thirdly, that the marvellously 
 definite and delicate instinctive behaviour is in direct relation 
 to the uniform result of prolonged paralysis and consequent 
 preservation of the food in the fresh state. But Dr. Peck- 
 ham's careful observations and experiments show that, with 
 the American wasps, the victims stored in the nests are quite 
 as often dead as alive, that those which are only paralyzed live 
 for a varying number of days, some more, some less, that wasp 
 larvae thrive just as well on dead victims, sometimes dried-up, 
 sometimes undergoing decomposition, as on living and para- 
 lyzed prey, that the nerve centres are not stung with the 
 supposed uniformity ; and that in some cases paralysis, in 
 others death, follows when the victims are stung in parts far 
 removed from any nerve centre. ' We believe,' he says, ' that 
 the primary purpose of the stinging is to overcome resistance, 
 and to prevent the escape of the victims, and that incidentally 
 some of them are killed and others are paralyzed.' " 
 
 And so for all the other cases of so-called invariable and 
 unerring instincts. We now know that birds vary their
 
 132 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 nest building according to the situation and the materials 
 available for the purpose ; that chickens, although they 
 can peck as soon as they are born, do not peck unerringly 
 at first ; that spiders make their later webs better than their 
 earlier ones ; that the second nest of a bird is better built 
 than the first ; that bees and wasps often lose their way ; 
 that thousands of birds during migration fly out to sea, 
 especially in foggy weather, and perish miserably ; that 
 birds fly imperfectly at first and improve with practice ; that 
 cuckoos deposit their eggs in any nest that is available and do 
 not seek out the nest of a particular species say the hedge- 
 sparrow; and that dogs get lost far oftenerthan human beings. 
 
 Moreover instincts and capacities may be changed or 
 transferred. A fighter of boys may develop into a fighter 
 of wrongs. A collector of stamps or cigarette-cards may 
 become a collector of facts later in life. The bully of the 
 playground may be used with effect to protect the younger 
 boys. The maternal instincts of adolescent girls may be 
 wasted on cats, dogs or parrots when womanhood is attained. 
 Every teacher should strive to direct all useful instincts 
 along desirable channels : undesirable instincts should 
 either be inhibited or modified so as to become of real service 
 to the possessor. 
 
 Instincts need a stimulus, they are not impulsive. 
 Instincts do not come out willy-nilly ; even the strongest 
 of them needs some stimulus, however slight, to set it off. 
 Capacities need a complex stimulus or rather a series of 
 complex stimuli in order to develop them. But the fact 
 that instincts resemble a wound clock-spring in that 
 they go on by themselves when they are set going, has 
 caused some psychologists (including James) to say that 
 they are impulsive. They are only impulsive in the sense 
 that most of them are very easily aroused and that the 
 exercise of them is itself the stimulus which causes their 
 continuance, and may indeed be the starting-point of a 
 whole series of instinctive and learned reactions. For 
 example, the sight of a puddle is sufficient to make a boy 
 of four paddle in it, play with it with his hands, splash other 
 boys, try to drain it, sail stick boats upon it and do a host 
 of other things besides. Thorndike l calls this a " multiple 
 reaction to a single stimulus. It is, at bottom, the basis of 
 the educability of human beings." 
 
 1 Elements of Psychology ; p. 191.
 
 INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 133 
 
 Control of Instincts and Capacities. Desirable instincts 
 may be preserved by providing stimuli for their development 
 into permanent habits. Undesirable ones may be destroyed 
 by disuse, i.e. by withholding stimuli until such times as 
 the instincts have faded away. But the method is a 
 dangerous one to rely upon, for, as we have seen, instincts 
 are easily aroused and the stimuli for their development 
 are well-nigh omnipresent. A much safer way of destroying 
 them is to give punishment whenever they are exercised. 
 Thus the natural instinct of grabbing is destroyed, so far 
 as table manners of children are concerned, by punishment 
 and disapproval (a type of punishment) on the part of their 
 parents. The undesirable instinctive action is inhibited 
 by making the consequences sufficiently painful or un- 
 comfortable. So far as school is concerned, by far the 
 best plan is that of substitution, i.e. utilising the driving 
 force of the instinct but directing it into safer outlets. Few 
 instincts are so definite that they are incapable of re-direc- 
 tion. Vague curiosity about persons and dress may be 
 changed into definite and absorbing curiosity about natural 
 history or English literature. Collecting and hoarding use- 
 less things may be directed into the accumulation of things 
 and facts really worth while. Even the language capacity 
 which is normally satisfied with the vernacular may be 
 directed with great success towards French. German, 
 Latin or Greek providing the re-direction is begun early 
 enough. In the same way the general desire for manipula- 
 tion in the young may lead to the finished craftsman of 
 later life. 
 
 Theories of Instincts. It has been customary to explain 
 instincts on one of two theories : first, that they are relics 
 of far-away ancestors (see Chap. I.), and second, that they 
 are chance or fortuitous variations (with or without the 
 power of use or disuse) which have been selected because 
 of their usefulness to the organism. Quite recently Loeb x 
 and other mechanists (those believing in an exclusively 
 physical and chemical interpretation of life), while not 
 denying that instincts are hereditary, have tried to explain 
 how certain simple instincts operate. Loeb states " if a 
 moth be struck by the light on one side, those muscles 
 which turn the head towards the light become more active 
 
 1 Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative Psychology ; 
 Chap. XIII.
 
 134 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 than those of the opposite side, and correspondingly the 
 head of the animal is turned towards the source of light. 
 As soon as the head of the animal has this orientation and 
 the median-plane (or plane of symmetry) comes into the 
 direction of the rays of light, the symmetrical points of the 
 surface of the body are struck by the rays of light at the 
 same angle. The intensity of light is the same on both 
 sides, and there is no more reason why the animal should 
 turn to the right or left, away from the direction of the rays 
 of light. Thus it is led to the source of the light. Hence 
 the ' instinct ' that drives animals into the light is nothing 
 more than the chemical and indirectly the mechanical 
 effect of light, an effect similar to that which forces the stem 
 of the plant at the window to bend toward the source of 
 light." In the same way Loeb proved that " the tendency 
 of many animals to creep into cracks and crevices has 
 nothing to do with self-concealment, but only with the 
 necessity of bringing the body on every side in contact with 
 solid bodies." Crucial experiments in which the instinct 
 was reversed were performed with a number of marine 
 animals which normally go away from light. They were 
 forced "to go to the light in two ways, first by lowering 
 the temperature, and second, by increasing the concentra- 
 tion of the sea-water (whereby the cells of the animals lose 
 water)." The subject is a fascinating one and further 
 experiments should be eagerly welcomed. 
 
 Order of Development of Instincts. Instincts in human 
 beings develop in a fairly definite order. The instincts of 
 clasping and sucking are. the first to develop, while those con- 
 nected with sex are the latest. They obey the bio-genetic 
 ' law ' or the ' law ' of recapitulation a law best known 
 under the title of the " culture epoch theory." According 
 to this theory, either the order of development of instincts 
 in the individual child is the order of their development 
 in the race, or a child has all the instincts that the race has 
 had and they develop in the order of acquirement. This 
 theory in its extreme form has been abandoned, yet it serves 
 as one of the most suggestive generalisations of psychology. 
 There is much that is missing and there is a great deal of 
 overlapping and distortion. For instance, sex instincts 
 develop late in the individual, yet they must have been 
 present in the race from its earliest beginnings. Curiosity 
 is late with monkeys yet comparatively early in children.
 
 INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 135 
 
 Paddling in water must have preceded the climbing of 
 trees by aeons of years, yet a boy paddles in water and climbs 
 trees at about the same age. We certainly do not get one 
 month as a primate, one year as a savage, and so on, in the 
 development of children. 
 
 Classification of Instincts. Mark l has made the follow- 
 ing classification of instincts. He divides them into three 
 groups : (1) those which have marked motor qualities 
 climbing, walking, hunting, fighting, playing and so forth ; 
 (2) those which have an intellectual reference curiosity, 
 spontaneous attention (or interests), and general mental 
 activity ; and (3) those which have a marked accompani- 
 ment of feeling fear, pugnacity, self-reliance, instincts 
 connected with sex. 
 
 The classification used by Holmes in What is and What 
 might be (p. 165), is interesting because it shows the broad 
 conception of instinct which laymen usually hold. Accord- 
 ing to Holmes there are six things which the child instinc- 
 tively desires : 
 
 1. To talk and listen (communicative) \sympathetic 
 
 2. To act in dramatic sense (dramatic) /instincts. 
 
 3. To draw, paint and model (artistic) \aesthetic 
 
 4. To dance, to sing (musical) /instincts. 
 
 5. To know the why of things (inquisitive)*! scientific 
 
 6. To construct things (constructive) /instincts. 
 
 Instincts and Emotions. McDougall in his Social 
 Psychology 2 has pointed out the close connection which 
 exists between instincts and emotions. Thus the instinct 
 of flight and the emotion of fear are inseparably connected 
 in man. In the same way there are connections between 
 the instinct of repulsion and the emotion of disgust ; 
 between the instinct of curiosity and the emotion of wonder ; 
 between the instinct of pugnacity and the emotion of anger ; 
 between the instincts of self-abasement (or subjection) and 
 of self-assertion (or self -display), and the emotions of 
 subjection and elation (or negative and positive self -feeling) ; 
 and between the parental instinct and the tender emotion. 
 There is little doubt that the performance of such an 
 instinctive act as flight is invariably accompanied by the 
 
 1 The Unfolding of Personality ; Chaps. III., IV. and V. 
 1 Chaps. II., III. and IV.
 
 136 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 emotion of fear and it is on these grounds that the James- 
 Lange theory of emotions is based. (See Chapter XVI. for 
 a further discussion of this topic.) 
 
 Instincts of Special Importance to the Teacher. 1. Play. 
 Play is an activity pursued for the pleasure or satisfaction 
 which the activity itself provides, without any reference 
 to its ultimate usefulness. The physiological work done 
 during play is not felt as effort. Play is the antithesis of 
 drudgery and between play and drudgery comes work. 
 But the boundaries between play, work and drudgery are 
 vague and ill-defined. The characteristic feature of work 
 is that in its performance some aversion, either overt or 
 covert, must be overcome ; the activity is pursued for some 
 remote end and never for its own sake. From another point 
 of view, the difference between work and play is that of 
 spontaneous as opposed to purposeful (or effortful) action. 
 Work demands a greater amount of intelligence than play. 
 It applies means to accomplish a remote aim. 
 
 Since children are instinctively active and find it hard 
 to suppress movement, play becomes for them an important 
 instrument of education. When the vitality characteristic 
 of childhood wanes, the educational importance of play 
 disappears also. It is futile to make play the basis of the 
 education of the adolescent and the university man because 
 those factors which make play valuable for children have 
 either disappeared or changed their character. Play with 
 young children is dominantly individualistic, with boys and 
 youths it is mainly social in character. In social play 
 (games) rivalry and imagination are fostered, but the most 
 valuable lesson taught by games is the necessity for co- 
 operation and the due subordination of self to the good of 
 the whole. Some objections to play as the basis of educa- 
 tional practice 1 are : (1) that it fails to get work done 
 unless the child acquiesces, and (2) it fails to inculcate 
 the spirit of work. Work is always done with an ulterior 
 motive and therefore some form of coercion is essential. 
 The essence of play is free choice ; one cannot compel 
 children to play. Play as an educational principle inevi- 
 tably breaks down with older children ; it may serve as a 
 
 1 See Nunn : The Play Motive in the Higher Classes of the School ; 
 Educational Times, November 1st, 1912. Nunn is inclined to 
 believe that play may be used as a motive throughout the whole of 
 school life.
 
 INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 137 
 
 preparation for avocations but not, unless by accident, 
 for vocations. It is on these grounds that the plea for 
 " discipline " in school is based ; and discipline is a factor 
 in education which is in danger of neglect at the present 
 time. 
 
 The various theories of play which have been advanced, 
 have emphasised one or more of these characteristics of 
 play, but none of them can be wholly accepted. The 
 theory of relaxation l emphasises the importance of change 
 of occupation as a rest for mind and body, but it fails to 
 account for the fact that play often recreates better than 
 rest, and that play is most vigorous when the subject is 
 least in need of recreation. 
 
 The theory of superfluous energy put forward by Schiller 2 
 and Spencer 3 is useful but it fails to show why children 
 sometimes play " until they drop." If it is interpreted 
 to mean that in play it is the energy most easily set free 
 which is utilised we are able to accept it, but this is hardly 
 the construction the originators of the theory put upon it. 
 
 The atavistic theory of play of Stanley Hall, 4 namely, 
 that play is a relic, or is reminiscent of the useful actions 
 of far off ancestors, is also open to question. " I regard 
 play as the motor habits and spirit of the past of the race, 
 persisting in the present, as rudimentary functions some- 
 times of and always akin to rudimentary organs. . . The 
 young grow up into the same forms of motor activity, as 
 did generations that have long preceded them, only to a 
 limited extent, and if the form of every human occupation 
 were to change to-day, play would be unaffected save in 
 some of its superficial imitative forms." The theory 
 certainly explains why many of the plays of the young Fiji 
 islanders are like those of the slum children of London, but 
 to imply that the differences between them are negligible 
 is to under-rate seriously the element of imitation in 
 play. 
 
 The theory of play as a preparatory exercise emphasises 
 its educative nature, and is now very widely accepted. It 
 originated with Groos and has been elaborated in three 
 
 1 Lazarus : Die Seize dea Spiels. 
 
 * Schiller : Letters on the Aesthetic Education of Mankind. 
 8 Spencer : Principles of Psychology ; Vol. II., Ch. IX. 
 4 Hall : Adolescence ; I., p. 202 ff.
 
 138 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 works, two of which have been- translated into English. 1 
 Groos pointed out that the play of young animals resembled 
 some of the adult activities of the same species. Puppies 
 do not butt one another as do kids or lambs because worry- 
 ing is the adult activity of dogs. Puppies, therefore, chase 
 and worry one another. Similarly a moving ball of worsted 
 or paper is irresistibly fascinating to a kitten but leaves a 
 calf unmoved. Groos further considers such play activities 
 are necessary to the proper development of the animal. 
 " A little rabbit must have played the rabbit for a certain 
 time in order to become a perfect rabbit ; a chick must 
 have played the cock or the hen for some months in order 
 to become a good one ; the kid must have cut many capers 
 before becoming a goat or a chamois worthy of the name. 
 Also, our children must have played long years at being 
 men and women in order to truly become men and women. 
 It may therefore be said with Groos that it is not because 
 the animal is young that he plays, but that he has youth 
 because he needs to play." 2 
 
 McDougall is inclined to think that it is in the " impulse " 
 of rivalry that we shall find the true explanation of play. 
 " The impulse of rivalry is to get the better of an opponent 
 in some sort of struggle ; but it differs from the combative 
 impulse in that it does not prompt to, and does not find 
 satisfaction in, the destruction of the opponent. Bather, 
 the continued existence of the rival as such, but as the 
 conquered rival, seems necessary for its full satisfaction, 
 and a benevolent condescension towards the conquered 
 rival is not incompatible with the activity of the impulse, 
 as it is with that of the combative impulse. Now, these 
 peculiarities of the impulse of rivalry, when stripped of all 
 intellectual complications, seem to be just those of the 
 modified form of the combative impulse that seems to under- 
 lie the playful fighting of young animals. May it not be, 
 then, that the impulse of rivalry is essentially this impulse 
 to playful fighting, the impulse of an instinct differentiated 
 from the combative instinct in the first instance in the 
 animal world to secure practice in the movements of 
 combat ? " 8 
 
 1 Groos: The Play of Animals ; 1896; The Play of Man ; 1899; 
 Der Lebenswert dea Spieles ; 1910. 
 
 2 Clapar6de : Experimental Pedagogy ; p. 126. 
 * McDougall : Social Psychology ; p. 113.
 
 INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 139 
 
 The fact of the matter is that play is sufficiently complex 
 to fit in with all the theories. Play is undoubtedly remi- 
 niscent of useful activities of our ancestors ; it is undoubtedly 
 a preparation for the serious activities of later life ; it has 
 undoubtedly, as its main element, the " impulse " of 
 rivalry ; it undoubtedly first uses up the superfluous energy 
 of the individual ; and it undoubtedly serves in many cases 
 as a means of recreation. But exceptions to all the explana- 
 tions advanced by these theories can be found. 
 
 One word more about the imitative factor in play. In 
 our day, a chair duly harnessed served admirably as a 
 coach and six ; to present-day children, a chair serves as 
 an excellent motor car ; to our grandchildren, a chair will 
 render yeoman service when the play for the day is " aero- 
 planes." 
 
 2. Curiosity. This instinct is closely associated with 
 attention and interest. Curiosity produces attention, and 
 attention arouses interest. The mind instinctively likes 
 to be active and curiosity is a means whereby new ideas 
 are introduced to the mind. But it is just as difficult to 
 be curious about the absolutely new thing as about the 
 absolutely well-known. Novelty arouses the instinct but 
 the new thing must not be too novel to be comprehended. 
 And with young children the strikingly unfamiliar or 
 unknown is apt to arouse fear instead of curiosity. 
 
 The curiosity of children the puzzling questions they 
 ask is almost too well known. The function of the teacher 
 is to guide this curiosity into profitable channels or else 
 in later life it will be wasted upon tittle-tattle, scandal, 
 dress, or other equally useless things. It is almost as easy 
 to make children curious about the great things of nature, 
 literature and art as about the cup-tie football results or 
 the " snippity-bits " of the " yellow press." Generally 
 speaking, it is because the worthy interests of life have been 
 denied children that their innate curiosity has satisfied 
 itself with unworthy and ignoble things. 
 
 3. General Physical Activity. By this is meant the 
 general manipulation of objects. Its extreme forms 
 are constructiveness and destructiveness. It is closely 
 allied with curiosity, and it is to this combination that we 
 must ascribe such acts as opening the drum " to see where 
 the noise comes from." It is the basis of the love that 
 children have for tools, and it is the mainspring of manual
 
 140 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 work in all its forms. As an educative instrument it is 
 relatively more important in the young than in grown-ups, 
 but there is no doubt that most adults would have more 
 chances of happiness if the instinct were still alive in them. 
 Modern civilisation, with its machinery, tends to kill off 
 the instinct early, with the inevitable result a degradation 
 or destruction of handicraft. The cultivation of this 
 instinct in the school would lead to a resuscitation of 
 handicrafts in the home. 
 
 4. Acquisitiveness. This instinct, which is generally 
 called the collecting instinct, is closely associated with 
 miserliness or ownership. It is practically universal and 
 develops about the age of three years. Between 10 and 
 14 it is at a maximum. The nature of the collection is 
 determined by environment and by imitation. In child- 
 hood there is a crude instinct to collect anything ; in pre- 
 adolescent years the collection is more purposeful x and 
 there is the additional element of trade. In fact the 
 economics of cigarette-card collecting is most instructive 
 and amusing. The instinct may be best utilised in the 
 teaching of geography, nature-study, history and art, but 
 there are few school-subjects in which it cannot be used. 
 Children take better care of their own property than they 
 do that of others, hence schools should not furnish books 
 unless they are given to the children outright. 2 
 
 5. Fear. This instinct has largely diminished in impor- 
 tance by the time school-age is reached. Fear is universal 
 in children and is generally out of all proportion to the 
 existing cause. 3 As complete knowledge eliminates fear, 
 the obvious way to meet fear is by education. Fear is the 
 mother of superstition, and excessive fear makes for 
 selfishness and weakness. The bully is often a coward at 
 heart. The use of fear as a corrective in school is, however, 
 often prolonged beyond its period of usefulness ; it may 
 have a belittling and degrading effect which persists through- 
 out life. 
 
 1 Caroline F. Burk : The Collecting Instinct ; Fed. Sem., VII., 
 179-207. 
 
 2 See Kline and France : Psychology of Ownership ; Ped. Sem. , 
 Vol. VI. 
 
 8 G. Stanley Hall : A Study of Fears ; Amer. Journ. Pay., VIII., 
 pp. 147-249.
 
 INSTINCTS AND CAPACITIES 141 
 
 6. Language. The importance of this capacity demands 
 a separate chapter. (See Chapter XIX.) 
 
 References. Baldwin : Mental Development in the Child 
 and the Race. Claparede : Experimental Pedagogy. Cum- 
 mings : New Methods in Natural History ; World's Work, 
 Dec. 1912. Groos : The Play of Animals. Groos : The 
 Play of Man. Hall : Notes on Study of Infants. Hall : 
 Adolescence, I. Henderson : Text-Book of Principles of 
 Education. James : Principles of Psychology ; Chap. 
 XXIV. Kirkpatrick : Fundamentals of Child Study ; 
 Chaps. III. -XIII. Lloyd Morgan : Animal Behaviour. 
 Mark : Unfolding of Personality ; Chaps. III., IV. and V. 
 McDougall : Social Psychology. Preyer : The Mind of the 
 Child. Romanes : Mental Evolution in Animals and Man. 
 Shinn : Biography of a Baby. Sully : Studies of Childhood. 
 Thorndike : Animal Intelligence. Thorndike : Elements of 
 Psychology ; Chap. XII. Thorndike : Notes on Child 
 Study ; Chap. V. Thorndike : Principles of Teaching ; 
 Chap. III. Washburn : The Animal Mind. Welton : 
 Educational Psychology ; Chap. IV.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS. 
 
 The Essential Unity of Mind. In order to prevent mis- 
 understandings in this and later chapters it will perhaps 
 be useful at this point to emphasise the fact of the essential 
 unity of the mind. Just as the whole of the body is involved 
 when we play football or billiards, so the whole of the 
 mind is involved when we are said to perceive, to think, 
 or to listen to a lecture. In football the legs are more 
 dominantly active than the arms, while in billiards the 
 situation is reversed. Such considerations as these do 
 not prevent us from analysing our complex bodily activities 
 into simpler elements and, if we so desire, from arranging 
 sets of drill exercises for the development of special parts. 
 Some bodily exercises, like swimming or rock-climbing, seem 
 to be so diffuse as to affect all parts of the body equally, 
 but even these may be analysed into simple components. 
 Exercise of one part is dependent upon the whole, and, in 
 turn, affects the whole. So in psychology : when we speak 
 of perception, association, memory, habit and the like we 
 are simply segregating and emphasising some special form 
 of mind activity. In some kinds of mental work memory 
 may play a greater part than in others, but it is present in 
 all types to a certain extent. Some aspects of mental 
 }ife correspond to the swimming and rock-climbing types of 
 physical exercise, where the difficulty of analysis is great 
 because of their complexity, and where the fatigue point 
 is easily reached. If the reader will bear this warning in 
 mind when he is reading of memory, association, percep- 
 tions, etc., he will avoid the mistake of thinking that these 
 activities can go on by themselves quite apart from all 
 other aspects of mental life.
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 143 
 
 HABIT. 
 
 Connection between Habit, Practice and Fatigue. Some 
 aspects of mental life are more nearly related than others. 
 Habit, practice and fatigue would seem to be three which 
 have close affinities. Practice is necessary if habits are 
 to be formed, while fatigue may interfere with practice. 
 The close relationship existing between them will be 
 emphasised in this chapter. 
 
 Since James wrote his epoch-making article on " Habit " 
 in the Popular Science Monthly * for February, 1887, 
 comparatively little has been added to our knowledge of 
 the psychology of habit formation. This section, therefore, 
 is frankly based on that of James, with the addition of such 
 information as has subsequently been brought to light. 
 
 Definition of Habit. " Habit is an acquired aptitude for 
 some particular mode of automatic action." 2 " Tendencies 
 to respond which are created in whole or in part by ex- 
 perience, practice or training are called habits." 8 
 
 These definitions emphasise the two important features 
 of habits, namely, that they are automatic, and that they 
 are acquired during the lifetime of the individual. The 
 automatic nature of habits ensures their performance with 
 a minimum amount of attention, consciousness and fatigue. 
 Consider a child learning to write, or an adult learning to 
 skate or to ride a bicycle. The attention which at first must 
 be devoted to the task in hand is almost overwhelmingly 
 great, as is shown by the susceptibility to fatigue, but with 
 repeated practice the actions are performed almost without 
 consciousness and the person is able to sing and write, to 
 think out abstract problems and ride a bicycle, and to skate 
 and talk without quite knowing how they were done after the 
 actions are completed and all with a minimum of effort and 
 fatigue. The second factor the acquirement during the 
 lifetime of the individual by experience, practice and 
 training differentiates habitual from instinctive actions, 
 which are, of course, prior to experience. 
 
 The definitions also enable us to avoid the common 
 error of thinking that only perfected automatic actions, 
 
 1 Reprinted in Psychology, I., Ch. 4. 
 
 * Maher : Psychology, p. 388. Quoted by Rowe. 
 
 3 Thorndike : Elements of Psychology ; p. 16.
 
 144 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 such as the " bad habits " of smoking, drinking and 
 swearing are to be described as habits. We may have 
 habits of thought as well as habits of action. Probably 
 99 per cent, of all we think and do is habitual. 
 
 Some habits seem to be entirely automatic, while others 
 seem to possess an element which never can become auto- 
 matic. Hence only part of the action may truly be de- 
 scribed as habitual. The actions which are involved in 
 playing cricket, boxing and fencing are of this type. The 
 actual strokes at cricket, the blows and guarding of blows 
 in boxing and the lunging and parrying at fencing are 
 automatic, but constant alertness, the opposite of auto- 
 matic, must be the order of the day if success is to be 
 attained in any of these activities. With walking it is 
 otherwise : one may read and walk at the same time 
 without seriously hampering the efficiency of either per- 
 formance. Walking, therefore, is more purely a habit than 
 is fencing. 
 
 The Physical Basis of Habit. All writers are agreed that 
 habit has a physical basis in the structure and action of the 
 central nervous system. James states that it is due to the 
 plasticity of the nervous system. " Plasticity, then, in 
 the wide sense of the word, means the possession of a 
 structure weak enough to yield to an influence, but strong 
 enough not to yield all at once. Each relatively stable 
 phase of equilibrium in such a structure is marked by what 
 we may call a new set of habits. Organic matter, especially 
 nervous tissue, seems to be endowed with a very extra- 
 ordinary degree of plasticity of this sort ; so that we may 
 without hesitation lay down as our first proposition the 
 following, that the phenomena of habit in living beings are 
 due to the plasticity of the organic materials of which their 
 bodies are composed." . . . 
 
 " The most complex habits are nothing but concatenated 
 discharges in the nerve centres, due to the presence there 
 of systems of reflex paths, so organised as to wake each 
 other up successively the impression produced by one 
 muscular contraction serving as a stimulus to provoke the 
 next, until a final impression inhibits and closes the chain. 
 The only difficult mechanical problem is to explain the 
 formation de novo of a simple reflex path in a pre-existing 
 nervous system." 1 
 
 1 James : Psychology, I., pp. 105 and 108.
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 145 
 
 In place of James's paths, we must now substitute 
 neurone systems. We have seen previously that at each 
 synapsis there is a resistance to the passage of the nervous 
 impulse. Habit formation is nothing more nor less than 
 the breaking down of these resistances at the synapses by 
 successive nervous discharges. The stronger and the more 
 frequent the discharge, the sooner is the resistance broken 
 down, i.e. the sooner the habit is established. Verworn 
 has also shown 1 that nerve cells increase in size by use, and 
 that the strength of the nerve impulse depends upon the 
 size of the cell body. Nerve cells which have not been used 
 act as a block to the passage of a current. 
 
 The frontal lobes seem to have a close connection with 
 habit formation. Franz, 2 after having taught a cat or 
 monkey certain specialised acts, such as getting into a 
 cage by turning a certain button or pulling a certain string, 
 removed the frontal lobes and again tested the animal. 
 In all cases the act was forgotten. Removal of other parts 
 of the brain occasioned no such loss, hence he concluded 
 that the frontal lobes are concerned in the acquisition of 
 new performances of the kind used. 
 
 But the difficulty of explaining why the first discharge 
 takes place still remains. We can speak glibly of inherited 
 organisation of neurones but this only explains part of the 
 difficulty. In what way does a man learn to control the 
 evolutions of an aeroplane ? Hereditary dispositions 
 count for very little here. There are, of course, the eleven 
 thousand millions of neurones but why one path should be 
 taken or chosen by the current rather than another is still 
 wrapt in mystery. It is certainly not an illustration of 
 the law of chance. 
 
 Growth of Instinct into Habit. My wife's dog often 
 astonishes visitors by his ability to pick out the ace from 
 a pack of cards. The cards are placed in a semi-circle 
 around him and when the order " pick out the ace " is given 
 he puts a paw upon the ace. He does the trick equally well 
 if the cards are turned face down. Various explanations 
 of the manner of doing it are given by the audience, the 
 most frequent one being that " he smells it." But the 
 explanation is really much simpler. Every dog has the 
 
 1 British Association Meeting, Dundee, 1912. 
 
 * The Frontal Lobes : Archives of Psychology, 1907, No. 2. Quoted 
 by Ladd and Woodworth. 
 
 K
 
 146 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 instinct to paw things placed in front of him. This instinct 
 has been encouraged and developed by suitable gifts of food 
 attendant upon success. The cards are placed so that the 
 ace reposes nearest to the right paw in whatever position 
 he happens to be sitting. As soon as the signal is given, 
 out goes the right paw on the card nearest to him, which, 
 in this case, is invariably the ace. The instinct of pawing 
 has been hardened into a definite habit of pawing in which 
 all unsuccessful actions have been eliminated. 
 
 " A monkey was kept in a large cage. Into the cage was 
 put a box, the door of which was held closed by a wire 
 fastened to a nail which was inserted in a hole in the top 
 of the box. If the nail was pulled up out of the hole, the 
 door could be pulled open. In this box was a piece of 
 banana. The monkey, attracted by the new object, came 
 down from the top of the cage and fussed over the box. 
 He pulled at the wire, at the door, and the bars in the front 
 of the box. He pushed the box about and tipped it up 
 and down. He played with the nail and finally pulled 
 it out. When he happened to pull the door again, of 
 course it opened. He reached in and got the food inside. 
 It had taken him 36 minutes to get in. Another piece of 
 food being put in and the door closed, the occurrences 
 of the first trial were repeated, but there was less of the 
 profitless pulling and tipping. He got in this time in 
 2 minutes and 20 seconds. With repeated trials the animal 
 finally came to drop entirely the profitless acts and to take 
 the nail out and open the door as soon as the box was put 
 into the cage. He had, we should say, learned to get in." 1 
 
 " To illustrate this quick learning (i.e. where an animal 
 learned to do a trick almost immediately) we will make brief 
 mention of a hitherto unpublished experiment 2 on a 
 chimpanzee a species, which, to judge by cerebral develop- 
 ment, stands considerably higher than the smaller monkeys. 
 The specimen tested was a young female, about half -grown, 
 and corresponding in relative maturity, perhaps, to a child 
 of the human species of ten or twelve years. A box was 
 prepared, having a slatted front with a door closed by a 
 button, a turn of which through 90 released the door. 
 The chimpanzee, on being placed in front of this box, in 
 
 1 Thorndike : Animal Intelligence ; p. 283. 
 
 2 This experiment was performed by B. S. Woodworth in 1902-3, 
 in the laboratory of Professor Sherrington at Liverpool.
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 147 
 
 which a piece of banana had been placed before her eyes, 
 quickly came to devote most of her efforts to the door 
 (which allowed of some slight motion even with the button 
 closed) pushing it outward, pushing it inward, and 
 shaking it. She soon also attacked the button, and alter- 
 nated, for the most part, between this and the door. In 
 this way, it was not long before she turned the button 
 through 90, then tried the door, and got in, thus securing 
 the food. On a second trial, the chimpanzee worked 
 almost entirely at the door and the button, and from the 
 third trial on, her reaction was uniformly prompt and 
 correct. After several more trials, a second button was 
 added a few inches from the first, but much like the first 
 in appearance and operated in the same manner. The 
 chimpanzee attacked the box as before, neglecting the 
 second button. After once turning the first button, and 
 pulling the door, which, of course, did not yield, she turned 
 the first button again, so locking the door ; then again 
 tried the door and continued in this way for a long time, 
 before passing to the second button and dealing similarly 
 with it. Entrance was finally secured by a chance placing 
 both buttons at once in the right position. In the course 
 of several trials, no further progress was made. It seemed 
 to be wholly a matter of chance whether both buttons 
 should be put right at once or not." l 
 
 " A dog (a fox terrier, 14 months old) was sent after 
 a short stick into a field, and had to pass through vertical 
 rails about six inches apart. On his return the stick 
 caught at the ends. I whistled and turned as if to leave ; 
 and the dog pushed and struggled vigorously. He then 
 retired into the field, lay down, and began gnawing the 
 stick) but, when called, came slowly up to the railings and 
 stuck again. After some efforts he put his head on one 
 side and brought the stick, a short one, through. After 
 patting and encouraging him, I sent him after it again. 
 On his return he came up to the railings with more con- 
 fidence, but, holding the stick by the middle, found his 
 passage barred. After some struggles he dropped it and 
 came through without it. Sent after it again, he put his 
 head through the railings, seized the stick by the middle 
 and then pulled with all his might, dancing up and down 
 
 1 Ladd and Woodworth : Elements of Physiological Psychology ; 
 p. 552.
 
 148 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 in his endeavours to effect a passage. Turning his head 
 in his efforts, he at last brought the stick through. A 
 third time he was again foiled ; again dropped the stick ; 
 and again seizing it by the middle tried to pull it through. 
 I then placed the stick so that he could easily seize it by 
 one end and draw it through the opening between the rails. 
 But when I sent him after it, he went through into the 
 field, picked up the stick by the middle, and tried to push 
 his way between the railings, succeeding, after many 
 abortive attempts, by holding his head on one side. 
 
 Subsequent trials on many occasions yielded similar 
 results." 1 
 
 These three quotations show in the main how complex 
 habits are fixed in animals. The basis seems to be instinc- 
 tive random movements. Some variant, in the successful 
 cases, is selected out by reason of the pleasure enjoyed as 
 a result of its performance, and then is hardened by repeti- 
 tion into a habit. In some cases, however, failure results 
 because the task is beyond the intelligence of the animal. 
 Similar results have been obtained with chickens, turtles, 
 frogs, rats, mice, cats, birds and raccoons. 2 
 
 In exactly the same way the instinct of language which 
 begins as a babble is hardened into the habit of talking 
 through the reward of successful efforts. The instinctive 
 act of walking is rewarded by so many pleasant experiences 
 that it is invariably hardened into the habit of walking. 
 Grabbing, on the other hand, which is equally instinctive, 
 is so often reproved and punished that in most people it 
 fails to develop into a habit. 
 
 Habit again may develop out of habits. There is very 
 little doubt that creeping leads on to standing and walking. 
 In this case additional instinctive actions would seem to 
 be necessary at each stage. In language development the 
 higher products are dependent upon the lower and simpler 
 habits which are derived from instincts. 
 
 Laws and Maxims of Habit Formation. Thorndike 3 gives 
 the following laws and maxims of habit formation. " Any 
 mental state or act which in a given situation does not 
 
 1 Lloyd Morgan : Animal Behaviour ; p. 141. 
 
 2 For Bibliography see Ladd and Woodworth : Physiological 
 Psychology ; p. 547. 
 
 3 Elements of Psychology ; p. 205 : Principles of Teaching ; p. 110 ff .
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 149 
 
 produce discomfort becomes associated with that situation 
 so that when the situation recurs the mental state or act 
 is more likely than before to recur also ; the greater the 
 satisfaction produced by it, the stronger the association. 
 Conversely, any mental state or act which in a given 
 situation does produce discomfort becomes disconnected 
 from that situation, so that when the situation recurs the 
 mental state or act is less likely than beiore to recur also ; 
 the greater the discomfort produced by it, the weaker the 
 association becomes. Or in any situation the mental state 
 or act will take place which has resulted from that situation 
 oftenest and with the most satisfaction." 
 
 From these laws, the following maxims arise : " Put 
 together what you wish to have go together. Reward 
 good impulses. Conversely ; keep apart what you wish 
 to have separate. Let undesirable impulses bring dis- 
 comfort." 
 
 If these rules were followed such stupid mistakes in 
 teaching as the following would never be made : (1) Giving 
 school tasks for punishments, thus associating in the child's 
 mind the ideas of school -work and punishment. (2) 
 Teaching multiplication tables by a monotonous drone from 
 2x1 = 2 to 12x12=144. The situations in which a 
 product of two factors is needed in ordinary life, are never 
 those of the sequences of tables. If 7x7 = 49 is always 
 learned as something which follows 7 X 6 = 42, 7 x 5 = 35 
 and so on, then it cannot be recalled without reference 
 to preceding parts of the table. The same thing happens 
 with the alphabet. The writer, to this day, has to repeat 
 a few of the preceding letters before the position of the 
 one wanted is recalled. (3) Writing up spelling mistakes 
 on the Black Board, or reciting them aloud in order to 
 get the correct form. A similar situation is seen when 
 classes are given words purposely mis-spelled and told to 
 give the correct forms. The wrong form is taught instead 
 of the right one. (4) Correcting spoken language errors 
 by giving both the right and wrong pronunciations. Only 
 the correct forms should be emphasised. In fact so 
 powerful is the mere association of things that the best way 
 of destroying a dialect is to reside for some time in a place 
 where a different and better one is spoken. The errors 
 are swamped by perfectly unconscious imitation. (5) 
 Trying to teach foreign languages by learning declensions,
 
 150 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 
 
 conjugations and' rules. These particular forms of word 
 sequences are never met with in the living (or dead) lan- 
 guage. Yet how many of us when Nous avons is mentioned 
 immediately conjure up vous avez, simply because nous avons 
 was always followed by vous avez in our learning of the 
 language ! The success which has attended the direct 
 method of teaching French, German and Latin is due to the 
 fact that the teachers have put together those things which 
 they wanted to go together. (6) Teaching to read by the 
 alphabet method. Why should scholars be expected to 
 associate curly strokes c-a-t pronounced see-eh-tee 
 with the sound cat ! In reading, the word cat has not to 
 conjure up its constituent letters, but the idea of a purring 
 domestic animal called by a name which sounds cat. In 
 just the same way the reading books for beginners often 
 associate together that which is never associated in real 
 situations. Children will learn to read from the " Water 
 Babies " just about as quickly as from sentences like " Nan 
 sat on a tin can." 
 
 The rules given by James, who follows Bain, are self- 
 explanatory and do not need discussion. They are as 
 follows : " (1) In the acquisition of a new habit, or the 
 leaving off of an old one, we must take care to launch 
 ourselves with as strong an initiative as possible. (2) Never 
 suffer an exception to occur till the new habit is securely 
 rooted in our life. (3) Seize the very first possible oppor- 
 tunity to act on every resolution we make, and on every 
 emotional prompting we may experience in the direction 
 of the habits we aspire to gain. (4) Keep the faculty of 
 effort alive in us by a little gratuitous exercise every day. 
 (5) Make our nervous system our ally instead of our enemy. 
 For this we must make automatic and habitual, as early 
 as possible, as many useful actions as we can." These 
 maxims have special force in the realm of morals. 
 
 Other factors in habit formation which ought to receive 
 attention are : (1) Repetition. Practice is necessary, 
 for no habit can be learned by one trial. It ought to be 
 recognised that " practice makes perfect," only when the 
 resultant act produces satisfaction. (2) Attention. The 
 number of repetitions needed for the perfecting of the habit 
 is less when attention is concentrated. (3) Fatigue. 
 Habits are difficult to form when the subject is fatigued, 
 because no pleasant results can accrue. (4) Preliminary
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 151 
 
 notions. The child should be helped to get some idea of 
 the habit we wish to form. 
 
 The Breaking of Habits. In reality there is no such 
 thing as breaking a habit, if by that phrase is meant a 
 stamping out of part of one's life. What really happens 
 is that the nervous discharge is diverted from its ordinary 
 channel into some other. The old habit is " broken " as 
 soon as the new path of discharge is stronger than the old 
 one. The old action is then more difficult to perform than 
 the new one. If, however, there is a relapse, the old track 
 is very easily opened, for traces of it remain and become 
 functional. A conversion, to be lasting, must be followed 
 by many hard struggles towards righteousness ; resolves 
 made under the stress of emotion are apt to fade into thin 
 air when the emotion has evaporated. 
 
 Habit and Formal Discipline. The formation of habits 
 has been the chief battlefield of the protagonists in the fight 
 over the question of formal (or mental or general) discip- 
 line. The question at issue is " does practice and improve- 
 ment in one thing say habit formation or memory lead 
 to improvement in another, without specific exercise of the 
 latter ? " Does study in Latin improve English or Geography 
 and, if so, to what extent ? Does improvement of neatness 
 in dress carry over to neatness of school-exercises and to 
 the orderly arrangement of one's work ? It is generally 
 admitted that there may be such transfer of training, but 
 it is very much smaller than is usually supposed. There 
 must, however, be identical elements in the two branches. 
 These identities may be of method, of material, and of aim. 
 The fight has been waged fiercely during the past fifteen 
 years and so many researches have been published that a 
 volume instead of a paragraph would be needed to do 
 justice to them. A short bibliography of the more valuable 
 works dealing with habit formation is given below. 1 
 
 1 Coover and Angell : General Practice Effect of special exercise ; 
 Amer. Jour. Psy., July, 1907. 
 
 Davis : Researches upon Cross Education ; Yale Psychological 
 Studies, 1898. 
 
 Scripture, Smith and Brown : On the. Education of muscular 
 control and power ; Yale Psychol. Studies, 1894. 
 
 Ebert and Meumann : Ueber einige Grundfragen der Psychologic 
 der Uebungsphdnomene im Bereiche des Gedtichtnisses ; Archiv fur 
 die gesammte Psychologic, IV., (1905), pp. 1-232. 
 
 Gilbert and Fracker : Effect of practice in reaction and discrimina-
 
 162 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 PRACTICE. 
 
 By practice is meant the means we adopt when we wish 
 to acquire some sort of skill. Or in terms of physiology it 
 means the formation of connections within the body by 
 reason of which movements result on the application of 
 appropriate stimuli. These connections are not formed 
 immediately, but are of gradual growth. In the first 
 performance of the movement many conscious procedures 
 are necessary which, in course of time, not only fail to aid 
 the speedy and correct performance of the operation, but 
 actually become hindrances and so are dropped. Practice 
 then is closely associated with the factor of " repetition " 
 in the formation of habit. 
 
 The Practice Curve. Many interesting researches have 
 been carried out to discover the manner in which practice 
 actually operates. The first research, now classical, was 
 conducted by Bryan and Harter at the University of 
 Indiana and in Telegraphist Schools of the surrounding 
 States. 1 Bryan was a skilled experimental psychologist 
 and Harter a practical telegraphist. Their subject, tele- 
 graphy, was particularly fascinating since it takes many 
 months to acquire even a passable skill in sending and 
 
 tion for sound upon time of reaction and discrimination for other 
 forms of stimuli ; University of Iowa Studies in Psychology, I., 
 p. 62. 
 
 Johnson : Experiments in Motor Education ; Yale Psychological 
 Studies, I., X., pp. 81 ff. 
 
 Johnson : Researches in Practice and Habit ; Yale Psychological 
 Studies, I., VI., pp. 51-103. 
 
 Judd : Relation of special Training to general Intelligence ; Edu- 
 cational Review, XXXVI., pp. 28-42. 
 
 Myers, Burt & Sleight : Formal Training ; L.C.C. Conference of 
 Teachers, 1912. 
 
 Swift : Studies in the Psychology and Physiology of Learning ; 
 Amer. Jour. Psy., XIV., pp. 201-251. 
 
 Thorndike and Woodworth : The influence of improvement of 
 one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions ; Psychol. 
 Rev., VIII., pp. 247-261, 384-395, and 553-564. 
 
 Winch : Transfer of Improvement in Memory ; Brit. Jour. Psy., 
 II. (Jan. 1908), pp. 284-293. 
 
 Woodworth : Accuracy of Voluntary Movement ; Psy. Rev. 
 Monograph Supplement, III., 13, 1899, pp. 1-114. 
 
 1 Studies in the Physiology and Psychology of the Telegraphic 
 Language ; Psychological Review, 1897, IV., 27, and 1899, VI., 345.
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 
 
 153 
 
 receiving, while years of practice are necessary to attain 
 expertness. More than three-fourths of the candidates 
 who begin to learn, fail to reach the 72 words per minute 
 rate which is the slowest employed on main lines. The 
 following diagram will show the general results of practice. 
 
 3 
 
 140 
 130 
 
 120 
 1 10 
 IOO 
 
 90 
 
 go 
 
 Slowest Main Line /Rate 
 
 12. tb 2> 14, 2.6 32 36 40 
 
 Weeks of Pract 
 
 ice - >~ 
 
 FIG. 24. Curves showing the improvement in sending and receiving 
 telegraphic messages. (Byran and Harter.) 
 
 The Morse code of dots and dashes is used and progress 
 is found to be more rapid in sending than in receiving. 
 The dots and dashes of single letters are painfully tapped 
 out at first, but in course of time less attention is paid to 
 these elements ; words and even sentences become the 
 units of transmission as greater skill is acquired. In the 
 long run, receiving overtakes sending and the perfection 
 of skill is almost beyond belief. " The feat of the expert 
 receiver for example, of the receiver of press despatches 
 is more remarkable than is generally supposed. . . . 
 To bring the sender's rate up to that of the receiver abbre- 
 viated codes have been prepared. The receiver must 
 translate the code into English words, and transcribe them, 
 correctly capitalised and punctuated, upon the typewriter. 
 He takes in this way, eighty or eighty-five words a minute. 
 If mistakes are made by the sender, the receiver is expected 
 to correct them as they come, and send a *' clean ' copy to 
 press. The work continues for hours without leisure for
 
 154 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 re-reading, the pages being taken away to press as fast as 
 they are finished " (p. 352). 
 
 In both receiving and sending curious periods of no 
 progress were observed ; they were, however, much more 
 pronounced in the receiving curve. These flat portions 
 of the curve, which are the preliminaries to new freedom, 
 have been called " plateaus." Bryan and Harter think 
 that these are essential. They consider that the whole 
 process is simply the formation of a hierarchy of habits. 
 Simpler habits are being perfected on the plateau but are 
 not yet automatic enough to leave the attention free to 
 attack more complex habits of a higher order. Intense 
 efforts were found to be the most effective means of rising 
 from a plateau. 
 
 Experiments with the typewriter for the purpose of 
 determining the form of practice curve have met with 
 similar results. 1 The general form of the curve is the same 
 as in telegraphy though two or more plateaus appear. As 
 skill increases, especially in the touch system, letters give 
 way to words and words to phrases. The eye, as in reading, 
 is always ahead ; the fingers follow steadily behind. Bore- 
 dom, or lack of interest, seems to be the chief reason for 
 the plateaus in this case. 
 
 In order to give some idea of the manner of carrying 
 out such an experiment, a simple one worked out under the 
 direction of the writer, will now be described. 
 
 Six students from a class in Educational Psychology at 
 the Manchester University R. H. B., T. E. K., B. P., 
 E. J., A. R., and E. R. T. undertook to practise type- 
 writing for an hour a day during each of thirty consecutive 
 days, omitting Sundays, in Session 1911-12. The machine 
 used was an Oliver and no pains were spared to secure and 
 preserve uniform conditions for the experiment. The 
 students practised at the same hour each day and tran- 
 scribed from the same book. The same amount of instruc- 
 tion (about five minutes) as to the mechanism of the type- 
 writer and its method of working was given to each student 
 by the writer. Five of them had never previously used 
 a typewriter ; the sixth, E. R. T., had learned eight years 
 
 1 Book : The Psychology of Skill ; University of Montana Publica- 
 tions in Psychology, 1908. 
 
 Bair: The Practice Curve ; Psychol. Rev. Supplement, XIX., 1902, 
 pp. 1-70.
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 155 
 
 before but in the interval had never touched one. In the 
 computations E. R. T.'s scores are placed in a separate 
 table because his results are really those of re-learning. 
 The method of scoring was first to count the number of 
 words typed in the hour irrespective of correctness or 
 incorrectness, and then, from this table, to deduct an 
 amount for the mistakes made. Each mistake, whether 
 of key wrongly struck, of transposition of letters, of incorrect 
 spacing, or of omission, was counted as one-half, but in no 
 
 , v> 
 
 .. >Vlr, Error % 101 
 
 I?S 
 
 Fro. 25. Type-writing practice curve, showing average improvement of 
 five subjects during thirty days. 
 
 case was more than 1 deducted for a word even though it 
 contained three or more errors. The percentage of errors 
 to words typed was also calculated. The subjects were 
 told to type from a given book as quickly as possible and, 
 at the end of each practice period, to write down any 
 introspections made during the hour. 
 
 The results of the five beginners are given in Tables 24 
 and 25, and Fig. 25 ; of the re-learner in Fig. 26. x 
 
 It will be seen from the tables and figures that, 
 although any given subject's performance is somewhat 
 erratic, the general trend is steadily upward, while the 
 percentage of errors decreases with practice ; that is, the 
 slower the typing the greater the number of mistakes. 
 This is what we should expect to find ; it is the skilled 
 
 1 1 am indebted to a former student, Mr. Joseph Sutcliffe, for the 
 preparation of these tables and diagrams.
 
 156 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 typist who unerringly strikes the right letters ; the novice 
 alone, searching for the keys, makes a large number 
 of errors. It is almost impossible for the beginner to go 
 slowly enough to prevent any mistakes. And the same 
 
 TABLE 24. TOTAL WORDS TYPED CORRECTLY. 
 
 Day. 
 
 R.H. B. 
 
 T. E. K. 
 
 B.P. 
 
 E.J. 
 
 A. a. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Average. 
 
 1 
 
 185-5 
 
 405-0 
 
 289-5 
 
 269-0 
 
 224-0 
 
 1373-0 
 
 274-6 
 
 2 
 
 231-0 
 
 436-0 
 
 280-5 
 
 504-0 
 
 231-5 
 
 1683-0 
 
 336-6 
 
 3 
 
 284-0 
 
 519-5 
 
 261-5 
 
 554-0 
 
 399-0 
 
 2008-0 
 
 401-6 
 
 4 
 
 377-5 
 
 543-5 
 
 410-0 
 
 588-0 
 
 438-5 
 
 2367-6 
 
 471-5 
 
 5 
 
 392-5 
 
 577-5 
 
 415-0 
 
 636-0 
 
 479-5 
 
 2500-5 
 
 500-1 
 
 6 
 
 389-0 
 
 607-5 
 
 401-5 
 
 705-0 
 
 508-5 
 
 2611-5 
 
 522-3 
 
 7 
 
 489-5 
 
 731-5 
 
 448-0 
 
 628-0 
 
 614-0 
 
 2911-0 
 
 582-2 
 
 8 
 
 502-5 
 
 766-5 
 
 521-0 
 
 664-0 
 
 599-0 
 
 3053-0 
 
 610-6 
 
 9 
 
 520-5 
 
 771-5 
 
 544-5 
 
 730-0 
 
 641-0 
 
 3207-5 
 
 641-5 
 
 10 
 
 517-5 
 
 827-0 
 
 543-5 
 
 743-0 
 
 624-0 
 
 3255-0 
 
 651-0 
 
 11 
 
 563-5 
 
 859-5 
 
 677-5 
 
 770-0 
 
 586-5 
 
 3457-0 
 
 691-4 
 
 12 
 
 604-0 
 
 808-5 
 
 700-0 
 
 770-0 
 
 642-5 
 
 3525-0 
 
 705-0 
 
 13 
 
 598-5 
 
 824-5 
 
 690-5 
 
 795-0 
 
 625-0 
 
 3533-5 
 
 706-7 
 
 14 
 
 639-0 
 
 850-0 
 
 657-0 
 
 831-0 
 
 528-0 
 
 3505-0 
 
 701-0 
 
 15 
 
 640-5 
 
 840-5 
 
 725-0 
 
 801-0 
 
 560-5 
 
 3567-5 
 
 713-5 
 
 16 
 
 649-5 
 
 865-0 
 
 682-0 
 
 798-0 
 
 621-5 
 
 3616-0 
 
 723-2 
 
 17 
 
 696-5 
 
 807-5 
 
 728-0 
 
 799-0 
 
 645-0 
 
 3671-0 
 
 734-2 
 
 18 
 
 769-0 
 
 951-5 
 
 710-0 
 
 614-0 
 
 637-5 
 
 3682-0 
 
 736-4 
 
 19 
 
 685-0 
 
 954-0 
 
 708-0 
 
 604-0 
 
 705-0 
 
 3656-0 
 
 731-2 
 
 20 
 
 797-0 
 
 1054-0 
 
 802-0 
 
 780-0 
 
 728-0 
 
 4161-0 
 
 832-2 
 
 21 
 
 674-0 
 
 973-5 
 
 780-0 
 
 780-0 
 
 703-5 
 
 3911-0 
 
 782-2 
 
 22 
 
 746-0 
 
 1060-0 
 
 721-5 
 
 790-0 
 
 806-5 
 
 4124-0 
 
 824-8 
 
 23 
 
 757-5 
 
 1137-0 
 
 719-0 
 
 755-0 
 
 817-0 
 
 4185-5 
 
 837-1 
 
 24 
 
 814-0 
 
 1103-5 
 
 804-5 
 
 732-0 
 
 725-0 
 
 4179-0 
 
 835-8 
 
 ' 25 
 
 727-5 
 
 1163-0 
 
 848-5 
 
 820-0 
 
 820-0 
 
 4379-0 
 
 875-8 
 
 26 
 
 829-5 
 
 1087-5 
 
 844-5 
 
 750-0 
 
 867-5 
 
 4379-0 
 
 875-8 
 
 27 
 
 801-5 
 
 1203-0 
 
 941-0 
 
 718-0 
 
 849-0 
 
 4512-5 
 
 902-5 
 
 28 
 
 806-0 
 
 1271-5 
 
 928-0 
 
 777-0 
 
 788-0 
 
 4570-5 
 
 914-1 
 
 29 
 
 831-5 
 
 1235-5 
 
 984-0 
 
 821-0 
 
 896-5 
 
 4768-5 
 
 953-7 
 
 30 
 
 9145 
 
 1356-0 
 
 992-0 
 
 871-0 
 
 
 4133-5 
 
 1033-4 
 
 thing is found in piano-playing and a number of other 
 dexterities. 
 
 Progress is rapid at first and then proceeds more slowly ; 
 the errors obey a similar law, for the percentage rapidly 
 decreases in the early practices. Progress, however, is 
 not uniform. As in the curves for telegraphy, there are 
 periods when no apparent improvement is made and some-
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 
 
 157 
 
 times there is actual retrogression. The re-learner is more 
 variable in his performances than the beginner. If averages 
 are taken and a smooth curve made of the results (see 
 Fig. 25) a plateau is shown running, in this case, from the 
 
 TABLE 25. PERCENTAGE ERROR. 
 
 Day. 
 
 B. H B. 
 
 T. E. Z. 
 
 B.P. 
 
 B.J. 
 
 A.R. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Average. 
 
 1 
 
 7-8 
 
 1-7 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 5-8 
 
 24-3 
 
 4-9 
 
 2 
 
 8-0 
 
 0-5 
 
 3-7 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-5 
 
 18-9 
 
 3-8 
 
 3 
 
 2-9 
 
 1-0 
 
 3-6 
 
 1-9 
 
 2-1 
 
 11-5 
 
 2-3 
 
 4 
 
 3-7 
 
 1-0 
 
 3-3 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-1 
 
 12-7 
 
 2-5 
 
 5 
 
 3-1 
 
 0-4 
 
 2-4 
 
 2-3 
 
 2-5 
 
 10-7 
 
 2-1 
 
 6 
 
 3-7 
 
 0-4 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-6 
 
 2-9 
 
 10-6 
 
 2-1 
 
 7 
 
 2-5 
 
 0-4 
 
 4-9 
 
 1-9 
 
 1-8 
 
 11-5 
 
 2-3 
 
 8 
 
 2-2 
 
 0-5 
 
 2-1 
 
 2-3 
 
 1-8 
 
 8-9 
 
 1-8 
 
 9 
 
 2-9 
 
 0-5 
 
 1-7 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-2 
 
 8-4 
 
 1-7 
 
 10 
 
 2-2 
 
 0-5 
 
 2-3 
 
 2-2 
 
 1-4 
 
 8-6 
 
 1-7 
 
 11 
 
 1-4 
 
 0-5 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-8 
 
 1-2 
 
 6-4 
 
 1-3 
 
 12 
 
 2-3 
 
 0-6 
 
 2-5 
 
 2-7 
 
 0-8 
 
 8-9 
 
 1-8 
 
 13 
 
 3-8 
 
 0-5 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-4 
 
 0-8 
 
 10-1 
 
 2-0 
 
 14 
 
 2-9 
 
 0-5 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-1 
 
 8-0 
 
 1-6 
 
 15 
 
 3-7 
 
 0-5 
 
 3-2 
 
 2-3 
 
 1*3 
 
 11-0 
 
 2-2 
 
 16 
 
 2-6 
 
 0-5 
 
 2-3 
 
 3-1 
 
 1-0 
 
 9-5 
 
 1-9 
 
 17 
 
 2-7 
 
 0-3 
 
 1-6 
 
 2-7 
 
 0-9 
 
 8-2 
 
 1-6 
 
 18 
 
 3-3 
 
 1-0 
 
 1-3 
 
 2-5 
 
 1-1 
 
 9-2 
 
 1-8 
 
 19 
 
 3-7 
 
 0-6 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-2 
 
 1-0 
 
 9-7 
 
 1-9 
 
 20 
 
 2-7 
 
 0-8 
 
 1-6 
 
 2-5 
 
 0-9 
 
 8-5 
 
 1-7 
 
 21 
 
 3-3 
 
 0-9 
 
 2-3 
 
 1-6 
 
 1-2 
 
 9-3 
 
 1-9 
 
 22 
 
 2-6 
 
 0-7 
 
 1-6 
 
 1-5 - 
 
 0-7 
 
 7-1 
 
 1-4 
 
 23 
 
 2-4 
 
 0-7 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-9 
 
 1-1 
 
 8-1 
 
 1-6 
 
 24 
 
 2-2 
 
 0-9 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-8 
 
 1-1 
 
 8-1 
 
 1-6 
 
 25 
 
 1-9 
 
 1-2 
 
 2-6 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-3 
 
 9-1 
 
 1-8 
 
 26 
 
 1-8 
 
 0-3 
 
 2-7 
 
 2-6 
 
 1-0 
 
 8-4 
 
 1-8 
 
 27 
 
 2-0 
 
 0-5 
 
 3-1 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-0 
 
 8-7 
 
 1-7 
 
 28 
 
 2-4 
 
 0-5 
 
 2-4 
 
 2-2 
 
 0-5 
 
 8-0 
 
 1-6 
 
 29 
 
 2-6 
 
 0-5 
 
 2-7 
 
 2-7 
 
 1-0 
 
 9-5 
 
 1-9 
 
 30 
 
 1-6 
 
 0-7 
 
 2-7 
 
 2-4 
 
 
 7-4 
 
 1-9 
 
 llth to the 19th day. The plateau is followed by a rapid 
 rise, and that the greater freedom is realised, is shown by 
 the introspections. E. R. T. says after the 24th day : 
 " the typing offered no difficulties"; A. R. on the 22nd 
 day " my speed went up and I think my mistakes are 
 fewer " ; B. P., on the 24th day " commenced with a 
 feeling of certainty and proceeded rapidly."
 
 158 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 "Words Typed 
 
 d- 
 
 Wordc 
 
 Error** 
 
 64- 
 
 3- 1 
 
 9^0 
 
 1-9 
 
 '099 
 
 \jr 
 
 (/ XI 
 
 i- 1 
 
 1177 
 
 1-9 
 
 1348 
 
 1. 
 
 13.96 
 
 !<} 
 
 1166 
 
 0- 8 
 
 1 + 31 
 
 MB 
 
 1378 
 
 1 
 
 1532 
 
 i-a 
 
 1441 
 
 1-8 
 
 1673 
 
 1-6 
 
 \bSf 
 
 1-0 
 
 Ifo7 
 
 1-4 
 
 15-as 
 
 1-6 
 
 1408 
 
 16 
 
 1676 
 
 3 
 
 1631 
 
 1-3 
 
 Ib7* 
 
 1-3 
 
 IS"! 1 
 
 1-5- 
 
 1787 
 
 1-9 
 
 1625 
 
 1-4 
 
 l49 
 
 I-O 
 
 1906 
 
 0-9 
 
 igoa 
 
 1-4 
 
 194-0 
 
 1-6 
 
 2.019 
 
 1-7 
 
 2060 
 
 t-5- 
 
 1774 
 
 C6 
 
 FIQ. !26. Type -writing practice curve of re-learning (one subject).
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 159 
 
 A second, third or fourth plateau may be observed 
 before the physiological limit of speed is reached. There 
 is, as it were, a series of perchings and flyings, and in the 
 flyings the economic law of " diminishing returns " does 
 not seem to hold very firmly. 
 
 These plateaus, as Swift l has shown, are found in the 
 learning of foreign languages, in learning to juggle, skate, 
 and swim, and, in fact, in learning anything that takes a 
 considerable amount of time. But perseverance during the 
 time of a plateau invariably brings its own reward. Even 
 in such highly complex things as the development of 
 appreciation and execution in Art, periods corresponding 
 to plateaus are found, but they are separated by years, 
 not by weeks or months. According to Stanley -Hall, 2 
 drawing of the scribble stage is succeeded by one in which 
 the crude drawing is backed by imagination into something 
 it certainly does not represent. This is the golden age for 
 drawing. But at 8 or 9 the child awakens to the realisation 
 that he cannot draw, and from then on, although perceptive 
 powers increase, very little progress is made. If, however, 
 technique is emphasised and properly taught, interest is 
 re-awakened. Meanwhile power to appreciate steadily 
 increases and so, with our present unsatisfactory methods 
 of Art Teaching, we are a nation of consumers or appreciators 
 rather than creators or producers of Art. 
 
 Why should plateaus occur ? Physiologically, as we 
 have seen, the learning of skills is nothing more nor less 
 than the breaking down of the resistances at the synapses 
 and the connecting up of steadily developing neurones 
 into series of most complicated order. There is, then, 
 apparently no physiological reason why the practice curve 
 should not be as smooth as the " pressure- volume " curve of 
 a gas. The writer is of opinion that interest and its 
 obverse, boredom, are the most important of the factors 
 which determine the shape of the curve. When a plateau is 
 reached the zest of early attempts has begun to fade, and 
 unless other interests are awakened the plateau persists for 
 a long time. It is at such stages as these that the skilful 
 teacher puts forward new incentives. Another factor is 
 
 1 Swift : Studies in the Psychology and Physiology of Learning ; 
 Amer. Jour. Pay., XIV., pp. 201-251. 
 
 Swift : Mind in the Making ; Chap. VI., 1908. 
 1 Adolescence, I., 184.
 
 160 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 fatigue. This, however, seldom complicates seriously the 
 learning of a dexterity in school. " Willing," the setting 
 of the teeth and determining to succeed, must also com- 
 plicate the problem. But this brings its reward in a newly 
 acquired interest. Lastly, individual differences of endow- 
 ment and of education play their part. The motor systems 
 of T. E. K. (see earlier) are certainly more efficient than 
 those of other beginners. The problem of method in 
 teaching skills and dexterities is how to reduce the plateau 
 period to a minimum and how to awaken interest by 
 changes of method, or other means. 
 
 Thorndike l has shown that the description of the 
 practice curve for skills as given above holds also in the 
 case of purely intellectual operations. A number of his 
 students were set 96 examples to multiply three-figure 
 numbers by three-figure numbers (excluding O's, 1's and 2's) 
 " in their heads." The two factors were memorised and 
 pen was not put to paper until the answer was written 
 down. The times taken for each product were noted. The 
 curve was steep at first and the physiological limit of the 
 time taken to do an example was found to be exceedingly 
 low. 
 
 It has been shown experimentally that practice dispels 
 the effect of the Miiller-Lyer illusion. The reason seems 
 
 to be that the feature to be judged, in this case the length 
 of the line, is gradually isolated. Practice also increases 
 the speed of reaction-time, although the fairly steady 
 physiological limit is soon reached. Stratton 2 by wearing 
 for a week an apparatus which gave an upright, non- 
 inverted image on the retina, showed that practice easily 
 overcame such a distraction as this. Difficulties of adjust- 
 ment again arose when the apparatus was removed but were 
 again as easily conquered. These experiments show the 
 exquisite adaptability of the nervous system by means of 
 practice. 
 
 1 Thorndike : Effect of Practice in the case of a purely intellectual 
 function ; Amer. Jour. Pay., July, 1908. 
 
 * Vision without inversion of tlie, retinal image ; Pay. Rev., 1897, 
 IV., 341, 363.
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 161 
 
 FATIGUE. 
 
 The problem of Fatigue is all-important to educators, 
 yet there is no subject of investigation which has led to 
 such inconsistent and often diametrically opposed results. 
 Part of the difficulty is due to defective terminology. 
 Some writers have used fatigue as synonymous with bore- 
 dom, lassitude, lack of desire for, or aversion to work, 
 whereas it ought to be rigidly reserved to the fact of incom- 
 petency or inability to do work. Again experimenters 
 upon the subject have often measured willingness rather 
 than ability to do work and have neglected the factor of 
 emotional excitement. 1 
 
 Mental and Physical Fatigue. These two forms of 
 fatigue, while distinct in origin, are closely associated, for 
 it is apparently impossible to experience either one or the 
 other in a pure form ; they pass over one into the other 
 and it is difficult to isolate them. Thus a long and tiring 
 tramp causes bodily fatigue, but with the onset of bodily 
 fatigue the intellect becomes duller ; bodily or physical 
 fatigue has passed over into mental or intellectual 
 fatigue. On the other hand, a steady " grind " at some 
 intellectual task is not the best preparation for excessive 
 physical exercise, although it should be noted that it takes 
 a longer time for the effects of prolonged exercise of the 
 nervous system to pass over to the muscles than it does for 
 the effects of vigorous physical exercise to pass over to the 
 nerves. 
 
 Causes of Fatigue. There are three main causes of 
 fatigue : (1) The destruction of the energy -producing com- 
 pounds in the body, .especially in muscle fibres and in the 
 cell-bodies of neurones. The nutriment of the body, 
 which is absorbed by the blood, is carried by this medium 
 to all parts of the body and is utilised for building up 
 bodily tissue and for providing a store of energy in the form 
 of highly complex, easily decomposable chemical com- 
 pounds in the katabolic cells of the body. Thus muscle 
 fibres are stored with such energy -producing compounds. 
 When a nervous discharge passes into the muscle these 
 compounds at once break up and it is this rapid decom- 
 position which causes the contraction to take place. In 
 
 1 See Thorndike : Mental Fatigue ; in Psy. Rev., VII., 1900, 
 466-482, 547-579 ; and in Jour, of Edcl. Psy., II., 1911, 61-80, 
 
 I,
 
 162 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 the same way a cell-body of a neurone contains the means 
 of producing the energy of the nervous impulse. If the 
 stimulation of the muscle or neurone is prolonged, a stage 
 is reached when all, or practically all, of the energy -produc- 
 ing compounds have been used up. A state of fatigue 
 is then reached and the parts affected will not function 
 until rest has allowed more of these compounds to be pro- 
 duced and to accumulate. The exact chemical composition 
 of the compounds is as yet unknown. They are, however, 
 exceedingly complex and they decompose with what might 
 almost be termed explosive violence. 
 
 (2) The presence of toxins or waste products. When a 
 muscle is exercised waste products or toxins are formed. 
 These toxins are poisonous and their presence in the body 
 in quantity causes the symptoms of fatigue. Elimination 
 of fatigue-substances from the body is primarily effected 
 by means of the circulation of blood and lymph and second- 
 arily by means of the kidneys, skin and lungs. That these 
 toxins alone can produce fatigue was proved by Mosso l 
 who injected into the blood of a non-fatigued (fresh) dog, 
 the blood of one which had been excessively fatigued by 
 electrical stimulation, when all the symptoms of fatigue 
 were immediately produced. The chief fatigue substances 
 are sarcolactic acid, C 3 H 3 3 ; mono -potassium phosphate, 
 KH 2 P0 4 ; and carbon-dioxide, C0 2 . Injection of solutions 
 of sarcolactic acid and acid-potassium phosphate produce 
 similar fatigue results. On the other hand the flushing 
 of a fatigued frog's body or the washing away of the fatigue 
 products from an extirpated and fatigued muscle causes 
 excitability to return. There are undoubtedly toxins 
 from the action of neurones but these have not been isolated. 
 Nerve substance also recovers so rapidly that it is apparently 
 impossible to fatigue it. On the other hand Sherrington 
 seems to think that the increase of resistance at the synapses, 
 due to an accumulation of waste products of neurone 
 activity, is the primary origin of all the phenomena of 
 fatigue. 
 
 (3) Lack of oxygen. The decomposition of the energy 
 producing compounds of the body probably cannot take 
 place without the assistance of oxygen from the red 
 corpuscles of the blood. The removal of the fatigue is 
 certainly accomplished in part by oxidation. Hence any 
 
 1 Mosso: Lafatica; 1891, p. 119.
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 163 
 
 impairment of the oxygen supply, or what comes to the 
 same thing, any increase in the amount of substances 
 needing oxidation leads to fatigue. The primary pheno- 
 mena of muscular exercise, namely a quickening of respira- 
 tion and an acceleration of the heart-beat, are probably 
 due to the body's increased need of oxygen. But this 
 third cause of fatigue is not so important as the other two 
 and is probably a resultant of them. 
 
 Remedy for Fatigue. Nature's remedy is rest and sleep. 
 By this means opportunity for the building up of a fresh 
 supply of energy-producing compounds, and the elimination 
 of waste products by oxidation and otherwise, is provided. 
 But if the fatigue is of a localised mental kind, such as 
 is normally produced by school tasks, the remedy is 
 substitution of another activity. Fatigue causes the 
 inattention so often observable in school-rooms. In- 
 attention is the child's way of making a recovery from 
 fatigue. 
 
 The Measurement of Fatigue. Thorndike, 1 criticising 
 the use of physical fatigue as a measure of mental fatigue, 
 states that it supposes the amounts of physical work 
 (1) are functions of the central nervous system ; (2) are 
 dependent on such general factors as are at play in mental 
 work and mental fatigue. Therefore (3) we may measure 
 mental inability by physical inability. The first is not 
 proved definitely. The second is mere assumption. The 
 third is an hypothesis to be proved. Ellis and Shipe* 
 object to the application of any of the known tests and 
 measures of fatigue to pedagogic and other problems, until 
 more is known about the reliability of such tests. They 
 even go so far as to say that all the present tests and the 
 results obtained from them should be done away with and a 
 fresh start made. " When it is recognised that fatigue is 
 itself not the simple matter it has been considered and that 
 the attitude of the subject towards the test largely deter- 
 mines the result, it will be readily recognised that the 
 search for a single, simple, accurate test of fatigue which 
 can be employed at any time with any number of pupils 
 by a half -trained teacher is a vain quest." 
 
 1 Op. eit. Part IV. 
 
 1 A study of the present methods of testing fatigue ; Amer. Jour. Psy., 
 1903, pp. 509 if.
 
 164 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 These facts must be borne in mind in considering the 
 following summary of the various methods which have 
 been used. 1 
 
 1. The aesthesiometer. The use of this instrument 
 depends on the fact that the skin becomes less sensitive to 
 pressure when the body is fatigued. Consequently the 
 determination of the least distance at which the two points 
 (blunt compass points form a simple aesthesiometer) can 
 be correctly distinguished has sometimes been taken as a 
 measure of fatigue. The difficulties of avoiding varying 
 pressures and of applying the two points simultaneously 
 militate greatly against its general use. 
 
 2. The ergograph. This instrument was invented by 
 Mosso. It is an instrument for automatically recording 
 on a revolving drum the motions made by the flexions of a 
 finger in successively raising a given weight when all other 
 parts of the arm are firmly fixed to a table. The weight is 
 suspended by a string (which has a loop for the finger) run- 
 ning over a frictionless pulley. The objection to the method 
 is that a person when beginning to fatigue may, by sheer 
 will-power, put on a spurt which greatly affects the result. 
 
 3. The dynamometer. The use of this instrument as a 
 measure of fatigue presupposes that muscular activity can 
 be used as a measure of mental activity. The dynamo- 
 meter measures the strength of grip in kilograms. Mental 
 fatigue is supposed to decrease the strength of the grip. 
 The instrument has been widely used because of the 
 simplicity of its handling. 
 
 4. The algesimeter. This instrument measures the sensi- 
 tivity to pain. A blunt point is pressed into some part of 
 the skin and the pressure needed to give pain is recorded. 
 Most experimenters think that sensitivity to pain increases 
 with fatigue ; Binet found it to be less. The question is 
 not yet satisfactorily settled. 
 
 5. The kinematometer . The kinematometer is a move- 
 ment measurer. With the elbow as a centre, arcs of circles 
 are swung and the normal swing fixed by stops. After a 
 few moves, one of the stops is removed and the subject 
 makes a movement which feels as big as the normal one. 
 
 1 For details and classifications consult Offner : Mental Fatigue : 
 trans, by G. M. Whipple, 1911, and Claparede : Experimental 
 Pedagogy, trans, by Louch and Holman, 1911. These two books 
 give the best up-to-date accounts of the work done on Fatigue.
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 165 
 
 The error is recorded. Larger errors are made when the 
 subject is fatigued. 
 
 6. The tapping method. The subject taps for a brief 
 space of time as quickly as possible. The number of taps 
 is smaller when the subject is fatigued. If the tapping is 
 carried on for a considerable period a fatigue curve may be 
 made out. 
 
 7. 'Reaction time. The time taken to react to a signal 
 (for example to lift the finger from a pressed telegraph key) 
 is longer when fatigue is present. 
 
 8. The Rhythm method. The subject is asked to beat 
 upon a telegraph key some rhythm such as three or four 
 beat-measures, and the time taken is recorded on a revolving 
 drum. Since each person has his own individual tempo 
 and fatigue causes it to slow down, the method may be used 
 as a measure of fatigue. 
 
 9. Respiration and Pulse variations. Both rate of 
 respiration and rate of heart beat are diminished by fatigue, 
 but it has yet to be proved that a relationship exists between 
 them. 
 
 10. Eye accommodation. During fatigue the range of 
 accommodation the distance between the far and near 
 points of the eye is increased and consequently its measure- 
 ment affords a method of testing fatigue. 
 
 1 1 . Dictations. With the increase of fatigue the number of 
 words mis-spelled in a piece of dictation, apart from those 
 due to ignorance, increases. This method has been used 
 as a test of fatigue but it is difficult to get tests of uniform 
 difficulty. The method has historical interest since it was 
 the first method employed to test fatigue (Sikorski, 1879). 
 
 12. Calculations. The ability to do arithmetical computa- 
 tions quickly and accurately is said to decrease as fatigue 
 increases. 
 
 13. Counting letters. Given letters, say a's and e's, are 
 struck out from a page of print. Fatigue diminishes the 
 number so marked. 
 
 14. Memorising. Immediate memory is tested by means 
 of a series of numbers which are exposed for a short time. 
 The less the fatigue the better is the memory. 
 
 15. The Completion method. Prose passages, which are 
 incomplete through the omission of certain words, have to 
 be filled in by the subject. The missing words are difficult 
 to find if he is fatigued.
 
 166 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Other methods. Persistence of visual sensations, hitting 
 at moving dots (McDougall), steadiness, copying, cancella- 
 tion, attention waves (Pillsbury) and the method of con- 
 tinuous work have all been suggested and used as tests of 
 fatigue. 
 
 The Fatigue Curve. A better name for the curve would 
 be the curve of work. This illustrates the manner in 
 which fatigue develops. According to Offner x there are 
 well-defined phases in the development of fatigue. In 
 the first place there is a warming up period when the work 
 shows improvement both in quality and quantity. During 
 the second stage the quantity still increases but the quality, 
 as measured by the number of mistakes made, shows a 
 deterioration. In the third stage the quantity shows a 
 gradual decrease. In the fourth stage the rate of decrease 
 is either hastened, or, through a " fatigue intoxication," 
 is spasmodically increased. Both types of fourth stage 
 fatigue are followed by exhaustion and break-down. There 
 are, however, important individual differences in the fatigue- 
 curves of individuals. There are also rhythms in fatigue. 
 
 Factors influencing the fatigue curve are age, sex, the 
 type of work performed, the time of day, meteorological 
 conditions, and degree of nutrition of the body. 
 
 Thorndike seems to think that pupils can work at any 
 time of the day as well as at any other, but that they do 
 not necessarily do so. As work progresses boredom or 
 repugnance increases, the remedy for which is to make it 
 worth while for the pupil to work during periods of the day. 
 He supports his argument by morning and evening experi- 
 ments on children in the schools of Cleveland and Scranton. 
 Woodworth's experiments on himself, whereby a series of 
 activities along special lines were continued for excessively 
 long periods, are also mentioned. These activities were 8 
 hours marking words containing a and t ; 4 hours memoris- 
 ing numbers ; 3 hours estimating the areas of small paral- 
 lelograms, correcting examination papers, and compiling 
 bibliographies . No appreciable decrease of ability was found . 
 
 Nevertheless the feeling of boredom is a very real thing 
 and it is probably Nature's way of warning us that a rest 
 is necessary. The following curve of freshness for the day, 
 the opposite of fatigue, which shows the average of the 
 introspections of 50 of my students, is a slight contribution 
 1 Offner : Mental Fatigue ; pp. 74-77.
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 167 
 
 to the subject under discussion. Two maximum periods 
 of ability to work are shown. The extreme ends of the 
 curve are not to be judged too seriously as they are due 
 to a few freak cases. 
 
 CURVE OF FfcSHNESS(Anti-fttueJ 
 Average of SO cases 
 
 ix 1 4- 6 9 'O iX 0. 4. 6 8 'O ia 
 
 MidnisKc Noon "Midniahc 
 
 H.OUR5 =^- 
 
 Fio. 27. Curve of Freshness : average for fifty students. 
 
 School-work and Fatigue. Certain school subjects pro- 
 duce fatigue sooner than others and various attempts have 
 been made by German psychologists to determine the 
 fatigue-coefficients of the different branches of the curri- 
 culum. Wagner, using the aesthesiometer, found in the 
 Gymnasium of Darmstadt 1 that the subjects could be 
 arranged according to difficulty as follows : 
 
 Mathematics (the standard) - 100 
 
 Latin ... 91 
 
 Greek 90 
 
 Gymnastics 90 
 
 History and Geography - 85 
 French and German 
 
 Natural History 80 
 
 Drawing and Religion 77 
 
 His results differ slightly from those of Kemsies (dynamo- 
 meter), who found that gymnastics was the most fatiguing 
 type of school work. 
 
 1 Unterricht und Erm&dung, Berlin, 198, p. 131.
 
 168 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Other problems which have been investigated, but up 
 to the present with unsatisfactory results, are (1) the 
 fatigue-coefficients of different teachers, and (2) the fatigue- 
 coefficients of different methods of teaching. 
 
 Practice and Fatigue. It will have been gathered from 
 the previous discussion that practice and fatigue are 
 opposed and tend to cancel each other. In the practice- 
 curve we do not measure the true increase of efficiency due 
 to practice, but such increase minus an amount due to 
 fatigue. In a similar way in the fatigue-curve we do not 
 measure results due solely to fatigue, but amounts due to 
 fatigue, plus an amount due to the familiarisation of 
 practice. How to increase the effects of practice and 
 minimise the effects of fatigue is a standing problem of 
 method in teaching. 
 
 METHODS OF LEARNING. 
 
 1. Learning by Selection of Successful Variations. This 
 method is popularly termed the " hit and miss " or the 
 "trial and error ", method. It consists of the selection 
 out of a number of more or less random movements, of 
 certain successful ones and the rejection of all others. 
 Successful actions are those which bring pleasure by 
 leading on to a desired goal. The method is seen in its 
 simplest form when cats, dogs, monkeys and other animals 
 learn to get into or escape from a specially constructed 
 box to obtain food. The time curve generally shows a 
 gradual descent. Even in those cases where the animals 
 (as in the case of Wood worth's chimpanzee) learn almost 
 immediately, there is certainly no reasoning about the 
 matter. If there were, then two bolts would be no more a 
 hindrance than one. The more varied the reaction of an 
 animal in a given situation and the greater the appreciation 
 of success, the sooner does this method lead to success. 
 
 This method, in a more refined way, plays a great part 
 in human learning. Most of the habits of young children 
 are learnt almost exclusively by this method, and that it 
 does not always disappear with age is shown by the way 
 we attack mechanical puzzles and jig-saw problems. Other 
 elements are of course present and complicate matters, 
 but there is a fair proportion of blind hit and miss about 
 most of the habits we learn. The greater variation of
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 169 
 
 reactions to a single stimulus is at bottom the basis of the 
 educability of human beings by this method. 
 
 2. Learning by Imitation. The Earl, in " The Admirable 
 Crichton," when stranded on the desert island, was pro- 
 foundly grieved when his belief in the imitativeness of 
 monkeys received such great shocks. Experimental evi- 
 dence (Thorndike, Kiniiaman and Hobhouse) confirms 
 Barrie's statement. Yet imitation in children is notorious, 
 and is one of the chief methods of learning. Much of the 
 learning is by unconscious imitation ; a much smaller part 
 than is generally supposed is played by direct or conscious 
 imitation. Further, children imitate actions the descrip- 
 tion of an action, owing to lack of command over language 
 and of a store of knowledge from which to draw, is seldom 
 effective as a means of arousing imitative actions. 
 
 3. Learning by Ideas. All our higher or more complicated 
 knowledge is acquired through the medium of ideas. The 
 solving of mathematical problems and the thinking out of 
 the political bearings of Acts of Parliament are performed 
 by the use of ideas. There is, however, less thinking out of 
 problems to ultimate conclusions than is generally supposed. 
 The method of learning by ideas overlaps in bewildering 
 fashion the other main method of learning. It is also 
 bound up with the greater powers of association, analysis, 
 and discrimination which man possesses. Locks and 
 combinations of fastenings which completely defy monkeys, 
 cats and dogs, are easily overcome by man because the 
 situations receive a more complete analysis. The analysis 
 of more complex situations, such as are met with in mecha- 
 nical puzzles or problems of geometry, sometimes proves 
 too difficult, and recourse to more elementary methods 
 of learning is made. The first act of thinking, which is a 
 method of learning by ideas, is the recognition and segrega- 
 tion of the problem in hand. Intellectual power is based 
 upon this fundamental property of mind. 
 
 GROWTH OF MOTOR POWER AND CONTROL IN 
 CHILDREN. 
 
 A child at birth has practically no control over any of 
 his muscles except those connected with grasping and 
 sucking. As time passes both power and control develop. 
 This development is due to an increase of size and efficiency
 
 170 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 of the muscles and to the co-ordination of neurones of the 
 nervous system with which they are connected. 
 
 In general, the more fundamental muscles develop first, 
 the accessory ones later. Stating it in the form of a law we 
 may say that " the wave of development proceeds outwards 
 towards the extremities," that is, the coarser muscles of 
 the body, arms and legs develop earlier than the finer ones. 
 The muscles of the shoulder and the upper arm become 
 functionally active before those of the lower arm, wrist 
 and hand. This is not strictly true, for the accessory 
 muscles of the hand and feet which enable a child to grasp 
 are, as we have seen, functionally active soon after birth. 
 But in the main the generalisation is correct. 
 
 Motor power is complex : it may refer to voluntary 
 control, the rate of movement, the variety of movement 
 and the actual strength of the muscles. 
 
 Experiments. W. L. Bryan 1 worked out the develop- 
 ment of the rate of tapping of the shoulder, elbow, wrist 
 and finger for 789 school children between the ages of 6 and 
 16 years. The arrangements of the arm for tapping were 
 (1) For shoulder. The forearm was at right angles to the 
 upper arm ; the elbow was placed over the tapping key 
 and the swing was in a vertical plane. (2) Elbow. Elbow 
 rested on the table ; the forearm was at right angles to 
 upper arm ; the key was struck by the ventral side of 
 forearm just back of the wrist. (3) Wrist. Elbow rested 
 on the table ; the forearm was clamped just above the 
 wrist and the key was struck with the palm of the hand. 
 (4) Finger. The metacarpo-phalangeal joint of the fore- 
 finger was used ; the palm was held with moderate firmness 
 at 135 to the forearm. 
 
 Between the ages of 6 and 16 years the following total 
 increases of x taps in 5" were observed : 
 
 
 Finger. 
 
 Wrist. 
 
 Elbow. 
 
 Shoulder. 
 
 Boy's right, 
 -'- left, 
 
 14-4 
 12-7 
 
 12-9 
 13-3 
 
 9-2 
 10-3 
 
 8-9 
 8-4 
 
 Girl's right, 
 
 11-5 
 
 8-5* 
 
 7-4* 
 
 80 
 
 left, 
 
 10-6 
 
 10-6 
 
 8-5* 
 
 8-3 
 
 * Higher at 13 than at 16. 
 
 1 On the development of voluntary Motor Ability ; Amer. Jour. 
 Psy., V., pp. 125-204.
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 
 
 171 
 
 The results show that the finger improves most and it is 
 followed by the wrist, elbow and shoulder in the order 
 named. The wave, therefore, passes outward, for that 
 which improves most must have been least developed at 
 the beginning. The right hand shows greater development 
 than the left, and boys show more than girls. 
 
 Bolton x found that brighter children increase in motor 
 power with advancing age. So also do backward children, 
 but the improvement is not so great. Lack of mental 
 alertness is accompanied by a deficiency in motor power. 
 " There is greater rapidity of motion, increased steadiness 
 and nicer precision, the older the children grow." 
 
 The following table by Hastings 2 shows the development 
 of strength of the arms of children (5,576 cases) between the 
 ages of 5 and 16 : 
 
 TABLE 26. 
 
 Age. 
 
 1 
 
 Strength of 
 Forearm, 
 r. kilos. 
 
 Strength of 
 Forearm, 
 
 1. kilos. 
 
 5 
 
 4-89 
 
 4-72 
 
 6 
 
 6-98 
 
 5-70 
 
 7 
 
 9-18 
 
 853 
 
 8 
 
 10-63 
 
 9-53 
 
 9 
 
 13-14 
 
 11-77 
 
 10 
 
 14-74 
 
 14-06 
 
 11 
 
 18-02 
 
 16-11 
 
 12 
 
 19-68 
 
 18-44 
 
 13 
 
 22-59 
 
 20-49 
 
 14 
 
 25-37 
 
 23-05 
 
 15 
 
 28-85 
 
 24-68 
 
 16 
 
 33-31 
 
 29-64 
 
 The facts brought out by these and similar experiments 
 indicate the necessity for framing school tasks commensu- 
 rate with the developing motor power and control of the 
 scholars. To give children of the lower standards fine 
 sewing and delicate tasks of manipulation to do, is not only 
 
 1 The relation of motor power to intelligence ; Amer. Jour. Pay., XIV., 
 pp. 615-631. 
 
 Quoted by Stanley Hall : Adolescence, I., p. 135, in a valuable 
 chapter on " Growth of Motor Power and Function."
 
 172 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 wasteful but in the light of recent research, almost criminal. 
 We must await the optimal times of development and then 
 strike hard, " while the iron is hot." 
 
 References. Andrews : Habit ; Amer. Jour, of Psy., 
 Vol. XIV., pp. 121-149. Angell and Coover : General 
 Practice Effect of Special Exercise ; Amer. Jour. Psy., July, 
 1907. Bagley : The Psychology of School Practice ; Psy. 
 Bull., March, 1909. Bair : The Practice Curve ; Psy. Rev. 
 Mon. Suppl., No. 10 (1902), pp. 1-70. Bawdon : Study 
 of Lapses; Psy. Rev.- Mon. Suppl., Vol. III., No. 4, pp. 
 1-122. Bryan and Harter : Studies in the Telegraphic 
 Language ; Psy. Rev., Vol. VI. (1899). Bolton : Relation 
 of Motor Power to Intelligence ; Amer. Jour, of Psy., Vol. 
 XIV., pp. 622-631. Claparede : Experimental Pedagogy. 
 Cole : Concerning the Intelligence of Raccoons ; Jour, of 
 Compar. Neurol. and Psy., Vol. XVII., pp. 211-261. 
 Cormnan : Spelling in the Elementary School. Drummond : 
 The Child ; Chap. XI. Findlay : Principles of Class 
 Teaching ; Chap. XIV. Groos : The Play of Animals. 
 Hall : Adolescence ; Chap. III. Heck : Mental Discipline ; 
 Chap, on Experiment. James : Principles of Psychology. 
 Judd : Genetic Psychology ; p. 161. Kirkpatrick : Funda- 
 mentals of Child Study ; Chaps. V. and XVII. Ladd and 
 Wood worth : Elements of Physiological Psychology ; Chaps. 
 VII. and VIII. McDougall : Physiological Psychology ; 
 Chaps. II. and VIII. Mumford : Dawn of Character ; 
 Chaps. V., VI. and appendix. Myers : Experimental 
 Psychology ; Chaps. III. and VI. Offner : Mental Fatigue ; 
 tr. Whipple (contains an excellent Bibliography). Rowe : 
 Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching (contains an 
 annotated Bibliography). Stout : Manual of Psychology ; 
 pp. 284-287. Swift : Mind in the Making ; Chap. VI. 
 Thorndike : Effect of Practice in a case of a Purely Intellectual 
 Function ; Amer. Jour, of Psy., July, 1908. Thorndike : 
 Elements of Psychology. Thorndike : Mental Fatigue ; Psy. 
 Rev., VII., 6. Thorndike : Principles of Class Teaching ; 
 Chaps. VII. and VIII. Thorndike : Notes on Child Study ; 
 Chap. VI. Thorndike : Human Nature Club ; Chap. III. 
 Thorndike : Animal Intelligence. Titchener : Primer of 
 Psychology ; Chap. IX. Wimms : The Relative Effects of 
 Fatigue and Practice produced by different Kinds of Mental 
 Work ; Brit. Jour, of Psy., 1907. Woodworth : Accuracy
 
 HABIT AND RELATED TOPICS 173 
 
 of Voluntary Movement ; Psy. Rev. Mon. Suppl., Vol III., 
 No. 13, 1899, pp. 1-114. Welton : Psychology of Education ; 
 Chaps. IX. and X. Whipple : Manual of Mental and 
 Physical Tests. Yerkes : The Dancing Mouse. Yerkes 
 and Huggins : Habit-Formation in the Crayfish : Psy. Rev. 
 Mon. Suppl., Vol. IV., pp. 565-577.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 ASSOCIATION. 
 
 I TELL the students of my class to write down whatever 
 thoughts come " into their heads " in consequence of my 
 pronouncing a certain word. I then say " blue " and 
 await results. One of them, I find, immediately thinks 
 of the blue sky ; then of the blue sea ; of Blackpool ; and 
 of a holiday spent there. A second thinks of a blue dress, 
 of a concert where the blue dress was worn, of violin playing, 
 of music as a form of art ; of paintings ; of Rembrandt ; 
 of Holland ; of Denmark ; and of butter making. All 
 agree that the ideas come so quickly that they are unable 
 to record them all, but they also find that " one idea suggests! 
 another," that a certain relationship between the most 
 diverse of topics is discoverable. This observable relation- 
 ship between the contents of consciousness is called asso- 
 ciation. Formerly the term " association of ideas " was 
 given to it, but James pointed out that it is things, not 
 ideas, which are associated in the mind. If under " things " 
 we include sense-qualities as well as concrete objects, the 
 statement is fairly true to facts. 
 
 Herbartian Explanation of Association. To Herbart and 
 his disciples we must give credit for first announcing 
 a consistent explanation of the phenomena of association 
 and applying it to school-room procedure. 1 According 
 to them ideas exist as separate entities and are dynamic 
 in character. Consciousness is imagined as a sort of 
 beehive-shaped dome in which ideas move about with 
 great freedom. The ideas which reach the summit of the 
 dome are in the focus of consciousness while others within 
 the dome form the margin of consciousness. The bulk 
 
 1 Adams : The Herbartian Psychology applied to Education ; 1898. 
 One of the few really humoroua treatises on Education.
 
 ASSOCIATION 175 
 
 of the ideas, are, however, beneath the floor of the dome or, 
 as they describe it, beneath the threshold of consciousness. 
 A continuous interchange takes- place between ideas above 
 and below the threshold, and between those in the focus 
 and those in the margin of consciousness. Similar ideas 
 may fuse together and form groups known as apperception- 
 masses. The bigger the group, the greater is its chance 
 of rising above the threshold and of reaching the summit 
 of the dome. A single unconnected idea seldom reaches 
 the focus. The one factor which enables it to survive is 
 its fusion with some other idea or group of ideas already 
 existing in the mind. But it probably remains for ever 
 beneath the threshold unless it has friendly ideas at court. 
 
 The explanation is extremely suggestive and has been 
 very fruitful in practice. It explains why we must fuse 
 new knowledge on to old ; and why everything new must 
 be learnt in terms of the old. But it is false in its funda- 
 mental assumptions. Ideas are neither dynamic nor are 
 they capable of a separate existence. 
 
 Physical Basis of Association. The explanation of asso- 
 ciation must be sought in the structure and properties 
 of the neurones composing the nervous system. That this 
 is so, is recognised by metaphysical psychologists such as 
 Stout, who says " Association is an acquired psychophysical 
 connection between psychophysical dispositions or between 
 a psychophysical disposition and a purely physiological 
 arrangement. This second alternative is very important. 
 It includes all cases of what may be called ' motor associa- 
 tion.' The sight of a word may prompt me to pronounce 
 it, as in reading aloud. This is due to a previously acquired 
 connection between the psychophysical disposition excited 
 by the sight of the word and the special nervous and 
 muscular arrangements for producing the movements of 
 articulation. Motor associations are, as we shall see, of 
 immense importance in our mental life especially at the 
 perceptual level. Learning to walk, to shoot, to fence, in 
 general the acquirement of bodily aptitudes and dexterities, 
 depends on the forming of appropriate motor associations." l 
 
 But why, and in what manner, does the neurone system 
 
 involved hi the visual perception of a man become connected 
 
 with the neurone system employed in hearing his name ? 
 
 The two systems are quite distinct and yet they become so 
 
 1 Stout : The Groundwork of Psychology ; p. 61.
 
 176 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 fused together that it is almost impossible not to name an 
 individual as soon as he is seen. McDougall l thinks that 
 neural drainage explains it. " When the excitement of 
 one neural system a is immediately followed by the excite- 
 ment of another b, the free nervous energy of the former 
 system a tends to discharge itself by some path into the 
 other system b. This might be called, for reasons we shall 
 consider presently, the law of the attraction of the impulse. 
 If when a and b are first excited in immediate succession, 
 such a discharge from atob takes place, then, in accordance 
 with the law of neural habit, the path by which the dis- 
 charge takes place will become a path of lowered resistance, 
 and whenever a is re-excited in any way there will be a 
 tendency for the excitement to spread through the path 
 to 6. ... We may liken these systems of neurones to 
 india-rubber tubes arranged vertically and freely connected 
 by transversely running tubes. They are all closed at 
 their lower ends by spring valves, and all are partially 
 distended with water at a certain pressure insufficient to 
 open the valves. This low pressure throughout the system 
 represents the tone of the neurones. If then the pressure 
 in one tube a is suddenly increased by injecting into it at 
 its upper end" an additional quantity of water, a wave of 
 pressure will travel down the tube, throw open the valve 
 at its lowered end, and water will flow down and out of the 
 tube. If in the next moment while this flow is taking 
 place and the pressure is not yet equalised in the system, 
 a similar sudden increase of pressure is caused in any one 
 of the other tubes 6. throwing freely open its valve, currents 
 will set towards this tube through all the transverse tubes 
 in virtue of the tension or tonus of the whole system, but 
 the main flow will be through those transverse tubes which 
 form the most direct path between a and 6, and this current, 
 relieving the tension in a, will result in its spring-valve 
 closing up. The flow through b will thus inhibit by drainage 
 the flow from a." 
 
 M'Dougall's theory of drainage is criticised by Ladd and 
 Woodworth 2 who point out that in the case of the visual 
 impression and the name of a man there is not that complete 
 drainage which the theory requires ; " the face does not 
 disappear when the name is spoken." In formulating 
 
 1 Physiological Psychology ; p. 124 ff. 
 
 z Elements of Physiological Psychology ; p. 6 1 7 if .
 
 ASSOCIATION 177 
 
 a new theory they suppose that after a discharge of energy 
 has taken place through a neurone system its activity does 
 not come to an abrupt end ; it is, in fact, left in a condition 
 of heightened excitability. If therefore two contiguous 
 systems are stimulated simultaneously or in quick succession 
 they of necessity connect up because " each has something 
 to give, and each is ready to take." With the further 
 elaboration of the theory to explain the formation of higher 
 units we need not concern ourselves. We are seeking an 
 explanation of the first association path. 
 
 Unfortunately for this theory the heightened excita- 
 bility of the nervous system after the passage of an impulse 
 remains to be proven. Most probably fatigue effects, for 
 a brief space of time, lessen, rather than heighten the 
 excitability of the system. 
 
 The following theory is put forward tentatively. It 
 does not seem to make as many assumptions as the previous 
 ones. We have seen that the following facts are those on 
 which a rational explanation of psychological phenomena 
 has been built, namely : (1) the more closely associated 
 two neurone systems are by the inner growth of the body, 
 the more easily do they function together; (2) neurones, 
 except after immediate discharge, are in a state of tension 
 (i.e. exhibit a tendency to discharge) ; (3) the discharge 
 always takes the path of the least resistance ; (4) the 
 stronger the stimulus the wider is the area affected by it ; 
 (5) the passage of an impulse through a neurone system 
 permanently lowers its resistance. 
 
 Consider the neurone systems a or 6 which are fairly 
 closely associated by growth but not yet definitely con- 
 nected. Both are in a state of tonus and ready to discharge 
 into as many contiguous systems as possible. Suppose 
 them stimulated simultaneously or in immediate succession. 
 Both systems seek an outlet. Under these conditions 
 they are more than likely to discharge through a system c 
 which is common to both. This common channel of 
 discharge causes the association of a and b, for when a is 
 next stimulated its discharge through c lowers, for an 
 instant, the resistance between b and c and so b also dis- 
 charges. The stronger the initial discharges, the closer 
 the association between a and b. Thus the element of 
 vividness in association is explained. Recency, frequency 
 and the other factors are also easily explained by the theory.
 
 178 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The failure of an association to take place can be accounted 
 for by supposing that stimulation of a and its discharge 
 through c is insufficient to break down the natural resistance 
 existing between b and c when both are quiescent. It 
 explains why association is, as a rule, in a forward direction 
 but it does not give a satisfactory explanation of backward 
 association : neither, for that matter, does the drainage 
 theory nor the heightened excitability theory. Backward 
 associations are probably forward associations taken in 
 minute pieces at a time. Simultaneous and successive 
 associations are especially easy to explain on this theory. 
 In fact, it gives a physiological explanation of that great 
 factor in all association temporal contiguity. If we elabo- 
 rate the units, a, 6, and c, into complex systems connected 
 up with other systems in a thousand and one different 
 ways we begin to appreciate the wonderful possibilities of 
 the nervous system so far as association is concerned. 
 
 The conception of a common channel of discharge for 
 two or more systems receives encouragement from the 
 presence of association fibres in the^ brain and spinal cord. 
 Extirpation of association areas of the brain, for example, 
 destroys the ability to perform acts necessitating associa- 
 tion (see Chapter IX.). Such areas have usually been 
 looked upon as connecting areas, but part of their function 
 may well be to proyide common paths of discharge between 
 areas distantly removed. 
 
 The Number of Associations. The number of associations 
 formed depends upon the inherent structure of the nervous 
 system and the amount of exercise it has had. We saw 
 that some tricks were beyond the most intelligent of 
 monkeys and this failure must be attributed to an insuffi- 
 cient elaboration of their nervous systems. In just the 
 same way a defective inheritance in this respect prevents 
 an idiot, an imbecile or a mental defective from ever 
 forming as elaborate associations as a normal person. A 
 genius is distinguished from an ordinary individual mainly 
 by the number and complexity of his associations. It is 
 as if a single stimulus spread through scores of neurone 
 systems. 
 
 Galton tried to discover the number and nature of his 
 associations. He took a walk along Pall Mall and faithfully 
 recorded the associations each object aroused. He was 
 astonished at the variety and complexity of them. No part
 
 ASSOCIATION 179 
 
 of his life seemed to have been forgotten. But in repeating 
 the walk shortly afterwards he noticed that the associations 
 of the previous occasion were in many cases repeated. 
 ; ' The actors in my mental stage were indeed very numerous, 
 but by no means so numerous as I had imagined. They 
 now seemed to be something like the actors in theatres 
 where large processions are represented, who march off 
 one side of the stage, and, going round by the back, come 
 on again at the other." 1 
 
 Rapidity of Associations. The rapidity of our associa- 
 tions depends upon the degree of our familiarity with them. 
 It is more difficult to name the month preceding a given 
 month, or the letter of the alphabet preceding a given letter 
 than it is to name the succeeding ones, because the forward 
 direction is the more familiar one. Likewise a foreign 
 language is more slowly perceived than one's native tongue. 
 Gattell experimenting upon himself, found that, reading as 
 quickly as possible, the following times, given in thousandths 
 of a second, were necessary for the perception of each 
 word : English 138, French 167, German 250, Italian 327, 
 Latin 434 and Greek 484. But why it should take less 
 time to pass from a part to a whole than from a whole to a 
 part seems difficult of explanation. In the same way 
 various experimenters have found that it is as easy to read 
 four-letter words as single letters. Perception of words, 
 therefore, is not by means of the single letters composing 
 it ; larger units must be employed. Of single letters " e " 
 is the most difficult to recognise, " w " the easiest. 2 
 
 Factors involved in Association. 3 The factors usually 
 given are frequency, recency, vividness, primacy; the 
 resultant satisfaction, the mood of the moment and the 
 relationship existing between the objects associated, 
 (a) Frequency. The more frequently two objects are 
 associated the easier becomes the process. It is difficult 
 to think of the discovery of America without recalling 
 the name of Columbus ; 9 x 7 is associated with 63 ; and 
 " Humpty dumpty " is invariably associated with " Sat on 
 a wall." Repetition or frequency is the chief cause of the 
 
 1 Gal ton : Inquiries into Human Faculty ; p. 135. 
 
 2 See Cattell : Wundt's Philos. Stud., 1888, IV., 241, and Mind, 
 XII., 68. 
 
 3 See also Chapter XI. on Memory.
 
 180 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 association. These things have occurred so often together 
 in our experience that it is only with the utmost difficulty 
 that we can now dissociate them. Drill or practice in 
 school- work receives its sanction from this principle. 
 (6) Recency. The traces left behind in our nervous system 
 by events of to-day are deeper than those of a year ago. 
 It is fairly easy to recall the drift of yesterday's sermon 
 in church but the sermon of a month ago seems entirely 
 to have disappeared. And so with other things. Teachers 
 have recapitulatory lessons because children forget the 
 past so easily. They invoke the power both of frequency 
 and recency to aid them in making clear associations in 
 the minds of their pupils, (c) Vividness. Some sermons, 
 because of the vividness of their presentation, make a 
 deeper impression than others. Hence vividness is an 
 important factor in association. " I shall never forget it 
 until my dying day " refers to some particular vivid associa- 
 tion. The reason children learn more quickly from one 
 teacher than another is partly by reason of the vividness 
 of presentation. But we must remember that vividness 
 is a relative term. In order that mountains may appear 
 high we must have the contrast of deep valleys, (d) 
 Primacy. " First impressions are strongest." The writer 
 kept diaries during his first visits to Denmark and Germany 
 and is often amused at the things which were eagerly 
 noted upon arrival. But amusing and irrelevant as some 
 of the observations were, they colour all subsequent impres- 
 sions, and deeper knowledge fails to oust them from their 
 place of honour. First impressions of the theatre are often 
 most influential partly because of the vividness of the 
 occasion, but also because of their primacy. If on our first 
 introduction to a volcano the idea of a burning mountain 
 is associated with it, the connection persists in a most 
 troublesome manner ; sometimes years of teaching fail 
 to dispel the incorrect information. Primacy has played 
 its part well, (e) The resultant satisfaction. The normal 
 human mind loves to dwell on the pleasant things in life 
 and shuns the contemplation of the unpleasant. " The 
 dead are soon forgotten." Those situations which resulted 
 in satisfaction at the time of their occurrence stand a much 
 better chance of becoming associated than others. The 
 importance of this great law is not sufficiently emphasised 
 in school-room practice. And it is often forgotten that
 
 ASSOCIATION 181 
 
 the satisfaction which comes from completing a hard task 
 is one of the great and pure satisfactions of this life. (/) 
 The mood of the moment. If we are in a despondent mood 
 our whole outlook is tinged with despondency. Dismal 
 associations are aroused by stimuli, which, on other days, 
 would have aroused nothing but pleasant thoughts. These 
 moods are valuable signs of bodily health. With a good 
 digestion and with plenty of sleep and healthy exercise it 
 is almost impossible to be pessimistic, (g) The relationship 
 existing between the objects. In the parlour game where a 
 tray containing thirty or forty different objects is shown 
 to us for a short time and we are told to name as many as 
 we can remember, we try to make artificial associations. 
 It is, however, a difficult task. Where the relationship 
 between objects is slight or non-existent, associations are 
 only formed after great exertion ; where natural relation- 
 ships exist associations are easily formed. In systems of 
 memory training the whole object is to make the subject 
 dwell upon the problem and construct artificial associations. 
 The various number rhymes and number games are excellent 
 examples of this principle of relationship ; in these cases 
 artificial relationships are deliberately established. 
 
 The Law of Association. Thorndike combines most of 
 the previous principles of association into one law. " Any 
 fact thought of will call up that fact, the thought of which 
 has accompanied or followed it or a part of it most fre- 
 quently, most recently, in the most vivid experience and 
 with the most resultant satisfaction, and which is most 
 closely connected with the general set of mind at the time." l 
 
 Number-forms, 2 Another peculiarity of associations is 
 that in some people they assume definite spatial relation- 
 ships one with another. The most common form of spatial 
 associations is that of the number-form. In these cases 
 numbers when thought of always assume a definite position 
 on a line, which is generally a zig-zag in shape. Arithmetical 
 operations are done by jumping with marvellous rapidity 
 from one place to another on this line. Later introspections 
 have shown forms for other things. Thus the writer 
 places the months of the year on an egg-shaped figure with 
 December and January at the narrow end, and June, July, 
 
 1 Element* of Psychology ; p. 249. 
 
 * See Galton : Inquiries into Human Faculty ; p. 79 ff., for a 
 discussion on this topic.
 
 182 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 August and September at the broad end. The hours of 
 the day and days of the week associate themselves in other 
 complex forms . The reason for these forms is still unknown . 
 The clock face certainly influences many of them. Colour 
 associations are also known but they are far less numerous 
 than number forms. 
 
 Mental Diagnosis by Associations. So intimate are our 
 associations that " we give ourselves away " if we subject 
 ourselves to test. The following is a description of such 
 an experiment. 1 Two boxes were prepared, containing in 
 the first experiment a bottle of red ink and a watch, and in 
 the second, a toy snake and a pack of cards. Fifty-three 
 students were told to go and look in one of the boxes, and 
 on returning to try to prevent the experimenter from 
 finding out into which box she had looked. Reaction times 
 to sixty exhibited words were then taken with a stop-watch. 
 Each subject was told to give the first associated word 
 that occurred to her. Ten of the sixty words referred to 
 the contents of one box and ten to the other. The relevant 
 words were scattered among the others, but three or four 
 were given in immediate succession to increase the dis- 
 turbing effect on the observer. The first word called up 
 in connection with relevant words was likely to be associated 
 with the objects in the box ; if this word was kept back 
 and a second one substituted there would be an increased 
 time of reaction. 
 
 By judging of associated words and the times taken, 
 one experimenter gave 52 judgments out of 53 correctly. 
 The other experimenter using only the character of the 
 associated word gave 34 correct judgments. 
 
 This experiment, while probably of greater use in the 
 police court than in the school-room, shows the great 
 influence that recency has on our associations. 
 
 Association Tests. 2 These tests are usually divided into 
 tests of (1) uncontrolled association and (2) controlled 
 association. 
 
 (1) The uncontrolled association test consists of the 
 subjects writing (or saying) a given number of words as 
 quickly as possible. Any type of words may be written ; 
 
 1 Leach and Washbum : Some tests by the association reaction 
 method of mental diagnosis; Amer. Jour. Psy., XXI., pp. 163-167, 
 1910. 
 
 1 Whipple : Manual of Mental and Physical Tests ; Chap. IX.
 
 ASSOCIATION 183 
 
 words forming sentences are, however, debarred. The 
 results of these associations show that the words often 
 follow a series of themes or some auditory sequences. They 
 also show that in a given community of students the same 
 word occurs in different papers with surprising frequency. 
 " Jastrow found that in 50 lists (5,000 words) only 2,024 
 words were different, only 1,266 words occurred but once, 
 while the hundred most frequent words made up three- 
 tenths of the whole number." * Jastrow also found that 
 the thinking of the association between one word and the 
 next occupied, on the average, -96 seconds. Women are 
 said to use, in tests of uncontrolled association, more names 
 of wearing apparel and a less number of abstract terms 
 than men. The results are, however, indefinite. 
 
 (2) Controlled association tests are of four kinds part- 
 wholes, genus-species, opposites and computations. 
 
 In the part-wholes test the pupils are given a list of ten 
 words and then are asked to write the name of a whole 
 thing of which the word given is a part. The time taken 
 is recorded. " Book," for example, would "be the whole 
 of which "page" is a part. The following words have 
 been used : 
 
 1. door. 6. nose. 
 
 2. pillow. 7. cover. 
 
 3. letter. 8. page. 
 
 4. button. 9. engine. 
 
 5. leaf. 10. glass. 
 
 In the genus-species test some particular example must 
 be written of which the name given is the class. If " verb " 
 is the class, " run " would be a particular example ; " book" 
 as a class could be followed by the title of any book as the 
 particular example. The words which have been used 
 are : 
 
 1. book. 6. tree. 
 
 2. room. 7. tree. 
 
 3. name. 8. dish. 
 
 4. boat. 9. game. 
 
 5. plant. 10. fish. 
 
 In the opposites tests the subjects are told to write words 
 which mean the exact opposite of the ones given. If 
 " bad " is given then " good " would be its exact opposite. 
 Three lists which have been used are given below : 
 
 1 Loc. tit., p. 316.
 
 184 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 bad 
 
 good 
 
 stupid 
 
 dislike 
 
 like 
 
 rapid 
 
 inside 
 
 outside 
 
 hardworking 
 
 poor 
 
 rich 
 
 generous 
 
 slow 
 
 quick 
 
 strong 
 
 well 
 
 sick 
 
 straight 
 
 short 
 
 tall 
 
 sane 
 
 sorry 
 
 glad 
 
 separate 
 
 little 
 
 big 
 
 obnoxious 
 
 thick 
 
 thin 
 
 up 
 
 soft 
 
 hard 
 
 foolish 
 
 full 
 
 empty 
 
 always 
 
 black 
 
 white 
 
 handsome 
 
 peace 
 
 war 
 
 joy 
 
 dark 
 
 light 
 
 adroit 
 
 few 
 
 many 
 
 high 
 
 sad 
 
 happy 
 
 superior 
 
 below 
 
 above 
 
 obscure 
 
 true 
 
 false 
 
 loquacious 
 
 enemy 
 
 friend 
 
 proud 
 
 In computations the elementary arithmetical processes 
 of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are 
 used. The time taken and the errors made are noted as in 
 the other controlled association tests. Whipple (p. 329) 
 gives the following lists of examples of materials which have 
 been used in computation tests : 
 
 A. 
 
 2 
 6 
 9 
 7 
 4 
 8 
 9 
 5 
 1 
 7 
 5 
 2 
 6 
 3 
 5 
 1 
 3 
 9 
 2 
 1 
 3 
 6 
 9 
 8 
 3 
 5 
 2 
 7 
 6 
 2 
 
 B. 
 
 4 
 1 
 3 
 5 
 2 
 6 
 4 
 3 
 4 
 6 
 1 
 5 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 6 
 5 
 3 
 6 
 5 
 1 
 2 
 
 C. 
 
 428329954654317 
 792938382655139 
 
 D. 
 
 95799 
 86967 
 32687 
 84799 
 95976 
 34797 
 97864 
 98945 
 87824 
 68792 
 79867 
 88896 
 97745 
 39799 
 48970 
 89043 
 67354 
 54628 
 91176 
 90256 
 
 1102 etc. 
 
 
 E. 42 
 
 + 79 
 
 F. 492 
 + 763 
 
 G. 
 
 H. 
 
 64293643194831457627 
 38682725423585791858 
 
 93 
 68 
 41 
 25 
 
 52 
 
 L. 364 
 x6 
 
 P. 428423995479253314325 
 x4 
 
 I. 982 
 
 J. 64 
 
 K. 28 
 
 -469 
 
 -2 
 
 x8 
 
 M. 47 
 
 N. 948 
 
 O. 7986 
 
 89 
 
 x579 
 
 x4523 
 
 Q. 254 ) 4659234 
 
 R. 4 ) 799
 
 ASSOCIATION 185 
 
 In conclusion it may be said that association tests are 
 fairly good measures of the intelligence of pupils ; and that 
 the computation tests may also be used in making fatigue 
 and practice curves. 
 
 References. Adams : The Herbartian Psychology applied 
 to Education. Calkins : Association ; Psy. Rev. Mon. 
 Suppl., 2, Feb., 1896. James : Principles of Psychology ; 
 Chap. XIV. James : Text-Book of Psychology ; Chap. 
 XVI. Ladd and Wood worth : Elements of Physiological 
 Psychology ; Chap. VIII. McDougall : Physiological Psy- 
 chology ; Chap. VII. Rusk : Introduction to Experimental 
 Education. Stout: Groundwork of Psychology ; Chap. VII. 
 Titchener : Primer of Psychology ; Chap. VII. Thorndike : 
 Elements of Psychology ; Chap. XVI. Whipple : Manual 
 of Mental and Physical Tests ; Chap. IX.
 
 CHAPTER, XI. 
 MEMORY. 
 
 Memory, Association and Habit. So closely are these 
 three aspects of mental life bound up with one another 
 that one recent writer on Psychology deals with all three 
 in one chapter on Memory. 1 That the physiological basis 
 offers a reasonable explanation of many mental phenomena 
 we have insisted upon throughout this entire work and 
 in this case also the contention holds good. We have 
 seen that processes occurring in the central nervous system 
 leave an impression or trace, by means of which, under 
 appropriate circumstances, they may be reproduced. 
 When discharges regularly take place along certain paths 
 we get the phenomena of habit ; when one neurone system 
 is aroused to activity by means of the stimulation of another 
 the process is known as association ; while the stimulation 
 of a neurone system which leads to the revival of a previous 
 experience in imagination, and with the additional know- 
 ledge that we have experienced it before, produces the 
 phenomenon we call memory. This particular kind of 
 memory has been called associative memory because it 
 depends on association. And from this point of view also, 
 habit may be looked upon as unconscious memory. 
 
 The two aspects of memory emphasised by our definition 
 are retentiveness and recall. While the neurones are 
 quiescent we get retentiveness a primitive property 
 of nerve tissue ; during activity we get recall. The 
 retentiveness, however, is not of the same character as that 
 of a phonograph record which reproduces over and over 
 again the original cause of the impression. The impressions 
 upon the nerve substance fade away with time ; and only 
 
 1 Dumville : Fundamentals of Psychology ; 1912.
 
 MEMORY 187 
 
 the essential elements, or relevant facts and meanings are 
 capable of recall. 
 
 Types of Memories. There are very great individual 
 differences in memory. Cases are known where memory 
 is almost perfect over long intervals of time, and examples 
 of almost complete absence of associative memory are 
 quite common. Memory also is highly specialised. We 
 talk about good and bad memories, about logical and rote 
 memories, about concrete and abstract memories, about 
 immediate and persistent memories, and about such special 
 memories as those for objects, numbers, sounds, abstract 
 terms, emotions and ideas. There are, in fact, as many 
 kinds of memories as there are modes of representation. 
 " As memory consists of the power of ideal revival, there 
 must be a relatively separate memory for every experience 
 ideally revived. There must not only be a separate 
 memory for names, but a separate memory for each peculiar 
 name. But ordinary language is undoubtedly right in 
 recognising distinct memories for general departments of 
 experience." l 
 
 (a) Good and bad memories. By a good memory is meant 
 a memory that serves us well. The goodness of memory 
 depends upon the persistence of impressions, the number 
 of the associations formed and the readiness and appro- 
 priateness of recall. Perhaps the best memory on record 
 was that of a mental defective who could recite whole books 
 when once the cue was given, but it was not a good memory 
 in the sense in which we have defined it, namely, one which 
 is serviceable and useful. Mrs. Nickleby had a prodigious 
 memory but it was a bad one because she had no desultory 
 memory ; she could not forget irrelevant facts. And 
 the memory of the M.P. described by Dr. Carpenter was 
 also a bad one. It is recorded of him that he could repeat 
 long Acts of Parliament after once reading and that he 
 experienced great inconvenience during his speeches, for, 
 when referring to those Acts, he could not briefly refer to 
 their contents but must needs quote the whole section just 
 as it stood and often indeed the whole Act. Such a person 
 was probably damaged intellectually by his memory, which 
 would certainly destroy any aptitude for hard thinking. 
 
 Generally speaking, however, the more persistent memory 
 is, the better it will be. The actor belonging to a repertory 
 
 1 Stout : Manual of Psychology ; p. 460.
 
 188 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 theatre or stock company must perforce have a persistent 
 memory or he will have to re -learn his part each time a 
 play is produced. But the cases which come before a 
 barrister need only be remembered for a short space of 
 time ; they are never repeated and so it is a help if the 
 details can be forgotten. And so with other things. Most 
 of our information needs to be remembered but some of 
 it requires jettisoning because it will never be useful again. 
 Of what use can the small talk of the " At Home " day 
 be to any of us ? The degree of persistence of memory 
 depends partly on congenital equipment and partly on 
 the degree of interest it aroused at the time of its acquire- 
 ment. Schoolboys remember football results, women 
 remember the cut and colour of clothes, and business men 
 remember prices with an accuracy which is quite bewildering 
 to the uninitiated. Certain pieces of information again 
 are inherently more interesting than others and so we find 
 school children remembering about the burnt cakes 
 while forgetting completely all other facts connected with 
 Alfred. 
 
 The number of associations formed is also an important 
 factor in memory. By continuous study of a subject all 
 kinds of associations weave themselves around it, while 
 cramming up the same topic for examination may be 
 serviceable for a short time but the information acquired 
 is fugitive few associations have been formed. Repetition 
 and concentration of attention are factors in forming 
 numerous and persistent associations. 
 
 Lastly in a good memory there must be appropriate and 
 easy recall. If as a result of a discussion on spring flowers 
 we wish to recall Wordsworth's poem " The daffodils " 
 it would be worse than useless to remember how many 
 thousand bunches of daffodils are shipped from the Scilly 
 Isles to London each spring. The recall in this case would 
 be inappropriate. We see, in examinations, the need of 
 easy recall. Many persons leave the examination room and 
 then discover what simple things they missed. Such 
 persons react with difficulty to situations. But many 
 situations in life demand prompt action. The medical 
 student who was asked by an examiner what he would do 
 if a patient in his presence swallowed a large dose of poison, 
 was justly failed when no answer was forthcoming at the 
 end of three minutes, " because," he was told, " the
 
 MEMORY 189 
 
 patient is now dead." And how many of us think of the 
 clever repartee just a few seconds too late ! 
 
 (6) Logical and rote memories. By logical memory is 
 meant the memory for ideas. Rote memory connotes the 
 power to reproduce in exact serial form or to repeat by 
 heart. These forms of memory are interesting because 
 experiments on the possibility of training rote and logical 
 memory began with the assertion of James that " all 
 improvement of memory consists then, in the improvement 
 of one's habitual methods of recording facts." x James 
 for eight successive days learned 158 lines of Victor Hugo's 
 " Satyr." The time required was 131| minutes. He next 
 learned the whole of the first book of " Paradise Lost " in 
 twenty-odd minute periods during 38 days. Testing himself 
 on another 158 lines of "Satyr" he found that 15 \\ were 
 needed a longer time than before. Similar results were 
 obtained by Burnham, Brown, Baldwin and Pease, and so 
 James concluded that we are endowed by nature with 
 definite qualities of memory and that we cannot improve 
 them by practice. 
 
 Ebert and Meumann 2 tested children in the schools of 
 Zurich with nonsense syllables, stanzas, prose sentences, 
 numbers, letters, visual signs, vocabularies, and discon- 
 nected words. They found that practice was valuable 
 so long as the materials memorised were sufficiently alike. 
 This would lead to the conclusion that rote memory can 
 be trained but logical memory cannot. Such a result 
 fits in with common experience. Actors learn more quickly 
 with practice, but whether this is actually due to an im- 
 provement in memory or in the methods of memorising 
 is not yet determined. 3 And so with logical memory. 
 Although it is very improbable that we train it as memory, 
 our association systems function more effectively the older 
 we grow. 
 
 In a careful study of logical memory in school children 
 Henderson 4 found that it improved with age. The method 
 employed was to give certain passages (three) of connected 
 
 1 Psychology ; I., p. 667. 
 
 * Ebert and Meumann : Archiv fur die Geaammte Psychologic ; 
 IV. Band, 1 und 2 Heft, 1904, pp. 1-232. 
 
 1 See Fracker, Psy. Rev. Mono. Suppl., 38, 1908, p. 56. 
 
 * A Study of Memory for connected trains of thought ; Psy. Rev. 
 Suppl., 1903, pp. 94.
 
 190 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 prose matter to be learned and then to have it reproduced 
 after definite intervals. A careful comparison of the 
 successive reproductions with each other and with the 
 original was then made with the object of finding out both 
 the amount and the character of the material retained on 
 each occasion. Five passages were taken. The classes 
 tested were from the Public Elementary School, from the 
 High School, and from the University. The plan of 
 operation was to give one of the selected passages of prose 
 to each member of a class and ask him to memorise as 
 much as possible in three minutes. They were told that 
 there was plenty of time ; they could easily read it through 
 twice and then could follow what plan they liked. They 
 were also told that a written reproduction would be called 
 for and that if the exact words had been forgotten the 
 idea was to be put down. Further reproductions were 
 required at the end of two days and four weeks. In the 
 latter case the words they were sure of were to be underlined. 
 The system of scoring was to give marks for the number of 
 ideas, topics, sub-topics, details and words. The rate of 
 learning increased and the rate of forgetting decreased 
 with age, chiefly because older children have better under- 
 standing and know how to attack the problem better. 
 Those who learned quickest retained best. 1 
 
 A single reading with concentrated attention was better 
 for immediate reproduction than 3 minutes of study, but 
 longer periods were necessary to fix absolutely ideas and 
 words. In the later renderings details were missed out and 
 there was a decided simplification and condensation. 
 
 (c) Immediate and persistent memories. We have seen 
 that " Easy come, easy go " and " Quickly learnt, quickly 
 forgotten " are, for the general run of persons, quite untrue. 
 Yet undoubtedly there are exceptions. The steady plodder 
 with a bull-dog tenacity may get hold of things very slowly 
 but they may also stick. And some people, as we saw in 
 the case of the barrister, may have to develop the " easy 
 come, easy go " type of memory. So far as facts go one 
 would always choose the quick learner as more likely to 
 do well in later life, for rapidity of learning probably has 
 its basis in a better congenital mental equipment. 
 
 1 Thia is at variance with the popular view of memory ; it is 
 " quick and sure," not " slow and sure." Scores of other tests have 
 reached the same result, so that we may now accept it as proven.
 
 MEMORY 
 
 191 
 
 (d) Special memories. Some people think and remember 
 predominantly in visual images while others may habitually 
 use auditory or motor images. Our dominant images 
 largely determine our memories for special things. A 
 person with vivid auditory images will be able to recall 
 tunes well, while one with good powers of visualisation will 
 be successful in recalling to mind such things as paintings, 
 distant places and scenery. 
 
 Memory in School Children. Most of the investigators 
 who have worked on the memory powers of school children 
 have used tests for immediate memory. A certain number 
 of objects were shown, or a certain number of nonsense 
 syllables or digits were dictated, and the children were asked 
 to repeat or write them immediately afterwards. The 
 results obtained are somewhat conflicting as can be seen 
 from the following tables : 
 
 TABLE 27. 
 
 (From T. L. Bolton : The Growth of Memory in School Children ; 
 Amer. Jour. Psy., IV., pp. 362-380. Digits were dictated 
 at intervals of two-fifths of a second and the children then 
 wrote the digits as they remembered them. Percentage 
 errors in different grades and at different ages are 
 shown. ) 
 
 No. of 
 Digits. 
 
 8 yre. 
 
 9 yrs. 
 
 10 yra. 
 
 11 yrs. 
 
 12 yrs. 
 
 13 yre. 
 
 14 yra. 
 
 15 yrs: 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 14-5 
 
 12 
 
 9-3 
 
 7-4 
 
 6-6 
 
 4-6 
 
 
 6 
 
 56-3 
 
 45-5 
 
 42'5 
 
 32-4 
 
 31-3 
 
 27-7 
 
 23-5 
 
 25-3 
 
 7 
 
 78 
 
 64-6 
 
 66-2 
 
 62-5 
 
 61-5 
 
 49-2 
 
 36-1 
 
 40-7 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 73-7 
 
 70-5 
 
 65-5 
 
 66-2 
 
 No. of 
 Digits. 
 
 3rd. 
 
 4th. 
 
 5th. 
 
 6th. 
 
 7th. 
 
 8th. 
 
 9th. 
 
 High 
 School. 
 
 5 
 
 21-3 
 
 6-1 
 
 8-4 
 
 6-5 
 
 1-6 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 63 
 
 39-9 
 
 43 
 
 32 
 
 167 
 
 16-6 
 
 16-5 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 87-7 
 
 63-3 
 
 67 
 
 69 
 
 46-4 
 
 44-5 
 
 32-5 
 
 60 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 67-6 
 
 70 
 
 64-8 
 
 67
 
 192 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 TABLE 28. 
 
 (From Pohlmann : Experimentelle Beitrage zur Lehre vom 
 Qediichtniss, Berlin, 1906, pp. 191. Various kinds of 
 materials were used. The results show the net efficiency 
 of memory at various ages.) 
 
 Age. 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 capa- 
 
 39-4 
 
 41-4 
 
 55-7 
 
 59-1 
 
 62-1 
 
 68-9 
 
 55-3 
 
 62-9 
 
 58-6 
 
 58-0 
 
 05-4 
 
 68-3 
 
 city. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE 29. 
 
 (From Smedley : Report from the Department of Child-study 
 and Pedagogic Investigation of Chicago : U.S. Comm. 
 Reports, 1902, I., 1115-1138. Digits were used and 
 presented in two ways. The per cent, remembered is 
 shown. ) 
 
 Age: 
 
 No. Tested. 
 
 Auditory 
 Presentation. 
 
 Visual 
 Presentation. 
 
 7-7 
 
 19 
 
 36-4 
 
 35-2 
 
 8-7 
 
 58 
 
 44-6 
 
 42-8 
 
 9-5 
 
 100 
 
 45-0 
 
 47-4 
 
 10-4 
 
 89 
 
 49-4 
 
 54-6 
 
 11-5 
 
 91 
 
 55-4 
 
 64-7 
 
 12-5 
 
 93 
 
 55-7 
 
 72-3 
 
 13-6 
 
 109 
 
 67-9 
 
 76-8 
 
 14-5 
 
 114 
 
 66-2 
 
 80-5 
 
 16-5 
 
 94 
 
 65-6 
 
 78-2 
 
 16-6 
 
 77 
 
 66-9 
 
 81-3 
 
 17-5 
 
 56 
 
 66-5 
 
 84-1 
 
 18-4 
 
 25 
 
 67-2 
 
 77-5 
 
 19-4 
 
 12 
 
 70-0 
 
 85-3
 
 MEMORY 
 
 193 
 
 TABLE 30. 
 
 (From Ebbinghaus : Ueber eine neue Methode zur Priifung 
 gelstiger Fiihigkeiten in ihrer Anwendung bei Schulkindern, 
 Zeitschrift fiir Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnes- 
 organe. Digits were dictated and average number of 
 errors per pupil shown.) 
 
 Average Age. 
 
 8 Digits. 
 
 9 Digits. 
 
 10 Digits. 
 
 6 to 10 Digits. 
 
 10-7 
 
 3-1 
 
 5-1 
 
 7-4 
 
 17-8 
 
 12-2 
 
 2-9 
 
 4-7 
 
 7-9 
 
 17-5 
 
 13-2 
 
 1-5 
 
 2-6 
 
 4-2 
 
 9-1 
 
 14-4 
 
 1-6 
 
 3-0 
 
 4-9 
 
 10-5 
 
 15-5 
 
 1-0 
 
 2-1 
 
 3-7 
 
 7-6 
 
 17-1 
 
 0-8 
 
 1-4 
 
 3-9 
 
 6-5 
 
 18-0 
 
 0-9 
 
 1-4 
 
 3-4 
 
 6-1 
 
 TABLE 31. 
 
 (Shaw : A test of memory in school-children ; Fed. Sem., IV., 
 pp. 61-78. A passage containing 324 words and involving 
 152 distinct ideas was read. The percentages of terms 
 remembered are given. Sex differences are shown.) 
 
 Grade. 
 
 Third. 
 
 Fifth. 
 
 Seventh: 
 
 Ninth. 
 
 ;2ndHigh 
 School. 
 
 4th High 
 School. 
 
 Univer- 
 sity. 
 
 Boys, - 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 37 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 38 
 
 [ 39-5 
 
 Girls, - 
 
 18 
 
 32 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 47 
 
 47
 
 194 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 TABLE 32. 
 
 (Kirkpatrick : An experimental study of Memory ; Psy. Rev., 
 I., pp. 602-609. Unrelated words were used. The 
 number of words remembered is given and sex differences 
 are shown.) 
 
 WORDS REMEMBERED AT THE TlME. 
 
 
 Boys: 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Primary School Students, - 
 
 6-16 
 
 6-06 
 
 Grammar 
 
 6-74 
 
 7-13 
 
 High 
 
 7-40 
 
 7-69 
 
 College Students, 
 
 7-89 
 
 7-86 
 
 WORDS REMEMBERED AFTER THREE DAYS. 
 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Grammar School Students, - 
 
 3-19 
 
 3-62 
 
 High 
 
 3-06 
 
 3-47 
 
 College Students, 
 
 3-15 
 
 3-48 
 
 TABLE 33. 
 
 (Lobsien : Experimentelle Untersuchungen ueber die Gedacht- 
 niss-entwickelung bei Schulkindern ; Zeit. f. Psychol. und 
 Physiol. der Sinnesorgane, XXVII., 1901, pp. 34-76. 
 Various kinds of material were used and percentages cor- 
 rectly remembered are tabulated to show sex differences.) 
 
 Kind of Series. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Real objects, 
 Auditory numbers, 
 Sounds, ... 
 
 82-2 
 64-8 
 59-6 
 
 91-4 
 
 71-8 
 62-2 
 
 Tactual terms, ... 
 
 04-2 
 
 71-0 
 
 Visual terms, 
 
 60-6 
 
 67-2 
 
 Auditory terms, - 
 Emotional terms, 
 
 59-4 
 31-2 
 
 60-2 
 69-4 
 
 Foreign terms, - 
 
 24-0 
 
 23-8
 
 MEMORY 
 
 195 
 
 TABLE 34. 
 
 (Norsworthy : Psychology of Mentally Deficient Children ; 
 1906, pp. 111. Related (but not in sentences) and un- 
 related words were used. Sex differences are shown.) 
 
 
 Related words, 288 cases. 
 
 Unrelated words, 270 cases. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 
 Median. 
 
 P.E. 
 
 Median. 
 
 P.E. 
 
 Median. 
 
 P.E. 
 
 Median. 
 
 P.E. 
 
 8 
 
 13-0 
 
 1-0 
 
 13-0 
 
 1-6 , 
 
 11-1 
 
 1-6 
 
 11-5 
 
 1-3 
 
 9 
 
 14-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 14-0 
 
 1-7 
 
 12-2 
 
 1-7 
 
 12-4 
 
 1-4 
 
 10 
 
 15-0 
 
 1-7 
 
 15-3 
 
 1-9 
 
 12-2 
 
 1-7 
 
 14-4 
 
 1-4 
 
 11 
 
 15-0 
 
 1-7 
 
 16-5 
 
 1-7 j 
 
 12-5 
 
 1-8 
 
 i 14-3 
 
 1-4 
 
 12 
 
 16-4 
 
 1-8 
 
 16-0 
 
 1-6 
 
 12-8 
 
 1-8 
 
 14-0 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 16-5 
 
 1-8 
 
 17-0 
 
 1-5 
 
 13-5 
 
 2-1 
 
 13-5 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 16-9 
 
 1-3 
 
 17-5 
 
 1-5 
 
 13-7 
 
 2-2 
 
 14-0 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 16-0 
 
 1-3 
 
 17-5 
 
 1-5 j 
 
 13-7 
 
 2-2 
 
 14-0 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 17-0 
 
 1-3 
 
 17-8 
 
 1-5 
 
 14-0 
 
 2-2 
 
 14-5 
 
 5 
 
 Adults 
 
 16-5 
 
 1-5 
 
 17-0 
 
 1-9 
 
 12-8 
 
 1-2 
 
 13-0 
 
 1-4 
 
 These tables seem to show that there is a general develop- 
 ment of memory power from the age of eight to fourteen. 
 From fourteen onwards some investigators find that no 
 progress is made while others find only a slight improve- 
 ment. It is probable that memory power remains fairly 
 stationary from adolescence to the age of fifty and then 
 suffers a gradual decline. Girls are superior to boys in 
 " brute memory," but it is doubtful if the superiority 
 persists throughout life. Visual memory develops more 
 rapidly than auditory memory. Memory for emotions 
 is extremely feeble before adolescence. " With boys, the 
 memory for objects is first developed, then words of visual 
 content, words of auditory content, sounds, terms denoting 
 tactual and motor experiences, numbers, abstract concep- 
 tions, and, lastly, emotional terms ; with girls, the order 
 is words of visual content, objects, sounds, numbers, 
 abstract conceptions, words of auditory content, terms 
 denoting tactual and motor experiences, and emotional 
 terms." x It should be remembered, however, that many 
 factors are involved in memory. The effect of practice, 
 the acquirement of powers of concentration of attention, 
 
 1 Busk : Experimental Education ; p. 82.
 
 196 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 the acquisition of more material wherewith to form associa- 
 tions, and the widening of experience in general, are all 
 instrumental in improving memory. 
 
 The Curve of Forgetting. The curve of forgetting can 
 be plotted in two ways : (1) according to percentages of 
 the material retained after given intervals of time, or (2) 
 according to the percentages of the original time which 
 is saved in re-learning. The shape of the curve is the 
 obverse of that of learning. If the material is only just 
 learned (that is, if no further repetitions are made after a 
 perfect recital) about is lost in an hour and \ in one-third 
 of a day, while about \ is .retained for thirty days. The 
 following table from Ebbinghaus 1 illustrates the point : 
 
 TABLE 35. 
 
 Interval since the original 
 learning. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 retention in 
 nonsense 
 syllables. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 retention in 
 poetry. 
 
 5 minutes, 
 
 98 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 89 
 
 96 
 
 1 hour, 
 
 71 
 
 78 
 
 8 hours, 
 
 47 
 
 58 
 
 24 
 
 68 
 
 79 
 
 2 days, 
 
 61 
 
 67 
 
 6 - 
 
 49 
 
 42 
 
 14 
 
 41 
 
 30 
 
 30 - - 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 120 
 
 3 
 
 ? 
 
 A graphical representation of Table 35 is given below. 
 
 Economy in Memorising. This problem is that of 
 economical learning. What is the best unit to use in com- 
 mitting a certain amount of material to memory ? The 
 first investigation of the question was undertaken by 
 Steffens. 2 She used Byron's Childe Harold and found 
 that the use of a stanza as a unit was better than any 
 smaller one. Her results have been confirmed by Ephrussi 
 and by Ebert and Meumann, and it is now well established 
 
 1 Ueber das Gedtichtnias ; quoted by Ladd and Woodworth, p. 576. 
 
 * Steffens : Experimentelle Beitriige zur Lehre vom (ikonomischen 
 Lernen : Zeitschrift fur Psychol. und Physiol. der Sinnesorgane, 
 XXIL, 1900, p. 321 ff.
 
 MEMORY 
 
 197 
 
 Per cent remembered 
 
 FIG. 28. The curve of forgetting (Ebbinghaus).
 
 198 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 that the method of learning by wholes is superior to the 
 common method of learning by parts (piecemeal learning). 
 Pyle and Snyder tried to discover the length of a passage 
 which could be treated as a whole. 1 They used Long- 
 fellow's translation of Dante's Divine Comedy. The 
 method employed was " to read the poetry over at an even 
 natural rate. As soon as the learner thought that he could 
 repeat some from the beginning, he would do so, and when 
 he came to a halt, would read on through to the end of the 
 unit. It was found impossible, on account of the fatigue, 
 to commit to memory by any method, at one sitting, a 
 unit that could not be learned in 40 or 50 minutes." Large 
 units (60, 120 and 240 lines) were spread over two or more 
 days. The part method was also employed. They found 
 that, without any exception, the method of the whole was 
 more economical than that of parts. The saving of time 
 was about 20 per cent. The extra time in learning by 
 parts is absorbed by the -putting together of the parts 
 learned in a proper sequence, and the re-learning of earlier 
 parts which have been forgotten while the later ones are 
 attempted. They conclude that " the most economical 
 procedure will be to read the selection through from 
 beginning to end until it is learned. If the selection is 
 too long to be learned at one sitting of about 45 minutes, 
 it will be most economical to read clear through each time, 
 and to devote 30 or 40 minutes at a sitting, the exact 
 amount of time depending upon the condition of the 
 learner. In the learning of longer selections, the most 
 economical procedure might be to divide the matter up 
 into large units that in themselves made thought- wholes, 
 to commit these to memory separately, and then to commit 
 to memory some device to hold together the separate parts." 
 What is the best distribution of the repetitions ? Is 
 it better to make all the repetitions on one day or to spread 
 them over a number of days ? Jost found that it Avas 
 better to have 2 repetitions on each of 12 days, than 4 
 repetitions on each of 6, or 8 repetitions on each of 3 days. 2 
 The longer the time taken, the greater seems to be the chance 
 
 1 The moat economical unit for committing to memory ; Jour, of Educ. 
 Psychol., VI., 3, March, 1911. 
 
 2 Jost : Die Assoziationefestigkeit in ihrer Abhdngigkeit v. d. 
 Verteilung d. Wiederholungen ; Zeit. f. Psychol. d. S., XIV., 1897, 
 p. 452.
 
 MEMORY 199 
 
 of the knowledge " soaking in." This does not contradict 
 the principle of concentration as a help in memorising ; 
 each repetition must be made under concentrated attention. 
 
 Other data connected with Memory. With the onset 
 of fatigue the power to memorise vanishes. So close is 
 the connection between the two that Winch, after a series 
 of experiments on immediate memory in children, proposes 
 it as a reliable test of fatigue. 1 
 
 Distractions of all kinds, but more especially auditory 
 interruptions, interfere with memorisation. With a little 
 practice the subject habituates himself to the distraction ; 
 a ticking clock soon ceases to be a disturbing factor in 
 one's study. 
 
 The value of testimony is dependent upon the accuracy 
 of one's memory. Since memory in young children is 
 weak and apt to be tainted with imagination, too much 
 stress cannot be placed upon their evidence. 
 
 Memory power, according to Winch, is favourable to 
 the doctrine of formal discipline. He found 2 that " im- 
 provement, gained by practice in memorising one subject 
 of instruction, is transferred to memory work in other 
 subjects whose nature is certainly diverse from that in 
 which the improvement was gained." This is suggested 
 as true so far as children of these ages and attainments 
 are concerned. But Winch's materials were not quite so 
 diverse as he supposed. Memorisation of poetry is not so 
 very different from memorisation of prose passages in 
 history and geography. 
 
 Thorndike has shown that paired associates (e.g. the 
 English meanings of German words) do not give a curve 
 of forgetting as was obtained by Ebbinghaus, although he 
 found that it was the quick learners who were the good 
 retainers. Thirty hours of practice plus eight hours of 
 testing gave a command over 1200 of these paired associates. 
 At the end of three days 1030 were still known while 620 
 were remembered at the end of 42 days. The curve in 
 this case is much less steep. 8 
 
 1 Winch : Mental fatigue in day school children as measured by 
 immediate memory ; Jour, of Educ. Psychol., III., 1 and 2, 1912. 
 
 * Winch : Transfer of improvement in memory in School. Children ; 
 Brit. Jour, of Psychol., Jan., 1908. 
 
 * Thorndike : Memory for paired associates ; Pay. Rev., XV., pp. 
 122-128.
 
 200 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Memory in mental defectives is, as we should expect, 
 much weaker than in normal children. Miss Norsworthy 
 found that only 5 per cent, of mental defectives reached a 
 point that was attained by 50 per cent, of normal children. 1 
 
 The intelligence of animals is dependent upon powers of 
 associative memory. Animals such as sharks and certain 
 other fishes which apparently do not possess associative 
 memory can never be taught anything in the proper sense 
 of the term. Certain Spiders, Crustacea, and Cephalopods 
 possess associative memory, but it is in all probability 
 wanting in Coelenterates and in Worms. 2 In mammals 
 associative memory is fairly powerful, hence the higher 
 educability of these creatures. 
 
 Conclusion. Since memory does not increase much in 
 power after adolescence has been reached, childhood would 
 seem to be the time for committing to memory the things 
 which are really worth while. Children ought to be 
 taught to learn things in the most economical manner (see 
 above). The memories of school children are much more 
 efficient than teachers usually suppose. It is probable 
 that nine children out of ten between the ages of 9 and 15 
 could learn 3000 lines of poetry or prose each year without 
 undue strain. And one-eighth to one-quarter of all the 
 materials learned would be permanent possessions for life. 
 
 References. Ebbinghaus : Ueber das Gedachtniss. Ebert 
 and Meumann : Ueber einige Grundfragen d. Psychol. d, 
 UebungspMnomena im Bereiche d. Gedachtnisses ; Arch, f . d. 
 ges. Psychol., IV., 1, 1904. Ephrussi : Experimented 
 Beitrage zur Lehre vom Gedachtniss ; Zeit. f . Psy. u. Physiol. 
 d. Sinnesorgane, XXXVII., 56, 161, 1904. Henderson : 
 Study of Memory for Connected Trains of Thought ; Psy. 
 Rev. Mon. Suppl., No. 23, Dec., 1903. Jost : Die Associa- 
 tionsfestigkeit in ihrer AbMngigkeit ; Zeit. f . Psy. und 
 Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane, XIV., 436, 1897. Loeb : Com- 
 parative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative Psychology. 
 James : Principles of Psychology ; Chap. XVI. McDougall : 
 Physiological Psychology ; Chaps. VII. and VIII. Morgan : 
 Psychology for Teachers ; Chap. III. Miinsterberg : Psy- 
 chology and the Teacher ; Chap. XVI. Myers : Introduction 
 to Experimental Psychology ; Chap. V. Myers : Text-Book 
 
 1 Psychology of mentally deficient children. 
 
 * Loeb : Comparative physiology of the brain ; p. 227.
 
 MEMORY 201 
 
 of Experimental Psychology ; Chaps. XII. and XIII. Pills- 
 bury : The Effects of Training on Memory ; Educ. Rev., 
 June, 1908. Steffens : Experimentelle Beitrdge zur Lehre 
 vom okonomischen Lernen ; Zeit. f. Psy. u. Physiol. d. 
 Sinnesorgane, XXII., 321, 1900. Thorndike : Elements 
 of Psychology ; Chap. XVI. Thorndike : Memory for 
 Paired Associates ; Psy. Rev., Vol. XV., pp. 122-128. Thorn- 
 dike : Notes on Child Study ; Chap. II. Watt : Economy 
 and Training of Memory. Welton : Educational Psy- 
 chology ; pp. 368-374. Winch : Immediate Memory in 
 School Children ; Brit. Jour. Psy., I., 127, and II., 52, 1904 
 and 1906. Winch : The Transfer of Improvement in Memory 
 in School Children ; Brit. Jour. Psy., Jan., 1908, pp. 284- 
 293. Whipple : An Analytic Study of the Memory Image 
 and the Process of Judgment in the Discrimination of 
 Clangs and Tones; Amer. Jour. Psy., XII., XIII., 1901-2. 
 Whipple : Manual of Mental and Physical Tests ; Chap. IX.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 SUGGESTION AND IMITATION. 
 
 Relation of Terms. Both suggestion and imitation are 
 loosely used in ordinary speech. Suggestion is often used 
 as the equivalent of association, e.g. when text-book is said 
 to suggest school. But, in Psychology, it is best restricted 
 to the process by means of which ideas are introduced 
 (usually in an indirect manner) into the normal conscious- 
 ness of a subject, thereby affecting his beliefs, emotions 
 judgments or acts. In suggestion, ideas are aroused in 
 a manner which prevents, partially at least, contrariaiit 
 or conflicting ideas from appearing. > And as ideas tend 
 to work themselves out in some form of movement, 
 emotion or belief, such an arousal by suggestion will 
 permanently modify the mental make-up of the individual 
 concerned. Suggestion therefore works in exactly the 
 opposite way to persuasion, where conflicting ideas are 
 purposely aroused and arguments produced in favour of 
 one method of action rather than another. " Suggestion 
 is the narrowing of the association-activity to definite 
 contents of consciousness, solely through the employment 
 of memory and imagination in such a way that the influence 
 of combinations of contrariant ideas is weakened or removed, 
 as a result of which the intensity of the suggested contents 
 of consciousness rises above the normal " (Dr. von Schrenk- 
 Notzing). Keatinge 1 rightly points out that the narrowing 
 of the association activity to definite contents of conscious- 
 ness is common to all states of the waking mind and should 
 not be used to describe suggestion. 
 
 Imitation, strictly speaking, deals with movements, 
 though its meaning can be extended to include feelings, 
 thoughts or ideas. The influence of personal example is 
 
 1 Keatinge : Suggestion in Education ; p. 12.
 
 SUGGESTION AND IMITATION 203 
 
 necessary to imitation. We can only imitate behaviour 
 which we have previously perceived. " If a hungry child 
 begins eating when he sees some one else eating, the act 
 is not properly imitative, for the child knows what eating 
 is, how to eat, and has a tendency to eat, while the sight of 
 some one else eating does nothing but suggest the idea, 
 which would probably be aroused just as effectually by 
 the sight of food or even by the utterance of the word 
 ' dinner ' or the sound of a dinner bell. If, however, a 
 child tries to eat like some one else, the mode of eating is 
 imitative because the idea of how to act is gotten from the 
 observation of the act. If a child eats when not hungry, 
 or eats something he does not like because he sees another 
 eating, the act is imitative, because the impulse to perform 
 it results from observing its performance." 1 
 
 Imitation and suggestion, while closely related, are not 
 strict correlatives. It is possible, apparently, to have 
 suggestion without direct imitation as its consequent ; 
 imitation, however, must be preceded by direct or indirect 
 suggestion. In general, we may say that suggestion is 
 the method of arousing an act, and imitation is the response 
 to the suggestion. 
 
 Hypnotism. During suggestion, as we have seen, there 
 is an inhibition of contrariant ideas. If the inhibition is 
 perfect we get exaggerated suggestion or hypnotism. In 
 hypnotism all antithetical ideas are arrested and commands 
 by word or mouth may be given. " The experimenter 
 says to the subject, ' You cannot advance.' He immedi- 
 ately stands still and makes fruitless efforts to move. He 
 rests glued to the spot. If the experimenter continues, 
 ' Your legs cannot carry you,' he falls as if paralysed. If 
 he says, ' Your right leg is paralysed,' he drags along his 
 right leg as though it were powerless. Even the involuntary 
 muscular system can be affected by suggestion. The 
 effect of a dose of castor oil can be prevented or postponed, 
 and pure water can be made to act as an emetic. Organic 
 changes also, such as blisters, can be produced." 2 
 
 In the category of hypnotism the phenomena of Oriental 
 magic must be placed. Dr. Hensoldt 3 tells us that he 
 
 1 Kirkpatrick : Fundamentals of Child Study ; p. 129. 
 
 2 Keatinge : op. tit., p. 4. 
 
 1 Hensoldt : Hindu Civilisation during British Rule ; II., 152.
 
 204 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 saw in the open air and in broad daylight the celebrated 
 rope trick no fewer than four times. " A Yogi after 
 preaching a most impressive sermon, took a rope about 
 fifteen feet long and perhaps an inch thick. One end of 
 the rope he held in his left hand, while with the right he 
 threw the other end up in the air. The rope instead of 
 coming down again remained suspended, even after the 
 Yogi had removed his other hand, and it seemed to have 
 become as rigid as a pillar. Then the Yogi seized it with 
 both hands, and to my utter amazement, climbed up this 
 rope suspended all the time, in defiance of gravity, with 
 the lower end at least five feet from the ground. And in 
 proportion as he climbed up it seemed as if the rope was 
 lengthening out indefinitely above him and disappearing 
 beneath him, for he kept on climbing until he was fairly 
 out of sight, and the last I could distinguish was his white 
 turban and a piece of this never-ending rope. Then my 
 eyes could endure the glare of the sky no longer, and when I 
 looked again he was gone." 
 
 The difference between hypnotism and suggestion during 
 the waking state is really one of degree only. In suggestion 
 there are some inhibitory ideas present but these are not 
 so strong or numerous enough to displace the suggested 
 idea or else it would have no force. In suggestion the 
 influence generally comes through a person's conduct and 
 seldom by word of mouth. The suggestion to steal will 
 not be realised in an imitative act if the counter-suggestions 
 towards honesty are sufficiently strong. 
 
 The Process of Suggestion. The suggested idea, according 
 to Keatinge (Chap. V.), arises under certain definite condi- 
 tions of its own. These are : (1) It must be introduced 
 by a person who is trusted, loved or feared ; or under 
 circumstances that inspire these sentiments. The source 
 of suggestion, therefore, is prestige. And it must not be 
 forgotten that children love evident power. A teacher 
 who is an athlete, a good disciplinarian, or a good craftsman 
 will be far more likely to influence his scholars than one 
 who lacks these qualities. The heroes of boyhood are 
 soldiers, sailors, pirates, and the like all men of action 
 and possessing evident power. Somewhat later in life 
 the power of money and social status is realised. (2) It 
 must be introduced so that reaction is not set up. Reaction 
 can be set up in two ways : (a) The idea may be wholly
 
 SUGGESTION AND IMITATION 205 
 
 incompatible with the mental content, the sentiment and 
 aims of the subject. (6) The idea, though not very anta- 
 gonistic or possibly neutral, may be introduced in too great 
 a quantity or too persistently and so defeat its ends, 
 through the arousal of counter-suggestions. 
 
 Reaction may be overcome by a dominating personality 
 possessing self-control and reserve, inscrutability, master- 
 fulness, sound knowledge and a firm belief in his own point 
 of view. It may be prevented by subtlety in the intro- 
 duction of the suggested idea. In this case the subject 
 often deludes himself by thinking the idea is his own and 
 is thereby correspondingly elated. 
 
 Suggestibility varies according to : 
 
 Species. Gregarious -animals show more marked sug- 
 gestibility than solitary ones. Herds of wild cattle, horses, 
 and zebras, owe their continued existence to the rapid 
 response of the members composing the herds to the danger 
 signals of scouts on the outskirts. They " catch " the 
 emotion of fear easily. And the imitativeness of sheep is 
 proverbial. 
 
 Race. Savage races living in their native simplicity 
 are as open to suggestion as the most bloat of town dwellers. 
 Malays, American Indians, and Chinamen exhibit extreme 
 forms of nervous instability. Of Occidental peoples the 
 Slavs and the Celts are more excitable, i.e. more open to 
 suggestion, than the Teutons. Oratory therefore will be 
 a more potent factor in France, Russia and Ireland than 
 in England and Germany. 
 
 Sex. Women are probably more open to suggestion 
 than are men yet the results of laboratory tests of illusions 
 are inconsistent. Gilbert, testing children by the. size- 
 weight illusion (out of twenty blocks of similar size but of 
 different weights, 5 to 100 grams, the pupil is required to 
 pick out one which is apparently of equal weight to one of 
 two standard blocks large and small but equal in weight 
 (55 grams). The large block feels the lighter), obtained 
 the results shown by table 36. 1 
 
 Dresslar concluded that boys are more suggestible than 
 girls and Wolfe considered that women are about twice 
 as suggestible as men. 
 
 1 Gilbert : Researches on the, mental and physical development of 
 school children : Studies from Yale Psychological Laboratory, IT., 
 1894, pp. 40-100.
 
 206 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 TABLE 36. 
 
 Age, 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 No. of subjects {g?g; ] : 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 45 
 
 46 
 46 
 
 47 
 47 
 
 49 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 48 
 
 Force of suggestion in /Boys, 
 grams (medium values), \Girls, 
 
 43-5 
 42-0 
 
 43-5 
 43-5 
 
 45-0 
 49-5 
 
 50-0 
 49-5 
 
 40-0 
 44-0 
 
 38-5 
 40-0 
 
 Age, 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 No. of subjects {ogj; ; 
 
 54 
 49 
 
 45 
 
 58 
 
 47 
 53 
 
 49 
 51 
 
 47 
 39 
 
 43 
 41 
 
 Force of suggestion in /Boys, 
 grams (medium values), \ Girls, 
 
 38-0 
 41-0 
 
 37-0 
 38-0 
 
 31-0 
 33-5 
 
 33-0 
 380 
 
 32-0 
 38-5 
 
 25-0 
 31-0 
 
 Anthropological evidence is distinctly in favour of the 
 greater suggestibility of women. Ellis l shows that women 
 are more hypnotisable than men. Of 360 persons success- 
 fully treated by hypnotic therapeutics 265 were women and 
 only 50 were men. There were far more witches than 
 wizards in the middle ages, and women are more frequently 
 converted at revival meetings than are men. Men as a 
 whole are less religious than women and find less satisfaction 
 in suggestive religious exercises. This is especially true 
 in those who profess Christian Science. The greater 
 susceptibility may be due to the social training which women 
 receive : the excitability of temperament certainly seems 
 to disappear as the opportunities for an equal education 
 with men are opened out. 
 
 Age. In the preceding chapter we found that the 
 testimony of young children may be untrustworthy because 
 of defective memories ; it is untrustworthy under cross- 
 examination because of suggestibility. In young children 
 suggestibility is at its highest although many psychological 
 illusions, e.g. the size-weight illusion, the Miiller-Lyer 
 
 1 Ellis : Man and Woman ; Chap. XII.
 
 SUGGESTION AND IMITATION 
 
 207 
 
 illusion, the illusions caused by the Poggendorf, Zollner 
 and Hering Figures, persist throughout life. 
 
 Guidi x tested children according to their suggestibility 
 to warmth. They were told to push their fingers into a 
 box which was apparently warmed, by a spirit lamp (but 
 not in reality because the light was secretly extinguished 
 by the experimenter). As soon as they felt warmth they 
 were to signal. His results are found below : 
 
 TABLE 37. 
 
 Age, - 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 suggestibility, 
 
 50 
 
 40-9 
 
 51-8 
 
 62-5 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 33-3 
 
 21-4 
 
 27-3 
 
 33-3 
 
 According to this table thirteen is the age of minimum 
 suggestibility but other results are not in entire agreement 
 with this. 
 
 Small 2 carried out a series of experiments to see how far 
 illusions of smell could be produced in healthy children 
 and by simple means in the class-room. Rows of labelled 
 perfume bottles were placed in full view of the children. 
 They were told that the experimenter was going to make a 
 spray of perfume in the room and that if any one felt sure 
 that he could smell perfume after the spraying, he was 
 to raise a hand at once. A generous spray of water was 
 then made in various parts of the room. The young 
 children were counted by the experimenter and the older 
 ones were asked to write the name of the perfume on paper. 
 Table 38 shows the results of 540 cases. Strong, faint, 
 etc., refer to those who smelled it strongly or faintly. 
 
 Small also carried out other tests of suggestion. He 
 had a toy camel with a rope round its neck in such a way 
 that when he turned a windlass, it appeared that the camel 
 moved, although in reality there was no movement. Out 
 of 391 pupils tested, 291 asserted that they saw the camel 
 
 1 Guidi : Becherchea experimentales BUT la suggestibility ; Archiv de 
 Psychologic; VIII., 1908, pp. 49-54. 
 
 * Small : The suggestibility of children ; Pedagogical Seminary 
 Vol. IV., pp. 176-220.
 
 208 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 TABLE 38. 
 
 
 Those who smelled perfume. 
 
 Those who did not. 
 
 Grade. 
 
 No. 
 strong. 
 
 % 
 strong. 
 
 No. 
 
 faint. 
 
 % 
 faint. 
 
 No. 
 
 not 
 sure. 
 
 \ 
 not 
 
 sure. 
 
 No. no 
 perfume. 
 
 %no 
 perfume. 
 
 I. 
 
 93 
 
 98 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 II. 
 
 62 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 5 
 
 III. 
 
 54 
 
 83 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 18 
 
 IV. 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 ii 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 23 
 
 V. 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 30 
 
 VI. 
 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 ii 
 
 35 
 
 
 50 
 
 VII. 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 87 
 
 VIII. 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 67 
 
 11 
 
 
 33 
 
 High 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total, 
 
 308 
 
 51 33 
 
 148 
 
 % with illu- 
 
 
 392 
 
 
 sion=73%. 
 
 move. The percentages of suggestion in the first four 
 grades were 96, 81, 80 and 70. 
 
 Binet, 1 among other tests for suggestion, reports the 
 following : A line 50 mm. long was shown by the experi- 
 menter to each member of a class and the pupil was asked 
 to draw a line of equal length. In the reproductions there 
 was a marked tendency to draw the line too short. They 
 were then told that they would be shown a longer line which 
 they were to reproduce in like manner. The line which 
 they were shown, however, was actually shorter, measuring 
 only 40 mm. Only 9 out of 86 children resisted the sugges- 
 tion. As in other cases the younger children were found 
 to be markedly more suggestible than others. 
 
 But suggestibility persists throughout life. How else 
 can we explain the action of mobs, the influence of custom, 
 fashions in dress, standards in morality, in oratory and in 
 manners ? " You can talk a mob into anything," says 
 Ruskin, " It thinks by infection." And how easy it is to 
 collect a crowd ! If one stands and gazes into a shop, 
 seeks for something on the pavement, or gazes intently 
 upwards at a tall building, how quickly one is surrounded 
 by others doing exactly the same thing ! 
 
 1 Binet: La suggestibility ; 1900,
 
 SUGGESTION AND IMITATION 209 
 
 The suggestibility of adults is well illustrated by the 
 following : "A professor of chemistry announced to his 
 auditors : The bottle which you see before me contains a 
 chemical with a strong and peculiar odour. I wish to see 
 how rapidly the odour will be diffused through the air and 
 will therefore ask each of you to raise the hand as soon as 
 the odour is perceived." With face averted he then poured 
 the liquid over some cotton and started a stop-watch. In 
 fifteen seconds most of those in the front row had given the 
 sign, and by the end of a minute three-fourths of the 
 audience claimed to perceive the smell. Yet the bottle 
 contained nothing but distilled water, and the professor 
 had been measuring the power of suggestion and not the 
 diffusibility of an odour ! " 1 
 
 Literature is full of instances of suggestion. lago did 
 not tell Othello that Desdemona was in love with Cassio ; 
 his subtlety consisted in putting suspicion into Othello's 
 mind without drawing attention upon himself. And how 
 carefully Mark Antony insisted upon the honourable 
 character of the men who slew Caesar ! The " School for 
 Scandal " is a classic witness to the power of suggestion put 
 to its basest uses. The innuendo is ever more damning 
 than the accusation direct, so far as adults are con- 
 cerned. 
 
 Fatigue. Fatigue heightens suggestibility. Fasting causes 
 fatigue, hence throughout the ages the seer of visions 
 has employed this device to aid his day-dreaming. Modern 
 life, with its hurry and bustle, tends towards a permanent 
 fatigue, hence the increasing numbers who suffer from 
 hysteria and other nervous diseases. 
 
 Practice. Practice tends to dispel suggestibility. Many 
 illusions persist even after much practice (supra). But the 
 influence of sermons and moral lessons seems to decrease 
 in proportion to the number heard. 
 
 Suggestion in the School-room. Memory, habit and 
 other phenomena connected with mind which we have 
 discussed are individualistic ; suggestion is eminently a 
 social phenomenon. No one is neutral ; we have either a 
 good or a bad influence upon others. In the schoolroom 
 the greater personality is generally the teacher; some- 
 times, however, a pupil of the " Speug " variety (Young 
 
 1 Psychological Review ; VI., 407 ; quoted by Ross : Social Psy- 
 chology ; p. 12. 
 
 O
 
 210 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Barbarians) makes his appearance and woe be to the school 
 if his influence is not for good. 
 
 The teacher gains power (supra) by : (1) Reserve and 
 inscrutability. In colloquial language, " he must always 
 have something up his sleeve." He must not make too free 
 with the scholars and yet, on the other hand, must not be 
 too " stand-offish." He can take an active interest in the 
 children's welfare without reducing himself to their level. 
 
 (2) Sound knowledge. The idea that knowing " how " to 
 teach is sufficient, without an adequate knowledge of 
 "what " to teach, is based on a false pedagogy. Scholars 
 love to think that the teacher speaks with the authority 
 of knowledge behind him. If this belief is dispelled his 
 influence wanes immediately. The careful preparation of 
 lessons receives psychological sanction on this ground. 
 
 (3) Firm belief in his point of view. Sincerity carries great 
 weight. A sincere man, even if he is known to be wrong, 
 is patiently given consideration. But the man who talks 
 " with his tongue in his cheek," who can argue with equal 
 facility on either side in a controversy, wields little power. 
 And school children discover sincerity and insincerity with 
 wonderful facility. (4) Skill in use of indirect suggestion. 
 Suggestion owes its power to the inhibition of critical ideas. 
 It is especially powerful in the realm of moral ideas. A 
 deeply reverent teacher who never " preaches " to the boys 
 is far more likely to be of influence than a mere repeater 
 of moral precepts. The failure of the moral lessons of the 
 " Moral Instruction League " is due to the bringing into 
 the focus of consciousness that which should have remained 
 on the margin. The object is defeated as soon as it becomes 
 focal unless persuasion and reasoning are brought into play. 
 The principle of contrariance sets in. " Example is better 
 than precept." To be habitually polite, punctual and 
 kind is far better than giving lessons upon these topics. 
 
 For some reason, unexplained as yet, the humanities, 
 and more especially the classics, have been considered 
 more fruitful in moral suggestion than the scientific or 
 vocational studies. The suggestiveness of a subject is not 
 inherent in the subject itself, but lies in the method of its 
 presentation. A carefully performed experiment, or a bit 
 of craftsmanship honestly done, is as powerful as a hasty 
 or grudging translation of Caesar. 
 
 The Limits of Suggestion. Although our accent, manners,
 
 SUGGESTION AND IMITATION 211 
 
 usages of language, dress, morals, political and religious 
 beliefs, are largely a product of the suggestion of our social 
 environment, yet there are limits to its power. Suggestion 
 causes us to be dependent without knowing it to think 
 and feel like some dominant personality with whom we 
 come in contact. But man is a rational being and if 
 reasoned argument can be used instead of suggestion, it 
 should certainly find a place. If a child can appreciate 
 a motive, reasons and not suggestions should be employed. 
 The child must be taught to depend upon himself. And in 
 case of grave misdemeanours in school the indirect treatment 
 by suggestion is futile ; punishment is then legitimate and 
 necessary. 
 
 IMITATION. 
 
 In imitation there must be learning from others. The 
 imitative process, therefore, is social in character so far 
 as the observer is concerned. But this does not necessarily 
 mean that the child looks upon it in this particular way. 
 There is plenty of evidence to the contrary. The imitative 
 act is intensely individualistic so far as the child is con- 
 cerned. He imitates because he wishes to enlarge his 
 experience in that particular manner. This is the ulterior 
 motive in imitation (cf. Stout). In its higher forms it 
 may be constructive in character. And the satisfaction 
 which results from the performance is the motive for its 
 continuation. Imitation therefore persists so long as 
 satisfaction due to the enlargement of experience is a 
 resultant. Children do not try to fly because no satisfactory, 
 results accrue ; but they play horses, motor-cars and trains 
 because an enlargement of experience, which is satisfactory 
 to them, however unsatisfactory it may appear to us, is 
 the consequence. 
 
 Imitation is the basis of social heredity. In animals 
 it is the only method of carrying on, as it were, the social 
 traditions of the species. Imitation is therefore instinctive ; 
 it has its physical basis in the inherited structure of the 
 body. In its higher forms, other elements are added : 
 voluntary attention and complex ideas become involved 
 in the imitative act. Spontaneous imitation is the highest 
 form found in animals : man alone seems to be able to 
 imitate deliberately. Spontaneous imitation, which, as 
 we have seen, is closely connected with suggestion, is a
 
 212 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 potent factor throughout life. Not to imitate may be 
 more difficult than " flowing with the stream." We acquire 
 local variations of accent, we read the same books, play 
 the same games, follow the same fashion, and visit the 
 same health resorts as our neighbours. 
 
 Forms of Imitation. Kirkpatrick l recognises five types 
 of imitation Reflex imitation, spontaneous imitation, 
 dramatic imitation, voluntary imitation, and idealistic 
 imitation. It must be remembered, however, that the lines 
 of demarcation are quite artificial, that one fades into the 
 other, and that there is much overlapping in actual practice. 
 
 Reflex imitation uses physiological dispositions and its 
 stimulus is largely sensory. The crying and laughing of 
 the first year of life are solely of this type. The emotional 
 moods of later life, which are so " catching," are mainly 
 caused by suggestion and reflex imitation. 
 
 Spontaneous imitation is a somewhat higher form. : ' The 
 stimulus is usually a perception of some kind. Everything, 
 from the crowing of chickens to the whistle of a locomotive, 
 from the wriggling of a snake to the preaching of a sermon, 
 is imitated " (p. 131). This form of imitation is dominant 
 between the ages of one and five. 
 
 Dramatic or constructive imitation is aroused by the 
 images of previous perceptions. The imitation in this 
 case, unlike the spontaneous variety, is not literal ; imagina- 
 tion warps and twists the actions into new and unheard 
 of shapes. The element of make-believe is ever present. 
 Dramatic imitation begins in the third or fourth year and 
 is a potent factor during the next four or five. It coincides 
 with the period when fairy stories make their strongest 
 appeal. 
 
 In voluntary imitation the action is invariably performed 
 for some remote end. This necessitates the power to picture 
 the end-results of actions. Memory images, therefore, 
 must function before voluntary imitation can be accom- 
 plished. The skills of the school reading, writing and 
 control of language in general are largely dependent upon 
 the child's power of voluntary imitation. Such imitation 
 begins about the time the child enters school and attains 
 increasing importance as the standards are passed. For 
 example at about nine years of age the child begins to tire 
 of his poor performances in drawing. The " why " of the 
 1 Kirkpatrick : Fundamentals of Child Study ; Chap. VIII.
 
 SUGGESTION AND IMITATION 213 
 
 rules of drawing should then be insisted upon, for the period 
 of voluntary imitation has now set in. 
 
 Idealistic imitation the deliberative imitation in Stout's 
 classification is the last to develop. The standard is copied 
 because it is felt to be more correct or desirable. It is guided 
 by concepts and is preceded by critical judgments. Style 
 at cricket and other games is now judged critically and 
 subsequent imitation is based upon some ideal form which is 
 conceived as good and correct. Although found in young 
 children, it is the method par excellence for the adolescent. 
 Ideals of right and wrong, good and bad, beautiful and 
 ugly, etc., which govern this type of imitation, are extremely 
 powerful in determining the permanent characters of 
 children. 
 
 References. Bagley : Educative Process ; Chap. XVI. 
 Binet : La suggestibility. Guidi : Recherches expdrimentales 
 sur la suggestibility ; Archiv de Psy., VIII., 49-54, 1908. 
 Haskell : Imitation in Children ; Ped. Sem., Vol. III. 
 James : Principles of Psychology ; Chap. XXVII. Keat- 
 inge : Suggestion in Education. King : The Psychology 
 of Child Development ; Chap. X. Kirkpatrick : Funda- 
 mentals of Child Study ; Chap. VIII. Morgan : Psychology 
 for Teachers ; Chap. VI. Ross : Social Psychology ; Chaps. 
 II. and VIII. Scott : Personal differences in Suggesti- 
 bility ; Psy. Rev., XVII., 147-154, 1910. Scripture : The 
 Law of Size-weight suggestion ; Science, N.S., V., 277, 1896. 
 Scripture : Tests on School Children ; Educ. Rev., V., 
 52-61, 1893. Small : The Suggestibility of Children ; Ped. 
 Sem., IV., 176-220, 1896. Stout: Groundwork of Psy- 
 chology ; Chap. VIII. Thorndike : Elements of Psychology ; 
 Chap. XVIII. Waldo : Imitation in Children ; Child 
 Study Mo., II., pp. 75-87. Whipple : Manual of Mental 
 and Physical Tests ; Chap. X.
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST. 
 
 ATTENTION and interest are always associated in conscious- 
 ness : it is impossible to have one without the other. 
 Attention arouses interest, and interest causes attention. 
 Interest is an impulse to know or a tendency to attend ; 
 it is also the feeling side of attention. We attend to things 
 which interest us. 
 
 ATTENTION. 
 
 The activity known as attention may be compared with 
 vision. Whenever we wish to see an object distinctly, we 
 arrange our eye so that the image falls on the yellow-spot 
 the most sensitive part of the eye. But other portions of 
 the retina are also active and thus we get grouped around 
 the focal image a gradually fading series of peripheral 
 images. Moreover the eye " wanders " and images which 
 were on the margin are brought into the focus, while focal 
 images wander to the margin or disappear altogether. 
 There is, therefore, a continual change both of focus and 
 margin. And so with attention. It is a state of con- 
 sciousness which presents a focus and a margin. The 
 things in focus are said to be attended to : those in the 
 margin are always grouped about the central focal idea. 
 
 The ideas connected with the writing of this chapter 
 are predominantly in focus at the present moment. But the 
 pen, the ink, the paper, the noises of passing vehicles in 
 the street, the warmth of the fire, the room and its contents 
 are more or less vaguely perceived. And as I write out the 
 list, each object for a brief space of time becomes focal ; 
 there is a continuous fluctuation which is most complex 
 in character. 
 
 We may change our metaphor and compare attention to
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 215 
 
 a peak which rises out of a plain. The summit is the centre 
 of consciousness while the slopes and surrounding plain 
 together make up the margin. The parallel, however, is 
 not a good one for it suggests a static consciousness. The 
 analogy of a wave is a better one. The idea attended to 
 is on a wave which rises above the general level of the water. 
 The wave moves along and causes parts which were formerly 
 depressed to rise in turn above the others. 
 
 The focal elements of consciousness, like the focal images 
 of vision, are usually the most important. But the margin 
 cannot be neglected. For example we attend instinctively 
 to moving objects. But these need not be made focal. 
 The ability to see " out of the corner of the eye " is an 
 important factor in survival. In crossing the street we 
 see things on the right and left of us and react without 
 turning our heads . The teacher in the class -room constantly 
 uses marginal images and marginal consciousness. The 
 ability to see Tommy's movements while looking at John 
 is essential to successful teaching. The same ability is 
 made use of by the astronomer, who has learnt by experi- 
 ence that his observations of the meridional passages of 
 the stars are more accurate if he uses the outlying portions 
 of the retina rather than the margin. 
 
 Attention is restrictive, selective and unifying. As we 
 attend to an object it becomes clearer in consciousness, while 
 other contiguous objects and ideas fade away. 1 
 
 As a lens concentrates the rays of light and allows an 
 object to be seen with more distinctness, so attention makes 
 the focal constituents clearer and more intense, more 
 enduring and more easily revived. We all know that 
 attention to a bruise increases the pain, and that attention 
 to cold cloths diminishes the headache. As the object 
 attended to becomes clearer, the marginal ones become 
 more indistinct and hazy. A gaudy toy held up to an 
 injured child makes him attend to it and forget his hurt. 
 And severe neuralgia is forgotten in the midst of other 
 excitements. The attention is restricted in all cases. 
 
 1 It sometimes seems as if the margin actually disappeared : 
 we become so absorbed that we apparently have no subconscious 
 ideas ; we become oblivious to everything else. Sometimes, on the 
 other hand, as in day dreaming, we seem to have no focus. The real 
 explanation is that the attention moves so rapidly from one thing to 
 another that none of the ideas lasts long enough to be fully registered.
 
 216 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The selective character of attention emphasises its 
 connection with interest. Of all the objects presented, the 
 attention singles out those that interest. If we show a 
 plant to a farmer, a botanist and an artist, the farmer will 
 look to see if it is a weed, the botanist will notice its parts 
 and classify it, while the artist considers whether it is 
 beautiful or not. 
 
 Attention is unifying. The attention of the botanist to 
 the parts of plants leads him to classify widely diverse kinds 
 into the same order. Different plants are recognised as 
 distinct objects, yet his attention, coupled with past 
 experience, enables him to unify them through the recog- 
 nition of common elements or identities in all. The 
 growth of knowledge consists in unifying facts, events and 
 relations which before were separate. This enables the 
 mind to take in larger and larger wholes in the same act 
 and thus economise its power. 
 
 Physiological Accompaniments of Attention. Attention is 
 invariably accompanied by certain characteristic bodily 
 attitudes and physiological changes. These attitudes are 
 assumed to secure for the sense organ appealed to the most 
 favourable conditions for its use. In vision, the head is 
 turned in the direction of the object and the eyes accommo- 
 date themselves to the distance of the object and the 
 intensity of the illumination. The breath is controlled 
 and its amplitude decreased so that the movements of the 
 chest will not affect the head. In hearing, the head is 
 turned towards the sound and the eyes are often closed quite 
 unconsciously. Unconscious swayings of the body towards 
 the object attended to and involuntary changes in the 
 circulation of blood are also made. These bodily move- 
 ments, and especially the rigidity which is so often assumed, 
 cause the well-known feeling of effort during voluntary 
 attention. 
 
 Some children, however, get into the habit of assuming 
 the outer attitudes of attention during lessons, while their 
 inner attention may be concerned with other things far 
 removed from the class-room. Dewey calls this divided 
 attention and attributes it to bad teaching. A peculiar 
 look in the eye of a pupil in such a state will rarely escape 
 the observant teacher. 
 
 The motor accompaniments of attention are also more 
 pronounced in children than in adults. The wrinkling of
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 217 
 
 the forehead in thinking, the moving of the lips in reading, 
 and the rolling of the tongue in writing, are excellent 
 examples of this superfluous motor discharge. With 
 practice and time these tend to disappear although they 
 remain with some people throughout life. 
 
 Types of Attention. We have not a single power of 
 attention but many separate powers. Attention to objects 
 seen is different from attention to sounds heard and so forth. 
 Hence classifications of attention have been made. James l 
 classifies in three different ways : (1) Attention to objects 
 of sense (sensorial attention), or attention to ideal or repre- 
 sented objects (intellectual attention) ; (2) Immediate or 
 Derived. " Immediate, when the topic or stimulus is 
 interesting in itself, without relation to anything else ; 
 derived, when it owes its interest to association with some 
 other immediately interesting thing ; " and (3) Passive, 
 reflex, non-voluntary, effortless ; or active and voluntary. 
 And voluntary attention is always derived. Titchener 2 
 uses three forms Passive, Active and Secondary Passive. 
 The secondary passive is the active or voluntary attention 
 which has passed over into the passive form. Thorndike 3 
 adds a fourth variety to those of James, namely, Native 
 and Acquired. But the classification most widely accepted 
 at the present time is that of Stout. 4 He says : 
 
 " We may broadly distinguish two sorts of Attention, the 
 Voluntary and the Non- Voluntary. In so far as an object 
 excites interest on its own account, attention to it is called 
 non- voluntary. In so far as an object interests us merely as 
 a means to an end, attention to it is voluntary. Non-volun- 
 tary attention is either enforced or spontaneous. Voluntary 
 attention is either explicitly or implicitly voluntary. Thus we 
 have : 
 
 Attention 
 
 Non-voluntary Voluntary 
 
 Enforced Spontaneous Implicitly Explicitly 
 
 Voluntary Voluntary. 
 
 1 James : Psychology ; I., p. 416. 
 
 * Titchener : Primer of Psychology ; p. 76. 
 
 8 Thorndike : Elements of Psychology ; p. 100 ff. 
 
 4 Stout : Groundwork of Psychology ; p. 50 ff.
 
 218 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 " An example will help us to understand these distinctions. 
 A student is working at a Greek play in order to pass an 
 examination. Apart from such an ulterior end he would not 
 be concerning himself with a Greek book at all. It is only 
 or mainly because he intends if possible to pass the examination 
 that he is attending to it at all. Hence his attention is said 
 to be voluntary, as depending on a volition. It would really 
 be better to call it volitional. For there is a sense in which it 
 is involuntary, inasmuch as the student is doing what he does 
 not like. But the term voluntary is imposed on us by current 
 usage. 
 
 " As the student is pursuing his irksome task, the sound of 
 a neighbouring piano suddenly assails his ears ; some one 
 is playing scales. The noise forcibly challenges his attention, 
 apart from any volition on his part. In other words, he 
 attends non- voluntarily. Further, his attention is enforced, 
 not spontaneous. It is enforced by the abruptness, the 
 intensity, and in general by the crbtrusiveness of the sensation. 
 
 " This interruption being over, the student again turns to 
 his book. Shortly after, he hears some one speaking. The 
 sound may be less loud than other sounds which he has failed 
 to notice. It may be less loud than other simultaneous 
 sounds. But it is the voice, let us say, of the woman he 
 loves. Again he attends apart from any volition, perhaps 
 even against his will. But attention is not in this case 
 enforced by the obtrusiveness of a sense impression, or any 
 analogous condition. It follows from his natural bias and 
 his preformed interests. In other words, it is spontaneous. 
 The distinction between implicitly and explicitly voluntary 
 attention still remains to be explained. Our student is 
 attending to the Greek play in order to pass an examination. 
 But it may be difficult for him to keep this end in view with 
 sufficient steadiness and vividness. The contents of the book 
 before him have no sort of intrinsic connection with the 
 passing of an examination. Hence in fixing his thoughts on 
 the book he is likely to lose sight of the examination and its 
 significance. So far as this happens his attention will flag, 
 because the derivative interest required to sustain it ceases 
 to operate. The student then again thinks of the examination 
 and pulls himself together, saying, ' This won't do ; I will 
 pay attention to my book.' Following out this express 
 volition to attend, he turns his mind once more to his task. 
 Here, attention is explicitly voluntary because it follows on 
 an express volition to attend. On the other hand his sense 
 of the importance of the impending examination may have 
 so strong a hold on him that such self -reminders are unneces- 
 sary. In that case he may go on attending without framing 
 express volitions to attend. His attention is voluntary because 
 he is not interested in his object except in reference to an
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 219 
 
 ulterior end. But it is implicitly not explicitly so, because 
 there is no express volition to attend." 
 
 Welton x makes a distinction between attention and 
 absorption. " When we allow the current of our thoughts 
 to be determined by the objects around us we ought not to 
 speak of ourselves as attentive. There is no purpose 
 working in a line of intellectual or practical interest. We 
 make no effort to determine what we shall hear or see next ; 
 we accept whatever comes. As an instance let us imagine 
 ourselves present at a cinematograph show. The pictures 
 may be excellent, and may succeed each other without 
 breaks and yet without any suggestive connection. Our 
 interest may be intense ; our whole consciousness may be 
 filled by the show ; we are so absorbed that we notice 
 nothing else. We are full of enjoyment. But we are not 
 full of thought. It is quite correct to say we are absorbed ; 
 it is confusing and misleading to say we are attentive " 
 (p . 237 ) . What Welton describes as absorption is the Native* 
 Attention of Thorndike, while what he describes as Atten- 
 tion is the Voluntary Attention of all other psychologists. 
 The new terms only serve to confuse the issues. 
 
 The Attention Span. The focus of consciousness is limited 
 in extent, hence the amount that can be attended to at 
 any given moment is restricted. The measure of conscious- 
 ness when clarified by voluntary attention gives an index 
 of the attention span. The most common method of 
 testing it is to measure the capacity of the subject to 
 perceive visual symbols when these are shown for so short 
 a period as to prevent memorisation. The instrument 
 generally used is the tachistoscope a short exposure 
 apparatus. This instrument, if properly used, precludes 
 eye-movements and permits only of a glance. The results 
 as summarised by Whipple 2 are as follows : When a series 
 of unrelated objects is exposed (letters, numbers) the 
 average number of impressions that can be grasped in a 
 single exposure lies between four and five. This amount 
 is remarkably constant and does not improve with practice. 
 If the letters are combined to form a nonsense word six to 
 ten letters can be grasped in one exposure. The number of 
 isolated words that can be read is about the same as the 
 
 1 Welton : Psychology of Education ; Chap. VIII. 
 
 * Whipple : Manual of Mental and Physical Tests ; p. 232 S.
 
 220 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 number of isolated letters. A word containing 19 or 20 
 letters can be read at a glance if its meaning* is familiar. 
 If words are made into sentences the average reading 
 capacity is from 4 to 6 words. One subject, however, read 
 correctly, " Eine Tochter muss ihrem Vater gehorchen." 
 Simple geometrical figures like circles and squares are more 
 easily apprehended than letters. The amount read seems 
 to increase with age until the adult stage is reached. The 
 attention span correlates with intelligence though not to 
 the extent that is generally supposed. Burt x in his 
 experiments found that tests involving reasoning gave 
 much higher correlations. The importance of the attention 
 span in reading is very great, consequently most of the 
 tests have been concerned more or less with this branch of 
 the curriculum. The results are dealt with in the chapter 
 on language (Chap. XIX.). 
 
 The Duration and Shifting of Attention. Closely con- 
 nected with the attention span are the duration and the 
 shifting of attention. The fluctuations of attention are 
 perhaps best seen by the use of McDougall's Dot Figure. 2 
 
 FlQ. 29. McDougall's Dot Figure. 
 
 The regular arrangement of the dots precludes the domi- 
 nance of any one particular geometrical formation and 
 consequently, if attention is directed to it for a minute or 
 thereabouts, a regular succession of hexagons, triangles, 
 rhombuses and other figures make their appearance. And 
 it is next to impossible to keep a particular shape, say a 
 hexagon, in focus for more than a few seconds. 
 
 1 Burt : Child Study ; IV., p. 93. 
 * Mind : 1902, N.S., XI., 316.
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 221 
 
 Similarly, if a watch is placed at such a distance as to 
 be just heard when attention is directed to it, we find it 
 impossible to hear each successive tick. We hear a few 
 ticks and then miss one or two ; the sounds wax and wane. 
 The sounds really remain at the same degree of loudness : 
 the attention ebbs and flows and during close attention the 
 watch-tick sounds its loudest. In this case the rhythmic 
 duration is about three seconds. 
 
 Helmholtz found that a uniform grey revolving card 
 became alternately brighter and darker as the gaze was fixed 
 upon it. In listening to a lecture we do not listen uniformly 
 word for word. The attention fluctuates, but the mind is 
 so ordered that it can pick up the threads, as it were, and 
 piece the knowledge together. And if two tunes are played 
 on a piano simultaneously, one with the left hand and 
 another with the right, it is found impossible to follow both 
 tunes at once. When my students were tested, some found 
 first one tune and then the other surging into conscious- 
 ness ; some picked out one tune only ; others heard simply 
 a confused medley of sounds ; while in no case were both 
 tunes recognised .simultaneously as tunes. The shifting 
 of attention is also shown in the phenomenon of " binocular 
 rivalry." If two dissimilar figures or colours are viewed 
 through a stereoscope first one and then the other gains 
 the ascendancy and becomes registered in consciousness. 
 
 McDougall l explains the shifting of attention as due to 
 the action of drainage and fatigue on branching pathways. 
 A discharge along one pathway causes fatigue and heightens 
 the resistance. The pathway of discharge is then changed . 
 to the other unfatigued neurone system until the first has 
 recovered. Rhythm, the short duration of attention, and 
 its continuous ebb and flow are thus explained. 
 
 Ladd and Woodworth 2 conceive of the fluctuations as 
 due to the power of varied reaction of each neurone. " The 
 neurone has hitherto been held to have only one form of 
 reaction ; but the facts of inhibition, refractory period, 
 etc., seem to indicate that it has at least two opposed modes 
 of reaction, and that these correspond, in a manner, to the 
 opposed reactions of the amoeba. Now the amoeba sends 
 out branches in response to some stimuli, and draws them 
 
 1 Physiological Psychology; p. 130 ff., and Mind; 1906, N.S., 
 XV., 329. 
 
 3 Elements of Physiological Psychology ; 612 ff.
 
 222 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 back in response to others . Some neurologists have believed 
 that protraction and retraction of the dendrites occur, and 
 have based explanations of sleep, etc., on these ' amoeboid 
 movements' of the neurone. The balance of evidence is 
 against these movements, but inner changes of a chemical 
 or electrical nature might have the same results. . . . 
 
 " Suppose, then, that each neurone retains so much as this 
 of the primeval power of varied reaction ; suppose that it 
 has two opposite modes of response, positive and negative, 
 corresponding to excitation and inhibition. It may in this 
 case give either response to a stimulus, but more parti- 
 cularly according to its own condition as determined by 
 preceding stimuli and responses. Each positive response 
 is followed by a negative phase, and each negative response 
 by a back swing toward a positive phase. Aside from this 
 substitution of negative response for fatigue, the cerebral 
 action in varied reactions could then be conceived as before, 
 in terms of branching paths, drainage, and summation of 
 stimuli." 
 
 Whatever the explanation of the shifting of the attention, 
 certain it is that the focal elements are due to excitations 
 of the cerebral cortex. The message which reaches the 
 summit of the third level succeeds in recording itself and 
 in keeping the others in abeyance. For the cerebral 
 hemispheres can only deal with one message (which, how- 
 ever, may be composed of several parts) at a time. This 
 one is in the focus of consciousness. The other messages, 
 if interpreted at all, seem to be interpreted objectively. 
 
 The wandering attention during bodily and mental 
 fatigue can also be explained by the physiological theories. 
 The reduction of reaction-time with attention, as for 
 example in the start of a race to the sound of a pistol, is 
 rather more difficult to explain. We may, however, 
 suppose that expectancy is a means of working up a neurone 
 system until it is just ready to discharge. And in some 
 cases the expectancy is so great that the discharge takes 
 place before the signal. " Calling out " in class is in 
 part due to the phenomena connected with expectant 
 attention. 
 
 Attention in School. The power of attention develops 
 with age. As we grow older we increase our powers of 
 voluntary attention and at the same time, through the 
 development of interests, change the directions of our non-
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 223 
 
 voluntary attention. A young child simply must attend to 
 novel, clear, intense stimuli, consequently his attention 
 wanders and he is said to be easily distracted. But he is 
 never inattentive ; in fact there is no such thing as inatten- 
 tion during the waking state. His mind must have some- 
 thing with which to occupy itself. His attention, rather, 
 is directed elsewhere. The task of controlling this ever- 
 shifting attention is an important one for the teacher. 
 In some scholars we find a general scatterbrainedness : 
 the attention is similar to that of adults when day-dream- 
 ing. This is one of the signs of mental defect. The 
 extreme form of this wandering attention is found in 
 idiots. 
 
 Voluntary attention therefore must be encouraged* in 
 school. But it involves effort and is fatiguing, and there- 
 fore cannot be used for long periods. It, however, brings 
 its own reward. Explicitly voluntary attention, which 
 is obviously the most difficult kind of attention, passes over 
 first into implicitly voluntary attention and finally into 
 the spontaneous non-voluntary variety. With increasing 
 powers of voluntary attention the resistance to distractions 
 and disturbances is increased. Attention to one thing 
 means inattention to others. And if the attention is 
 directed towards thoughts and ideas, there must be inatten- 
 tion to those sense-impressions which previously were so 
 potent. One important function of the teacher therefore 
 is continuously to transfer the attention from lower to 
 higher forms ; from non-voluntary to voluntary, from 
 immediate to derived, and from sensorial to intellectual. 
 The strongest stimulus will always attract, but the strongest 
 need not be an external stimulus : the weak stimulus from 
 within may be so re-inforced as to become the strongest so 
 far as attention is concerned. 
 
 INTEREST. 
 
 We have seen that, from one point of view, interest 
 represents an impulse to know and so it is closely connected 
 with attention. Looked at in another way, interest is 
 synonymous with the feelings which are aroused when we 
 attend ; hence interest has some elements in it which are 
 characteristic of emotions. 
 
 The interest of a thing, however, is not an inherent
 
 224 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 property of the thing itself, else we should find an interesting 
 object arousing universal interest. But we know that a 
 picture or play, for example, can be absorbingly interesting 
 for one person, while it is hopelessly boring for another. 
 Nor does the interest lie in the subject or we should find 
 that no matter what the presented object was, it would 
 arouse an interest in him. Rather must we think of interest 
 as the emotional values arising out of a peculiar relationship 
 between subjects and objects. 
 
 Interests as Ends and Means. Interests are looked upon 
 from two different standpoints by the educator. In the 
 first place they are ends and therefore should be encouraged 
 or discouraged as the case may be ; and in the second place 
 they are storehouses or agencies for furnishing energy and 
 motive power for the acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 Kinds of Interests. Interests have been classified as 
 general and special, as native (instinctive) and acquired, 
 and as practical, intellectual and emotional. 
 
 By a general interest is meant such a wide thing as 
 interest in the news of the day or in problems of heredity. 
 It is composed of minor interests or special interests. Thus 
 interest in football or in politics are two of the special 
 interests which go to make up the general interest in the 
 news of the day. Interest in Mendelism is a special interest 
 which is part of the general interest in problems of heredity. 
 In exactly the same way, my general interest in the mental 
 and physical life of school-children overshadows my minor 
 special interests in habit, attention and fatigue. Yet the 
 minor interest, for the time being, may become dominant 
 over the all-embracing major interest. As I write on 
 interest and attention, the interest in habit or in exceptional 
 school-children fades into the background, so much so, 
 that what has been written in previous chapters has sunk 
 into the background and is forgotten for the time being, 
 hence repetitions and even slight contradictions may be 
 made unconsciously. 
 
 Instinctive interests are present when we attend to a thing 
 without previous teaching ; acquired interests are those 
 which develop through instruction. Thus all of us are 
 naturally interested in the opposite sex, in bright things, 
 in moving things, and in intense stimuli of all kinds. But 
 we are not naturally interested in arithmetic or logic or 
 physics : interest in such things must be acquired. Instinc-
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 225 
 
 tive interests may, however, be profitably used as the 
 starting point of acquired interests ; the interest felt in 
 collecting things, for example, may be used as the starting 
 point for interest in nature study, just about as easily as 
 it is used as the starting point for interest in cigarette 
 cards. 
 
 " A practical interest asks What is the use of it ? an 
 intellectual interest What does it mean ? an emotional 
 interest What is its worth in itself ? So with relation to 
 things, the first leads to all forms of invention and useful 
 contrivances ; the second to increase of knowledge ; the 
 third to the development of all forms of art. In relation 
 to people, the practical interest is concerned with their 
 relations to oneself ; the theoretical or intellectual interest 
 with their relations among themselves as seen in laws, 
 institutions, customs ; the emotional interest with the 
 intrinsic nature of their moral and social state." x Intel- 
 lectual interests may lead to practical interests and vice 
 versa, while emotional interests are ever present. There 
 is much overlapping and distortion, yet the classification 
 is most useful from the standpoint of education. 
 
 Interest and Education. The followers of Herbart have 
 allowed interest to become synonymous in meaning with 
 ease or pleasure. Hence the failure of interest as a 
 pedagogical doctrine. Always to obey the dictates of the 
 native interests means the arrest of intellectual progress. 
 The teacher should bear- in mind the great satisfaction 
 which comes with the completion of a hard task ; and that 
 permanent interests are only developed under the stress 
 of voluntary attention. Children therefore should be given 
 hard tasks, but not so hard as to be beyond their powers 
 from the beginning. Interest in abstract thinking is rare 
 in children, yet most teachers assume that it is omnipresent ; 
 whereas practical interests in doing things are omnipresent 
 yet are often stifled through disuse. And practical interests 
 lead on to intellectual interests. Teachers seem fated to 
 develop interests in the wrong things a painful heritage 
 of classical tradition. 
 
 ^Experimental Study of Interests. The experimental 
 study of interests has been approached from many points 
 
 1 Welton : The Psychology of Education ; p. 199. The chapter 
 in which this classification occurs " The Development of Interests " 
 is full of wise things and is well worth reading. 
 
 P
 
 226 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 of view with the object of determining the changes in 
 children's interests with age. Generally the children have 
 been asked to write answers to questions which would lead 
 them to indicate their preferences in certain matters, e.g. 
 " What person would you most like to resemble when you 
 grow up ? Why ? " " What man or woman mentioned 
 in the Bible do you like best ? " " Tell what you would 
 like to do when you grow to be men (and women] and why ?" 
 " What character in history do you like best and why ? " 
 " What place in the world would you most like to visit and 
 why ? " 
 
 Another method of approaching the subject is to study 
 the collections that children voluntarily make, or the books 
 they take from a lending library. 
 
 A third method is to assume that interesting things are 
 longest remembered. Hence the poems and stories of last 
 year which are still remembered are excellent indications 
 of the interest they aroused at the time. 
 
 Again, the definitions of common objects which children 
 give, the free drawings they make to illustrate a story, the 
 games they play at different ages, the songs they like best, 
 the things which amuse them can all be used as material 
 for the study of interests. 
 
 These methods are not free from objection. The answers 
 the children write or the drawings they make do not 
 necessarily give indications of their interest in the particular 
 subject. The conditions of the test, the locality, and the 
 social status of the subject are important factors. If a 
 child is asked immediately after a lesson on Egypt to 
 state what place he would like to visit, he would probably 
 say Egypt, because Egypt was most prominent in his mind 
 at the time of writing. After a lesson on the Battle of 
 Waterloo there would probably be no places quite so 
 desirable to visit as Belgium, or St. Helena, or Paris. And 
 how difficult it is for us to name our favourite play, book, 
 or author when presented with an album by an importunate 
 child ! But in spite of all the objections which have been 
 raised, the results, because of their uniforrmty, are probably 
 real indications of interests. Most of tnem, it must be 
 confessed, simply confirm our empirical judgments, and 
 those that run contrary are apt to be looked upon with some 
 degree of scepticism. 
 
 The bibliography given in the footnote contains illustra-
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 227 
 
 tions of the chief methods which have been used in studying 
 the interests of children at varying ages. 1 
 
 To illustrate further the methods employed, outlines of 
 four studies are now given. These are (1) Barnes : A 
 Study of Children's Interests ; (2) Clark Wissler : The 
 Interests of Children in Reading Work ; (3) Caroline F. Burk : 
 The Collecting Instinct ; and (4) An unpublished study, 
 Ideals of Elementary School Children in a Lancashire Cotton 
 Town, by Miss Evelyn Gardner. The latter was undertaken 
 as part of the requirements for my Course in Educational 
 Psychology at Manchester University. 
 
 1 1. Dawson : Children's Interest in the Bible ; Ped Sern., VII., 
 pp. 151-178. 
 
 2. O'Shea: Interests in Childhood; Child Study Monthly, II., 
 pp. 266-278. 
 
 3. Barnes : A Study of Children's Interests ; Studies in Education, 
 I., p. 203. 
 
 4. Shaw : A Comparative Study of Children's Interests ; Child 
 Study Monthly, II., pp. 152-167. 
 
 5. Taylor : Some Practical Aspects of Interests ; Ped. Sem., V., 
 pp. 497-511. 
 
 6. Masson : Children's Interests in Nature and Myth Literature ; 
 Child Study Monthly, pp. 30-43. 
 
 7. Brewer : Instinctive Interest of Children in Bear and Wolf 
 Stories ; Proceedings of Amer. Assoc. for Advancement of Science, 
 1894, XLII. 
 
 8. Davis : Interest in Causal Idea ; Child Study Monthly, II., 
 p. 226. 
 
 9. Ward : Geographic Interests of Children ; Education, XVIII., 
 p. 235. 
 
 10. Barnes : Interest in History ; Studies in Education, p. 83. 
 
 11. Wissler : Interests of Children in Reading work ; Ped. Sem., 
 V., p. 525-540. 
 
 12. Crosswell : Amusements of Worcester School Children ; Ped. 
 Sem., VI., p. 314. 
 
 13. Barnes : Children's Drawings ; Studies in Education, 2 vols. 
 
 14. Taylor : A preliminary Study of Children's Hopes ; Report of 
 State Superintendent of New York for Year 1896. 
 
 15. Thurleer : What Children want to do when they are Men and 
 Women ; N.E.A., 1896, p. 882. 
 
 16. Jegi : Children's Ambitions ; Trans, of 111. Soc. for Child 
 Study, III., pp. 131-144. 
 
 17. Barnes : Children's Ideals ; Studies in Education, Vols. I. 
 and II. 
 
 18. Willard : Children's Ambitions ; Studies in Education, I., 
 p. 234. 
 
 19. Gates : Musical Interests of Children ; Journal of Pedagogy, 
 XI., pp. 265-284. 
 
 20. Burk : Children's Collections ; Ped. Sem., VII., pp. 179-207.
 
 228 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 1. The aim of Barnes' study was to find what qualities of 
 objects most interest children of different ages. The study 
 was suggested by an experiment conducted by Binet, who, 
 writing in the Revue Philosophique for December, 1890, 
 described an experiment he had carried out with his two 
 little girls as follows : He asked the meaning of common 
 words such as horse, clock, bottle and wrote down exactly 
 what they answered. After a month or six weeks he 
 repeated the same list and at the end of 15 such experiments 
 he collated the results. He found (a) that their greatest 
 interest in these common objects lay in their use, and 
 (6) in their movements. They hardly ever described 
 an object by telling its colour, form, size, material or 
 structure. 
 
 Barnes carried out his experiment with a much larger 
 number of subjects. The teachers of Monterey County, 
 California, were asked to provide the children with writing 
 materials and then to read the following directions : " Write 
 at the top of your sheet the name of your teacher, your own 
 name, and your age. What, is a knife, bread, doll, water, 
 arm-chair, hat, garden, piece of sugar, thread, horse, table, 
 mamma, potatoes, bottle, flower, snail, mouth, lamp, bird, 
 dog, carriage, pencil, earthworm, shoes, finger, clock, 
 house, wolf, omnibus, ballroom, village, box, handker- 
 chief ? " 
 
 Returns were obtained from more than 2,000 children : 
 of these only 1,000 from 50 boys and 50 girls of each age 
 from 6 to 15 inclusive were used upon which to base the 
 generalisations. The answers grouped themselves under 
 the following heads : 
 
 1 . Use a clock is to tell the time. 
 
 2. Larger term a clock is a time piece. 
 
 3. Action a clock goes tick-tack. 
 
 4. Quality a clock is pretty. 
 
 5. Place a clock is on a wall. 
 
 6. Colour a clock is yellow. 
 
 7. Form a clock is round. 
 
 8. Structure a clock has a face and wheels. 
 
 9. Substance a clock is made of wood and iron. 
 
 In summarising the results each entry was made to show 
 whether the definition was single, two-parted, three or four
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 
 
 229 
 
 parted. The resultant 37,136 statements worked out as 
 follows : 
 
 TABLE 39. 
 
 Years. 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 Total. 
 
 use / B y s 
 
 Use \Girls, 
 
 1246 
 1238 
 
 865 
 962 
 
 989 
 1155 
 
 997 
 1083 
 
 984 
 984 
 
 797 
 780 
 
 819 
 946 
 
 756 
 825 
 
 841 
 724 
 
 747 
 676 
 
 9041 
 9373 
 
 Larger (Boys, 
 term \ Girls, 
 
 42 
 54 
 
 108 
 111 
 
 120 
 94 
 
 222 
 163 
 
 167 
 250 
 
 282 
 423 
 
 334 
 
 348 
 
 494 
 573 
 
 496 
 561 
 
 811 
 952 
 
 3076 
 3529 
 
 A " {Sat 
 
 72 
 18 
 
 101 
 127 
 
 85 
 118 
 
 67 
 
 74 
 
 70 
 85 
 
 88 
 72 
 
 73 
 75 
 
 57 
 106 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 51 
 
 47 
 
 735 
 
 794 
 
 *"* (oS; 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 55 
 24 
 
 83 
 37 
 
 38 
 60 
 
 33 
 37 
 
 109 
 119 
 
 98 
 73 
 
 87 
 211 
 
 95 
 96 
 
 70 
 68 
 
 698 
 753 
 
 ~ {K 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 27 
 13 
 
 36 
 53 
 
 46 
 43 
 
 64 
 85 
 
 86 
 105 
 
 103 
 132 
 
 132 
 127 
 
 78 
 119 
 
 97 
 71 
 
 675 
 750 
 
 c '- (iS; 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 37 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 11 
 
 12 
 13 
 
 9 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 12 
 17 
 
 17 
 5 
 
 127 
 83 
 
 F (gat 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 23 
 
 8 
 25 
 
 22 
 12 
 
 12 
 18 
 
 39 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 55 
 88 
 
 62 
 44 
 
 68 
 
 74 
 
 314 
 44 
 
 Struc- /Boys, 
 ture \ Girls, 
 
 18 
 18 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 26 
 35 
 
 53 
 33 
 
 48 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 78 
 
 137 
 92 
 
 150 
 180 
 
 150 
 
 167 
 
 141 
 
 157 
 
 807 
 843 
 
 Sub- /Boys, 
 stance V Girls, 
 
 26 
 32 
 
 49 
 22 
 
 67 
 72 
 
 137 
 
 66 
 
 126 
 125 
 
 181 
 184 
 
 227 
 218 
 
 271 
 273 
 
 171 
 233 
 
 251 
 261 
 
 1506 
 1489 
 
 Unclassi- /Boys, 
 fied, \Girls, 
 
 148 
 134 
 
 151 
 171 
 
 89 
 91 
 
 51 
 82 
 
 167 
 118 
 
 88 
 57 
 
 229 
 123 
 
 166 
 119 
 
 27 
 109 
 
 62 
 20 
 
 1178 
 1924 
 
 Total, 
 
 3140 
 
 2902 
 
 3199 
 
 3274 
 
 3448 
 
 3599 
 
 4098 
 
 4685 
 
 4145 
 
 4646 
 
 37136 
 
 A gradual change from year to year is noticeable. Young 
 children attend almost exclusively to the use, of things. 
 Gradually they become interested in classifying them into 
 larger groups and in noticing their qualities, form, and 
 structure. The definitions become broader and contain 
 more statements as the children get older. The seven-year 
 olds gave 2,902 statements, eleven-year olds 3,599, and the 
 fifteen-year olds 4,646. The girls are superior to boys in 
 the essentials of definition they give more statements 
 and show greater intelligence. The 500 girls gave 18 979 
 statements while the boys gave 18,136.
 
 230 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Barnes thinks that, if sufficiently extended studies were 
 made, it would be possible to establish criteria for courses 
 of instruction. As it is, the evidence is clear enough to 
 show the wisdom of starting with the uses and activities 
 of objects and gradually leading up to what they can do, 
 what they are made of, and to their structure, form, and 
 colour. And further, we cannot expect elaborate concep- 
 tions of things from young children. 
 
 2. Clark Wissler in his study The Interests of Children 
 in the Reading Work of Elementary Schools used the amount 
 remembered of the previous year's reading as the criterion 
 of interest in the subject matter. Such a study was possible 
 because all the schools of Indiana the State in which the 
 experiment was carried out were required to use the 
 State Series of Readers. The Readers contained both 
 poetry and prose the latter generally in the form of short 
 stories. 
 
 The pupils in an ordinary composition lesson and in 
 ignorance of the purpose of the questions were given the 
 following instructions : " (1) Write the subjects of all the 
 lessons that you remember from the Reader you used last 
 year ; (2) Which one did you like best ? What was it 
 that you liked ? (3) If you were taken to a book store 
 and told that you might select just one book for your own, 
 what would you take ? (4) Give your name, age and grade." 
 
 From 2,100 papers received, 1,950 papers, 1,060 from 
 girls and 890 from boys, were selected. The ages of the 
 children ranged from 8 to 15. 
 
 (1) Certain lessons were remembered by the majority of 
 the pupils, others by a few or none. The following summary 
 represents the facts of the case : 
 
 2nd. 3rd 4th 
 Reader. Reader. Reader. 
 Per cent, of total number of lessons 
 
 not recalled - 1 17 33 
 
 Per cent, of lessons recalled by 5 per 
 
 cent, or less - 34 40 11 
 
 Per cent, of lessons recalled by an 
 
 average proportion - 55 34 33 
 
 Per cent, of lessons recalled by the 
 
 majority of pupils 10 9 23 
 
 Conclusions: "The first lesson of the different Readers 
 is well remembered, also the continued lesson, or long story.
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 231 
 
 All of the lessons remembered to any great extent, except 
 a few remembered for their oddities, are in terms of experi- 
 ences the child can realise for himself. The lessons remem- 
 bered most are especially natural, or life-like. The curves 
 of the sexes are remarkable in agreement, that of the one 
 appearing as a duplicate of the other. The principal differ- 
 ence is in the number of lessons remembered, girls remember- 
 ing more than boys. The lessons not remembered by any 
 child are too short to excite interest or do not treat of things 
 a child can appreciate. The mere instructive lesson ; the 
 moral and its setting ; abstract poems concerning duty, 
 happiness, love of nature, etc., make up 5 per cent, or less 
 of the bulk of those remembered." 
 
 (2) With respect to preference, poetry was increasingly 
 preferred to prose as the pupils progressed in age. Girls 
 more frequently than boys preferred poetry. The subjects 
 were chosen chiefly because they were true to life, contained 
 moral lessons or were heroic in action. 
 
 (3) The children chose no less than 246 different books, 
 but, with perhaps the exception of Longfellow's Poems, 
 none could be said to be popular. Fifty-three per cent, 
 chose fiction, 14-5 per cent, poetry, 7-5 per cent, history, 
 5-5 per cent, biography, 5-0 per cent, religious works, 2-0 per 
 cent, science, and -5 per cent, each travel and humour. 
 Boys had a wider range of choice than girls and exhibited 
 greater individuality : they chose actions in which strength 
 and courage were displayed, while the girls chose actions 
 in which affection and kindness strove for the good and the 
 true. 
 
 3. Miss Burk attacked the problem of interest by investi- 
 gating the collections which boys and girls made. From 
 the reports of 607 boys and 607 girls the folio \ving facts 
 are indicated. 
 
 (1) The impulse to collect is instinctive and therefore 
 practically universal. 
 
 (2) It begins at the age of 3, rises rapidly from 6 to 10, 
 and thereafter suffers a gradual decline. 
 
 (3) The variety of the collections is remarkable and their 
 nature is determined by environment or imitation. 
 
 (4) Certain collections are prominent, showing the force 
 of imitation as an incentive. 
 
 (5) In childhood, there is a crude instinct to collect 
 anything ; in pre-adolescent years a more purposeful interest
 
 232 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 arises in which interest in the things themselves becomes 
 prominent ; in adolescence, a genuine interest is exhibited 
 only in aesthetic and literary collections. Imitation 
 degenerates into faddism sentimental or social. 
 
 (6) Gifts form the basis of the collections in child- 
 hood, while in later life personal efforts are made to 
 acquire things. Barter or trade is an important factor 
 in adolescence. 
 
 (7) The chief motive for the formation of a particular 
 kind of collection is the influence of others, while interest 
 in quantity is second. There is little interest shown in 
 the things themselves or in kind. The interest in kind is 
 chiefly in the number of kinds. 
 
 (8) Classification is unusual and does not appear before 
 nine or ten. The basis is colour or size, and seldom 
 kind. 
 
 The following table gives some of the prominent 
 collections and the percentages of children making 
 them. 
 
 TABLE 40. 
 
 Collection. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Collection. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Cigar tags, 
 
 64 
 
 24 
 
 Flowers, - - - 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Stamps, 
 
 60 
 
 39 
 
 Ribbons, - 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 Birds' eggs, - 
 
 47 
 
 13 
 
 Stones, - 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 Marbles, 
 
 36 
 
 22 
 
 Pebbles, - 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 Shells, - 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 White horses counted, 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 Picture cards, 
 
 9 
 
 33 
 
 Picture buttons, 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Pictures, 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 Coins, - 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Buttons, 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 Pieces of glass, 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Pieces of cloth, etc., 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 Butterflies, 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Paper dolls, - 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 Election cards, 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 Dolls, - 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 Beads, - 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Books, - 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 Spools, ... 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Rocks, - 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 Badges, - 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Leaves, 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 Strings, - 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Sea mosses, - 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 The useless and paltry nature of most of the collections 
 is obvious. It is probable that a most valuable asset in
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 233 
 
 education the instinct to collect things is being allowed 
 to run to waste. Proper direction would cause the instinct 
 to satisfy itself upon things worth while and of educative 
 value. 
 
 4. Miss Gardner used the Ideals of School Children as a 
 basis for the study of interests. 
 
 The question paper given below was sent to the 
 children in a Radcliffe school whose ages were between 
 8 and 12 : 
 
 1. Name of school. 
 
 2. Name of child. 
 
 3. Age of child. 
 
 4. Occupation of father. 
 
 5. What do you want to be when you grow up ? 
 Why ? 
 
 6. What book do you like best ? Why ? 
 
 7. What living person do you like best ? Why ? 
 
 8. What person in history do you like most ? Why ? 
 
 9. Which part of the Bible do you prefer the Old 
 Testament or the New Testament ? 
 
 10. Which of the Bible characters (excluding Jesus 
 
 Christ) do you admire most ? Why ? 
 
 11. What English King would you most like to have met? 
 
 Why ? 
 
 The questions are similar to those previously set by Earl 
 Barnes and others in London and America. The study 
 could not be carried on beyond the age of 12 in this parti- 
 cular town because of the prevalence of " Half-time " 
 employment. " As soon as a boy (or girl) reaches the age 
 of 13, he gets his ' attendances ' and begins to work. The 
 majority of the Radcliffe Elementary School children leave 
 school on their 13th birthday, while the better classes go 
 to the local grammar schools somewhat earlier. In the 
 school examined, there were only two boys over 12 years 
 of age, and no girls. The same conditions prevail in all 
 schools throughout the district." 
 
 The fathers of the children are for the most' part engaged 
 in manual labour mining, carting, weaving and very 
 often the mothers are mill-hands also, or were before 
 marriage. Of the 117 children studied, 24 were 8 years of 
 age, 28 were nine, 17 were ten, 17 were eleven, and 31 were 
 twelve.
 
 234 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 From answers to questions four and five the following 
 table was compiled : 
 
 TABLE 41. 
 
 
 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Age. 
 
 Percentage following 
 relative's occupation. 
 
 Percentage choosing 
 because they like it. 
 
 choosing 
 because of 
 
 
 
 
 wages. 
 
 8 
 
 62-5 
 
 37-5 
 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 82 
 
 . . 
 
 10 
 
 23-5 
 
 53 
 
 23-5 
 
 11 
 
 11-7 
 
 23-4 
 
 64-9 
 
 12 
 
 
 19-3 
 
 80-9 
 
 These results show that money has little or no influence 
 in the choice of occupation by young children ; they 
 choose the occupations of their fathers, sisters or brothers. 
 The age of nine or ten marks a change, and shows the 
 beginning of a critical attitude. The love of outdoor life 
 and of horses is responsible for the 82 per cent, at the age 
 of nine. The love of gain becomes prominent at 11 and 
 12 and the occupation is chosen because of the wages to 
 be earned while following it. The girls were in every case 
 more imitative than boys. 
 
 The books chosen showed the lack of general reading 
 by Lancashire elementary school children. They chose 
 Oliver Twist, which they were reading in school, or in a few 
 cases, " penny-dreadfuls " of the type " Redskin and 
 Cowboy." 
 
 The questions asked concerning historical and living 
 persons gave rise to the following table : 
 
 TABLE 42. 
 
 
 Historical Characters. 
 
 Living Persons. 
 
 
 Per cent, remote. 
 
 Per cent. near. 
 
 Per cent, famous. 
 
 Per cent. local. 
 
 8 
 
 83-3 
 
 16-7 
 
 70-8 
 
 29-2 
 
 9 
 
 85-2 
 
 14-8 
 
 50-0 
 
 50-0 
 
 10 
 
 94-1 
 
 5-9 
 
 58-8 
 
 41-2 
 
 11 
 
 53-0 
 
 47-0 
 
 58-8 
 
 41-2 
 
 12 
 
 35-5 
 
 64-5 
 
 86-5 
 
 19-3
 
 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 235 
 
 It is interesting to note that younger children are interested 
 in the more remote historical characters like Alfred the 
 Great, Hereward the Wake, while older children are much 
 more impressed by the importance of individuals recently 
 deceased. With increasing age there is shown an increasing 
 capacity for true judgment. Local personages sink in 
 importance and world-known politicians and scientists 
 like Asquith and Marconi come into prominence. Even 
 kings give way before politicians, for politicians were 
 chosen three times more frequently by children of twelve. 
 Girls chose local magnates more frequently than boys. 
 
 The Old Testament was preferred to the New, and the 
 majority of the Biblical characters were selected for their 
 goodness or their bravery. Joseph was prime favourite 
 though he was closely followed by David, and more re- 
 motely by Daniel and Samuel. Of New Testament char- 
 acters, John was the favourite ; and he was followed at 
 some distance by Peter, Matthew, Mark, Luke and John 
 the Baptist. One boy admired Judas most " because of 
 his cleverness." As the children grow older they admit 
 kindness, humaneness and honesty as characteristics 
 worthy of idealisation. 
 
 The most noticeable feature about the whole of the papers 
 is their lack of originality. Apparently the children are 
 content to accept the judgments of their elders and especi- 
 ally their teachers. A paucity of knowledge which forced 
 the children to write consistently the few names they know 
 would account for the facts. Miss Gardner is pursuing 
 the subject with children in different classes of society and 
 in different towns to elucidate the matter. 
 
 References. Angell and Pierce : Experimental Researches 
 on the Phenomena of Attention ; Amer. Jour. Psy., IV., 
 528, 1892. Arnold : Attention and Interest. Arnold : The 
 Psychology of Interest ; Psy. Rev., Vol. XIII., pp. 221-238 
 and 291-315. Bagley : Educative Process ; Chap. VI. 
 Barnes : A Study of Children's Interest ; Studies in Educa- 
 tion, Vol. I., p. 203. Barnes : Children's Ideals ; Ped. Sem., 
 Vol. VII., pp. 3-12. Barnes : Interest in History ; Studies 
 in Educ., Vol. I., p. 83. Barnes : The Historic Sense among 
 Children ; Studies in Educ., Vol. I., pp. 43 ff. Bonser : 
 A Study of the Relations between Mental Activity and the 
 Circulation of the Blood ; Psy. Rev., X., 120, 1903. Hall :
 
 236 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Aspects of Child Life. Huey : Psychology and Pedagogy of 
 Reading. James : Text-Book of Psychology ; Chap. XIII. 
 King : Psychology of Child Development ; Chaps. XII., 
 XIII., XIV. McDougall : The Physiological Processes in 
 the Attention Process; Mind, N.S., XL, 316, XII., 289, 
 473, XV., 329. Miinsterberg: Psychology and the Teacher; 
 Chap. XVIII. Myers : Text-Book of Experimental Psy- 
 chology ; Chap. XXIV. Pillsbury : Attention. Rusk : 
 Introduction to Experimental Education ; Chap. IV. Stout : 
 Groundwork of Psychology ; Chap. VI. Taylor : Some 
 Practical Aspects of Interest ; Ped. Sem., V., p. 497. 
 Titchener : Primer of Psychology ; Chap. V. Thorndike : 
 Elements of Psychology ; Chap. XX. Thorndike : Prin- 
 ciples of Teaching ; Chap. V. Welton : Psychology of 
 Education : Chap. VII. Whipple : Manual of Mental and 
 Physical Tests ; Chap. VII. Wissler : Pupil's Interest as 
 Influenced by the Teacher ; Child Study, Mo. IV., p. 159. 
 Spearman, Adamson, Burt, and Pear on Attention ; L.C.C. 
 Conference of Teachers, 1913.
 
 SECTION IV. 
 DESCRIPTIVE PSYCHOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 PERCEPTION. 
 
 Definition of Perception. Consider the following defini- 
 tions of Perception : l 
 
 (1) " Perception is the act of interpreting sensations in 
 such a way as to give us a knowledge of external objects." 
 
 (2) " The consciousness of particular material things 
 present to the sense is called Perception." 
 
 (3) " Perception is the apperceptive or synthetic activity 
 of mind whereby the data of sensation take on the forms of 
 representation in space and time." 
 
 (4) " Perceptions are mental contents due to the joint 
 activity of our sensation and apperception." 
 
 (5) " The perceived thing is not simply the physically 
 present vibrations of atoms and molecules which we call 
 light or sound or what not. It is these vibrations as they 
 are interpreted by the psycho-physical organism which 
 exposes to them a nervous system already affected by past 
 experiences that enable it to get only certain specific 
 kinds of results from the present syntheses." 
 
 (6) " Perception is the gateway through which the mass 
 of sensory excitations (save those grown purely habitual) 
 must pass before they can be admitted to set up responses 
 of the volitional kind." 
 
 All the definitions emphasise the fact that perception 
 is dependent upon the stimulation of some sense organ. 
 But a pure sensation, as we have seen, is an abstraction 
 
 1 Collected by Sinclair and Tracy : Introductory Educational 
 Psychology ; p. 70.
 
 238 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 a fiction of psychology. Only our first experience of an 
 object can possibly be a sensation. The second experience 
 recalls part of the first one and we get a perception. All 
 subsequent experiences help to elaborate the perception. 
 Thus the perception of a table is a combination of all 
 previous experiences of tables together with the sensations 
 due to the particular table considered. Hence perception 
 involves the retained elements traces left behind in the 
 nervous system by previous sensory stimulations as well 
 as sensation. But we must not think that a perception 
 is a mere " mixture " of sensations and ideal elements ; 
 it is a unit an undivided whole and when a new sensation 
 is added, it modifies the whole, just as adding a new element 
 to a chemical compound makes the whole different. Further, 
 the sensations do not come before consciousness as separate 
 things but as different aspects of one whole perception. 
 There are objective and subjective elements in every 
 perception and these continually fuse together to form new 
 wholes ; every new objective element added complicates 
 the perception. 
 
 Unless the sensory excitation is actually taking place at 
 the time, we do not get perception. If we think of a table 
 we get ideation and not perception of a table. Touch and 
 sight may give us a perception of a table although the part 
 touched or seen is but a small part of the whole object. 
 The sight of the top of a table is sufficient to give us a 
 clear perception of a table with its various qualities 
 legginess, smoothness, squareness, etc. Our past experience 
 elaborates the part into the whole. But it must not be 
 thought that perception depends solely upon sight and 
 touch. Other sensory stimuli may be the starting points 
 of perceptions. The smell of a rose may recall the rose ; 
 and the mere sound of a street piano may be elaborated 
 into a clear perception of the whole instrument. 
 
 The definitions also emphasise the fact that in perception 
 we always perceive something which we term a " thing." 
 In looking at a table we do not get a vague blur of brown 
 colour, a dim idea of smoothness and so forth, but we per- 
 ceive a thing the table as a whole, into which smoothness, 
 colour, and many other elements enter. The " thingness " 
 usually presents itself to us by means of a number of impres- 
 sions on several sense-organs ; and these we combine 
 together according to our practical interest. What portion
 
 PERCEPTION 239 
 
 of matter is termed a thing depends upon the interest of 
 the subject naming it. To most people a cart is a single 
 thing, to a wheelwright one of its wheels is a thing, while 
 to the nailmaker a single nail in the wheel is just a thing. 
 
 Thirdly, the definitions show that the perceived object 
 must have attracted the attention. Thousands of sense 
 stimuli clamour every minute for recognition in conscious- 
 ness but only the one which attracts the attention is per- 
 ceived. The perceived thing occupies the focus of conscious- 
 ness and this gives it certain attributes such as clearness 
 and exclusiveness. 
 
 Since perception is dependent upon the retention of 
 previous experiences, it follows that perception, in part, 
 depends upon our native and acquired interests. The same 
 object may excite different perceptions in different indivi- 
 duals. To use once more the illustration of the farmer, the 
 botanist and the artist viewing the same plant ; they obtain 
 different percepts because their interests have given them 
 different retentions in each case. To most passengers on 
 board ship the sextant is a " brass thing " or at most " an 
 instrument of some kind," but to a navigator it is far more ; 
 it is an instrument used for measuring angular distances 
 and is closely associated with latitude and with previous 
 experiences of its practical use. 
 
 Similarly Thorndike l expresses the same truth when he 
 says, " To the man without musical training the song sung 
 by a chorus is a vague total of sounds, but to the trained 
 musician it is a balanced harmony in which all the different 
 parts are clearly felt. To the five-year-old a page of print 
 is an indefinite smear of black specks on a white ground ; 
 to his teacher it is a definite series of letters and words ; to 
 the printer it is not only that, but also 10-point type." 
 
 The amount of sensory element necessary to arouse 
 perception becomes less and less with time. In fact an 
 intense stimulus startles rather than informs. In reading 
 we at first perceive minute differences between words and 
 letters, but with practice a mere ghostly outline of a word 
 is sufficient to give us the meaning. Consequently adults 
 tend to overlook printer's errors. 
 
 Pillsbury 2 tried to determine the amount of change 
 
 1 Elements of Psychology ; p. 36. 
 
 2 Pillsburv : A study in Apperception; Amer. Jour. Psy., VIII., 
 p. 356 ff.
 
 240 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 which might be made in a word without change in character 
 of the resultant preception. Letters in a word were varied 
 with respect to their positions and character, and the 
 maltreated word was then shown to the subjects for a brief 
 interval of time. The evidence showed that there was a 
 conflict between the objective and subjective elements of 
 perception. In some cases the subjective element won the 
 day for " the suggestion from the association was stronger 
 than the visual impression in determining the word read." 
 After showing many adverbs ending in -ly the combination 
 fellw was exhibited and was read/bZ/y, the subject declaring 
 that he had seen every letter in the word he read. The 
 most confident statements seemed to be made when the 
 letters were not actually on the slide, but were added 
 subjectively. " These facts show that for the individual 
 the centrally excited sensations are just as truly real parts 
 of the word perceived as the peripherally excited." 
 
 Percepts and Ideas. A percept stands between a sensa- 
 tion and an idea in the ascending scale of mental life. 
 Sensation passes over into perception and perception 
 develops into ideation. The greater the proportion of the 
 sensory or objective elements in perception, the nearer it 
 approaches sensation. The greater the amount of ideal 
 or subjective elements, the nearer it approaches ideation. 
 But the transitions from sensation to perception and from 
 perception to ideation are gradual and difficult to define. 
 In practice, sensation is limited to descriptions of single 
 qualities of things, while perception describes whole things 
 or groups of qualities which a thing possesses. And if a 
 man has reached a stage of mental development when he 
 can construct the whole of an extinct animal by the mere 
 examination of a small fossilised bone, he is working on 
 the very borderland of ideas. 
 
 A percept differs from an idea in the qualities of clearness, 
 passivity, steadiness and " singleness." I look at the paper 
 on which I am writing and it stands out with surprising 
 clearness. The whiteness, the smoothness and other 
 qualities of the paper force themselves upon my attention ; 
 but when I turn away and think about writing-paper the 
 vision fades and becomes dim and abstract. To get a 
 percept, one only needs to be quiescent and passive. The 
 percept comes of itself without any feeling of effort. And 
 it remains fairly steady ; it does not fluctuate like an idea.
 
 PERCEPTION 241 
 
 Further, it possesses a unity or singleness peculiar to 
 itself. I see the paper as a whole and this is at once 
 satisfying and complete. The idea, on the contrary, is 
 active and restless. One idea follows another in quick 
 succession ; an idea is invariably a member of a 
 " train." 
 
 But the description of a percept as passive and steady 
 must not be construed to mean that it is fixed and invariable. 
 As a matter of fact a percept tends to start a train of per- 
 cepts which run until some satisfactory end has been 
 reached. If we get a " train " of ideas we certainly get 
 a " series " of percepts. Moreover, a percept may start 
 a train of ideas and often does. This simply emphasises 
 the fact of the close connection between perception and 
 ideation. 
 
 But the idea is by far the better tool of thought. It is, 
 as Stout says, " a significant mental image." It is more 
 plastic less rigid than a percept. In a percept we are 
 limited to the actual thing from which emanates, as it were, 
 the various sensory stimuli. Not only does a percept fail 
 to combine with other percepts but it actually prevents 
 other percepts from arising. An idea on the other hand 
 combines most freely with other ideas. It may therefore 
 be used for planning in the future, and for making new 
 ideal constructions, or re-arrangements of old knowledge. 
 Paraphrasing Stout, 1 we may say that humans live in a 
 world of ideas, animals in a world of percepts. A monkey 
 could learn to strike with a stick and cut with a stone ; 
 it could never combine the two ideas and learn how to make 
 a stone-hammer. 
 
 Perception, Illusion and Hallucination. If we get an 
 impression of an external object which does not correspond 
 with the external object we are said to experience an 
 illusion. Thus I may think that a coat hanging on a door 
 of a dimly lighted room is the figure of a man. The experi- 
 ence would constitute an illusion. And the apparent 
 curving of the parallel lines of the figure on page 242 is a 
 permanent illusion of mankind. 
 
 If, however, I see a man standing behind the door when 
 
 nothing is present to cause such an experience, I am said 
 
 to suffer an hallucination. The object is perceived just 
 
 as clearly as if it were actually present to sense. Hallu- 
 
 1 The Groundwork of Psychology ; p. 104.
 
 242 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 cinations are of very infrequent occurrence with normal 
 people ; with the insane and those suffering from delirium 
 tremens they may be the ordinary waking experiences. A 
 number of well-authenticated cases of hallucination may 
 be obtained from James l and from the publications of 
 the Society for Psychical Research. James, in addition, 
 discusses the theories which have been put forward to 
 explain the phenomena. 
 
 FIG. 3O. Hering Figure. 
 
 Illusions, on the other hand, are fairly frequent in normal 
 mental life and would occur still oftener if it were not for 
 the fact that we test perceptions obtained through one 
 sense by those obtained through other senses. Illusions 
 of sight and hearing are fairly common, and in some cases 
 are permanent possessions, because of the difficulty of 
 testing such experiences by means of touch, smell or 
 taste. 
 
 It was known to Aristotle that an object held between 
 the crossed fingers felt double. Size when estimated by 
 touch invariably seems larger than when estimated by 
 sight. The particle which is seen to be a speck of dust 
 feels at least the size of a pea if it gets beneath an eye-lid. 
 And the dentist always fills us with dismay when we explore 
 with the tongue the size of the cavity he makes for a filling. 
 But the filling itself, when seen through a mirror, is found 
 to be quite small. 
 
 Some of the geometrical illusions of form and size are 
 difficult to explain. Why, for example, should a vertical 
 line appear to be longer than a horizontal line of equal 
 length, and more especially if one stands on the other. 
 This illusion causes a perfect square to seem higher than it 
 is broad. 
 
 The explanation usually given is that vertical motion of 
 1 Psychology ; II., pp. 114-131.
 
 PERCEPTION 
 
 243 
 
 the eye involves greater effort than horizontal and we 
 judge distance, partly at least, by the effect of motion of 
 the eye-ball. 
 
 Fio. 31. Vertical Distance Illusion. 
 
 That some of our habitual perceptions of size are inaccu- 
 rate is seen by such an example as the following : 
 
 FlO. 32. Ring Illusion : Confluxion and Contrast. 
 
 The small circle of 2 appears bigger than the small circle 
 of 3, while the large circle of 2 appears smaller than the 
 small circle of 1. Yet they are equal in each of the two 
 cases. We judge of 1 and 2 as rings of a size inter- 
 mediate between the circles composing them. The outer 
 circle narrows and the inner circle widens by contrast in 
 each case. But in 1 the circles are so wide apart as to 
 be judged independently.
 
 244 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 i a 3 
 
 
 / S / / S ////////// s // 
 
 s / / / / / / / / //////// / 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 X N N N 
 
 \ N \ N \\N\\N 
 
 / / //////////// S / S / 
 
 \ y y y y y y y \_ x v \ \ \ v \ \ \ 
 
 \ \ \ \ X N \ \ \ X \ \ N N \ \ \ 
 
 FiQ. 33. Angle Illusions : 
 
 1. Double Angle Illusion. 3. Poggendorf Figure. 
 
 2. Simple Angle Illusion. " 4. Hering Figures. 
 
 6. Zollner's Pattern.
 
 PERCEPTION 245 
 
 The various forms of angle illusions are extremely 
 interesting. The general explanation of angle-illusion is 
 that acute angles are normally judged greater, and obtuse 
 angles smaller, than they really are. The explanation is 
 not wholly satisfactory, for the influence of the relative 
 lengths of the arms of the angle, which is considerable, as 
 can be seen from the following figures, has been neglected. 
 
 In the case of reversible perspective figures we have one 
 series of sense-stimuli connected with two or three definite 
 perceptual systems. 
 
 The nervous impulse does not spread over the whole of the 
 possible perceptual systems thus causing a blur, but takes 
 one alone. Consider Fig. 34. It may 
 be looked upon as a plane geometrical 
 figure, or as a long open passage looked 
 at in perspective, or as a truncated 
 square pyramid standing on its base. 
 As we fix our gaze upon the figure we 
 get a fluctuation of the percept. By 
 adopting the following plan we can 
 see at will the form we want to see. 
 
 We cover the figure with the hand, ri - J^^gS; Per - 
 picture mentally the particular form \ve 
 wish to see, arid then remove the hand and look at it. 
 The form we conceived is the one perceived. Pre-percep- 
 tion therefore plays an important part in perception. 
 * In solving puzzle-pictures we seem to need these pre- 
 perceptions. At a first glance we get vague sense-impres- 
 sions which are not far removed from simple sensations. 
 We then picture the hidden object and hunt around for some- 
 thing which will fit in with our pre-perception. Suddenly 
 the hidden figure is recognised, it jumps into consciousness 
 as it were, and we wonder how we could have been so stupid 
 as not to see it before. 
 
 If the pre-perception is vivid and strong, it actually 
 hinders the solution. Thus a knowledge of French and 
 German misleads us in the following " catches " for it 
 makes us strive to translate : 
 
 1. Pas d'elle yeux on que nous. 
 
 2. Pas de lieu Rhone que nous. 
 
 3. Gui n'a beau dit, qui^sabot dit, nid a beau dit elle. 
 
 4. Von der Vottei mit is. 
 
 5. Mein die Uhr onbiss Niiss.
 
 246 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 As the familiar English phrases, of which these are merely 
 phonic transcripts, are recognised, we feel a shock similar 
 to that experienced in the case of puzzle-pictures, and the 
 sentences take on a totally different meaning. 
 
 And in teaching, the aim of a lesson must be clearly 
 understood by the scholars so that pre-perceptions will help 
 to make subsequent information and procedures significant. 
 
 Perception of Space and Time. These problems are among 
 the thorniest of descriptive psychology. The controversial 
 aspects are so difficult that only the merest outline of the 
 problem can be given. 
 
 With respect to the question of perception of space, most 
 psychologists agree with the statement of James l " that 
 this element (extensity or voluminousness), discernible 
 in each and every sensation, though more developed in 
 some than others, is the original sensation of space, out of 
 which all the exact knowledge about space that we after- 
 wards come to have is woven by processes of discrimination, 
 association and selection." 
 
 The chief organ of space is the eye. By means of the 
 effort of accommodation, the size of the image, the angular 
 movement of the eye-ball in its socket, the dimness of vision 
 due to distance, and the convergence of the two eyes upon 
 a single point we obtain excellent ideas of spatial relation- 
 ships. But the stimulation of the skin also helps in the 
 perceptions of space. We know, for example, the effect of 
 the application of two points to the skin when an inter- 
 mediate area of skin is unstimulated. Moving a point 
 along the skin gives a second kind of perception, while the 
 application of a straight edge gives a third. Distance is 
 also perceived by placing bodies between movable parts 
 of the body such as the thumb and fingers. The extent 
 of the movement of the limbs (kinaesthetic sensations from 
 muscle, tendon to joint) gives excellent spatial perceptions. 
 Auditory sense stimuli are very unreliable as indicators of 
 spatial distances, while smell stimuli are even more so. 
 But all percepts from touch, smell, sound, etc., are inter- 
 preted in terms of visual perception. The other senses 
 simply confirm or disprove the results obtained by sight. 
 A unity is thus given to the external world of the " not- 
 self." 
 
 Accurate spatial perception is of fairly slow development. 
 1 Paycliology, II., 136.
 
 PERCEPTION 247 
 
 The baby " cries for the moon " ; the adult has great 
 difficulty in guessing the length of 100 yards. 
 
 The perception of time is generally assumed to be due 
 to the overlapping of mental processes. Those reach their 
 maximum activity and then fade away. The clear ones 
 are in the present, the fainter ones which are but the dying 
 phases of processes lately exhibiting a maximum activity 
 are in past time. The amount of overlapping determines 
 the duration of time, and the overlapping itself, the place 
 of events in time order. 
 
 We are only distinctly aware of " now " ; the past and 
 the future are vague ; our feelings about them are simply 
 " no longer there " and " not yet there." 
 
 The " present " is of short duration, not exceeding six 
 seconds in length. Time is largely judged by what happens 
 in it. But empty time in the present is impossible ; if 
 external events are absent, it is filled in with breathings, 
 winks, heart-beats and other bodily functions. 
 
 Tests of Perception. All mental tests involve perception 
 (and attention). In order to test perception it is only 
 necessary to increase the amount of the perceptual element 
 and reduce to a minimum the other factors involved in 
 the test. 
 
 The most usual test for perception is the one known as 
 cancellation. In this test a certain letter or letters are 
 crossed out, either from an amount of special pied type or 
 from the pages of a magazine. The simplest form of test 
 is the Columbia " A " test. This consists of a sheet printed 
 with capital letters to make a pied type as shown below. 
 The subject is told to " mark as many A's as he can and as 
 quickly as possible." The time taken, the number of A's 
 marked and the number omitted are all recorded. 
 
 O YKFIUDBHTAGDAAC D IXA M RPAGQ ZTAACVAOWL YX 
 WABBTHJJANEEFAAMEAACBSVSKALLPHANRNPKAZF 
 YRQAQEAXJUDFOIMWZSAUCGVAOABMAYDYAAZJDAL 
 JACINEVBGAOFHARPVE JCTQZAP J LE I QWNAHRBUIAS 
 SNZ M W AAA WHACAX HXQ AXTD PUT YG SKGRKVLGKIM 
 FUOFAAKYFGTMBLYZIJAAVAUAACXDTVDACJSIUFMO 
 TXWA M QE AK HAOPX Z WCA I RBRZNSOQAQLM DGU S GB 
 AKNAAPLPAAAHYOAEKLNVFARJAEHNPWIBAYAQRK 
 UPD S HAAQGGHTA M Z AQGMTPNURQNXIJEO W YCRE JD 
 UOLJCCAKSZ AUAFER FAWAFZ AWX BAAA VHA M BATAD 
 KVSTVNAPLILAOXY S JUO VYIVPAAPSDN LKRQAAO JLE 
 GAAQ YEMPAZNTI B XGAIMRUSAWZ AZ WXA M XBDXA JZ 
 ECNABAHGDVSVFTCLAYKUKCWAFRWHTQYAFAAAOH
 
 248 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 In the a.t. and r.e. tests, prose selections in a foreign 
 language, e.g. Spanish or Hungarian, are employed, and the 
 subject is told to " mark all the words containing both 
 a and t (or r and e) as quickly as possible " and the records 
 are kept as in the " A " test. 1 Tests employing other 
 combinations of letters have also been used. The counting 
 of dots, the reading of complicated or nonsense prose, and 
 the description of an object which has been shown for a 
 short space of time, have also been used with some measure 
 of success as tests of perception. 
 
 The results show that perception becomes quicker and 
 more accurate with age ; that women are, as a rule, better 
 than men ; that practice improves perception ; that fatigue 
 increases errors but not the speed of perception ; and that 
 perception and intelligence are not very closely related. 
 
 References. Angell : Psychology ; Chaps. VI., VII. 
 Baldwin : Mental Development in the Child and the Race. 
 Calkins : A First Book in Psychology ; Chaps. II., III., IV., 
 V. Hall : Aspects of Child Life and Education. James : 
 Principles of Psychology ; Chaps. XII., XV. and XIX. 
 Judd : Psychology ; Chap. V. Myers : Text-Book of Experi- 
 mental Psychology ; Chaps. XXII and XXIII. Preyer : 
 The Senses and the Will ; Eng. trans., pp. 6-22. Rusk : 
 Introduction to Experimental Education ; Chaps. V. and VI. 
 Seashore : Elementary Experiments in Psychology ; Chaps. 
 IV., V., VI., VIII. and XIV. Titchener : A Primer of 
 Psychology ; Chap. VI. Thorndike : Elements of Psy- 
 chology ; pp. 35-42. Whipple : Manual of Mental and 
 Physical Tests ; Chap. VII. 
 
 1 See Thorndike : Educational Psychology, Appendix II. ; and 
 Whipple : Manual of Mental and Physical tests ; p. 254 ff. for 
 detailed descriptions and results of the tests.
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 IMAGINATION AND IMAGES. 
 
 Meaning of the Terms. Psychology, like Education and 
 Economics, is seriously hampered in its development by 
 the necessity of giving some terms of ordinary speech 
 certain narrow and highly specialised meanings. Medicine 
 suffered a similar inconvenience until it was made bi- 
 lingual. One speech, popular and non-technical, is now 
 used in describing cases to the layman, while the other, 
 specialised and technical in its phraseology, is reserved for 
 the expert. What meaning, for example, has the following 
 passage for the ordinary layman ? 1 
 
 - " The lower portion of the lamina terminals is thickened by 
 the anterior commissure, and the upper portion of it is also 
 thickened by a transverse band of fibres known as the olfactory 
 decussation. Immediately above the olfactory decussation 
 is seen a short triangular projection of the ventricle which 
 marks the point at which the neural tube remained longest in 
 connection with the ectoderm. This was probably at the 
 upper border of the neuropore and the little sac is called the . 
 recessus neuroporicus. From the recessus neuroporicus back 
 to the neuclei habenulae the roof of the median ventricle is 
 membranous. This is a part of the true brain roof and does 
 not belong to the lamina terminalis. There is no such thing 
 as a pars supraneuroporica of the lamina terminalis." 
 
 Although Psychology is gradually developing special 
 technical terms of its own, it is, unfortunately, still com- 
 pelled to use certain common words like sensation and 
 imagination, and to these restricted and specialised meanings 
 must perforce be given. 
 
 But our difficulties with terms are not yet over. The 
 word ' ' imagination ' ' is used technically in two ways . There 
 
 1 Johnston : The N.ervous System of Vertebrates ; p. 296.
 
 250 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 is a wider and a narrower connotation of the term. In 
 its wider meaning imagination includes all imaging and 
 thinking in images. It therefore is equivalent to imagina- 
 tion in its narrower sense plus imagery. Imagination in 
 its narrower sense is restricted to those cases where images 
 are recombined to form new wholes. We are said to 
 imagine the things we have never actually experienced. 
 Imagery refers to those cases where pictures of specific 
 parts of one's past experience are recalled ; we can image, 
 i.e. form mental images, only of the things we have actually 
 experienced. Thus we can image a snow landscape in 
 England, but we can only imagine a snow landscape in the 
 South Polar regions. 
 
 The word " image " has various meanings in Psychology. 
 We speak of after-images when we refer to the persistence 
 of sensation after the stimulus has been removed. If it were 
 not for after-images we could never combine the separate 
 pictures of a cinema film into a continuous whole. Negative 
 after-images are probably caused by fatigue of the retina. 
 If we gaze fixedly at a red cross for a minute or so and then 
 look up to the white ceiling we see a negative after-image 
 in the shape of a green cross. The negative after-image 
 is always the complementary colour of its positive. These 
 phenomena, however, are not images in the strict sense of 
 the word for they belong to the realm of sensation and 
 perception. And an image must not be confused with a 
 primary memory image. I can count the strokes of a clock 
 after it has finished striking because of my primary memory 
 image. This possibility is not in the category of an after- 
 image. It needs a definite act of attention to arouse it. 
 
 Image. What then is an image ? If the psychical 
 processes involved in any sense perception are revived 
 internally, i.e. without the aid of an external stimulus, 
 we get an image. Obviously then nothing can be imaged 
 unless it has previously been experienced ; a child born 
 blind can never have a visual image of the starry heavens 
 or a sunset, nor can a deaf child image the strains of a 
 musical composition. An image is thus a revived percept 
 but this must not be thought to mean that an image is 
 exactly like a percept ; in many respects it is more like a 
 ghost of a percept. 
 
 The tendency in modern psychology is to extend the 
 meaning of the term to include " feelings of things, qualities
 
 IMAGINATION AND IMAGES 251 
 
 and conditions of all sorts as not present. In this sense of 
 the word there may be an image to correspond to every 
 sensation, percept, impulse or emotion. There may be 
 images of fatigue, fear, lonesomeness and tickling, as well as 
 of faces and times." 1 
 
 An image must not be confused with an idea. An 
 idea is a higher mental process for it includes the meaning 
 of the image as well as the image itself. If I image a house 
 or even imagine a new house I get a totally different ex- 
 perience from the ideation of a house. The latter includes 
 the meaning of the house, for example, its property of 
 providing shelter. The relationship between image and 
 idea is not unlike that existing between sensation and 
 perception. 
 
 Attributes of Images. When compared with a percept 
 an image is usually found to be dim, vague, blurred and 
 incomplete. Various reasons have been put forward to 
 account for this, but none are wholly satisfactory. Accord- 
 ing to some, the difference which normally exists is supposed 
 to be one of degree in the original process, and may be 
 attributed either to the reverse flow of the nervous dis- 
 charge which causes the image (the reverse flow has not been 
 proved) as compared with that which causes the percept, or 
 to the weaker stimulus when the process is centrally initiated. 
 According to others the theory that the representative pro- 
 cess is concerned with a portion of the cortex different from 
 perception explains the difference, while one investigator 
 suggests that there is no real difference in intensity, but 
 the stimulation of the nerves is continually being reinforced 
 in the case of a percept by reference to the object actually 
 present. Huxley explains the difference by the process 
 of formation of an image. An image tends to be generic 
 in character and this explains its general dimness and 
 vagueness. He says, 2 " This mental operation may be 
 rendered comprehensible by considering what takes place 
 in the formation of compound photographs when the 
 images of the faces of six sitters, for example, are each 
 received on the same photographic plate, for a sixth of 
 the time requisite to take one portrait. The final result 
 is that all those points in which the six faces agree are 
 brought out strongly, while all those in which they differ 
 
 1 Thorndike : Elements of Psychology ; p. 143. 
 * Hume : pp. 92-94. Quoted by James.
 
 252 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 are left vague ; and thus what may be termed a generic 
 portrait of the six, in contradistinction to a specific portrait 
 of any one, is produced." 
 
 Most psychologists recognise this type of image, but 
 Miller l denies that an image can be generic and states 
 that it must from its nature be particular. If, however, 
 one images a person Avho has been seen only on two or three 
 occasions each time in a different suit, one certainly seems 
 to have a distinct representation of the person's face, but 
 his dress may be blurred and indistinct. Miller, however, 
 recognises an abstract image, apparently intermediate in 
 development between a generic image and a concept, in 
 which the image plays a very subordinate part. A concept 
 is thus built up through these different stages in the growth 
 of an image. 
 
 Although some visual images are as clear as reality the 
 number of these is far smaller than is generally supposed. 
 We tend to exaggerate the clearness when we describe them. 
 Let the reader who visualises easily call up the image of 
 a well-known building in the city. Let him now try to 
 count the number of the windows which look out on a certain 
 street. Most people find the task impossible ; the image 
 is much more hazy than is usually anticipated. Few 
 artists can paint from an imaginary model ; and few 
 persons possess the auditory imagery of a Beethoven or 
 Mozart. Of the latter, it is stated, that when only fourteen 
 years of age he heard Allegri's Miserere in the Sistine 
 Chapel, Rome. This music had never been committed 
 to paper. On his return home, Mozart, in the peacefulness 
 of a slumbering household, wrote a faultless reproduction 
 of the work. 
 
 The image is usually placed in space, but its situation 
 varies among different individuals. In some instances the 
 images seem to exist " in the eyeballs " or "in the head," 
 while in others it is planted at a distance which corresponds 
 to reality. My own visual images are of the latter variety. 
 
 If I image Leighton's " Last Watch of Hero " I feel the 
 picture as hanging on a certain wall in the Manchester Art 
 Gallery. It is next to impossible to get rid of this spatial 
 element of the image. Further, I can walk about the room 
 and the image remains stationary and quite independent 
 of my changing percepts. If the thing I image is behind 
 1 Psychology of Thinking.
 
 IMAGINATION AND IMAGES 253 
 
 me, I invariably feel the image through the back of my 
 head. 
 
 Some people possess the ability to image the four walls 
 of a room, or the six faces of a cube, at one and the same 
 time. 
 
 The percept, we saw, was in the focus of consciousness 
 and there it remained fairly steady, surrounded by a 
 margin of imperfectly sensed objects. The image is also 
 in the focus of consciousness, but unlike the percept, stands 
 quite alone unsurrounded by peripheral elements of any 
 description. 
 
 The more a memory image is examined the less distinct 
 does it become. Dr. Ward l says that " it varies continu- 
 ally in clearness and completeness, reminding one of nothing 
 so much as of the illuminated devices made of gas jets, 
 common at fetes, when the wind sweeps across them." 
 Perky also finds them to be " exceedingly unstable as 
 conscious content." 2 
 
 Images also are usually flexible, although we may with 
 difficulty picture an object in different positions or attitudes. 
 We may never have been in an aeroplane, but we can ima- 
 gine ourselves in the act of flying. Yet for most of us 
 the task is difficult, because images retain their spatial 
 attributes very tenaciously. 
 
 These distinctions serve to mark off the image from the 
 percept. The nearer a person's images approach his 
 percepts in vividness the more likely is that person to live 
 in a dream world of his own. Children often confuse the 
 image and percept. My young neighbour who told me 
 yesterday that he had been eaten by a snake a mile long 
 was not telling me a lie ; he was merely confusing images 
 and percepts. Even adults exaggerate the stories of their 
 experiences and by oft repeating come to believe them as 
 true. 
 
 Classification and Types of Imagery. Images are generally 
 classified according to the percepts which caused them. 
 We thus get visual images, auditory images, motor images, 
 tactile images, gustatory images, and olfactory images. In 
 addition, there are thermal images, organic images and 
 emotional images ; lastly there are verbal images in which 
 
 1 Article on Psychology ; " Ency. Britannica," p. 58. 
 * Perky : An experimental study of imagination ; Amer. Jour. Psy., 
 XXI., 1910. pp. 422-452.
 
 254 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 the sound of the word is heard, or the motor process 
 of articulation is reproduced, but no characteristics of 
 the object which the word describes are conjured up. 
 Verbal images are exactly the opposite of concrete images. 
 Stout thinks that the higher modes of conceptual thinking 
 are only possible by means of verbal images of words. 
 Lately, a few German and American psychologists have 
 declared their belief in the possibility of " imageless 
 thought." 
 
 According to the type of dominant imagery, persons 
 have been grouped into classes or types. Thus we get 
 visiles (those whose visual images are especially strong), 
 audiles, motiles, tactiles, etc. It is, however, quite unusual 
 to find a person who is wholly dependent upon one form of 
 imagery, i.e. pure visiles or pure audiles are almost unknown. 
 Since modern civilisation emphasises the value of vision, 
 visual imagery is far more common than other forms. 
 Lay x analysing 2,300 recorded mental images of his own 
 found that they were proportioned as follows : 
 
 Per cent. Per cent. 
 
 Visual - 574 Tactile - - 3-8 
 
 Auditory - - 28-8 Organic - 1-1 
 
 Olfactory - 5-9 Motor - -3 
 
 Gustatory - -6 Emotional - - 1-0 
 
 Thermal - 2-0 
 
 Most individuals would be classed with Lay under a 
 mixed type. Flinders Petrie, the Egyptologist, visualises 
 so accurately that " he habitually works out sums by aid 
 of an imaginary sliding rule, which he sets in the desired 
 way and reads off mentally." 2 The chess players who can 
 play, blind-folded, twenty or more games of chess simul- 
 taneously are probably endowed with extraordinary powers 
 of visual imagery. For Zola, the novelist, " every object 
 had its distinctive smell ; this was true of certain towns, 
 such as Marseilles or Paris, and even of certain streets and 
 of the different seasons of the year. The autumn, for 
 instance, smelled of mushrooms and decaying leaves. In 
 mental reproductions all these distinctive smells were 
 
 1 Lay : Mental Imagery ; pp. 36-37. 
 
 2 Galton : Inquiries into Human Faculty ; p. 66.
 
 IMAGINATION AND IMAGES 255 
 
 revived vividly and distinctly. Zola was a pronounced 
 olf active." 1 
 
 Galton 2 was the first to carry out any elaborate research 
 into imagery. He sent a long questionnaire to men of 
 science and to school children both in England and America. 
 Some of the questions related to auditory, olfactory, 
 gustatory, tactile and other forms of imagery, but the main 
 branch studied was visual imagery. 
 
 Part of his questionnaire was as follows : 
 
 " Before addressing yourself to any of the questions on 
 the opposite page, think of some definite object suppose 
 it is your breakfast-table as you sat down to it this morning 
 and consider carefully the picture that rises before your 
 mind's eye. 
 
 "1. Illumination. Is the image dim or fairly clear ? 
 Is its brightness comparable to that of the actual scene ? 
 
 "2. Definition. Are all the objects pretty well defined 
 at the same time, or is the place of sharpest definition at 
 any one moment more contracted than it is in a real scene ? 
 
 " 3. Colouring. Are the colours of the china, of the 
 toast, bread crust, mustard, meat, parsley, or whatever 
 may have been on the table, quite distinct and natural ? " 
 
 Other aspects investigated were the extent of the field 
 of view, the distance of the images, the command over 
 images, the images of persons and scenery, the comparison 
 with reality, the visual associations of numerals and dates, 
 and the visual associations of any special aptitudes. 
 
 The following are typical replies to the questionnaire, 
 divided into three groups according to the degree of vividness 
 of the mental imagery : 
 
 High. " Brilliant, distinct, never blotchy." 
 
 " The mental image appears to correspond in all respects 
 with reality. I think it is as clear as the actual scene." 
 
 " I can see my breakfast-table or any equally familiar 
 thing with my mind's eye, quite as well in all particulars 
 as I can do if the reality is before me." 
 
 Medium. " Fairly clear. Brightness at least one-half 
 to two-thirds of original. [The writer is a physiologist.] 
 Definition varies very much, one or two objects being much 
 more distinct than the others, but the latter come out 
 clearly if attention be paid to them." 
 
 1 Stout : Groundwork of Psychology ; p. 113. 
 
 1 Inquiries into Human Faculty ; pp. 57-112, and Appendix E.
 
 256 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 " Details of the breakfast-table when the scene is reflected 
 on are fairly defined and complete, but have had a 
 familiarity of many years with my own breakfast-table, and 
 the above would not be the case with a table seen casually 
 unless there were some striking peculiarity in it." 
 
 Low. " Dim and not comparable in brightness to the 
 real scene. Badly defined with blotches of light ; very 
 incomplete." 
 
 " These questions presuppose assent to some sort of a 
 proposition regarding the ' mind's eye,' and the ' images ' 
 which it sees. . . . This points to some initial fallacy. . . . 
 It is only as a figure of speech that I can describe my recol- 
 lection of a scene as a ' mental image ' which I can ' see ' 
 with my ' mind's eye.' . . . The memory possesses it, 
 and the mind can at will roam over the whole, or study 
 minutely any part." 
 
 " My powers are zero. To my consciousness there is 
 almost no association of memory with objective visual 
 impressions. I recollect the table, but do not see it." 
 
 Galton thus shows that the powers of visual imagery 
 have an exceedingly wide range and that in a few cases 
 the images are as distinct as the original. But most of 
 the images were, like Fechner's, " airy, unsubstantial and 
 vaporous." In some cases the exact colours of the original 
 objects are reproduced, in others the images appear in 
 various shades of grey. Thus some of Galton's subjects 
 could describe the actual colour of the china, coffee-pot, 
 toast, etc., as seen on the breakfast-table. 
 
 Auditory imagery is next in importance to visual imagery. 
 The ability to produce such images is largely dependent 
 upon a slight or imaged movement of the muscles of the 
 larynx and other articulatory organs. It is difficult, for 
 example, to image the sound " bubble " with the mouth 
 wide open. In this case we find auditory imagery very 
 closely connected with images of movement. " Another 
 motor element upon which the production of sound images 
 depends is rhythm. It is a kind of solid skeleton, so to 
 speak, which supports the tissues. It is doubtful if a 
 continuous unvarying sound image can exist at all." l 
 
 Motiles are more numerous than is generally supposed. 
 The motor images in writing, for example, are probably 
 as important as the visual images. Hence it is profitable 
 
 1 Slaughter : Mental Images ; Amer. Jour. Psy. XIII., p. 544.
 
 IMAGINATION AND IMAGES 257 
 
 to allow young children to feel the movements necessary 
 to form words and letters. Motor imagery is closely 
 associated with images of touch. 
 
 Tactiles are chiefly found among the blind. Helen 
 Keller must possess remarkable powers of tactile imagery. 
 The dependence of the blind upon touch images is well 
 illustrated in the case of the youth who, seeing geometrical 
 figures for the first time after the restoration of his sight, 
 had to feel the corners in wooden models before he could 
 understand them. 
 
 Olfactory, gustatory and thermal images are seldom 
 dominant enough in an individual to cause him to be 
 dubbed an olf active, gustative or thermile. 
 
 This division of persons into types visiles, audiles, 
 etc. according to powers of mental imagery has been 
 severely criticised by recent workers on the sub j ect. Thorn- 
 dike * thinks that dominance of one form of imagery is 
 seldom met with and that instead we have one type only 
 mediocrity with variations above and below. "Instead 
 of distinct types there is a continuous gradation. Instead 
 of a few ' pure ' types or many ' mixed ' types, there 
 is one type mediocrity. Instead of antagonism between 
 the development of imagery from one sense and that from 
 other senses there is a close correlation." Moreover the 
 single mediocre type is universal in mental life. 
 
 " In the case of temperament, for example, we have 
 the same history. Extreme cases are given names and 
 made into types. Verbal contrasts are supposed to have 
 real existence. Supplementary types are invented to help 
 out the discrepancies between the imagined types and 
 the real distributions of individuals. And it is highly 
 probable that, when actual measurements are made, 
 mediocrity a temperament moderately sanguine, choleric, 
 phlegmatic and melancholy ; moderately slow, quick, 
 shallow, intense, narrow and broad, moderately slow-shallow 
 slow-intense-narrow ; moderately everything will be found 
 to be the one real type." 
 
 Thorndike uses as his illustration of his " single " type 
 theory, as opposed to the " multiple " type theory, a model 
 corresponding to a normal distribution curve rotated upon 
 
 1 Thorndike: Educational Psychology; 1910 Ed., pp. 193-204. 
 See also Betts : The Distribution and Functions of Mental Imagery ; 
 1909.
 
 258 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 its vertical axis to form a solid figure in three dimensions. 
 This figure will have the appearance of a relief map. With 
 the single type, " the whole relief map would look like a 
 mountain, with, possibly, many radiating and cross ridges, 
 casual valleys and eminences, but with, always, a decreasing 
 elevation, the larger the radius of a circle drawn about the 
 summit. By the multiple type theory, the average eleva- 
 tion need bear no relation to the distance from the centre 
 spot ; the depressions would be between the several peaks 
 each representing a type. In proportion as the types were 
 held to be very sharply distinct and widely separated, 
 these intervalleys would be deep, even to the original 
 surface, and wide." 
 
 Four arguments are adduced in favour of the single type 
 theory : (1) That wherever measurements, as opposed to 
 mere speculations, have been made, they are invariably 
 in favour of the single type theory." (2) That the multiple 
 type theory presupposes inverse correlations between 
 desirable traits and these are extremely rare. (3) " That 
 the single traits involved are so often distributed each 
 approximately symmetrical around one mode and that their 
 intercorrelations are so often approximately rectilinear." 
 (4) That persons who believe in the multiple type theory 
 find so few actual cases to support their position. 
 
 Yet Thorndike is compelled to acknowledge that environ- 
 ment may develop certain traits so largely, while leaving 
 other traits undeveloped, that persons may " cluster 
 around a type of their own." Hence there may appear 
 " many minor eminences upon our relief map of human 
 nature due to influence of ' nation lived in ' ' language 
 spoken,' ' occupation followed,' and the like." 
 
 Productive and Reproductive Imagination. Our discus- 
 sion, up to the present, has been concerned chiefly with 
 images which were fairly faithful representations of the 
 actual sense-perceptions. For this reason the term re- 
 productive imagination has been given to the process. But 
 as we saw in our preliminary discussion these memory 
 images may be freely disintegrated and the elements 
 re-combined to form situations which have not previously 
 been realised. The elements of which these re-organised 
 images are composed have, however, close connections 
 with reality. If the reader were asked to draw an anima 
 which did not exist, say a gryphon, he would probably
 
 IMAGINATION AND IMAGES 259 
 
 use parts of animals well known to him and re-combine 
 them into a new whole. This re-combination of images 
 is known as prbductive imagination. Baldwin l distin- 
 guishes two kinds of productive imagination. One kind 
 is " dominated by a systematic unity of plan controlling 
 the process of selective combination." This active type 
 may be termed constructive or creative imagination. Thus 
 a child, when trying to make the design for the back of 
 a book, first thinks of the different designs he has seen 
 on books and of the various elements of design he has seen 
 used. He then works over this stock of images, selects 
 those he thinks suitable, and from them, in imagination, 
 constructs a design which he has not actually seen before. 
 This image forms the basis of his work in ornamentation. 
 The other kind is much more passive and has no definite 
 purpose. It is often called " fancy." Fancy is free to 
 form one combination after another, which may have 
 little or no connection with each other. It possesses 
 a feeling-tone of a more pronounced character than creative 
 imagination. And the feeling-tone, if the play of the 
 imagination is uninterrupted, is usually a pleasant one. 
 
 Growth of Imagination in Children. Reproductive 
 imagination develops before productive imagination in 
 children. So far as we know, young children below 2|-3 
 years cannot voluntarily form any kind of images. At four 
 or thereabouts productive imagination of a most intense 
 kind seems to develop. The child cannot always distinguish 
 fact from fancy; percepts and images are often confused 
 and the well-known lies of children are the results. The 
 large part that productive imagination plays in his life is 
 seen in his plays and games. 
 
 Imagination makes a block of wood into a soldier, a 
 match into a boat ; and a shawl, pillow or clothes-peg 
 into a doll. 2 The make-believe in doll-play is a tribute 
 to the strength of imagination of girlhood. To dolls 
 are ascribed all the physical and psychic qualities of living 
 human beings. They may be good, bad, angry, naughty, 
 loving, tired, proud or stubborn : they require food and 
 can take it gracefully at table ; they need sleep and often 
 have to be soothed with lullabies ; they often fall sick and 
 
 1 Baldwin : Encyclopaedia of Psychology ; p. 571. 
 
 2 See Hall: A study of Dolh, in "Aspects of Child Life"; 
 Chap. V,
 
 260 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 need the attentions of a doctor ; and they sometimes so 
 far forget themselves as to die. 
 
 The child himself may be the subject of his imagination ; 
 he may become a dozen different persons in a day. He 
 is first an engine-driver with an inverted chair for a train. 
 Tired of this, he becomes a doctor, visits the sick, and even 
 aspires to perform operations. He retires to rest at night 
 as a highway robber and hides beneath the counterpane 
 from the policeman who pursues him. And in the morning 
 he may arise as plain Johnny Jones. 
 
 He lives in a world of make-believe and with his increase 
 of perceptual experiences his supply of images for con- 
 version into imaginative pictures largely increases. The 
 great period for fairy tales is reached at 7 or 8. But with 
 advancing years the distinction between fact and fancy 
 is more clearly recognised. Fairy tales are cast aside only 
 to be replaced by romance, travel and adventure. And 
 with -the onset of adolescence develops the power for 
 idealisation of heroes. Hero-worship now becomes common 
 and this naturally leads on to the disciplined imagination 
 of later adolescence which creates the poet, the inventor, 
 and the artist as well as the leader of men. 
 
 Meanwhile, from childhood onwards, he has been subject 
 to a form of imagination (where a peculiar automatism of 
 the image is observed) known as day-dreaming. 1 At 7 or 8 
 years of age he was probably the chief actor in some great 
 game of life. Dreams of wealth and immense power gave 
 a roseate hue to some of the drab hours of existence. A 
 little later, dreams of travel and of military and naval 
 exploit would find a place on his stage ; and at 16 or 17 the 
 dreams would take on such practical aspects as those of 
 home-building and of future occupations. 
 
 The powers of imagination seem to decline with age. 
 Vivid visual and accurate auditory images are replaced 
 by the much more useful verbal images. Stout believes 
 that verbal images are necessary to thinking and that 
 this accounts for their increase with age. 
 
 1 See Smith : Psychology of Day Dreams ; in Hall's " Aspects of 
 Child Life." The imagery of all dreams (sleep dreams included), be 
 they never so fantastic, can be traced back to the percept of the 
 waking state. And no " Utopia " is so far removed from actuality 
 that its materials have not been dug from the quarries of per- 
 ception.
 
 IMAGINATION AND IMAGES 261 
 
 Mrs. Mumford * points out that practical and ethical 
 difficulties may arise with highly imaginative children : 
 " (1) That ' play-acting ' and dreaming often take the 
 place of doing ; and (2) That they often get into the habit 
 of beginning, and not finishing." These dangers are real 
 ones, but the danger of killing off imagination is even greater. 
 All the really great things of life are products of the imagina- 
 tion ; nay further " the whole progress of the human race," 
 as Welton says, " has been due to its imagining of better 
 things and its efforts to make those imaginings real." 
 
 Tests of Imagination. The experimental investigation 
 of imagination presents serious difficulties. Up to the 
 present, indirect tests have been most frequently applied.. 
 The investigations of the fidelity of reports, or of the 
 validity of testimony, give interesting side-lights upon: 
 the mental imagery of the subject. 
 
 A more direct test of the imagination is the ink-blot 
 test. The test was devised as a substitute for the ephemeral 
 clouds of a summer's day which are most easily imagined 
 to be so many fantastic objects. Chance blots of ink are 
 made by pressing with the finger a drop of ink between 
 two squares of paper. These squares are mounted on card- 
 board and arranged so that the same view is presented to 
 each subject. 2 Each subject is told always to look at the 
 blot-card the right side up, neither turning the card nor 
 the head, to tap sharply at the moment at the consciousness 
 of the first suggested image, and to report each concrete 
 object suggested as concisely as possible. 
 
 The individual differences of the imagination are great,, 
 and as a rule the immediate past experiences determine 
 the form of the imagery. Dearborn found that a single 
 ink-blot gave the following images with six subjects a 
 cabbage head ; an animal with its mouth open ; a fairy 
 in a cloud ; a woman seated, with a basket in her lap ; 
 top of Indian's head with the nose swollen ; and a grotesque 
 Indian's head. 
 
 Younger children are more imaginative than older ones 
 and they are more prone to believe that the ink-blot actually 
 represents the object they see in it. 
 
 Other tests of imagination are the various tests of 
 
 1 Mumford : Dawn of Character ; Chap. IV. 
 
 * Dearborn : A study of imaginations ; Amer. Jour. Pay., IX., 
 1898, 183-190.
 
 262 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 linguistic invention and the completion method of Ebbing- 
 haus. 1 
 
 In the development of sentences tests the subject is 
 asked to write as many sentences as possible containing 
 the three nouns, say, citizen, horse and decree. Each 
 sentence is to contain all three words and they are to be 
 as varied as possible. For example " a decree was posted 
 that the citizen should not abuse the horse " and " The 
 horse of the citizen was sold by official decree " are both 
 regarded as satisfactory. The judgment of the results 
 is far from easy. In general, it is found that the subjects 
 who make the most sentences make also the most elaborate, 
 and those who make the fewest sentences make also the 
 simplest and most unimaginative ones. 
 
 The word-building test is similar in character. The 
 subject is asked to make as many words as possible from 
 any or all of six letters, e.g. a, e, o, b, m, t, or e, a, i, r, I, p. 
 
 Ebbinghaus's completion method is also known as the 
 mutilated text test. From a passage of prose certain 
 words or parts of words are deleted and replaced by lines. 
 The pupil has to fill in the blanks so that the passage makes 
 sense. The ability to do the test improves with age, and 
 many factors besides imagination enter into it. 
 
 The interpretation of fables is similar in its results to the 
 mutilated text test. 
 
 Further tests of imagination are needed before any 
 reliable conclusions can be drawn. The subject, however, 
 is an important one for the educator. Imagery largely 
 influences conduct. Many a wrong action is done because 
 of the inability to realise its outcome, i.e. to image its 
 result. What youth would ever cross the threshold of 
 a public-house if he could image, vividly and really, the 
 future ruined life ? The development of a good stock of 
 images is the basis of all intellectual progress. To leave 
 the development of the imagination to the weekly penny 
 dreadful or to mere chance is sadly to neglect our duties 
 as teachers. 
 
 References. Betts : The Distribution and Functions of 
 Mental Imagery : Columbia Univ. contrib. to Ed., 26. 
 Binet and Henri : La Psychologic Individuelle ; Annee 
 Psychologique, II., 411-465. Dearborn : Blots of Ink in 
 
 1 Whipple : Manual of Mental and Physical Tests ; Chap. XI.
 
 IMAGINATION AND IMAGES 263 
 
 Experimental Psychology ; Psy. Rev., IV., 390-1, 1897. 
 Dearborn : A Study of Imagination ; Amer. Jour. Psy., 
 IX., 183-190, 1898. Gallon : Inquiries into Human 
 Faculty ; pp. 57-79. James : Principles of Psychology ; 
 Chap. XVIII. Kirkpatrick : Individual Tests of School 
 Children; Psy. Rev., VII., 274-280, 1900. Mumford : 
 Dawn of Character ; Chap. IV. Rusk : Introduction to 
 Experimental Education ; Chap. VII. Sharp : Individual 
 Psychology : A Study in Psychological Method ; Amer. 
 Jour. Psy., X., 329-391, 1899. Stout : Manual of Psy- 
 chology ; p. 409-436. Thorndike : Elements of Psychology ; 
 Chap. III. Thorndike : Notes of Child Study ; Chap. X. 
 Whipple : Manual of Mental and Physical Tests ; Chap. XI.
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 THE EMOTIONS. 
 
 Definition of Emotion. Psychologists usually maintain 
 that every mental act presents, at one and the same time, 
 three aspects, namely, a cognition or knowing aspect, an 
 affection or feeling-tone, and a conation or a striving which 
 only ceases when a satisfactory end-state is reached. 
 
 An emotion is a state of consciousness in which the 
 feeling-tone is predominant. Some sensations possess 
 more feeling-tone than others, and those from the internal 
 bodily organs are most important in this respect. Indeed 
 we may go so far as to say that the sensations which tell 
 us most about the outside world are least likely to possess 
 much feeling-tone ; while those that tell us least, hardly 
 ever come into consciousness except as vital parts of 
 emotions. Emotions, then, are chiefly aroused by organic 
 sensations, or, at least, are invariably accompanied by 
 them. 
 
 Since the feeling- tone plays such a large part in emotions, 
 it follows that they are strongly subjective in quality ; 
 they have a personal reference as opposed to an objective 
 one. Yet an object is necessary to an emotion. We do 
 not feel in the abstract, but we feel for, or about, something 
 or somebody. Hence an emotion may be defined as " the 
 feeling of a subject towards an object " (Stout) ; or as " a 
 tendency to feel characteristically when in the presence 
 of a certain object in the environment." 
 
 Characteristics of Emotion. The most obvious charac- 
 teristic of an emotion is its bodily expression. We see 
 when a man is angry, sorrowful, or full of fear. Darwin l 
 wrote a book of almost 400 pages descriptive of the expres- 
 
 1 Darwin : The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals; 
 1st ed., 1872, 2nd ed., 1890.
 
 THE EMOTIONS 265 
 
 sion of the various emotions. The following is an abridg- 
 ment of his description of rage or intense anger : 
 
 " Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified manner. The 
 heart and circulation are always affected ; the face reddens 
 or becomes purple, with the veins on the forehead and neck 
 distended. . . . With one of my own infants, under four 
 months old, I repeatedly observed that the first symptom of 
 an approaching passion was the rushing of the blood into his 
 bare scalp. On the other hand, the action of the heart is 
 sometimes so much impeded by great rage, that the counten- 
 ance becomes pallid or livid, and not a few with heart-disease 
 have dropped down dead under this powerful emotion. 
 
 " The respiration is likewise affected ; the chest heaves and 
 the dilated nostrils quiver. . . . 
 
 " The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and at the 
 same time energy to the will. The body is commonly held 
 erect for instant action, but sometimes it is bent forward 
 towards the offending person, with the limbs more or less 
 rigid. The mouth is generally closed with firmness, showing 
 fixed determination, and the teeth are clenched or ground 
 together. Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the 
 fists clenched, as if to strike the offender are common. Few 
 men in a great passion, and telling some one to be gone, can 
 resist acting as if they intended to strike or push the man 
 violently away. The desire, indeed, to strike often becomes 
 so intolerably strong, that inanimate objects are struck or 
 dashed to the ground ; but the gestures frequently become 
 altogether purposeless or frantic. Young children, when in a 
 violent rage, roll on the ground on their backs or bellies, 
 screaming, kicking, scratching, or biting everything within 
 reach. . . . 
 
 " But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly 
 different way ; for trembling is a frequent consequence of 
 extreme rage. The paralysed lips then refuse to obey the will, 
 ' and the voice sticks in the throat ' ; or it is rendered loud, 
 harsh, and discordant. If there be much and rapid speaking, 
 the mouth froths. The hair sometimes bristles. . . . There 
 is in most cases a strongly marked frown on the forehead, for 
 this follows from the sense of anything displeasing or difficult, 
 together with concentration of mind. But sometimes the brow, 
 instead of being much contracted and lowered, remains smooth, 
 with the glaring eyes kept widely open. The eyes are always 
 bright or may, as Homer expresses it, glisten with fire. They 
 are sometimes blood shot, and are said to protrude from their 
 sockets the result, no doubt, of the head being gorged with 
 blood, as shown by the veins being distended. . . . 
 
 " The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner, 
 the meaning of which I do not understand, unless it depends
 
 266 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 on our descent from some ape -like animal. . . . The lips, 
 however, are much more commonly retracted, the grinning 
 or clenched teeth being thus exposed. This has been noticed 
 by almost every one who has written on expression." 
 
 The emotion of rage may be taken as typical of emotions 
 in general. The most characteristic expressions of emotions 
 are connected (1) with changes in the blood circulation ; 
 (2) with changes in the breathing ; (3) with disturbances 
 of the secretions (tear glands and sweat glands) ; (4) with 
 movements of involuntary muscles ; and (5) with marked 
 variations in the muscular strength of the body. The 
 first three are easily observable, but it is difficult to notice 
 movements of involuntary muscles, except when they cause 
 shivering or raising of the hair, and almost impossible to 
 prove that the bodily strength is altered. By means 
 of X-rays it can be shown that the stomach movements 
 of a cat are inhibited by anger. There is recorded the 
 story of a boy who, when chased by a bull, jumped a fence 
 which he could not jump again in an un-emotional state 
 until he was several years older. 
 
 Closely allied with the expression of the emotions are 
 the changes of electrical potential in the body and increase 
 or decrease of the reflex knee-jerk by different emotional 
 stimuli. The former is measured by connecting two 
 points on the skin to a delicate galvanometer and reading 
 off the deflections. " Veraguth found that if a story were 
 read to a subject while his skin was connected with the 
 galvanometer, deflections occurred when emotional passages 
 were read." * The knee jerk is increased by martial music 
 and decreased by interesting music. The cry of a baby 
 increases the reflex, while commonplace noises, such as the 
 rattle of wheels in the street, have no effect. 
 
 The second characteristic of emotions is their early 
 development and their persistence throughout life. Thwart- 
 ing a baby, by preventing him from moving a finger, is 
 sufficient to cause an emotional outburst of anger as early 
 as the first four months of life. This early development of 
 emotions seems to be due to an evolutionary survival. 
 Animals fairly low down in the scale exhibit many of the 
 coarser emotions. The close connection between emotion 
 
 1 Ladd and Woodworth : Elements of Physiological Psychology ; 
 p. 509.
 
 THE EMOTIONS 267 
 
 and instinct indicates a possible explanation of the 
 phenomenon. Moreover, emotions persist throughout life, 
 although the emotional feelings of the octogenarian are 
 neither so rich nor so varied as those of the adolescent. 
 
 The third characteristic is their wide range and easy 
 arousal. Practically anything may excite fear in a child. 
 There is not just one thing that makes him afraid, but 
 several ; and the ease of the arousal from varied sources 
 is often a sore trial to the adult. The emotion of fear is, 
 however, felt at every stage of mental development. A 
 child of three months may be afraid of falling, while a man 
 of forty may be afraid that a loved one is going to die. 
 
 The fourth characteristic is that they interfere with 
 judgment. We do and say things under the influence of 
 emotion which subsequent sober reflection declares to 
 have been stupid. Emotions " master us " ; they refuse 
 to be used " for intellectual or practical ends." To count 
 ten before answering when angry is good advice, even if 
 it is difficult to put into practice. For the same reason 
 punishments should always be meted out to children in 
 cold blood. 
 
 The fifth characteristic is their persistence when once 
 aroused. An angry man is usually angry for a long time, 
 he refuses to cool down and vents his anger right and left 
 on both the innocent and the guilty. A child sobs on his 
 mother's breast long after he has discovered that the fearful 
 ogre is only his brother disguised with a mask. 
 
 The sixth characteristic is their difficulty of reproduction 
 in imagery. If we try to imagine ourselves angry, afraid, 
 or overwhelmed with grief the attempt is usually a sorry 
 one. We may know that we were afraid of burglars last 
 night, but it is difficult to image the palpitation of the 
 heart which was one of the symptoms. 
 
 The seventh characteristic is their incoherent nature. 
 Spiller * tried to analyse an emotion. He found himself 
 trying to steer a boat for the first time in his life, when the 
 River Cherwell at Oxford was crowded with craft. The 
 emotion of anxiety became highly developed, and this 
 emotion he examined while steering. He found himself 
 in a state of great perplexity, he wanted to do more than 
 one thing at a time wished to settle several difficulties 
 
 1 Spiller : The Problem of the Emotions ; Amer. Jour. Pay., XV., 
 pp. 569 ff.
 
 268 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 at once and hence his ideas, most of which were killed 
 before they emerged, seemed to scurry to and fro. There 
 was no serene statement, " I am perplexed as to what 
 I shall do." Instead, a crowd of incomplete thoughts 
 was presented and vain and repeated attempts made to 
 find solutions. The emotion was incoherent ; it was 
 " a mental attitude in a state of excitement." 
 
 Any other emotion if analysed would present the same 
 incoherent, illogical characteristics. 
 
 The connection between Instinct and Emotion. The con- 
 nection between instinct and emotion has long been 
 recognised as a close one, e.g. love, jealousy and fear are 
 indiscriminately described as both instincts and emotions. 
 Perhaps some of the terms are misapplied, but McDougall l 
 has worked out a series of definite connections between 
 certain instincts and emotions. 
 
 1. The instinct of flight and the emotion of fear. "The 
 instinct to flee from danger is necessary for the survival 
 of almost all species of animals, and in most of the higher 
 animals the instinct is one of the most powerful. . . . These 
 locomotory activities are accompanied by a characteristic 
 complex of symptoms, which in its main features is common 
 to man and to many of the higher animals, and which, 
 in conjunction with the violent efforts to escape, con- 
 stitutes so unmistakable an expression of the emotion of 
 fear that no one hesitates to interpret as such ; hence 
 popular speech recognises the connection of the emotion 
 with the instinct that determines the movements of flight 
 in giving them the one name fear." 
 
 2. The instinct of repulsion and the emotion of disgust. 
 The instinct of repulsion is closely allied to that of fear 
 but differs from it in its mode of expression : . fear causes 
 retreat, while repulsion prompts advance so that the 
 offending object may be removed. Evil tasting things are 
 rejected, and slimy things cause " creepy " shudders. When- 
 ever the instinct of repulsion is aroused the emotion of 
 disgust is its invariable accompaniment. 
 
 3. The instinct of curiosity and the emotion of wonder. 
 Wonder is here used as a simple or primary emotion. 
 Curiosity is aroused by things which are new and strange, 
 but which are not sufficiently new and strange to excite 
 fear. 
 
 1 Social Psychology ; Chap. III.
 
 THE EMOTIONS 269 
 
 4. The instinct of pugnacity and the emotion of anger. 
 The instinct of pugnacity " occupies a peculiar position 
 in relation to the other instincts . . . for it has no specific 
 object or objects the perception of which constitutes the 
 initial stage of the instinctive process. The condition of 
 its excitement is rather any opposition to the free exercise 
 of any impulse, any obstruction to the activity to which 
 the creature is impelled by any one of the other instincts. 
 And its impulse is to break down any such obstruction and 
 to destroy whatever offers this opposition." The instinct, 
 and therefore its accompanying emotion, is especially 
 strong in the males of the species. And it is stronger in 
 the young and undisciplined than in the old. Young 
 children are notoriously pugnacious and prone to anger. 
 
 Other more or less close connections have been worked 
 out by McDougall, e.g. : 
 
 5. The instincts of self-abasement and of self-assertion 
 and the emotions of subjection and elation ; 6. The parental 
 instinct and the tender emotion ; 7. Other instincts of less 
 well-defined emotional tendency, such as the instinct 
 of reproduction and the emotions connected with sex ; 
 the gregarious instinct and the emotions of (?) [non-lone- 
 someness] ; the instinct of acquisition and the emotion of 
 (?) [possession]; the instinct of construction and the 
 emotion of (?) [certain feelings which invariably accompany 
 the exercise of the instinct and especially the satisfaction 
 at the completion of the task in hand. No name has been 
 given to it]. 
 
 The close connection between emotion and instinct is 
 indicated by a probable common origin. Certain it is that 
 the coarser emotions in animals (and in our far-off ancestry) 
 are invariably associated with the specific instincts enume- 
 rated above. If one is not the cause of the other, there is 
 good reason to suppose that they are simultaneous effects 
 of a common cause. 
 
 Again many of the bodily expressions of the emotions are 
 instinctive actions which are reminiscent of ancestral ways 
 of life. Consider the method of expressing fear. In 
 addition to the bodily disturbances such as palpitation of 
 the heart, the breaking out into a cold sweat, the trembling 
 of the limbs, the raising of the hair and the difficulty with 
 breathing, we have the following instinctive movements : 
 the eyes are opened widely, the eyebrows are raised, the
 
 270 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 subject crouches as if to escape observation and the arms 
 are often extended as if to ward off a blow. 
 
 So close is the connection that James (1884) and Lange 
 (1885) each, independently, put forward a theory which 
 explains the coarser emotions, at least, on the basis of the 
 organic disturbances that arise as the result of instinctive 
 actions. 
 
 James-Lange Theory of Emotions. The theory is pro- 
 pounded by James in the following terms : x 
 
 " Our natural way of thinking about these coarser 
 emotions (grief, fear, rage, love) is that the mental per- 
 ception of some fact excites the mental affection called the 
 emotion, and that this latter state of mind gives rise to 
 the bodily expression. My theory, on the contrary, is 
 that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the 
 exciting fact and that our feeling of the same changes as they 
 occur is the emotion. Common sense says, we lose our 
 fortune, are sorry and weep, we meet a bear, are frightened 
 and run, we are insulted by a rival, are angry and strike. 
 The hypothesis here to be defended says that this order 
 of sequence is incorrect, that the one mental state is not 
 immediately induced by the other, that the bodily mani- 
 festations must first be interposed between, and that the 
 more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we 
 cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, 
 and not that we cry, strike, tremble, because we are sorry, 
 angry, or fearful, as the case may be. Without the bodily 
 states following on the perception, the latter would be purely 
 cognitive in form, plea, colourless, destitute of emotional 
 warmth. We might then see the bear, and judge it best 
 to run, receive the insult and deem it right to strike, but we 
 should not actually feel afraid or angry." 
 
 According to James therefore the order of events is : 
 (1) perception of object ; (2) instinctive action leading to 
 various organic disturbances ; (3) the experience of the 
 emotion ; while ordinary common sense reverses the order 
 of (2) and (3). 
 
 The arguments in favour of the James-Lange theory 
 are : 
 
 (1) The well-known .and close connection which exists 
 between instinct and emotion (supra}. 
 
 (2) Every bodily change arising out of instinctive or 
 
 1 James : Principles of Psychology ; II., p. 449,
 
 THE EMOTIONS 271 
 
 other movements " is felt, acutely or obscurely, the moment 
 it occurs." 
 
 (3) If the organic sensations or instinctive movements 
 are taken away from an emotion nothing is left. " If 
 we fancy some strong emotion, and then try to abstract 
 from our consciousness of it all the feelings of its bodily 
 symptoms, we find we have nothing left behind, 110 ' mind- 
 stuff ' out of which the emotion can be constituted, and 
 that a cold and neutral state of intellectual perception 
 is all that remains." 
 
 (4) If we put ourselves in certain bodily attitudes we 
 tend to experience corresponding emotions. If we bare 
 our teeth, clench our fists, open wide our eyes and throw 
 the body forward, it is almost impossible not to feel angry. 
 In the same way, if we kneel with clasped hands, bowed 
 head and closed eyes, it is practically impossible not to 
 feel " religious." 
 
 (5) A questionnaire sent around to various famous 
 actors by William Archer, elicited the information that 
 about half of them experienced real emotions while acting 
 on the stage real anger, real sorrow, real joy was felt ; 
 real tears were shed, real sobs and real laughtet were made. 
 
 Against the theory the following arguments have been 
 adduced : 
 
 (1) The time factor is a serious one, for the length of 
 nerve tract to be covered is great in the case of the James- 
 Lange theory. The emotion is the w ' back-stroke " of the 
 action. When we experience fear we do not appear to 
 " jump " before we feel the emotion. The two things 
 seem to occur simultaneously. On the other hand, if we 
 can remain calm and refrain from jumping we do not feel 
 fear. 
 
 (2) It is not every organic sensation that excites an 
 emotion. The feeling-tone of a delicious hot bath is very 
 great, but one could hardly call it an emotion. The 
 emotion is only aroused when there is an interference 
 with a pre-existing conative tendency. 
 
 (3) Because two things organic sensations and emotion 
 invariably occur together it does not necessarily follow 
 that one is cause and the other effect. As was pointed out 
 earlier in the chapter, they may both be effects arising from 
 a common cause. 
 
 (4) The theory does not take into account the previous
 
 272 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 disposition of the subject. In some moods, the least 
 disturbance makes us angry or annoyed. In other and 
 more joyous moods, nothing that happens can upset our 
 equanimity, in fact, annoyances are translated into actual 
 pleasures. 
 
 (5) In a similar way it does not account for what Thorn- 
 dike calls a pseudo-emotion. While at the theatre, we may 
 weep at the sorrows of the heroine on the stage, but it is 
 a very different grief from that caused by a real happening ; 
 we know the thing is make-believe. 
 
 (6) Certain emotions are aroused inwardly. We may 
 experience anger by thinking of the wrongs of the previous 
 day. But " the primary disturbance, being the pre- 
 condition of the organic reaction, cannot be regarded as its 
 effect." This type of emotion, however, is generally 
 weaker than the kind which is aroused externally. 
 
 These difficulties in the way of a complete acceptance of 
 the theory have led to numerous modifications. McDougall 
 accepts the theory providing it is modified to include the 
 possibility of " revived or reproduced organic sensations, 
 without the niter vention of actual visceral changes," 
 producing emotions. 1 Spiller thinks that James is right 
 in arguing that physical excitement is present in every 
 emotion as an essential constituent, but he also maintains 
 that emotion implies mental excitement a more or less 
 broken or hurried stream of thought tending to mental 
 and bodily chaos when the excitement is great. He there- 
 fore seems to belong to the group who state that the emotion 
 and the bodily excitement are simply two aspects of a 
 particular kind of mental process. These modifications 
 change the theory to such an extent that it becomes to 
 all intents and purposes a new one. 
 
 The Central Theory of Emotions. This theory is pro- 
 pounded by Ladd and Woodworth, 2 who use the term 
 central in contradistinction to the peripheral theory of 
 James. They state : 
 
 " A not unreasonable conjecture as to the central conditions 
 on which the excitement of the more complex forms of emotion 
 are dependent, would state the case in somewhat the following 
 way : It is a well-known fact the different individuals differ 
 
 1 McDougall : Physiological Psychology ; p. 1 14. 
 * Elements of Physiological Psychology ; pp. 522 ff.
 
 THE EMOTIONS 273 
 
 more widely and incalculably as to the particular feelings 
 evoked, on different particular occasions, than as to the 
 sensations and ideas occasioned by changes in the amounts, 
 kinds, and time-rates of the stimuli which act upon the peri- 
 pheral nervous system. This fact suggests that our feelings 
 are determined by the changeable relations of the neural 
 processes to the constitution, previous habits and temporary 
 mood of the nervous system, and by the relations of each 
 neural process to all the others within the central system, in 
 a more irregular way than are our sensations and our know- 
 ledge. Those conditions of the nervous processes which 
 depend immediately upon the quality, intensity, and time- 
 rate of the stimuli that act upon the end-organs of sense, are in 
 general conformable to law ; they are regular and as it were 
 to be depended upon. In correspondence with them are the 
 regularity and the dependableness of our sensations and of our 
 knowledge by the senses. But over and above the more 
 uniformly recurrent similar elements in all the peripherally 
 originated nervous processes, there is more or less of a 'semi- 
 chaotic surplus ' of nervous action occasioned in the brain 
 centres. In this semi -chaotic surplus the general character 
 of which depends upon what the whole nervous system 
 was, and is, and has recently been doing, and upon how the 
 various new stimulations, running into the brain centres, 
 fit in with all this and with one another may we find 
 the physiological conditions of the emotions. No wonder, 
 then, that these conditions are so indeterminate for different 
 individuals, and so changeable in the same individual. At 
 any particular moment the kind and amount of feeling 
 experienced has for its physiological condition the total 
 complex relation in which all the subordinate neural pro- 
 cesses, set up by the stimuli of that moment stand to one 
 another and to the set, or direction, of the pre-existing 
 neural processes." 
 
 According to this theory it is the semi-chaotic surplus 
 of nervous action which causes the emotion. The theory 
 explains certain features connected with emotions very 
 clearly, e.g. the hurrying of the thoughts, the general 
 perplexity, the intense excitement, the incoherency and 
 so forth. It also explains the influence of the pre-disposition 
 of emotions, but it does not explain why some objects 
 arouse emotions and others do not. Nor does it account 
 for the inhibition of emotion by the control of bodily 
 movement. 
 
 The reader will have noticed a similarity between this 
 theory of emotion and the explanation the authors
 
 274 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 adduced to account for the phenomenon of association 
 (see Chapter X.). In the one case we have a "semi- 
 chaotic surplus of nervous action," and in the other 
 a " heightened excitability " which follows a nervous 
 discharge. 
 
 Classification of Emotions. James classifies emotions 
 into coarser emotions (anger, fear, love, hate, joy, grief, 
 shame, pride), and subtler emotions (moral, intellectual 
 and aesthetic feelings). 
 
 Stout uses the terms primary (anger, fear, grief, joy and 
 surprise) and derivative (pity, admiration, gratitude, 
 remorse and wounded vanity). McDougall, meaning the 
 same thing, uses primary and complex. 
 
 Titchener divides them into qualitative emotions those 
 in which the aspect of quality is reflected, and temporal 
 emotions those in which the time element is important. 
 Of the former, we get as examples joy, sorrow, sympathy, 
 like, dislike, antipathy and attraction. Of the latter 
 expectation and surprise are the fundamental ones. In 
 another place, Titchener divides them into pleasurable 
 and unpleasurable. 
 
 Thorndike speaks of real emotions and aesthetic emo- 
 tions. The aesthetic emotions are subdivided into sensory 
 pleasures and pseudo-emotions. The pseudo-emotions have 
 been much discussed. " The sorrow felt for the suffering 
 hero is unlike real sorrow (1) in that one does not 
 rush around wringing Jiis hands and seeking to offer 
 help nor feel like doing so, and (2) in that, whereas 
 real sorrow is very uncomfortable, the pseudo-sorrow of 
 the reader of the story is more or less enjoyable." 
 In some cases, as when an illiterate sees a play, the 
 pseudo-emotion becomes closely allied to a real emo- 
 tion. A pseudo-emotion of this kind seems to be 
 experienced sometimes at the Zoo when a caged animal 
 makes a sudden spring at the bars, or gives vent to 
 a sudden roar. We are frightened but our fear is not 
 at all comparable to the real heart-gripping emotion 
 of fear. 
 
 Westermarck * divides up the moral emotions into two 
 classes disapproval, or indignation, and approval. The 
 
 1 Westermarck : The Origin and Development of Moral Ideas ; 
 Chap. II. This chapter, which is very controversial in its nature, 
 forms the basis of the whole treatise.
 
 THE EMOTIONS 275 
 
 relationship existing between them is shown by the following 
 chart : 
 
 Retributive emotions 
 
 Resentment Retribution kindly 
 
 
 emotion 
 
 1 1 
 
 Anger and Moral 
 revenge disapproval 
 
 Moral 
 approval 
 
 1 
 Non -moral 
 Kindly 
 
 Moral emotions 
 
 including gratitude 
 
 The various classifications adopted by different writers 
 show that there is not a fundamental difference between 
 emotions ; all the classifications are therefore arbitrary. 
 
 Emotion and Mood. A mood is distinguished from an 
 emotion by (1) Its duration. " A mood is a ' long-drawn 
 out ' emotion." (2) Its intensity. In comparison with an 
 emotion it seems more "dilute " ; it is to an emotion as 
 an element in the margin of attention is to one in the focus. 
 Thus its feeling-tone is much less than that of an emotion. 
 (3) Its lack of a distinct " object." 
 
 Emotions often fade into moods, or have moods as 
 aftermaths. In the same way a mood may " flare up " 
 into an emotion. From one point of view a mood is simply 
 a succession of little emotional outbursts. 
 
 Change of Emotions with Age. The emotions of man 
 seem to exhibit two maximal periods, the first at the age 
 of 4-5 and the second during adolescence. From adol- 
 escence onwards the emotions wane with men, and also 
 with women except for the emotional outbursts consequent 
 upon motherhood. On the whole, however, the emotions 
 of children are stronger than those of adults. They are 
 also more fickle and variable : tears, for example, are often 
 very near to laughter. The waning of the emotions seems 
 to be due to the increasing rationality of life which comes 
 with age. It is impossible to yoke calm judgment and 
 wealth of emotional life in .one and the same person. The 
 amenities of civilised life also tend to kill off the emotions. 
 " Washing, cooking, going to school and church, making 
 shoes or overcoats or steel rails, buying and selling, eating
 
 276 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 regular meals or sleeping in fire-proof buildings with locked 
 doors and watchmen, are occupations not conducive to a 
 vigorous emotional life." x 
 
 The outburst of emotional life at adolescence is connected 
 with the development of the powers of sex. It exhibits 
 a very wide range and there is a curious instability about 
 it. Alterations of feeling take place with unpleasant 
 frequency. Selfishness alternates with altruism, con- 
 servatism with iconoclasm, and self-confidence with 
 humility, in the most embarrassing fashion. This emotional 
 instability, coupled as it is with profound bodily changes, 
 is sometimes a source of moral danger. On the other hand, 
 it is the mainspring of the enthusiasm for ideals which is 
 one of the marked features of adolescence. 
 
 References. Angell : Psychology ; Chaps. XIII., XIV., 
 XVIII., XIX. Betts : The Mind and its Education ; 
 Chaps. XII., XIII., XIV. Calkins: A First Book of 
 Psychology ; Chaps. XL, XIII. Darwin : Expression of 
 the Emotions. James : Principles of Psychology ; Chap. 
 XXV. Judd : Psychology ; Chap. VII. McDougall : 
 Physiological Psychology ; Chap. VI. Ribot : Psychology 
 of the Emotions. Seashore : Elementary Experiments in 
 Psychology ; Chap. XV. Titchener : A Primer of Psy- 
 chology ; Chaps. I., VEIL, XII. Thorndike : Notes on 
 Child Study ; Chap. XIV. Thorndike : Elements of 
 Psychology; Chap. V. Thorndike: Principles of Teaching ; 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 1 Thorndike : Notes on Child Study ; p. 103.
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF BABYHOOD AND 
 ADOLESCENCE. 
 
 ALTHOUGH the emphasis throughout this book has been 
 placed on the mental and physical life of children at school, 
 the periods of babyhood (birth to 4 or 5) and early adol- 
 escence (12-18) cannot be neglected. In order to under- 
 stand a child at school some knowledge of his pre-school 
 life is essential. Since the majority of children leave 
 school before reaching the age of fourteen, only the begin- 
 nings of adolescence can be legitimately included under 
 school-life, yet the supreme importance of this period from 
 an ethical and social point of view, merits its careful 
 consideration. An attempt will therefore be made to 
 describe some of the characteristics of these periods. 
 
 BABYHOOD. 
 
 Physical. At birth a baby averages 7 Ibs. in weight and 
 19-5 inches in height. The weight of a boy is one-twentieth 
 of his adult weight, while that of a girl is a little more than 
 one-seventeenth. The variability in weight at birth is 
 much greater than that of height since the range for the 
 former is from three to sixteen Ibs. The weight trebles 
 during the first year and the height increases 7 or 8 inches. 
 The weight at the end of babyhood (4-5 years) is five times 
 as great as at birth, while the height has doubled both for 
 boys and girls. 
 
 The muscles of the hands and feet concerned with 
 grasping and the muscles of the mouth concerned with
 
 278 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 sucking are the first to be controlled. Following the 
 development of these are the muscles which turn the eyes, 
 the larger muscles of the arms and legs, the muscles which 
 turn the head, and the muscles of the back concerned with 
 an upright sitting posture. Towards the close of the 
 first year, the muscles for creeping, standing and walking 
 and the finer muscles for articulation are rapidly brought 
 under control. All these muscles are fully co-ordinated 
 at the end of babyhood ; the muscles concerned with the 
 finer movements and adjustments of the limbs are still 
 undeveloped, and hence such tasks as writing, painting 
 and sewing should not be undertaken at this time. 
 
 The stomach during the first year of life is almost purely 
 carnivorous in size and shape. The cutting teeth (meat) 
 also appear before the grinding teeth (starch). Twenty 
 milk teeth ordinarily make their appearance before or just 
 after the close of the second year. The time of cutting 
 the milk-teeth is generally as follows : 
 
 The two lower central incisors, 6-9 months. 
 
 The four upper incisors, 8-12 months. 
 
 The two lateral lower incisors and the four anterior 
 
 molars, 12-15 months. 
 The four canine or eye-teeth, 18-24 months. 
 The four back molars, 24-30 months. 
 
 It must be remembered that the time of teeth cutting, 
 and even the number of teeth, varies with different children. 
 Some babies are born with one or two incisor teeth already 
 cut, while others do not cut the first incisor until they are 
 twelve months old. 
 
 The brain of a boy at birth is 12 3 per cent, of the weight 
 of his body, or about of what it will ultimately attain. 
 It also grows very rapidly and at seven is almost fully 
 grown. Development, however, is much slower than 
 growth. It is tolerably certain that the greater part of 
 the cortex is inactive during the first three months of life. 
 The fibres become functionally active and myelinate in 
 a fairly constant sequence. 
 
 The death-rate of children is a fairly good indication of 
 their liability to disease. About 10 per cent, of babies die 
 during the first year of life. In most civilised countries 
 this high proportion is rapidly diminishing owing to the 
 increased attention which is being paid to sanitation and
 
 BABYHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 279 
 
 to the proper care of babies. Still it is a lamentable fact 
 that one child in 5 dies before the end of babyhood. The 
 chief ailments of babies are those connected with dis- 
 turbances of digestion. The disturbances of sleep dreams, 
 talking in sleep, night terrors and snoring while hardly 
 falling under the category of diseases are detrimental to 
 the general health. In the first five years of life the 
 beginnings of such defects as flat feet, weak ankles, bow- 
 legs, impaired vision, and weak lungs are often made. 
 
 The sense organs chiefly develop during the first few 
 months of babyhood. As their use depends upon a corre- 
 sponding development of the mental powers it is perhaps 
 unwise to class them under the heading " physical." 
 
 From the very first days of its life a baby can tell the 
 difference between light and darkness and does not like 
 to be placed in front of a bright light. A very bright 
 light is especially painful immediately on awakening. 
 This sensitiveness to light persists and is very common 
 among adults. The pupils of a young baby will contract 
 when light is thrown on them. But a new-born baby 
 cannot see things in the proper sense of the term. This 
 power is of later development. He will, however, notice 
 things and people and follow them with his eyes before the 
 middle or end of the second month. The mother, especially 
 if she is feeding the baby herself, will probably be recog- 
 nised and identified about the middle or end of the third 
 month. Other persons and things are recognised during 
 the fifth month. 
 
 Preyer has divided the " seeing " of a baby into four 
 stages (1) Staring into empty space or experiencing a. 
 sensation without perceiving an object. The ability to 
 fixate an object is lacking in the new-born because he has, 
 as yet, no control over the muscles that move the head and 
 eyes. The apparent looking of the first few days is not an 
 intelligent action but only an instinctive one for the 
 purpose of obtaining the maximum of pleasurable feeling. 
 (2) Looking. The child " looks " about the end of the fifth 
 week . By this is meant that the child turns his gaze from one 
 bright object to another. This fixating of objects is generally 
 accompanied by a more intelligent expression. (3) Following. 
 This is closely associated with looking, but now the power 
 to follow a bright moving object has developed. The child 
 can control eye muscles to follow horizontal movement
 
 280 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 about the beginning of the sixth week. Vertical move- 
 ments are controlled somewhat later. (4) Observing. This 
 includes the active search for objects. The child has 
 acquired the ability to direct his gaze and to hold it. This 
 power develops between the third and the fifth month. 
 
 From the very beginning of its life a child can taste, 
 and it is therefore necessary to see that its food is palatable, 
 yet it may be said with truth that taste plays a compara- 
 tively small part during the first two years. 
 
 Hearing is imperfectly developed at birth ; it is probably 
 the most imperfect of all the senses. No one has yet 
 proved that a child can hear within three hours of birth 
 and it is probable that for all practical purposes he is deaf 
 until about the end of the third week. He feels jars rather 
 than hears sounds. The slow development of hearing is 
 partly due to the slow filling of the middle ear with air 
 through the eustachian tube. The localisation of sounds, 
 i.e. the turning of the head towards the source of the sound, 
 develops at different times in different children ; it ranges 
 from the tenth to the seventeenth week. 
 
 Touch develops before birth, for children born prema- 
 turely have this sense developed. The mouth and fingers 
 are more sensitive to touch than other parts of the body, 
 hence the child's first interest is in his mouth. The palms 
 of the hand and the soles of the feet when touched cause 
 clasping movements of the fingers and toes. Touch is 
 highly educable as may be seen from the attainments of 
 the blind. 
 
 Smell is more acute in adults than in young children. 
 A new-born child is, however, susceptible to strong odours 
 and is easily awakened out of his sleep by the smell of 
 such substances as asafoetida and oleum dipelli. Man 
 is inferior to the lower animals in regard to smell. 
 
 The physical activities of children are very great. During 
 the first four years of life we get the development of such 
 fundamental movements as sucking, grasping, mussing, 
 kicking, experimenting in control of body and speech, 
 creeping, climbing, walking, exploration and construction. 
 Passive motion is enjoyed for the sake of its rhythm. The 
 chief characteristic of infant activity is the capacity for 
 instinctive and reflex movement. As the child develops, 
 there is a change not merely in the number but also in the 
 complexity, co-ordination and definiteness of the move-
 
 BABYHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 281 
 
 ments. The movements are often preparatory to, and 
 correlated with, changes in the conscious states. The 
 activities are also due partly to the need for exercise which 
 the body develops and partly to curiosity, hence from the 
 middle of the first year there is exhibited a tendency to 
 pull, lift, twist and examine any object which comes 
 within reach. Imitative play, e.g. as shopkeeper, engine- 
 driver, cook, etc., figures prominently from two and a half 
 onwards. The activities of children are signs of vitality 
 and often of their mental development. They are means 
 to the acquisition of knowledge and skill. These activities 
 should not be suppressed but guided into proper channels ; 
 as a matter of fact healthy children will be active in spite 
 of all our attempts to subdue them. 
 
 Mental. The mental activities of children, like the 
 physical activities, often resemble those of savages and the 
 lower animals. But a child is not a " little savage " or 
 a " young monkey " inasmuch as he possesses the capacity 
 to develop into a civilised adult. The monkey and the 
 savage state with him are merely transitory stages in his 
 development. 
 
 Associative memory seems very weak in children at this 
 stage. This is probably due to their small powers of 
 attention. For most of us, our lives prior to the age of 
 three or four are total blanks. The writer can only re- 
 member one incident in his life which can definitely be 
 placed before the age of three. But the things of early 
 life which are remembered seem to be remembered well, 
 hence it would seem as if the mind is peculiarly plastic at 
 this time, and that if the attention is riveted the memory 
 is tenacious. But we learn by experience even if we cannot 
 relate the experience. A baby recognises its parents, 
 the taste of food, and pleasant or painful experiences of 
 all kinds. " A burnt child dreads the fire " even if he 
 cannot remember when he was burnt. 
 
 Closely connected with memory is the association of 
 ideas. Darwin stated that " the facility with which 
 associated ideas . . . were acquired, seemed to one by 
 far the most strongly marked of all the distinctions between 
 the mind of an infant, and that of the cleverest full-grown 
 dog I ever saw." Most children resent the affront of 
 being prepared for a walk, if the walk is not immediately 
 undertaken. This depends upon association. Children
 
 282 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 also associate names and persons as early as the sixth 
 month, and simple associations such as these are extremely 
 common before the close of the first year. 
 
 Very young children undoubtedly reason but they do 
 not reason well as judged by adults, because they have not 
 the necessary data to form correct judgments. Tracy x 
 relates "when the little boy, R., was four months old, he 
 was playing one day on the floor surrounded by his toys. 
 One toy rolled away beyond his reach. He seized a 
 clothes-pin and used that as a ' rake ' with which to 
 draw the toy within reach of his hand. Mr. Darwin laid 
 his finger on the palm of a child five months old. The 
 child closed his fingers around it, and carried it to his 
 mouth. When he found that he was hindered from sucking 
 it, by his own fingers getting in the way, he loosened his 
 grasp and took a new hold further down, then vigorously 
 sucked the finger." The following instances 2 serve to show 
 that children reason correctly within their limited spheres. 
 
 111. (2 yrs.). T. pulled hairs on father's wrist. Father; 
 " Don't T., you hurt papa." T., " It didn't hurt grandpa." 
 
 112. (2 yrs. 5 mos.). M. said, " Grade can't walk ; she 
 wears little bits of shoes ; if she had mine she could walk. 
 When I get new ones, I'm going to give her these, so she can 
 walk." 
 
 120. (2 yrs. 9 mos.). He usually has a nap in the forenoon, 
 but Friday he did not seem sleepy, so his mother did not put 
 him to bed. Before long he began to say, " Bolly's sleepy ; 
 mamma put him in the crib." This he said very pleasantly 
 at first, but, as she paid no attention to him, he said, " Bolly 
 cry, then mamma will." And he sat on the floor and roared. 
 
 124. (3 yrs.). It was between five and six in the afternoon, 
 the mother was getting the baby asleep. J. had no one to play 
 with. He kept saying, " I wish B. would come home ; mamma, 
 put baby to bed, so R. will come home." I usually got home 
 about six, and, as the baby is usually put to bed about half- 
 past five, he associated the one with the other. 
 
 125. (3 yrs.). W. likes to play with oil paints. Two days 
 ago my father told W. he must not touch the paints any more, 
 for he was too small. This morning W. said : " When my 
 papa is a very old man, and when I am a big man, and don't 
 need any papa, then I can paint, can't I, mamma ? " 
 
 1 Tracy : Psychology of Childhood ; p. 63. 
 
 1 Brown : Thoughts and Reasonings of Children ; Fed. Sem., II., 
 pp. 358-396, 1893. Quoted by Thorndike : Notes on Child Study.
 
 BABYHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 283 
 
 128. (3 yrs.). B. climbed up into a large express waggon, 
 and would npt get out. I helped him out, and it was not a 
 minute before he was back in the waggon. I said, " B., how 
 are you going to get out of there now ? " He replied, " I can 
 stay here till it gets little and then I can get out my own self." 
 
 129. (3 yrs.). G.'s aunt gave him ten cents. G. went 
 out, but soon came back saying, " Mamma, we will be rich 
 now." " Why so, G. ? " " Because I planted my ten cents, 
 and we will have lots of ten cents growing." 
 
 134. (3 yrs.). F. is not allowed to go to the table to eat unless 
 she has her face and hands washed and her hair combed. The 
 other day she went to a lady visiting at her house, and said, 
 " Please wash my face and hands, and comb my hair ; I am 
 very hungry." 
 
 137. (3 yrs.). If C. is told not to touch a certain thing, that 
 it will bite him, he always asks if it has a mouth. The other 
 day he was examining a plant to see if it had a mouth. He was 
 told not to break it, and he said, " Oh, it won't bite, because 
 I can't find any mouth." 
 
 The interests of young children tend to be selfish and 
 personal. Towards the end of babyhood the interests 
 are so self-centred that they often lead to quarrels with 
 their accompanying volatile emotions. The " Why ? " 
 " What for ? " type of questioning becomes predominant. 
 These questions do not necessarily mean that a love for 
 scientific knowledge is being developed ; they may simply 
 mean a general desire to extend a vague fragmentary 
 experience. Animals often become play-fellows at this age 
 and an interest in common objects often results in owner- 
 ship, collecting and hoarding. The play interest is also 
 strong at this period. 
 
 A child of two or three recognises the characteristic 
 uses or functions of things. Things are the acts they 
 suggest. Thus we get the characteristic definitions of 
 children " A hat is to put on the head." " A barber is 
 good to cut my hair." " Boots are when you walk." " A 
 cloak is warm." " Kiss is if you hug and kiss somebody." 
 " Quarrel is if you began a little fight." " Vain is if you 
 always look in the glass " ; and so on. 
 
 The problem of means of communication will be con- 
 sidered in the discussion on Language (Chap. XIX.). 
 
 But the question may be asked, " What knowledge may 
 children be presumed to have when they begin to attend 
 school at the age of five or six ? " In order to discover an 
 answer, Stanley Hall carried out in September, 1880, an
 
 284 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 investigation on " The Contents of Children's Minds on 
 Entering School." l 
 
 This investigation was similar to one made in the Berlin 
 schools in 1869. Hall first made up a series of questions 
 lying within the range of Boston children of average 
 intelligence. To minimise the sources of error the following 
 methods were adopted : 
 
 (1) Four trained and experienced kindergarten teachers 
 were employed to question the children in groups of three 
 at a tune. 
 
 (2) The most honest and unembarrassed child's first 
 answer to a direct question, e.g. whether it has seen a cow, 
 sheep, etc., was not taken without careful cross-examination, 
 e.g. as to the size, colour, and shape of the animal. 
 
 (3) The child was given the benefit of every doubt. The 
 questioners were requested to report manifest gaps in the 
 child's knowledge, in its own words, reproducing its syntax 
 and pronunciation. 
 
 The following are extracts from the tables showing the 
 general results for a number of the questions admitting 
 of categorical answers. Table 43 is based on an average 
 of two hundred children in Boston (a few of each type). 
 The last two columns record the percentages obtained by 
 Superintendent Greenwood in the schools of Kansas City. 
 He tested 678 children of whom 47 were coloured. Hall's 
 questions were used. 
 
 From tables 43 and 44 the following conclusions can 
 legitimately be drawn : 
 
 1. That boys surpass girls in knowledge at this age (5-6). . . . 
 
 2. That girls excel in knowledge of the parts of the body, 
 home, and family life. 
 
 3. That Irish children are backward on all the topics. 
 
 4. That Kindergartens are useful educational institutions. 
 
 5. That it is unsafe to assume the knowledge of anything 
 of pedagogic value at the outset of school-life. 
 
 6. That the best preparation parents can give their children 
 for good school training is to acquaint them with natural 
 objects, especially with the sights and sounds of the country. 
 
 7. That every teacher should make some investigation into 
 the contents of the minds of children he is called upon to 
 teach. 
 
 1 Hall : Aspects of Child Life ; Chap. I. Reprinted from Fed. 
 Sem., I., pp. 139-173.
 
 BABYHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 
 TABLE 43. 
 
 285 
 
 
 Per cent, of children ignorant of it. 
 
 Name of object of concept. 
 
 
 In Kansas City. 
 
 
 In Boston. 
 
 White. 
 
 Coloured. 
 
 Beehive, 
 
 80-0 
 
 59-4 
 
 66-0 
 
 Robin, 
 
 60-5 
 
 30-6 
 
 10-6 
 
 Bee, 
 
 520 
 
 7-27 
 
 4-2 
 
 Growing wheat, ... 
 
 92-5 
 
 23-4 
 
 66-0 
 
 Elm tree, 
 
 91-5 
 
 52-4 
 
 89-8 
 
 Growing strawberries, 
 
 78-5 
 
 26-5 
 
 11-0 
 
 Location of the heart, 
 
 80-0 
 
 18-5 
 
 18-1 
 
 Location of the hips, 
 
 45-0 
 
 14-0 
 
 4-2 
 
 Right and left hand, 
 
 21-5 
 
 10 
 
 10-2 
 
 Dew, - 
 
 78-0 
 
 39-1 
 
 70-2 
 
 Moon, 
 
 7-0 
 
 26-0 
 
 530 
 
 Axe, 
 
 120 
 
 18-4 
 
 53-0 
 
 Origin of flour, 
 
 93-4 
 
 50-8 
 
 72-3 
 
 Shape of the world, - 
 
 70-3 
 
 46-0 
 
 47-0 
 
 Never been in country, 
 
 35-5 
 
 20-0 
 
 42-5 
 
 Can repeat no verse, 
 
 28-0 
 
 20-0 
 
 42-5 
 
 Origin of meat (animals), - 
 
 48-0 
 
 8-3 
 
 12-7 
 
 TABLE 44. 
 
 Per cent, of ignorance in 
 
 Name of object of 
 concept. 
 
 150 girls. 
 
 161 boys. 
 
 50 Irish 
 children. 
 
 50 
 American 
 children. 
 
 64 Kinder- 
 garten 
 children. 
 
 Beehive, 
 
 81 
 
 75 
 
 86 
 
 70 
 
 61 
 
 Sheep, - 
 
 67 
 
 47 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 Frog, - 
 
 53 
 
 38 
 
 54 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 Pig, - - - 
 
 45 
 
 27 
 
 38 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 Cow, 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Growing potatoes, - 
 
 55 
 
 64 
 
 62 
 
 44 
 
 34 
 
 Growing apples, 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 Ankles, - 
 
 58 
 
 52 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 68 
 
 Elbow, - 
 
 19 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 Cheek, - 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 Hail, 
 
 75 
 
 61 
 
 84 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 Sunset, - 
 
 47 
 
 49 
 
 52 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 Beach, - 
 
 82 
 
 49 
 
 60 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 Hill, 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 Number three, 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 

 
 286 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Such a study as this of Hall's is valuable inasmuch as it 
 endeavours to show the end point of the mental development 
 of the first five years of life. The great variety among 
 different races and different individuals is clearly illustrated. 
 The need for study of individual children, one of the most 
 urgent of educational problems, is also emphasised. But 
 it must ever be borne in mind that the development of an 
 individual, both physically and mentally, is an unbroken 
 continuity, and that division into periods is artificial. 
 
 ADOLESCENCE. 
 
 Adolescence may be usefully divided into two parts 
 early adolescence ranging from 11 to 18, and late adolescence 
 ranging from 18 to 25 years of age. As the first part is 
 more closely connected with schooling and exhibits the 
 phenomena of the period in a more pronounced form, we 
 shall limit our discussion to the problems connected with 
 early adolescence. 
 
 The changes at this time, both in the mental and the 
 physical life, are so pronounced that the period has long 
 been regarded as the most significant in the whole of life. 
 The church marks its inception with the sacrament of 
 confirmation, while savages, such as the aborigines of 
 Australia, initiate their budding adolescents into the 
 mysteries and religious rites of the tribe. Literature also 
 abounds with descriptions of adolescent experiences. 
 Libby informs us that in the characters of Shakespeare 
 there are " Seventy-four interesting adolescents among 
 the comedies, forty-six among the tragedies, and nineteen 
 among the histories." 1 
 
 Physical. As the prepubertal acceleration of growth 
 takes place some two years earlier in girls than in boys, 
 early adolescence witnesses the phenomenon of a feminine 
 superiority with regard both to height and weight. The 
 following diagram helps to make this clear : 
 
 This growth in height and weight means the addition 
 of new substance to the muscular and bony tissues. The 
 muscles increase in length and girth and the bones to which 
 they are attached must be strengthened to support them 
 adequately. 
 
 1 Libby : Shakespeare and Adolescence ; Fed. Sem., 1901, 163-205.
 
 BABYHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 
 
 fci 
 
 60. 
 
 *9 
 
 ss 
 
 ft 
 
 T5 
 f4 
 53 
 51 
 
 fo 
 49 
 48 
 47 
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 140 
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 85 
 
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 io-r n-f ij.f ij.y ,^.g t g.f |^.^ ; y.j. jj.^ 
 
 ^ 
 FIG. 35. Curves showing heights and weights of adolescent boys and girls.
 
 288 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The leg and arm bones grow both in length and thickness, 
 the trunk elongates, the chest grows in breadth, the sacral 
 region becomes more rigid, while the pelvis assumes the 
 characteristic male or female form. The pelvis is enlarged 
 in both cases, but in the female it is broadened horizontally, 
 being inclined about 5 nearer to the horizontal than in 
 the male. The legs grow more in the male, so that the 
 female has a proportionately longer body. The bones of 
 the face grow in length and breadth (except in the cases of 
 children who breathe through the mouth, when facial 
 development is checked), and the sutures of the skull 
 close up. The strengthening of the bones is accomplished 
 by the gradual ossification of the epiphysial cartilages 
 which previously have been concerned with their increase 
 in length. With the complete ossification at 22 to 25 
 years of age, the growth in the length of the bones is 
 stopped. 
 
 The growth of the muscles brings increase of power 
 greater weights can be lifted and greater pressures exerted. 
 Boys increase more rapidly than girls in this respect, 
 although both double their gripping power between the 
 ages of eleven and sixteen. While the efficiency of funda- 
 mental movements increases, the nicer discriminative 
 movements lose their precision to a certain extent. For 
 instance, the ability to discriminate between weights 
 declines at 15 or 16, then gradually increases again. 
 Similarly, Bryan found that the ability to place a needle 
 in a small socket and to perform other fine movements is 
 decreased. These facts support the view that periods of 
 growth alternate with periods of adjustment, not merely 
 for the body as a whole, but also for the several organs, 
 and thus suggest that the earlier years of adolescence are 
 important mainly for increase in size and for fundamental 
 control ; accessory precision may develop later. 
 
 In close connection with the development of the muscular 
 and osseous systems we find the development of primary 
 and secondary sex characters. Boys begin to grow hair 
 on their faces and their voices " break." 
 
 The vigorous growth of bone and muscle entails an 
 increased food supply, hence the digestive system becomes 
 more efficient. The absorptive surface of the alimentary 
 canal increases in area, though not in proportion to the 
 increased surface of the body. The jaw increases both in
 
 BABYHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 289 
 
 length and strength ; this may not be merely to obtain 
 food more easily, but may have been related in the past to 
 the fighting instinct, since there is a great development of 
 teeth in the anthropoid apes just before maturity. 
 
 The more rapid metabolism throws a greater strain upon 
 the excretory system, consequently these organs tend to 
 grow larger and stronger. There is increased secretion of 
 the sebaceous and sweat glands. The liver and pancreas 
 also show an increase in size and in the amounts of their 
 secretions. 
 
 The chest grows larger and the vital capacity of the lungs 
 increases. The greatest increase in girth is found in girls 
 between twelve and fourteen, in boys between fourteen 
 and fifteen, and growth is rapid to the age of eighteen. 
 From thirteen to sixteen the natural size of the chest is 
 the same in boys and girls, but boys have greater expansive 
 powers. The method of breathing often changes in girls 
 from abdominal to costal, but the change is probably 
 artificially produced by tight clothing and could be avoided. 
 The process of respiration is slightly different in boys and 
 girls less carbon-dioxide is exhaled by girls. The heart 
 increases in size and strength. There is a greater strain 
 put upon the circulatory system than upon the other 
 organs, for it has to carry the augmented food supply to all 
 parts of the body and to keep the sexual organs and the 
 brain especially well supplied. Compared with the develop- 
 ment of the heart, there is but little increase in the size 
 of the blood-vessels. The tension of the arteries and the 
 blood pressure are thus increased and these probably 
 account for much of the excitement and exhilaration felt 
 during adolescence. 
 
 Mental. As there is a general instability in the physical 
 life at adolescence, so there is in the mental life also. There 
 is a heightened mental vigour which parallels the physical 
 growth, but whether the alternations in the emotional life 
 are so great as Stanley Hall would have us think, is open 
 to doubt. Probably the extremes and exceptional cases 
 too often have been taken as the normal. 
 
 Adolescence, however, is marked by mental changes 
 and principally in two directions : (1) a change in the 
 feeling-life^ and (2) a change in the thinking -life. 
 
 The first of these is probably the more pronounced since 
 it is closely associated with the powerful instinct of sex.
 
 290 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 It exhibits itself under various aspects and some of these 
 will now be described. 
 
 There is first of all a dissatisfaction with past achievements. 
 Things, interests, toys, occupations which sufficed aforetime, 
 are now discarded as being "childish" or "only fit for 
 babies. " The same process is seen in the boy's attitude to his 
 former self. He does not want to be a " little boy " any 
 longer, he must be a " big chap " or better still, a man who 
 can smoke openly and swear when and at whom he desires. 1 
 Silently new heroes and ideals come slipping in. The 
 desire to be a doctor dims the once glorious prospect of 
 being an engine-driver, and even the bold buccaneer must 
 give place to some saint once held as poor because he 
 apparently did so little. In all this change of feeling 
 towards former interests and ideals, we have a dissatisfac- 
 tion which is to be the foundation of future progress. 
 
 A positive aspect of the same process is the awakening of 
 a new curiosity. The child becomes interested in the outer 
 world and wants to hear of other people and other lands. 
 He wishes to " get behind " the things he sees and handles. 
 His own self and his own plans no longer satisfy nim ; he 
 is curious to hear of the lives of others their fears, hopes, 
 discoveries and sorrows. He now becomes eager to read 
 everything he can " lay his hands on," and so great is this 
 desire that dry ponderous tomes will be religiously read 
 if no others are available. This curiosity often shows itself 
 in truancy and in running away to sea, and generally in 
 breaking the irksome bonds of social control. 
 
 The third aspect of the changed feeling-life is seen in 
 the adolescent's desire to express himself, to make himself 
 felt, to add his contribution and to " take his place in the 
 sun." Thus the comparative selfishness of children gives 
 way to a feeling of altruism. This feeling is not con- 
 tinuously present and may give way to gross forms of 
 selfishness. But the adolescent discovers that others live 
 beside himself and these he may seek to serve. A flood- 
 tide of emotional life forces him to seek expression in 
 literary effort, poetry, the keeping of a diary, or in art and 
 music. 
 
 Permeating all the aspects of change in the feeling-life 
 so far described, but worthy of special notice, is a change 
 seen very clearly in the attitude to Nature, which often 
 1 Cf. Slaughter : The Adolescent ; p. 24.
 
 BABYHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 291 
 
 indeed overflows into the relationships with others and 
 with the imagined unseen forces in the world. The change 
 is extremely difficult to express in psychological language. 
 Slaughter rather cumbrously describes it as a change from 
 the projection of images to the projection of moods. The 
 fact is that the adolescent ceases to regard Nature in 
 mechanical terms and begins to think of it in terms of his 
 own vague feelings and moods. Nature becomes some- 
 thing vague, mysterious, wonderful. The sea, once merely 
 a place for bathing in or sailing upon, now becomes full 
 of spiritual suggestions. It tells of the limitless and the 
 infinite. Woods, stars, flowers and the moon may also 
 take on these vague meanings. 
 
 This change of attitude to Nature is closely bound up 
 with changes in religious outlook. Further, we must note 
 that the moods of the adolescent are constantly changing. 
 Bright optimism is succeeded by black pessimism. Especi- 
 ally is this the case in Protestant countries where evan- 
 gelicalism is predominant. " Storm and Stress " describes 
 the emotional life accurately. Yet " Young Indians, Turks, 
 Chinamen or Mexicans rarely manifest the phenomenon." x 
 
 Finally, we have to notice a change and development 
 in that state of feeling we call love. This is of course to 
 be expected in view of the maturing of the organs of sex. 
 The careless innocence of ignorant childhood goes and the 
 boy begins to know he is different from the girl. Sexual 
 thoughts more and more possess the minds of both sexes, 
 sometimes with disastrous results. The boy, conscious 
 of his growing manhood, becomes awkward and bashful 
 in the presence of the opposite sex. The girl is shy, or 
 perhaps exhibits tendencies to coquetry. " The boy 
 suddenly begins to take an interest in his own appearance ; 
 for the first time in his life he voluntarily attends to his 
 hair and teeth, his boots and linen ; he becomes punctilious 
 in regard to his clothing, and the choice of neck-ties is an 
 important event. When in the company of other boys 
 and in the presence of girls, he seeks occasions for showing 
 his courage and strength, he willingly attacks the largest 
 boy and incurs risk to limb in feats of skill and prowess. 
 In the presence of the loved one he is awkward and even 
 paralysed in expression ; he never ventures to declare 
 
 1 Miss E. K. Carmen, quoted by Thorndike in Notes on Child Study ; 
 p. 153.
 
 292 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 himself but makes use of only the vaguest hints, and often 
 contents himself with seeing her from afar. Development 
 in the girl is on lines similar to those observable during the 
 mating season ; she preserves an attitude of seeming 
 indifference and is most careful not to give the attention 
 which the boy is struggling to attract ; at the same time 
 she is seeing and understanding everything." 1 
 
 Gradually the cruder forms of sex consciousness are 
 replaced by the more ideal aspects of kinship of mind and 
 deep friendship. Prior to this, however, there generally 
 comes a time, in the middle of adolescence, when the sexes 
 withdraw from each other. The newness of sex-conscious- 
 ness has gone, the delicacy of her situation dawns upon the 
 female, and the male is busy with plans and hopes for his 
 future career. After the period of withdrawal the sexes 
 again desire each other's company and the consummation 
 may be marriage. 2 
 
 The main changes in the thinking-life are as follows : 
 
 First there is the questioning attitude which arises at this 
 time. The adolescent begins to compare ideals and to 
 ask why one man is better than another. He passes from 
 mere empirical observation to an ideational and abstract 
 world. He is unconsciously seeking for the noumena 
 behind the phenomena ; for the " ideas " of Plato behind 
 the things seen. Virtues, for the first time, are understood 
 in their deeper meaning. Courage, for example, is seen to 
 be a wider thing than the daring evinced by the highway- 
 man. The virtues of humility and sympathy, once ignored 
 and despised as weak, are now revered as pregnant with 
 meaning. 
 
 Arising naturally from this new movement of thought 
 and from the increasing knowledge of the wonder and 
 complexity of life, there comes the desire to understand 
 the forces of Nature and to find the meaning of life. The 
 adolescent begins to ask " why ? " Hence we find the 
 beginnings of a deep interest in science and history and 
 of crude attempts at metaphysical thinking. 
 
 The mental attitude which indicates perplexity and 
 
 1 Slaughter : The Adolescent ; p. 37. 
 
 2 An extreme example of this withdrawal is seen in some of the 
 western universities of America, where the freshmen absolutely 
 refuse to attend " Cissie " (women's) courses, and separate classes 
 have to be formed for them.
 
 BABYHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 293 
 
 asks " why ? " leads on to the attitude which seeks a 
 solution, i.e. to reasoning. The adolescent begins anew 
 to classify, compare, accept and reject. Of course, in 
 childhood he has reasoned, but he now turns the power 
 to vaster subjects ; he attempts, at one and the same time, 
 to set the world and his own mental house in order. 
 Through his new-found power he discovers flaws in the 
 thought of the past and is often relentless in his rejection 
 of what he feels to be untrue. Thus arises what Hall has 
 described as 
 
 Mental Storm and Stress. This condition affects the 
 mental life in various ways. The adolescent may discover 
 a clash between his previous schemes of thoughts and his 
 new experiences. There may, for example, appear to be 
 something " unreal " about the dogmas he repeats at 
 school prayers. Or the moods of adolescence may be 
 challenged by new facts " To tell the moon-struck maiden 
 that she is gazing at a globe of cold lava is a shock akin 
 to that which the Greeks felt when told by Anytus that 
 Socrates held the moon to be a stone." * 
 
 Or again the dominant aspect of the internal storm and 
 stress may be revolt against existing conditions. This 
 may take the form of violent reactions. Wearied by what 
 he feels is unworthy or hypocritical, he rushes into diatribes 
 against existing forms of government or ecclesiastical 
 usages. Or, he may withdraw from the world and its 
 foolish din into listless dreaming and melancholic philo- 
 sophising. Or, he may leave the world in what he feels is 
 its vanity and sin, and seek peace hi some form of ascetic 
 sanctity. 2 
 
 Education of the Adolescent. This is primarily the 
 problem of secondary education. At the outset we may 
 state that the proper education for the adolescent is that 
 which first and foremost discourages morbid and abnormal 
 conditions. The aim of the secondary teacher should be 
 to find occupations which will healthily employ the adol- 
 escent mind and body. Keep the adolescent busy ; never 
 allow him to have " nothing to do." 
 
 Bearing these fundamental propositions in mind we may 
 pass on to a more detailed discussion of his education. 
 
 In the first place the teacher must give the adolescent 
 
 1 Hall : Adolescence ; II., p. 178. 
 * Hall : Adolescence ; H., p. 184.
 
 294 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 a wise use of freedom. This, at first glance, seems incom 
 patible with the dictum " keep him busy," but a boy free 
 to use his time need not necessarily spend it in loafing. 
 Freedom also permits him to define his vague impulses 
 after social values. The adolescent hungers for companion- 
 ship ; the " gang " or " clan " spirit is strong within him, 
 hence the wise teacher encourages corporate games, scout 
 patrols, school societies and out-of-school activities of all 
 descriptions. " Normal submission to custom and environ- 
 ment should be enforced." says Findlay, " but variation 
 and even eccentricity should not be too harshly judged." 
 
 Care for the health of the scholars in mind and body at 
 this critical period is of supreme importance. In the past 
 this has often been forgotten and minds have been ruined 
 through premature and excessive study. The period is 
 one when, amid conditions of vigorous growth, the body 
 is very receptive to disease and harm. Tuberculosis, 
 nervous disorders, hysteria, formation of bad habits, and 
 tendencies to insanity arise at this period. The teacher 
 must do everything to protect and strengthen the adolescent 
 to meet and overcome these dangers. Close attention 
 must be paid to see that the scholars obtain a sufficient 
 quantity of sleep on suitable bedding, live in fresh air, 
 bathe frequently and wear loose hygienic clothing. There 
 is need for differentiation between boys and girls in the 
 choice of sports, and girls especially should not participate 
 in games which are too vigorous. Amid all these cares, 
 the need for wise and sympathetic instruction in sexual 
 matters by some pure man for boys, and some motherly 
 woman for girls (preferably the parents, or failing these, 
 the school doctor), should never be forgotten. 
 
 Lastly, there is the vexed problem of co-education. 
 Public opinion seems to be more arid more coming round 
 to the point of view that it is wise to educate the two sexes 
 together. Certainly co-education is the more natural, 
 but it must only be practised under an unceasing vigilance. 
 " Bad cases " crop up in the best of schools and may do 
 infinite harm if they are not detected early. The curri- 
 culum for boys and girls should vary, for the sexes have 
 different functions to perform in later life. Further, the 
 sexes mature at different ages and hence the rate of the 
 progress will not be the same for both. Efficient grading 
 will, however, obviate this difficulty. But the danger of
 
 BABYHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE 295 
 
 producing " mannish " women and effeminate men by 
 co-education is not so great as was once supposed. 
 
 The problems of the curriculum, of the personal influence 
 of the teacher, and of the best type of schools for the adol- 
 escent are too vast to be dealt with in this brief chapter. 
 They are, however, not neglected because we think them 
 unimportant. 
 
 References. Baldwin : The Story of the Mind ; Chap. IV. 
 Baldwin : Mental Development in the Child and Race ; 
 3 vols. Burnham : Study of Adolescence, ; Ped. Sem., I., 
 p. 174. Chamberlain : The Child ; (Extensive Biblio- 
 graphy). Clouston : Adolescence ; Child Study, V., 3. 
 Daniels : The New Life : a study of Regeneration ; Amer. 
 Jour. Psy., VI., 1. Drummond : The Child ; Chap. IV. 
 George Eliot : The Mill on the Floss. Hall : Adolescence ; 
 2 vols. Hall: Aspects of Child Life ; Chap. I. Hall: Youth; 
 (Abridgment of Adolescence). Howells : A Boy's Town. 
 James : Varieties of Religious Experience ; Chap. I. Mere- 
 dith : Richard Feverel. Moore : Mental Development of a 
 Child ; Psy. Rev. Mon. Suppl., 3, 1896. Mumford : Dawn 
 of Character. Rowe : The Physical Nature of the Child. 
 Preyer : The Mind of the Child ; 2 vols. Russell : Man- 
 chester Boys ; Chap. I. Shinn : Biography of a Baby. 
 Shinn : Notes on the Development of a Child ; Univ. of 
 California Studies, I. -IV. Slaughter : The Adolescent. 
 Sully : Studies of Childhood. Thorndike : Notes on Child 
 Study ; Chaps. XIX. and XX. Tracy : The Psychology of 
 Childhood. Urwick : Studies of Boy Life in our Cities. 
 Wilson : Bibliography of Child Stvdy ; Clark Univ.
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 EXCEPTIONAL SCHOOL CHILDREN. 
 
 CHILDREN cannot be divided into groups in which the lines 
 of demarcation are absolutely sharp and rigid. Whenever 
 careful measurements of any physical, mental or moral 
 trait have been made, continuous scales have invariably 
 been discovered. It is open to question if any human trait 
 or capacity breaks off so sharply that we can say, " Here is 
 a group in which all are equal." Even in such a group 
 as the blind, where all at first glance seem to be equal, there 
 is a hidden continuous scale. Some in reality are more 
 blind than others, inasmuch as it would take a greater 
 miracle of regeneration to restore their sight. 
 
 The bulk of children are normal or mediocre or average 
 with respect to any trait. Fading away in both directions 
 we get the exceptional children of the world the abnormals 
 who exhibit extreme individual differences. Some will 
 exhibit exceptional superiority, others exceptional in- 
 feriority. 
 
 For convenience of classification we may divide these 
 extremes of the scale into : 
 
 1. (a) Those who are supernormal in intellect 
 
 prodigies, precocious individuals, geniuses and 
 brilliant children of every description. 
 (6) Those who are subnormal in intellect the back- 
 ward children, mental defectives, imbeciles and 
 idiots. 
 
 2. (a) Those who are supernormal in morals the 
 
 saints of society. 
 (6) Those who are subnormal in morals the
 
 EXCEPTIONAL SCHOOL CHILDREN 297 
 
 excessively cruel, deceitful, egotistical, passionate, 
 and destructive ; the moral imbeciles, thieves, 
 rascals and knaves of all kinds. 
 
 3. (a) Those who are supernormal in physique the 
 
 excessively tall or heavy, and the very healthy. 
 (6) Those who are subnormal physically the under- 
 sized, the blind, deaf, crippled and diseased. 
 
 A discussion of all the types would lead us too far afield, 
 although the problems of the exceptionally gifted in 
 intellect, of the blind, and of the deaf are extremely interest- 
 ing from the standpoint of Psychology. We shall, therefore, 
 limit our discussion to the problem of the class known as 
 the feebleminded. 
 
 Definition of Feeblemindedness. With respect to intellect, 
 feebleminded children come between backward children on 
 the one hand and imbeciles on the other. Since the lines of 
 demarcation are artificial it will perhaps be advisable to 
 define each of the grades of subnormal intellect. 
 
 (1) Backwardness is "a condition hi which mental 
 development is retarded through disease, sense-deprivation 
 or some other adverse condition ; if suitable treatment 
 can be adopted the child improves and becomes mentally 
 normal." J 
 
 (2) "A feebleminded person is one who is capable of 
 earning a living under favourable circumstances, but is 
 incapable, from mental defect existing from birth, or from 
 an early age, (a) of competing on equal terms with his 
 normal fellows ; or (6) of managing himself or his affairs 
 with ordinary prudence." 
 
 (3) " The imbecile is one who, by reason of mental defect 
 existing from birth or from an early age, is incapable of 
 earning his own living, but is capable of guarding himself 
 against common physical dangers." 
 
 (4) " An idiot is one so deeply defective in mind from 
 birth or from an early age, that he is unable to guard 
 himself against common physical dangers." 
 
 The last three definitions were suggested by the Royal 
 College of Physicians of London and accepted by the Royal 
 Commission on the Care and Control of the Feebleminded. 2 
 
 1 Lapage : Feeblemindedness in Children of School Age ; p. 323. 
 Report; 1908, Vol. VIII.
 
 298 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The definitions are in terms of economic status and of 
 the ability to take care of the person. From the standpoint 
 of the educator the difference is one of educability. Back- 
 wardness is eradicable by education ; feeblemindedness, 
 imbecility and idiocy persist throughout life. 
 
 Number of Feebleminded. At the time of the appoint- 
 ment of the Royal Commission on the Care and Control of 
 the Feebleminded in 1904, there were no statistics available. 
 Detailed inquiries were made in a few special districts 
 and as a result of these the Commissioners came to the 
 conclusion that " in England and Wales the number of 
 mentally deficient children may be expected to be, in the 
 areas urban and rural, -79 per cent, of the number of 
 children on the school registers, falling as low as -28 in a 
 northern colliery district, and rising as high as 1-12 and 
 1-24 in urban areas." x These percentages give us a total 
 number of about 48,000, of whom 36,000 need educational 
 provision. Since 1908 a national system of medical 
 inspection has been in force and many returns on feeble- 
 mindedness have been produced. Commenting on the 
 returns, the Chief Medical Officer in his report for 1911 
 (p. 194) states that " Speaking generally it would appear 
 that medical inspection indicates that about 0-50 per cent, 
 of children of school age throughout the country are feeble- 
 minded. This estimate does not include imbecility. On 
 5,400,000 children (which is approximately the number 
 of children in average attendance in the public elementary 
 schools) this figure would yield the total number of feeble- 
 minded children as approximately 27,000. Inquiry has 
 shown that from one-fifth to one-seventh of such children are 
 low grade and ineducable. Making the necessary deduction 
 it may be said that there are some 24,000 feebleminded 
 children for whom special provision should be made, for 
 12,000 of whom some provision already exists." As the 
 above figures are based on average attendance, they do 
 not err on the side of over-statement ; they probably do 
 not include all mentally deficient children. The following 
 table, combined from the returns of 1910 and 1911, shows 
 the incidence of " feebleminded " among the children of 
 routine groups who have been examined as to their mental 
 condition : 
 
 1 Op. cit. ; pp. 192-3.
 
 EXCEPTIONAL SCHOOL CHILDREN 299 
 TABLE 45. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Urban areas. 
 
 Name of area. 
 
 Percentage. 
 
 Name of area. 
 
 Percentage. 
 
 Hertfordshire, - 
 
 2-50 
 
 Grimsby, 
 
 2-60 
 
 Norfolk, - 
 
 1-19 
 
 Huddersfield, 
 
 2-10 
 
 Devonshire, 
 
 50 
 
 Hereford, 
 
 1-96 
 
 East Suffolk, - 
 
 47 
 
 Rowley Regis, 
 
 1-51 
 
 Lincolnshire, 
 
 40 
 
 South Shields, 
 
 57 
 
 Oxfordshire, 
 
 40 
 
 Stoke-on-Trent, 
 
 50 
 
 Staffordshire, - 
 
 40 
 
 St. Helens, 
 
 37 
 
 Surrey, ... 
 
 40 
 
 Plymouth, 
 
 34 
 
 Denbighshire, - 
 
 27 
 
 Bradford, 
 
 31 
 
 Gloucestershire, 
 
 27 
 
 Manchester, - 
 
 31 
 
 Derbyshire, 
 
 22 
 
 Tynemouth, - 
 
 18 
 
 Middlesex, 
 
 20 
 
 Wakefield, - 
 
 17 
 
 Lancashire, 
 
 18 
 
 Dover, - 
 
 15 
 
 Durham, - - - 
 
 10 
 
 Derby, - 
 
 13 
 
 Goddard, 1 after an examination of 2,000 normal school 
 children, estimated that 78 per cent, are practically normal, 
 4 per cent, are " gifted " above normal, 15 per cent, are 
 backward, and 3 per cent, are mentally defective. This 
 estimate, taken in conjunction with the statements that 
 the average size of a family containing feebleminded children 
 is seven or eight 8 (Tredgold), 6-11 in Edinburgh (Elderton 
 and Pearson, Memoir X. of the Eugenics Laboratory Memoirs) 
 6-14 in Manchester (Lapage), and with the fact that primary 
 feeblemindedness is hereditary, shows that the problem 
 is one of the most pressing for civilised nations at the 
 present time. We are recruiting our stocks from below 
 rather than from above. 
 
 Diagnosis of Feeblemindedness. Since feebleminded chil- 
 dren are not sharply differentiated from those of greater 
 or less intellectual ability, their detection becomes extremely 
 difficult. Examination reveals the fact that in some traits 
 a feebleminded child may be superior to a normal child. 
 There is much overlapping and distortion. The Chief 
 Medical Officer of the Board of Education suggests that the 
 
 1 Fed. Sem., XVIII., June, 1911. 
 
 1 A normal family contains an average of a little more than four.
 
 300 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 examination should take account, among others, of the 
 following factors : 1 (1) Family History ; (2) Personal 
 History; (3) Physical Conditions, (a) General speech, sight, 
 hearing, nose and throat, (6) Stigmata general retardation 
 (cretinoid development), cranium (microcephaly), hydro - 
 cephaly, asymmetry, rickets, imperfect closure of the 
 fontanelles, hair, face, lower jaw, eyes (mongoloid), ears, 
 tongue, teeth, palate (arched), fingers and limbs ; (4) 
 Mental Conditions, (a) reactions of motor mechanism, 
 (6) reactions resulting from sensory stimulation (c) emotional 
 conditions, (d) tests of intelligence, and (e) tests of will 
 power. Finally he recommends the use of the mental 
 tests designed by Binet and Simon as valuable aids in 
 assessing the intelligence. Since these tests are of such 
 great interest to students of child nature, a short account 
 of them will now be given. 
 
 The Binet-Simon Tests. These tests are designed to 
 provide a quick means for the psychological diagnosis of 
 the grade of intelligence of children. They are more 
 elaborate than those arranged by Sante de Sanctis of the 
 University of Rome. 2 They aim to test the native ability 
 uninfluenced, so far as is possible, by difference of training. 
 The tests extend from those suitable for infants to those 
 suitable for adults. They were first published in UAnrtAe 
 Psychologique for 1905, and have been twice revised in 
 1908 and in 1911. The latest revisions can be obtained in 
 the Bulletin de la Socittt libre pour I'ttude psychologique de 
 I 'enfant, April, 1911, which also contains particulars and 
 instructions as to the way the tests should be applied. 3 
 
 1 Annual Report for 1911. Appendix A. 
 
 1 See Whipple : Manual of Mental and Physical Testa ; Chap. 
 XIII., for a description of these tests. 
 
 3 Translations are obtainable. For the benefit of those who 
 desire readily available lists in English, the following references are 
 given. Whipple's Manual of Mental and Physical tests gives the 
 whole of the 1905 and 1908 series with detailed instructions on, and 
 criticisms of, their use. The 1911 series is reprinted, in outline form 
 only, in the Chief Medical Officer's Report for 1911, and in Bagley : 
 Recent Literature on the Binet Tests ; Jour, of Ed. Psy., III., 2, 
 101-109. The 1908 series, in a very convenient form, is given by 
 Huey in the Jour, of Ed. Psy., I., 8, pp. 435-444. Terman and 
 Childs make A Tentative Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon 
 Scale of Intelligence in the Jour, of Ed. Psy., III., 2, 3, 4 and 5, 1912. 
 Goddard, in two valuable articles, The Binet and Simon teats of in-
 
 EXCEPTIONAL SCHOOL CHILDREN 301 
 
 Biiiet and Simon give two rules for the tests : (1) A child 
 has the intelligence of that age for which he succeeds in 
 passing all the tests ; (2) After fixing the age for which a 
 child passes all the tests, a year is added to the intelligence 
 age if he has succeeded in passing five additional tests 
 belonging to superior age groups, two years are added if 
 he has passed ten such tests, three years if he has passed 
 fifteen, and so on. A third rule formulated by Goddard 
 states that (3) If a child can only succeed in passing those 
 given for three years younger than himself, he is mentally 
 defective. 
 
 The extensive use of these tests in practically every 
 civilised country during the past six years has led to much 
 pointed criticism and many suggested modifications. 
 Kirkpatrick l warns us that " the determination of whether 
 a person is normal, retarded or accelerated in his mental 
 development is not a test of mental ability in the sense of 
 indicating how successful he will ultimately be in any line 
 of intellectual effort, but is only an indication that the 
 mode of intellectual activity is of the more or less mature 
 type." "If by general mental ability is meant something 
 analogous to a test of strength or skill, I do not believe 
 that the Binet tests, or any other tests likely to be devised 
 within the century will serve as a reliable measure." 
 Decroly and Degand, and Terman and Childs find that the 
 tests at the lower end of the scale are too simple and those 
 at the upper end too difficult for the assigned year. Other 
 tests are too mechanical and some depend too much on 
 training. 
 
 Terman and Childs, 2 in their tentative revision and 
 extension of the tests, frankly discard many of Binet's 
 and insert others in their places. Although those inserted 
 take up considerable time, they seem to the writer to be 
 very valuable. The following list of tests is based upon 
 that of Terman and Childs. Minor alterations have been 
 made to suit English conditions, and the whole is given in 
 
 tettectttal Capacity, The Training School, V., 3-9, Dec., 1908, and 
 A Measuring Scale for Intelligence, The Training School, VT., pp. 146, 
 155, Jan., 1910, gives the results of the extensive application of these 
 tests. 
 
 1 Communication ; Jour, of Ed. Psy., III., 6, p. 337. 
 1 Jour, of Ed. Psy., III., 2, 3, 4, 5, 1912.
 
 302 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 greater detail. The reference, in brackets, at the end of 
 each test indicates its origin. 
 
 REVISED BINET-SIMON SCALE. 
 YEABS I. AND II. 
 
 1. Eye follows a lighted match moved slowly before the 
 face, or subject adopts a listening attitude when bell is rung 
 behind him. (1905, 1.) 
 
 2. A wooden cube is grasped and handled when placed in 
 the palm. (1905, 2.) 
 
 3. Suspended spool or cube is grasped when seen. (1905, 3.) 
 
 4. Chocolate or candy is chosen in preference to a piece of 
 wood of similar dimensions. (1905, 4.) 
 
 5. Paper is removed from chocolate before eating, child 
 having seen it wrapped up. (1905, 5.) 
 
 6. Child obeys simple commands, and imitates simple 
 movements. 
 
 For example, (a) shake hands ; (6) be seated ; (c) pick up 
 the box ; (d) go to that chair ; (e) come back ; (/) 
 "do as I do " then clasp hands ; put hands on the 
 shoulders ; place hands behind back ; rise on toes, etc. 
 (1905, 6.) 
 
 YEAB III. 
 
 1. Replies to problem questions. 
 
 (a) " What's the thing to do when you feel sleepy ? " 
 (6) " What's the thing to do when you feel cold ? " 
 (1905, 27.) (Both must be passed.) 
 
 2. Discriminates between weights. " Here are two little 
 boxes : which do you think is heavier ? " 
 
 (a) 3 grams and 12 grams ; (6) 6 and 15 ; (c) 3 and 12. 
 (1905, 12 ; 1908, 10.) (Two out of three.) 
 
 3. Names familiar objects correctly. 
 
 (a) a key ; (6) a closed penknife ; (c) a penny. (1908, 
 7.) (No failure.) 
 
 4. Knows sex. " Are you a little boy or a little girl ? " 
 (1908, 6.) 
 
 5. Repeats three digits in order, when heard once. 
 
 (a) 641; (6) 352; (c) 783. (1905, 11; 1908, 8.) 
 (Two successes.) 
 
 6. Enumerates three familiar objects in pictures, e.g. a man, 
 a dog, and a knife. (1905,9; 1908,4.) (No failures.)
 
 EXCEPTIONAL SCHOOL CHILDREN 303 
 
 YEAH IV. 
 
 1. Copies a square so that it can be recognised. (1908, 11.) 
 
 2. Counts four pennies correctly when they are placed in 
 full view before him. (1908,13.) 
 
 3. Rearranges a rectangular card, 8 x 14 cm., which has 
 been cut diagonally into two triangles. (1908, 12.) 
 
 4. Chooses the pretty rather than the ugly and deformed 
 faces in pictures. Two faces are presented at a time and the 
 question is asked, " Which of these two is the prettier ? " 
 (1908, 16.) (No failures.) 
 
 6. Defines, in terms of use, the words table, chair, horse, 
 and mamma. (1905, 14 ; 1908, 17.) (Three out of four 
 correct.) 
 
 YEAR V. 
 
 1 . Knows whether it is the morning or afternoon. (1908, 20. ) 
 
 2. Names colours, red, yellow, blue and green. Coloured 
 rectangle is touched and question, " What colour is that ? " 
 is asked. (1908,31.) (No failure.) 
 
 3. Executes a triple order correctly. " First put the key 
 on the chair, then close the door, then bring the box." (1905, 
 6 ; 1908, 18.) 
 
 4. Vocabulary index is found by finding out how many words 
 are known out of 100 chosen, by taking the last word of every 
 sixth column of a dictionary with 18,000 words. (Tennan 
 test : Jour, of Ed. Psy., III., 4, p. 205.) (Score ?) 
 
 5. Repeats easy sentences of thirteen to sixteen syllables. 
 
 (a) " We expect to have a great time down at the sea- 
 shore." 
 
 (6) " When the train passes, the engineer will blow the 
 whistle." 
 
 (c) " Why should anyone want to harm a beautiful 
 bird ? " (1908, 16.) (One success out of three.) 
 
 YEAB VI. 
 
 1. Knows the difference between the left and right. " Show 
 me your right hand." " Show me your left ear." (1908, 14.) 
 
 2. Knows the number of fingers on right hand, left hand, 
 both hands, without counting. ( 1 908, 22. ) 
 
 3. Counts thirteen pennies placed in a row. (1908, 27.) 
 
 4. Repeats 4 digits in order, when heard once. 
 
 (a) 4739 ; (6) 2854 ; (c) 7261. (Binet modified test.) 
 (Two out of three.)
 
 304 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 5. Replies to problem questions. 
 
 (a) " What's the thing to do if it's raining when you 
 
 start for school ? " 
 (6) " What's the thing to do if you have missed a 
 
 train ? " 
 (c) " What's the thing to do if you find that your house 
 
 is on fire ?" (1905,27.) (Two out of three.) 
 
 6. Vocabulary index 12 per cent. (2160 words). 
 
 YEAR VII. 
 
 1. Copies a diamond so that it can be recognised. (1908, 24.) 
 
 2. Notes the omission of eyes, nose, mouth, or arms from 
 4 unfinished pictures. (1908, 21.) (Three out of four.) 
 
 3. Names four common coins half -penny, penny, sixpence, 
 and shilling. (1908,28.) (No failure.) 
 
 4. Describes the pictures shown in No. 6 of year three as a 
 scene and does not merely enumerate the individual features. 
 (1908, 26.) (Two out of three.) 
 
 5. Vocabulary index 14 per cent. (2520 words). (Terman 
 test.) 
 
 6. Repeats sentences 14 to 17 syllables. 
 
 (a) " We will go out for a long walk. Please give me 
 
 that pretty straw hat." 
 (6) " We are having a fine time. We found a mouse in 
 
 the trap." 
 (c) " Brother Frank had a fine time on his holiday. He 
 
 went fishing every day." (1908,15.) (One out of 
 
 three.) 
 
 YEAR VIII. 
 
 1. Writes with pen and ink from dictation, " The pretty 
 little girls," so that it can be read. (1908, 33.) 
 
 2. States differences between paper and cloth, butterfly 
 and fly, wood and glass, in two minutes. " Do you know what 
 paper is ? Do you know what cloth is ? Then tell me the dif- 
 ference between them." (1905, 16 ; 1908, 34.) (Two out of 
 three. ) 
 
 3. Counts from 20 to in 20 seconds, with not more than 
 one error. (1908,32.) 
 
 4. Ball and field test. A circle of about 3 inches in diameter 
 is drawn, leaving a small gap which is called a gate. The 
 circle represents a field (covered with grass 6 inches high so 
 that ground can only be seen ten feet on each side), in which 
 a ball is lost. The subject is then asked to take a pencil and 
 mark out a path showing in what direction he would walk in
 
 EXCEPTIONAL SCHOOL CHILDREN 305 
 
 hunting for the ball. Score 1 is given when field is filled with 
 random or broken marks ; 2, for lines not parallel but seldom 
 broken or crossed ; 3, for lines uncrossed and unbroken and 
 almost perfectly parallel ; 4, for lines which showed the fact 
 that 10 feet could be seen on either side. (Score for eight year 
 old is 2.) (Terman ; Jour, of Ed. Psy., III., 4, p. 202.) 
 
 5. Repeats 5 digits in order, when pronounced at half-second 
 intervals : (a) 31759 ; (6) 42385 ; (c) 98176. (1905, 19 ; 
 1 908, 25. ) (Two out of three. ) 
 
 6. Vocabulary index 18 per cent. (3240 words). (Terman 
 test.) 
 
 YEAH IX. 
 
 1. Counts the value of six stamps, three half -penny and three 
 penny ones, in less than 15 seconds. (1908, 30.) 
 
 2. Names the day and date. The test is passed if the day 
 of the month is given to within three days. (1908, 35.) 
 
 3. Repeats four facts from a passage of easy prose which is 
 read to him. The time taken is recorded. (1908, 39.) 
 
 4. Arranges, in order of weight, boxes of the same size and 
 appearance weighing 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 grams respectively, 
 in not over 3 min. per trial. (1905, 22 ; 1908, 40.) (Two out of 
 three.) 
 
 5. Names at least 50 words in two minutes. (1908, 47, 
 modified.) 
 
 6. Replies to problem questions : 
 
 (a) " What's the thing to do when you have been struck 
 
 by a playmate who did not do it purposely ? " 
 (6) " What's the thing to do when you have broken 
 
 something which does not belong to you ? " 
 (c) " What's the thing to do when you have been 
 
 detained so that you are in danger of being late for 
 
 school ? " (1905, 27 ; 1908, 44.) 
 
 7. The child fills in the completion test blank for 15 minutes 
 (Terman : Jour, of Ed. Psy., III., 4, p. 199) and marks are 
 given for thought shown. A maximum of 100 is possible. 
 Nine-year-olds make a median score of 18*4 (P.E. 8'5) and two- 
 thirds reach the 14-9 standard. (Terman test.) 
 
 YEAB X. 
 
 1. Copies two designs cut in a quarto-folded paper. (1905, 
 29 ; 1911, 36.) 
 
 2. Uses three words in one sentence (girl, river, ball). (1905, 
 26 ; 1908, 43.) 
 
 u
 
 306 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 3. Repeats six digits in order, when pronounced at half- 
 second intervals. 
 
 (a) 374869 ; (6) 825746 ; (c) 762953. (1905, 19 ; 1908, 
 25.) (Two out of three correct.) 
 
 4. Obtains a score of 3 in the " ball and field " test. (Ter- 
 man ; see above.) 
 
 5. Vocabulary index 26 per cent. (4680 words). (Terman 
 test.) 
 
 6. Four fables (1) "The Milkmaid and her Plans"; (2) 
 " Hercules and the Waggoner " ; (3) " The Fox and the Crow " ; 
 (4) " The Stork and the Cranes " are read slowly to the subject 
 and after each he is instructed to write the lesson which he 
 thinks it is meant to teach. Scoring ranges from 5 for a 
 completely generalised and entirely relevant reply to for no 
 response, or an entirely irrelevant concrete statement. By 
 allowing 5 credits for each unit in the score the results are 
 stated in percentages. A normal ten-year-old makes a median 
 score of 45, and two-thirds reach 35-40. (Terman : Jour, of 
 Ed. Psy., III., 3, pp. 133-143.) 
 
 7. Makes a score of 20 in the completion test. (Terman test. ) 
 
 8. Makes change from one shilling for an article costing 2d. 
 (Child has a box with 1 half-crown, 1 two-shilling piece, 2 
 shillings, 2 sixpences, 5 pennies and 3 half -pennies.) (1908, 
 37, modified.) 
 
 YEAK XI. 
 
 1. Arithmetical reasoning (score ?). (Use the following 
 problems. The child is given the problems in the following 
 form, and is asked to write the answer after each problem 
 without making any other figures. ) 
 
 (a) If three-quarters of a gallon of oil costs 9d., what 
 
 will 7 gallons cost ? 
 (6) At Is. a yard, how much will 7 feet of cloth cost ? 
 
 (c) A man whose salary is 1 a week spends 14s. each 
 
 week. In how many weeks can he save 300 
 shillings ? 
 
 (d) How many pencils can you buy for 7id. at the rate 
 
 of 2 for 5d. ? 
 
 (e) A man spent two -thirds of his money and has 8s. 
 
 left. How much had he at first ? (Bonser : Reason- 
 ing Ability of Children in the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth 
 Grades, p. 2 (modified).) 
 
 2. Replies to problem questions : 
 
 (a) " What ought you to do before taking part in an 
 important affair ? "
 
 307 
 
 (6) " What ought you to say if some one asks your 
 opinion about a person you only know a little ? " 
 
 (c) " Why ought we to judge a person more by his acts 
 
 than by his words ? " 
 
 (d) " Why do we excuse a wrong act committed in anger 
 
 more readily than a wrong act committed without 
 anger ? " (1905, 27 ; 1908, 44.) (Three out of 
 four correct.) 
 
 3. Vocabulary index 30 per cent. (5400 words). (Terman 
 test.) 
 
 4. Fable test (supra). 
 
 An eleven-year-old normally makes a median score of 
 50-55, and two-thirds reach 45-50. (Terman test.) 
 
 5. Makes a score of 25 in the completion test. (Terman test. ) 
 
 6. Sees the point in the following samples of wit and humour. 
 Experimenter reads each passage and asks subject, " What is 
 the point of that joke ? " " What is funny about that ? " etc. 
 
 (a) A man called at the post-office to inquire if there 
 
 was a letter for him. " What is your name ? " 
 said the postmaster. " Sure," said the man, 
 " you'll find my name on the back of the letter." 
 
 (b) A woman was once told of a man who had twice 
 
 had smallpox and had died of it. " Did he die the 
 first time or the second ? " the woman asked. 
 
 (c) A young fellow who wanted to be witty once said 
 
 to a barber, " Did you ever shave a monkey ? " 
 " Why, no, Sir," said the barber ; " But if you 
 will please sit down I will try." 
 
 (d) A religious old lady used to say that God was very 
 
 good to make the greatest rivers flow past the 
 largest cities. 
 
 (e) A pedlar in his cart overtook another pedlar on 
 
 the road and thus addressed him, " Hello, what 
 do you carry ? " " Drugs and medicines," the 
 other replied. " Go ahead, then," said the first ; 
 "I carry gravestones." (1908, 46, modified.) 
 (Three out of five satisfactory.) 
 
 YEAR XH. 
 
 1. Detects the incongruities or absurdities in the following 
 in about 2 minutes : 
 
 (a) " An unfortunate bicycle rider broke his head from 
 a fall and died instantly. He was picked up and 
 carried to a hospital, and they do not think he will 
 recover."
 
 308 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 (6) " I have three brothers Paul, Ernest and myself." 
 
 (c) " There was a railroad accident yesterday, but it 
 
 was not serious. The number of dead is only 48." 
 
 (d) " We met a man who was finely dressed : he was 
 
 walking along the street with his hands in his 
 pockets and twirling his cane." 
 
 (e) " The engineer said that the more carriages he had 
 
 on his train the faster he could go." 
 
 (1908, 45, modified.) (Four out of five correct.) 
 
 2. Rearranges the shuffled words of 3 sentences in less than 
 a minute for each. 
 
 (a) "a defends 
 
 dog good his 
 
 master courageously." 
 (6) " my have teacher 
 
 I the correct 
 
 asked paper to." 
 (c) " home our early 
 
 we country in left 
 
 visit the to friends." (1908, 49.) (All correct.) 
 
 3. Repeats seven facts from a passage of easy prose which 
 is read to him. The time taken is recorded. (1908, 39.) 
 
 4. Degree of suggestibility is found. (1911 series, No. 40.) 
 
 5. Vocabulary index 36 per cent. (6480 words). (Terman 
 test.) 
 
 6. Repeats, with no error, sentences of twenty-six syllables. 
 
 (a) " My little children, you must work very hard for 
 a living. You must go every morning to your 
 school." 
 
 (6) " The other day I saw in the street a pretty yellow 
 dog. Little Bessie has spots on her new apron." 
 
 (c) " Ernest is often punished for his bad conduct. I 
 bought at the store a pretty doll for my little 
 sister." (1908, 52.) (One out of three correct.) 
 
 YEAH XIII. 
 
 1. Repeats seven digits in order, when pronounced at half- 
 second intervals : (a) 2183439 ; (6) 9728475 ; (c) 3247196. 
 (1908, 50. ) (Two out of three correct. ) 
 
 2. Vocabulary index 42 per cent. (7560 words). (Terman 
 test. ) 
 
 3. Fable test (supra). 
 
 An eleven-year-old normally makes a median score of 
 70, and two-thirds reach 55-60. (Terman test.)
 
 EXCEPTIONAL SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 309 
 
 4. Arithmetical reasoning (score ?). (See above, Bonser 
 test.) 
 
 5. Makes a score of 36 in the completion test. (Terman 
 test.) 
 
 6. Answers the following problems of fact : 
 
 (a) My neighbour has been having queer visitors first 
 a doctor, then a lawyer, then a priest. What's 
 happening at my neighbour's ? " 
 
 (6) An Indian coming to town for the first time watched 
 a white man riding along the street. As the white 
 man rode by, the Indian said, " White man lazy ; 
 him walk sitting down." What was the white 
 man sitting on ? 
 
 (c) A man who was walking in the woods near a city 
 stopped suddenly, very much frightened, and ran 
 to the nearest policeman, saying that he had just 
 
 seen hanging from the branch of a tree, a . 
 
 (1908, 53.) 
 
 YEAB XV. 
 
 1. Fable test (supra) (score ?). 
 
 2. Changes hands of a clock (4 minutes to 3 o'clock). (Must 
 be able to recognise the slight discrepancy.) (1905, 28.) 
 
 3. Interprets pictures which are shown to him, that is, he 
 makes up a story which " fits " the picture. " Tell me what 
 that is about." (1905, 9 ; 1908, 4.) (Two out of three.) 
 
 4. Vocabulary index (score ?). 
 
 5. Completion test (score ?). 
 
 6. Uses code (see Goddard's Article, The Training School, 
 May, 1911.) 
 
 ADULT. 
 
 1. Can solve the reversed triangle test. 
 
 " Present a large visit- b 
 
 ing card cut in two 
 along ab. Suppose we 
 turn over the lower tri- 
 angle so that c (point) 
 should lie at 6 (touch) 
 and ac should lie along 
 ab (touch). Remove 
 the lower piece and 
 have the subject image 
 and draw the new total 
 shape suggested, begin- 
 ning with the upper 
 piece." (1908, 55.)
 
 310 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 2. President and King (see Goddard's article cited above). 
 
 3. Obtains a score of 4, with the conditions stated, in the 
 ball and field test. (Terman test.) 
 
 4. Completion test (score ?). (Terman test.) 
 
 5. Gives the sense of the following selection : 
 
 " One hears very different judgments about the value 
 of life. Some say it is good, others say it is bad. 
 It would be more correct to say that it is mediocre, 
 because, on the one hand, it brings us less happiness 
 than we want, while, on the other hand, the mis- 
 fortunes it brings are less than others wish for us. 
 It is the mediocrity of life that makes it endurable, 
 or, still more, that keeps it from being positively 
 unjust." 
 
 A standardised series of Mental Tests for Backward and 
 Defective Children, which freely uses the Binet-Simon tests, 
 has recently been arranged by W. H. Winch. 1 The schedule 
 seems convenient, but no indication is given as to what 
 standard of success in the tests should be used to differen- 
 tiate normal, backward and mentally defective children. 
 
 Characteristics of the Feebleminded. Feebleminded chil- 
 dren often show the physical stigmata of degeneration 
 defects in the size and shape of the head, deformities 
 of the external ear, deformities connected with eyes, palate 
 and jaws but these are not invariably present and normal 
 children may exhibit them also. They tend to be slightly 
 undersized (Lapage), and Norsworthy found that their 
 body temperature was below normal. This latter defect 
 may have an important bearing on their mental capacity. 
 
 With regard to mental characteristics, the feebleminded 
 exhibit a general sluggishness, lack of sensitiveness, and 
 general inability to retain impressions. Hazarding a descrip- 
 tion of the exceptionally unintellectual, Thorndike 2 states, 
 " They are weak in the number, delicacy, complexity, speed 
 of formation, and permanence of associations of whatever 
 sort, especialty so when one or both of the members to 
 be connected is an idea. They are weaker in the analysis 
 or abstraction of elements out of gross total situations, 
 and the determination of thought by the action of a part 
 or element or aspect of a situation. They are as a result 
 
 1 Published by Ralph Holland and Co., 1913. 
 1 Educational Psychology ; 2nd ed., p. 219.
 
 311 
 
 weakest in those functions which require the co-operation 
 of many selected associations and the partial activity of 
 many relics of past experiences in the service of some 
 complex and ideal situation or problem. They are also 
 usually very weak in the instinct of mental activity, in 
 the satisfaction of mental life for its own sake. They 
 represent the extremes of condition found in stupid people 
 generally, the opposite of the gifted person who connects 
 rapidly, precisely and permanently, analyses facts into 
 their elements easily and often, thinks facts together, is 
 guided by remote and ideal ends, and enjoys thinking for 
 its own sake. 
 
 " They are inferior in sensitivity, but their appearance of 
 being very much so is due in part to their willingness to 
 live in mental torpor, their failure to connect sense impres- 
 sions with anything further, and their more frequent failure 
 to analyse out colour, size, shape and the like from the 
 gross total situations whose partial aspects they are. 
 
 " They are inferior in movement, but their appearance 
 of very great inferiority in it is due in part to their failure 
 to connect movements with percepts and ideas or to analyse 
 out and get control over portions of movement-series and 
 recombine them anew. They are very inferior in attentive- 
 ness from the point of view of one to whom attentiveness 
 means power of attention to elements rather than to gross 
 totals, intellectually fruitful things rather than the natural 
 objects of the instincts connected with food, fears, sex 
 and the like, or past and future situations rather than 
 present situations. But the words, ' lack of power of 
 attention ' do not properly explain but only name this 
 fact. The facts given above are again the real explanation. 
 To this characterization there are numerous exceptions." 
 
 The Education of the Feebleminded. Remembering that 
 the feebleminded are chronically immature, we must 
 adapt the curriculum to their stages of development. The 
 teacher should strive to establish useful habits of all 
 descriptions, chiefly by making the rewards or satisfaction 
 immediately follow any desirable act. He should aim to 
 fix important facts by rich and varied associations, rather 
 than by repetitions of a single association, and make 
 use of attention by mainly treating of facts of vital interest 
 to them. Lastly, since they enjoy doing things which lie 
 within then- powers, and since " booky " tasks are denied
 
 312 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 them, they should be given tasks of an extremely practical 
 nature. All types of manual training are invaluable in 
 this connection. 
 
 References. Bagley : Recent Literature on the Binet 
 Tests ; Jour. Ed. Psy., HI., 2, pp. 101-109. [Reviews the 
 following : Binet and Simon : Le dtveloppement de Vintelli- 
 gence chez les enfants ; Annee Psychologique, 14, 1908, 1-94. 
 Decroly and Degand : La mesure de I 'intelligence chez des 
 enfants normaux d'apres les tests de MM. Binet et Simon; 
 Archives de Psychologic, 9, 34, 81-108, 1910. Binet: 
 Nouvelles recherches sur la mesure du niveau intellectuel 
 chez les enfants d'tcole ; Annee Psychologique, 17, 1911, 
 145-201. Binet and Simon : La mesure du dfoeloppement 
 de V intelligence chez les jeunes enfants ; Bull. d. e. Societe 
 Libre pour 1'etude Psy'. d. 1'Enfant, 70 and 71, 187-248, 
 1911. Goddard : Two Thousand Children measured by 
 the Binet Measuring Scale of Intelligence ; Ped. Sem.. 18, 
 232-259, 1911. Bobertag : Ueber Intelligenzprufungen 
 (nach der Methode von Binet und Simon) ; Zeit. f . Ange- 
 wandte Psychol., V., 2, 105-203, 1911. Johnston : BineCs 
 Method for the Measurement of Intelligence Some Results ; 
 Jour. Exper. Ped. and Training College Record, I., 1, 24-31, 
 1911. Descceudres : Les tests de Binet et Simon et leur 
 valeur scolaire ; Archives de Psychologie, XL, 44, 331-350, 
 1911. Lawrence : A Study of the Binet Definition tests ; 
 Psy. Clinic, V., 7, 207-216, 1911. Ayres : The Binet- 
 Simon Measuring Scale for Intelligence ; Some Criticisms 
 and Suggestions ; Psy. Clinic. V, 6, 187-196, 1911. Ter- 
 man : The Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring Intelligence 
 Impressions gained by its Application on Four Hundred 
 Non-selected Children; Psy. Clinic, V., 7, 199-206, 1911. 
 Huey : Backward and Feeble-minded Children. Clinical 
 studies in the Psychology of Defectives, with a Syllabus for 
 the Clinical Examination and testing of Children ; 189-202, 
 1912.] Board of Education : Annual Reports of Chief 
 Medical Officer, 1908 to date. Ellis : Man and Woman. 
 Johnson : Contributions to the Psychology and Pedagogy 
 of Feeble-minded Children; Ped. Sem., III., 246-301. 
 Kuhlmann : Experimental Studies in Mental Deficiency ; 
 Amer. Jour. Psy., XV., 391-4. Lapage : Feeblemindedness 
 in Children of School Age (contains an excellent Biblio- 
 graphy). Norsworthy : The Psychology of Mentally De-
 
 EXCEPTIONAL SCHOOL CHILDREN 313 
 
 ficient Children. Potts : The Recognition and Training of 
 Congenital Mental Defectives ; Brit. Med. Jour., May 9th, 
 1908. Report of the Royal Commission on the Care and 
 Control of the Feebleminded ; 8 vols., 1908. Thorndike : 
 Educational Psychology ; 2nd ed., Chap. XI.
 
 SECTION VII. 
 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF A SPECIAL SUBJECT. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN. 
 
 IN connection with the development of language in children 
 there are three main problems. The first of these is con- 
 cerned with the understanding and use of the mother 
 tongue. The second centres around Reading the under- 
 standing of written and printed symbols. The third 
 problem involves both Writing and Spelling, since it is 
 concerned with the development of the ability to use the 
 vernacular in writing. 
 
 Language an Inherited Capacity. The power to use 
 ' some form of language is innate in every human being. 
 Even the deaf-mute has a language, for he communicates 
 with his fellows by means of a sign or gesture language. 
 This capacity for language is, however, not perfect at 
 birth ; it is one of slow development, depending as it does 
 upon the maturing of the vocal organs and of the general 
 intellectual powers, as well as upon the various environ- 
 mental stimuli. 
 
 But we must not fall into the error of thinking that it 
 is the ability to use a specific language, such as French, 
 English or German, which is inherited. We inherit a 
 capacity for language not for a language, and the particular 
 direction the development takes is dependent upon environ- 
 ment. An English child reared in a French speaking family 
 from infancy will have French for its mother tongue, while 
 English will be considered a "foreign " language. 
 
 In connection with the question of language as an 
 inherent capacity, the story told of Psammetichus, King
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDRENr 315 
 
 of Egypt (d. 610 B.C.) by Herodotus is of interest. This 
 monarch wishing to discover which was the original language 
 of the world, placed two children under the care of a 
 shepherd and instructed him not to utter a sound in their 
 presence and to keep them from all human associations. 
 The first word they uttered was bekos which is the Phrygian 
 word for bread and hence Psammetichus concluded that 
 Phrygian was the parent language. The story is probably 
 untrue for the children would have developed a sign lan- 
 guage in imitation of the shepherd's, and even if it is true, 
 the word stripped of its Greek ending can be interpreted 
 as an onomatopoeic rendering of the bleating of the shep- 
 herd's goats. 
 
 Value of Language. Language is par excellence the tool 
 of thought. All ideal representation, and conceptual 
 analysis and synthesis are based upon it. Language fixes 
 the attention upon universals in contradistinction to 
 particulars, for it is the universals which give meanings to 
 words. 
 
 Moreover language aids memory, for the mere fact of 
 naming is an invaluable help to retention. 1 
 
 Language is also the medium of social heredit}^. Oral 
 language annihilates space, for it enables us to project our 
 ideas outwards and to break down the barriers existing 
 between mind and mind. Written language enables us to 
 annihilate both space and time. Thus, to-day, we are able 
 to enjoy the thoughts that passed through the minds of 
 Plato and Aristotle more than two thousand years ago. 
 In the early history of mankind transmission was imperfect 
 and unreliable, but with the invention of writing, the 
 accuracy of the records was immeasurably increased. 
 Take away this social inheritance and civilisation is 
 destroyed, nay, further, existence itself becomes impossible. 
 
 Function of Language. The function of language is usually 
 declared to be the expression of thoughts and feelings. The 
 inadequacy of such a definition has been pointed out by 
 Thorndike, 2 who has shown that language is also used to 
 arouse thoughts, feelings and movements. When we say, 
 " Shut the door," we do not express our feelings or thoughts, 
 or, at least, only imperfectly. Communication is not the 
 primary object ; we want to arouse or stimulate a certain 
 
 1 Judd : Psychology ; p. 261. 
 
 2 In an unpublished lecture, 1909.
 
 316 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 action in others. When the physician says " Open your 
 mouth," we do not think " Physician wants me to open my 
 mouth " ; we simply open it at once. 
 
 Linguistic Development in Children. All language appa- 
 rently has developed from the natural cries shouts, groans, 
 hisses and grunts of mankind. The first stage of develop- 
 ment was when these cries evolved into interjections of 
 the oh ! hush ! no ! variety. Into these inter jectional 
 elements a variety of tones was introduced. These become 
 definite and fixed, and at last the sounds become articulate. 
 
 The ability to understand language is always ahead of 
 the ability to use it both in the race and in the individual. 
 This statement can be proved for the individual by a careful 
 study of language development in a child during the first 
 three years of life. The best method of carrying out such 
 a study is to live with the child and make a careful list of 
 all the words he uses, noting the dates of first appearances. 
 Failing this, a stenographic record of the complete voca- 
 bulary a child uses during a particular day may be made. 
 If the record is repeated at intervals of a week or a month, 
 a fairly accurate picture of the increasing command over 
 language may be obtained, although the method is not so 
 accurate as the preceding one. 1 
 
 All children exhibit a pre-linguistic stage during the 
 first eight months, or thereabouts, of life. The cries of 
 the first month are almost undifferentiated, although careful 
 nurses and mothers can distinguish the cry of pain from that 
 of hunger, and even in some cases between the cries repre- 
 senting different degrees of discomfort. The first sounds 
 are ci or uii. The easiest consonants are the labials m, p 
 and d. These become attached to the primordial vowel 
 and we get such words as mama, dada, papa, etc. Since 
 the otherwise meaningless sound mama is the first to bear 
 any resemblance to ordinary speech, the mothers of practi- 
 cally all nations have appropriated this word as a pet name 
 for themselves. 
 
 The first responses of children are not to words as such, 
 but to different gestures, intonations, grimaces and panto- 
 mime. The truth of this is seen when the statement " Ah ! 
 you are a naughty baby ! " is made with a smiling face 
 
 1 See O'Shea : Linguistic Development and Education : a valuable 
 monograph on language development. The writer acknowledges 
 his indebtedness for much of the information contained in this section.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 317 
 
 and a calm voice to a baby. The baby's response is a 
 chortling laugh. But tell the baby that he is a sweet 
 little angel in a gruff voice and the result is a terrified 
 " squall." 
 
 It is very probable that words, especially at first, are 
 not heard at all, or only imperfectly. The process may 
 be compared to the perception of a foreign language when 
 it is first heard. The whole thing seems, in the w r ords of 
 James, to be just " one great blooming, buzzing confusion," 
 out of which the separate words emerge only after many 
 experiences of them. And many observers maintain that 
 in listening to a speech in the mother tongue, we do not 
 hear the whole of the sounds made. We perceive vague 
 " slurred " sounds and fill in the meanings from past experi- 
 ences (cf. Chap. XIV.). 
 
 In the use of language the meaning is filled out with 
 gestures and intonations. In some of the children's 
 " sentence -words," the intonations and gestures are the 
 sole keys to the meaning. Thus " Mama " may mean 
 " Please, Mama take me up and carry me," or " Please 
 Mama give me some more food," etc., according to the 
 way in which it is pronounced. In Chinese the inflection 
 gives the meaning ; the same written form may have 
 several different meanings. Pronounced with a rising 
 inflection the word has one meaning ; pronounced with a 
 falling inflection it takes on another. 
 
 Since language is wholly concerned with the conveyance 
 of ideas from mind to mind, the unit of language must 
 everywhere be the sentence. When a single word is used, 
 it has the force of a sentence and many persons return to 
 a similar stage when giving commands. " Hat " or " Hat 
 please," said to a waiter means, " Please reach me my 
 hat." And the Chairman of the Company in Galsworthy's 
 Strife is a classic illustration of few words carrying much 
 meaning. In early life the inter jectional or explosive 
 element in language is strong, although the actual inter- 
 jectional forms develop fairly late. The interjectional 
 element in adolescent slang is much too forcible to be passed 
 unnoticed by even the most casual of observers. 
 
 The adjectival function can be traced from the age of 
 one and a half years onwards. Adjectives are usually 
 attached to names of food which may be cold, hot, good, 
 nasty, sweet or nice. In some cases the adjective has
 
 318 . LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 no real meaning. A " nice dolly " may simply be a 
 " dolly." 
 
 Somewhat later, the adverbial function develops. ' ' Here ' ' 
 is the first to appear, but it is closely followed by " where." 
 After asking a young boy if he had been to various places 
 which I named, I got the unexpected reply, " I've been to 
 lots of wheres," and this effectually stopped any further 
 questioning. 
 
 The prepositional and conjunctional functions are 
 almost exclusively expressed by gesture at first. O'Shea 
 records the case of "My-go-snow " standing for "I want 
 to go out in the snow." 
 
 The pronouns are sources of trouble to every child. 
 The confusion arises because so many of them may refer 
 to the same individual, e.g. I, he, him, his, you and your 
 may all refer to one boy. Hence there is a tendency to use 
 the nominative form of a noun instead of the pronoun, 
 e.g. " Mama give John " instead of " Mama give me." 
 The personal pronouns I, my, mine and me are seldom 
 used before the end of the second year, and the correct use 
 of them is seldom found before middle school-life. 
 
 Inflections are also difficult. The adult who did not 
 use regular plurals such as " mouses," " gooses," " tooths," 
 and " mans " at the beginnings of his language learning, 
 does not exist. The verb inflections are also confusing. 
 " Buyed," " runned," and " flied " are frequently heard, 
 and one small girl was known habitually to use " dig," 
 " dag," " dug " as the principal parts of the verb to dig. 
 Can and may. could and might, who and whom, are often 
 wrongly used until comparatively late in life. The first 
 inflected forms to appear are the comparative and super- 
 lative forms of adjectives. 
 
 The correct uses of agreement in speech are late in 
 development. " I runs " ; " He don't do right " ; " The 
 teacher with all her pupils were on the playground " ; 
 " Neither I nor you were there " ; " It's me " ; and " Me, 
 Sir," are common errors of this type. In " It's me," the 
 grammatical form seems opposed to the psychological 
 feeling ; the French form c'est moi or the German Ich bin es 
 both seem more reasonable in this respect. As a general 
 rule concrete words are learned and used before abstract ; 
 and words with a positive content before those with a 
 negative content. The learning chiefly takes place by the
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 319 
 
 process of trial and error. The child " plays " with words 
 and successful forms are rewarded through the satisfaction 
 of being understood and by evoking responses. 
 
 Range and Vocabulary. Many wild statements have 
 been made about the range of the vocabularies of children 
 and uneducated peasants. Laurie l stated that " In the 
 child up to the eighth year the range of language is very 
 small ; he probably confines himself to not more than 150 
 words. ' ' A peasant is generally supposed to have a working 
 vocabularj' of 500 to 1,000 words (the philological terms). 
 Many children of much less than eight years have had 
 recorded vocabularies of upwards of a thousand words. 
 Salisbury 2 found that his boy, when 5| years of age, had a 
 vocabulary of 1,528 " understandingly used " words, not 
 counting participles and inflected forms (except pronouns). 
 
 Holden 3 estimated his own vocabulary at 33,456 and 
 thought that 30,000 was not at all an unusual vocabulary. 
 " For comparative purposes he estimated the vocabulary of 
 Shakespeare (minus all verbs spelled like nouns), from 
 Mrs. Clarke's Concordance, to amount to 24,000 words ; 
 Milton's from Cleveland's Concordance, for the poems alone 
 (the prose would give a larger number), 17,377 ; the English 
 Bible, from Cruden's Concordance, 7,209 (exclusive of proper 
 names ; Bosworth's Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language 
 (which contains "few words not in full use before 1100 
 A.D."), 11,913 ; Hotten'* Dictionary of Slang, 10,000." 4 
 
 Judging from these facts, we may reasonably expect 
 a child on leaving school to know the meanings of 10,000- 
 15,000 words, and of these he ought to be able to use one- 
 quarter to one-third in speech and writing. 
 
 But we must not forget that a vocabulary is always in 
 the making. It contains elements perfectly well known, 
 others known but fairly well, and some which are scarcely 
 known at all and which will disappear if no opportunity 
 for exercise with them is afforded. 
 
 Parts of Speech. Several investigators have endeavoured 
 
 1 Laurie : Language and the Linguistic Method* 
 
 8 Salisbury : A Child's vocabulary ; Educ. Rev., VII., (1894), pp. 
 287-290, cf. Binet testa. 
 
 3 Holden : On the number of words used in Speaking and Writing ; 
 Bull. Phil. Soc., Washington, II. (1874-78), App. I., pp. 16-21. 
 
 * Holden : op. cit. Quoted by Chamberlain : The Child : A 
 Study in the Evolution of Man ; p. 160.
 
 320 
 
 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 to trace the varied use of the several parts of speech at 
 different ages. Tracy x collected the results of several 
 investigators who reported the vocabularies of twelve 
 children from nineteen to thirty months of age. Salisbury 2 
 obtained the distribution of the parts of speech at two 
 different ages. Miss Wolff 3 analysed the contents of a 
 voluntarily made boy's dictionary into grammatical groups. 
 And Kirkpatrick analysed the language of adults as given 
 in a standard dictionary, as well as that of Robinson Crusoe. 
 Table 46 gives a summary, in percentages, of the various 
 investigations. 
 
 TABLE 46. 
 
 Investigator. 
 
 Total 
 words. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 Adj. 
 
 Adv. 
 
 Pron. 
 
 Prep. 
 
 Con. 
 
 Inter}. 
 
 Tracy 
 
 5400 
 12 sub- 
 jects. 
 
 19-30 
 months. 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 0-3 
 
 1-7 
 
 Wolff, - 
 Salisbury, 
 
 
 
 642 
 1528 
 
 32 
 
 months. 
 
 6* 
 
 yrs. 
 
 42 
 54-5 
 
 57-9 
 
 30 
 23-3 
 
 21-1 
 
 8 
 9-4 
 
 15-3 
 
 10 
 4-9 
 
 2-6 
 
 4 
 3-6 
 
 1-5 
 
 V-l 
 1-3 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 0-3 
 
 6 
 
 Kirk- 
 patrick, 
 
 Dic- 
 tionary 
 
 adult. 
 
 60 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 5-5 
 
 
 
 
 1-5 
 
 
 n 
 
 Robin- 
 son 
 Crusoe. 
 
 " 
 
 45 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 The Teaching of Language. Language is probably more 
 badly taught than any other branch of the elementary 
 school curriculum. Instead of being considered as the 
 imitative use of a tool, as it largely is in its early stages, it 
 is taught as a science. Language is not a science since it 
 has no principles, and only in its higher stages can it be 
 looked upon as a fine art. The problem of treating it as an 
 art is that of constantly reproducing living thought from 
 
 1 Tracy : Psychology of Childhood ; Chap. V., 1901. 
 
 1 Salisbury : A Child's Vocabulary ; Educ. Rev., VII., pp. 
 287-290. 
 
 3 Wolff : A Boy's Dictionary ; Child Study Monthly, III., 1897, 
 pp. 141-150.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 321 
 
 its symbolic remains. Language in itself is not highly 
 educative ; its value as a study comes from the experiences 
 of life which it symbolises and from its pre-eminently 
 social nature. It should only be used in school when it 
 has definite advantages over other forms of expression. 
 
 Psychology indicates the following lines of treatment. 
 (1) Create a desire for the use of language by placing the 
 pupil in situations which require its use orally at first, 
 afterwards in writing. (2) Create a healthy dissatisfaction 
 with his previous efforts by making him realise that he is 
 neither adequately pleasing himself, nor producing the 
 desired effect upon others. (3) Lead the pupil to solve 
 his difficulties by using his own resources, or other aids 
 to which the teacher may direct his attention. 
 
 From the above remarks it may be inferred that the 
 author has little sympathy with the teaching of grammar in 
 the elementary school. Grammar does not teach correct 
 speech ; it only enables one to judge of its correctness 
 after utterance, i.e. it makes self-criticism more effective. 
 The grammatical instruction should be limited to the 
 teaching of facts that have a direct bearing upon the use 
 of language as a means of expressing and interpreting 
 thought. It should be incidental to the practical study 
 of language and should evolve from it. At most it ought 
 to be limited to the last year of school-life when it perhaps 
 could be used as a foundation for further linguistic study. 
 
 READING. 
 
 From a sociological point of view, reading (with writing) 
 is important because it enables the race to transmit its 
 knowledge in an easily accessible form. 
 
 From a psychological point of view, the ultimate problem 
 of reading is that of obtaining a meaning from an arrange- 
 ment of certain highly artificial symbols. The psycho- 
 logical processes involved in the act are both numerous and 
 varied. These consist of (a) A retinal impression of the 
 printed symbols which is followed by the percept of the 
 word. (6) The percept is followed by various forms of 
 imagery among which may be the auditory image of the 
 word, the visual image of the word, or the articulatory 
 image of the word, (c) Depending upon some form of 
 imagery we get the actual articulation of the word, either
 
 322 
 
 silently or audibly, and from this (d) We arrive at the 
 actual meaning. The most usual series in reading seems to 
 be retinal impression, percept, auditory image, actual 
 articulation and meaning. Visual imagery seems to play 
 a very minor part. 
 
 The investigations of psychologists x have been mainly 
 directed to the elucidation of the following problems : 
 
 The Work of the Eyes in Beading. Contrary to general 
 opinion, the eyes in reading do not move in smooth sweeps 
 across the page but in a series of jerks. These jerks are 
 separated by pauses or rest periods, but the sweep from 
 one line to the next is usually accomplished in one move- 
 ment. The quicker the reading the fewer the pauses 
 and the shorter their duration. The number of pauses 
 depends, therefore, on the length of the line and the famili- 
 arity of the subject matter. In reading unfamiliar material 
 such as an imperfectly known foreign language, the move- 
 ments diminish in length and the duration of the rests 
 increases. The average time occupied by a forward move- 
 ment is given by Dodge and by Dearborn as 0-023 second ; 
 
 1 The material for the rest of this section has been culled in the 
 main from : 
 
 (1) Huey : Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. 
 
 (2) Dodge : An Experimental Study of Visual Fixation ; Psy. Rev. 
 Mon. Suppl., VIII., 4, 1907. 
 
 (3) Quantz : Problems in the Psychology of Reading ; Psy. Rev. 
 Mon. Suppl., II., 1, 1897. 
 
 (4) Woodworth : Vision and Localisation during Eye-Movements ; 
 Psy. Bull., III., 2, 1906. 
 
 (6) Dearborn : The Psychology of Reading ; Columbia Univ. 
 contrib. to Phil, and Psy., XIV., 1. 
 
 (6) Erdmann and Dodge : Die Psychologischen Orundlagen der 
 Beiziehungen zwischen Sprechen und Denkcn ; Archiv f. Systemat. 
 Phil., III., 1897. 
 
 (7) Cattell: Time and Space in Vision; Psy. Rev., VII., 325-342, 
 1900. 
 
 (8) Goldscheider and Muller : Zur Phys. und Path, dee Lesens ; 
 Zeit. f. Klin. Med., XXIII., p. 131. 
 
 (9) Pillsbury : A study in Apperception ; Amer. Jour. Psy., VIII., 
 3, 1897. 
 
 ( 10) Smith : The Psychology of Adult Reading ; Brit. Ass. Report, 
 1912. 
 
 (11) Zeitler : Tachistoskopische Versuche iiber das Lesen ; Wundt's 
 Phil. Stud., XVI., 3, 380-463. 
 
 (12) Beer: Die Abhiingigke.it der Lesenzeit von psychol. und 
 sprachlichen Factoren ; Zeit. f. Psy., 66, 1910. 
 
 (13) Dockeray: The Span of Vision in Reading, and the Legibility 
 of Letters ; Jour, of Ed. Psy., I., 3, 1910.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 323 
 
 the average time for a rest with fast readers is -185 second, 
 although the variation is so great that a pause may be 
 of any length. From three to seven pauses are made in a 
 line of this print. The pauses are within the line, the 
 last being further from the end than the first is from the 
 beginning, and the average distance between the extremes 
 is only 78 to 82 per cent, of the width of the line. The 
 first fixation is the longest, and Dearborn suggests that 
 this extra time is used in giving a general glance along 
 the line. The same writer also states that persons fall 
 into a fixed motor habit of making a certain number of 
 pauses per line and into a steady rate of reading, but that 
 the latter can be consciously speeded up. There is less 
 fatigue caused by wide angle sweeps, hence the tendency 
 is for children to place the eyes too near the page, thus 
 causing myopia. 
 
 Although the speed of a sweep is sufficiently great to 
 cause the black ink and white paper to form a grey blur, 
 no such effect is perceived by the reader. Woodworth 
 has shown that the eye is not wholly anaesthetic during 
 movement as was formerly supposed to be the case : still 
 we practically read only at the pauses and that by " eye- 
 fuls." It is probable that we ignore the effect of the grey 
 blur just as we ignore many of the faint sensations of 
 ordinary life. 
 
 Eye-movements were first recorded by Javal in 1879. 
 Erdmann and Dodge studied them more carefully in 1898 
 by using the mirror method of direct observations. They 
 found that the eye was usually focussed upon the middle 
 part of the words. Later Dodge actually succeeded in 
 photographing the eye-movement. Huey studied them by 
 attaching a plaster-of-paris cup to the cornea and recording 
 the movements by a bristle pointer. He found rather 
 fewer pauses than Dodge. Quite recently Dodge has found 
 that the eye is not fixed steadily during a so-called pause, 
 but quivers or vibrates incessantly. 
 
 Children need to be taught to move the eyes from one 
 line to the next and therefore one line sentences for the 
 first Readers are pedagogically faulty. An indentation 
 of an " m " at the beginning of alternate lines would 
 probably be" helpful. 
 
 The Area of Fixation. The amount seen during a reading 
 pause is very small. The space which represents the area
 
 324 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 of distinct vision is not greater than seven letters if these 
 do not form words. Yet the amount of sensible material 
 which can be read in a Cattell Fall Apparatus a variety 
 of tachistoscope amounts to sixteen or twenty letters. 
 Dockeray found that the span of distant vision for letters 
 in 10 point type at a distance of 35 cm. from the eyes was 
 from 20 mm. to 22 mm. on either side of the fixation point. 
 Under favourable circumstances as much as half a line 
 could be read at a glance of such a brief duration that eye- 
 movements were precluded. It may therefore be inferred 
 that the majority of the letters are filled in by pre-percep- 
 tion. We read more than we see clearly but usually less 
 than is possible under concentrated attention. 
 
 More is read to the right of the fixation point than to 
 the left, and the amount read depends on the sequence of 
 letters or words and on the familiarity of the material. 
 
 The Speed of Reading. The rate of reading is a very 
 variable quantity ; the fast reader may read four times as 
 quickly as the slow one. The normal rate of reading for a 
 person is reduced by lip movements if these are not habitual. 
 It is increased by great familiarity with the subject matter. 
 A foreign language is read at a much slower rate, although 
 the subject may think he is reading it as quickly as he 
 reads his native tongue. Rapid readers not only do their 
 work in less time but also do superior work. Calkins, 
 Quantz and others have found that the quick readers 
 remember most and for a longer time. Romanes, however, 
 found that among the subjects he tested, several slow 
 readers were highly distinguished scholars. 
 
 Lip-movement is a serious hindrance to the speed of 
 reading ; other influences at work are the habitual quickness 
 of perception, the training and practice the subject has 
 had, and the degrees of concentration and scholarship 
 he exhibits. Prandtl has recently shown that serious 
 texts are read more slowly than cheerful ones, and that 
 even the suggestion that the text is bright or sad will alter 
 the rate of reading. Beer has shown that the rate is 
 decreased as the proportion of monosyllables increases. 
 
 Since rapid reading is beneficial, at least where reading 
 for ideas is concerned, as opposed to reading for the musical 
 rhythm as in poetry, children ought to be helped con- 
 sciously to increase their normal rates of reading. For 
 the reading of novels, the author has increased his
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 325 
 
 rate from 40 to 100 pages per hour during the past six 
 years. 
 
 Inner Speech and the Act of Perception. By inner 
 speech is meant the silent or internal pronunciation of 
 words which accompanies silent reading ; a movement is 
 felt in the throat and it sometimes becomes so marked 
 as to spread over into lip-movement. In quick silent 
 reading every word is not pronounced in full ; only the 
 beginnings are attempted and these are sufficient to give 
 the meaning. Young children invariably are lip-movers. 
 Lip-moving is probably a reflex action arising out of the pre- 
 dominant role played by oral speech in the early history of 
 the race. It is a manifestation of the psycho-physical law of 
 dynamo-genesis by means of which every mental state tends 
 to express itself in muscular movement. Adults overcome 
 the habit by practice. Quantz found that of adults 10-4 
 per cent, were pronounced lip-movers, 29-5 per cent, were 
 medium lip-movers, and 60-1 per cent, had no movement 
 whatever. Silent reading with inner speech is much quicker 
 than reading aloud, and some persons read so quickly that 
 inner speech is abolished ; they are " eye-readers." Inner 
 speech does not depend on the breath, it takes place during 
 inhalation and exhalation. It always lags behind the eye 
 also. The distance between the two is variable, being 
 greater at the beginning of a new line. If in silent reading, 
 or better still in reading aloud, a card is placed over the 
 printed page, the subject is afterwards able to read on for 
 a considerable number of words. Quantz found that when 
 the reader is pronouncing the word at the beginning of a 
 line, the eye is on an average 7-4 words in advance of the 
 voice ; in the middle 5-1 words ; at the end 3-8 ; the average 
 is 5-4. The eye-voice separation is less in unfamiliar 
 passages. All authorities are agreed that inner speech 
 has an important bearing upon the perception and inter- 
 pretation of the printed matter. Whether the conscious- 
 ness of meaning accompanies the visual recognition, or 
 is delayed until after the inner utterance, is still an un- 
 settled problem. It probably begins between the eye and 
 the voice and is completed by inner speech. 
 
 Other elements in the perception of printed words are 
 as follows : 
 
 The upper part of a line of print is more important than 
 the lower ; we are able to read print from which the lower
 
 326 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 half has been removed, but it is almost impossible to do so 
 if the upper half is deleted. 
 
 It is not necessary to see clearly all the constituent 
 parts of a word before it can be read. Goldscheider and 
 Muller, Zeitler, and Wiegand have shown that only ghostly 
 outlines of familiar words are seen ; these are filled out 
 and the words are recognised. Some letters play a more 
 prominent part than others and to these the term " domi- 
 nant " has been applied. The letters which project above 
 and below the line tend to be dominant. The first part 
 of a word, as Huey showed, is also more important than the 
 second. The outline form of a word is a very inconstant 
 quantity as may be seen by placing the same word in 
 written, typewritten and various kinds of printed characters 
 side by side. So important is the outline form in word 
 perception, that print can be read at a distance which makes 
 the separate letters indistinguishable. 
 
 The unit of perception in reading is the word, phrase, 
 or sentence as suits our purpose best. Cattell has shown 
 that easy words of four letters can be perceived as quickly 
 and as easily as each of the component letters, and that 
 some letters are more legible than others. Dockeray 
 found that broad letters are much less confusing than tall 
 narrow ones. In one of Huey's experiments 
 
 50 letters were read in an average of 15-7 seconds. 
 50 four -letter words were - - 17-3 
 50 eight- - 19-6 
 
 50 twelve- ,, ,, - 28-5 ,, 
 
 50 sixteen- ,, ,, - 54-1 ,, 
 
 With more familiar material, phrases and even short 
 sentences may be perceived at a glance not exceeding 
 one-hundredth of a second in length, but it must be admitted 
 that the artificial conditions of the experiment may intro- 
 duce factors which are not normally present in ordinary 
 reading. 
 
 " Huey concludes, as did Goldscheider and Muller, that 
 sometimes the total form is sufficient for recognition, at 
 other times a dominant complex is the first factor. But 
 in either case there is only one total act of recognition 
 inside which the dominant parts or the total form occupy 
 a greater prominence in consciousness. The tendency is 
 towards the recognition in larger and larger units, with
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 327 
 
 occasional descents to single word recognition, or even 
 letter recognition." 1 
 
 The Pedagogy of Reading. In addition to the principles 
 of teaching formulated in previous parts of the chapter, a 
 few modifications of method suggested by Psychology may 
 now be mentioned. The first of these is that an eclectic 
 method of teaching children to read, with an emphasis on 
 the " look and say " method, is probably the best. The 
 second is that word drill should be kept out of books and 
 that nothing artificial such as diacritical marks should be 
 introduced. Thirdly, one line sentences and short " snip- 
 pity " stories are especially bad, since they give no oppor- 
 tunity for holding thought, as it were, in solution. The 
 child must learn to hold bigger and bigger elements in the 
 mind, hence a book with a long story is valuable even for 
 the beginning stages. Fourthly, words are not difficult 
 simply because of their length ; the meanings which are 
 attached to them are the stumbling-blocks in thought get- 
 ting. Many short words like is, was, the, when, it, who, if, 
 and, but, on, in, out, etc., are infinitely more difficult than 
 many ten or twelve letter words. They gather meaning 
 from their context, hence words, if possible, should never be 
 given apart from context. Lastly, greater attention should 
 be paid to the hygiene of reading ; many Readers leave 
 much to be desired with respect to legibility. 
 
 HANDWRITING. 
 
 Writing, in the evolution of language, developed con- 
 temporaneously with reading. Pictures, or ideographs, 
 appear to have been the earliest form of writing and from 
 these, alphabets have gradually evolved. Handwriting 
 was fairly late in its development and is rapidly giving way 
 to machine-writing. However, we are yet a long way from 
 the time when handwriting will be no more, and the question 
 of the teaching of handwriting still remains one of the 
 thorniest of pedagogical problems. 
 
 Handwriting may be studied from the standpoint of 
 (1) Relative ease of execution. Under this head the 
 movements of the hand and arm concerned with hand- 
 writing should be studied from the standpoint of physiology 
 
 1 Smith : op. cit., ; section 4.
 
 328 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN. 
 
 and hygiene. (2) The legibility of the finished product. 
 Our judgments of " goodness " or the quality of handwriting 
 largely depend upon legibility. (3) The speed with which 
 the writing can be done. This obviously depends, in part, 
 upon the ease of movement. (4) The aesthetic appearance 
 of the finished product. 
 
 For teachers, the main problem is, " how to secure a 
 working combination of speed and legibility," yet more 
 attention is devoted to aesthetic qualities than to any other. 
 
 Movements concerned with Handwriting. Judd 1 in- 
 vestigated the writing movements experimentally and 
 concluded : " (1) In ordinary writing the fine formative 
 movements are executed by the fingers. (2) The movement 
 which carries the fingers forward is executed by the hand 
 or arm. (3) The pauses between the groups of letters are 
 utilised for longer forward arm movements which bring 
 the hand back into an easy working position. (4) A 
 comparison of the different types of co-ordination obtained 
 from the experiment shows that each individual has his 
 own peculiar combination of arm and hand and finger 
 movements, and that forms of co-ordination are as numerous 
 and varied as are the individuals who write. (5) The hand 
 usually requires a few strokes at first to adjust itself ; the 
 necessary adjustment sometimes being brought about 
 by a greater emphasis on finger movement and sometimes 
 by a more pronounced hand movement. (6) Any change in 
 the condition under which the subject writes will modify 
 the character of co-ordination, i.e. changing from a hard 
 to a soft pencil, from a vertical position of the paper to 
 an oblique, will produce variations in the character of the 
 muscular co-ordination, even when the product of the 
 movement (the written letter) does not seem to be 
 changed." 
 
 McAllister 2 found that most of the movements used in 
 writing follow the radii of the first and third quadrants. 
 Movements in the third quadrant are quickest, those in 
 the second and fourth are both slower and less numerous. 
 These results indicate that a sloping handwriting is more 
 natural and economical than an upright one. But a slope 
 
 1 Judd : Genetic Psychology for Teachers ; Chap. VI. Summarised 
 by Thompson : Psychology and Pedagogy of Writing ; p. 73. 
 
 a McAllister : Researches on Movements used in Writing. Studies 
 from the Yale Psychological Lab., VIII., p. 63.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 329 
 
 above 15 away from the vertical, although adding to the 
 speed, seriously reduces its legibility. 
 
 Woodworth l carried out a series of experiments with 
 adults to find out which was the easiest type of writing 
 movement. He found that a forearm movement with the 
 elbow resting on the desk was to be preferred to the whole 
 arm movement and to the movements of the fingers. This 
 method of writing is somewhat more difficult to learn, 
 but in the long run it produces the best results in speed and 
 legibility. 
 
 Women are generally found to write more quickly than 
 men and to distribute the pressures differently. 2 With 
 the masculine type of writing, the pressures are rhythmically 
 distributed over the word and exhibit a maximum at a 
 definite point in each word, generally at the beginning or 
 end. The average pressure also increases with the speed. 
 The feminine type of handwriting, which is not confined 
 to women, decreases its pressure with speed and does not 
 exhibit the same rhythmical effect. 
 
 These variations in pressures and in rapidity of move- 
 ment are the chief causes of the sex-differences which hand- 
 writing exhibits. Downey 3 found that it was possible 
 to judge of sex correctly in perhaps 80 per cent, of the cases. 
 Originality is a mark of the man's handwriting ; con- 
 ventionality that of the woman's. 
 
 Legibility of Handwriting. Goodness or merit in hand- 
 writing is dependent upon legibility and aesthetic values ; 
 legibility depends upon spacing of lines, spacing of words, 
 and on the form and regularity of the individual letters. 
 Attention to spacing, especially the spacing of words, 
 increases the legibility of handwriting far more than 
 attention to the form or regularity of letters. In an 
 experiment, carried out by the writer in 1911, the hand- 
 writing of a class improved, in the space of a month, by 30 
 per cent, (measured by Thorndike's Graphometer infra), 
 through the simple expedient of insisting on a space equal to 
 
 1 Woodworth : Accuracy of Voluntary Movement ; Psy. Rev. Moii. 
 SuppL, III., 2, 1899. 
 
 2 Freeman : Preliminary Experiments on Writing reactions ; 
 Psy. Rev., VII., pp. 301-34. 
 
 1 Downey : Judgment of sex in handwriting ; Psy. Rev., XVII., 
 1910.
 
 330 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 the width of a letter " m " being left between each of the 
 words. The spacing between the lines should be sufficiently 
 great to prevent the overlapping of loops and tails. Regu- 
 larity is a more important factor in legibility than form, 
 although the latter is more often emphasised by the teacher 
 than is the former. 
 
 The following rules of the Civil Service Commissioners 
 are excellent for promoting legibility. The modifications 
 in parenthesis are suggested improvements. 
 
 "1. Each letter and each figure should be clearly and com- 
 pletely formed, so as to avoid the possibility of one letter or 
 figure being mistaken for another ; and the slope from the 
 vertical should be even and not exceed thirty degrees. 
 
 " 2. The characters should be of moderate and even size. 
 The projection of capitals and long letters above or below the 
 line should not be more than one and a half times the length 
 of the short letters. Flourishes and superfluous strokes 
 should be avoided. 
 
 " 3. There should be moderate and even spaces (at least 
 ^ inch, but not exceeding a :5 6 inch) between the letters in a 
 word, and also between the words (at least f^ inch, but not 
 exceeding a % inch) in a sentence. The letters in a word 
 should be united (?) by strokes; the words in a sentence 
 should be unconnected by strokes. 
 
 " 4. The writing should be in straight lines, running parallel 
 with the top of the page. The intervals between the lines (at 
 least J inch) should be even and sufficient to prevent the 
 intersection of loops and tails." 
 
 Thorndike x has recently constructed a " graphometer " 
 or scale by means of which merit (chiefly legibility) in 
 handwriting may be judged. The scale consists of samples 
 of handwriting graded from zero (no merit) to eighteen 
 (the highest merit). The handwriting to be judged is 
 compared with the scale and given a number accordingly. 
 To understand how the scale is made, a knowledge of 
 statistics is essential ; the technical nature of the problem 
 precludes discussion in this elementary work, but students 
 wishing for further information may obtain it from the 
 reference below. 
 
 Aesthetic Values of Handwriting. During the past two 
 years an interesting experiment has been carried out in 
 
 1 Thorndike: Handwriting; Teachers' Coll. Record, XL, 2, 1910. 
 The Scale is also reprinted in Thompson : Psychology and Pedagogy 
 of Writing.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 331 
 
 the Fielden School. 1 The aim of the experiment was to 
 improve the handwriting of the scholars. Running script 
 was prohibited and the writing of disconnected letters 
 was substituted. The model, which was not unlike a 
 " library " hand, was based upon the lettering found in 
 mediaeval manuscripts, i.e. the handwriting was to be 
 improved by directing the attention to aesthetic forms. 
 The improvement in legibility of the writing has exceeded 
 the wildest hopes of the experimenters, but the average 
 speed has seriously decreased. So slow is this " semi- 
 printing," that scholars in the upper classes tend to revert 
 to the " running hand " when hurried and pressed for time. 
 The particular forms of letters adopted are difficult to 
 join together, hence it would seem that the experiment will 
 have to be abandoned, in spite of its extreme value in 
 promoting legibility, because the factor of speed makes 
 it so wasteful of time. 
 
 Speed of Handwriting. The speediest form of handwriting 
 is that which employs the fore-arm movement in its exe- 
 cution, but the quickest handwriting is only as speedy as 
 moderately quick typewriting. Burt 2 found that speed 
 of writing correlates fairly highly with General Intelligence. 
 
 Teaching of Handwriting. The modifications of teaching 
 method which Psychology suggests are (1) devote more 
 attention to spacing, especially to the spaces between 
 words, and less attention to the forms of letters than is 
 customary at the present time ; (2) use less finger movement 
 and depend more upon the fore-arm, pivoted at the elbow, 
 for both fundamental and accessory movements ; (3) allow 
 greater individual freedom of style ; the moulding of 
 children's handwriting to one fixed style seems a pure 
 waste of tune, since individual differences will appear as 
 soon as the discipline of school is removed ; (4) handwriting, 
 like reading, should only be a " subject " for the lower 
 classes ; in the higher classes it should be regarded simply 
 as a tool for use in more important branches of the curri- 
 culum. 
 
 1 Connected with the Education Department of the University of 
 Manchester. 
 
 1 Burt : Experimental Tests of Higher Mental Processes and their 
 Relation to General Intelligence ; Jour. Exper. Fed., I., p. 98.
 
 332 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 SPELLING. 
 
 Spelling is of practical importance in language only 
 so far as it is connected with the writing of it. Before 
 language was " fixed " by writing and bound down firmly 
 by printing, spelling could not possibly play any part in 
 it. Our irrational spelling causes a large proportion of 
 school time to be devoted to the teaching of this branch 
 of the curriculum and, until recently, no criticisms were 
 levelled against the possible waste of time or the teaching 
 methods in vogue. Experimental investigations during 
 the past twenty years, while not solving the problem, have 
 led us to a new appreciation of the difficulties surrounding it. 
 
 The Psychology of Spelling. The problem of the psy- 
 chology of spelling is to discover the steps in the mental 
 process which will enable us to pass from the meaning of the 
 word to its actual articulation in letter sequence or its 
 writing. This to a large extent is the reverse process of 
 reading, where the passage is from the written or printed 
 form to the meaning it conveys. When the habit of 
 spelling has been acquired the process seems simply to be : 
 
 ( 1 ) a recall by memory of the word which fits a felt meaning ; 
 
 (2) consent is now given to the writing of it ; and (3) the 
 writing takes place automatically. But there are many 
 steps, which have never yielded to introspective analysis, 
 between (2) and (3). These steps depend upon mental 
 images which help the recall, in conventional order, of the 
 symbols composing the word, and these vary in different 
 individuals. In some, visual images of the individual 
 letters play an important part ; in others, auditory images 
 of the sounds composing the word, or motor images of the 
 speech-movements involved in pronouncing the word, 
 or motor images of the hand-movements involved in writing 
 the letters, may be of greater significance. It is very 
 probable that no one depends absolutely upon one form 
 of image, but that all forms may help towards a correct 
 spelling of the word. The importance of visual imagery 
 has been exaggerated, for it has been shown by many 
 experimenters that visual imagery is seldom powerful 
 enough to be functional. The person who spells by visual 
 imagery will certainly never need to write a word to see if 
 it is spelled correctly. 
 
 Spelling therefore may be said to be a sensori-motor
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 333 
 
 habit acquired by repeated motor reactions to certain 
 sensory stimuli. The sensory stimulus is usually the 
 written or printed word as in reading, but it may be the 
 sound of the word in letter sequence. From this we get 
 the percept. Arising out of the percept of the word and 
 out of the actual writing of it, we get the development 
 of the various images which ultimately enable us to spell 
 the word correctly by the use of some form of motor-' 
 activity. The movement-images for the separate letters 
 are learned in the first instruction and these later combine 
 to form movement-images of syllables and words. 
 
 The earlier psychology of spelling was certainly false. 
 It assumed that spelling was a method of memory supported 
 by certain rules and this led to a false pedagogy of the 
 subject in which lists of isolated words from a spelling book 
 played a conspicuous part. Memory certainly has little 
 to do with it. Business men who dictate all their letters 
 to stenographers do not forget how to spell. The ability 
 to perceive minute differences, which is largely innate but 
 which may be trained, is much the most important factor. 
 
 Experimental Studies of Spelling. The earliest experi- 
 mental investigations of the problem were carried out in 
 Germany l by Lay, Schiller, Lobsien, Itschner and others. 
 Lay endeavoured to evaluate the shares that hearing, 
 sight, speech and writing have in the process of learning 
 to spell. He devised a series of experiments in dictation, 
 reading, oral spelling and transcription. Nonsense words 
 were used in order to provide material of uniform difficulty, 
 and various groups of scholars were tested. The number 
 of mistakes per scholar worked out as follows : 
 
 Hearing without vocalising - 3'04 per scholar. 
 Hearing without speaking in an under- 
 tone - 2-69 
 Hearing without speaking aloud - - 2*25 
 Seeing without vocalising - - 1 '22 
 Seeing with speaking in an undertone - 1 "02 
 Seeing with speaking aloud - 0-95 
 Spelling aloud - - T02 
 Transcription - - 0'54 
 
 1 See ( 1 ) Meumann : Vorlesungen zur Einfiihrung in die experi- 
 menteHe Padagogik; (2) Rusk : introduction to Experimental Educa- 
 tion ; (3) Burnham ; The Hygiene and Psychology of Spelling ; Ped. 
 Sem., XIII., p. 474 ff., 1906.
 
 334 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 The eye on the average plays a much more important 
 part than the ear. Transcriptions, which involved writing 
 movements and the sight of the word, gave the best results. 
 Lay was inclined to think that motor-imagery, both vocal 
 and graphic, played a predominant part in spelling, but 
 Fuchs and Haggenmiiller showed, by using ' imaginary ' 
 writing, that the inference was not valid. 
 
 More recently, American investigators have carried out 
 a large number of researches into the pedagogy of spelling. 
 Rice x was the originator of the particular type of investiga- 
 tions. He tested the abilities of 33,000 children in grades 
 V., VI., VII. and VIII. These children came from all 
 classes of society, had been taught by various methods, and 
 had received instruction for differing daily periods 15, 
 20 and 40 minutes. In addition, Rice interviewed two 
 hundred teachers in regard to the methods they used and 
 the results they obtained. The test words were given in 
 three ways : (1) standing alone ; (2) in sentences ; and 
 (3) in composition written on a story basis. 
 
 The results, which he obtained, were somewhat startling. 
 They were briefly as follows : 
 
 1. The ability to spell in a given grade was not determined 
 by age. The results do not favour the older pupils in a grade. 
 (Older children are probably dullards.) 
 
 2. The best spellers as a rule are to be found among the 
 brightest pupils. 
 
 3. The influence of nationality is nil. If anything, the 
 results slightly favour the foreign element. 
 
 4. The influence of methods of teaching is nil. 
 
 5. There was no difference in spelling ability exhibited as a 
 result of much or little home reading by pupils. 
 
 6. All the time devoted to teaching of spelling beyond a 
 certain maximum (not exceeding 15 mins. a day) is wasted. 
 
 As a conclusion he states : " The facts presented, in my 
 opinion, admit of only one conclusion, namely, that results 
 are not determined by methods employed but by the 
 ability of those who use them. The first place must be 
 given to the personal equation of the teacher, while methods 
 and devices play a very subordinate part. In learning 
 to spell maturity must be considered one of the leading 
 factors." 
 
 1 Rice : The Futility of the. spelling Grind ; Forum, March and 
 April, 1897.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 335 
 
 These unexpected results of Rice led to a further investi- 
 gation by Cormnan, 1 who gave a number of spelling tests 
 in various schools and also got two schools to abandon 
 the use of the spelling book and home lessons in the subject, 
 and to omit the spelling period from the school programme 
 for a period of three years in order to see what effect it 
 had on the spelling of the scholars. Five kinds of tests were 
 employed : (1) Words spontaneously selected by the 
 pupils during a period of fifteen minutes ; (2) dictated 
 words ; (3) dictated sentences containing selected words ; 
 
 (4) Superintendent's terminal examinations in spelling ; 
 
 (5) daily composition work. 
 
 The results which Cornman obtained showed that : 
 (1) The pupils neither gained nor lost appreciably by the 
 omission of spelling from the programme ; (2) The amourit 
 of time devoted to specific spelling drill bears no discoverable 
 relation to the results attained ; (3) The degree of mental 
 development is the most important factor in accuracy in 
 spelling. The next most important is the personal efficiency 
 of the teacher. 
 
 His conclusion is that " It is therefore advisable in view 
 of the economy of time to rely upon incidental teach- 
 ing of spelling to produce a sufficiently high average 
 result." 
 
 The above results and conclusions have been severely 
 criticised by Wallin. 2 After criticising Cornman's technique 
 and logic, he states : " Pursued to their logical conclusion 
 Dr. Cornman's results would convert systematic instruction 
 and organised curricula into pedagogical monstrosities. 
 If specific instruction or drill in spelling is valueless, why 
 are they not a sheer waste in other branches as well ? 
 Accordingly why not do away with specific instruction 
 or drill in the various subjects, and also the articulated 
 curricula, which obtain in the schools at present ? Leave 
 all acquisition to merely incidental acquirement. The 
 school would thus seem to offer but slight advantage over 
 the home, street, shop, or field, except that it might afford 
 a richer wealth of material for such incidental acquisition. 
 Cornman foresaw the logical inevitableness of this conclusion 
 
 1 Cornman : Spelling in the Elementary School. 
 
 * Wallin : Has the Drill become Obsolescent ? Jour, of Ed. Pay., 
 I., 4, pp. 200-214.
 
 336 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 and hastened to say that only the modes of expression 
 arising inevitably and naturally should be left to incidental 
 instruction." Wallin does not think that Cornman has 
 made out a case for no drill, but simply a case against 
 " Slip-shod, happy-go-lucky drill." Drill and formal work 
 are as necessary as ever. 
 
 An English contribution to the subject of spelling l 
 emphasises the necessity of dividing mistakes of spelling 
 into those made through ignorance and those made acci- 
 dentally. The latter should not be judged too harshly. 
 
 Douse studied the spelling mistakes of about 1,000 
 Cambridge students made under the time pressure of an 
 examination. Generally speaking the cause of the pertur- 
 bations was found to be a momentary withdrawal of atten- 
 tion from the point at which the pen had arrived in the 
 process of writing and its transference to some neighbouring 
 point on the line of ideas which the mind had evolved or 
 was striving to evolve. He gave the following somewhat 
 pedantic classification of mistakes : 
 
 (1) Prolepsis or Assimilation from ahead, e.g. sfce&el 
 
 for s^efcel, scooped for stooped. 
 
 (2) Metapedesis or overleaping, e.g. precerf for preceded, 
 
 possive for possessive. 
 
 (3) Metallage or cross-compensations, e.g. siZi&ants for 
 
 si6i?ants, padogra for pagoda,. 
 
 (4) Opisthomimesis or assimilation from the rear, e.g. 
 
 biship for bishop, synonyns for synonyms, howse- 
 hould for household. 
 
 (5) Contamination, e.g. Twetonic for Teutonic, after 
 
 the word Tuesday had been written. 
 
 Similar mistakes are made in speaking but are not met 
 with so frequently ; they also occur in well-printed reading 
 matter. 
 
 Douse concludes that such mistakes as the above should 
 not be scored heavily unless the candidates have had 
 instructions, and have been allowed time to read over their 
 answers. (The same thing would apply to scholars in the 
 upper classes of elementary schools.) 
 
 The Pedagogy of Spelling. In teaching scholars to spell, 
 
 1 Douse : PaycJiology of Mis-spellings and related Mistakes ; Mind, 
 XXV., p. 85 ff., 1900.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 337 
 
 only the words in frequent use and likely to be used by 
 them should be taught. Time should be economised as 
 much as possible and the larger part of the instruction 
 should be given in connection with reading and writing. 
 A little carefully planned drill on two or three new words 
 should be given each day. This should not exceed fifteen 
 minutes. 
 
 The psychology of association leads one to deprecate 
 any interference with associations already existing in the 
 mind of the pupil. Reformed spelling and phonetic 
 spelling lead to such interference and bad spelling is the 
 result, hence the teacher will have to decide whether he 
 will upset the spelling of this generation in order to confer 
 a problematical benefit on the coming generation. For 
 the same reason, he should aim at avoidance of error rather 
 than correction of error ; correct forms must ever be 
 emphasised and the blue pencil used sparingly. 
 
 The instruction in spelling should have regard for indi- 
 vidual differences of the reproductive imagination. All 
 types of teaching methods should be practised, but for the 
 majority of scholars, the best methods are those of writing, 
 especially copying. 
 
 Further investigations into specific minor problems 
 connected with teaching will have to be made before the 
 pedagogy of spelling can be greatly improved. That of 
 Pearson * which conclusively proved that it is better to 
 teach homonyms together in pairs piece, peace ; colonel, 
 kernel ; peer, pier ; etc. rather than singly and separate, 
 is an excellent example of this type. 
 
 References. Abbot : On the Analysis of the Memory 
 Consciousness in Orthography ; Psy. Rev. Mon. Suppl., XI., 
 1, 1900. Bagley : The Apperception of the Spoken Sentence ; 
 Amer. Jour. Psy., XII. Barnes : How words get Meanings ; 
 Studies in Educ., I. Burnham : The Hygiene and Psy- 
 chology of Spelling ; Ped. Sem., XIII., 474. Cattell : The 
 Inertia of the Eye and Brain ; Brain, VIII., 295, 1886. 
 Cattell : Time and space in Vision ; Psy. Rev., VII., 
 325-343, 1900. Chamberlain : Studies of a Child ; Ped. 
 Sem., XL Chamberlain : The Child : a Study in the 
 Evolution of Man ; Chap. V. Chubb : The teaching of 
 
 1 Pearson : The Scientific Study of the Teaching of Spelling ; Jour, 
 of Ed. Pay., II., 5, 241-253. 
 
 y
 
 338 LIFE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 English in the Elementary and the Secondary Schools. Corn- 
 man : Spelling in the Elementary School. Darwin : Bio- 
 graphical Sketch of an Infant ; Mind, II. Dearborn : The 
 Psychology of Reading ; Columbia Univ. Contrib. to Phil, 
 and Psy., XIV., 1. Dewey : The Psychology of Infant 
 Language ; Psy. Rev., I. Dodge : An experimental study 
 of Visual Fixation ; Psy. Rev. Mon. Suppl., VIII., 4, 1907. 
 Douse : Psychology of Mis-spelling and Related Mistakes ; 
 Mind, XXV., 85. Downey : Control Processes in Modified 
 Handwriting ; Psy. Rev. Mon. Suppl., IX., pp. 1-147. 
 Downey : Judgments on Sex of Handwriting ; Psy. Rev., 
 XVII., 1910. Erdmann and Dodge : Die Psychologischen 
 Grundlagen der Beziehungen Zwischen Sprechen und Denken ; 
 Archiv f. Systemat. Phil., III., 1897. Freeman : Some 
 Issues in the Teaching of Handwriting ; Elem. Sch. Teacher, 
 XII., 1-7 ; 53-59. Goldscheider and Miiller : Zur Phys. 
 und Path, des Lesens ; Zeit. f. Klin. Med., XXIII., p. 131. 
 Gesell : Accuracy in Handwriting as Related to School 
 Intelligence and Sex ; Amer. Jour. Psy., XVII., 1906. Hall : 
 How to teach Reading. Huey : Psychology and Pedagogy 
 of Reading (contains an excellent Bibliography). Jastrow : 
 Speech and its Defects ; Diet, of Phil, and Psy., Vol. II. 
 Judd : Genetic Psychology for Teachers ; 161-236. Kirk- 
 patrick : Fundamentals of Child Study ; Chap. XIII. 
 McAllister : Researches on Movements used in Writing ; 
 Studies from Yale Psy. Lab., Series I., VIII., pp. 21-63. 
 O'Shea : Linguistic Development and Education. Patrick : 
 Should children under ten learn to Read and Write ? Pop. 
 Sci. Mo., Vol. 54. Pearson : The Scientific Study of the 
 Teaching of Spelling ; Jour, of Ed. Psy., II., pp. 241-52. 
 Pillsbury : A Study in Apperception ; Amer. Jour. Psy., 
 VIII., 3, 1897. Quantz : Problems in the Psychology of 
 Reading ; Psy. Rev. Mon. Suppl., 5, 1897. Rice : The 
 Futility of the Spelling Grind ; Forum, April and June, 
 1897, June, 1898. Rusk : An Introduction to Experimental 
 Education ; Chaps. XIV. and XV. Smith : The Psychology 
 of Adult Reading ; Brit. Ass. Reports, 1912. Sweet : A 
 Handbook of Phonetics, including an Exposition of the 
 Principles of the Spelling. Thompson : Psychology and 
 Pedagogy of Writing. Thorndike : Handwriting ; Teachers' 
 Coll. Record, XL, 2. Vie tor : Der Sprachunterricht muss 
 Umkehren. Wallin : Spelling Efficiency in Relation to Age, 
 Grade and Sex, and the Question of Transfer ; Ed. Psy.
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE IN CHILDREN 339 
 
 Monograph. Whipple : Manual of Mental and Physical 
 Tests ; pp. 238-242. Wood worth : Accuracy of Voluntary 
 Movement ; Psy. Rev. Mon. Suppl., III., 2, 1899. Wood- 
 worth : Vision and Localisation during Eye-movements ; 
 Psy. Bull., III., 2, 1906. Wylie : The Disorders of Speech. 
 Zeitler : Tachistoskopische Versuche uber das Lesen ; Wundt's 
 Phil. Stud., XVI., 3, 380-463. 
 
 Y2
 
 INDEX. 
 
 " A " test ; 18, 247. 
 
 Acquired Characters ; 13-16. 
 
 Acquisitiveness ; 140. 
 
 Adams ; 174. 
 
 Adolescence ; 28, 36 : mental 
 aspects of, 289-93 : physical 
 characteristics of, 286-90. 
 
 Adolescence and babyhood ; 
 Chapter XVII. 
 
 Adolescent ; education of the, 
 293-5. 
 
 Adolescent emotions ; 276. 
 
 Aesthesiometer ; 164, 167. 
 
 Aesthetic values of handwriting ; 
 330. 
 
 Algesimeter ; 164. 
 
 Amoeba ; 27, 81-2. 
 
 Animals ; habit formation in, 
 145-148. 
 
 Anthropometric Committee ; 8, 
 32, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40. 
 
 Aphasia ; 99-101. 
 
 Archer ; 271. 
 
 Aristotle ; 242. 
 
 Arthropods ; 87. 
 
 Art Teaching ; 159. 
 
 Association ; Chapter X. : de- 
 finition of, 175 : factors in- 
 volved in, 179-81 : law of, 
 181 : physical basis of, 174-8 : 
 rapidity of, 179. 
 
 Associations ; number of, 178-9, 
 188. 
 
 Association areas ; 99. 
 
 Association tests ; 182-5. 
 
 Association and spelling ; 339. 
 
 Association in children ; 281-2. 
 
 " A-t " test ; 18, 248. 
 
 Attention ; attributes of, 215-6, 
 223 : definition of, 214-5 : 
 
 duration and shifting of, 220- 
 2 : physiological accompani- 
 ments of, 216-7 : types of, 
 217-9. 
 
 Attention-span ; 219-20. 
 
 Attention and absorption ; 219. 
 
 Attention and interest ; Chapter 
 XIII. : relations of, 214. 
 
 Attention and teaching ; 216, 
 222-3. 
 
 Auditory area ; 98-9. 
 
 Average ; 50. 
 
 Average deviation ; 23, 50, 51-2. 
 
 Axon; 102. 
 
 Babyhood ; mental develop- 
 ment during, 281-6 : physical 
 characteristics of, 277-81. 
 
 Babyhood and adolescence ; 
 Chapter XVII. 
 
 Backwardness ; definition of, 
 297. 
 
 Bair; 154. 
 
 Baldwin ; 122, 259. 
 
 Barnes ; 227, 228, 230, 233. 
 
 Beer; 324. 
 
 Beethoven ; 253. 
 
 Belts ; 257. 
 
 Beyer ; 43. 
 
 Bibliographies ; see- ends of 
 chapters. 
 
 Bibliography of formal discip- 
 line ; 151-2. 
 
 Binet ; 208. 
 
 Binet-Simon tests ; 300-10 : re- 
 vision of, 301-10. 
 
 Boas ; 33, 41, 43. 
 
 Bolton ; 171, 191. 
 
 Book : 154. 
 
 Bowditch ; 39.
 
 INDEX 
 
 341 
 
 Brain ; divisions of, 88 : struc- 
 ture of, 93-101. 
 
 Brain action ; laws of, 106. 
 
 Brain areas ; 97-101. 
 
 Brain centres for language ; 99- 
 101. 
 
 Broca; 101. 
 
 Brown ; 282. 
 
 Brown, W. ; 57, 59. 
 
 Brotim-Sequard ; 14. 
 
 Bryan ; 152, 154, 170, 288. 
 
 Burk; 33. 
 
 Burk, Caroline ; 227, 231. 
 
 Burt; 220, 331. 
 
 Calkins; 324. 
 
 Capacities; 124-141: list of, 
 
 127-8. 
 
 Capacity for language ; 314. 
 Carmen ; 291. 
 Cattett; 19, 20, 22-4, 63, 179, 
 
 324. 
 Central tendency of measures ; 
 
 48-51. 
 Central theory of emotion ; 
 
 272-3. 
 
 Cerebellum ; 96. 
 Cerebrum ; 94-5. 
 Chamberlain ; 28, 319 . 
 Childs; 301. 
 Circulars on medical inspection ; 
 
 66. 
 
 Claparede ; 138, 164. 
 Clerk-Maxwell; 115. 
 Climate and growth ; 40-1. 
 Clinics ; medical and dental, 
 
 74-5. 
 
 Clouston ; 27. 
 Co-education ; 293-5. 
 Coefficient of correlation ; 8, 18, 
 
 55-63. 
 
 Cohn's test for print ; 73. 
 Colour- vision ; 115-7. 
 Completion test ; 262. 
 Conductor or connector ; 82, 83, 
 
 84. 
 
 Common ; 335. 
 Correlation ; 53-63. 
 Correlation ratio ; 59. 
 Cranial nerves ; 93, 95. 
 Culture epoch theory ; 134. 
 Curiosity ; 137. 
 Cutaneous sensations ; 119-20. 
 
 Darwin ; 10, 264, 281, 282. 
 
 Dearborn ; 322. 
 
 De Candolle ; 19. 
 
 Decroly ; 301. 
 
 Degand; 301. 
 
 Dendron ; 102. 
 
 Dental examinations ; 74, 78, 
 
 79. 
 Development and growth ; 1, 
 
 30, 278. 
 Development of language in 
 
 children ; Chapter XIX. 
 Dewey ; 216. 
 
 Diseases ; list of common, 70-2. 
 Disease and growth ; 38-9. 
 Distribution curve ; 9, 48. 
 Dockeray ; 324. 
 Dodge ; 322, 323. 
 Douse ; 336. 
 Downey ; 329. 
 Dresslar; 205. 
 Drill in spelling ; 334-6. 
 Dumville ; 186. 
 Dynamometer ; 164, 167. 
 
 Ear ; evolution of, 90- 1 : struc- 
 ture of, 117-8. 
 
 Earthworm ; 85-6. 
 
 Ebbinghaus ; 193, 196, 197, 199, 
 262. 
 
 Ebert ; 189. 
 
 Edridge-Green ; 115. 
 
 Education ; false views of, 4-5. 
 
 Education and schooling ; 4. 
 
 Educational statistics ; 44-63. 
 
 Effector ; 82, 83, 84. 
 
 Elliot Smith ; 89, 90. 
 
 Ellis ; 163, 206. 
 
 Emotion ; definition of, 264. 
 
 Emotional variation during ado- 
 lescence ; 276, 293. 
 
 Emotion and mood ; 275. 
 
 Emotions ; Chapter XVI. : 
 change with age, 275-6 : char- 
 acteristics of, 264-8 : classifi- 
 cation of, 274-5 : theories of, 
 270-2. 
 
 Emotions and instincts ; 135-6, 
 268. 
 
 Environment ; definition of, 3-4. 
 
 Environment and heredity ; 
 Chapter I. : relative influence 
 of, 16-24.
 
 342 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Environmental stimuli ; 13-14, 
 
 16. 
 
 Erdmann ; 323. 
 Ergograph ; 164. 
 Evolution ; 9-13, 26. 
 Evolution of nervous system ; 
 
 Chapter V. 
 Ewald; 118. 
 
 Exercise and growth ; 40. 
 Experimental studies of spelling ; 
 
 333-7 
 Eye ; defects of, 72-3, 76, 77 : 
 
 evolution of, 90 ; structure of, 
 
 112-114. 
 
 Eyesight ; 69-70, 73. 
 Eyesight and school-books ; 73. 
 
 Fancy; 259. 
 
 Fatigue ; 161-8 : cause of, 161- 
 3 : measurement of, 163-6 ; 
 mental and physical, 161 : 
 remedy for, 163 : stages in, 
 166. 
 
 Fatigue curve ; 166-7. 
 
 Fatigue and school-work ; 167-8. 
 
 Fatigue and suggestion ; 209. 
 
 Fear; 140. 
 
 Feebleminded ; characteristics 
 of, 310-1: education of, 311-2: 
 numbers of, 298. 
 
 Feeblemindedness ; definition of, 
 297-8. 
 
 Fielden School, Manchester Uni- 
 versity ; 39, 76-80, 331. 
 
 Fiske ; 28. 
 
 Fissure of Rolando ; 94, 97, 98. 
 
 Fissure of Silvius ; 94, 97, 98, 
 99. 
 
 Flinders-Petrie ; 254. 
 
 Forgetting ; curve of, 196-7. 
 
 Formal Discipline ; 151 : biblio- 
 graphy of, 151-2. 
 
 Franklin; 115, 116. 
 
 Franz ; 145. 
 
 Freeman ; 329. 
 
 Fuche; 334. 
 
 Gallon ; 17, 19, 20, 21, 24, 43, 
 
 63, 178, 179, 181, 255, 256. 
 Ganl; 74. 
 Gardner ; 227, 228. 
 Generic image ; 251-2. 
 Germ-plasm theory ; 16. 
 
 Gilbert ; 205. 
 
 Goddard ; 299, 309. 
 
 Goldacheider ; 322, 326. 
 
 Grammar and speech ; 321. 
 
 Graphometer ; 329-30. 
 
 Greenwood ; 284. 
 
 Groos ; 137, 138. 
 
 Growth ; 29-43 : factors influen- 
 cing, 31-2 : measurement of, 
 30-1 : rate of, 36 : stages of, 
 26-7. 
 
 Growth and climate ; 40-1. 
 
 Growth and Development ; 1, 
 30, 278. 
 
 Growth and disease ; 38-9. 
 
 Growth and exercise ; 40. 
 
 Growth and heredity ; 36. 
 
 Growth and nutrition ; 39-40. 
 
 Growth and sex ; 36. 
 
 Growth of children ; Chapter II., 
 277-81. 
 
 Growth of motor power ; 169-72. 
 
 Growth of parts ; 42. 
 
 Guidi; 207. 
 
 Habit ; definition of, 143 : physi- 
 cal basis of, 144. 
 
 Habit formation ; laws of, 148- 
 51. 
 
 Habit and instinct ; 145-8. 
 
 Habit and related topics ; Chap- 
 ter IX. 
 
 Habit, practice and fatigue ; 143. 
 
 Hoggenmuller ; 334. 
 
 Had; 137, 159, 171, 259, 260, 
 283, 284, 286, 289, 283. 
 
 Hallucination ; 241-2. 
 
 Handwriting ; 327-31 : Civil 
 Service rules for, 330 : speed 
 of, 331. 
 
 Barter ; 152, 154. 
 
 Hastings ; 171. 
 
 Head; 120. 
 
 Hearing ; 69, 70, 74, 117-9, 280 : 
 tests for, 70. 
 
 Heights and weights ; 31, 286-9 : 
 tables of, 32-43. 
 
 Helmholtz; 115, 118, 119, 221. 
 
 Henderson ; 189. 
 
 Hensoldt ; 203. 
 
 Herbart ; 174, 225. 
 
 Herbartians and association ; 
 174-5.
 
 INDEX 
 
 343 
 
 Heredity ; definition of, 1 : 
 
 specialisation of, 2-3. 
 Heredity, social ; 16. 
 Heredity and environment ; 
 
 Chapter I. : correlative nature 
 
 of, 1 : relative influence of, 
 
 16-24. 
 
 Heredity and growth ; 36. 
 Heredity as a limiting factor ; 3. 
 Heredity in men of science ; 19- 
 
 20, 22-4. 
 
 Heredity in Royalty ; 21-2. 
 Bering; 115, 116, 242, 243. 
 Hobhouae ; 169. 
 Holden; 319. 
 Holman ; 164. 
 Holmes; 135. 
 Huey ; 322, 326. 
 Huxley ; 251-2. 
 Hydra; 83-4. 
 Hypnotism; 203-4. 
 
 Ideas ; learning by, 169. 
 
 Ideas and percepts ; 240-1. 
 
 Idiot ; definition of, 297. 
 
 Illusions ; 241-2 : geometrical, 
 206-7. 
 
 Illusions of perception ; 242-6. 
 
 Image ; attributes of, 251-3 : 
 definition of, 249-51 : types 
 of, 253-8. 
 
 Image and percept ; 253. 
 
 Imagination ; definition of, 250 : 
 productive and reproductive, 
 258-9 : tests of, 261-3. 
 
 Imagination and images ; Chap- 
 ter XV. 
 
 Imagination in children ; 259- 
 61. 
 
 Imbecile ; definition of, 297. 
 
 Imitation ; 211-3 : learning by, 
 169. 
 
 Impulse and instinct ; 132. 
 
 Imitation and suggestion ; Chap- 
 ter XII. 
 
 Individual differences in chil- 
 dren ; 2-3. 
 
 Infancy ; 26-9. 
 
 Ink-blot test ; 261. 
 
 Inner-speech and reading ; 325-7. 
 
 Instincts ; 124-41 : attributes 
 of, 128-32 : classification of, 
 135 : definition of, 124-5 : 
 
 list of, 125-7 : number of, 
 125-8 : theories of, 133-4. 
 
 Instincts and capacities ; Chap- 
 ter VIII. : distinction be- 
 tween, 125. 
 
 Instincts and education ; 133, 
 136-42. 
 
 Instincts and emotions ; 135-6, 
 268. 
 
 Instincts and habits ; 130, 145-8. 
 
 Instincts and impulses ; 132. 
 
 Instincts in animals ; 129-132. 
 
 Instinctive interests ; 224. 
 
 Interest ; bibliography of studies 
 in ; 227 : experimental stu- 
 dies of ; 225-35 : kinds of, 
 224-5. 
 
 Interest and attention ; Chapter 
 XIII. 
 
 Interest and teaching ; 225. 
 
 Interests of school-children ; 225- 
 35. 
 
 Itachner; 333. 
 
 James; 112, 128, 132, 143, 144, 
 145, 174, 189, 217, 246, 270, 
 274. 
 
 James-Lange theory of emotions ; 
 270-2. 
 
 Jastrow ; 183. 
 
 Javal ; 323. 
 
 Johnston ; 88, 249. 
 
 Jost ; 198. 
 
 Judd; 315, 328. 
 
 Keatinge ; 202, 203, 204. 
 Keller, Helen ; 257. 
 Kemsies ; 167. 
 Kinematometer ; 164. 
 Kinnaman ; 169. 
 Kirkpatrick ; 194, 203, 212, 320. 
 
 Ladd; 106, 145, 147, 148, 176, 
 221, 266, 272. 
 
 Language ; function of, 315-6 : 
 range and vocabulary, 317 : 
 teaching of, 320-1 : value of, 
 315. 
 
 Language as a capacity ; 314-5. 
 
 Language centres ; 99-101. 
 
 Language development in chil- 
 dren ; Chapter XIX. 
 
 Lapage ; 297, 299, 310.
 
 344 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Laurie ; 319. 
 
 Laws of brain action ; 106. 
 
 Lay ; 254, 333, 334. 
 
 Lazarus ; 137. 
 
 Leach ; 182. 
 
 Learning ; methods of, 168-9. 
 
 Legibility of handwriting ; 329. 
 
 Libby ; 286. 
 
 Lip-movement in reading ; 324-6. 
 
 Lloyd-Morgan ; 11, 125. 
 
 Lobsien ; 194, 333. 
 
 Loeb ; 133-4, 200. 
 
 Louch ; 164. 
 
 Maker ; 143. 
 
 Malling-Hanaen ; 41. 
 
 Mark; 135. 
 
 Mayo ; 24. 
 
 McAllister; 328. 
 
 McDougall; 122, 135, 138, 166, 
 
 176, 220, 221, 268, 269, 272, 274. 
 Measurements ; interpretation 
 
 of, 44-8. 
 
 Median ; 50, 51. 
 Medical inspection ; Chapter 
 
 IV. : history of, 65-6 : need 
 
 for, 66-7 : objects of, 67 : 
 
 records of, 75-80 : types of, 
 
 64-5. 
 
 Medusa ; 84-85. 
 Memories ; types of, 187-91. 
 Memorising ;" 196-200. 
 Memory ; Chapter XI. 
 Memory, association and habit ; 
 
 186-7. 
 Memory in school-children ; 191- 
 
 6, 281-2. 
 Mendel ; 11. 
 Mendelian inheritance in man ; 
 
 13. 
 
 Mendelism; 10-13. 
 Men of science ; heredity in, 
 
 19-20, 21, 22-4. 
 Mental ability and physique ; 
 
 42-3. 
 Mental imagery ; criticism of 
 
 type theory of, 257-8. 
 Meumann ; 189, 333. 
 Miller; 252. 
 Milton ; 319. 
 Mind ; unity of, 142. 
 Minds of children ; contents of, 
 
 284-6. 
 
 Mode; 51. 
 
 Montessori ; 122. 
 
 Mood and emotion ; 275. 
 
 Motor area ; 98. 
 
 Motor development in children ; 
 
 280-1. 
 
 Motor power ; 169-72. 
 Mosso ; 162. 
 
 Movements in handwriting ; 328. 
 Mozart ; 252. 
 Miiller ; 322, 326. 
 Miiller-Lyer illusion ; 161. 
 Mumford ; 46, 261. 
 Myers; 110, 120, 122. 
 
 Nerve fibres ; cortical systems 
 of, 94-5. 
 
 Nerves ; specific energy of, 
 105-6. 
 
 Nervous system ; constitution, 
 functions and action of, 92- 
 107 ; evolution of, 81-91 : 
 gross structure of, 92-101 : 
 finer structure of, 101-7. 
 
 Nervous system of man ; Chap- 
 ter VI. 
 
 Neurones ; structure of, 101-3. 
 
 Normal distribution curve ; 6-7, 
 13. 
 
 Norsworthy ; 195, 200, 310. 
 
 Number-forms ; 181-2. 
 
 Nunn : 136. 
 
 Nutrition and growth ; 39-40. 
 
 Odin ; 19, 20. 
 Offner; 166. 
 Olfactory centre ; 99. 
 O'Shea; 316, 318. 
 
 Paramoecium ; 82-3. 
 
 Pearson ; 24, 55, 56, 57, 299. 
 
 Pearson, H. C. ; 337. 
 
 Pearson coefficient of correla- 
 tion ; 18, 65-6. 
 
 Pedagogy of reading ; 327. 
 
 Pedagogy of spelling ; 336. 
 
 Perception ; Chapter XIV. : de- 
 finition of, 237-40, 241 : factors 
 involved in, 238-41 : tests of, 
 247-8. 
 
 Perception and attention ; 239. 
 
 Perception in reading ; 325-7.
 
 INDEX 
 
 345 
 
 Perception of space and time ; 
 
 246-7. 
 
 Percepts and ideas ; 240-1. 
 Perky; 253. 
 
 Physical basis of habit ; 144. 
 Physique and mental ability ; 
 
 42-3. 
 
 Pierre Marie : 100. 
 Pillsbury ; 166, 239. 
 Plateaus in the practice curve ; 
 
 154, 156, 159. 
 Play; 136-9. 
 Pohltnann ; 192. 
 Practice ; 152-60. 
 Practice and fatigue ; 168. 
 Practice and suggestion ; 209. 
 Practice curve in telegraphy ; 
 
 152-4: in typewriting ; 154-60. 
 Prandtl; 324. 
 Pre-perception ; 245-6, 324. 
 Preyer ; 122, 125, 279. 
 Probable error ; 23, 52. 
 Psychology and method in read- 
 ing ; 321. 
 Psychology of babyhood and 
 
 adolescence ; Chapter XVII. 
 Psychology of handwriting ; 327- 
 
 38. 
 
 Psychology of reading ; 321-7. 
 Psychology of spelling ; 332-3. 
 Pyle; 198. 
 
 Quantz ; 324, 325. 
 
 Rage ; description of, 265-266. 
 
 " R-e " test : 248. 
 
 Reaction-time ; 165. 
 
 Reading ; 321-7 : area of fixa- 
 tion in, 323-4 : perception in, 
 325-7 : speed in, 324-5 : work 
 of eyes in, 322-3. 
 
 Reasoning in children ; 282-3. 
 
 Receptor ; 82, 83, 84. 
 
 Rice ; 334. 
 
 Rivers ; 120. 
 
 Romanes ; 324. 
 
 Roes ; 209. 
 
 Royalty ; heredity in, 21-2, 
 
 Rusk ; 195, 333. 
 
 Salisbury ; 319. 
 Sanctia; 300. 
 Schiller ; 137, 333, 
 
 School children ; exceptional, 
 Chapter XVIII. : classifica- 
 tion of, 296-7. 
 
 School doctor ; 68. 
 
 School nurse ; 69. 
 
 Schooling and education ; 4. 
 
 Schuster ; 19, 21. 
 
 Sensation ; definition of, 108-9. 
 
 Sensation and sensory organs ; 
 108-123. 
 
 Sensation and the end organs ; 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 Sensations ; attributes of, 109-10. 
 
 Sensory area ; 98. 
 
 Sensory organs and sensation; 
 108-23. 
 
 Sensory powers ; development 
 of, 122. 
 
 Sensory powers in children ; 
 279-281. 
 
 Sentence-words ; 317. 
 
 Sex differences in growth ; 31- 
 43, 286-9. 
 
 Sex differences in memory ; 191- 
 6. 
 
 Sex differences in suggestion ; 
 205-6. 
 
 Shakespeare ; 319. 
 
 Shaw; 193. 
 
 Sherringtan ; 146, 162. 
 
 Shipe ; 163. 
 
 Sight; 112-117. 
 
 Sinclair ; 237. 
 
 Skin; sensation of, 119-20. 
 
 Slaughter ; 256, 290, 292. 
 
 Small; 207. 
 
 S medley ; 192. 
 
 Smell ; sensation of, 120-22, 
 280. 
 
 Smells, classification of ; 121. 
 
 Smith ; 260. 
 
 Snyder; 198. 
 
 Social heredity and imitation ; 
 211. 
 
 Spalding ; 128. 
 
 Spearman ; 56, 57. 
 
 Spearman's coefficient of correla- 
 tion ; 56-7. 
 
 Speech ; development of parts 
 of, 319-20. 
 
 Speech and grammar ; 321. 
 
 Spelling ; 332-7 : pedagogy of, 
 336-7.
 
 346 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Spelling mistakes, classification 
 of, 336. 
 
 Spencer ; 137. 
 
 Spitter ; 267, 272. 
 
 Spinal cord ; 96-7. 
 
 Sponge ; 83. 
 
 Standard deviation ; 62. 
 
 Statistics ; educational, Chapter 
 III. 
 
 Steffena; 196. 
 
 Stout; 175, 187, 211, 213, 217, 
 241, 255, 274. 
 
 Stratton ; 160. 
 
 Structure of nervous system ; 
 92-107. 
 
 Suggestion ; experiments in, 
 207-9 : factors involved in, 
 205-9 : limits of, 210-11 : 
 process of, 204-5. 
 
 Suggestion and imitation ; Chap- 
 ter XII. : relations of, 202-3. 
 
 Suggestion and literature ; 209. 
 
 Swift ; 152, 169. 
 
 Sympathetic system ; 95. 
 
 Synapse ; action of, 103. 
 
 Tachistocope ; 324. 
 
 Taste centre .; 99. 
 
 Taste ; sensation of, 120-2. 
 
 Teacher and medical inspection ; 
 67, 68. 
 
 Teaching and attention ; 216, 
 222-3. 
 
 Teaching and habit formation ; 
 148-151. 
 
 Teaching and interest ; 225. 
 
 Teaching and memory ; 200. 
 
 Teaching and suggestion ; 209- 1 1. 
 
 Teaching of handwriting ; 331. 
 
 Teaching of language ; 320-321. 
 
 Teeth; care of, 74: cutting of, 278. 
 
 Terman ; 301-310. 
 
 Theories of association ; McDou- 
 gall, 176 : Ladd and Wood- 
 worth, 176-7. 
 
 Thorndike; 17, 20, 21, 26, 36, 
 43, 63, 106, 125, 143, 146, 148, 
 160, 161, 163, 166, 169, 181, 
 199, 217, 219, 239, 248, 257, 
 258, 274, 276, 282, 291, 310, 
 315, 329, 330. 
 
 Titchener ; 217, 274. 
 
 Touch; 119-20, 280. 
 
 Tracy ; 237, 282, 320. 
 
 Tredgold ; 299. 
 
 Trial and error ; learning by, 
 
 168. 
 
 Tucker; 122. 
 Twins ; heredity in, 17-19. 
 
 Variability of measures ; 48, 51- 
 
 53. 
 Variation ; 5-10 : laws of, 6-10 : 
 
 mechanism of, 5. 
 Variation and evolution ; 9-13. 
 Vertebrates ; 87-90. 
 Verworn ; 145. 
 Vierordt ; 42. 
 Vision; 112-117,279-80: span 
 
 in, 323-4. 
 Visual area ; 98. 
 
 Wagner ; 167. 
 
 Wallin; 335. 
 
 Ward; 253. 
 
 Ward, F. ; 129. 
 
 Washburn ; 182. 
 
 Weber-Fechner law ; 110-12. 
 
 Weights and heights ; 32-43, 
 
 286-289. 
 Weismann ; 15. 
 Welton ; 219, 225. 
 West; 43. 
 Weatermarck ; 274. 
 Whipple ; 182, 184, 219, 300. 
 W iegand ; 322, 326. 
 Winch ; 199, 310. 
 Wissler ; 227, 230. 
 Wolfe; 206. 
 Wolff; 320. 
 Wood ; 34, 67. 
 Woods ; 19, 21-22. 
 Woodworth; 25, 106, 145, 146, 
 
 147, 148, 152, 166, 168, 176, 
 
 221, 266, 272, 329. 
 Word-building test ; 262. 
 Writing ; see Handwriting. 
 Wundt; 111. 
 
 Zeitler ; 322, 326. 
 Zola; 254. 
 Zwaardemaker ; 121. 
 
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