i- ■ ; .4 v.J^ u rl J .1 iiJi u i-,. '7^ f -V"i4»r.,-C-, >,'!."■ :jr»J!a:si John 3wett Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/andersonhistoryOOanderich A COMPLETE COURSE IN HISTORY. New Manual OF General History WITH PARTICULAR ATTENTION TO ANCIENT AND MODERN CIVILIZATION. WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS. FOR THE USE OF Colleges, High Schools, Academies, etc. BY JOHN J. ANDERSON, Ph.D., kuthor of a "Grammar School History of the United States," a "Popular School History of the United States," a "Junior Class History of the United States," a " History of England, " a "History of Franee," etc. PART FIRST -ANCIEXT HISTORY. PART SECOiXD-MEDIiEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY. Mayn^ard, Merrill, & Co., Publishers, 45, 47, AND 49 East Tenth Street. 1893. ■■Andee-soin's Historical Series. A Junior Class History of the United States. Illiistraie^ with hundreds of portraits, views, maps, etc. 306 pages. 16mo. A New Grapimar School History of the United States. Sup- plemented by maps, enif ravings, chronological summaries, tabulated analyses, reWew questions, appendix, etc. 360 pages. 12mo. A Grammar School History of the United States. Anno- tated ; and illiistnited with numerous portraits and views, and with more than forty maps, many of which are colored. 340 pages. 16mo. A Pictorial School History of the United States. Fully lUus- trated with maps, portraits, vignettes, etc. 439 pages. 12mo. A Popular School History of the United States, in which are Insei-ted, as a part of the narrative, selections from the writings of eminent American historians, and other American writers of note. Fully Illustrated with maps, colored and plain; portraits, views, etc. 381 pages. 12mo. A Manual of General History. Illustrated with numerous en- gravings and with beautifully colored maps showing the changes in the political divisions of the world, and giving the location of important places. 500 pages. Ir^mo. A New Manual of General History, with particular attention to Ancient and Modern Civilization. With numerous engravings and colored maps. 68o pages. 12mo. Also, in two parts. Part I. Ancient History : 300 pages. Part II. Modern History : 385 pages. A School History of England. Illustrated with numerous en- gravings and with colored maps showing the geographical changes in the country at different periods. 378 pages. 12mo. A Short Course in English History. With numerous engravings and maps. 215 pages. 12mo. A School History of France. Illustrated with numerous en* gravings, colored and uncolored maps. 373 pages. 12mo. A History of Rome. Amply illustrated with maps, plans, and en- gravings. 554 pages. By R. F. Leiqhton, Ph.D. (Lips.). A School History of Greece. In preparation. Anderson's Bloss*s Ancient History. Illustrated with engrav* ings, colored maps, and a chart. 445 pages. 12mo. The Historical Reader, embracing selections in prose and verse, from standard writers of Ancient and Modern Historj- ; with a Vocabu'ary of Difficult Words, and Biographical and Geographical Indexes. 544 pages. 12m<). The United States Reader, embracing selections from eminent American historians, orators, statesmen, and i)<>et«, with explanatory obser- vations, notes, etc. Arranged so as to form a ('lass-manual of ITnitod States History, Illustrated with colored historical maps. 436 pages, 12mo. Maynaki), Merrill, & Co., Piiblisliers, 46, 47, and 49 East Tenth Street, New York. Ct)j>yriiiht, 1881, by .John .7. Andersitn. -^ PREFACE. The prominent and characteristic features of the Author's series of school histories have won for these books a large share of public favor, and have secured their introduction into a great number of schools in every part of the country. Of these books the Manual of General History lias been, per- haps, the most conspicuously successful, having been for many years used in a large number of colleges, preparatory schools, academies, and seminaries, and having been commended, after a mature practical test of its merits, by many intelligent and accomplished educators, as a work that contains not only a clear and brief statement of all the facts needed to afford a basis for a complete course of historical study, but also such aids to teacher and pupil as are requisite to facilitate the work both of instruction and of acquisition. It is not intended to supersede this work by the Neio Man- ual, here presented to the public, but to supply, by means of it, a somewhat more extended course of history, especially with regard to the progress of civilization among mankind, so as to show the distinguishing traits of each separate people in respect to religion, manners and customs, and advancement in literature and the arts. There has been, for some time, a growing tendency in the public mind to study rather those things that directly concern tlie life of the people, as such, than the facts of national or po- litical history. Certainly, this department of knowledge has a most fascinating interest; but it must be borne in mind that the great movements of mankind are connected rather witli their national than their social history; and, hence, it is a false system that makes the former subordinate to the latter, 54!fe-55 Preface, dwarfing it below its proper proportion, or keeping it out of view altogether. Tlie political history of nations must consti- tute the mam groundwork of historical study; and, hence, it has seemed to the Author that a school manual on this subject, however charming in its sketches of popular traits, or graphic in its painting of ideal scenes of every-day life, usually consid- ered to belong to the province of romance, cannot, and should not, take the jjlace of that which every student imperatively needs to render his subsequent reading of history profitable and satisfactory. The ** old masters" of education, though more severe than those of the present time, in their imposi- tion of tasks, and less anxious to consult the uncultured pal- ate of their pupils, probably, on that account, often imparted more solid and enduring accomplishments. The present work, while giving a brief sketch of the political history of every nation, ancient and modern, aims also to afford, in a pleasing and instructive style, all the information needed by the young student in regard to the social peculiar- ities of the people and their progress in each department of civilization; but care has been exercised to keep this branch of the subject within its just limits. As, in most programmes of study in this country, the his- tory of the United States precedes the study of general his- tory, and as, therefore, that subject is fully treated in more elementary books, it has been deemed unnecessary to include it in the present work. The geographical features of the work, including copious maps and map exercises, with constant references to the same in the text, accprd with the plan uniformly pursued by the Author in his other works, and strongly commended by tlio most successful teachers. Indeed, tliis plan has been followed in all the Author's historical text-books published since the date of his first work. The treatment by nationalities rather than by periods has been retained, as being the most suitable for beginners, Preface, inasmuch as ib prevents the confusion that is necessarily caused in the minds of the pupils by a constant interruption of the current of events in pMSsing from nation to nation. Synchronistic exercises and reviews are, however, freely giveUj which will serve to bring into intimate relation, and give unity of aspect to, all the great contemporaneous events in the national life of each separate people. In the cuts inserted to illustrate the text, the object has been not merely embellishment, but, by addressing the eye, to afford information to the pupil in regard to matters a verbal account or description of which would necessarily be imper- fect or insufficient. It has been also the aim of the Author, himself a practical teacher, to render this work a valuable and effective instru- ment in imparting instruction. Hence, it has been provided with outline reviews, topical synopses, and chronological ta- bles, designed to facilitate the labors of both instructor and student. To this object the analytical table of contents and pronouncing index will be found to contribute. The latest and best authorities have been consulted in the compilation of this work; and every effort has been made to give it all the freshness of interest, and clearness of expression, possible in such a work. The New Manual, it is confidently believed, will be found to contain all the requirements for a complete course of history for all institutions of every grade, above that of the grammar-school, that have not the time to devote to the study of the minute history of different nations in separate volumes. It consists of two parts, — the first devoted to ancient, and the second to mediaeval and modem history. These parts are issued together in a single book, as well as in two separate volumes, the first being confined to ancient history, the second comprehending both mediaeval and modem. New Yobk, Feb. 1, 1882. LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE The Parthenon (Frontispiece). TheWorld as known to the Ancients. — Majpl 24,2.5 Map or the Ancient Monarchies 26 Warrior and Horses (Khorsabad) .... 33 A Babylonian Brick. .35 From the Palace of Sennacherib 36 Interior of an Assyrian Palace 37 Ancient Warrior 42 Ruins of an Egyptian Temple 46 Map of Ancient Egypt 47 Cart/Ouche of a King 49 Memnonian Statues 52 Egyptian Mummies 55 The Obelisk, New York 56 Diagram of the Great Pyramid 58 Map of Phoenicia and Palestine 62 Phoenician Ship 63 Head of Baal 64 Antique Vessels 68 Hebrew Costume 69 The Persian Empire. — Map U 74 Persian War-Chariot 78 Greece.— Map III 35 Map of Hellas and her Colonies 86 Map of the Greek Colonies in Italy. . 87 Menelaus 90 Solon 97 Ruins of Areopagus and the Acrop- olis 98 Plan of the Battle of Marathon 100 Miltiades 101 MapofSalamis 102 Aristides 104 The Acropolis at Athens. 105 Socrates Ill Map of the Retreat of the Ten Thou- sand 113 Xenophon 114 Epaminondas 115 Empire of Alexander the Great.— Map IV 117 Map showing the Marches of Alex- ander 121 Battering- Ram 122 Plan of the Battle of Arbela 123 Map of Asia Minor 125 The P^ast.— Map V 129 Ruins of Baalbec 134 Pharos 137 Map of the Port of Alexandria 138 Mausoleum at HalicamaHSUs 140 A Urwiuu Temple , , 146 PAOki Zeus, or Jupiter 147 Colossus of Rhodes 148 The Foot-Race 158 Homer 155 Demosthenes 160 Writing Materials of the Greeks 162 The Three Orders of Greek Archi- tecture 163 An Ionic Capital 164 The Parthenon, Restored 165 A Grecian Vase 166 Athenian Female Costume 169 Greek Jewelry 170 Greek Instruments of Music 178 Italy.— Map VI 181 Map of the Vicinity of Rome 186 Cloaca Maxima 186 Celtic Arms 197 Via Appia 308 Map of the Countries subject to Car- thage 205 War-Ship of Hiero 206 Map of the Territory of Syracuse 211 Map of Nuraidia and the Old Prov- ince of Africa 216 The Siege of Numautia 218 Temple of Concord 222 Pompey the Great 235 Julius Ctesar 238 Mark Antony 240 Cicero 241 Roman Formn, Restored 248 Temple of Jiipiter Capitolinus 250 Aqueduct oi the Pont du Gard, at Nimes 251 Racing Chariots 252 The Colosseiun 253 Mausoleum of Augustus 254 Temple of Vesta 256 Horace 268 Virgil 258 The Pantheon 269 SuovcUiurilia S61 Roman Implements of Writing 964 R< .man Toga 265 Empress Livia 986 Honiaii Soldiers and Lictor 267 Besieging Tower 288 Roman Standard 969 Triumph of Titus 970 Roma II Em i)ire.— Map VII 971 The Arch of Titus 878 Alexander Scvorus. S7Q List of Maps and Illustrations, PAGE Arch of Constantine 281 Europe in tlie Reign of Theodoric, A.D. 500.— Map VIII Facing 297 Europe at the Death of Justmian, A.D. 565.— Map IX Facing 301 Empire of Charlemagne. — Map X. Facing 315 Map of France after the Treaty of Ve rd un 320 Saxon England.— Map XI. . ..Facing 3:33 Map of Great Bi-itain and Ireland. . . 339 A Feudal Castle 343 A Norman Castle 'MA A Knight in Complete Armor 346 A Knight in the Lists 348 Map of the Dominions of the Ange- vlns 350 A Paragraph in Magna Charta 357 Mihtary Accouterments of the Black Prince 364 Knight of the Garter, Gentleman, and Citizen 374 Hats and Caps 374 Ladies' Head-Dresses {Froissart) — 375 Chaucer 376 Europe at the Death of Charle- magne.— Map Xn Facing 379 Map of France and the Neighbor- ing Countries 380 A Crusading Knight 383 Ramparts of a Town in the Middle Ages 389 France under Hugh Capet, a.d. 987. —Map Xni Facing 392 France at the Time of Valois, a.d. 1328.— Map XIV Facing 392 Cannon of the Fourteenth Century. 393 Fortified Gate of a French Town in the Middle Ages 396 Cathedral of Rheims 397 Feudal Castle in France, Fifteenth Century 398 Froissart 404 Europe in the Time of the Crusades. —Map XV 406, 407 Crusaders 407 Peter the Hermit 408 Knights Templars 409 Knight Hospitaller 410 Map of the Christian Kingdoms in Syria and Palestine 411 War-Ships of the Thirteenth Century 414 Map of Central Europe, about 1200. . 419 A Summons to a Town to Surrender 421 Gregory VII 423 Albert Durer 435 Map of the Spanish Kingdoms, about ia50 449 Map of Southeastern Europe, about 1200 453 Map of Southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, ^54 454 Map of the Ottoman Empire, 1460. . . 457 Modern England.— Map XVI. Facing 461 Ship in which Henry VIII. em- barked for France, 1520 464 Maiy Stuart 473 PAGE Raleigh 479 Musketeer and Pikeman, Time of James 1 480 Milton 490 William of Orange, King of England 498 Prince Eugene 500 Cavalier and Puritan 503 Ships of War, Time of Charles H. . .. 504 Shakespeare 506 Bacon 507 Washington 513 York Minster 518 Map of the Crimea 520 Victoria GUI Gladstone 523 Franklin 530 Morse 531 Goldsmith 532 Burns 532 BjTon 532 Wordsworth 533 Scott 534 Tennyson 534 Macaulay 535 George Eliot 535 Dickens 536 Thackeray 536 Carlyle 537 Modern France. — Map XVH 541 Pope Juhus II 542 Field of the Cloth of Gold 544 Francis 1 545 Richelieu 555 Mary de' Medici 556 Louis Xrv 558 Pavilion of Henry IV. at St. Germain 565 Fountain Moliere, Paris 567 F6n61on 568 Voltaire 569 Marie Antoinette 570 TheBastile 572 Lafayette 573 Robespierre 575 Madame Roland , . 576 Napoleon 1 579 Murat 581 Victor Hugo 595 Europe at the End of the Seven- teenth Century.— Map XVHI. Facing 598 Members of Maximilian's Court 599 Charies V 601 Wallenstein 603 Maria Theresa 605 Bismarck 607 Central and Southern Europe, Mod- ern.— Map XIX Facing 609 Frederick the Great 610 William of Orange 612 Map of Spain and Portugal . . 617 Peter the Great 628 Catharine I 629 Beethoven 640 Copeniicus , . 642 SchUler 644 Richter 645 Goethe m ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. PAGK History defined and classified 17 Origin of Nations 17 Aids to History 17 Different Races 18 Comparative Philology 19 Classification of Languages 19 Chronology 20 Different Epochs 21 Ancient Monuments 21 Ancient Writings 22 Divisions of History 23 Philosophy of History 23 Ethnological Synopsis 24 CHAPTER I. Ancient Monarchies. I. Babylonians and Assyrians. Babylonia or Chaldea 25 Chaldean and Babylonian Monar- chies 27 The Chaldees 27 Babylon ; 27 Berosus 28 Early Dynasties 29 Later Babylonian Monarchy 29 Assyrian Empire 31 Babylonian and Assyrian Civilization. 35 Review Outline 39 n. Median Monarchy. Early History 40 Cyrus the Great 40 Median Civilization 41 ni. Kingdoms in Asia Minor. The Phrygians 41 Cilicia 41 The Lydian Monarchy 42 Chronological Synopsis 44 IV. The Ancient Egyptians. Origin 45 Sources of Egyptian History 45 Dynasties 47 Topography and Civilization 51 The Ethiopians 61 V. The Phoenicians. Sidon and Tyre 61 Navigation and Commerce 63 Literature and Religion 64 Syria 65 VI. The Hebrews. Situation of Palestine 66 Tribes of Israel 66 Early Kingdom of Israel 66 Later Kingdom of Israel 67 Kingdom of Judah 68 Later Jewish History 69 Vn. The Hindoos. Invasion of the Aryans 70 Religion 70 Wealth and Trade 71 Vm. The Chinese. Origin and History 72 Chinese Civilization 73 IX. The Persians. Origin ..,.. 74 Conquests of Cyrus 75 Cambyses 76 Darius , 77 Other Kings 78 Civilization 78 Review Outline 81 Kings of Israel and Judah 83 The Persian Monarchs 84 10 Contents, CHAPTER n. Orkecb and Macedonia. L Geographical Sketch. ** ^ PAGE Divisions 85 States aud Islands 65 Colonies 86 Physical Features 87 n. First Period— to 776 B.C. Legendary or Traditional History, . . 88 The Pelasgi 88 Hellenes 89 Heroic Age 89 Trojan War 90 State of Society 91 Amphicty onic Council 91 Migrations 92 Colonies 92 m. Second Period-77^500 b.c. Dawn of Authentic History 93 Olympiads 93 Laws of Lycurgus 93 Messenian Wars 95 Attica 96 Draco 96 Solon 97 Pisistratus 97 Clisthenes 98 Ostracism 98 rV. TJiird PeWod— 500-449 B.C. The Persian War 99 Revolt of the Colonies 99 First Persian Expedition 100 Second Expedition 100 Battle of Marathon 101 Expedition of Xerxes 101 Battle of Tlu-rmopylfiP 103 Battle of Salarais 102 Burning of Athens 103 Battle of Plata?a 103 Treason of Pausanias 103 Confederacy of Delos. 104 Themistocles 104 Cimon 106 Pericles.... , 100 V. Fourth F€riod-4i9-SS8B,o. PAOB Interstate Dissensions 107 Height of Athenian Glory 107 Peloponnesian War 108 Thu-ty Tyrants Ill Condemnation and Death of Socrates 112 Expedition of Cyrus 113 ThebauWar 115 VI. Fifth Period— 358^1 a.a Macedonian Supremacy 117 Philip 117 Condition of the Grecian States. .117 SocialWar 117 Sacred War 118 Subjugation of Gi-eece 119 Destruction of Thebes 119 Conquests of Alexander the Great. . . 120 Lamian War 125 Alexander's Successors 126 Disposition of the Empire 126 Death of Perdiccas 126 Battle of Ipsus 127 Partition of the Empu-e 128 VII. Sixth Period-301-UQ BX Macedon and Greece 129 Syrian Kingdom of the Seleucidai. . . 133 Egyptian Ivingdom of the Ptolemies. 186 The Minor Kingdoms 141 Pergamus 141 Bithynia 142 Paphlagonia 142 Pontus 148 Cappadocia 142 Armenia 142 Bactria 1« Parthia 143 VIII. Grecian Civilization. Early Customs and Institutions 148 Religion of the Greeks 146 Greek Literature 154 First or Early Period 164 Second or M iddle Period 166 Third or Later Period 160 Greek Art 168 Social Life and Manners 16? Contents, 11 PAGE Review Outline 175 Topical Review 179 CHAPTER m. Roman History. I. Early History of Italy. Early Races 181 lapygians, Italians 181 Latins, Etruscans, Romans 182 Synopsis of the Races of Italy 183 H. The Roman Kingdom. Foundation of Rome 184 Government 184 Patricians and Plebeians 185 Kings 185 Traditional Chronology of the Kings. 187 HI. The Roman Republic. Period of Internal Struggles 187 Legends of the Period of the Tar- quins... 189 Agrarian Laws 193 Decemvirs 195 MiUtary Tribunes 197 Invasion by the Gauls 197 Licinian Laws 199 Triumph of the Plebeians 200 Period of Italian Conquests 200 Conquest of Italy 200 Samnite Wars 201 War with the Gauls 201 War with Pyrrhus 201 Military Roads 203 Aqueducts 203 Period of Foreign Conquests 203 History of Syracuse 204 First Punic War 206 Second Punic War 209 Conquest of Macedon and Greece.. 214 Third Punic War 216 PAGE War in Spain 217 Review of the Period 219 Effects of the Conquests 220 Period of Internal Dissensions and avilWar 221 The Gracchi 221 Jugurthine War 223 Invasion of the Cimbrians and Teutons 224 Mithridatic War 225 Fu-st Civil War 227 Servile War 229 Conspiracy of Catiline 231 First Triumvirate 233 The Great Civil War 234 Second Triumvirate 241 Octavius Master of the Empire 243 Review Outline 244 Table of Contemporanecus Events.. 247 IV. Roman Civilization. Change in Roman Manners 249 Description of Rome 249 Roman Art 255 Roman Literature 257 Roman ReUgion 258 Manners and Customs 262 Military System 266 V. The Roman Empire. Reign of Augustus 271 Birth of Christ 272 The Twelve Caesars 272 Praetorian Guards 274 Rise and Progress of Christianity. . . 279 The Irruptions of the Barbarians. ... 283 List of the Roman Emperors 288 Topical Review . . 289 Topical Review of the Roman Em- pire 290 General Chronological Review 291 Synoptical View of the Rise and Fall of Nations 296 12 Conttnts. PART II. L Medieval Histoey. CHAPTER I. General View of Europe. PAGE Conquering Races 297 Burgundians 297 Ostrogoths and Visigoths 298 Sueves, Alans, and Vandals 298 Saxons, Gepidae, and Lombards 299 Aryans, Basques, etc 299 Ethnological Synopsis 300 CHAPTER IL The Eastern Empire. Foundation 301 Reign of Justinian 302 Bulgarians and Slavonians 303 Conquest of Italy by Narses 303 Avars, Lombards, and Gepidaj 304 Conquest of Italy by thie I^mbards. 304 Persia 305 Saracen Conquests 305 Kingdom of Bulgaria 306 Russians and Turks 307 I^tin Emperors 308 Mongols and Ottomans 309 Byzantine Civilization , 310 Principal Greek Emperors 314 Summary of Events and Dates 814 CHAPTER m. The Con IHctionai-y of the Bible. Early Dynasties. Later Bahylonian Monarchy. 29 is called in the Scriptures an Assyrian. This reign ended at the famous Era of Na-bo-nas'sar, beginning 747 B.C., which is im- portant, because Babylonia then for a short time resumed its ancient independence, that had been absorbed in the Assyrian empire since 1250 B.C., Era of Nabonassar. and because this date is fixed by certain astronomical phe- nomena observed by Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer. 7. Later Babylonian Monarchy. By what is called the Canon of Ptolemy, the line of Babylonian kings becomes known to us from the year 747 B.C. to 330 B.C., when Babylon became a part of the dominions of Alexander the Great. During this period Baby- Canon of Ptolemy. Ion again became subject to Assyria (702 B.C.), and so con- tinued till the taking of the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, by the Medes (625 B.C.), when the Babylonian king, Na-bo-po-las'sar, who had formed an alliance with the Medes, was acknowledged as an independent sovereign, and Naisopola received a share of the conquered Assyrian dominions. The later Babylonian kingdom, then formed, lasted tiU the taking of Babylon by Cyrus the Persian (538 B.C.). 8. Though of brief duration, this was a period of great splendor. Nabopolassar's reign, which was one of military glory, was succeeded by that of the celebrated King Neb-u- chad-nez'zar, who defeated the king of Egypt, and subdued Je-hoi'a-kim, King of Judah. Sub- sequently he destroyed Jerusalem, and put an Nebuchad- nezzar. end to the kingdom of Judah, under Zed-e-ki'ah, carrying its inhabitants captives to Babylon (586 B.C.). Tyre also fell be- fore his conquering arms (585 B.C.). He afterward turned his attention to the embellishment of his capital, and erected in Babylon many edifices of wonderful extent and magnificence. 9. Babylon formed a vast square crossed diagonally by the Euphrates, and surrounded by a double row of walls, which, according to the account given by Babylon. Herodotus, were 335 feet high and 85 feet thick, enclosing 30 Ancient History. an area of nearly 200 square miles. These walls were pierced with a hundred brazen gates and defended by numerous towers. The royal palace, within which was the famous "hanging garden," classed among the Seven Wonders of the World, and the great temple of Bel, were the most remarkable buildings.* The latter was constructed in the form of a pyramid of eight square stages, each side of the basement being 600 feet; and on the top, reached by a wind- ing ascent, there was an image of the god, 40 feet high. It was this magnificence that prompted Nebuchadnezzar's haughty boast: *' Is not this great Babylon that I have built for the house of the kingdom, by the might of my power, and for the honor of my majesty?" f 10. After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian kingdom declined. He had four successors, the last of whom was Na-bo-na'di-us, who associated his son Bel- shaz'zar with him on the throne. During this Fall of Babylon. reign the kingdom was invaded by Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, and Nabonadius was defeated. Babylon, also, being carelessly defended by Belshazzar, was entered by Cyrus, who diverted the course of the Euphrates, and Babvlonia became a Persian province (538 B.c.).J; * " Within the precincts of the royal palace, Nebuchadnezzar raised up to a vast height a pile of stone substructions, giving them as far as possible the appearance of natural hills. He then planted the whole with trees of different kinds, and thus constructed what is called the hanging garden; all which he did to please his wife, who had been brought up in Media, and delighted in the scenery of mountain regions. "— Bero«t«. + " The descriptions of Babylon which have come down to us in classical writers are derived chiefly from two sources, the works of Herodotus and Otesiaa. Those authors were, both of them, eye-witnesses of the glories of Babylon— not, indeed, at their highest point, but before they had greatly declined— and left accounts of the city and its chief buildings, which the historians and geographers of later times were, for the most part, content to copy."— 7)r. Smith. J " Belshaazar, who was probably a mere youth, left to enjoy the supreme power without check or control, neglected the duty of watching the enemy, and gave himself up to enjoyment. The feast of which we read in Daniel, and which Buffered such an awful interruption, may have been in part a religious festivity: <»ut it indicates, nevertheless, the self-induleent temper of the kftag, who could give The Assyrian Empire. 31 11. The Assyrian. Empire. The Assyrians were probably ti Chaldean colony that settled in the region of the upper Tigris. The capital was at first As'shur (now Ki'leh Sher'gat), on the right bank of that river; but afterward the seat of the empire was the renowned city of Nin'eveh, about sixty miles above, on the same river. The latter Nineveh, subsequently became one of the finest and most populous cities in the world. Ca'lah, another important city on the Tigris, and for a time the capital of the empire, was very ancient, its foundation being ascribed, in the ancient Hebrew records, to the patriarch Asshur. 12. The history of the Assyrian monarchy, extending over more than six centuries, may be divided into three periods: 1. Previous to the conquest of Babylon (about 1250 B.C.); 2. From the conquest of Babylon to Periods. the reign of Tiglath-pile'ser II. (745 B.C.); 3. From the acces- sion of Tiglath-pileser 11. to the fall of Nineveh (625 B.C.). Of the first period little is known. The monumental inscrip- tions supply two lists of kings, some of whom seem to have been connected by intermarriage with the con- temporaneous Chaldean monarchs. Among the First Period. most celebrated monarchs was Shal-man-e'ser I., a great con- queror, and the builder of Calah.* 13. During the first three centuries of the second period, the chronology is very imperfect. A great monarch — Tiglath-pileser I. — flourished, and made many conquests. himself so entirely up to merriment at such a time. While the king and his ' thou- sand nobles ' drank wine out of the sacred vessels of the Jews, the Persian archers entered the city, and a scene of carnage ensued. 'In that night was Belshazzar slain.' "—Rawlinson. * To this period belongs the legendary history of Ninus and his illustrious queen Semir'amis, who succeeded him, and became one of the greatest conquering potentates of antiquity. She is said to have rebuilt Babylon, adorning it with splendid palaces and other costly buildings. She also enlarged and embellished Nineveh, in which she sometimes resided. Music and the -irts were also cultivated by her. Her expeditions, we are told by some ot the ancient writers, were con ducted on a scale of incredible magnificence, her armies numbering millions of m^a. TU? history of x\d^ wpederful queen is found only among the Greek legends. 32 Ancient History, In the latter part of the period, Calah was the capital, and became a splendid city, as is shown by the ruins of its palaces and temples which have been disinterred in recent years. The dominions of the empire were greatly Second Period. enlarged by conquests made in Armenia, Syria, Palestine, and Phojnicia. It wiis toward the end of the period that Babylon, under Nabonassar, became for a short time independent. 14. The third period commenced with the brilliant con- quests of Tiglath-pileser II., who carried the arms of Assyria into distant regions. Egypt and Syria were re- duced, and Palestine was invaded, whence many Third Period. of the Jews weie carried captive. His successor, Shal-man-e'ser IV., subdued Pha3nicia, but was defeated in an attack on Tyre. The siege of Samaria was commenced during his reign (723 B.C.). Sargon, his successor, was one of the greatest monarchs of this period. This Sargon. king took Samaria (721 B.C.), and settled the Israelites in Media and other newly-conquered provinces. He also carried on a successful war with Egypt, and received the submission of Cyprus. The whole reign of this monarch was a continued succession of conquests (721-705 B.C.). 16. 'J'he splendid city and palace at Khor'sa-bad, near Nineveh, were built under this monarch. This is now only a small village (Mosul) of Asiatic Turkey.* Here have been found the records of Sargon's conquests, in the inscriptions which he caused to be made, and in which he mentions the names of the kin^s whom Records of the Reign. he subdued, and enumerates the spoils jind tributes which he obtained. In one of these inscriptions he says: "I imposed tribute on Phara(jh of Egypt; on Tsamsi, Queen of Arabia; on Ith'amar, the Sabaean, in gold, spices, horses, and camels." 16. Sen-nach'e-rib, the son and successor of Sargon, ob- * Here \x\ 1846 the ruins of a ma^niflppnt edifice were discovered, loadinc: to the BUl)8equent researches, under I^ayard and others, that have slied so much light on Assyrian history. [See cut, page 33.] The Assyrian Empire. 33 tained possession of Babylou, and made two expeditions against Judali. In the tirst of these, he carried away 200,000 of the Jews captives; but in the Sennacherib. second he failed entirely, his army being destroyed by a sudden and remarkable pestilence. This was during the reign of the Jewish king Hez-e-ki'ah. Sennacherib was a short time afterward slain by two of his sons (680 B.C.). Wakrior and Horses (Khorsabad— Nineveh), 17. Among the great kings of Assyria was E-sar-had'don, son of Sennacherib. His conquests extended over a large part of western Asia, and he claimed authority over Egypt and Ethiopia. Manas'seh, king of Judah, Esarhaddon. was brought as a prisoner before him at Babylon; but, after a few years' detention, was restored to his throne by the clemency of the Assyrian monarch. This king reigned alter- nately at Babylon and Nineveh. His son Asshur- bani-pal (called by some of the Greeks Sar-dan-a- Asshurbanipal. pa'lus) succeeded him (according to Rawlinson, about 667 B.C.), during whose reign Assyria reached the height of its 34 Ancient History. greatness and splendor. He made great conquests, built a magnificent ])alace, and established a royal library at Nineveh. He was a great lover and patron of music and the arts. The sculptured slabs taken from his palace, representing him engaged in hunting, are now in the British Museum. After this splendid reign Assyria rapidly declined. A vast horde of Scythians, from the region north of the Caucasus, made incursions into the territory; and two invasions were made bj the Medes, under Cy-ax'a-res, in the second of which they were joined by Nabopolassar, the Fall of Nineveh. Assyrian governor of Babylon, in an attack upon Nineveh, which was taken and given to the flames. 18. The last king of Assyria, Sar'a-cus (sometimes called Sardanapalus II.), perished in the conflagration (G25 B.C.). One of the Greek historians, Ctesias {te'she-as), describes this king, under the name Sardanapalus, as an effeminate voluptu- ary, spending his time in idleness, and incapable of making any exertion for the defence of his kingdom. At last aroused from this ignoble sloth, he assumes the com- mand of the army, makes a brilliant effort to re- pulse the enemy, but is defeated. He then retires Legend of Sardanapalus. to his palace, erects a large funeral j)yre, upon which he places his richest treasures and his favorite wives, and finally mounting it himself, sets fire to it and perishes in the flames. The whole story is now believed to be a fiction, although it has long had a place in ancient history. Byron's drama Sardanapalus is based on this account. So uttei'ly was Nine- veh destroyed, that when Xen'o-phon passed it (401 B.C.), during the expedition of which he gives an account (the An- ab'a-sis), the very name had been forgotten, though he testi- fies to the extent of the deserted city, stating that the height of the ruined walls was 150 feet.* ♦ " Traditions of the unrivaled size and magniflcenco of Nineveh were equally familiar with the Greek and Roman writers, and U) the Arab geographers. But tb^> city had fallen eo CQipplet^ly ijit9 def (ly before the period of authentic history, Tlie Assyrian Empire. 35 Babylonian and Assyrian Civilization. 19. The Chaldean or Babylonian civilization was, in some respects, different from the Assyrian, though they had much in common. The situation of Babylonia, in the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates, was quite different from that of Assyria, in the higher plateau region near the upper course of the Tigris. The constant intermingling of the Babylonians and Assyrians, and their union for many centuries under the same government, naturally led to considerable uniform- ity of manners and customs. These people, in general, be- longed to the Semitic race; but in the earliest times the people of Accad, who came from the mountain regions to the north, were Turanians ; and the cuneiform inscrip- tions for many centuries were in the Turanian language. 20. The Chaldeans were, from the first, an architec- tural people, and they erect- ed many imposing edifices out of their simple materials Babylonian brick. —brick and bitumen. Their favorite form was that of the pyramid, rising in steps or stages, sometimes to a great height. The baked bricks which they Chaldeans. used in building their palaces were stamped with a legend in cuneiform letters, as seen in the cut. They also under- that no description of it, or even of any of its monuments, is to be found in any ancient author of trust.''— SmiWs Dictionary of the Bible. The destruction of Nineveh forms the subject of the prophecy of Nahum, who lived about a century earliei-, when the Assyrian empire was at the height of its power and glory. 36 Ancient History. stood the working of metals, and to some extent the use of the loom. Their trading caravans journeyed to Bactria, Persia, and Media, and the *^ ships of Ur" sailed along the coasts of the Persian Gulf. They early became noted for their at- tention to astronomy, some of their recorded observations extendmg as far back as 2234 B.C. 2i. In the height of Assyrian glory, during the splendid reigns of Sargon, Sennacherib, and Sardanapalus, architec- ture, painting, and sculpture had reached a very high degree of perfection. Carving in ivory, modelling, and metallurgy, with kindred arts, had also made great progress. The sculptured panellings which Architecture, painting, etc. From the Palace op Sennacherib, Koyunjik (Nineveh). have been found, representing single figures, of kings and deities, and battle and hunting scenes, evince great delicacy, taste, and skill, and a far greater accuracy in expression than anything found in Egyptian art. The walls of the palaces were adorned with alabaster work most brilliantly painted, and the ceilings were gilded and inlaid with ivory. 22. They understood the manufacture of transparent glass, constructed aqueducts, and knew the use of the arch and the application of the lever and other mechanical powers. The records of groat kings were ingeni- ously inscribed on slabs and cylinders, bricks and stones, rock Manufactures. Tlie Assyrian Mfnpire. 37 tablets, and the walls of palaces. In the preceding cut is seen a section of a pictorial record of this kind. Various branches of learning — astronomy, geography, history — were cultivated. 23. In furniture, costume, and the common ornaments of the house and the person, these people displayed a refined taste. Their chairs, tables, and other articles i . IP, £ • ^ Useful Arts. were of elegant designs, and oiten oi rich mate- i rials and beautiful workmanship. In the arts of weaving and Interioe of an Assyrian Palace (Khorsabad), Showing colossal statues of winged lions with human heads, eagle-headed figures, etc., such as were objects of worship among the Assyrians. embroidery they especially excelled; and the Assyrian textile fabrics — ^in linen, cotton, and silk, were in high repute. Their pottery — vases, cups, utensils, etc. — showed great beauty of form. Many of them were afterwards copied by the Greeks. 24. They practiced agriculture with peculiar skill, and by careful irrigation raised large crops of sesame, millet, and wheat. The date palm was cultivated in all parts of Mesopotamia. The vine, fig, and olive were Agriculture. 38 Ancient History. common plants, as were also the indigo and the sugar-cane. Herodotus says that they made all the oil they used from the sesame-plant, while the fruit of the palm supplied them with bread, wine, and sweet sirup. They reared the camel and the common domestic animals, including oxen and sheep. They were great lovers of the chase, and their hunting-dogs were very famous.* In short, what remains of their civilization proves them to have been a refined, ingenious, and highly gifted people, by whom the arts of comfort and luxury were carried to a high degree of advancement.! 25. They were also a very religious people, their whole life, in every phase, social and political, being governed by the dictates of a remarkable religious system, abounding in rites and ceremonies. Their deities Religion. were numerous and variously represented. The Supreme Being was worshiped under several different forms and sym- bols. The monuments and ruined palaces contain many strange figures, as winged bulls and horses, men with the heads of various animals, and animals with human heads. A winged human figure with the head of a hawk or an eagle is very common among the bas-reliefs and sculptures. All these figures doubtless symbolized prominent religious ideas and beliefs. Among the Babylonians, Baal, or Bel, was the chief deity; while Asshur, the spiritual personification of the city of that name, was the supreme god of the Assyrians. J * Among the curious objects excavated from the ruins, models of favorite dogs are very numerous. Of them there are many specimens in the British Museum, obtained from the palace of Esarhaddon, at Nineveh. t Herodotus thus describes the costume of the Babylonians of his Ume: "Their dress is a linen tunic, reaching to the feet, and above it another tunic made of wool, besides which they have a short white cloak thrown around them, and shoes of a peculiar fashion, not unlike those worn by the Boeotians. They have long hair, wear turbans on their heads, and anoint their whole body with perfumes." X Below these supreme divinities came the Sim-god, the Moon-god, and the Air- god; and after these were arranged '* the fifty great gods," and then the three hun- dred spirits of heaven and the six hundred spirits of earth, besides many local deities. Review Outline. I. CHALDEAN, or FIEST BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. Babylon (2200 B.C.), Accad, Erech, Calneh; lists of Berosus; Chaldean Dynasty (2000-1543 B.C.); Arabian Dynasty (to 1298 B.C.); dynasty of forty-five kings (to 772 B.C.); reign of Pul (to 747 B. c. , era of Nabonassar). II. LATEE BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. Babylon subject to Assyria (680 B.C.); splendid reigns of Nabo- polassar and Nebuchadnezzar; conquest of Judah and destruc- tion of Jerusalem ; Israelites carried captives to Babylon ; con- quest of Tyre; -time of Babylon's greatest splendor. Nabona- dius and Belshazzar; taking of Babylon by Cyrus (538 B.C.). III. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. Three Periods: (1) Previous to the Conquest of Babylon (1250 B.C. 1) Reign of Shalmaueser I,, a great conqueror, the builder of Calah. Legendary history of Ninus and Seraira- mis. [See note, page 31.] (2) From the Conquest of Babylon to 745 B.C. Tiglath-pile'ser I., a great conqueror; capital, Calah, a splendid city. Conquests in Armenia, Syria, Pales- tine, and Phenicia. Babylon independent under Nabonassar. (3) From 745 B.C. to the Fall of Nineveh. Brilliant reigns of Tiglath-pileser II., Shalmanescr IV., and Sargon; great conquests (745-705 B.C.). Taking of Samaria (721 b.c). Building of palace of Khorsa- bad. Sennacherib; expedition against Judah ; mirac- ulous destruction of the Assyrian army. Esarhaddon, reigned at Nineveh and Babylon. Asshur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus), conqueror, and patron of the arts. Attacks by the Scythians and Medes. Saracus, or Sardanapalus II; taking of Nineveh (625 B.C.). 40 Ancient History. SECTION n. The Median Mon^archy. 26. Media was situated to the south of the Caspian Sea, forming a part of the great plateau region of Iran, now Persia. The early history of the Medes is wrapped in obscurity. They come into notice in the ninth Situation. Early history. century B.C., when they were brought into subjection to the Assyrian Empire (830 B.C.). About a century later, Sargon occupied a part of their territory, into which he carried the Israelite captiyes. In the middle of the seventh century (650 B.C.), the great Median monarchy makes its appearance on the field of history, though the Greek historians relate many events of a previous date. 27. The Medes invaded Assyria a few years after this date, but they were signally defeated in an attack on Nineveh (633 B.C.). For a short time they were occupied in resisting the Scythians, who made an inroad into their country; and, when freed from that danger, they renewed their attack on Nineveh, which they captured and destroyed (625 B.C.). Cyaxares, their monarch Destruction of Nineveh. at that time, extended his conquests, penetrating into Asia Minor, and carrying on war against the Lydians. He is re- garded by some as the founder of the Median monarchy. The reign of his son and successor, As-ty'a-ges, was peaceful. He made alliances with Lydia and Babylon, and his daughter was married to a Persian prince. She gave birth to Cyrus, after- ward called the Great. Cyrus, being bold and aspiring, put himself at the head of the Persian tribes, and marching with a large army into Cyrus the Great. Media, deposed Astyages, his grandfather, and uniting the Median and Persian dominions under himself as king, laid tho foundation of the great Persian Empire (558 B.C.). 28. Civilization. Among the Medes were many people of Kingdoms in Asia Minor. 41 Turanian and Semitic origin. Their architecture was devoid of artistic beauty, but possessed a certain barbaric grandeur. The royal palace at Ecbat'ana, their capital, was constructed of wood plated with gold and silver. Art In the early times they were a simple, hardy people ; but after the conquest of Nineveh they adopted the i \ ' luxurious habits of the Assyrians, so that the ! court of Astyages resembled that of Sardanapalus. Their religion was chiefly that of Zo-ro-as'ter, the great spiritual teacher of the nations of Iran, whose Religion. doctrines are contained in the sacred books called Zend- Avesta.* The magi, a priesthood claiming supernatural powers, exerted a great influence over the people. SECTION III. Kingdoms in Asia Minor. 29. Several powerful monarchies existed in Asia Minor prior to the time of Cyrus the Great, the chief of which were Phrygia, Cilicia, and Lydia. The Phrygians were a brave but coarse and brutal people, and very Phrygians. fond of war. Their capital was Gor-di-e'um, and Midas was the most noted of their monarchs. Phrygia was conquered by the Lydians in the sixth century (560 B.C.). 30. Cilicia was early overrun by the Assyrians, but existed as a tributary kingdom. Tarsus was founded, it is said, by Sennacherib, and Sardanapalus married a Cilician i princess. This kingdom was enabled to resist ! ^''""^ the assaults of the Lydian monarchs, and maintained its independence during the reign of Cyrus, but was afterward annexed to the Persian Empire. * The period at which Zoroaster, or Zarathustra, lived is not known. It was probably before 1200 b.c. LSee Persia.] 42 Ancient History. 3L Lydian Monarchy. Lydia was situated in the westerp part of Asia Minor, and was especially noted for its fruitful soil and great mineral wealth. Its chief river, the Pac-to'lus, abounded in gold, which was also found in the neighbor- ing mines. Hence the Ly- dians soon.became corrupted by luxury and vicipus indul- gences. The Lydian king- dom is supposed to have existed in Asia Minor from a very ancient period, but its early history is fabulous and unreliable. For about two centuries this monarchy occupied a prominent posi- tion in the history of v/cstern Asia, and when Cy-ax'a-res the Mede overran this part of the country, he was check- ed in his career of conquest by King Alyattes {d-le-at'Uz)\ and after a war of six years, in which he was often defeated by the Lydians, Cyaxares retired beyond the Ha'lys, the boundary of the Lydian kingdom at that time. 32. This war between the Lydians and Medes is said to have been terminated in a singular way.* Their two great armies had come to an engagement (610 B.C., or, according to some writers, 584 B.C.), when, in Ancient Warrior. Treaty of Peace. the midst of the battle, a total eclipse of the sun occurred, ♦ " On the refusal of Alyattes to give up his suppliants, when Cyaxares sent to demand them of him, war broke out between the Lydians and the Medes, and con- cinued for five years, with various success. In the course of it, the Medes gained many victories over the Lydians, and the Lydians also gained many victories over the Medes. Beside their other battles there was one night engaj^einont. As, how- ever, the balance had not inclined in favor of either nation, another combat took Lydian Monarchy, 43 which so alarmed the soldiers that they immediately letired from the conflict. The two monarchs thereupon concluded not only a peace, but a firm treaty of alliance with each other; and peace continued to subsist between these two powers until the time of Cyrus, about half a century afterward. 33. Alyattes is said to have reigned about forty years after the close of this war, and to have constructed a vast monu- ment, scarcely inferior to the great pyramids of Egypt. Its base was formed of immense blocks of stone, the structure above being a huge mound Tomb of Alyattes. of earth. This mound has been explored in modern times, and a chamber found within, formed of solid blocks of mar- ble; but it was evident that it had been rifled of its contents long before. It was without doubt the tomb of Alyattes. 34. Alyattes was succeeded (about 568 B.C.) by his son Croesus {hre'sus), noted for his immense wealth, being by far the richest monarch of his time. He is also distinguished as the last monarch of Lydia; for. Croesus. having made war upon Cyrus, the king of Persia, he was entirely defeated; and his capital, Sardis, being taken by the enemy, he was made a prisoner, and condemned by Cyrus to be burnt alive upon a funeral pyre, but was afterward released. Thus, within a very few weeks, from being a power- ful and prosperous monarch, ruler over thirteen nations, he was reduced to the condition of a captive and a beggar, depen- dent upon the will of a despot whose anger he had provoked. It was in this way that Lydia became a province of the Per- sian Empire (554 B.C.). place in the sixth year, in the course of which, just as the battle was growing warm, day was on a sudden changed into night. This event had been foretold by Thales, the Milesian, who forewarned the lonians of it, fixing for It the very year in which it actually took place. The Medes and Lydians, when they observed the change, ceased fighting, and were alike anxious to have terms of peace agreed on. ' ^—RawUnson's Herodotus. 44 Ancient History. Chronological Synopsis of Contemporaneous Events. 2000) 1543) 1&43| 1298) Chaldean and Babylo- nian Monarchies. Babylon founded. Chaldean Dynasty. Arabian Dynasty. 1250 Babylonia and Assyria united. 1250) 772) 747 745 721 705) 702 669 650 625 610 586] 585i 668 660 668 654 688 Assyrian Dynasty. Babylon independent, under Nabonassar. Babylon subject to As Syria. Nabopolaasar. Destruction of Jerusa- lem and Tyre by Ne- buchadnezzar. Babylon taken by Cyrus. AssYiUAN Empire. Mrst Period of Assy rian History. Shalmaneser I. Conquest of Babylon by Tiglath-pileser I End of reign of Pul. Tiglath pileser U. Samaria taken by Sar- gon. Reign of Sennacherib. Esarhaddon begins to reign. Asshur-bani-pal. {Nineveh taken bv the Medes — end of the Assyrian Empire. Median and Minor Monarchies. Media subject to As- syria. Media rises to impor- tance. Reign of Cyaxares the Mede. War between the Medes and Lydians. CrcBsus begins to reign In Lydia. Phrygia conquered by the Lydians. Union of the Medes and Persians under Cyrus Conquest of Lydia by Cyrus. Egypt 45 SECTION IV. The Anciei^t Egyptians. 35. Egypt is certainly one of the oldest of nations. Its monuments, — among which are the pyramids, — the ruins of its yast and splendid temples, its obelisks and sphinxes, and the other remains of its peculiar civilization, are the most interesting objects of antiquity. The origin of the ancient Egyptians is unknown; but they Origin. were of the Caucasian race, and probably related to the oldest races of central Asia. By ethnologists they are classed among the Hamites, or descendants of Ham; but they differed essentially from the tribes who lived to the westward of the Nile, as well as from other African races.* 36. The early history of Egypt is involved in fable, and but little reliance can be placed on any system of Egyptian chronology. In the time of the Greek historian Herodotus, the priests claimed for the country Chronology. an antiquity of more than 11,000 years. In the third cen- tury B.C., Man'e-tho, an Egyptian priest, compiled a history of his country, which he divided into thirty dynasties. This work has perished; but abstracts from it are preserved in other ancient writings. Sources of its history. and these, with the histories written by Herodotus and Di-o- * " Now. one can say without fear of contradiction, the most valuable E^ryptfan museum in the world is in Cairo. That which was previously carried away being, for the most part, easily accessible, proves to belong to the later rather than the earlier dynasties. Unwearied digging has enabled Mariette [a French archaeoloidstl to reach the records of the ancient empii-e, and to show, what we never before suspected, that the glory of Egyptian art belongs to the age of Cheops, and only its decadence to the age of Rameses TI. Not only the art, but the culture, the religion, the political organization of Egypt are carried back to the third dynasty; and Menes, the first historic king, dawns upon our knowledge, not as a primitive barbarian, but as the result of a long stage of unrecorded development. I do nos hesitate to say, that since Champollion discovered the key to the hieroglyphics, no scholar ha% thrown such a broad and clear light upon Egyptian life and history as Mariette."— jBayard Taylor. • •* AR we approach Kamak (a part of Thebes), the most strikitif; objects are two of the Dnormoiis ])ropylons so chamcteristic of Efcyptian archlt*>cture. They are tnincated pyramids pierced with a pjatt^way. The sides slope inward from a reotAncrnlar baw*. and are surmountevl l)y a heavy cornice, on which is sculptured the synilK)! known to the Greeks as tlie AgathodfBnutn, a winded sun, or scaniiineus. It was the number of the Sropylons that gained for Thebes th« Ifoi?»ertQ epitbe* of 'the himclred-g»te'ptian king."— NmiY/i'iJ Ih'ctionarjf of the Bible. The hatred of Egyi>tlans toward foreignei-s would have naturally pre- vented the ai)pointment of Josepli to so liigh an office, and the settlemtMit of the Israelites in Egypt. Under the rule of a foreign monarch, there could luive b«^n uo such objuctiou to these things. Egypt 49 Rameses. DecUre of Egypt many conquests. Eameses II. was also a very great conqueror, He adorned both Egypt and Nubia with many splendid temples and other edifices. Egyptian art reached its highest development in his reign. The exploits of these monarchs are recorded in pictures and hieroglyphs on the monuments. 39. Under the nineteenth dynasty, Egypt attained her highest point of national power and greatness. During the next she rapidly declined, and for almost two centuries scarcely undertook a sin- gle important enterprise. The pre- dominant influence of the priests was a marked feature of this period, during a part of which the priestly dynasty of Tanites held ^ sway. She'shonk, called I L_ Shi'shak in the Bible (I. Kings xiv. 25), succeeded the priestly line, or *' High Priests of Amun," as they called themselves, and brought about a partial revival of Egyptian glory (993 B.C.). 40. This monarch invaded Judah, received the submission of Reho- bo'am, and plundered Jerusalem. Cartouche op a King, supposed to be Rehoboam.* Sabaco. There were afterward several other kings of the same name. The twenty -fifth dynasty was founded by Sa-ba'co, an Ethiopian, who conquered Egyjit. This is the So of Scripture, who made a treaty with Hoshea * In the palace temple of Karnak, Shishak is represented in a large bas-relief dragging captive kings in triumph. Each countiy or city is personified, and its name written in an oral. One of the figures has an inscription which means " Kingdom of Judah." This is the figure represented in the cut. 50 Andeiit History. (724 B.C.), and who came in conflict witli Sargon, the Assy- rian monarch. Tir-ha'kah (or Teh'rak), of this dynasty, was the greatest of the Ethiopian kings of Egypt. He con- tended successfully with Assyria, and came to the assistance of the Jewish king Hezekiah against Sennacherib, who met with so terrible an overthrow. He was, however, finally defeated, and Egypt was broken up into petty kingdoms sub- ject to Assyria. 41. Psam-met'i-chus threw off the Assyrian yoke, and founded the twenty-sixth dynasty. By means of Greek mer~ cenaries he greatly increased his power, though he in this way offended the Egyptian military Psammetichus. class. He encouraged art and constructed several great works. Necho, or Ne-ka'o, his son and successor, gave great attention to maritime enterprises. He built fleets on the Red and Mediterranean seas, undertook to re- Necho. open the canal between the Red Sea and the Nile which had been cut by Rameses II., and also directed the circum- navigation of Africa.* After defeating Josiah, king of Judah, he was himself defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (605 B.C.). 42. Ama'sis, the fifth king of this dynasty, had a long and prosperous reign. He constructed many fine buildings, and left numerous monuments in different parts of the country. He encouraged Greek merchants Amasis. to settle in Egypt, and in order to protect his kingdom against the growing power of Persia, made an alliance with Croesus of Lydia. His reign terminated just as Camby'ses, the Persian king, was about to invade the coun- try. His son and successor, Psam-men'i-tus, after Psammenitu*. a reign of six months, encountered the Persian host near * " Necho next fitted out some ships, In order to discover if Africa was circiim- navlgable; for which purpose he engafred the services of certain Phamician mariners; and he has tiie honor of having been the first to ascertain the peninsular form of that continent, about twenty-one centuries before Bartulomeo Pinz nnd Vasco da Gama."— ifatcZmson. Egyjpt 51 Pelusium, and was defeated (525 B.C.). Thus Egypt came under the power of Oambyses, who treated the people with great cruelty. 43. During the remaining dynasties, extending over nearly two centuries from the battle of Pelusium, Egypt was en- gaged in a constant struggle with the Persians for its independence, which it often regained, but as often lost. In these efforts, it received con- Subsequent history. siderable assistance from the Greeks. Since its final con- quest by the Persians (346 B.C.), the prophecy of Ezekiel, that "there shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt," has been literally fulfilled, for not one native ruler has ever occupied the throne for a period of more than 2000 years. The subsequent history of this country will, therefore, be given in connection with that of the nations co whom it has successively belonged. Egyptian Topography and Civilization. 44. Egypt, far back in the early ages, became a populous country, because of its extraordinary fertility, due to the annual inundations of the Nile, caused by the rains that fall on the equatorial highlands. In Soil. fact, this region may be geographically described as the valley of that river; and by some it has been called the "gift of the Nile." Its most ancient name was Chemi {ha'me), the Black Country, on account of the character of the soil. It yielded in great abundance immense crops of dhowna, a kind of maize, and other cereals; and Productions. thus the granaries of Egypt were able to supply food to all the surrounding nations in times of famine. The date-palm grew spontaneously. The Egyptian portion of the valley extended about five hundred miles from north to south, beins: bounded on the west by a rocky ridge sloping into the Great Desert, and on the east by low ranges descending to the Eed Sea. 45. It was anciently divided into Upper, Middle, and 52 Ancient History. Lower Egypt. Upper Egypt, or the Theb'a-is, as it was often called, included the narrow valley in the extreme southern part. Its capital was Thebes, which, in Divisions. the time of its splendor, is said to have covered twenty-three miles, and to have had one hundred gates. On its site are the villages of Luxor and Karnak, Upper Egypt where the ruins of splendid temples, colossal statues, obelisks, Memnonian Statues, neab Thebes. and sphinxes still bear witness to the grandeur of this famous city. Near Thebes are the two colossal sitting figures, one of which is known as the statue of Memnon, which is said to have emitted a musical sound at the rising of the sun.* Originally, there was an avenue of eighteen such statues. ♦ The height of each of these statues Is forty -seven feet, and they rest on pedes- tals about twelve feet hi^h. The v B.C.j, Tyre? Sidon? Aradus? Jerusalem? Damascus? Saraa- rpg yielding to the ria? Askelon? Gaza? Ashdod? Joppa? Beer-sheba? ^^„^„^^^„ *i.__ „ j^. Byblus? Tadmor? Ezion-geber? Dead Sea? Jordan COUqUCror after a dC- River? Orontes River? What name has been given to termiucd resistance of the whole d. strict west of the Jordan? Arts. Pales- months. tine, or the Holy Land. ' 64. The Phoenicians were the greatest navigators and mer- chants of antiquity. Keeping near the shore, and guided by The Phoenicians. 63 the stars, their ships visited the most remote parts of the Mediterranean Sea, and even passed the ''Pillars of Hercules" (Strait of Gibraltar) into the Atlantic, probably reaching the "Land of Tin" — the peninsula of Cornwall, in Britain ; also the Canaries, the Navigation and commerce. Azores, and the Madeira Islands in the west, and India and Ceylon in the east. Wherever trade was profitable they ex- tended their voyages, and they were careful to conceal from all others the course they took to the wealthy lands they reached. When Herodotus visited Tyre, he could gain no information of the source of their supply of tin and amber, although they had been selling those products to the Greeks for centuries.* Phcenician Ship. In their desire for gain the Phoenicians did not at times scruple to commit piracy; and they sometimes, it is said, kidnapped Greek and Hebrew children and sold them for slaves. Many of the great commercial centers on the shores of the Mediterranean grew from Phoenician settlements. Thus it will be seen that the Phoenicians were masters of the commerce of the world before the Greeks became at all promi- nent on the field of history. 65. Their manufactures of glass and linen, of perfumes and purple dye, were sources of unbounded wealth ; and the Phoenicians were universally considered io be the most skillful ♦It is related that the master of one of their merchantmen bound for the "Land of Tin," perceiving himself followed by a Roman ship, which had been sent (50 learn the way, ran his vessel on the rocks to lead the rival craft to destruction, and on his return home his government indemnified him for the loss. 64 Ancient History. workmen in gold, silver, ivory, and bronze. These manu- factured articles they exchanged for the rich products of distant lands. From the natives of Manufactures. Tarshish (southern Spain) they obtained gold^ silver, iron, and lead ; for this country at that time was almost a mine of wealth, silver being so ])lentiful that the mer- chants, as Aristotle relates, ballasted their ships Traffic. with it. For these treasures the simple natives eagerly ac- cepted Tyrian ornaments and glass trinkets. On the southern shores of the Baltic a similar traffic was carried on for the precious amber of that region. 66. These people also made great progress in literature. Their alphabet was more complete than any that previously existed, for it -^o,^ phonetic; that is, it represented the elementary sounds of spoken words, not pic- tures of objects. It is stated that Cadmus, a Phoenician, brought sixteen letters into Greece, thus forming a basis for the Greek alphabet. How- Literature. Alphabet. ever this may be, it is cer- tain that not only the Greek but all our modern alpha- bets are directly or indirectly based upon that of the Phoe- nicians. Thus, whatever the origin of these wonderful people, for it is impossible to say whence they came, they must be considered among the most enterprising, ingenious, and intellectual nations of antiquity. 67. The Phoenicians worshiped a vast multitude of gods, among whom Ba'al was pre-eminent, corresponding to the Babylonian deity of that name; and next to him wjus a female Head op 13aal. (From a Tyriau Coin.) The Phcenicians. Q5 deity named As-tar'te, whose emblem was the moon. The evil principle was personified by the dreaded being Moloch, to whom they sometimes sacrificed their children and other human beings. They erected temples, but chiefly selected for their places of worship mountains, Religion. glens, groves, and the banks of streams, which they deemed the favorite abodes of the gods. Fire was kept burning perpetually on their altars, and they sacrificed both men and animals. Many of their religious rites and ceremonies were dreadfully cruel and degrading, Sybia. 68. Syria is the name given to a region of indefinite extent situated to the eiist of the Mediterranean Sea. By the Hebrews it was called A'ram. It was united under one government till the time of its com- Situation. plete conquest by the Persians. There were several states, but the one most generally known was Syria of Damascus, which was an important state even in the times of Abraham. In the subsequent history of the Damascus. Jews it became quite prominent. King David gained a great victory over the Syrians of Damascus, and reduced their city; but during Solomon's reign it regained its independence (1000 B.C.). 69. There were three kings named Ben-ha'dad, all of whom contended repeatedly with the Hebrews. Benhadad II. was murdered by the usurper Haz'a-el, who afterward gained important victories over the Benhadad. Israelites, ravaged their territory, and plundered Jerusalem (about 850 B.C.). His son, Benhadad III., also "oppressed Israel." At a later period, Syria was successively subdued by the Assyrians, Persians, and Macedonians. About 63 B.C., it became a Eoman province, and was subsequently divided into several provinces. QQ Ancierd HU^-^y. SECTION VI. The Hebeews. 70. Palestine was situated between the Mediterranean Sea and the valley of the Jordan River, extending about 145 miles from north to south, with an average breadth of less than fifty miles. Tlie name is Situation. a corruption of Philistia, or the country of the Philistines, those fierce idolaters with whom the Hebrews wage4 many wars. Their chief cities were Ash'dod, or A-zo'- tus, As'ca-lon, Gath, Ga'za, and Ek'ron, all noted Philistines. in sacred history. The western parts of what was called Palestine were inhabited by the Canaanites and other tribes, or nations {seven mentioned in the Canaanites. Scriptures), which were conquered by the Hebrews. 71. The Hebrews were a Semitic race. Abraham jour- neyed from Chaldea to Canaan (Palestine), where his de- scendants continued to dwell as a patriarchal and pastoral nation until Jacob and his sons left the country to settle in Egypt. The Jewish state properly commences with the Exodus from Egypt and the settlement again in Palestine. Of the twelve tribes of Israel, nine and a half were located to the west, and two and a half to the east, of the Tribes of Israel. Jordan. Into this region they had been led by Joshua, as Moses was permitted only to catch a glimpse of the promised land. After the death of Joshua followed the period of the Judges, which lasted about five centuries. The last of the Judges was Samuel, who, when the people demanded a king, anointed Saul (1095 B.C.). 72. Saul was succeeded by David, during whoso reign (from 1055 to 1015 B.C.) the kingdom of Israel stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Euj)hrate8 River, and from Syria to the Red Sea. He on- David. couraged navigation and trade, particularly with Tyre, which The Hebrews, 67 led to a vast influx of the precious metals into the kingdom, and afterward made Solomon's court a sceue of oriental luxury and magnificence. The reign of Solomon (1015-975 B.C.) was the most splendid period in Jewish history. He built a sumptuous palace, and caused Solomon. the great temple to be constructed. Alliances were formed with the surrounding nations ; an active trade with Egypt was opened; and, to facilitate his commercial enterprises, he erected Tad'mor in the desert, which afterwards became so renowned as Palmy'ra. He also built a superb navy at a port (E'zi-on - ge'ber) which he established at the northern part of the Ked Sea. [See map, page 62. ] 73. The glory of Solomon's splendid kingdom was not to continue. Already, during his life, luxury had brought its usual corruption and weakness. The purity of religion was stained by cruel and licentious rites; the people were oppressed by a burdensome taxation ; and dissension and discontent prevailed. The tyranny Revolt of the Ten Tribes. and insolence of Re-ho-bo'am, Solomon's son and successor, completed the ruin of the kingdom, causing the revolt of the ten tribes, who followed Jer-o-bo'am, and set up a new king- dom of Israel at She'chem. To Rehoboam were thus left only two tribes, forming the kingdom of Judah. A desultory war was kept up between these two kingdoms during most of the reign of Jeroboam, which lasted twenty-two years. 74. The territory ruled over by Jeroboam was partly be- yond the Jordan. It reached from the borders of Damascus to within ten miles from Jerusalem; and in its first period contained twice as large a population Israel. as Judah. Its first capital was She'chem; the second, Tirzah; and the last, Samaria. In about 250 y^'*'s nineteen monarchs reigned, the history of whom is but a sad record of wicked- ness and war. They deserted the purity of the former religious worship, and practiced idolatry, against wliich the prophets vainly denounced thQ Judgments of Heaven. The 68 Ancient History. kingdom was destroyed by the Assyrians, to whom the last king, Ho-she'a, surrendered Samaria, and the ten tribes were carried into captivity (721 B.C.). Tlieir place was supplied by Babylonian settlers, from whom, with the remnant of the Jewish population, was derived the Samaritan race. 75. The kingdom of Judah lasted 135 years longer than Israel. Most of its kings were wicked and idolatrous; but, during the reign of the good king Je-hosh'a-phat (916-892 B.C.), the kingdom was in a more pros- Judah. perous state than it had been since the reign of Solomon. Hezekiah's reign (726-697 B.c) is remarkable for the invasion _^_ - - %_ -^^__ -_ of Sennacherib and the mir- aculous destruction of his army. The last king was Zed-e-ki'ah, during whose reign Nebuchadnezzar,king of Babylon, took Jerusalem and destroyed it, sending the Jewish king in chains to Babylon, whither were also transported the wretch- ed inhabitants (586 B.C.). The temple was razed to the ground, and for more than fifty years the holy city i)erished, except in the memory of the heart-broken exiles. The restoration of the Jews took place in 636 B.C., in pursuance of an edict of Cyrus, the great Persian monarch, which permitted the Jewish people in Baby- lon to return to Jerusalem, and to rebuild the temple, every Jew in the city being enjoined by the edict to assist in the work. 76. After the edict of Cyrus, the Jews remained under the dominion of Persia till the time of Alexander; and on his death (:J2;i B.C.), they became subject to Ptore-my (foVe-mc), one of his successors. Subsequently the kings of Egypt and Syria con- AjiTKjUK VKSSlSLa. The Hebrews, m Subsequent Jewish history. tended for Palestine, until An-ti'o-chus the Great defeated the Egyptians, and thus became its ruler. In conse- quence of the oppression of one of his successors, the Jews revolted, under the renowned Judas Mac-ca-be'us, who in a succession of victories routed the Syrian armies, and entered Jerusalem in triumph (165 B.C.). 77. After his death (161 B.C.), his brothers completed the work of national deliverance, and they and their successors ruled as high-priests, until Aristobu'lus assumed the crown (106 B.C.). The second king of that name was subdued by Pompey, the Roman general, when Judea became a Roman province. The successors of Judas Maccabeus are called the Maccabees, or the As- mo-ne'an dynasty. These were followed by the dy- nasty founded by Herod the Great, who ruled under the Romans (37 B.C.-44 a.d.). Sub- sequently Judea was appended to the Roman province Syria. The revolt of the Jews led to a ''war of independence," which was closed by the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus (70 A.D.) and the final dispersion of the Hebrew race. 78. The civilization of the Hebrews was not marked by any gi-eat and peculiar progress in the arts and sciences; and the world has received no impulse from their national achievements or history in this respect. Their religious institutions, spiritual ideas, and Hebrew Costume. Hebrew c(viliz«tton. moral teachings have, however, exerted a mighty influence on modern civilization. The sacred writings of the Jews are still a treasury of inspired wisdom, the influence of which pervades the most civilized nations of the globe. 70 Ancient History. SECTION VU. The Hindoos. 79. The original seat of the great Aryan race appears to have ucLJi the region lying between the northwestern boun- dury of India and the shores of the Caspian Sea. [See map No. II.] From this country emigrants Aiyans. pushed across the Indus River, and drove toward the south or reduced to servitude the native inhabitants. Of these Aryan invaders, mingling with the darker races whom they had sub- dued, the Hindoos are the descendants. The land was subse- quently called Ar'ya-d-var'ta, or the Home of the Aryans. The date of this invasion is uncertain, but it has been placed by some Sanskrit scholars as far back as 3100 B.C. 80. These invaders brought with them a religion called Brahmanism and the Sanskrit language, and also established the institution of caste. Of these castes the Brah- mans or priests, constituted the highest, and the Castes. Su'dras, or conquered people — the artisans and laborers — the lowest. To tliese may be also added the Pa'riahs, or outcasts. The Sanskrit is now a dead language, but a com- parison of it with other languages sliows it to have Sanskrit, been the parent of Greek, Latin, Iranian or Persian, German, Celtic, Slavonic, and most of the languages of modern Europe. The Vedas, or sacred books, written in this lan- guage, are believed to be as old as 2000 b.c. The Vedaa. ancient literature of the Hindoos includes many other inter- esting works, both in prose and poetry, a number of which have been translated into English and other modern languages. . 81. The Vedas teach the worship of one Supreme Being, an Infinite Spirit, pervading all tilings, and manifesting himself under three forms: Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Siva, the destroyer. Religion. I'he doctnne of the ** transmigration of ijgula" was a promi- The Hindoos. 71 nent feature in these religious teachings. According to this belief, the souls of all those who had not lived pure lives passed at death into the bodies of lower animals as a punish- ment. In the sixth century B.C., there arose a wonderful religious reformer or teacher in the person of Prince Gau- ta'ma, called Buddha {hood'dah) — the Enlightened. He was the founder of Buddhism, a religious Buddhism. system which at first was pure and spiritual, but subsequently became stained with many abuses and corrupted with idolatry and superstitious practices. It is now the religion of a large part of mankind.* 82. We have no continuous authentic history of the ancient Hindoos. The first event in connection with the history of Europe that brings India into notice is the invasion of the country by the Macedoni- History, ans, under their great leader, Alexander the Great (326 B.C.). After several engagements with the native princes, he was compelled to retire without making any conquests. The his- torians who accompanied the army wrote quite a full descrip- tion of the people and their peculiarities. 83. The wealth of India — its diamonds and other precious stones, pearls, silks, spices, and perfumes — made this land for many centuries an object of interest, and trade with it was eagerly cultivated. Maritime commerce with India was carried on by the i/Vealth and trade. Phoenicians, as it was afterward by the Italian commercial states. A great overland trade was also carried on not only by the Phoenicians but by other nations. In all other respects, however, the country and its people remained a sealed book for ages. * " In point of age, most other creeds are youthful compared with this venerable religion, which has in it the eternity of a univei*sal hope, the immortality of a boundless love, an indestructible element of faith in final good, and the proudest assertion ever mad^ of human freedom."— ^?<7in Arnold, 72 Ancient History. SECTION VIII. The CniiirESB. 84. China is spoken of by the ancient classic writers as the land of the Se'res. In the Middle Ages it was called the empire of Cathay', From others it received the name of Sin, Chin, oi- China. The latter name China. is supposed by some to be derived from the Tsin dynasty, of the third century B.C. In the ancient descriptions of this country, its rich products — raw silk, silk stuffs, fine furs, and excellent iron — are especially mentioned. The Greeks and Komans had but a very indefinite knowledge of the Chinese and their country. In the Middle Ages, it became better known, particularly through the account given by Marco Polo of his travels in Cathay. 85. The Chinese historians extend their records back during fabulous periods of hundreds of thousands of years, but fail to explain the origin of the race. They describe the first settlers as nomadic emigi*ants Origin. from the region near the Caspian Sea, who, however, soon devoted themselves to agriculture, cultivating grain and flax, and nourishing silkworms. They established centers of trade, and began to study science, particularly Jistronomy. They had a kind of hieroglyphic writing. The natives could make but little resistance to the " black-haired race," so much superior to themselves in intelligence and vigor, jmd hence were driven into the less habitable parts of the country. 86. All the early history of the Chinese is very obscure, but, about the twenty-fourth century u.c, the mist begins to rise, and we have a continuous History. history of dynasties and kings. In the tenth century, the formidable Tartars commenced their incursions, and down to modern times continued to haniss Tartars. the empire. In the sixth century (551 B.C.), the wise teacher The Chinese, 73 Confucius was born, who devoted his long life to the endeavor to instill into the minds of the people pure prin- ciples of virtue and religion. Not until after his Confucius. death, however, were his precepts respected ; they were then erected into a religious system known as Confucianism, 87. Lao-tse {low-tsd') was contemporary with Confucius, and he also founded a religious system, called Taouism, which still extensively prevails. A wise and Taouism. powerful monarch, called in the Chinese history ** the first universal emperor," in the third century B.C., gained several gi*eat victories over the Tartars, and to prevent their incursions in the future, planned the con- Great wall. struction of the *' Great Wall," but died before it was com- pleted (210 B.C.). Buddhism was introduced from India about 65 A.D., and now extensively prevails. Chinese Civilization. 88. The character, institutions, and customs of the Chinese have undergone but little change since the earliest times. They have ever been jealous of foreigners, fearful of innovations, and attached to their own Manners and customs. modes in everything. Their government is an -absolute monarchy; but the emperor is regarded as the father of his people, and as being specially the Government. son of Heaven, and the mediator between Heaven and all who belong to the Chinese nation. Prayers and sacrifices for the people are offered by him at stated times. The punishments inflicted upon criminals are severe and cruel. The patriarchal system prevails in social life, obedience to the head of the family being sternly enforced. Edu- Education. cation receives a great deal of attention, and is the passport to all offices, to which every one is eligible. 89. The Chinese language is one of a small class of Asiatic languages which are usually described as monosyllahic. It has no alphabet, the characters being chiefly symbols of the 74 Ancient History. objects which they are designed to denote. There are at least 30j000 characters iu the hinguage, represented to the ear by about 500 sylhibic sounds. The ancient literature embraces the works coini)iled by Confucius, live in number, among which is tbe Booh of History, which treats of a period extending from the Language and literature. twenty-fourth century to 721 B.C. These, witli four other works, constitute the famous classics, with which every edu- cated Chinaman must be familiar. The art of printing was known to the Chinese several centuriecJ before it was invented in Europe.* 90. The native religions of the Chinese are those founded by Confucius and Lao-tse. The former is rather of a moral and phirosophioal character ; the latter, of a spiritual nature. The educated, as a general Religion. thing, profess Confucianism; the middle and lower orders, Taouism or Buddhism. Great toleration in religion prevails. The saying is common: " Religions are many; reason is one; we are all brothers." Multitudes of superstitious beliefs and ceremonies have disfigured the ancient religions as now pro- fessed and practiced by the people. SECTION IX. The Persians, 91. The Persians were an Aryan race who migrated to the lofty plain of Iran from the region east of the Caspian Sea. Achaemenes (a-heni' c-nPz) seems to have been the founder of the monarchy about a cen- Origin. tury before the time of Cyrus. There were many tribes, of which the Parsar'ga-dae were the most prominent, forming a * The modern literature of China is very extensive. The roj-al library contains fit lWM?t 100,000 volumes, its catttlo^uerished in a simoom; and the march of his own army against Ethio- pia was arrested in the Nubian desert by drought and famine. 94. On his return to Egypt he found it in a state of revolt, to repress which he was guilty of the wildest atrocities, compelling the Egyptian king to take poison, killing the sacred animals, and otherwise offend- ing the religious prejudices of the people. In Revolt of Egypt. the mean time a revolution took place at the Persian capital. A Magian personated the murdered Smerdis, and seized the tlirone, being supported by the Smerdis. Magian order, the most powerful in Persia. Cambyses on his way homeward died, some say by suicide, others in consequence of a wound which he accidentally inflicted upon himself while mount- Death of Cambyses. ing his horse (522 B.C.).* 95. Smerdis, the impostor, on the discovery of the fraud, was quickly deposed by the Persian nobles, who elected Da- ri'us I., called Hys-tas'pes, king. He was the greatest of the ♦ ' • The Magian revolution was religious rather than political. The subject is stiU to some extent obsciire; but it seems certain that Matrianism and Zoroastrlanism W9i*e at tliis time two distinct and opposed .syKtenis. Tlie pretender was a Mag^s, bom in the eastern part of Persia; and the object of the revolution was to make Magianism the state religion. Its ill success re-established the pure reliarion of Zoroaster. ' ^—Ratolinaon. TTie Persians. 77 Persian monarchs, being both a conqueror and a statesman. He speedily put down the rebelUons which, on his accession, had broken out in all parts, and then perfected the organization of the empire, dividing it into twenty Darius I. provinces, over which he placed governors, or satraps^ as they were called by the Persians. He made Susa his capital in the spring, Ecbatana in summer, and Babylon in the winter. 96. Several great military expeditions were then under- taken. The first was against western India, near the head- waters of the Indus, where he made conquest of a rich gold tract that added greatly to the revenues of the empire. The next was against the barbarous Scythian nations dwelling on the vast plains lying north of the Euxine. With an im- mense army he crossed the Bos'po-rus by means of a bridge of boats, and advanced against these people, who fled at his approach. This expedition seems to have been undertaken more for the purpose of overawing the people than to make conquests, and after ravaging the country he returned to Per- sia, leaving a force to subdue Thrace. 97. The Greek colonics of Asia Minor, provoked by the tyranny of the Persians, planned a revolt, and expelled or put to death their governors. Sardis, the capital of the scdrapy, was taken and burned; but the rebellious states, after several battles, were com- Revolt of the Greek colonies. pelled to surrender, and were punished with great severity. Athens, having aided and abetted the insurrection, brought upon herself and all Greece tHe vengeance of the Persian despot, who sent two great expeditions to conquer the coun- try. These were unsuccessful. In the second of them, the Persian army, numbering more than 100,000 men, was de- feated by the Greeks on the plains of Marathon, not far from Athens. This was the first signal defeat which the Persians had ever encountered. While organizing a third expedition, on a still larger scale, Darius died (485 B.C.).* * " Darius probably died at Susa; but he was buried in the vicinity of Persepolia, 78 Andetvt History, 98. Xerxes I. {zerx*ez)y the son and successor of Darius., renewed the attempt to subdue the Grecian states, and for the purpose collected a vast army and fleet; but he met with a disastrous defeat both by land Xerxes I. After a reign of Artaxerxes I. Persian War-chariot. Darius ill. and sea. twenty years,* he trans- mitted the enterprise to his son, Ar-tax-erx'es I., who was at last compelled to make peace with the Greeks, after the war had continued about fifty years (449 B.C.). The subse- quent history of Persia is of little importance, except as it is connected with that of the Greeks. The last king was Darius III., called Cod-o-man'nus, who was subdued by Alexander the Great (329 B.C.). Persia then became a part of the Mace- donian Empire, having lasted a little over two centuries. Civilization of the Persians. 99. Until after the reign of Cyrus the Great, tliC Persians were a hardy race, of simple manners and great courage in war; but they soon became soft and effeminate, like the Medes, to whom they were related. They lost their bold hardihood, and sank into a corrupt where he had prepared himself an elaborate rock tomb, adorned with sculptures, and bearing a long inscription, all of which remain to the present day. The great palace of Persepolis was his conception, if not his work, as was the equally magnificent structure at Susa, which was the ordinary "oyal residence from his time. He likewise set up the great rock inscription at Bohlstun, the most remark- able of all the Persian monumental remains."— /i?au»itn80u'« Ancient History. ♦ Xerxes was a licentious and cruel monarch, and from him commenced the Jong course of folly, self-indulgence, and wickedness that disgrace the subsequent history of Persia. He was murdered by the captain of Ids guard and his chaml)er- lain. Xerxes is supposed to have been tlie Ahasuenis of Esther; as the latter name is the Semitic equivalent of the Ar^-an Khxhajfarnha, corrupted Into Xerxes. Manners. The Persians, 79 state, brought about by luxury and sensual indulgence. They made but little progress in the industrial arts, as they were enabled to obtain from Egypt, Arts. Assyria, Babylonia, Phoenicia, and India the rich products of those countries. 100. Architecture was, however, cultivated with success; and the ruins of their beautiful city, Per-sep'o-lis, still bear witness to the progress they had made in that i \ art. This city, called in ancient times '' The 1 Glory of the East," was adorned in every possible way by the great Achaemenian princes. The most prominent features of its edifices were lofty and spacious stone platforms, approached by magnificent flights of stairs, also elaborate and tasteful sculptures and bas-reliefs, and long rows of light and graceful columns. The interiors were ornamented with beautiful paintings. - The royal palace of Persepolis, afterward wantonly destroyed by Alexander the Great, was a miracle of magnifi- cence, as the ruins of the Great Hall of Xerxes, or Hall of a Hundred Columns, still dimly show. The Persians, unlike the Egyptians and Assyrians, delighted rather in splendid pal- aces and sumptuous tombs than in stately and magnificent temples. Ruins of palaces are also found at Pasargadae, which v7as the residence of Cyrus and Cambyses, as Persepolis was the capital of Darius and Xerxes. There are similar ruins of Susa and Ecbatana. 101. The ancient religion of the people of Iran was, at first, a kind of Brahmanism, like that of the Hindoos; but after the exodus of the Aryans, who migi-ated to India, a deadly feud arose between the two Religion. branches of that race, and the Persians adopted new beliefs and ceremonies. Their religion was, however, essentially the worship of one Supreme Being, symbolized by the sun and by fire; but, in course of time, it became corrupt, under the Magi, or fire-priests. Then Zo-ro-as'ter, Zoroaster. or more properly Za-ra-thus'tra (meaning chief or higli-priest), 80 Ancient History. arose, and taught a purer and simpler doctrine, the Avorsliip of the Infinite Spirit, under the name of Ahura Maz'da (Ormuzd).* This is the religion of the Parsees, and is con- tained in tlie sacred book of the Persians, called Zend-Avesta, f In later times, Zoroaster's teachings were perverted into the doctrine of Ormuzd, the principle of good, and Ahriman, that of evil. Light and fire, as emblems of the Divinity, are held sacred; and in the temples the fires are kept perpetually burning. Even the priests approach them with masked faces, lest their breath should defile them; and they touch them only with consecrated implements. 102. The chief remains of ancient Persian are the cunei- form inscriptions of the Achaemenian princes, discovered in the ruins of Persepolis, on the famous rock of Behistun, and at other places. A few proper Language. names, and terms for vessels and garments, have survived in the Bible, chiefly in Daniel. The alj^habet commonly used by the Persians was not cuneiform, but Semitic. The Zend, a rich language, agreeing with the Sanskrit of the Vedas, died out in the third century B.C. The Shah Nameh (Book of Kings), a poem, written by Firdusi {feer-doo'se) in the tenth century A.D., contains the history of Persia from the earliest times. Much of it is, however, fabulous. J * Ahu'ra is the good spirit, as Diva is the evil one. Ahura-Mazda is the Oood Spirit, the Creator. This word was corrupted into Omiuzd. Zoroaster's life is shrouded in daricness, very little being knoYi-n in regard to the period in which he lived, or the circumstances of his career as a religious reformer. He was bom, It is said, in Bactria; and the Persian traditions appear to indicate that he nuist have lived before the Assyrian conquest of Bactria, which took place about 1200 b.c. The Zend-Avesta represents him as a being of supernatural character, endowed with divine powers and intelligence, holding intercourse with the Deity, and receiving from him the moral and spiritual truths which he taught to mankind. t Zend means trannlation or commentary; avesta, or avastha, te,vt or scripture. The Zend language is closely related to the Sanskrit. t Firdusi was the greatest epic poet of the Persians. His Book of Kings abounds In beautiful poetry, but is a strange medley of truth and fiction. It was written to please the King rather than to state historical facts. Firdusi died 1020 a.d. Uevtew Outlhte. Contemporaneous Events. EGYPTIAN HISTORY. Babylon founded, 2200 B.C. Arabian dynasty of Chaldean kings. Conquest of Baby- lon by the Assy- rians, 1250 B.C. Ethiopia indepen- dent, 750 B.C. Sargon, king Assyria, 745 705 B.C Nineveh taken by the Medes, 625 B.C. War between the Medes and Lyd- ians, 610 B.C. Babylon taken by Cyrus, 538B.C. First dynasty of Egyptian kings (about 2700 B.C.). Memphis a large and flourishing city. Fourth dynasty — pyramid-builders — began about 2500 B.C. Shufu (Suphis or Cheops) built the Great Pyramid (about 2400 b.c). The Hyksos or Shepherd Kings (1900 to 1525 B.C.). The Israelites go down iuto Egypt, where they remained 215 years. The Exodus (1652 B.C.). The most splendid period of Egyptian history (1525 to 1200 B.C.); reigns of Thothmes III. and IV.; conquests of Seti (Sesostris) and Barneses II.. magnificent temples erected in Egypt and Nubia. Great Hall of Karnac built. Priestly dynasty of the Tanites (" High Priests of Amun") — period of Egyptian decline. Sheshonk (Shishak); partial revival of Egyptian glory ; invasion of Judah. Ethiopian (25th) dynasty; Sabaco (or So); conflict with Sargon (724 B.C.); Tirhakah, greatest of the Ethiopian kings; alliance with Hezekiah against Sennacherib. Conquest of Egypt by the Assy- rians; divided into subject states. Psammeticlms, founder of the 26th dynasty, en- couraged art and constructed great military works (reigned from 664 to 610 B.C.). Necho or Nekao, son of Psammetichus ; great maritime enterprises; circumnavigation of Africa. Defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (605 B.C.). Amasis, fifth king of the 26th dynasty; a wise and active monarch; a long and prosperous reign. Psammenitus. son of Amasis ; defeated by Cam- byses, the king of Persia, at Pelusium (525 b.c): end of the 30th dynasty of Manetho; Egypt under the rule of the Persians (31st dynasty). 82 Ancient History, PHCENICIANS. Early settlements and maritime en- terprises. Sidon and Tyre. Sidon subdued by the Philistines; Tyre predomi- nant (1050 B.C.). Carthage founded by the Tyrians, 878 B.C. Phoenicia under Assyrian rule, about 830 B.C. Phoenicia under Egyptian rule, 608 B.C. Conquered by Nebuchadnez- zar, and under Babylonian rule till subdued by Cyrus, 538 B.C. Tyre and Sidon taken by Alex- ander, 332 B.C. HEBREWS. Abraham's migration from Chaldea to Palestine (Canaan), about 2000 B.C.* Jacob and his sons go down into Egypt (about 1867 B.C.). Sojourn in Egypt 215 years. Exodus, 1652 B.C. ; beginning of the Jewish state. Period of the Judges— about five centuries, to Samuel, the last of the Judges. Saul, the first king, 1095 to 1055 B.C. David, 1055 to 1015 B.C. ; territories of the kingdom greatly enlarged. Splendid reign of Solomon, 1015 to 975 B.C.; great- est extent of the Jewish kingdom. Rchoboam's tyranny and insolence cause the dis- ruption of the kingdom into two: (1) Judah, that of Rehoboam, and (2) Israel, that of Jeroboam. Israel, having lasted 250 years, is destroyed by the Assyrians, 721 B.C. Hoshea, the last king. The captivity of the ten tribes. Judah lasted about 385 years. Prosperous reign of Jehoshaphat, 916 to 892 B.C. Invasion by Sennacherib and the destruction of his army, during the reign of Hezekiah, 726 to 697 b.c. Jerusalem taken and destroyed, in the reign of Zedekiah, the last king (586 b.c). The fifty years' captivity. Restoration of the Jews by edict of Cyrus, 536 b.c. Judea, the land of the Jews, under the rule of Persia till its conquest by Alexander the Great; after his death (324 b.c), a part of Ptolemy's kingdom; sub- sequently, a part of the dominions of Antiochus the Great. Successful revolt of the Jews under Maccabeus. 165 B.C.: Judea, an Independent king- dom till its conquest by Pompey the Great (63 B.C.). ♦ It Is Impossible to fix with any degree of accuracy the dates of these early events. The Biblical chronoloify, by Usher, puts the call of Abraham at 1821 B.C.; according to Lepsius, he entered Palestine about 1700 b.o. ; but according to Bunsen, 2886 B.C. In Beer's JAfe of Abraham, his birth is placed In 2(M0 b.c. See Kncyclo- jHBdia Britannica^ Art. Abhah.vm. Review Outline. 83 KINGS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH. Kings of Israkt.. ! Length ! of reign, in years. Reign commenced B.C. Kings op Judah. Length of reign, in years. .TftrotMiarn 22 2 24 2 12 22 1 IS 28 17 16 41 11 10 2 20 9 9 975 958 956 954 953 930 929 929 918 916 897 896 892 885 884 878 856 839 838 833 809 772 772 771 762 760 757 741 780 726 721 697 642 640 609 609 605 597 586 Ri^hnhnam , , , 17 Abijah 3 Asa 41 Nadab Baasha Elah Zimri Omri K\\s\^\ 25 Ahasdah Jehoram Ahaziah Jehoram 8 1 Jehu Athaliah g Jehoash 40 Jehoahaz Amaziah, Jehohash 29 Jeroboam 11 Uzziah, or Azariah... . Jotham InterregnxL-m Zachariah 52 Shallum Menahem Pekahiah Peka 16 Interregnum, Ahaz Hezekiah 16 Hoshea 29 Samaria taken . . . Manasseh 55 2 Josiah Jehoahaz Jehoiakira Jehoiachin, or Coniah.. Zedekiah 31 11 11 Jerusalem taken THE PERSIANS. The Persian monarchy was founded by Achaemenes, about 650 B.C. The Pasargadae were the most prominent of the tribes. The Persians were at first subject to the Median monarchy. Cyrus having been kept as a hostage, and educated by his grand- father, Astyages, at Ecbatana, determines to throw off the Persian yoke. He defeats Astyages and makes him a prisoner, 558 B.C. He rapidlj subdues the whole of western Asia; is killed in 529 B.C. Cambyses, son of Cyrus, conquers Egypt, and invades Ethiopia and Libya; is killed, 522 b.c. 84 Ancient History. Dahius I., llystaspes, deposes the Maglan impostor, Smerdis, and asceuds the Persian tlirone, 523 b.c. He organizes the empire ; uuder- talies expeditious to India and against the IScythians; suppresses the revolt of the Greek colonies, and determines to conquer Greece. Unfortunate expeditions of Mardonius, aud of Datis and Artapher- nes; the latter defeated by the Greeks at Marathon, 490 B.C. Xerxes organizes a vast expedition against Greece, in 480 b.c. ; is totally defeated. Abtaxerxes 1. is compelled to make peace with the Greeks, 449 B.C. Darius III. (Codomanus), the last king oi ancient Persia, is subju- gated by Alexander the Great (329 B.C.). End of the Persian Empire. THE PERSIAN MONAECHS. Name. Date of Reign. Cyrus the Great 559-529 b.c. Cambyses 539-523 " Smerdis, a usurper 623 " Darius I., Hystaspea 523-485 " Xerxes 1 48&^65 " Artaxkrxes I.,Zx>ngrtmanMs.465-425 " Xerxes IL (reigned 45 days) 435 " Name. Date of Reign SoGDiANus, a usurper 425 aa Darius U., iVoWms 424^05 " Artaxerxes II. , Mnemon . . . 405-359 " Artaxerxks UL, Ochua 359-338 " Arses .....838^336 " Darius UL, Codvmaumis . . .836-329 *• LEADING DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. B.O. / 1652. Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. 1095. Saul, the first king of Israel. 1065. David begins to reign over Israel. 1015, Accession of Solomon. 976. Secession of the Ten Tribes. 878. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 747. Era of Nahonassar. 721. Samaria taken ; end of kingdom of Israel. 625. Taking of Nineveh by the Medes. y 686. Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar 658. Conquest of the Medes by Cyrus. 688. Taking of Babylon by Cyrus. 686. Restoration of the Jews. 625. Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. 622. Accession of Darius Hystaspes. 501. Ionian revolt in Asia Minor. 490. Defeat of the Persians at Marathon. 480. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. m 888. Persia conquered by Alexander the Qredt. No. 3, CHAPTER II. GrEEECE AND MACEDONIA. SECTION I. Geogkaphical Sketch. 1. The country known in history as Greece anciently con- sisted of three quite distinct parts: the first, in the north, was composed of Thes'sa-ly and E-pi'rus; the second, in the middle, which was the most impor- Di'visions. tant, was called Hel'las; and the third consisted of the peninsula which forms the southern portion of the country, called anciently Pel-o-pon-ne'sus, in modern times Mo-re'a. To these was afterward added Macedonia, which was situated to the north of Thessaly and Epirus. 2. Central Greece and Peloponnesus were divided into several small states, of which the most important were the following: Hellas. — At'tica, Boe-o'tia, Pho'cis, East and West Lo'- cris, Do'ris, ^E-to'lia, Acarna'nia, and Meg'aris. Pelopoknesus. — Corin'thia, Sicyonia {sishe- Grec'an states, onHa), Ar'go-lis, Achaia (a-ha'yah), Arca'dia, E'lis, Laconia, and Messe'nia. Besides these, the land of the Hel-le'nes included the Islands and the Colonies, Of the islands, the largest was Euboea [u-le'ah), near the eastern coast of Hellas; i and near the western coast was the important I '^ island Cor-cy'ra. Numerous islands were scattered over the iEgaean {e-je'an) Sea, among which the principal groups were the Cyc'la-des and Spo'ra-des. The term Hellas was 86 Ancylent History, sometimes used to denote the whole of Greece and her colonies.* 3. The Grecian colonies were very numerous and wide- spread. Those in and near Asia Minor were planted at a very early period by three different races, the ^olians, Dorians, and lonians. The -^olians made settlements on the coast of Mysia and in the island of Lesbos, form- ing a confederacy of twelve cities (^olis). The lonians col- Colonies. onized the coast of Lydia and the islands of Chios (Jce'os) and Samos (Ionia); and the Dorian colonies were in the south- western part of Asia Minor (Doris). Of these the lonians grew into the greatest importance. Their cities were espe- cially noted for their enterprise, and during the eighth and seventh centuries B. c. Miletus was the first commercial city of the Hellenic race; but Eph'e-sus afterward rivjiled it in size and importance. [See map.] ♦ " The limits of Greece proper seem not to have been very precisely defined even among the Greeks themselves; and so large a proi)ortion of the Hellens were distributed among islands and colonies, and so much of tlieir influence upon the world was produced through their colonies, as to render the extent of their original domicile a matter of comparatively little moment to verify Hellas proper (or continuous Ilellas) was undei-stood to begin with the town and gulf of Ambracia. "—Orote. Greece and Macedonia. 87 4. The southern part of Italy was called Magna Graecia, from the large number of Greek cities which it contained. One of the earliest was Ou'mse, an Magna Graecia. ^olic colony, on the bay of Naples; but the most prominent were Syb'aris, noted for its effeminacy and loose morals, and Oro'ton, distinguished for its athletes and physicians. After the destruction of Sybaris by its rival Cro- ton, Taren'tum took the load among the cities of Magna Graecia. Sicily also contained a large number of Greek cities, of which the most noted were Messa'na, Syr'a-cuse, and Agrigen'tum. Syracuse was a Corinthian colony, founded 734 B.C. [See Map.] 6. There was also a cluster of colonies at the western part of the Mediterranean Sea, of which Mas-sil'ia (now Mar- seilles), founded 600 B.C., was the chief. On the African coast, Cy-re'ne was established by the Spartans (630 B.C.). This city became the capital of Cyre- naica {si-re-na'e-hah). On the Propontis and the Euxine there were also numerous colonies, of which Cyz'i-cus and Si-no'pe were the most celebrated. 6. The physical features of the m.ainland, particularly of Hellas proper, are (1) the deep inlets with which its Other colonies. Physical features. coasts are indented, thus favoring maritime enter- prises and associations, and bringing the people into connection with the ancient commercial nations; and (2) the numerous mountain ridges by which its surface was divided into distinct portions, thus favoring the formation of independent states. It is the existence of 8S Ancient History, these free states that renders the history of the Greeks so interesting and instructive, and makes the contrast so striking between it and the history of the ancient Asiatic and African monarchies. When we come to the period of Greek nation- ality, we cease to contemplate merely a record of the splendid deeds of emperors and kings; we look on the progress and exploits of a free people. Qeoorafhioal Study. [Cee Map No. III., and maps, pages 86,87.] What was the situation of: Attica ? Bceotu. ? Phocis ? East Locris ? West LocRis ? Doris ? .^tolia ? Acarnania ? Megaris ? Corinthia ? Laconia ? Argolis ? AcHAiA ? Arcadia ? Eus ? Messenia ? Sicyonia ? Epirus ? Thes- SALY ? Macedonia ? Magna Grecia ? Sicily ? Euboea I.? Salamis I. ? Cyclades Is.? Lesbos I.? Sa&osL? Rhodes!.? Pindus range? CEtaMts. ? Mt. Olympus? Mt. Parnassus ? Athens? Thebes ? Delphi ? Corinth ? Sparta ? Platsea ? Mar. athon ? Chalcis ? Argos ? Olympia ? Sicyon ? The Dorian Colonies ? Ionian Colonies ? ^oUan Colonies ? Croton ? Sybaris ? Tarentum ? Cumae ? Paestum f Syracuse ? Messana '; Agrigentum ? SECTION II. FiBST Period. LEGENDARY OR TRADITIONAL HISTORY. From tlie Earliest Times to 776 B.C. 7. The great Aryan wave of migration which, passing westward from Asia, swept over Europe, appears to have reached Greece in very early times. To this race the people called the Pelasgi belonged, relics of PelMgi. whose civilization still exist in the remains of a peculiar archi- tecture called Cyclope'an, from the liuge masses of stone of which the walls were built. But the Pelasgi formed only an important tribe among very many that tlien existed in the Greek peninsula, under diiTci-ent names, as Lcl'e-ges, Ou-re'tes, Dol'o-pes, etc. This was the " golden age" of the Greece and Macedonia. 89 poets, for these tribes were a peaceful, agricultural or pastoral people, with simple manners and religion, probably knowing nothing of the numerous gods of the later Greeks. 8. The Hel-le'nes, a kindred but more vigorous race, at an early period poured into the peninsula from the north, and gradually gained a dominant influence over the TDeople with whom they intermingled. Of these Hellenes. there were originally two tribes, the Achae'ans and the Do'- rians, under the former of whom the three ancient kingdoms, Ar'gos, My-ce'nae, and Sparta, in the Peloponnesus, attained a considerable degree of civilization and prosperity. The Dorians, in the course of time, became an exceedingly bold and warlike tribe. Afterward two other tribes grew into importance, the lonians and ^olians; and these four tribes gradually assimilated, constituting the four divisions of the Hellenic people; but among these the lonians and Dorians became the leading races. 9. The most ancient traditions represent the country as divided into a large number of small states, each under its own chief, or petty king, and engaged in war or piracy. This period is usually called the Heroic Heroic age. Age, because it abounds in fabulous stories of men of super- human strength and valor, such as Hercules, Theseus (the*- suse), Achilles {a-kiVUz), etc. The most interesting events referred to in this period were the Argonautic expedition and the Tro'jan war. The first, supposed to have occurred about 1225 B.C., was an enterprise the object of which, according to the tradition, was to bring from Colchis {hol'kis) the "golden fleece." * The heroes who engaged in it were called * Athamas, king of Boeotia, married Neph'e-le, a cloud-nymph, but wearying of her, divorced her, and married Ino, who sought to put the two children of Nephele, Phrj'xus and Hel'le, to death. To rescue them, Nephele placed them on the back of a winged ram having a fleece of pure gold, the gift of Hermes, and they were carried away ; but in crossing the strait between Europe and Asia, Helle fell into the sea, which was thenceforth called, after her, the Hellespont. Phryxus reached Colchis, and in gratitude for his preservation sacrificed the ram to Zeus, The 90 Anclejit History, vessel called Argo. the Argonauts, because they sailed in a It appears to have been either a commercial voyage or a piratical expedition, its real object being disguised by the fable of the *' golden fleece." 10. The Trojan war is related by Homer in his famous poem called the Iliad (from Ilium, the ancient name of Troy). It was undertaken to avenge the crime committed by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, Trojan war. who had abused the hospitality of Menela'us, king of Sparta, by carrying off his wife Helen, said to be the most beautiful woman of those times. The states of Greece joined in the war, and elected Agamem'non, brother of the Spartan king, their common general. Nearly the whole of Asia Minor leagued with Troy, whose chief leader was Hector, son of Priam. Troy was besieged ten years, and was finally taken by stratagem and burned (1184 B.C. ). Homer's gi'eat poem the Od'ys-sey relates the wanderings of U-lys'ses, king of Ithaca, on his return home from the war. 11. The traditions seem to indicate that important foreign elements were introduced into the Hellenic nation during this early period. Egyptians settled in Attica and Argolis; Phoenicians, in Boeotia; and Mysians, or Phrygians, at Argos. Hence was derived the Menelu^u^. Foreign settlements. use of letters from the Phoenicians (probably before 1100 B.C.). But these foreigners were few in number, and left only a faint trace upon the language or customs of the people. These rteece was carefully preserved, and Ai^tes, kiiiR of Colchis, heln^ told that hisli/e depended upon Its safety, Imd it guarded by an hnniense dragon ihut ntwer slepv Colchii. was situated to the east of the Euxlne, or Black Sea. Greece and Macedonia, 91 traditions give the names of Cecrops, the founder of Athens (about 1550 B.C. — period of the Shepherd Kings in Egypt); Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, in Boeotia (about 1492 B.C. — during the Arabian Monarchy); and Pelops, who came to the Peloponnesus from Phrygia (about 1300 B.C. — during the time of the Judges, in Israel). 12. The general state of society in the period referred to in Homer's poems presents several marked features: 1. The tribe was superior to the city; while, in later times, the city became the mistress of the nation. 2. The kingly rule everywhere prevailed, and the State of society. office was hereditary. 3. There was also a powerful body of hereditary nobles, from whom the council of the king was selected, and an assembly to assist in administering the govern- ment, but with no control over it. 4. Slavery was a prevail- ing institution; females were held in respect, and polygamy disapproved; warlike virtue and physical courage were the greatest virtues, and consequently war was incessant; nauti- cal habits were quite general, and piracy was a common prac- tice. 5. There was a strong religious feeling, a respect for the priesthood, and a reverence for the temples, sacred places, and festivals. Hospitality was a national virtue, and heralds and suppliants were protected. Polytheism, or the worship of many gods, was the prevailing religious prac- tice. 13. This is also the period of those early leagues among the states called Ampliictyonies. These were formed origi- nally for religious purposes — to protect sacred buildings, lands, persons, and rites, and not for Early leagues. political objects. The oracle, or shrine of Delphi, was the center of the most noted of these. It was formed by twelve states or tribes; and meetings were held twice a year, in the spring at Delphi and in the autumn at Thermopylae. This league, called the Arnpliic- tyonic Council, played quite a prominent part in the subse- Amphictyonic council. 92 Ancient History, quent history of Greece.* As there was no general political union, the Hellenic states were constantly embroiled during most of their history in mutual dissensions and destructive wars. This was partly due to the traditional animosities and jealousies of the different tribes, and partly to the geographi- cal character of the country in which they dwelt; for being crossed in every direction by mountain chains, or divided by deep gulfs, it i)rovided those natural barriers which encour- age local pride and engender hostility. The later history of this remarkable people abounds in illustrations of this prin- ciple. 14. A great migratory movement commenced in Epirus about 1200 B.C. The Thessalians crossed the Pindus range and invaded the fertile country of the Boeotians, who passing southward entered the plain of the Migrations. Ce-phi'sUvS, and drove out the Cadmeians, who were scattered in various parts. The Dorians also took part in this movement, and for a time settled in the country, which tlien received the name of Do'ris. The most important Dorian migi-ation, how- ever, took place later. Crossing the Corinthian Gulf, they entered the Peloponnesus with their allies, the ^tolians, and made a conquest of the country (1124 B.C.). This movement, being conducted by the descendants of Her'cu-les, is called in history the Return of the Heracleidw {her-a-cli'de), the Greek name of Hercules being Hcr'a-cleS. 16. The former inhabitants, the Achaeans, proceeding northward, attacked the lonians, whom they drove eastward to Attica. A part of these passed through the Cyclades across the ^Egaean, and established the Colonies. colony of Ionia, in Asia Minor; as the iEolian colony bad ♦ "The tendency to reHRlous fraternity took a form called an Amphictyony, different from tlie common festival. A certain number of towns entered mto an exclusive religious partnersiiip, for the celebration of sacriflces periodically to the god of a particular temi)le, which was supi>o.sed to be the common proiH»rty, and under the common protection of all There were many religio'os 'xart- nerships of this aort."— Gro/e. Greece and Macedonia. 93 been previously caused by the Boeotian conquest. The Dorian invasion caused a part of the Acha^ans to emigrate to Asia under Doric leaders, while another part settled in Italy, SECTION III. Second Period. DAWN OF AUTHENTIC HISTORY. From 776 b.c. to 500 b.c. 16. The authentic history of Greece may be properly conx sidered to commence 776 B.C.; that is, at the first recorded Olympiad, a period of four years, which elapsed between two successive celebrations of the Olympic Olympiads. games. These games were celebrated in honor of Jupiter, at Olympia, in Elis, and constituted the most splendid national festival of the Greeks. Their origin is lost in the darkness of antiquity. It was, as is supposed, about this time (776 B.C.) that Lycur'gus reformed the government and laws of Sparta, and gave to it the constitu- Sparta. tion by means of which it afterward acquired the supremacy in Grecian affairs. This city, the capital of Laconia, some- times called Lacedaemon {las-e-de'mon), was conquered by the Dorians, when they invaded the Peloponnesus, and soon became the head of the Dorian states. 17. The system of Lycurgus was designed to perpetuate the primitive simplicity and hardihood of the people, by pre- venting the spread of luxury, and by educating the youth so as to make them brave and patriotic soldiers. To this end everything was sacrificed. Laws of Lycurgus. Most of the usages of society commonly considered refined were repressed; even the natural affections were extinguished. From the seventh year the children were taken from their 94 Ancient History, parents to be educated by the state, unless they were weakly, when they were exposed to perish. They were trained to endure hunger and thirst and the extremes of heat and cold, and to suffer without murmur the severest bodily pain. Gymnastic exercises and military drill were incessant; in short, the great object was to make them good soldiers. They took their meals in public, and were allowed only the plainest fare. Besides this athletic training, letters and music were taught. Girls were educated with no less care than boys, and were subjected to similar athletic training. 18. The men were allowed but little more freedom than the boys. They took their meals at the public tables, and slept in the public barracks, but were allowed to visit their homes ftt certain intervals. Their public duties occupied nearly all their time, so that they could not engage in private enter- prises of commerce or agriculture, or any occupation of profit The use of gold and silver was strictly forbidden, and the money was coined out of iron.* Marriage was regulated by the state, and at a certain age all were obliged to marry. 19. The government was administered by two chief magis- trates called kings, who were hereditary, but whose power was very limited; a senate, elected by a general assembly of the older citizens; and five magis- Govemment. trates, called eph^ors {eph'o-ri). The kings presided in the senate, and led the armies. The special business of tlie ephors was to watch over the constitution, as established by Lycurgus, and bring to swift punishment all who violated it in the least. They had great power: they could restrain the * "The first gold and silver coins were brougiit from Asia to Hellas as an article of commerce. Gradually they came into use as money. After the state had com- menced to coin its own money, for a long time there existed only a small amount of coined money in the land, and this was chiefly in the hands of the men of business and merchants. As soon as money ceased to be an article of trade like other articles coming on the market, when even the poorer classes cotild not exist without it— the laws of debt prevailing in the Interest of the proprietors,— money, like a poisonous plant, absorbed and consumed the strength of the land,"— Oiti/i't- beJrg forbidden by the laws of Sparta to flee from the enemy, Leonicias dismissed the forces pf the allies to avoid useless bloodshed, and then formed the ranks of his little band of three hundred for a final stand against the enemy. He then led them into the midst Thermopyla Thriasian Tlain JSleus: of the Persians, whence, after making great slaughter, they retired to a small eminence, and there fell, one by one, under the arrows of the Medes (480 B.C.). The heroism of Leonidas and his band has ever been a subject of praise and admiration. Probably, no event in the history of the Spartans has shed MLHymettus so much glory upon their character as the sublime self-devotion of the three hundred; yet it was a useless sacrifice of the lives of these brave men, who might have served their country far better by preserving their courage and strength for the con- flicts that were to come. 32. The great Persian fleet came to action with the much smaller one of the Greeks in the narrow strait of Sal'a-mis, and was defeated with immense loss; Salamis. so that Xerxes, who had witnessed the fight, fled in dismay to Persia, leaving the conquest of Greece to his general, Mardonius.* The chief command of the fleet had been ♦ The Persian monarch, confident of victory, seated himself upon a throne placed on a lofty proraontr)ry, so as to overlook the scene of the naval battle, li was of this event that Byron wrote the following lines: " A kinp sat on the rocky brow Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; And ships by thousands lay below, And men in nations,— all were his. He counted them at break of day, And when the sun set, where were they?" Greece and Macedonia, 103 given to the Spartan Eu-ry-bi'a-des; but the credit of this great victory was due to the Athenian The-mis'to-cles, who, when the Greeks, in alarm, were about to disperse their fleet, sent word to the Persians that unless they made an immedi- ate attack the Grecian fleet would escape them. By this stratagem he succeeded in keeping the allies together and brought on the action. 33. In the mean time, the land forces of the Persians had invaded Attica and taken and destroyed Athens, the inhabi- tants of which had fled to the neighboring islands for protection. Thus was the burning of Sardis avenged. Still, the army of Mardonius, 300,000 Burning of Athens. strong, and assisted by Grecian auxiliaries (for a few of the Greek states had gone over to the Persians), did not come to any decisive engagement till the next year (479 B.C.), when it was defeated and almost utterly destroyed at Platae'a by the allied army of the Battle of Plataea. Greeks, consisting of 110,000 men, under Pau-sa'ni-as, Spartan general, assisted by the Athenian A-ris- ti'des. On the same day the Athenians gained Mycale. a great victory over the combmed land and naval forces of the Persians at Myc'a-le, in Asia Minor. 34. Having driven the Persians out of their country, the Greeks sent a fleet under Pausanias to invade the Persian dominions. This expedition was entirely suc- cessful ; the Greek cities were set free, and Byzantium {be-zan^slie-um), after a long siege, Byzantium taken. surrendered. At this point the Spartans, who had been the leaders in the war, lost their ascendency through the trea- son of Pausanias. Intoxicated by the fame and wealth which he had acquired at Plataea, and by his subsequent success, and ambitious of more Treason of Pausanias. splendor and influence than the little state of Sparta could confer upon him, he sent a letter to Xerxes, offering to deliver Greece into his power, if he would give him his 104 Ancient History. daughter in marriage. The plot was, however, discovered before it was carried into effect, and Pausanias was recalled, and, by order of the Ephori, put to death (471 B.C.).* 35. The allies then transferred the chief command to Aristides, who had at this time a great reputation for in- tegrity and prudence. A league was also formed among the lonians and some of the Greek islands, under the leadership of Athens, which was called Confederacy of Delos. the " Confederacy of De'los," since the deputies met at that island. This great maritime alliance contributed very much to the subsequent influence of Athens. It lasted about seventy years. 36. The glory which Themistocles had gained at Salamis, together with his great ability and prudence, gave him un- limited influence at Athens. After the retreat of the Themistocles. AUISTIDES. Persians, he caused the city to be re- built and strongly fortified, notwith- standing the opposition prompted by the mean jealousy of the Spartans. Biic he was banished by the Ostracism; and after the fall of Pausanias was ac- cused of participating in his treason (471 B.C.). He then took refuge in the dominions of Ai-taxerxes, the Per- sian monarch, where he lived in great splendor and dignity till his death (449 B.C.). 37. In the early period of the Persian war, Themistocles and Aristides were the most distinguished men at Athens. They were rivals for popular favor, particularly during the ten years preceding the invasion of Xerxes. The former was * Pausanias was a man of great ability, but hi.i ambition, pride, and desire of display destroyed him. On his return to Sparta he took refuge in the tt^mple of Minerva, from which he could not lawfully be taken by violence. Accordingly, the entrance was fastened and the building unreople. It is said h« threw his gardens open to the public, and kept a table consUintly laid for any on© who chose to dine at it. lie has been styled "the hwt of the Greeks whose spirit and boldness defeated the annies of the barbarians." In 400 B.C., he gained three yictories over the Persians In a single day. Greece and Macedonia, 107 SECTION V. Fourth Period. From the Close of the Persian War to the Rise of Macedon, 449-358 B.C. 40. After the repulse of the Persians, there had been dis- cord and. war among the Grecian states. The disgrace of Pau- sanias, followed by the Confederacy of Delos, impaired the influence of Sparta and strengthened that of Athens; and that state took the lead during Inter-state wars. the remainder of the Persian war. Sparta was also disabled by the revolt of the Helots (464 B.C.), which occupied her atten- tion for nearly ten years. [ See page 95. ] Argos, taking advan- tage of this, claimed the leadership of Greece, and Athens made an alliance with that state against Sparta. Several of the states, jealous of the Athenian power, formed a league against it; but Athens gained a great victory over the allied fleet. 41. The administrations of Cimon and Pericles mark especially the period of the greatest glory of Athens. This was, in part, the fruit of the ability of Themis- tocles and the wisdom and integrity of Aristides; but it needed the genius of Pericles to give a Height of Athenian glory. finishing stroke to the work. Among his great works was the completion of the 'Hong walls," which connected Athens with her port, Piraeus. He was distinguished not only for eloquence and literary taste, but for the highest artistic cul- ture. On his death-bed he remarked to nis friends that his greatest consolation was, that none of his fellow-citizens had been compelled, through any act of his, to put on a mourn- ing-robe. * * To every student of Grecian history, Pericles must ever appear as its central figure. His foim and manner and outward appearance are all well known. His aspect was stem, almost forbidding, repelling rather than inviting intimacy; and this, with his majestic stature and massive head, silvered over with the marks of 108 Ancient History, 42. Sparta made an effort to check the growing power of Athens; but Athenian arms were triumphant, and Pericles concluded a peace with Sparta for five years (451 B.C.). Only four years later, Athens received a severe blow, in the rebellion of Boeotia, followed by Strife between Athens and Sparta. a serious defeat at Cor-o-ne'a (447 B.C.). At the close of the five years' peace, Sparta renewed her efforts to destroy her rival, and Athens was compelled to make concessions, which led to a thirty years' peace (445 B.C.). But this treaty, as we shall see, was not fully observed, owing to the rivalship and deadly animosity of Athens and Sparta. The Peloponnesian War. 43. The struggle that now commenced, known as the Peloponnesian War, extended over the greater part of the Grecian world, and lasted twenty-seven years (431-404 B.C.). It was not only a war between rival states, but a " war of races;" for, on one side, the Ionian Greeks made common cause with Athens, as the Dorians took tlie side of Sparta. It was, moreover, a war of principles, since Athens was the representative of democracy. Athens and Sparta. and Sparta of oligarchy. Athens was chiefly a maritime power; Sparta's strength lay in her disciplined armies. The former's influence chiefly prevailed on the eastern side of Greece and in Asia; Sparta's, on the western side and in Italy and Sicily. Athens assumed the position of mistress of an empire she had for fifty years been building up; Sparta age even from his fiftieth year, excited sometlilng: like awe in the beholder. The most stately reserve reigned through his whole life. Never were his features seen to relax into laughter, and only twice in his long career did they melt into tears. During that long period he never accepted but once an invitation to dinner. He was in the liabit of writing out carcfjilly all liis speeches, but the effect of his delivery seem.s to have been overwhelming. It was sometimes com- pared to the thunder and lightning of the Olympian Jove, whom in majesty and dignity he himself resembled. Such Is the picture we have of tliis most remark- able man. Greece and Macedonia, - 109 professed to be only the leader of a confederacy formed to liberate Greece from the oppressive yoke of the Athenians. 44. The immediate cause of the war was a difficulty between Corinth and Cor-cy'ra, one of her colonies; for, because Athens took sides with the latter, the Dorian Confederacy accused her of violating the terms of the thirty years' peace, and a Spartan Cause of the war. army was sent to invade Attica (431 B.C.). Unable, with his few allies, to contend against the superior military power of the Spartans, Pericles pursued the policy of keep- ing within the city, and sent his numerous fleet First steps. to ravage the enemies' coasts. A dreadful plague at this time broke out in Athens, causing the death of thousands. Pericles himself fell a victim to it (429 B.C.).* 45. The most noted events in the early part of the war were the revolt of Lesbos from Athens, and the brave defense of Plataea against the Spartans. The flower of the Spartan army having been blockaded by the Early events. Athenian fleet at Sphac-te'ri-a, the Spartans applied to the Athenians for peace, which, through the influence of Cle'on, a low and noisy demagogue who had succeeded Pericles in the leadership of the popular assem- Cleon. blies, was refused. Sphacteria was afterward attacked, and the Spartans compelled to surrender. The Athenians were severely defeated by the Boeotians at De'li-um, and a short time afterward lost their empire in Delium. Thrace by the battle of Am-phip'o-lis, in which Bras'i-das, a distinguished Spartan leader, defeated Cleon, the Athenian, * This dreadful pestilence commenced in Ethiopia, passed through Libya, and crossed the Mediten-anean Sea to Greece. The sufferers were aflSicted with an Intolerable thirst, and many dragged themselves to the fountains and then fell dead, with none to bury them. It was midsummer, and not only was every house occupied, but many families were crowded together in stifling huts, where they died in heaps. The very temples were filled with the dead. The Peloponnesian army, after laying waste the vale of Attica for forty days, becoming panic-stricken at the pestilence, hastened home ward 110 Ancient History. both generals being slain. This terminated the first period of the war; for, through the influence of Nicias {nish'e-as), the successor of Cleon, peace was Amphipolis. made with Sparta. 46. There was, however, only a brief cessation of hostili- ties. Al-ci-bi'a-des, a handsome and talented but dissolute pupil of the great philosopher Soc'ra-tes, per- suaded Argos to renew the war. He then in- Alcibiades. duced the Athenians to send an expedition against Syracuse, to the command of which himself and Nicias were assigned. But Alcibiades, being accused of committing an act of great outrage and impiety, was recalled, and was condemned to death. He, however, escaped, and went over to Sparta. Nicias suffered a most disastrous defeat, losing one of the finest armaments that Athens had ever Nicias. equipped (413 B.C.). This terminated what is regarded as the second period of the war, during which there was a nominal observance of the peace, each rival refraining from direct at- tacks on the other's territories. 47. Alcibiades, acting in the interest of Sparta, went to Ionia, and raised a revolt against Athens; but finding the Spartan generals hostile to him, he took refuge with the Persian Satrap, Tis-sa-])hcr'ncs. His old feeling of patriotism returning, he made victories of Alcibiades. overtures to the Athenian army at Samos, and was made their general. He soon gained some brilliant naval victories over the Spartans, and was recalled to Athene with great enthusiasm and joy; but, after an Defeat. unfortunate defeat, he was again driven into exile (407 B.C.).* * He retired to Asia, where, through the Influence of T.ysander, he was nat«d by the Persians, in 404 B.r. With such resplendent and versatile talents, Alcibiades might have shed glory upon himself and his oountry; but he was "a slave to every passion." an.i plunged into every excess, lie was distinguished as an orator, a statesman. anhes. S<«'rfttes greaUy loved him, and at one time saved his life by carrying him off the battle field. This favor Alci>)iade8 is said to have reciprocate little regarded, and saw something so great in that carelessness, that, wiiile his courtiers were ridiculing the philosopher as a monster, hu said, 'If I were not Alexander, 'should wish to be Diogenes,' ''—Plutarch. 122 Ancient History. except Tyre, the siege of which delayed him seven months. He built a pier across the strait, half a mile wide, which separated the city from the mainland, and thus haying gained access to the walls, he battered them to pieces and took the city by storm (332 B.c). No Taking of Tyre. mercy was shown to the wretched inhabitants, eight thousand of whom are said to have been massacred; and the remainder, numbering at least 30,000, were sold into slavery. 67. In the mean time, Darius solicited peace, offering to cede to Alexander the to give him his daughter in marriage. This, how- ever, Alexander promptly refused, and continued his march toward western half of the empire, and Egyptian expedition. Battering Ram. Egypt, capturing Ga'za on the way. Passing through Egypt, he penetrated the Lib'yan desert, and paid a visit to the temple of Jupiter Am'mon. He also founded in Egypt the city of Alexandria, which for many centuries afterward was the first commercial city in the world, being the gi'and emporium of Europe, Africa, and India. This was the first city founded by Alexander and named after him. He subsequently founded no less than seventeen cities in different parts of Asia to each of which he gave the name of Alexandria. 68. Turning again to the east, he crossed the Euphrates, and prepared for the battle which was to decide the fate of 1 Persia. On the plain of Gau-ga-me'la, a few ' ^'' I miles from Ar-be'la, Darius drew up his immense army, consisting of over a million Persians, which, with Alexandria founded. Macedonian Supremacy. 123 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse, Alexander, after a brief engage- ment, entirel}' defeated and put to flight (331 B.C.). Pro- ceeding to Babylon, he entered the city in triumph, having made himself, at the age of twenty-five, master of the whole of Western Asia, together with Egypt. 69. He next advanced to Su'sa, a treasure-city of the Persians, which surrendered without resistance. Here were obtained gold and silver amounting to fifty mil- lion dollars, and, what was still more in- Taking of Susa and Persepolis. Death of Darius. teresting to the Greeks, the spoils which Xerxes had carried off from Greece. Per-sep'o-lis,the real capital of the Per- sian kings, was the next city occu])ied by the inva- der; and liere, it is said, the treasure captured amounted to 120 million dollars. Darius, in the mean while, had fled to Ecbatana, and thither Alexander went in pursuit, which he continued with great rapid- ity, until he reached Bactria, where he found that the Persian monarch had been seized and put to death by the satrap of that province. Alexander, still pursuing his career of con- quest, defeated the Scythians on the banks of the I-ax'ar-tes, and took possession of Mar-a-can'da (now Samar- cand), the capital of Sog-di-a'na, where he mar- ried a Bactrian princess, named Rox-a'na (328 B.C.). Here too it was that, at a banquet, in a fit of anger, he murdered his friend Cli'tus, who had saved his life at the battle of the Granicus. He next invaded India, defeated Po'rus, the king of that country, on the banks of the Hy-das'pes, and Further conquests. 124 Ancient History. after a brief rest, pushed on to the Hyph'a-sis (the modern Sut'lej), when the soldiers, worn out with their toils, posi- tively refused to proceed any farther. He then gave orders to return. [See map, page 121.] 70. Having built a fleet, he sailed down the Indus to its mouth; and then, leaving Ne-ar'chus to pursue the voyage of exploration, he marched through the burning desert of Ge-dro'sia to Persepolis, and thence by Return. way of Susa and Ecbatana to Babylon, where he indulged in various schemes of further conquest. But, as he was about to set otit on a campaign in Arabia, he was seized with a fever, said to have been occasioned by intemperance; and after eleven days' illness, he expired (323 B.C.). On his death-bed, being asked by one of Death of Alexander. his generals to whom he desired to leave his throne, he answered: '^To the worthiest among you; but I am afraid my obsequies will be celebrated with bloody hands." He, however, gave his ring to Per-dic'cas. 71. Of all the conquerors of antiquity, Alexander was, witliout doubt, the most enterprising and renowned. The splendor of his military achievements should not, however, blind us to the moral depravity which Character. could sacrifice, without a single pang of remorse, so many thousands of his fellow-creatures, merely to gratify a thirst for vainglory. This insatiable desire seems to have been unmixed with any wish to benefit his subjects or mankind, although he founded cities that promised to be useful to him in carrying out his ambitious views, and in perpetuating his memory. In the hands of Providence, however, he was undoubtedly an instrument of good; since, by his conquests, the two continents were brought into closer communication with each other, and tlie language, literature, and arts of Greece were carried into tlie East. 72. In the mean time, the Spartans, under their king Agis, had made a vigorous effort, in common witli most of the Macedonian Supremacy. 125 Agis. other Peloponnesian states, to throw off the yoke of Macedon; but they were defeated with great slaughter by Antipater, Agis being slain in the battle (331 B.C.). Athens took no part in the struggle; but under the influence of Pho'cion, illustrious for the wisdom and moderation of his counsels, as well as for his stern republican simplicity and honesty, prosecuted Conduct of Athens. the orators who had been active against the Macedonian rule, and because they had been found guilty of bribery drove them 30 Uast from XonLdon. 35 into exile. Among these was Demosthenes. When, however, the news arrived of the death of Alexander, the city of Athens gave way to the most excessive demonstrations of joy, and Phocion's party lost all their influence. 73. In an expedition under Le-os'the-nes, the Athenians and their allies gained some important victories over Anti- pater, near La'mia, a fortified town near the border of Thessaly; but Antipater being joined Lamian war. by Crat'e-rus, one of the ablest of Alexander's generals, with Ancient History. a considerable force from Asia, entirely defeated them in Thessaly, and prevented any further resistance to the Mace- donian authority (322 B.C.). Athens was compelled to give up her orators, including Demosthenes, who had been recalled from exile during the war. The latter, however, escaped, but was finally compelled to take poison in order to prevent being captured by his pursuers; while the others were cruelly put to death.* Thus ended what was called the Lamian War; and the defeat riveted the yoke of Macedonia upon Greece more firmly than ever, f Alexandee's Successoes. 74. After the death of Alexander, the great Miicedonian Empire, which had been formed by his genius and valor, fell to pieces, as he left no successor able to control the restless ambition and rivalry of his generals. At first, his half-brother, Philip, and his infant son Disposition of the empire. Death of Perdiccas. by Hoxana were declared partners of the throne, while differ- ent parts of the empire were assigned to the generals, who were to rule as satraps; but Perdiccas was to act as regent. The latter was shortly afterward suspected of a design to usurp the throne, and a league was formed against him by An-tig'o-nus, Ptol'e-my, * Demosthenes retii-ed to the island of Calauria, near the coast of Argolis, and took refuge in the temple of Neptune from the emissaries of Antipater. He died at the age of about sixty years. When he commenced to speak in public. Ins impediment of speech, weakness of voice, and awkwardness of manner nuule him an object of ridicule; but all these difficulties he overcame by intense effort and application, and became the greatest orator of his own or perhaps any other time. He saw through tlie designs of Philip from the first, and pronounced his most brilliant orations in exposing them. These were called " Thilippics," because they were delivered against Philip. t Leosthenes was a brave and skillful general, and had he not been killed during the siege of I^mia. in which Antipater shut himself up after his defeat^ the war might have resulted difTerently. B«»sides, the diss«»nsions \\\ Athens pre- vented the sending of reinforcements to the army. Leostlienes was an orator as well as a general; and it was to him, on the fK'casion of one of his harangues, that Phocion said: "Young man, thy words are like the cypress, VaW and large, but they bear no fruit." He was a vigorfjus supporter of the party of Demosthenea Macedonian Supremacy. 127 and Crat'e-rus. A war ensued, during which Perdiccas was assassinated by his own troops (321 B.C.). Antipater was then made regent, and the empire was again divided. 75. Antipater died three years afterward, at the age of eighty, leaving the regency to Pol-y-sper'chon, a veteran general of Alexander. This displeased Cas-san'- der, Antipater's son, who had expected to succeed Renewal of war. his father, and kindled a war of several years between the two generals, which resulted in Cassander's success. During this war Cassander placed the administration at Athens under De-me'tri-us Pha-le'reus, a distinguished Athenian orator, statesman, and writer, who ruled the city for ten years with so much popularity that the Athenians raised three hundred and sixty brazen statues to his honor. War having arisen between Antigonus and the other generals, Athens surren- dered to Deme'trius Po-li-or-ce'tes (the Town-Taker), the son of Antigonus. Phalereus, who, by liis dissipated habits, had lost his popularity, was compelled to flee, and all his statues were thrown down except one (307 B.C.).* 76. The war against Antigonus, which continued for nearly fifteen years (from 315 B.C.), was brought to a close by a decisive battle fought near Ipsus, in Phrygia (301 B.C.). Antigonus was defeated, and died of Battle of Ipsus. his wounds. This event nearly closed the long series of wars which followed the death of Alexander, and which proved his sagacity and foresight when he remarked that his obsequies would be celebrated by bloody hands. During these wars the whole of his relations, including his mother, Olympias, and his wife and son, were successively put to death, f • Demetrius found a place of refuge at the court of Ptolemy in Alexandria, where he lived upward of twenty years. His talents were of great service to the Egyptian monarch; and it is stated that it was by his advice that the famous museum and Alexandrian library were founded. Demetrius wrote many valuable treatises, but none of them are now extant. He was the last of the great orators of Greece. t Roxana and the young Alexander were put to death by order of Cassander, after a treaty of peace, made in 311 b.c, one of the articles of which was, that 128 Ancient History. 77. A more permanent partition of the empire followed tlie battle of Ipsus. Greece and Macedonia were assigned to Cassander; Egypt, to Ptolemy, who had previous- ly ruled over it; Thrace and the greatest part of Asia Minor, to Ly sim'a-chus; and western Pjrt!tion of the empire. Asia, including the whole country from the coast of Syria to the Euphrates, to Seleucus. The latter founded on the river 0-ron'tes a new capital of his empire, which he named An- tioch, in honor of his father, An-ti'o-chus. 78. Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, who had retreated from Ipsus, still continued tne struggle. Ho proceeded to Greece, but the Athenians refused to receive him. After forming an alliance with Seleucus, he again Demetrius. appeared before Athens, which, after a long siege, he cap- tured, expelling the tyrannical governor whom Cassander had appointed (295 B.C.). The Athenians were greatly moved by his noble forgiveness and lenity; for, instead of the dreadful punishment which they had expected, he supplied their wants, and did his best to relieve the miseries occasioned by the long siege which they had suffered.* Cassander should retain his power until the prince became of age. The treaty sus- pended hostilities only for a few months. Olyrapias having engaged in a war against Cassander, about five years previously, was taken prisoner by him, and ordered to be put to death(316 B.C.). * Demetrius had been the friend of the Athenians, freeing tliem from the power of Cassander and Ptolemy, and expelling the garrison which had been stationeegan to speak; for neither the accent of his voice was loud, nor his e.vpresslon severe. He complained of them in soft and easy terms, and taking them again Into favor, made them a present of a hundred thousand measures of wheat, and re-estAb- lished such an administration as was most agreeable to them.** No. 6. Macedon and Greece. 129 SECTION VII. Sixth Period. DIVieiONS OF THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. From 301 B.C. io the Conquest of Greece (146 B.C.). I. IffACEDON AND GBEECE. 79. Cassander survived the victory at Ipsiis only three years; and at his death he left the throne to the eldest of his three sons, who died soon afterward. Family dissensions followed, by means of which Deme- Cassander, trius possessed himself of the throne (294 B.C.), and held it for seven years, when it was seized by Pyr'rhus, king of Epirus, against whom Demetrius had Demelrius. made war. The latter, attacked by both Pyrrhus and Ly- simachus, abandoned the Macedonian throne, and fled* Soon afterward, Lysimachus, after vanquishing Pyrrhus, obtained possession of the Macedonian Lysimachus. territories, and united them with his own (286 B.C.). Thus the whole Macedonian Empire, except Egypt, was divided between Lysimachus and Seleucus. Demetrius died a captive at the court of the latter (283 B.C.).* 80. The throne of Macedon was filled by Lysimachus about five years, when hostilities arose between him and Seleu- cus; and, in a battle near Saidis, the former was defeated and slain. This gave nearly the whole Seleucus. empire to Seleucus, thus reuniting, with the exception of Egypt, the whole of the dominions of Alexander. But this union was of short duration, for within a few weeks of his * " That hair-brained prince, after gaining and then losing Macedonia, plunged suddenly into Asia, where he hoped to win by his sword a new dominion. Unable to make any serious impression on the kingdom of Lysimachus, he entered Cilicia, and became engaged in hostilities with Seleucus, who defeated him, took him prisoner, and kept him in a private condition for the rest of his life"— RawUnson. 130 Ancient History. victory, Seleucus was assassinated by Ptolemy Ccraunus, an Egyptian prince, brother of Ar-sin'o-e, the wife ofLysimachus. This prince, being prevented from succeeding to the throne of Egypt by liis Ptolemy Ceraunus. father's selection of another son, Philadelphus, had taken refuge at the court of Lysimachus, and afterward at that of Seleucus, by whom he had been protected. 81. The throne of Macedon was occupied by Ptolemy Ce- raunus but a short time; for a great migration of the Gauls the same year swept over Thrace and Macedonia, under several leaders named Belgius, Brennus, and others; and Ptolemy rashly opposing their Invasion of the Gauls. furious onset with his hastily-gathered forces, was defeated, and falling into the hands of his enemies was cruelly put to death (279 B.C.). The Gauls then passed into Greece, and reached Delphi, where they were repulsed with great loss. Some of them afterward settled on the Danube; others, in Thrace; while a third part passed into Asia, and settled in the country called, after them, Ga-la'tia.* 82. After the death of Ptolemy, the throne of Macedon was occupied by Antigonus, tlie son of Demetrius, surnamed Go-na'tas, from the place of his birth. He reigned till 243 B.C., exercising a severe rule over the Greeks, whose cities he governed by means of petty tyrants ap])ointed by himself. This tyranny led to a noted confeder- Achasan league. acy, styled in history the "Achaean Lengue," it being in fact the revival of an ancient league which had existed among the ♦ "The invasion of the Gauls is one of the most interesting events of the post Alexandrine history. It had permanent eflfects on Ea.stem Europe nnd Western Asia, protlucing among other results the new country of Galatia By the end of the year 280 b.c, a large mass of hungry immigrant.'^ had accumulated in northern Illyria, and in the regions about moinits Scomius and Soanlus. This mass, in 279 B.n., rolled fnrwarrl in three waves, which toolt three different direc- tions. One, under Cerethrius, took a north-easterly course against the Triballi and the Thracians ; another, under Brennus and Acichorius, proceeUIA capital, and established the Mvseum,, a kind of University, which drew together a vast body of students from all parts. He also adorned his capital I with many splen- Pharos. -^ ^ did edinces; con- structed the lofty Pharos, of white marble, four hundred feet high, upon the island which formed the port of the city, I and a mole or cause- way connecting the island with the shore {Hep-ta-sta' - di-um) ; also a mausoleum {So'ina) to contain the body of Alexander, the Hippo- other buildings. drome, and the temple of Se-ra'pis. He like wise rebuilt the inner chamber of the great temple at Karnak. He died, after a reign of forty years, ♦Alexandria was built upon a grand plan. Including the suburbs, It had a cir cuit of fifteen miles, and was cro.ssed at right angles by two avenues a hundred feet wide and adorned with temples, eolounades, and palaces. At the iutei-section of these there was a lofty esplanade, or square, from which could be viewed the entire harbor, t This edifice was reckoned among the "seven wonders of the world." It was not completed till three years after Ptolemy's death. The light constantly burn- ing on its summit was visible, it is said, for forty miles. Tlie "seven wonders" were the Pyramids of Egypt, the flanging Oarden of IJabylon (p. .30), the TtMnple of Diana at Ephesus, the Statue of Jupiter at Olympia, the Mausoleum at Ilall- camassue (p. 140), the Colots^u? ftt Rhodes (p. 147), and the Pharos (p. 137) at Alex andiHo. Kingdom of the Ptolemies, 1^^ at the age of eighty-four (283 B.C.). Ptolemy I. was cer- tainly one of the ablest and most enlightened kings that ever reigned. 96. Ptolemy II., called Philadelphus (because he married his own sister), was also a great patron of literature. and science, and did much to advance the commercial prosperity of the country. He reopened the canal connecting the Red Sea with the Nile (originally Ptolemy Philadelphus. constructed by Ramescs II.), and built the port of Ar-sin'o-e, on the site of the modern Suez. He likewise founded Bere- nice on the coast of the Red Sea, and opened a high-road from it to a point on the Nile near Thebes (Coptos), forming part of the caravan route by which the merchandise of Arabia, Ethiopia, and India was, for many centuries, carried into Europe* Ptolemais, on the Red Sea, became the emporium of the ivory trade, which was very vahiable at that time. Ptolemy boasted that ^'no citizen was idle in Alexandria?" " Glass-blowing, the weaving of linen, paper-making from the papyrus, and the arts connected with the shipping trade," employed the whole people. Even the blind and lame, it was said, were taught to labor. 97. The a'lnual revenue of this king from Egypt alone, exclusive of the tribute in grain, amounted to nearly eighteen millions of dollars. His military force comprised an army of about 250,000 men, besides elephants and war-chariots; and he had a fleet of 1500 ves- State of the kingdom. sels. But his efforts in behalf of learning were the chief source of his fame. He augmented vastiy the library com- menced by his father; invited learned men to his court, and patronized important literary works. Among the latter was * The vessels of the Alexandrian merchants, starting from Berenice, sailed down the Red Sea, and along the Arabian and Indian coasts to the mouths of the Indus, or sometimes as far as Mangalore, on the Malabar coast. Then, after receiving their cargoes, they returned by the same cautious navigation to Berenice, whence the merchandise was transported by caravans to Coptos on the Nile, and thence floated down to Alexandria. 140 Ancient History, the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek,* and the History of Egypt, by Manetho. Philadelphus was also a great patron -of the arts, and adorned Literary works. Alexandria with architectural works of great magnificence. He died after a reign of thirty-eight years (247 b.g.) 98. Under Ptolemy Eu-er'ge-tes (the Benefactor), the kingdom attained its greatest extension, comprising Egypt, Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Nubia, the Cyrenaica, i)art of Ethiopia, a ]>ortion of the west- ern coast of Arabia, Palestine, Phcenicia, and Coele-Syria, Oilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia, Caria, including the famous city of Halicarnas'sus,! and Ionia, besides Cyprus and the ♦ This was the famous translation called the Septnarjint (septxinginta, seventy), BO called from the ntiml>er of persons engaged in the work. It was prosecuU^d during several reigns. t Halicarnassus was the birth-place of Herodotus. It was at first a Dorian city, but afterward conquered by the Persians, tliough It retained its Greek character. The most noted of Its rulers was Mausulus, whose widow Artemisia, after his The Minor Kingdoms. 141 Cyclades, and a part of Thrace. [See map IV.] This king was not only a great conqueror, but a j^atron of learning and art; and many distinguished scholars flourished during his reign. The glorious Ptolemy Euergetes. period of the kingdom of the Ptolemies terminates with Euergetes. A succession of wicked and incapable monarchs occupied the throne during the remaining period of its history, until its final conquest by Kome, during the reign of Queen Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies (31 B.C.). rv. The Minor Kingdoms. 99. In addition to the three great kingdoms of Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt, formed out of the vast dominions of Alex- ander the Great, there were several smaller states, which played an important part in the history of Minor states. this period. Chief among these were Pergamus, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus, and Cappadocia, in Asia Minor; Ar- menia, Bactria, and Parthia, in the East; and Judea. The last mentioned has already been treated of; and a brief sketch will here be given of the others, in order that tlie subsequent history may be better understood. [See map IV.] 100. Pergamus was founded by a lieutenant of Lysimachus (283 B.C.), but did not acquire any prominence until the reign of Attains, who distinguished himself by his alliance with the Romans in the war against Antiochus. This king- dom lasted 150 years, at the end of which its last king, Attains III., left it, with all its treasures, to the Romans death (352 b.c), erected to his memory so magnificent a monument that every similar structure has been called a mausoleum. This monument was ranked among the "seven wonders of the world," on account of its size and artistic beauty. The basement was nearly square, about 400 feet in circumference and 50 feet high, above which rose a structure surrounded with Ionic columns, sup- porting a pyramid, which was surmounted by a four-horse chariot, containing a statue of Mausolus, about ten feet high. Tliis statue is now in the British Museum. The cut represents the design as restored by means of portions of the building recovered by excavations made within the last twenty-five years. 142 Ancient History. (133 B.C.). The kings of Pergamus were noted for their attention to literature; and they collected an immense library, which was afterward carried to Alexandria. 101. Bithynia, even in the Persian period, was partly governed by native princes, and was not completely reduced by Alexander. It continued to be an independent kingdom until the Roman conquests began in the Bithynia. east, and was brought to an end by Nic-o-me'des, its last king, who bequeathed it to the Romans (74 B.C.). 102. Paphlagonia had, like Bithynia, partially achieved its independence dunng the time of -the Persian Empire; but, on the destruction of that monarchy, it was annexed to Pontus. It regained its indepen- Paphlagonia. dence about 200 B.C., but was again seized by Mithrida'tes the Great, of Pontus, and was once more united with that kingdom. 103. Pontus, originally a part of the Persian satrapy of Cappadocia, declared its independence about the middle of the fourth century B.C., and maintained itself as a separate kingdom, under a line of able mon- Pontus. archs, till the time of the long war between the Romans and its great king Mithridates. At the close of that war, the greater part of its dominions was formed into a Roman province. 104. Cappadocia, the southern portion of the Persian satrapy of that name, revolted from the sway of th.e Mace- donian rulers, about 315 B.C., and no attempt was made by Antigonus or Seleucus to reduce Cappadocia. it to obedience. It came into frequent conflicts with the Roman power, but was not finally subdued till 17 a.d. 105. Armenia, after its revolt from the rule of Antiochus the Great (190 B.C.), was split up into two kingdoms — tlie Greater and the Lesser Armenia. The former (Armenia Major) continued till its conquest by Armenfa. tlie Romans under Trajan (114 a.d.); the latter had been Grecian Cimlization. 143 many years previously absorbed by Pontils, and conquered, with that kingdom, by the Romans. 106. Bactria assumed the position of a free state in the middle of the third century B.C., and retained its indepen- dence until it was overwhelmed by the Parthians and the Scythian hordes from the north during the next century. Parthia arose at about the Bactria and Parthia. same time as Bactria, during the weak reign of Antiochus XL (about 255 B.C.). The revolt of the Parthians was the uprising of a Turanian people against their foreign rulers; and, from a small beginning, they gradually spread their power over the greater part of Western Asia.* For five centuries the Par- thian nation retained its independence and influence, until it finally succumbed again to the Aryan race, as represented in the New Persian Monarchy (226 A. p.). [See maps V. and VIL] SECTION VIII. Grecian Civilization". I Eaely Customs and Institutions. 107. In the early period of Greek civilization, the people were the willing subjects of their kings; and accounts of the chiefs, warriors, and heroes occupy all the space in the annals or literature of the time. The Early period. king, at first, was merely a chief among the patriarchs, or heads of families. Unlike the mighty Babylonian or Egyp- tian monarchs, he was a simple ruler, witiiout any grand palace, military host, or crowd of slaves. The affluent re- joiced in their extensive flocks and herds, faiTns and vine- » The Parthians checked the Roman conquests by the signal defeat of Crassus and his army (52 b.c). Their cavalry of mounted archers was the most formidable known, their arrows being discharged backward with deadly effect while they were retreating with the speed of the wind. i44 Ancient History. yards; the poor were agricultural or pastoral laborers. But this was only the primitive state of things, and among the earliest inhabitants, to whom reference is made in the mythSy or traditionary legends of that remote period. 108. When the people living near the coasts came into communication with the Phoenician merchants, a new life began; and the energies of the Greeks were aroused to build ships and trade with foreign peoples. They also learned the Phoenician mode Rise of commerce. of writing, as well as their system of weights and measures, and many other things; and they, moreover, learned to employ their skill in ship-building and navigation for the purpose of piracy and pillage. 109. The poems of Homer give us a pretty clear idea of Greek life and manners during the period of the Trojan war, in the twelfth century B.C. The king was ruler, priest, and judge, presiding over religious cerenio- Homeric period. nies, and offering up public prayers and sacrifices. He assem- bled the chiefs in council to discuss the affairs of the com- munity, and to deliberate upon the measures to be adopted ; and of these notice was given to the people convened in the market- place {ag'ora), but there was no popular vote. The king and his council (bou'U) decided everything. The Homeric period was a time of war and lawless violence. Neither property nor life was respected; and those who resisted the depredations of powerful robbers or pirates were liable to be carried off as slaves. We find, however, that women were treated with more tenderness and respect than by many other of the peoples of that age; and instances of generosity, friend- ship, and honor abound in the mythical narratives of tlie time. 110. The stories of that age about the great kings and heroes that flourished, and p6rformed prodigies of daring and strength, ])()ssess a })eculiar interest. J Such are the accounts given of those who took Kings and heroes. Dart in the famous siege of Troy — Ag-a-mcm'non, king of O^ redan Cimlization. 145 My-ce'nag, in Argolis, the commander-in-chief of the Greek forces engaged in that famous war; U-lys'ses, king of the Island of Ithaca; Nes'tor, the sage monarch of Pylus; the valiant Di-o-me'dss, of Argos ; and the terrible heroes Achilles (a-hiVUz) and Ajax. 111. The ruins of Mycenae and Ti'ryns, in Argolis, show that their builders possessed a remarkable knowledge of many arts. Some of the walls are made of blocks of stone so enormous that it would seem they could have been moved only by people of gigantic Mycenae and Tiryns. strength. Of these the massive gate of Mycenae and the arch of Tiryns are examples. Hence, this style of architecture has been called Cyclopean (from Cy'clops^ the name of a giant). At Tiryns there are walls twenty-five feet thick; and both there and at Mycenae the most wonderful remains have been exhumed by that diligent explorer. Dr. Schlie- mann, who has also discovered and explored, it is believed, the site of ancient Troy. It is made Schliemann' discoveries. evident by these researches that the houses of the nobles of this period were adorned with gold, silver, and bronze orna- ments of elegant design and workmanship. n. Religion of the Greeks. 112. As a people the Greeks were very religious. They lived under a constant sense of the presence and influence of unseen powers and intelligences, and worshiped them with a variety of rites and ceremonies. All the events and incidents of life were construed as the effects of the interference of their deities, towards whom they constantly maintained a feeling of reverence and awe. The objects of their worship were very numerous, but there were certain deities that received a special adoration, among whom the following twelve were regarded as the great gods and goddesses of Olympus, upon the summit of which mountain, it was con- ceived, they had their abode: Zeus (zuse), or Jupiter, as called 146 Ancient History, by the Gods of Olympus. Romans, Po-sei'don (Ne])tiine), A-pol'lo, A'n's (Mars), He-phtes'tos (Vulcan), Her'mes (Mer- cury), He're (Juno), Athe'ne (Minerva), Ar'- temis (Diana), Apli-ro-di'te (Venus), Hcs'tia (Vesta), De-me'ter (Ceres). 113. In the mythology of the Greeks, who attributed tlie characteristics of mortals to their deities, Zeus was conceived Zeus. to be the king of the Gods. He ruled over the divine ag'ora when in session upon the heights of Olympus, and kept each of the lesser deities within the s})ecial scope of his or her powers. He was the descendant of Kron'os, and himself the progenitor of many of the otlier deities. Thus Minerva is said to have sprung from his brain. His wife was Here or Juno. It was, according to the Greek conception, Zeus who punished crime and wicked- ness and rewarded virtue and heroism. He wielded the tliunderbolt, and often in- flicted swift and unrelent- ing chastisement upon the wrong-doer. In the early period, such a human personage might satisfy the ideas of an undeveloped race; but wlion Greece, and more particularly Athens, rose to its wonderful height in intellectual culture, the thinkers and philosophers turned from it to loftier and more spiritual conceptions of a supreme, over-ruling deity. 114. The following are the characteristics and modes of representation of these several personages: 1. iA'\%, called tlie Gloud-ffntJierer, tho. Thunderer, the Supreme Unler, the Father of god» and man, was usually roprescnted as seated on a throne with the thunderbolts in his right hand, a scepter in his left, and A Grj Grecian Cimlization. 147 an eagle by his side, as a symbol of bis kingship among the gods. His statue at Olympia, made of gold and ivory, was forty feet in height, and was reckoned among the "seven wonders." It was the work ot Phi'di-as, the most celebrated of the Greek sculptors. 2. Poseidon, the Roman Neptune, the brother of Zeus, was the ruler of the sea. He is called by Homer the Earth-shaker, for he had con- trol of earth-quakes. He is represented as driving over the sea in a chariot drawn by sea-horses, holding the trident in his hand. His wife was a sea-goddess named Am-phi-tri''te ; and various sea-deities, Ne're-ids, Tri'tons, etc., were his attendants, 3. Apollo, the son of Zeus, and god of the sun, called sometimes PhceboS' Apollo, or god of light. He was worshiped occasionally as He'lios, the sun, particularly in the island of Rhodes, where there was an enormous bronze statue of him — the famous Colossus of Rhodes, reck- oned among the Seven Wonders;* though, originally, Helios was a separate divinity. Apollo was also the god of music, song, and poetry ; of medicine, and of various earth- ly blessings; and he was the imperson- ation of manly beauty, as he is repre- sented by the sculptors. The Apollo Bel- videre is an example. Apollo presided over the greatest oracle of antiquity. Zeus, or Jupiter. 4. Ares, son of Zeus and Here, presided over war, like the Roman Mars. Of all the higher gods he was the most fierce and terrible, taking pleasure in slaughter and destruction. Hence he is represented as a warrior with helmet, spear, and shield. The celebrated Areopagus, at Athens, was thought to be his principal seat. 6. Hephaestos, son of Zeus and Here, was the god of fire, correspond- ing to the Roman Vulcan. He was represented as lame and deformed. He presided over all the arts in which fire is used; and was kept busy in * This wonderful work was made from the spoils left by Demetrius Poliorcetes when he raised the protracted siege of Rhodes. It was commenced by a sculptor named Chares, who, finding the "um of money appropriated for its construction exhausted before it was half completed, committed suicide. It was, accordingly, finished by another artist. The statue vas 105 feet high, and contained a winding staircase reaching to the head. It was thrown down by an earthquake after it had Ktood 56 years (224 B.C.), and lay prostrate nine ceaturies, when it was sold to a Jew by the Saracens after their capture of Rhodes According to the Roman writer Pliny, Rhodes bad one hundred colossal statues, though none so large as the Colossus. 148 Ancieiii History. his blacksmith-shop in Vesuvius, forging the thunderbolts of Jupiter and the arms and armor of Ares. He was married to Aphrodite. 6. Hermes, sou of Zeus, the Mercury of the Romans, was the mes- senger of the gods. He presided over trade and commerce, and was noted for his cunning and adroitness. He is represented as a strong, beardless youth, with short hair, a winged cap {pet'asus), a herald's staff with wings (cadiiceus), twined with snakes, in one hand, and a pui-se in the other, and having winged sandals on his feet. 7. Here, or Juno, was the sister as well as the wife of Zeus, being the daughter of Krouos. She wears a royal diadem and scepter, and a veil spangled with stars, to indicate her rank as the queen of heaven. She is represented as a woman of beauty, but of great majesty and sternness. She was the patron and protectress of marriage, but the impersonation of jealousy, pride, and revenge. 8. Athene, or Minerva, called also Pallas, or Pallas- Athene, was the daughter of Zeus, according to the myth, springing from his brain fully armed. She was the goddess of war and wisdom, and is represented tis a stately woman of great beauty, with spear, shield, and helmet. On her breast was the aegis, having the head of Medusa in the centre, sur- rounded by a border of snakes. She was always represented as a pure virgin. She was the patron goddess of Athens, where the celebrated temple called the Parthenon (see page 165) was constructed in her honor. This temple contiiined a magnificent gold and ivory statue of the god- dess, carved by Phidias. This statue no longer exists, having perished in some manner entirely unknown. The last record we have of it is in the year 375 a.d. There was another statue of the goddess at Athens, made by the same artist. The oldest statue was the famous Palladium, which the Greeks carried off from Troy, during the Trojan war. It was an immense wooden figure, which was believed to have fallen from heaven, and was held in great reverence by the Trojans as the special safeguard of their city. Several of the Grecian cities afterwards claimed to have ix)ssession of it, as it was thought to afford protection and safety. Hence the term palladium has been used to express what- ever gives special assurance of security. 9. Artemis, or Diana, was the twin sister of Apollo, and was the goddess of the moon, of night, and of hunting. She is represented as very beautiful, wearing sandals on her feet, a quiver full of arrows, and a bow or spear in her hand.* * The worship of Diana prevailed more in some parts of colonial Greece than in Greece proper. At Ephe8iis she had a temple which, on account of its maf^rnili- cence, was counted among the seven woiulere of the world. Here Diana was Grecian Civilization. 149 10. Aphrodite, or Venus, was the goddess of love and beauty. She is represented with her son Eros, or Cupid. Her worship was very extensive. 11. Hestia, or Vesta, a daughter of Kronos, was the goddess of the home-fire or -hearth, and the guardian of family life. She is repre- sented as a virgin standing or sitting, neatly clad, and holding a lamp in one hand and a scepter in the other. 12. Demeter; or Ceres, a sister of Zeus, was the goddess of the fruits of the earth, particularly grain. She is represented as wearing a long robe, with a poppy and ears of w^heat in her right hand and a torch in the left. She was the mother of Per-seph'o-ne, or Pros'er-pine, who was stolen from her by Pluto, and carried to Ha'des. 115. These deities were, during tlie period of Greek paganism, the primary objects of religious worship ; but there were several others, some of whom were almost as prominent. Thus the most ancient of Other deities. all was Gaea (the earth), who was married to her own son Uranos (heaven), with whom commenced the race of the gods. Uranos was the father of the Titans and other mon- sters, those mighty beings who personified the forces of nature, by which the great geological changes of the earth were effected. Kronos, the father of Zeus, and Oceanus (the ocean) were the sons of Uranos, who had a numerous off- spring. All these seem to personify the great physical prin- ciples and forces concerned in the operations of nature. Thus from Uranos (the sky) comes the fertility which the earth receives from rain, dew, etc. Similar personifications were also Nyx (night), Hyp'nos (sleep), and 0-nei'ros (dream); but in the mythology their actual, not allegorical, personality was i-ecognized.* represented in a peculiar manner. This temple was set on fire by a man named Heros'tratos, on the night of the birth of Alexander the Great, but was afterwards rebuilt with greater splendor; but not a vestige of it now remains. The worship of Diana was at its height when St. Paul went to Ephesus to preach Christianity. * " I maintain fully tne character of these great divine agents as persons, which is the light in which they presented themselves to the Homeric or Hesiodio audi- ence. To resolve them into mere allegories is unsafe and unprofitable; we then depart from the point of view of the original hearers without acquiring any con- sistent or philosophical point of view of our own."— (rro^e. 150 Ancient History. 116. The Greeks believed in an unseen world, which they called Ha'des, and which they placed below the surface of the earth. This was the abode of the invisible spirits, or *' shades of the dead," in various conditions of Hades. bliss or misery, expiating the crimes committed in their earthly lives. Over this realm presided the King of the Dead, Pluto, sometimes called Hades, who was a brother of Zeus. Di-o-ny'- sos, or Bacchus, was also a famous deity, being devoted to wine, feasting, and merriment. His Dionysos. worship was accompanied with many shocking customs. The Dionysia, or Bacchanaliay were wild ceremonies in which men (Bacchantes) and women (Bacchae) often abandoned them- selves, for days and nights together, to the wildest and most licentious orgies. These rites were permitted only at certain times of the year. 117. There were also deities who performed special ser- vices to the greater gods, suchasl'ris, He'be, etc.; the Muses, who presided over the different departments of literature, music, and art ; the three Graces : Special deities. besides deified heroes and benefactors of mankind, as Per'seus, Her'cu-les, ^s-cu-la'pi-us, etc.; and monsters, the offspring of the gods, as the nur'})ies, the Monsters. Gor'gons, Cen'taurs, Cer'be-rus, the Dragon of the Hesper'- i-des, etc. 118. All these deities were not universally worshiped, at any rate not in the same degree. Different places were especially devoted to the worship of different gods and goddesses; and some of them were Local religion. worshiped only in particular places,.bcing unknown in others; as, for instance, marine deities among people connected with the sea. This, however, was the case only with the minor deities; while a belief in the great Olympian gods and goddesses was common to the whole Hellenic nation. Thus all shared in paying honor to Zeus in the great festivals at Olymjiia; to Demeter in the mysteries of Elcusis; and to Apollo by con- Grecian Oivilization. 151 suiting the oracles; and all had faith in the power of Poseidon, as the ruler of the sea, in Pluto as the king of Hades, in Here as the queen of heaven, in Ares as the god of war, and in Aphrodite as the goddess of love. 119. The worship of the Greeks consisted chiefly of prayers and sacrifices. The former were frequent and universal, being offered up both in the temples and in other public places, in the public assemblies, courts of justice, Worship. and in the home-circle, morning and evening before meals. These prayers were usually oral, but were sometimes written on tablets and deposited beside the image of the god. One such tablet reads: ''Zeus, our lord, give unto us whatever is good, whether we ask it of thee or not; whatever is evil keep far from us, even if we ask it of thee." The sacrifices were either animals, led to the altar decked with garlands and ribbons, or fruits, cakes, etc. Wine, milk, honey, and oil were usually poured out in libations. These sacrifices were offered at regular times, as, for example, at the time of harvest, when a portion of the first-fruits was offered to the gods as a token of thankfulness for blessings received. 120. Religious festivals among the Greeks took the place of the Jewish or Christian Sabbath. Of these some were held at certain times; others came at irregular inter- vals, and often lasted two or three days at a time; Festivals. while occasions of temple service, sacrifices, and entertainments were quite frequent. During the regular festivals, which were also numerous, there was a general relaxation, all giving way to festivity and merriment.* Among these festivals * "When the appointed day arrives, the priests open the temples, pay diligent attention to the statues, and nothing is neglected which contributes to the pubUc convenience. The cities, too, are crowded with a conflux of the neighboring inhabitants, assembled to celebrate the festival, some coming on foot, others in ships. At sunrise they enter the temples, in splendid garments, worshiping that divinity to whom the festival is^cred. Every master of a house precedes, bearing frankincense; a servant follows him, leading a victim; and children walk by the side of their parents, some very young, and others of a more advanced age, already feeling the strong influence of the gods. One) having perfonned bis 153 Ancient History, were the Dionysia, in honor of Bacchus, already referred to, ihe mysteries of E-leu'sis, and the Thes-mo-pho'ri-a in honor of Demeter, the Pan-a-then-a'ic Festival at Athens, in honor of Athene, the patron goddess, and the Daph-ne-pho'ria, of Thebes, sacred to Apollo. Besides these, were the great national festivals of Greece — the 0-lym'pic, Pyth'i-an, Isth'- mi-an, and Ne'me-an games, combining worship, festive recrea- tion, and trials of athletic strength, as well as, sometimes, liter- ai-y and artistic attainment. Olympic festival. Thb Foot-rack, 121. The Olympic festival was held in honor of Zeus, on the plain of Olympia, in Elis. It took place every fifth year, and drew together an immense assemblage from all parts of Greece. The exercises at the Olym'pic games consisted of running, wrestling, boxing, chariot-racing, and horse-racing; and to be proclaimed a victor in these games was considered the highest honor a Grecian could attain. None could contend in them but those of the Hellenic race, and all who entered into these contests were obliged to take an oath that they would use no unfair — — , sacrifice, departs; another comes forward to perform his. Numerous prayers are everywhere poured forth, and words of good omen are mutually spokoo."— Grecian Civilization, 153 means to obtain the yictory. The only prize bestowed on the victor was a simple garland of wild olive. These games were the most ancient. They were revived, it is said, by Lycurgus, in 776 B.C.; and hence this date, called the First Olympiad, was afterward employed by the Greeks as their principal chronological era.* 122. The Pythian games were celebrated in honor of Apollo, every fifth year, near Delphi; the Nemean and Isth- mian games, once in two years; the former, at Ne'mea, in honor of Zeus; and the latter on the isthmus of Corinth, in honor of Poseidon. In Pythian and Nemean games. these festivals there were contests in poetry and music, as well as trials of strength. The Eleusinian Mysteries were celebrated every year, and lasted ten days. It was deemed the duty of every Athenian citizen Mysteries. to go to Eleusis at least once during his life for the purpose of being initiated. These ceremonies were nocturnal; and, it is supposed, were intended to impress upon the minds of the initiated the truth of an existence beyond the grave. They were sacred to Demeter, and taught the story of her sorrows in the loss of Proserpine, or Persephone, the stolen bride of the dark king of Hades; but it was a common saying among the Athenians, " In the mysteries no one is sad." 123. The habit of consulting the oracles for the purpose of learning the will of the gods was another important feature of the Greek religion. The Oracles. oracles of Apollo were very numerous, but that at Delphi was * " The origin of this festival is lost in the mythical ages. It is said to have been revived by Iph'itus, king of Elis, and Lycui^us, the Spartan legislator, in the year 776 b.c. ; and, accordingly, when the Greeks, at a later time, began to use the Olympic contest as a chronological era, this year was regarded as the first Olympiad, It continued to maintain its celebrity for many centuries after the extinction of Greek freedom ; and it was not till a.d. 394 that it was finally abolished by the Emperor Theodosius. It was celebrated at the end of four years, and the interval which elapsed between each celebration was called an Olympiad. The festival was called by the Greeks a Pentaeteris, because it was celebrated every fifth year, according to the ancient mode of reckoning."— Smith's History of (jreece. 154 Ancient History. the most famous, being greatly venerated in all parts of Greece, and sometimes consulted by foreign nations, as the Lydians, the Phrygians, and the Romans. In the middle of the Delphic temple there was a small aperture in the ground, over which was placed the seat (tripod) of the Pythia, a virgin priestess; and a sulphurous gas or vapor arising from the opening acted upon her brain, putting her in a kind of trance or ecstatic condition, during which she gave expression to what was deemed the answer of the god, always in hexameter verse. There were oracles of Zeus at Olympia and Do-do'na, also in Libya (Jupiter Ammon); and of other gods and heroes at different places.* 124. The Greeks also sought to ascertain the will of the gods, or to obtain a knowledge of future events, not only by means of the oracles, but by certain kinds of divination, through interpreting dreams, observing the flight of birds, the entrails of sacrificed animals, the direction of the flames and smoke from the altar, etc. These were auguries of good or evil as declared by the regularly ai)pointed soothsayers. Great attention was also paid to omens, as earthquakes, eclipses, and other unusual phenomena of nature; and numy of the commonest occurrences of life, if unavoidable, were looked upon as indicating the future. Even the act of sneez- ing, among these superstitious people, was sometimes deemed to present an indication of the will of the gods. III. Greek Literature. FIRST OR EARLY PEIIIOD. 125. No literature is more complete or more interesting and valuable than that of the Greeks. The genius or intel- ♦ The responses of the oracles were usually ambiguous. Thus when Cnssus, tht; rich kinff of Lydia, consulted the oracle before entering upon the war with Cynis, the reply was that if he crossed a certain river he would destroy a {?reat empire. He construed this to mean the Persian Kmninr, but, as it turned out, it was Lydia itself; for he crossed the river, and was utterly defeated and liis kin^ Uom finally overthrown. Grecian Cimlization. 155 lectual greatness of this people displayed itself in every variety of production. The epic poems attributed to Homer — the Iliad and the Odyssey — are still unrivaled among i " works of their class. Little is known of this I illustrious poet. He was, most probably, one of the Ionic and ^olic minstrels of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, the brightness of whose genius eclipsed the others; and hence his name has been given to these wonderful poems, collected many centuries after they were composed. To the same age belongs He'si-od, a native of Boeotia, Hesiod. Lyric poetry. whose poems — The-og'o-ny and Works and Days — tell us of ^,,^525^;. the birth and origin of the gods and goddesses of the Greek my- thology. 126. At a later period (in the seventh century B.C.), when the art of music had made progress, we find lyric poetry beginning to flourish, among the earliest to cultivate it being Ar-chil'o-chus (about 700 B.C.), who, it is said, was the Homer. inventor of the elegy, a form of emotional poetry. It was about this time that Tyr-tae'us, by his soul-stirring elegies, inspired the Spartans to deeds of patriotism and valor, during the Messenian war, and a little later A-ri'on flourished, of whom Herodotus tells the wonder- ful story that he was carried to Corinth on the back of a dolphin, which was charmed by his beautiful melodies, for poets sang and played, as well as composed verses in those days. Al-cae'us and Sappho (saffo), both of the island of Lesbos, were a little later (about 600 B.C.). The latter was the greatest of all the Greek poetesses, but only fragments of her poetry are extant. To these names must be added A-na'cre-on, of Ionia, whose odes possess unrivaled gi-ace and sweetness. 156 Ancient History. 127. It was during this early period that the Seven Sages of Greece flourished, and also many of the wisest of the philosophers. Among the latter were (1) Thales of Miletus (born 640 B.C.), the founder of the Seven Sages Ionic school, and celebrated for his researches in astronomy and geometry; (2) Xenophanes of Elea (a Greek colony in southern Italy), who founded the E-le-at'ic school, the doc- trines of which were afterward developed by Par-men'i-des and Zeno; (3) Py-thag'o-ras, of Samos (born about 580 B.C.), one of the greatest of the Greek philosophers, who founded at Croton, in Italy, the Pythagorean school, the doctrines of which rapidly spread over the whole of Magna Graecia. Pythagoras taught the doctrine of the * transmigration of souls," which he seems to have learned in his travels in Egypt and Babylonia. He also taught, it is said, the ro- tundity of the earth, and the central position of the sun in the solar system." His moral teachings were pure and ele- vated, and exercised a very wide and powerful influence. SECOND OR MIDDLE TERIOD. 128. The second or middle period of Greek literature commences at about the opening of the Persian war. Lyric poetry reached its highest development in the poems of Si-mon'i-des and Pindar. The former Lyric poetry. carried off the prize for an elegy on the fallen heroes of Marathon; and he afterward celebrated in beautiful verses those who gave their lives to their country at Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plat^a. Simonides died in 477 B.C., at the age •)f 80. Pindar, of Thebes, in B(Botia, was somewhat younger. His odes are much admired for their sublimity; hence he has been styled the "Theban eagle." 129. Greek tragedy, the rude beginnings of which had been made by Thcspis, about tlie middle of the sixth century, wiuj carried to a point of great Tragedy. excellence by ^schylns (es'TcoAvs), who may be regarded as Grecian Oimlization, 157 the founder of the tragic art, which Eurip'i-des and Soph'o-cles subsequently advanced to so high a degree of perfection and beauty. Among the prose writers of this period, Herodotus, of Halicarnassus, called the "Father Herodotus. of History," claims the first place. In his famous history he embodied all the results of his extensive travels in Egypt and the East; and it is related that he read his nine books to the assembled throng at the great Olympian festival; and that the delighted audience gave the names of the nine muses to his books, and paid him honors superior to those decreed to the victors in the games.* Herodotus was born in 484 B.C., and lived to the end of the century. 130. Thu-cyd'i-des merits the praise of being a far more philosophic historian than Herodotus. His history of the Peloponnesian war is written in a chaste and dignified style, and displays a remarkable insight Thucydides. in regard to the causes of events and the inner motives of men's actions. He was born in 471 B.C., being contemporaneous with Herodotus. Xenophon was a little later, as he lived to the middle of the fourth century. He also wrote history as well as philosophy. His most noted Xenophon. works are Memorahil'ia (memorable things) of Socrates, a defense of his great master; the Cyropmdi' a, an account of the life of Cyrus the Great, a kind of historical romance, designed to illustrate the institutions of the early Persians; the Anab'asis (ascent), or expedition of the younger Cyrus, one of the most charming histories in existence ; and the Helle'nica, a continuation of the history of Thucydides. The style of Xenophon, clear, natural, and graceful, won for him the title of the " Attic bee." * It is said that Thucydides, afterward so distinguished as an historian, then a boy, was present at the festival with his father, and was so affected by the recital of Herodotus that he shed tears, upon which the great historian congratulated the father upon having a son who displayed so eariv such a zeal for knowledge and literature 158 Ancient History. 131. Plato (429-347 B.C.) stands pre-eminent among the philosophers and writers of his time, for the extreme beauty of his style and the purity and spirituality of his teachings. He was the founder of the Academic Plato. school, so called from the grove of Acade'mus, near Athens, where he delivered his lectures. His doctrines are presented in the form of dialogues, in which the chief speaker is Socrates. Thus, while he imparted his own views, he illus- trated the philosophic teachings of his gi'eat master, an account of whom has already been given. 132. Contemporaneous with Socrates and Plato, were the following philosophers: An-ax-ag'o-ras, an intimate friend of Pericles, who taught mathematics and astronomy; Xen-oc'ra-tes, an eminent pupil of Plato ; Di-og'- e-nes, a famous cynic, who taught and practiced Contemporary philosophers. a supreme contempt for all the usages, conveniences, and proprieties of life, living, it is said, for some time in a tub; Ar-is-tip'pus, a disciple of Socrates, who founded what was called the Cyrenaic school, teaching that the highest good consists in rational enjoyment; and De-moc'ri-tus, sometimes called the * laughing philosopher," because he treated the follies and vices of mankind with ridicule. He taught that the physical universe consists of atoms, and that nature, space, and motion are eternal. 133. Epicurus (342-270 R.c), the founder of the Epi- curean school, expanded the doctrine of Aristijipus, teach- ing that happiness consists in pleasure derived from the practice of virtue; while his great con- Epicurut. temporary, Zeno, founded the school of the Stoics, who were noted for their simplicity and severity of manners, their 1 fortitude, and the rigidness of their moral princi- ^*"°' I pies. Zeno selected for his school a j)lace called the Porch (stoa), and hence his followers were called the " men of the porch." This was perhaps the most influential, in a moral point of view, of all the schools of practical philosophy. Grecian Cimlization. 159 The most illustrious of the writers on the Stoic philosophy were Ep-ic-te'tus and the Eoman emperor, Marcus Aurelius. . 134. The Peripatetic school, which Aj'istotle founded (384-322 B.C.), exerted the greatest intellectual influence, not only upon his own age, but for nearly two thousand years afterward. His works covered a Aristotle. vast field of research, embracing the consideration of natural as well as moral philosophy, besides history, rhetoric, and criticism. His greatest claim to credit is for his logical system, which, as the art of reasoning, exerted great influence, and is still accepted and used as a true analysis of the process of argumentation. Aristotle lectured in a place at Athens called the Lyce'um; and from his habit of walking up and down while delivering his lectures, his school was called the Peripatetic (from peripatein, to walk about). Aristotle was selected by Philip of Macedon to be the preceptor of his illus- trious son Alexander, and the monarch afterward liberally assisted him in the prosecution of his researches. 136. The Greek drama embraced both tragedy and comedy. The former, as seen in the works of the two great masters, Sophocles and Euripides, was designed to illustrate not only certain phases of human life and passion. Drama. but the relation of these to the overruling power of the gods. These works were confined within much more strict limita- tions as to form and plot than the modern tragedy of Shake- speare and others. Athenian Comedy, like tragedy, derived its origin from the celebration of the Dionysia. Its greatest masters were Ar-is-toph'a-nes (born at Athens 432 B.C.), who ridiculed Socrates in his comedies, and Menander (born 342 B.C.), who wrote more than one hundred comedies, upon which those of the Roman dramatists Plautus and Terence were afterward based. 136. Oratory, which bears an intimate relation to litera- ture, was cultivated with wonderful success, especially by the Athenians, among whom schools of rhetoric and eloquence 160 Ancient History. were early established. The oratory of Pericles has already been referred to; but it was in the period suc- ceeding him that eloquence reached its greatest Oratory. height. Among the most noted orators were Lys'i-as, I-soc'- ra-tes, ^s-chi'nes, and Demosthenes; but the last mentioned eclipsed all the others. By the moderns, who have only read his orations, as well as by the ancients who heard them delivered, Demosthenes has been pronounced the greatest orator that ever lived. THIRD OR LATER PERIOD. Poetry. 137. During this period, Alexandria became the seat of learning; and the patronage of the early Ptole- mies drew to that city the most distinguished wi'iters from all parts of Greece. Among these may be mentioned The-oc'ri-tus, the most charming of pastoral poets, a na- tive of Syracuse. Mos'chus, also of Syracuse, and Bi'on, of Smyrna, were his contemporaries and imi- tators. Their poems are very graceful and beautiful. The hymns and elegies of Cal-lim'a- chus, who also flourished at Alexandria, were widely admired. Ap-oMo'ni-usEho-dius, the author of a noted poem on the Argo- nautic expedition, in the Homeric style, also belongs to this period. 138. At Alexandria flourished, moreover, the schools of the grammarians and critics Aristophanes and Ar-is-tar'chus, the former being the cliief librarian during the reigns of the second and third Ptolemy. Eu'clid, the famous mathematician, author of tlie elements Demosthenes. Grammar artd critlciam. of geometry, still used as a text-book, flourished at Alexan- Science. Chrecian Cimlization. 161 dria, as also his successor ApoUonius, who wiv^te on the conic sections, besides many other mathematicians. Ptolemy, the greatest astronomer and geographer of antiquity, also lived in Alexandria about the middle of the second century a.d. He was the author of i.he famous Ptolemaic system of astronomy, which placed the ettrth in the center of the universe, a theory that continued to be main- tained until quite modern times. 139. Prominent among the prose writers of this period should be mentioned Polyb'ius (204-122 B.C.), who lived in Eome, and wrote a history of the Koman republic; Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, who also wrote on Prose writers. Roman history and on criticism ; Di-o-do'rus Sici\lus (the Sicilian), the author of a general history; Plutarch, a native of Boeotia, whose Lives continue to be read with pleasure; and Josephus, the Jewish historian, born in Jerusalem, 37 A.D. To these may be added Stra'bo, the geographer; Lu'cian, the satirist of the Greek mythology; and Ga'len, the noted physician, whose writings form an epoch in the science of medicine. Galen was born in Pergamus, but studied in Alexandria, Corinth, and Smyrna. He visited Rome several times. Most of these belong to the latter part of this period. 140. Greek literature does not wholly terminate at this point, but extends to the fall of the Greek Empire (1453 a.d.). A sketch of it during this period will be given in connection with the history of the Middle Later literature. Ages, in another part of this work. The Greek language, it may here be observed, was not only the vehicle of pagan civ- ilization and culture, but that by which tlie great truths of Christ's life and teachings were imparted to mankind in the early Christian period. Three at least of the Gospels were written in Greek, as well as most of the other books of the New Testament. Many of the Fathers of the early Church also wrote in the Greek language. The translation of the He- brew Scriptures into Greek (the Septuagint), by the Seventy, 162 Ancient History. has already been referred to iu connection with the history of Alexandria under the Ptolemies. 141. Books and Writing. The books of the ancient Greeks were very different from those of modern times. They were written by hand on long sheets of paper, made from the bark of the Egyptian plant papyrus. These sheets were rolled on a staff; hence the name volume, a roll. The title of the book was usually written on a tag, suspended to the roll. Sometimes parch- ment was used instead of paper. A reed sharp- ened and split at the point served as a pen; and Books. Pens and ink. the ink was a black or red pigment, kept in inkstands of c a tL Writing Materials op the Greeks. various forms. Letters, memoranda, etc., were written upon wax-covered tablets (c) by means of a sharp in- strument, of ivory or metal, called a stylus, which usually had a flattened end for erasing (a, c?); Tablets and stylus. but sometimes a broad erasing instrument {b) was used. IV. Greek Art. 142. Greek art dates back beyond the Homeric perix)d, as is evident from the remains found at Myccna3 and other places, which sliow that statuary, drawing, design- ing, and painting n ust have already made con- siderable progress. But it was d iring the ])ori<)d immediately succeeding the Persian War that Greek art reached its culmi- Early art. : Grecian Cimlization. 163 nation, in those masterpieces of architecture and sculpture which the highest genius of the modern world has scarcely approached, much less surpassed.* It was in these two arts that the Greeks especially excelled; for, although they had some great painters, the Architecture and sculpture. highest achievements in painting, as well as in music, were left to subsequent peoples and times. Doric. Ionic. Corinthian. The Three Orders of Greek Architecture. 143. There were three styles or orders of architecture during the classic period, which are still recognized by builders: the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, the difference * Speaking of the Parthenon, at Athens, Ferguson says in his History of Archi- tecture : " In its own class it is undoubtedly the most beautiful building in the world. It is true it has neither the dimensions nor the wondrous expression of power and eternity inherent in Egyptian temples ; nor has it the variety and poetry of the Gothic cathedral ; but for intellectual beauty, for perfection of proportion, for beauty of detail, and for the exquisite perception of the highest and most recondite principles of art ever applied to architecture, it stands uttei'ly alone and unrivale4— the ^lorjr of Greece and the shame of the rest of the world." 164 Ancient History, depending chiefly on the character of the column. Of these the Doric is the oldest, being, as its name implies, tlie style used by the ancient Dorians. It was plain and massive, but of graceful proportions. Orders erf architecture. The column is usually without a base, and the capital desti- tute of ornament. The finest example of this style is the famous Parthenon (House of the Doric. Virgin), a magnificent temple of Athene, erected under the supervision of Phidias, on the Acropolis at Athens. The remains of the great temples at P^estum, in southern Italy, present some fine specimens of the ancient Doric style. The great temple at Delphi, and that of Juno, at Sa- mos, the largest temple which Herodotus ever saw, were built in this style. The latter was about 350 feet in length and 190 in breadth. 144. The Ionic de- rived its name from the Ionic Capital. Greek cities in lonia, where it was first used. Its characteristics are lightness, gracefulness, and tastefulness of ornament. The shaft of the column is slender, and rests upon a Ionic. base; and the capital is adorned by spiral volutes. The great temple of Diana, at Ephesus, commenced about 600 B.C., was of this order. Its length was 425 feet, and its breadth 220 feet. The Corinthian is really a modification of the Ionic, and abounds in graceful ornamentation. Its capital is said to have been suggested to the Corinthian. mind of Cal-lim'a-chus, the celebrated sculptor, by seeing a basket covered by a tile and overgrown by tlie leaves of an acanthus. The earliest building in this style is the monument of Ly-sic'ra-tes, sometimes called the Lantern of Demosthenes, Grecian Cwilization. 165 built in 335 B.C. The Corinthian style was usually selected for buildings requiring peculiar elegance and delicacy, as temples dedicated to Venus, etc. 145. Sculpture, or statuary, like architecture, owed its origin to religion. The first statues were those of the gods. These were at first very rude and uncouth. The adornment of the temples by figures in relief preceded the sculpture of detached figures. We have Sculpture. an example of this in the two lions that still exist over the gate- way of the ancient city of Mycenae. It was in the period of The Parthenon, Restoeed. Athenian greatness that this beautiful art reached its perfec- tion, under the great masters, Phidias, Po-ly-cle'tus, My'ron, and Prax-it'i-les. It was Phidias that executed the ornamental statuary for the Parthenon, and carved the great statue of Athene placed within that splendid temple. The Olympian Zeus at Elis was another of his works. 146. Painting among the Greeks was of later develop- ment than sculpture, but never reached the same degree of excellence. The Greek paintings were in water colors or in wax, as oil colors were not known. Painting, Contemporary with Phidias at Athens was Pol-yg-no'tus, the first Grecian painter of fame. He devoted himself to the 166 Ancietit History, adornment of many of the public buildings of Athens; the Painted Porch (PceciU Stoa), where Zeno afterward taught, was among his works. Under Zeux'is and Par-rha'si-us, paint- ing reached a far higher degree of advancement, as the fol- lowing interesting incident related of those two artists shows. In a trial of skill, Zeuxis painted a bunch of grapes so naturally that the birds came and picked at them; but Parrhasius said, ** Now draw aside the curtain that covers my picture;" and on attempting to do so, Zeuxis found that the curtain was the picture, and at once con- ceded the palm of superiority to his rival. "I paint very slowly," said Zeuxis at one time, '* but I paint for eternity." The greatest paint- er of the time of Alexander was A-pel'les, who had the exclusive privilege of painting the Macedon- ian monarch's portrait. The most beautiful work of Apelles was the picture of Venus rising from the sea {Aphrodite A7i-a-dy-om^e-ne).* 146. The various arts of design were carried by the Greeks to the greatest degree of perfection. In all these they showed a taste of the highest delicacy and refinement, in many things affording a standard for all subse- A Grecian Vase. Arts of design. quent times. Not only in architecture and sculpture was Greek art illustrated, but in the internal decorations of their • Apelles was not ashamed to learn from the humhlest critics in things which they understood; and he used to exhibit his pictures before his house, and conceal himself so as to hear the remarks of those passing by. On one occasion a shoe- malcer found fault with the shoes of one of his figures; and noticing aft<'rward that it was corrected, ventured to make further criticisms, when Apelles rushed out and bade th» •'cobbler \/Q ^t^VK t? We Jftst." Hence the maxim: Ne sutor Grecian Civilization. 167 houses, their elaborately painted walls and ceilings, their ornamental tiling, their tastefully constructed furniture, their beautiful vases, and other vessels both for ornament and use, and their jewelry (see page 170). In all these they showed a genius for the invention of beautiful forms which has never been surpassed. V. Social Life and Manners. 147. In considering the social life of the Greeks in general, the Athenians may be taken as a model, with but few qualifi- cations. The Spartan ^ institutions, which were totally dissimilar, have been already described. The difference between the Greek civilization and Gre«k civilization. our own, in regard to morals and manners, was the effect chiefly of their widely different ideas in respect to religion, tlieir peculiar physical and intellectual character, and the traditions of their ancestors. Their religious notions were strong, as has been already stated, but were not capable of elevating them to a high degree of spirituality in their daily lives, or of inspiring them with an exalted morality, or unsel- fish regard for others. The institution of slavery was also a fruitful source of corruption in the manners and institutions of this refined people. 148. In the better class of dwelling-houses, there was a division into two sets of apartments — for the men and the women respectively. Each set was built in the form of a square with an open court in the in- terior, usually paved and sometimes ornamented Dwelling- houses. with a fountain in the center. The rooms were entered from porticoes round this square. The street door opened into a wide lobby leading directly into the men's court, across which a passage led into the women's court. Attached to the women's apartments were halls for spinning, weaving, and other household work. The heating was by fireplaces, and by the side of the hearth were the images of the household 168 Ancient History. gods; and at the street door there was usually an image as well as an altar. * The chief peculiarity in respect to the fur- niture was the use of sofas or couches, instead of chairs, when at meals. Glass was not used; and the dishes and other vessels were of pottery, metal, or wood. Mirrors were usually made of polished bronze. Lamps of various forms were used, some of very beautiful designs. 149. The Greeks, as a rule, had but two meals a day, one in the morning and the other toward evening, which was the principal meal. They were not luxurious Meals. eaters; bread made of wheat, flour, or barley was used as a portion of each meal, with flesh or fish, the former always used sparingly, with various kinds of vegetables. Ban- quets were served with fish of various kinds, Food. also flesh and fowl, followed by sweetmeats and fruits, such as olives, figs, nuts, and fresh fruits in season. At the symposium that succeeded the meal, wine was copiously drunk, f Conversation, music, or games amused the com- pany. They used no knives or forks; hence, the food was served cut up into pieces, which were taken up with the fingers. Convivial feasts were frequent; and of these the * These household gods were the daimones, corresponding to the Lares and Penates of the Romans. " The Lares were the spirits of the ancestors of each family, who exercised after death a protecting power over the well-being and prosperity of the family to which they had in life belonged. The place of honor beside the hearth was occupied by the statue of the Lar of the house, who was supposed to have been the founder of the family. This statue was the object of profound veneration, and was honored on all occasions by every member of the family. The first act of a bride on entering her new abode was to do homage to the Lar." The Penates were deities selected by each family for special protection and guardianship. If, for example, a child was born during the festival of Vesta, that goddess was assumed as its special guardian. If a youth excelled in business talent, Mercury was often selected as his guardian deity; if in music, Apollo; and so on. These then became the patron deities of the household, and their Images adorned the hearth. There were also evil spirits, called Lemures, who were believed to haunt their former abodes, their crimes depriving them of rest To propitiate these, the festival called Lemura'lia was instituted by the Romans. t The wine was not used as drawn from the flasks, being mixed with water In a large vessel, like a punch-bowl. A person, called the symposiarch, was selected by the company to regulate the drinking, and prevent excess. Grecian Civilization. 169 symposium formed the principal part. From these dinner and drinking parties the women of the house were excluded; but music and dancing were per? Feasts. formed in the presence of the guests by hired artists, often females. The company were expected to be dressed in their most elegant attire, with wreaths of flowers on their heads ; and, during the feast, they reclined on couches, before which small tables were placed. Plato and Xeno- jihon have left in their works (the Symposia) vivid descriptions of these banquets. 160. The costume of males and females, among the Greeks, did not differ as much as with us. It con- sisted essentially of an inner and outer covering. Costume. The former was a loose dress {chiton) of woolen or linen, worn short by men, but extending down to the feet of women. As the outer covering of the latter did not entirely envelop the body, being something like a shawl, this under-dress was often highly orna- mented, and consisted of the richest material. The outer garment of men consisted of a large piece of cloth, worn in graceful folds, as seen in the statues, being so coiled on the shoulders as to leave the right arm free. This was called by the Greeks the M-mat'i-on; by the Eomans, the paVlium. It was often fringed or otherwise ornamented. Usually it was thrown over the left shoulder, then drawn behind the back and under the right arm, and then thrown over the left shoulder ao^ain. lli'r;':iii"iinllilllllillliii!ill|iiiillilll Athenian Female Costume 170 Ancient History. Sometimes it was fastened on the right shoulder by a button or brooch; it was then called the chlam'ySf or scarf. The women had a great variety of modes of dressing their hair. Coverings for the feet were worn only out of doors. These varied from the simple sandal to a full covering, like the modern gaiter or short boot. The ladies adorned themselves with jewelry of various forms, often of very beautiful and artistic designs.* at Gymnasiums. Earrings, Bracelets, Necklaces, etc. 161. Gymnasiums, or places for exercise, were provided the public expense. These included provision for the physical and also the intellectual training of youth. The exercises consisted of running, leap- ing, throwing the javelin or the discus, or quoit, shooting with the bow and arrow, wrestling, and boxing. The ob- ject was to cultivate physical vigor, and thus to make the • The cut represents articles of this deseriptioc found in various parts of Greece: hair-pin (a), ear-rings and pendant (6, c, d, /), armlets (g, h), necklaces (c, »). The form of the coiled serpent w^ a ff^vofi^ one for armlets aa well M for ringa used for the lower limbic Grecian Cimlization. 171 citizens able-bodied soldiers, when their military services were needed. But in the later years, the gymnasiums de- generated into mere lounging places, or pleasure grounds. The porticoes were the resort of philosophers, rhetoricians, and sophists (learned men), who discussed in public moral and metaphysical questions, which interested so much the Greek mind. 152. Boys were generally instructed in schools; but those of wealthy parents had also a pcedagogue, or private tutor, whose office it was to watch over them when out of school. He was rather a guardian than a Education. teacher, and was usually selected from the slaves. The branches taught included the reading of the poets, from whose works passages were committed to memory; also music, under which the Greeks comprehended singing, playing on the lyre, and the recitation of poetical compositions. At the age of eighteen or twenty, the sons of the affluent often attended lectures on philosophy, oratory, etc. , in the Lyceum, Academy, or other institution.* 163. Women were not treated by the Greeks as entitled to the consideration due to the other sex, being accorded only a position between freemen and slaves. They re- ceived only a scanty education at home, and were expected to devote themselves to weaving, spin Treatment of females. ning, and other household employments. They were confined to their own apartments, being permitted but i-arely to leave the house. They had the management of the servants, who were slaves ; and were expected to tak t Aristophanes represents, in one of his plays, " all the boys of Athens going in crowds to their schools early in the morning, and not even deterred by the heaviest snow. He describes the strict supervision and discipline under which they were *cept, how every gesture was watched, and every transgression strictly punished. He also lauds the graceful gymnastic exercises, and the fine bodily condition which this training had produced."— J/a/ia^«/'s Social Life in Greece. 172 Ancient History. called He-tce'rcBy principally foreigners, who lived in a state of greater social freedom, occupying houses of their own, and receiving guests and visitors of both sexes. They were usually distinguished not only for personal beauty and grace of man- ners, but for literary genius and culture, and are spoken of as the "most witty and brilliant talkers at Athens." To this class belonged the celebrated Aspasia, the friend and after- ward the wife of Pericles. 166. Slavery was a recognized institution; and slaves were very numerous and of all classes and grades, including do- mestic servants, agricultural laborers, and artisans. Slaves were employed by the government to exe- Slavery. cute the public works. These slaves were generally foreigners, or, as the Greeks called them, barbarians. Many Asiatic and Thracian tribes sold their children into slavery; and the buy- ing and selling of slaves was a regular business at Athens and other parts of Greece. Children born of slave women were invariably held as slaves. Menial slaves were almost wholly at the mercy of their masters and mistresses. Slaves were sometimes tortured to compel them to make confession of their guilt, or the guilt of their masters. * 166. The industrial arts and occupations of the Greeks were numerous and complicated. They worked the mines of silver, copper, and iron, and obtained marble and other building stone from the quarries. Their Industrial arts. manufacturing industries included spinning and weaving, pottery, the making of arms and armor, gold and silver orna- ments, hardware of various kinds, furniture, etc. All these employed large numbers of people ; besides whom were the shopkeepers, tradesmen, merchants, and agriculturists. The wholesale trade of Athens was at the seaport, Piraeus; but ♦ " It was not the custom to torture slaves who (?ave evidence to a fact, but only If they denied any knowledge, or appeared to supprtiss It in the interest of their master. On the other hand, it was common enough to torture female slaves, and also free men.^^—Mahaffy''s Snriitl Life in (h-rece. Oredan Cimlization. 173 most of the every-day retail business was carried on in the town -markets. * 167. The Greeks were very fond of music, but they do not seem to have made much progress in it, either as a science or an art. They played on stringed instruments, such as the harp and lyre, and simple wind instru- ments, as the double and simple pipe; but these were too poor to afford much melody. Among the Athenians, par- ticularly, musical ac- Music. complishments were very highly prized ; and as a source of entertainment music was generally culti- vated. At feasts and social gatherings, fe- male musicians were hired to heighten the enjoyment of the guests. In the cut we have a representation of performers on the lyre, the cithara, and a kind of harp {trigdnon).\ * The following is a picturesque description of a market scene at Athens:— " All the wants of the day, from bariey-groats up to the most dainty fish, from garlic to the incense of the gods; clear pure oil, and the most exquisite ointments; fresh-made cheese, and the sweet honey of the bees of Hymettus; cooks ready to l.e hired; slaves, male and female, on sale — all and several were to be foimd in abxmdance at their customary stands in the market-place. There were others who went about crying their wares; while, every now and then, a public crier crossed the gToimds, announcing with stentorian voice the airival of some goods to be sold, or the sale of some house, or perhaps a reward for the apprehension of a robber or runaway slave. Slaves of both sexes, as well as freemen, kept walking up and down, bargaining, and inspecting the stalls in search of their daily require- ments."— -Pecfcer's Charicles. t The word mvsic is here used in its modem sense; but with the Greeks it had a much wider meaning. " It comprehended, " says Grote, " everji;hing appertaining to the Nine Muses; not merely learning the use of the lyre, or how to bear part in a chorus, but also the hearing, learning, and repeating of poetical compositions, as well as the practice of exact and elegant pronunciation ; which latter accomplish- ment, in a language like the Greek, must have been far more difficult to acquire than it is in any modem European language." 174 Ancie9it History, 158. The Greeks were very attentive to the rites of sepul- ture; for when the remains were unburied, it was thought the soul wandered in Hades without rest. Funeral rites. not being permitted to cross the river Styx into the realms of happiness.* Hence, immediately after death, a small coin (obolus) was placed in the mouth of the deceased to pay the ferryman Charon for taking his shade across the dark river. On the day of the funeral, the body was carried out, ac- companied by the relatives and friends as mourners, with hired women making lamentations, and a chorus of flute- players. The remains were either burned or buried ; and in th« latter case graves, vaults, or tombs were used for the final disposition of the body. For the burning of the body, piles of wood called puree (pyres) were used, and oils and perfumes were thrown into the flames. When t^he pyre had burned down, the remains were extinguished with wine, and the bones were collected, washed with wine and oil, and placed in urns. The latter were sometimes made of gold. The bodies not burned were buried in coffins usually made of baked clay or earthenware. Vases and various other articles were depos- ited in the grave with the deceased. At certain times, sacrifice was performed at the tomb, and flowers were brought to deco- rate the grave. * Thus in Homer's Iliad, the phantom of Patroclus appears to his friend Achilles in a vision, and entreats burial: *' Let ray pale coi-se the rites of burial know. And give me entrance to the reahns below: Till then the spirit finds no resting-place. But here and there the unbodied specters chase The vagrant dead around the dark abode. Forbid to cross the irremeable flood. "—Piope'a Homer. In the regions of Hades, there were four great rivers, three of which had to be crossed by all the spirits of the dead,— Ach'eron (sorrow), Cocy'tus (lamentation), and Styx (intense darkness), the sacred stream which flowed nine times round these realms. On the opposite bank of Styx, was the tribunal of Minos, tlie supreme judge^ before whom all had to appear, and who, after listening to a confession of their earthly deeds, pronoimeed sentence upon them. The happy spirit.s pa.'wed into Ely- sium, a blissful region filled with everything to charm the senses and ph'ase tlie Imagination: the wicked were condemned to abide hi the gloomy realms of despair. Remew Outline. 175 Review Outline. Chronology. First Period, from the earliest limes to 776 b.c. Troy burned, 1184 B.C. Cecrops at Athens, 1550 B.C. Cadmus in Boeotia, 1493 B.C. Pelops, 1300 B.C. Migrations of the tribes, 1200 b.c. Dorian migration, 1134 B.C. Second Period, from 776 B.C. to 500 B.C. About 776 B.C. Messenian wars, 743-733 B.C. 685-668 B.C. 634 B.C. 594 B.C. 560-510 B.C. 510 B.C. The history of Greece during the first period is legendary or traditional. It refers to the Pelasgi and other early races, the remains of whose architecture still exist. It abounds in stories of mythical heroes, such as Hercules, Theseus, etc. ; and hence is called the Heroic Age. There are many events, such as the Argonautic Expedition and the Trojan War, which the poets used as the basis of their poems. Foreign colonies were planted in different parts of Greece during this early period — of the Egyptians, under Cecrops, at Athens ; of the Phcenicians, under Cadmus, in Boeotia; of the Phrygians, under Pelops, in the Peloponnesus. To this succeeded the great migiatory movement, which resulted in the settlement of the Dorians in the Peloponnesus, the lonians in Attica, and the establishment of the ^olian, Ionian, and Dorian colonies in Asia Minor. During the later Dorian migration Codrus, the last king of Athens, sacrificed his life for his country. At the second period the authentic history of Greece begins— at the date of the first Olympiad (776 b.c). The principal events of this period were: The legislation of Lycurgus at Sparta. The first and second Messenian wars, between Sparta and Messeuia. After centuries of anarchy, Draco attempted to construct a code of laws for Athens. The laws of Solon— the institution of Archons. The usurpation of Pisistratus and his sons Hippias and Hipparchus. The administration of Cleisthenes, and the institu- tion of the Ostracism. 176 Ancient History. 650-500 B.C. 625-5«5 B.C. Third Period, 500-449 B.C. 485 B.C. Persian War, 492-449 B.C. 492 B.C. 490 B.C. 490-480 B.C. 483 B.C. 480 B.C. 479 B.C. 471 B.C. 471 B.C, 468 B.C. 461 B.C. Affe of Pericles, 461^29 B.C. 449 B.C. Fourth Period, 449-358 B.C. 447 B.C. 431-404 B.C. Age of Despots in Greece. Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Revolt of the Ionian colonies against Persia. This revolt lasted six years, and ended in the taking of Miletus, and the subjugation of the colonies. The aid given by Athens to the lonians drew down the wrath of Darius upon all Greece. This led to the naval expedition of Mardonius, which was wrecked at Mt. Athos ; and the expedition of Datis and Artaphernes, which was defeated by the Athenians in the battle of Marathon. Themistocles and Aristides became rivals for popu- lar favcr at Athens during this period, but Aris- tides was banished by the Ostracism. Xerxes, the successor of Darius, attacked Greece with an immense fleet and army. The fleet was defeated at Salamis. The army was checked at Thermopylae, by Leonidas; and was defeated at Platea, by Pausanias. The latter was afterward found guilty of treason and put to death. This led to the formation of an Ionian league, called the "Confederacy of Delos," under the leadership of Athens, and directed by Aristides. It lasted about 70 years. Themistocles, being implicated in the treason of Pau- sanias, was driven into exile. The glorious career of Aristides was terminated by his death. The government of Athens was for a few years administered by Cimon, the son of Miltiados ; but Pericles, having caused his banishment, assumed the control of affairs, which he retained till his deatli (429 B.C.). Termination of the Persian war, after an Athenian victory at Cyprus. Rebellion of Boeotia, and defeat of the Athenians at Coroneia. The rivalsbip between Athens and Sparta finally brought on tlie Pfloponnesian War — between the Ionian and Dorian states, led by Athens and Remew Outline. 177 429 B.C. 413 B.C. 405 B.C. 404 B.C. 403 B.C. Retreat of the Ten Thousand, 401 B.C. 399 B.C. Battle of Coronea, 394 B.C. Peace of Antal- cidas, 387 B.C. Battle of Leuctra, 371 B.C. Battle of Man tinea. 362 B.C. Fifth Period, 338-301 B.C. Social war, 358-355 B.C. Sacred war, 357-346 B.C. Battle of Chsero- nea, 338 B.C. Death of Philip, 336 B.C. Battle of Granicus, 334 B.C. Of Issus, 333 B.C. Of Arbela,33lB.c. Sparta respectively. It lasted twenty-seven years, the chief events being: The plague at Athens, and death of Pericles. The defeat of Nicias at Syracuse. The destruction of the Athenian fleet under Conon, by Lysander. at JEgospotamos. Final defeat of Athens; capture of the city. The magistrates called the Thirty Tyrants were ex- pelled by Thrasybulus. The expedition of Cyrus the Younger and the famous retreat of the Ten Thousand, under Xenophon, was an episode of this period. Socrates was put to death at Athens on account of his religious opinions. Agesilaus, a Spartan king and general, defended his country against a league formed by Athens, Thebes, and other states, their combined forces being defeated at Coronea ; but the same year* Athens regained her naval supremacy by the vic- tory of Conon over the Spartan fleet, at Cnidus. A few years after, the Spartans negotiated a dis- graceful treaty with the Persians through their emissary Antalcidas. In a war between Thebes and Sparta, Epaminondas gained two glorious victories, one at Leuctrsi. and the other at Man- tinea, in which he was mortally wounded. A revolt of the Athenian allies brought on the Social War, which was followed by the Sacred War, in which Philip of Macedon was enabled to interfere in the affaire of Greece; and subsequent- ly defeated the forces of Thebes and Athens at Chseronea. After the death of Philip, Alexander ascended the throne of Macedonia; and having crushed all opposition in Greece, set out to conquer Persia. He defeated the Persians at the Granicus, then in the battle of Issus; and finally at Arbela, which decided the war, and gave Persia to the Mace- donian conqueror. He extended his conquests further, to the East, crossing the Indus; but his 178 Ancient History, 323 B.C. Battle of Lamia, 332 B.C. Battle of Ipsus, 301 B.C. Sixth Period, 301-146 B.C. 286 B.C. Achaean League, under Aratus, 243 B.C. Victory of Philo- poemen over the Spartans and the Romans, 207 B.C. 183 B.C. 197 B.C. 168 B.C. 146 B.C. Kingdom of tJie SeUuddoB, 812-65 B.C. Kingdom of the Ptolemies, 323-30 B.C. doldiers, worn out with their toils, compelled him to return. Alexander died at Babylon, at the age of 32. This was followed by the Lamian war, caused by the attempt of Athens to regain her freedom; but it was closed by the defeat of Leosthenes, the Athenian geueral, at Lamia. A series of conflicts ensued among the "successors of Alexander," terminating for a while in the battle of Ipsus, after which Greece and Macedonia were assigned to Cassander; Egypt to Ptolemy; the greatest part of Asia Minor to Lysimachus; and the eastern part, from the Syrian coast to the Euphrates, to Seleucus, Subsequently, Lysi- machus conquered Macedonia, but being after- ward defeated by Seleucus, the latter obtained nearly the whole of Alexander's empire, except Egypt, which was under the rule of Ptolemy. The Grecian states formed several leagues to defend themselves against the tyranny of the Macedonian kings, the chief of these being the Achaean and ^tolian leagues. The former, under Aratus and Philopoemen, gained great glory. Philopa^men was barbarously put to death by the Messenians. Philip, king of Macedon, was defeated by the Ro- mans, in the famous battle of CynoscephaltB ; and, some years afterward, the latter gained a victory over Perseus, the last king of Macedon, in the battle of Pydna. Macedonia then became a Roman province; and, twenty-two years later, Greece was finally subdued by tlie Romans. The kingdom of the Seleucida* was founded by Seleucus L {Nicator), and la.sted about two and a half centuries. Its capital was Antioch. Its chief monarchs, after Seleucus I., were Antiochus I. (Soter) and Antiochus IIL (the Great). There were, in the whole dynasty, twenty kings. The kingdom of the Ptolemies founded by Ptolemy Lagi, one of Alexander's generals, lasted under the same line of iponarchs for nearly three cen- Review Outline, 179 Death of Cleopa- tra, 30 B.C. 283-133 B.C. 400-74 B.C. 400-102 B.C. 363-63 B.C. 815 B.C.-17 A.D. 190b.c.-114a.d. 355-160 B.C. 255 B.c- A.D. turies. Alexandria was enlarged and enriched, and became the greatest emporium in the world. Science, art, and literature flourished under the Ptolemies. The Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt became a Roman province after Cleopatra, the last queen, with Antony, had been defeated by the Romans, under Octavius, at Actium. The minor kingdoms formed out of the Macedonian Empire were the following: Pergamus, founded by an officer of Lysimachus; became a Roman province. Bithynia, bequeathed to the Romans. Paphlagonia, conquered by Mithridates. Pontus, independent till absorbed by the Romans. Cappadocia, formed after revolt from Macedonia; conquered by the Romans, Armenia, revolted from Antiochus the Great; con- quered by the Romans. Bactria, satrapy of Persia; a province of the Syrian Empire; then independent, till overwhelmed by the Parthians. Partliia, formed by revolt from the Syrian Empire; conquered by the later Persians. Topical Kevtew. STATESMEN AND GENERALS. In what period did they livef What was their character? With what events were they con- nected? PAGE Lycurgus 93 Solon 97 Pisistratus 97 Clisthenes 98 Miltiades 100, 101 Leonidas. 101, 102 Ttiemij^toQles ,,.,.,..,,,,.403, 104 PAGE Aristides 103, 104, 10.5 Pausaiiias 103 Cimon 106, 107 Pericles 106, 107, 109 Alcibiades 110 Lysander Ill Epaminondas 115, 116 Agesilaus 114, 115, 116 Leosthenes 125 Phocion 125 Agis 124,125 Aratus 131 PbJlopoem§ii...,.,,.,,,,f.,,,,..,.J3«, 133 180 Ancient History. POETS. When did they live? What works did they write? Character of their vyritingsf Homer. 90,155 Hesiod 155 Archilochus 155 Tyrtaeus 155 Arion 155 Alcseus 155 Sappho 155 Anacreon 155 Simonides 156 Pindar 156 iEschylus 156 Sophocles 157 Euripides 157 Theocritus 160 Bion 160 Moschus 160 ApoUonius Rhodius 160 PHILOSOPHERS. When did they live? Character of their teachings? Thalesof MUetus 156 Xenophanes 156 Pythagoras 156 Socrates 111,112, 157 Plato 158 Anaxagoras 158 Xenocrates 158 Diogenes 158 Aristippus 158 Democritus 158 Epicurus 158 Zeno 158 Aristotle 159 Euclid 160 ApoUonius (Math.) 161 Ptolemy 161 HISTORIANS. When did they live? What did they xoritet Herodotus. 157 Tliucydides 157 Xenoption..' t 157 PAOK Polybius. 161 Dionysius Halicamassus 161 Diodorus Siculus. 161 Plutarch 161 Josephus 161 ARTISTS. When did they litx? For what xoorks were they noted? Phidias 164, 165 Callimachus 1 W Polycletus 165 Myron 165 Praxitiles 166 Polygnotus 165 Zeuxis 166 Parrhasius 166 Apelles 166 MISOELLANEOUS. When did they live? For what noted? Demosthenes . : 160 JEschines 160 Isocrates 160 Lysias 160 Aristophanes 160 Aristarchus 160 Galen 161 Strabo 161 Lucian 161 DECISIVE BATTLES. When were they fought? What led to them? What resulted therefrom? Marathon 100 Salamis 100 PlatSBa 108 JEgospotAvaoB. Ill Cimaxa US Chfrronea 119 Arbela 119 Lamia 1» Cynoscephalae 188 Pydna 188 Actlura lil CHAPTER in. Roman Histort. SECTION I. Early Histoey of Italy. 1. The people who dwelt in Italy at the earliest times to which our knowledge extends consisted principally of five races: the Li-gu'ri-ans, the Venetians, the I-a-pyg'- ians, the Italians proper, and the E-trus'cans. Of Early races. these the first and second were weak and comparatively un- important, since they exerted but little influence upon the general history of Italy. The lapygians, who were probably among the earliest settlers, inhabited the extreme south-east- ern part of the peninsula, called Mes-sa'pi-a by the Greeks, by the Romans Ca-la'bri-a. They were. lapygians. as their language denotes, nearly related to the Greeks, and probably emigrated from Greece into southern Italy. 2. The Italians proper occupied nearly the whole of cen- tral Italy. They appear to have come from the north, and to have pressed back the semi-Greek settlers of the i ; southern portion of the peninsula. They com- 1 prised two branch stocks — the Latins and the TJmbro-Sabel'- lians, the latter including the Um'brians, Sa'bines, Sam-ni'tes, Sabellians, Os'cans, and other divisions or offshoots. The Geographical Study. WTiat was the situation of : iJiTivM? Etruria? Umbria? Calabria? Campania? Territory of the Sabines? Cisalpine Gaul? Rubicon R. ? Metaurus R. ? Tiber R.? Rome? Ostia? Tusculum? Clusium? Veii? Brundisium? Neapolis (Naples)? Cumae? Syracuse? Messana? Agrigentum? Rhegium? Croton? Sybaris? Taren- tum? Benev^ntum? 182 Ancient History. Latins settled near the Tiber, and, being hemmed in by sur- rounding races, were confined to a plain, about 700 square miles in extent, between the Tiber Latins. and the spurs of the Apennines on the north, and the Alban hills on the south. The Umbrians entered Italy later than the Latins, and settled first in E-tru'ria, from which they spread oyer the eastern part of the peninsula. [See map VI.] 3. The Etruscans, or Etrurians, were at first located to the north of the Po, but afterward occupied the plain of that river, where they had a confederacy of twelve cities. Later, they entered Etruria, pressing the Etruscans. Umbrians to the east, or subduing them ; and there they formed a second confederacy, also of twelve members. These people, unlike the lapygians and the Italians, were probably of Turanian origin. They were a stout, muscular race, short in stature, with large heads and thick arms, presenting a marked contrast to the graceful, slender Italians. They had many superstitions, and were given to divination and magic; but they made rapid advancement in civilization, and became the best architects of all the races in Italy.* They also showed great energy in maritime enterprise, as well as skill in the mechanic arts.f 4. The Romans belonged to the Italic race. They nour- ished the tradition in after times that they were the descend- ants of the Trojan prince ^-ne'as, who escaped from the conflagration of Troy, and sailed with a Romans. colony to Italy, landing on the shores of Latium (lah'shc-tim), the seat of the Latin race at that time. It is this legend that forms the plot of Virgil's beautiful poem, the iE-ne'id. But for this there is no more historical evidence than there is for the ♦ The invention of the arch, in its propet construction, has been attributed to the Etruscans, as also the composition of an order of architecture called the Tuscan, a species of simple Doric. The early Romans employed Etruscan archi- tects in erecting their buildings. tThe Tuscans or Etruscans, the most powerful nation in the Dortb, cUffeTed io race completely from all the other Inhabitants. Early History of Italy, 183 story of the vestal Ehe'a Silvia, the daughter of a Latin king, and her twins Kom'u-lus and Ke'mus, whose father was Mars. This legend states that Rhea was put to death for having violated her vow of chastity, and that her two infant sons were cast out to die, but that they Romulus and Remus. were suckled by a she-woK, until they were found by a shep- herd, who carried them home and educated them; and that, on arriving at manhood, tliey discovered their true origin, restored their grandfather to the throne of Alba Longa, from which he had been dethroned by his brother, and afterward founded a new city, which was called Rome, after Romulus.* Synopsis of the Eaces of Italy. 1. ABYAN OR INDO-ETIEOPEAN. I. Iapygian. n. Italian. 1. Latins. 2. Umbro-Sabelliaus. a. Umbrians. 6. Sabellians [Samnites, Oscans, Sabines, Marsi, Volsci, etc.]. 2. TURANIAN (?). I. Etruscans. * " When Romulus and Remus grew up, the herdsmen of the Palatine Hi ll chanced to have a quarrel with the herdsmen of Numitor [the dethroned king], who stalled their cattle on the hill Aventinus. Numitor's herdsmen laid an am- bush, and Remus fell into it, and was taken and carried off to Alba. But when the young man was brought before Numitor, he was struck with his noble air and bearing, and asked him who he was. And when Remus told him of his birth, and how he had been saved from death, together with his brother, Numitor marveled, and thought whether this might not be his own daughter's [Rhea's] child. In the mean wnile, Faustulus [the adopted father] and Romulus hastened to Alba to de- liver RemuS^; and by the help of the young men of the Palatine Hill, who had been u.sed to follow him and his brother, Romulus took the city, and AmuUus [the usiu-per] was killed; and Numitor was made king, and owned Romulus and Rewvifi to be born of his own blood,"— ^dmpWs History of Borne, 184 Ancient History, SECTION 11. The Romak Kingdom. 6. Setting aside the old legend regarding the foundation of Rome, as unsupported by any historical evidence, we may conclude, from what history tells us, that there was a settle- ment made by one of the Latin tribes, called the Ram'nians, or Romans, on the Pal'a-tine hill, on the left bank of the Tiber, about eighteen miles Foundation of Rome. from its mouth (753 B.C.). This settlement appears to have been soon joined by two of the other Latin cantons,* and from its advantageous situation it rapidly increased in influence and numbers. Subordinate at first to Alba Longa (the long white city), the metropolis of the Latin confederacy, it finally, after a long contest, subdued and destroyed that ancient city, and assumed the headship of Latium. 6. The government of Rome, at first, was like that of all the other Latin cantons. All the heads of families partici- pated on an equal footing in the rights of citi- zenship. By these the king was chosen for life, Government. and he had the privilege of selecting a council of elders (pa'- tres), called the senate. In the public assemblies (comitia curiata), convened by the king, the citizens enacted laws, and gave their assent to war or peace. \ The transfer of people to * Among the Latins, " the households were united, by ties of blood or by near- ness of locality, into clans; and the householders' dwellings formed the clan villages, which were united, and all formed a canton. Each canton had a common center, where justice was administered and the markets held. Around this cen- tral town, which was always situated on an elevated and easily defensible position, suburbs grew up, which formed the nucleus of the early I.Atin towns. The different Latin cantons united into a league, with Alba Longa at their head, known as the league of the thirty Latin cities."— Z/Cig^^on's History of Rome. + The citizens were divided into three tribes, each tribe into ten curt'cc, each curia into ten gentes, and each gena into ten households. According to this scheme, there were 80 curice, 300 gentes, and 8000 households, which thus formed the com- munity, or popultis. Every household was required to furnish one foot-soldier, and each gens a horseman; so that the army originally consisted of 8000 foot-soldiers »nd 300 cavalry. The senate consisted of three hundred members, one for each gens. The Roman Kingdom. 185 Rome from the conquered cities of Latium affected the popu- lation by introducing a new element, consisting of those who had no political rights or privileges. This formed the distinction between the patricians, or nobles, and the plebeians, or common people. It was the Patricians and plebeians. former that constituted the state; since they exercised all the political power, possessed the honors, and rendered service in the army. There were also clients and slaves, the former being bound to their patrician patrons ; the latter, held in absolute bondage, and bought and sold at pleasure. 7. The history of Rome as a kingdom is traditionary, for most of the records of its early history were destroyed when the Gauls, several centuries later, burned the city. Seven kings, it is said, ruled in succession, including Romulus, the reputed founder, who or- ganized the government Kings. of the city; but even their names seem to be uncertain. Nu'ma Pom-pil'i-us, the second king, was a Sabine, and, according to the traditions, was the Vicinity of Rome. founder of the religious institutions of the Romans. He reformed the calendar, and erected a temple to Janus, at the entrance of the forum. The gates of this temple were closed only in times of peace. 8. Tul'lus Hos-til'i-us, the third king, was noted for the Numa. wars which he waged against the neighboring cities. was who broke the power of the Latins, and de- stroyed Alba. An'cus Martins (mar'she-us), the fourth king, the grandson of Numa, gained ad- He it Tulius Hostilius. ditional victories over the Latins and extended his conquests into Etruria. He built the port of Ostia, fortified the Jani- culan hill, and constructed the first bridge across the Tiber. H^ ^Iso gettjed sQver^l thousand qI the conquered Latius on 186 AncieTvt History, the Ayentine hill at Rome, thus laying the foundation of the plebeian order. An Etruscan dynasty succeeded, the first of which, Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin the Elder), the fifth king of Rome, was noted for the public buildings and other works which he caused to be constructed. Among these were the great sewer {clo-a'ca Tarquin the Elder. ServiusTullius. maxima) y the great circus (Circus Maximus), and the temple of Jupiter Capitoli'nus. The latter, however, he did not live to finish. He also defeated the Sabines and the Etruscans. 9. The second of this dynasty, and the sixth king of Rome, was Ser'vi-us Tul'li-us, a bold and adroit usurper. He made important changes in the government, es- tablishing a new assembly (comitia centuria'ta), in which all free Romans had a voice. In this the people were divided into centuries, each cen- t u r y having one vote; but the num- ber of centuries constituting a class depended on the amount of property possessed. This arrangement, while admitting all, at least seemingly, to a share in the government, gave the pre- ponderance of power to the wealthy classes. Servius also built a wall inclosing the entire city, including all the ''seven hills," over which the city had gradually spread. This inclo- sure was about seven miles in circuit, and sufficed for many centuries. 10. Tar-quin'i-us Su-per'bus (Tarquin the Proud), the seventh king, ruled with great arrogance, particularly toward the patricians ; and finally, in consequence of an infamous crime committed by his son Se^ctus, an insurrection broke Cloaca Maxima. (In its present condition, 1881.) The Roman Bepuhlie. 187 out, and lie and his family were driven out of the city. This terminated the kingdom (509 B.C.). Thus, tra- ditionally, the period of the kingdom was 244 years, the average duration of each reign being Tarquin the Proud. about 35 years. This has been pointed out as a most improb- able circumstance, and as sufficient, of itself, to show the unreliable character of the early history.* Teaditional Cheonology of the KiNGa B.C. Length of Reign. Romulus 753-716 37 years. (Interregnum of one year.) Numa Pompilius 715-676 39 " (Interregnum of two years.) Tullus Hostilius 674-642 32 " Ancus Martins. 642-618 24 " L. Tarquinius Priscus 618-578 40 " Servius Tullius 578-534 44 " Tarquinius Superbus 534-509 25 " SECTION III. The Roman Republic. I Peeiod of Inteenal Steuggles. 11. The history of the Roman Republic, succeeding the regal period, for more than a century and a half is occupied chiefly with an account of the struggles between the Patri- * " The early history of Rome is indeed far more poetical than anything else in Latin literature. The loves of the Vestal and the God of War, the cradle laid among the reeds of the Tiber, the fig-tree, the she-wolf, the shepherd's cabin, the recognition, the fratricide, the rape of the Sabines, the death of Tarpeia, the fall of Hostius Hostilius, the struggle of Metius Curtius through the marsh, the women rushing with torn raiment and disheveled hair between their fathers and their husbands, the nightly meetings of Numa and the Nymph by the well in the sacred grove, the fight of the three Romans and the three Albans, the purchase of the Sibylline books, the crime of Tullia, the simulated madness of Brutus, the ambigu- 188 Ancient History. cian and Plebeian orders, and of the growth of the Roman con- stitution and laws. After the expulsion of the kings, two magistrates, called consuls, were annually elected, to whom was intrusted the chief executive author- Consuls. ity. The duties and powers of the consuls were similar to those of the kings, and for nearly 150 years they were chosen exclusively from the patricians. As civil officers their power was almost absolute, each ruling by turns; and they were the legally appointed generals of the army in time of war. Junius Brutus and Col-la-ti'nus were the first to hold the office of consuls. The former, often called the Elder Brutus, was a re- markable character. He was a nephew of Tar- quin; but seeing his relatives put to death by order Junius Brutus. of that jealous tyrant, he feigned to be half-witted, so that he might seem to be of no consequence. After the crime of Sextus, he threw off the mask, and by his bold and earnest eloquence incited the people to expel the hateful king.* OU8 reply of the Delphian oracle to the Tarquins, the wTongs of Lucretia, the heroic actions of Horatius Codes, of ScaevoJa, and of Cloelia, the battle of Regillus won by the aid of Castor and Pollux, the fall of Cremera, the touching story of Coriolanus, the still more touching story of Virginia, the wild legend about the draining of the Alban lake, the combat between Valerius Corvus and the gigantic Gaul, are among the many instances which will at once suggest themselves to every reader."— Jfacawtoi/. * The following incident of the legendary history of the period illustrates the stem virtue of this remarkable jnan: " Then King Tarquinius sent to Rome to ask for all the goods that had belonged to him; and the Senate, after a while, decreed that the goods should be given back. But those whom he had sent to Rome to ask for his goods, had meetings with many young men of noble birth, and a plot waa laid to bring back King Tarquinius. But a slave happened to overhear them talk- ing together, and when he knew that the letters were to be given to the messengers of Tarquinius, he went and told all that he had heard to Brutus a«d to Publius Valerius. Then they came and seized the young men and their letters, and so the plot was broken up. Then Brutus bade the lictors to bind his own two sons, Titus and Tiberius, together with the others, and to scourge them with nxls according to the law. And after they had been scourged, the lictors .struck off their heads with their axes, before the eyes of their father; and Brutus neither stirred from his seat, nor turned away his eyes from the sight; yet men saw, as they looked on him, that his heart was grieving inwardly over his children. Then they marveled at him, because he had loved justice more than his own bloml, and had not spared his own children, when they had been false to their country and ha Gaul over the head with his Ivory stjepter. Instantly the spi'U of revennu-e was broken, and rage and the thirst of blood succeeded to it. The Gaul cut down tlie old Papirius with his sword; his comnwies were kindled at the sight, and all the old men. according (0 their YOWi were offered up as victims to the powers of death."— if t«tory of Rome* Tlie Roman Hepublic. 199 with great slaughter. Other, and probably more truthful, accounts state that the gold was paid, and that the Gauls then peaceably retired; and it is even said that, more than a hun- dred years afterward, some of this very gold was recovered from the Gauls of that later period. It is, however, certain that the city was left in ruins; and the public records having been destroyed, no materials for an authentic histoiy of the events preceding this period could afterward be obtained. 28. After the departure of the invaders, the city was in a sad condition, and the people were almost in despair. They had lost their houses, their cattle, and their crops, and yet were obliged to pay taxes in order to repair the city walls, and to carry on the wars which the neighboring states wap;ed against them. They were also very much Marcus Manlius. oppressed by the merciless laws against debtors. In this crisis, Marcus Manlius, the brave defender of the citadel, dis- tinguished himself by his efforts and sacrifices to relieve the people's wants. Having by this means acquired very great popularity, he excited the suspicions of the patricians, and was accused of attempting to make himself king; of which offense being unjustly pronounced guilty, he was thrown down the Tarpeian {tar-pe'an) Eock, the very place from which he had repelled his country's enemies (383 B.C.).* 29. For a considerable time the destitution and suffering of the people continued, while the wealthy classes selfishly held on to their unjust powers and privileges. At length a scheme of legislation was presented Licinian laws by C. Li-cin'i-us Sto'lo and L. Sextius, two plebeians of high rank and great ability (376 B.C.). This measure, known as the Licinian Laws, comprehended three provisions: (1) That * " M. Manlius, less pure and disinterested than his prototype, Spurius Cassius, made the plebeian viTongs the stalking horse of his own ambition. Partly tempted, partly goaded into crime, he is entitled to our pity, even though we condemn him. His intentions were probably at first honest, and the means that he designed to use legal ; but the opposition which he encountered drove him to desperate measures, and he became in the end a dangerous conspirator."— iJatoMnson. 200 Anderd History. the interest already })aid on borrowed money should be de- ducted from the principal, and the balance made jKiyable in three yearly installments; (2) That no person should hold more than 500 jugera (about 380 acres) of the public lands; and (3) That thereafter consuls should be elected in the place of mihtary tribunes, and that one of the two consuls should belong to the plebeian order. 30. The Liciniau laws were adopted, but not without a severe struggle that lasted several years, during which the aged Oamillus was again made dictator. Lucius Sextius, one of the proposers of the laws, was elected the first plebeian consul; and, at the close Oamillus dictator. of the contest, Oamillus dedicated a temple to Concord. The patricians, however, from time to time, endeavored to over- ride or evade these laws, but were invariably defeated, being compelled in the end to make still further concessions. At the close of these long struggles, a perfect equality was estabhshed in the political powers of the orders; for the plebeians were admitted to all the Triumph of the plebeians. offices, including the dictatorship, censorship, and even the sacred college of pontiffs and augurs. Domestic tranquillity being thus established, Rome was ready to commence her wonderful career of conquest (340 B.C.). n. Period of Italian Conqxtests. 31. During the period to which we have arrived, lasting about three fourths of a century (340-2G4 B.C.), great wars were waged in Italy, the result of which was that Rome became mistress of the whole peninsula. These wars consist chiefly of the four Samnite Conquest of Italy. wars, the great Latin war, the war with Pyr'rhus, and a war with the Gauls. These will all be treated of briefly, avoiding details in the account of the military movements, since for these, if needed, larger works can be consulted. The first to be referred to is the war with the Samnitea. Tlie Roman Hepublic. 201 32. The Samnites, a warlike people inhabiting central Italy^ having made war upon the Campa'nians, the latter called in the aid of the Komans (343 b. c. ), who entering Campania defeated the Samnites with immense slaughter, and compelled them to make First Samnite war. peace, after the war had lasted about two years. A war with the Latin cities followed, in which the Romans were also victorious, and Latium was annexed to Latin war. ^e Roman territory (339 B.C.). In the second war with the Samnites, the Romans sustained a terrible defeat in a narrow valley called the Cau'dlne Forks, and were com- pelled by the Samnite general to pass under the yoke* in acknowledgment of their subjugation Other Samnite wars. (321 B.C.). The war was, however, continued until 305 B.C., when the Samnites, having been repeatedly defeated, were compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. Seven years afterward, they renewed the war, being aided by the Umbrians, Etruscans, and Gauls; but the allied army suffered a great defeat near Sen-ti'num, a town in Um'bria (295 B.C.). This famous victory War with the Gauls. gave the Romans the dominion of nearly all Italy, f Close upon this event, followed a war. with the Etrurians and Gauls, whose combined forces were also vanquished with great slaughter. 33. The inhabitants of the Greek colony of Ta-ren'tum [see map, page 87] having given offense to the Romans, the latter declared war upon them, upon which the Tarentines solicited the aid of Pyrrhus, War with Pyrrhus. king of E-pi'rus, the greatest general of his age. Complying with this request, he landed in Italy and gained a great * The yoke was formed by setting two spears upright, and placing another across the top of them. t '* The third Samnite war is the contest of confederated Italy against the terrible enemy whose greatness was now seen to threaten every power in the peninsula. Its ttmiing point, which well deserves its place among the ten or twelve ' Decisive Battles of the World,' was the battle of Sentiniun."^i^at<;?iri§Qn. 202 Ancient History. victory over the Romans, commanded by the Consnl Lae-vi'- nns (280 B.C.). But it was a dear-bought triumph, for he lost many of his best troops and some of his ablest oflacers, and was probably indebted for it more to the confusion occa^ sioned by the elephants which his army contained, and i% which the Romans were not accustomed, than to the superior valor or skill of his soldiers. When, on visiting the battle- field the next day, he gazed on the Roman dead, all of whom appeared to have fallen in their ranks, and with their faces turned toward the enemy, he exclaimed: ''If I had such soldiers as these, how easily could I conquer the world!" 34.t Many of the Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and he advanced to a point within eighteen miles from Rome, to which he sent an emissary, offering peace; but the Roman senate refused to treat for peace until he should withdraw his forces from Italy. Another battle was fought the next year, in which the Romans were again defeated, but with great loss to Pyn-hus. Leaving Italy jHie then proceeded to Sicily with the design of expelling the Carthaginians from that island, but in this he was not successful; and after an absence of two years he returned to Tarentum. At Ben-e-ven'- tum, a town in Samnium, about 28 miles from Cap'u-a, he was met by the Romans under the Defaat of Pyrrhus. Consul Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus, and suffered a most disastrous defeat (275 B.C.), after which lie retired from Italy, with the almost total loss of his army.* 35. After the departure of Pyrrhus, the Tarentines applied for aid to the Carthaginians, who sent a fleet for their relief; but the Romans obtained possession of Tarentum. The Sam- nites, Luca'nians, and other tribes soon afterward submitted, thus leaving Rome mistress of all Italy (204 B.C.). Over this extensive domain she organized a most effective government. ♦On his return to Greece, he was proclaimed klnj? of Macedonia. Making war upon the Spartans, he nearly took their city ; but, in an attack upon Argos, he was killed by a tile thrown by a woman frpm the roof of a house. The Roman Mepublic. 203 Some portions, wliicli were called prcefedures — that is, dis- tricts governed by praefects, she ruled by means of magis- trates sent from herself. From others, the municipal toivns, she only exacted military service, leaving to them the control of their own local affairs; while in very many she planted colonies of Eoman citizens, whom she supplied with lands from the conquered territory, and j^laced over the subjugated inhabitants. Her rule was, however, mild and generally just, and was but little disturbed by commotion or revolt. 36. In connection with the colonial system of Rome at this time, the military roadst were an important auxiliary. ^^^^^ _-_^-.- _-^ After the conquest of Campania, Ap- r?'^T''^^^^=^= ^"=^ -^" i)ins Claudius (Caecus) ^;^_l „ constructed a paved Military roads. road to Capua, called after him the Apj)ian Way (312 B.C.}. Other roads were afterward constructed, which intersected every part of Italy, and served to bind all the outposts to ^,. Eome as the great center of the whole. The wonderful T , ill- Aqueducts. aqueducts, stretching I over hills and valleys, or forming '' subterranean channels, were com- menced about this time. The re- PosUipon^rNapl^rr "' mains of these structures, so exten- sive and durable, now present one of the most imposing spectacles that the eye of the traveler rests upon among the wonders of the *' Eternal City" and its surroundings. m. Period of Foreign Conquests (264-133 B.C.). 37. The period to which we have now arrived, in the history of Rome, is especially marked by the splendor of her military career, and the rapidity and extent of her foreign conquests. Owing to the gi-eat increase of her wealth from The Via Appia. (Passing through the grotto of es.) 204 Ancient History. the conquered states in Italy, and the large and numerous colonies which she was continually sending forth, and having now an established constitution and system of laws, she was relieved from those internal troubles by which the develop- ment of her power as a nation was checked. Hence, at this period, the external relations of Rome became the all-engross- ing theme; for the brazen gates of the temple of Janus had never been closed but once during this long series of years (in 235 B.C.). ^ 38. Across the Mediterranean, on the African shore, was the great rival republic, Carthage (see map, p. 205); and it was with her that Rome was now to measure her strength in three tremendous contests, known in Punic wars. history as the Punic Wars. Carthage was of Phoenician origin, having been settled by the Tyrians about six centuries before this period. She had, at this time, become one of the greatest maritime powers in the world. Carthage. Her ships covered the Mediterranean, distributing the pro- ducts of the East to the various ports on its shores. Three hundred cities in Africa paid her tribute; and she had made extensive conquests in Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily. 39. Syracuse, however, in Sicily, still retained its inde- pendence, after repeated wars with the Carthaginians. Tliis city was a colony of the Corinthians, established in the eighth century B.C.; and, in the fifth cen- tury, became tlie most populous and powerful History of Syracuse. state in the island, under a virtuous and patriotic sovereign, named Ge'lon. During its struggle with Atliens, in which Nicias was so disastrously defeated, it was under a free gov- ernment, but subsequently lost its liberties (405 B.C.), being ruled for 38 years by the famous Di-o-nys'i-us, who carried on a successful war with the Carthaginians. Ti-mo'le-on, a Corinthian of great virtue a?id talents, restored it to freedom (344 B.C.); but under A-gath'o-cles, the despotism was again established (317 B.C.). At the time at wliich we have arrived. Ilfggfil c* P ^ ^ O I s 1 1 ! g O ® p O ^ O 2. ^ ~ 5 "S* I 5S- g" O ^ ^ a 2. «> •^ o ffi-s 5-wp 02;_a O K f^ ^ B "^ ^BcD^siccCMS* p P «• rt> :3 - - >^ sr -. B £ 2 Q^ CO C C •^ O C P OD 00 i" a 2 o,» Q 5^ s- 5 w 1 o » o O s- ^ ■go g; £• U» !2; -» 5 §■ - tives, when the latter could not purchase their release. Tlie Boman ItepubUc. 231 Armenia, but was stopped in his career of success by a mutiny of his troops. Pompey was, therefore, sent into Asia, with the powers of a despot, to bring the war to a close. This he accomplished in less than three years, subduing both the revolted kings, and reducing Pontus to a Roman province (63 B.C.). He also reduced Conquests by Pompey, Syria, and took Jerusalem, dethroning the reigning king of Judea, and making the kingdom tributary to Rome. Having regulated all the provinces of the east, with the authority of an absolute potentate, he returned triumphantly to Italy (61 B.C.). [See p. 69.] 83. Conspiracy of Catiline. While Pompey was in Asia, the famous conspiracy of Cat'i-line occurred. The late civil wars had left many needy and reckless characters who had profited by the lawless violence of that time, and who longed for its repetition in order that C haractor of Catiline. Plot. they might gain power and riches. This dangerous class found a leader in Lucius Catiline, an audacious and unprincipled man, possessing gi'eat physical strength as v/ell as mental vigor and culture, for he was by birth a patrician. Having held various offices in which he became notorious by his reckless extortion and other crimes, he aspired to the consulate; and being disappointed, formed a plot to murder the consuls and seize the government. Failing in this, while Cicero, the orator,* was consul, he renewed the scheme; designing not only to murder the consul but to burn and pillage the city. 84. Fortunately this dreadful plot became known to Cicero, who denounced Catiline and his associates with such scath- ing eloquence in the Senate, that he was compelled to flee * Cicero, noted for his eloquence and learning, was among: the most Dlustrious men of this time. He was bom at Arpinum, 106 B.C., of a plebeian family, and enjoyed the instruction of the most eminent lawyers and orators of the day. He also studied Greek philosophy under the best teachers in Rome, and afterward in Athens itself. Previous to attaining the consulship, he had filled nearly every inferior oflfice, and had greatly distinguished himself as an orator. 232 Ancient History. from Rome. His confederates, who had been left in the city to consummate the wicked scheme, were betrayed by some Gauls whom tliey had endeavored to gain over to their service, and being immediately apprehended were put to death, through the courage and promptitude of Cicero. Catiline, at the head of a numerous Defeat of the conspirators. force, which he had succeeded in collecting, attempted to reach Gaul, but being overtaken in Etruria, was defeated and slain (62 B.C.). 85. A few months after this, Pompey returned from the Mithridatic war laden with the spoils of the East. His triumph of two days was the most splendid tliut Rome had ever seen; for he had conquered iifteen nations, and more than three hundred princes Triumph of Pompey. walked before his triumphal car. Yet the Senate, under the lead of Cato, refused to ratify his acts; and, irritated by this, he joined the popular party. The most prominent leader of that party at this time was Julius 0{\3sar,* then just rising into notice and power. This man, who Julius Caesar. afterward became the greatest character in Roman history, had already gained distinction in Spain; and in Rome had won over the people by his lavish and princely munificence. Seven years before, when holding the office of an inferior magistrate, he had dared to restore the trophies of Marius, * Caius Julius Caesar was born in 100 B.C., and was a descendant of an old patrician family. His aunt married Marius; and, at the age of seventeen, he married the daughter of Cinna, tlie distingtiished Marian partisan. During the time of Sulla's proscription, Caesar's name was put on tlie list of those to be slain ; but some of the nobles interceded in his favor. "1 grant your I'^quest,"' said the dictator; " but you will And many a Marius in that young man." Once, while on his way to Rhodes, the pirates captured him, and demanded twenty talents for his ransom. " 1 will pay you fifty," he replied, "but as soon as I am free I will have you all crucified." When released, he collected a force, pursued the rob- bers, and kept his word. Thus lutd he already shown the irresistible energy of his character. In the eulogy which Lc pronouiiccd on his aunt Julia, he said: "My aunt derived her descent by lier mother from a race of kings, and by her father from the immortal goils. In our family is the sacred majesty of kings, who are masters of the world, and the divine majesty of gtals, who are the masters oi kings." This was In 7a b.c. Tlie itoman Bepuhllc. 233 thus delighting the old veterans, who stood gazing upon the statue of their beloved leader with tears in their eyes. First TEniMviRATE. 86. With the greatest adroitness, Caesar reconciled the differences existing between Pompey and the wealthy Orassus, and succeeded in forming with them an alliance by the terms of which the three were to support each other's plans and interests (60 B.C.). To Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. cement the union of Pompey more strongly with himself, he gave to him his only daughter Julia in marriage. This secret cabal is known in history as the First Triumvirate [association of three men]. By the support of his two powerful con- federates, Caesar obtained the consulship; and at its close the Senate passed a decree by which he was assigned the proconsul- ship of Gaul, with the command of an army to subdue the barbarians, some of whom had commenced hostile movements, threatening the Roman province. 87. Caesar's campaigns in Gaul lasted about eight years; and, in that period, he not only succeeded in subjugating all the warlike races of that country, but, crossing the Rhine, gained great victories over the bold and hardy Germans. He also passed into Britain, Conquest of Gaul. and defeated the fierce and warlike inhabitants, who strove with the greatest intrepidity to repel the invaders from their island (55 B.C.). By 50 B.C., his province was completely subdued; and it is computed that in these eight years of war, nearly a million of Gauls and Germans were sacrificed, Caesar never showing the least mercy to the barbarians, while toward his fellow-citizens he invariably manifested remarkable mild- ness and humanity. He captured more than 800 cities, and defeated 300 tribes. 88. In the mean time, Crassns had obtained the pro- consular government of Syria, and had undertaken an ex- 234 Ancient History. pedition against the Par'thians, an eastern race who, first appearing near the Caspian Sea, had at this time conquered the vast region extending from the Euplirates to the Indus. In this expedition Crassus was de- feated and slain (53 B.C.).* This disaster ex- Defeat of Crassus. posed the Roman provinces in the east to the attacks of the Parthians; but Cassius {kasli'e-us), the lieutenant of Crassus, prosecuted the war two years longer, and gaining a decided victory over the Parthians, checked their further advance westward. The Geeat Civil War. 89. Pompey, although made proconsul of Spain, remained in Eome, of which, after the death of the violent and unprin- cipled demagogue Clodius, he became the un- limited master. One of the members of the triumvirate having been removed by death, and Pompey's measures. Pompey having become intensely jealous of Caesar, the trium- virate was practically dissolved. Pompey, deteimining to supplant Caesar and obtain the dictatorship, went over to the party of the Senate which he had hitherto opposed, and ob- tained in succession two decrees: first, that Caesar should forthwith disband his army; and second, as he had not obeyed, that he should be proclaimed an outlaw, while Pompey himself 1 all the while retained his army in Spain, as well Crossmg of the ^g Q^her forccs in Italy, in order to enforce his Rubicon. ^ ' I ambitious designs. Caesar, seeing that lie could only oppose violence by violence, at once broke up his camp, and crossing the river Ru'bi-con, tlie boundary of his prov- ince, entered Italy, with a small army, afterward reinforced ♦ Crassus, after his defeat, was treacherously Inducetl to meet the Parthian chieftain to arrange terms of capitulation; and wns hnrbarously assassinated. Tlie victor sent the head and hand of Crassus U) tlie Parthian kiuR, wlio, It Is related, caused molten gold to be poured into its mouth, in mockery of the Roman's avarice. The wealth of Crassus was enormous, amounting at his death to about $10,000,000. The Roman Bepublic, 236 Thus was commenced the Second by detachments from Gaul. Civil War. 90. Ponipey, with what forces he had, and accompanied by many of the senators and others, fled to Brundi'sium, from which port, having collected a large fleet, he sailed toEpirus. Ceesarsoon overran Italy ; and Defeat and death of Pompey. then proceeded to Spain, where, with consummate ability, he speed- ily compelled Pompey's generals to surrender, and annexed most of their forces to his own. Ee- turning, he then crossed to Epirus to give battle to Pompey. No general engagement, however, took place till the next year; when, on the plains of Phar-sa'li-a,* the Pompey the Great. battle was joined, and Caesar, al- though with forces far inferior in number, gained a decisive victory (48 B.C.). This battle, according to Caesar's own statement, cost him only two hundred soldiers; while on Pompey's side there fell about' fifteen thousand. Pompey fled to Egypt, but was treacherously assassinated, by order of the Egyptian court, as he was about to step ashore. \ * The battle was fought near the city of Pharsalus, in that part of Thessaly called Pharsalia. Hence it is sometimes called the battJ? of Pharsalus. Pompey's army was confident of victory, and ^eat preparations had been made for cele- brating it. Csesar says in his Commentaries on the Civil War: "On enter- ing Pompey's camp, we found tables ready covered, side-boards loaded with plate, and tents adorned with branches of myrtle; that of L. Lentnlus, with some others, was shaded with v\ ^ Everything gave proofs of the highest luxury, and an assured expectation of victory; whence it was easy to see that they little dreamed of the issue of that day, since, intent only on voluptuous refinements, they pretended, with troops immersed in luxury, to oppose Caesar's army, accustomed to fatigue, and inured to the want of neces.saries." t " Thus fell the illustrious chief whom alone of all their champions the Romans bad distinguished by the appellation of the Great, a title which seemed peculiarly 236 Ancient History, 91. CaBsar, with his characteristic promptitude, pursued Pompey to Egypt, and on arriving there was presented with the head and ring of his great rival. He accepted the ring, but turned aside with tears from the mournful and ghastly spectacle of the gory head. Caesar in Egypt and ordered Pompey's remains to be burned with due honor. He then entered Alexandria. The succession to the throne of Egypt was, at that time, in dispute between the young King Ptolemy and his sister, the celebrated Cle-o-pa'tra. Caesar, influenced by the fascinations of the latter, decided in her favor, and thus incurred the Cleopatra. hostility of Ptolemy's adherents, who raised a fearful insur- rection against him. This, however, in a few months Caesar reduced, and confirmed Cleopatra on the throne. During this war at Alexandria, Caesar set fire to the Egyptian fleet, and the flames having extended to the public library, that im- mense collection of more than 100,000 volumes, containing copies of all thie most valuable works of ancient times, was de- stroyed (48 B.C.). 92. While Caesar was in Egypt, rumors spread that he had been slain, and the wildest confusion prevailed for a time throughout the empire, but especially in Italy, where his pres- ence was greatly needed. But from Egypt he pro- ceeded against Pharna'ces, son of the great Mit}\ri- dates, who had risen in rebellion and seized upon Other victories. Armenia and Colchis. Caesar speedily defeated him at ZieQa, in Pontus, and announced his victory to tlie Roman Senate in three words — Veniy vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). In two months all Asia was restored to tranquillity, and Caesar then returned to Rome, to assume the office of dictator. Proceeding next to Africa, he gained a great victory at Thaj)'- appropriate to one whose rapid conquests In Asia cotild only be paralleled by thoae of the Macedonian Alpxander. His fate continued to point a moral to the latest period of the Empire, nnd its oonwimtnation deserved to l)e regarded as the most tra^c incident in Roman history."— Aferivate'« History of the Romans. The Iloman Bepublic, 237 sus over the forces of Scipio, who, assisted by Ju'ba, king of Mauritania, still adhered to the party of the aristocracy and the Senate. Cato, called the Stoic, on account of his stern virtue, seeing that all was lost, and that the Roman republic was now at an end, committed suicide at Utica (46 B.C.).* 93. Caesar, having formed Numidia into a Roman province, returned to Rome, where he celebrated with extraordinary magnificence four triumphs — over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa. The Romans had never before seen so magnificent a procession. A great Gallic Caesar's triumph. chief, the son of Juba, of Mauritania, and Arsinoe, Cleopatra's sister, walked before his car. Caesar lavished immense sums of money on the people, and also gave feasts and splendid shows, f A general amnesty was then declared, and the soldiers were re- warded with liberal donations. But before he could settle affairs at Rome, he was called to Spain, where the two sons of Pompey had raised an army against him. These he defeated in the severe battle of Munda, which closed the war. Having thus become master of Rome, he determined to lay aside the sword and cultivate the arts of peace. He instituted many im- portant reforms in the laws and government, rectified the calendar, and formed plans for many great and useful works, among which were the building of a new senate-house, a grand theater, and a public library. He encouraged agricul- ture, tried to revive the Licinian laws, and caused laws to be enacted regulating bankruptcy, usury, and luxury. J * "The constitutional struggle was at an end; and that it was so was proclaimed by Marcus Cato when he fell on his sword at Utica." — Mommsen. + These were the great shows of the amphitheater, consisting of those cruel gladiatorial exhibitions, mixed with the combats of wild beasts, in which the Roman people delighted. On this occasion, the grand vela'rium, or awning of a thousand colors, made of the richest silk, the product of eastern looms, protected the spectators from the sun. Thus were the people amused and quieted while they were being robbed of their liberty ; but, at the same time, they were enjoying the spoils of enslaved and plundered nations, the victims of Roman ambition, rapine, and avarice. t " Caesar was monarch, but he never olayed the king. Even when absolute lord of Rome, be ret«\ined the deportment of the party leader. Perfectly pliant 238 Ancient History. 94. While engaged in these reforms, a stop was suddenly put to his magnificent career. Notwithstanding the modera- tion with which he acted, his generosity to his enemies, and the consideration and kindness with which he treated all parties, there was an under- Death of Caesar. current of dissatisfaction and hostility; for he was, in every- thing but the name, a king; and it was said that he designed to assume even the royal title and crown. A conspiracy was, there- fore, formed against him by a large body of the nobles, promi- nent among whom were Brutus and Cassius, the former his most trusted friend. At a meeting of the Senate held on the 15th of March (the Ides of March), he was attacked by the conspirators, and fell pierced with twenty-three wounds (44 B.C.). He had de- fended himself for a time, after the assassins commenced to assail him; but, when he saw Brutus among them, he exclaimed, *^ And thou, too, Brutus!" and yielded to his fate, falling at the base of Pompey's statue.* 95. The conspirators excused their crime on the plea that they were freeing Rome from a dangerous tyrant; but they were, doubtless, actuated rather by envy than by patriotism, with the exception of Brutus, who sacrificed friendship to the love of his country. Besides, Julius C^sar. (From a Roman coin.) The contpiiaton. and smooth, easy and charming in conversation, complaisant toward every one it seemed as if he wished to be nothlnf? but the first amonf? his peers."— 3/ommacn, • "The assassins stabbed him through and through, for they had pledged them- selves, one and all, to bathe their daggers in his bloml. Brutus himself received a wound in their eagerness and trepidation. The victim reeled a few paces, propped by the blows he received on every side, tili he fell dead at the foot of Porapey'8 statue. ' '—MerivcUe. The Roman Republic. 239 most of the leaders in the conspiracy were guilty of base in- gratitude; for they had been freely pardoned their former opposition to Cgesar, and placed in offices of power and emolu- ment. Cassius, indeed, had been one of the most active of Pompey's adherents. 96. Caesar was probably the greatest man that Rome ever produced. He was not only an able general and a consum- mate statesman and politician, but a splendid orator, a fine scholar, and an elegant writer. His history of the Gallic campaigns, styled the '* Com- Character of Caesar. mentaries," is a complete model for that kind of composition. His knowledge of human nature seems to have been almost perfect, for he swayed the minds of all who came within his influence, to an extent rarely equaled and never surpassed. The activity of his intellect was marvelous. Pliny says, *' He could be writing and reading, dictating and listening all at the same time. He was wont to occupy four amanuenses at once, and had been known to employ as many as seven." He is described as **palc in complexion, of a tall and s])nre figure, with dark piercing eyes and an aquiline nose, with scanty hair and without a beard." He may be truly said to have com- pleted the destruction of the liberties of his country; for the battles of Pharsalia, Thapsus, and Munda established the Roman Empire, and Julius Caesar virtually became its first emperor, as he is reckoned the first of the *' Twelve Caesars." 97. After the murder of Caesar, the conspirators fled to the capitol^ where they remained until they entered into an agree- ment with Mark An'tony, the consul, and a par- ticular friend of Caesar, that all his laws should remain in force, that his will should be carried Antony's oration. into effect, and that his body should be honored with a public funeral. Accordingly, the body was carried into the forum; and Mark Antony pronounced over it a funeral oration, in the course of which he exposed the bleeding wounds to the people, and so worked upon their sympathies, that they arose 240 Ancient History. against the consjDirators and compelled them to flee from the city. 98. Antony, having thus become master jf Kome, produced Ca3sar's will, and other papers which he represented as contain- ing his acts and wishes. These he made such use of as best served his purpose, to excite i)opular feeling in favor of Caesar's party. Thus he excited the op- Antony nnaster of Rome. position of the senatorial party, led by Cicero, who was heard to exclaim: **The tyrant is dead, but the tyranny still lives." Another actor, however, now appeared on the stage, and one destined to play a great part. Tills was Caius Octavius, then a young man, the nephew and Octavius in Rome. Mark Antony. adopted pon of the great Julius, who had been a])pointed heir in his last testament. lie now (May) appeared in Rome, and demanded the property left to him by his adopted father (44 B.C.). 99. Octavius did everything he could to win over tlie ])e()ple, giving them public sliows, and even borrow- ing money in order to pay Caesar's 1 legacies. He cultivated the esteem and conlidence of Cicero, and conciliated the Senate, showing the greatest appearance of hostility to the am- bitious schemes of Antony. The latter was declared a public enemy by the Senate, and was boldly attacked by Cicero, who pronounced against him a series of magnificent orations, wliicli have been styled, in imitation of those of Demosthenes, the Philippics, Cicero was sanguine that the republic could be re-established, and he was unre- mitting in his efforts to eifect this result; for, though fond of Cicero. The Roman Bepuhlic. 241 praise and distinction, he was at heart a true patriot. Cir- cumstances were, however, working against him,, and neutral- izing all his exertions. 100. While these things were in progress in Rome, Antony was in Cisalpine Gaul, where he was defeased by the two con- suls; but both of them being slain, Octavius took the command, while Antony formed a union with Lep'i-dus, a general of great experience and influ- ence, then stationed in Transalpine Gaul. In the mean time, the aristocratic party in the Senate withdrew the commavid from Octavius, and refused him the consulate; whereupon he approached the city Antony and Lepidus. Octavius consul. with his army, and compelled the Senate to accede to his wishes. Second Tbiumvikate. 101. Soon afterward Octavius entered into a negotiation with Antony and Lepidus, and arranged for an interview, the result of which was the formation of the Second Triumvirate, the agree- Terms of the agreement. CiCHRO. ment being, that the three were to keep possession of the supreme con- trol of the government for five years, assigning the provinces, and appoint- ing the magistrates as they pleased (43 B.C.). A dreadful proscription and massacre followed the formation of this league, each of the triumvirs inserting in the list all whom he deemed hostile Massacre. and wished to be put to death. Not fewer than three hundred senators and two thousand knights were among the pro- scribed; and one of the victims sacrificed to the hatred of Antony was Cicero, who was assassinated by the emissaries of the triumvir, as he was endeavoring to escape. '-^42 Aiicient History. 102. Having taken vengeance upon their enemies in Italy, the triumvirs turned their attention to Brutus and Ciissius, who, with the design of restoring the liberties of their country, had succeeded in making them- selves masters of all the eastern ])art of the Defeat of Brutus and Cassius. empire. Antony and Octavius crossed to Macedonia and engaged the republican forces at Philip'pi, where Cassius and Brutus were successively defeated, each slaying himself at the close of the battle (42 B.C.).* These victories left the Trium- virate in absolute control of the empire. At the expiration of the five years, the triumvirate was renewed; but soon after- w^ard Lepidus attempted to gain the power for himself, and was deposed (36 B.C.). 103. Antony being visited by Cleopatra in Asia, returned with her to Egypt, and surrendered himself to the wiles of that artful beauty. \ At last, after neglecting his duty for years, * " As long as there seemed a cliance that the godlike stroke would be justified by success, Brutus claimed the glory of maintaining a righteous cause; but when all hope fled, he could take leave of philosoi)hy and life together, and exclaim, 'I once dreamed that virtue is a thing; I find her only a name, and the mere slave of fortune.' He had blamed Cato for flying from misery by self-murder; but he learnt to justify tiie same desperate act when he contemplatetl committing it him- self,"— Mertrafe. Plutarch says that, sitting in his tent, one evening In-fore the battle, he saw a strange figure enter, and stand by his side. *' Who art thou ?" he exclaimed. ** I am thy evil genius," replied the figure; " thou shalt see me again at Philippi." t "When Antony first set out on his expedition against the Parthians, he sent orders to Cleopatra to meet him in Cilicia, that she might answer some accusations which had been laid against her of assisting Cassius in the war. Though she had received many pressing letters of invitation from Antony and his friends, she held him in such contempt that she by no means took the most expeditious method of traveling. She sailed along the river Cydnus in a most magnificent galley. The stem was covered with gold, the sails were of purple, and the oars were silver. These, in their motion, kept time to the music of flutes, and pipes, and harps. The queen, In the dress and character of Venus, lay under a canopy embroidered M'ith gold, of the most exquisite workmanship; wliile boy.s, like painted cuplds, stood fanning her on each side of tlie sofa. Her maids were of the niost distinguished beauty, and, habited like the Nereids and the (Jraces, assisted in the steerage and conduct of the vessel. The fragrance of bunilng incense was difTused along the shores, which were covered with nmltitudes of people. Some followed the proces- sion; and such numbers went down from the city to see It, that Antony was at last left alone on the tribunal. A rumor ww apon pprea4 (bat V©»us was come to feart The Roman Republic. 243 he gave great offense to Octavius by divorcing his sister Octa- via, in order to marry the Egyptian queen, and dis- pleased the Roman people by his conduct in Egypt. This brought on a war, which Octavius directed Antony and Cleopatra. the Senate to declare against Cleopatra. The war thus caused was ended by the naval battle of Actium (aJc'she-um), Antony and Cleopatra being totally defeated (31 B.C.). Fleeing to Egypt, Antony stabbed himself, and Cleopatra put an end to her life (it is said, by Battle of Actium. means of a venomous asp), in order to prevent being com^ pelled to grace the triumph of Octavius.* Her death ter- minated the sovereignty of the Ptolemies, which had existed about three centuries (323-31 B.C.). 104. Egypt having been made a Roman province, and plundered of its immense treasures in order to supply Oc- tavius with funds to reward iiis soldiers, he i _ - returned to Rome, where he was tlie ruler of master of the the Roman world, receiving from the Senate the title of Augustus (29 B.C.). The date of this event is commonly chosen as the era of the commencement of the Roman Empire. Subsequently, the government was merely a military despotism, under wliich the Romans were hopeless of relief; they, therefore, made no effort to restore the repub- lican constitution. Augustus celebrated the restoration of peace by closing the gates of the temple of Janus, for the third time in the history of Rome, f with Bacchus, for the benefit of Asia. Antony sent to invite her to supper; but she thought it his duty to wait upon her, and, to show his politeness on her arrival, he complied. "—PZwtorcTi. * "When the figure of Cleopatra was afterward carried in the triumph of Octavius, she was represented reclining on a couch with the asp clinging to either arm, and a mortal sleep stealing slowly through every limb. "—JferivaZe. t " Octavius, in a little time, when he had allured to his interest the soldiery by a profusion of largesses, the people by distributions of com, and the minds of men in general by the sweets of peace, stiowed more aspiring views. By degrees, and almost imperceptibly, he drew into his own hands the authority of the Senate, the fimctions of the magistrates, and the administration of the laws. To these en- croachments no opposition was made."— TocifMs. 244 Ancient History, Eevi;ew Outline. Chronology. Roman Kingdom. 753 B.C. 509 B.C. Boman Bepublic. 609-29 B.C. PmST PERIOD. 609-340 B.C. 494 B.C. 493 B.C. 486 B.C. 471 B.C. 446 B.C 867 B.C. 461 B.C. 890 B.O. SECOND PERIOD. 340-264 B.C. 848-295 B.C. 889 B.C. 280 B.O. 276 B.C. One of the Latin tribes — the Ilanuiians, or Romans — made a settlement on the Tiber River, which by the addition of other Latin cantons soon in- creased in influence and numbers. This became the famous city of Rome. It was at first under a kingly government, which, according to the tra- ditionary history, lasted through seven reigns, ending with that of Tarquin. The struggles between the two orders — the patri- cians and the plebeians, or the rich and the poor — were the most prominent events in Roman his- tory for about a century and a half. The patri- cians were obliged to make many concessions to the plebeians, of which the principal were the fol- lowing: The appointment of the tribunes of the people, and the conferring upon them of the veto power; the passage of the Icilian law, making their persons sacred; the agrarian law of Spurius Cassius; the Publilian law of Volero, which gave the election of the tribunes to the people; the right of intermarriage between patricians and plebeians; and the Licinian laws, which admitted plebeians to the consulship, restricted the holding of the public lands, and partly relieved the bur- dens of debtors. The celebrated code of laws, called the Twelve Tables, wjis framed during this period. Rome was taken and ])urned by the Gauls. During three-fourths of a century succeeding the close of the first period, the Romans were en- gaged in the conquest of Italy. They waged four wars with the Samnites; sulniued Latium; vanquished the combined forces of the Etrurians and Gauls; and, though at first defeated by the invader Pyrrhus, they finally gained a great vic- tory over his forces at Bencventum. Soon aftei Memew Outline. 245 264 B.C. THIRD PERIOD. 264-133 B.C. First Punic War. 264-241 B.C. 255 B.C. 251 B.C. 241 B.C. Second Punic War. 218-202 B.C. 218 B.C. 216B.C. 212 B.C. 207 B.C. 202 B.C. 183 B.C. 168 B.C. 146 B.C. 146 B.C. 133 B.C. FOTJRTH PERIOD. 133-29 B.C. 133 B.C. 121 B.C. 111-106 B.C. all the tribes and nations of Italy submitted to the Roman power. The pejiod of foreign conquests succeeded, lasting about 130 years. The Punic wars, which ended in the conquest and destruction of Carthage, ex- tended nearly to the end of this period. The principal events of the First of these wars were the following: The defeat of the Roman general Regulus. The defeat of the Carthaginian Hamilcar. This war ended with the submission of the Car- thaginians. The chief events of the Second Punic "War were the following: The Romans were defeated by Hannibal at the Ticinus, the Trebia, and Lake Trasymenus. The great battle of Cannae, a disastrous defeat for the Romans. The taking of Syracuse by Marcellus. The defeat of Hasdrubnl, brother of Hannibal. The defeat of Hannibal by Scipio at Zama. Carthage at the close of the war gave up Spain, agreed to pay the expenses of the war, and. in fact, became tributary to Rome. Hannibal died, by his own hand, in exile a few )'^cars afterward. The conquest of Macedonia soon followed, the last king, Perseus, being defeated and taken prisoner , in the battle of Pydna. Greece became a Roman province. The third Punic war ended in the taking and total destruction of Carthage. The taking of Numan- tia brought to a close a long and fierce war with the native tribes in Spain. The period of internal dissensions followed that of foreign conquests. It opened with a renewal of the agrarian struggles, in the attempt to revive the Licinian laws by Tiberius Gracchus. The patricians opposed the measure, and Gracclms was slain. His brother Caius shared the same fate, a few years afterward. The war with Jugurtha occupied several years, and 246 Ancient History, 102 B.C. 8&-68 B.C. 88-79 B.C. 86 B.C. 83 B.C. 81 B.C. 63 B.C. 60 B.C. 58-50 B.C 49 B.C 48 B.C 46 B.C 44 B.C. 43 B.C. 42B.C. 6\ B.C. 29B.C. was followed by the invasions of the Cimbrians and Teutons, who were repulsed by Marius. The Mithridatic war was a long contest carried on in the East against the king of Pontus, and was terminated by his death. The first civil war was brought on by the dissen- sions between Marius and Sulla. The former, having gained possession of Rome, ordered a massacre of his opponents; but died soon after- ward. Sulla, in turn triumphing, retaliated with slaughter, and made himself perpetual dictator. Pompey, after making great conquests in the East, returned in triumph to Rome, joined the> popular party with Caesar, just rising into power, and together with Crassus, formed the First Tritim- urate. Caesar returned from his province, Gaul, whence after eight years of victorious warfare against the natives, crossing the Rubicon into Italy, returned to Rome in order to check the intrigues of Pompey against him. A war ensued l)etween these two ambitious generals, which resulted in the de- feat of Pompey at Pharsalia. The adherents of Pompey under Scipio were defeated at Thapsus, and the sons of Pompey were vanquished in Spain, after which Caesar found himself the mas- ter of Rome. But a conspiracy having been formed against him by Brutus and Cassius, he' was assassinated in the Senate-house. Octavius, his adopted son, formed the second triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus, and caused their opponents in Rome to be put to death. Octavius and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius, in the battle of Philippi. Antony then went to the East where he made the acquaintance of Cleopatra, the Egyptian queen, through whose inUuenee he di- vorced his wife Octavia, sister of Ocrtavius. and in other respects displeased tlu; Roman |>eople. The war that followed wjis decided by the battle of Ac- tium, in which Antony and (Meopatra were de- feated. Egypt became a Roman province ; and Oc- tavius, on liis return toRonie, was governorwilh al)- soofli nf TTonnihial Sd, Battle of Pydna ] ^J«l* of^ Jews under Carthage taken. Corinth taken. juaas maccaoeus. Roman Cimlization, 249 SECTION IV. EoMAN^ Civilization". 105. In treating of this extensive subject, within the nar- row limits here permitted, it will not be possible to trace the progressive development of Koman civilization during the seven centuries that preceded the time of Augustus. At first, the Roman character and Change in Roman manners. mode of life were characterized by extreme austerity and simplicity; but, in the later periods, these gave place to refine- ment and luxury, in imitation of Greek manners, and under the influence of the vast wealth which the spoils of conquered nations brought into Rome. 106. Rome had grown to be the metropolis of a vast empire, which contained, when Augustus reached tlte pin- nacle of his power, about one hundred millions of people; while the population of the imj^erial city must have numbered, at the time of its greatest Growth of Rome. splendor, at least two millions, representing not only the Roman, but the Greek and Oriental civilizations. Its mag- nificent aqueducts, baths, amphitheaters, temples, and other edifices made it a scene of wonder to the visitor from foreign lands, and enabled it to cope in grandeur with the great and pompous cities of ancient nations. This was especially true of it after the rule of Augustus, who boasted that he ''found the city brick, and left it marble."* A few of the most prominent objects of Rome will be referred to. 107. The Forum, or place of public meetings, and the great market of the city, should first be mentioned. Here * "Rome remained, even to the end of the republic, a network of crooked, narrow lanes, along which shops and houses of poor and mean appearance were constructed. There were not more than two streets in Rome suitable for heavy- carriages to pass in, and in the others the litters of the wealthy struggled to force their way through the dense crowd."— ietsr/j,ton'« History of Rome. 250 Ancient History. was the Senate-House; the temple of Janus, built of bronze, the gates of which were closed only in time of peace; the temples of Vesta, of Concord, of Saturn, and of Castor and Pollux; the hall of The Roman Forum. records {Tabula' Hum)', the prison (career)-,* the courts for Temple of Jupiter Capitolinis. the administration of justice {hasiVica!)',\ the statues of dis- tinguished statesmen and warriors, and tlie sx)oils of conquered • This was the grreat prison of Rome— the Mamertine— built by Ancus Martlus, on the slope of the Capitoline, and enlarcred by Servius Txillitis by a subterranean dungeon, 12 feet underground, walled and overarched with masonry. It was in one of the cold, damp cells of this dungeon that Jugurtha closed his eventful but wicked career, t These were covered porticoes In which persons met to transact businesH, and in which the courts of law held their sessions. After the recognition of Christianity by the state, the haailira became a mcnlel for church an'hiterture. The main body of the building, called the nave (from its resemblance to the Interior of a ship, navis), was for the people assembled for business: tlie aisles (a/a^ wings\ separated from the nave by pillars, afforded passage from the eniwd; and the end, semi- circular in form, was for the prmtor and tlu>s«> who appeared b»'f«>r«> his tribtnial. In the church edifices these became, respe«-t'v<'lv. «h.' navf, aisles, and choir. The first basilica was erected In 1B4 b.c Roman Cimlization. 251 nations; while, looking down upon all, from the Capitoline Hill, was the great temple of Jupiter.* Various streets sur- rounded or intersected portions of this space, in which were shops for the sale of goods {taber'nm), 108. Besides the main forum, there were other public squares of a similar character, used for market-places, or places of business. There were, also, open spaces of larger extent, resembling parks, being set with trees and partly covered with grass. These were Campus Martius. called fields {campi), chief among which was the Campus Aqueduct of the Pont du Gard, at Nimes. Martius, or Field of Mars, in which were held the assemblies (comitia) for making laws and appointing magistrates, and where the young men had their martial exercises, drilling, riding, etc. This was also surrounded by many splendid edifices. Near to this square was erected The Pantheon. by Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus, the magnificent temple * The Capitoline Hill, the smallest of the seven hills, was called previously the Tarpeian rock. It was very steep and rugged, and formed a natural fortress. On its top was built the Capitol, completed by Tarquin the Proud. It was bxuTied dur- ing the Sullan civil war, but was afterwaixi restored. 252 Ancient History. called the Pantheon (temple of all the gods), which has sur- vived the ravages of time and the destructive violence of the barbarians. 109. The aqueducts were among the most magnificent of the Eoman works. Of these there were seven in the time of Augustus, affording an abundant supply of water both for private use and for the immense public baths. During the empire many minor structures of this Aqueducts. JLlijPjKJLBJi ™ Jl fW JLH. Racing Chariots. kind were erected. By these aqueducts the water was carried from a considerable distance, over stone arches, some of which were more than one hundred feet high. The remains of these still attest their original grandeur; and of the three aqueducts which now supply modern Kome with water, two are of an- cient construction.* 110. Besides these, should be mentioned the buildings for the games of the circus, consisting of chariot-n»^es, boxing, ♦"Wherever the Roman went he carried with him his art of building. The aqueduct which was constnjcted by Aprrippa to supply Nemansus (Nimee), a colony of no great note, with water, is a proof of this assertion. "Hie lar^st modem cities can hardly show a work of public titfllty so mngnlflcent as the structure which is known to thousands of moiiern tnirelers under the name of th9 Pont du Gard. "—LiddelVa History of Home. See page 261 . Roman Civilization. 253 and gymnastic contests. These games were, as among the Greeks, of a religious character, intended as an expression of Joy for the favor of the gods or to appease their displeasure. Among the exercises were also the Circus dreadful gladiatorial combats, introduced in 264 B.C. The The Flavian Amphitheatek, or cjolusseum. largest and oldest circus was the Circus Maximus, capable oi holding more than 200,000 persons. There frere seyeral owjer buildings of this character in the city. 111. To the circus succeeded, in the time of Julius Caesar, the amphitheater, which was better adapted to the exhibition of the gladiatorial combats, the seats, rising in tiers, being arranged around the central space, or Amphitheater. arena, on which the contests took place. In the time of Augustus, a stone amphitheater was built in the Campus Martius; but the grandest building of this kind was erected 254 Ancient History. about one hundred years later, by the emi)erors Vespasian and Titus. This was called the Fla'vian Ampliitlieater (from the emperors' family), but subsequently received the title of the Oolosse'um, on account of its immense size.* It was elliptical in shape, 564 feet long and 467 feet wide, resting on fourscore arches, and rising to the The Colosseum. >i,i:i M OF AUOUSTCS (Ki ■height of 140 feet. It accommodated at least 80,000 specta- tors. Its internal and external decorations were of the grandest description. ♦ •* The outside of the edifice was incrusted with marble, and decorated with statues. The slopes of the vast concave which formed the inside tivui filled and surrounded with sixty or eij?hty rows of seats of murble. likewise covereors were very aptly ilLstin^ruished) poured forth the immense multitude; and the entrances, pas-sn^cs. nntl staircase* were contrived with such exquisite skill that each person, whether of the senato- rial, the equestrian, or plebeian order, arrived at b|8 destined place without trouble or confusion."— Cttdon, Roman Civilization. 255 112. Pompey's Theater was another remarkable building, erected by that great general after his return from the east. It was built of stone, and was large enough to seat 40,000 spectators. There were also spacious edifices for the public baths, built of marble, and Pompey's Theatpr. supplied with every convenience ; and numerous palaces {palaHia), among which the imperial palace of Augustus, fronting the Forum, was conspicuous; but several others were built by his successors. Many of the Mausoiea. private palaces were very spacious and elegant. On the hills around the city were laid out parks and gardens (Jiorti), adorned with handsome buildings and works of art. The city was also rich in sei)ulchral monuments — imperial or private mausolea, as well as columns erected in honor of illustrious Eomans. Roman Art. 113. In the early period of Roman history, art had made some progress. Statues were erected to heroes and patriots, distinguished by their services to their country, and temples were built to the gods; but of these -Early period. works of the olden time little remains besi«le the famous bronze group of the wolf suckling the twins, constructed about three centuries B.C., and set up in the Capitol. The Eomans seem to have derived their art from the Etruscans and Greeks, whose artistic Source of Roman art. styles and designs had very much in common. After the conquest of Southern Italy, Rome was brought into imme- diate contact with the finest specimens of Greek art. 114. Utility rather than beauty was the guiding principle in Roman art; and the aqueducts, sewers, public roads, and other works already referred to are the best monuments of their building and engineering Guiding principle. skill. They aimed not to please the taste simply, but to accomplish some great public benefit by their vast structures. 256 Ancient History. Thus, they cut tunnels through the solid rock for the purpose of draining oft the volcanic lakes;* and, when Julius Cgesar had reached the height of his power, he formed the design of draining the Pontine marshes by constructing a canal, so as ^^^ ^^^^ I to improye the healthfulness of the city, and pro- __ — I jected other great works. In the early times, an order of architecture called the Tuscan was mostly uscd.+ ii Ml M I Vesta— (In its present couditiou). Roman architecture is particularly distinguished for the use made of the arch, supj)osed to have been invented by tlie Etruscans, and of the vaulted dome. J ♦ "The first tunnel of which wo hear was that by which tJie Alban Lake was partially let off during the siege of Veii, a work which was suggested by an Etrus- can soothsayer. Other works of like kind still remain, thougli the time of their execution is not always known."— LiV/rfeM'« History of Rome. t This is an order of architecture, the composition of which is attributed to the Ktniscans. It is a s|)ecies of simple Doric. No complete sample of It, however, has been left to us by the ancients. % WiUi the fifth century began the building of gates, bridges, and aqueducts based mainly on the arch, which is thenceforth inseparably associated with the Roman Cimlization.^ 257 115. In the later period, after wealth and luxury had invaded Kome, Greek art became a study; and though there were no Eoujan artists of any account, there were i many connoik:eurs and collectors. The dwellings ^'® °l^'^^^ of the rich were adorned with the works of Greek I . masters, as were likewise the public buildings and temples. Music and dancing were especially cultivated; as, in the Roman banquets, the singers and instru- mental performers, as well as the dancing-girls. Music and dancing. were in great demand. This was also the custom in their theatrical entertainments. Roman Liteeattiee. 116. Roman literature, for the most part, was only an imitation of that of the Greeks. Rome had no literature worthy of the name until near the close of the republic; and the rage for Greek models con- First period. stantly repressed all original genius. The first period of Roman literature begins with the dramatist Livius An-dro-ni'cus, who flourished about 240 B.C. He was a native of Magna Graecia ; and, when his Livius Andronicus. country was conquered by the Romans, he was brought a captive to Rome. He wrote comedies and tragedies, in which he also took part as an actor. The stirring hymn which he composed for the Romans during O+her poets. the first Punic War was much admired. Ennius, sometimes called the "father of Roman song," and Plan tus and Terence, noted for their comedies, also lived during this period (in the second century B.C.). 117. The second period, sometimes called the golden age, of Roman literature, was more prolific of genius. In the early part, flourished Varro, celebrated for his learning, who wrote Roman name. Akin to this was the development of the form of the round temple with the dome-shaped roof, which was foreign to the Greeks, but was a peculiar favorite with the Romans, and was especially apphed by them in the case of their peculiar non-Grecian worship, particularly that of Vesta. "—JfowimaeTi , 268 Andeid History, on agriculture, grammar, antiquities, and many other subjects. Indeed, it is said, bis works filled 500 volumes. He died 26 b. c. Lucretius, a noted Golden age. VlKGlL. HORACB. philosophical poet, who embodied in verse tl^-:r peculiar tenets of Epicurus, was a contemporary with Varro. It was, however, during the age of Augustus that Latin literature reached its height, through the genius of many gifted poets: Virgil, the author of the jEneid ; Horace, renowned for his odes, satires, and poetical epistles ; Ovid, for many beautiful poems ; Livy and Sallust, for their histories ; and Chltullus, Tibullus, and Pro])ertius, for their lyi|ic poems. Augustus was h great patron of letters, as was likewise his friend and minister, Mse-ce'nas. Among the writers of the golden age must also be mentioned Caesar, whose Commentaries on his own campaigns are a model of military history; and Cicero, illustrious not only for his orations but for his philosophical works, and his essays and letters. 118. The third period, sometimes called the Silver Age, belongs to the time of the empire; but, in continuation of this topic, we may here mention the most promi- nent writers who flourished during it, as their works form an essential portion of Roman lit^jrature. Tac'i-tus and Sue-to'ni-us are especially noted for their histories and biographies; Per'seus and Ju've-nal, for tlieir satires; and the elder Pliny for his writings on natural history. To these must be added Sen'e-ca, the ])hilosopher and moralist, whose writings are prized for their purity and elevation. Roman Religion. 119. The religion of the Romans, in its general features, resembled that of the Greeks; that is to say, it consistf^d in the worship of a large number of ^^ities; and among these Silver age. Roman Cimlization, 259 were many of the gods of Olympus, but with different names. This has already been pointed out in the account given of the Greek mythology. Some of the prominent features of the Eoman religion were General features. derived from the Etruscans, who were exceedingly superstitious. As the Eomans were very religious, and as they traced the causes of all events, including the phenomena of nature, to the action of the gods, nothing was undertaken without previously con- Thk Pantheon— (^its present condition, 1881). suiting their will, by established methods, which constituted a part of the Roman political as well as religious system. 120. There were many modes of divination — ^by omens, prodigies, the Sibylline books,* and the auspices; but the most * The Sibylline books were said to have been brought from Cumae. " The story runs that a strange woman came to Tarquin and offered nine books for sale. The king refused to buy the books. The sibyl departed and burnt three ,• then returned, offering the remaining six at the same price. The king again refused. The sibyl then burnt three more, and demanded the same price for the remaining three. The curiosity of the king was aroused; he bought the books, and the woman vanished. The books were kept in a stone chest under the capitol in charge of two 260 Ancient History, important were the auspices, which were certain signs sup- posed to be given by the gods in order that their will might become known. There were officers, a Divination. kind of priesthood, appointed for the purpose of attending to the proper rites to be employed in interpreting these signs; these composed the College of Augurs, consisting at first of four, afterward increased to College of Augurs. sixteen, and selected from the patrician order. Besides these there was a College of Pontiffs, the most sacred of all the religious institutions, whicli supervised and regulated the worship of the state, including College of Pontiffs. the times of the religious festivals, which were very numerous; and also decided what gods should be adored. 121. The public meetings could not be convened without consulting an augur; nor could the business jjroceed if he pronounced the omens unfavorable. If it light- ened or thundered, or tliere was any other dis- turbance in the atmosphere — a storm, darkness, or Office of the augurs. any peculiar appearance of the sky — tlie assembly was com- pelled to disperse. There was, also, a 'form of divination perfoi-mod by pric^sts culled Ha-rus'pi-ces, intro- duced from Etruria. It was based upon an in- Harusplces. spection of the entrails of victims offered in sacrifice, by which they pretended to ascertain the will of the gods. They also professed to be able to appease by certain ceremonies the anger of the gods, when it was indicated by some strange natural occurrence, as when the liglTtiiing struck, wlien it rained stones or blood, or when any o\X\qx prodigy occurred. 122. The priests did not form an exclusive class. They were elected as likewise were tlie other magistrates, but for life; and sometimes held a civil as well as a priestly office. The pontifex maximus (high priest) stood first in power; but the men, called duoviri Mcrorum. They were consulted by order of the senate In times of great emergency or public calamity. Through thtiir Influence the worKhip of many Grecian deities was introduced."— Leiyhton's History of Home. RoTTian Civilization. 261 King of the Sacrifices {rex sacrific^ulus) held the highest rank in sanctity of office. The subordinate priests were called flamens {flmn'i-nes), who attended Priesthood. to the worship of particular deities: the Vestal Virgins were priestesses of Vesta. It was unlawful for a flamen to ride upon a horse, to look upon an army equipped for battle, or to take an oath. He could have no knot in any part of his clothing; nor was he permitted to be absent from the city a single night. Such are a few of the restraints to which every priest was subjected. 123. The Roman calen- dar showed the festival days, which afforded tlie people a great deal of ,. „ , . Festivals. time for leisure and enjoyment, besides inj- pressing their minds with their religious duties. The worship of Jupiter and Mars (Qui-ri'nus) was the most prominent, but that of SuovETAURiLiA. Vcsta was the most sacred.* The days of full moon were sacred to Jupiter. To Mars belonged the new year's day, March 1, which was a gi'eat warrior festival, celebrated with war-dances, and the conse- cration of arms; and besides this there were the Qiiirina'lin, on the 27th of February, sacred to the same deity. The com and wine festival {Cerea'lia)^ sacred to Ceres, took place in June; the Vina'lia, or wine feast, in August; the Saturn-' u'lia, or festival of Saturn, in December ; the Luperca'Ua, * " Six chaste virgins, daughters as it were of the household of the Roman people, attended to the service of Vesta, and had to maintain the wholesome fire of the common hearth always blazing as an example, and an omen to the bm^esses. This worship, half domestic, half public, was the most sacred of all in Rome."— Mommsen. 262 Ancient History. or woK festival, in February. Then there were tlie festival of departed spirits {Fera'lia) and the ghost celebration {Lemur- a'lia), lasting three days, besides many others. At certain ceremonies of purification {lustrations)^ a pig, a sheep, and a bull were sacrificed. These were called the suovetauriVia. The Latin religion lacked the spiritual and aesthetic element so prominent in that of the Greeks, and soon degenerated into a dreary round of meaningless ceremonies. The wor- ship was very sensuous, consisting chiefly in expressions of joy, — songs, games, dances, and banquets. Mannebs and Customs. 124. Roman houses, in early times, were very plain and simple, one story in height, and containing but a single room, the floor of which was usually covered with straw; the windows being only openings in the walls Roman houses. closed by shutters, which also supplied the place of chimneys for the escape of smoke. When the tide of wealth and luxury flowed into Rome, handsome residences took the place of these hovels, and many magnificent mansions were erected. 125. From the vestibule, at the entrance of which the word salve (welcome) was carved, the visitor i)assed into a spacious hall, or reception room, called the atrium, doors from which led to the otlier ai)artment8, either directly or by intermediate courts. There Vestibule, atrium, etc. were separate rooms set apart for cooking, for the entertain- ment of intimate friends, and for the domestics, besides sleej)- ing-apartments, banquet-halls, and often a chajiel for the worship of the gods. Here were the lares, or liousehold gods; while the imsiges of the dead were placed in the atrium, Windows of transparent stone succeeded the rude openings with shutters; but, under the emi)ire, glass was used. 126. The walls and ceilings were i)ainted in various colors, or adorned with frescos, representing mythological groups, landscapes, or scenes from daily life. The furniture consistec? Roman Cimlization^ 263 of chairs, tables, dinner-couches, lamps of various forms, vases, mirrors, urns, incense-burners, etc.; and the floors were sometimes covered with many- Furniture. colored carpets from eastern looms. The house was heated by means of a fire-place or a portable furnace, sometimes by the admission of air heated by a furnace below. Oil-lamps were used for lighting, in the designing of which much taste and skill were expended. The candelabra, or supports for the lamps, were often very elaborate and beautiful. 127. The Romans had three meals each day: a light break- fast; a lunch, at noon; and a dinner, toward evening, which was the chief meal. At the costly banquets given by the rich, there was every possible display, as well as luxurious entertainmeut, including crowds of slaves, gor- geous furniture, music, and dancing-girls. While eating, they reclined on couches, like the Greeks. Meals. Banquets. Instead of knives, they used two spoons, both pointed at the end. Each guest brought with him a linen napkin to fasten over his breast. 128. Marriage was celebrated with great ceremony. The auspices having been taken, and the bride and bridegroom led to the household altar, sacrifices were offered; then the marriage-feast was given, after which Marriage. the bride was conducted to her husband's house, being care- fully lifted over the threshold of the ati him, to avoid the ill omen of stumbling. The next day a second marriage-feast was held, and the bride offered sacrifices to the gods of her new home. 129. The mother took charge of the early education of her children, after which the father assumed that duty; in fact, the authority of a father over his sons continued until liis death, unless the son became a flamen of Jupiter, or the father resigned his authority. Schools. Elementary schools for boys and girls seem to have been established at Rome at an early period; but, for many cen- •264 Ancient History, turies, the branches studied were very rudimental — merely reading, writing, and arithmetic. Later, the literature and language of the Greeks were generally taught. The punish- Implements op Writino.* mentswere severe: Martial, the poet, remarks that before the ~ crowing of the cock the air resounded with the noise of flogging and the cries of the children. Hence the schools must have begun at a very early hour of the day. The books and implements of writing resembled those of the Greeks. Books and writing. * " The circular wooden or metal case (scrinium) at the left, with a cover, con- tains six volumes rolled up (hence the word volume), and labelled that they may b<» easily disting'uished. In front of the case Is a stylus and a penta>ronal inkstami, very similar t^ those now in use. A little to the rijjht is a i)en nnvdi' t»f it»ed, hence railed calamus. Next to the ca.se of books is the Inhclhi, joined toj;ether jus with hinpfes. anks, a slave nccompaniwi him to carry the «iTintwm. The <'hildren of the rich were accompanied io school by a slave, who •carried their books and writing-tablets. H Engllih Tlie Roman Empire. 271 SECTION V. The Eoman Empire. 139. The reign of Augustus virtually though not formall}' commenced with the victory at Actium. It lasted forty-five years from that event (to 14 a.d.), for Augustus lived to be seventy-seven years of age. Although he ruled with absolute power, he was careful to retain the forms of the republican government, and to avoid every offensive title, such as kiug or dictator; but he caused all the important offices to be conferred upon himself. Thus, as Reign of Augustus. Imperator (commander-in-chief), he had the command of the ar- mies, and as president of the Senate and consul, he administered the civil government. The Senate still held its sessions, but its decrees had no real weight. The long civil wars had made the Romans greatly desire tranquillity; and as Augustus ruled with equity and moderation, they acquiesced in his authority. He kept large armies stationed at various parts of the empire to repress all opposition, and he instituted the Praetorian Guards* to protect his person. He also appointed a special Geographical Study. What were the boundaries of the Roman Empire under Augustus? Ans. North, the British Channel, the German Ocean, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euxine (Black Sea); East, the Euphrates River and the desert of Syria; South, the great African desert ; West, the Atlantic Ocean. How were the provinces divided ? Ans. Into three groups— the Western, or European; the Eastern, or Asiatic; and the Southern, or African. What were the Western provinces? Ans. Hispania (Spain), Gallia (Gaid), Germania (Germany), Vindelicia, Rhaetia, Noricum, Pan- nonia, Moesia, Elyricum, Macedonia, Thracia (Thrace), Achaia, Sicily, and Sardinia (14). What were the Eastern provinces? Ans. Asia, Bithynia, Galatia, Pamphylia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, and Judea (8). What were the Southern? Ans. ^gyptus (Sgypt), the Cyrenaica (including Crete), Africa Proper, Numidia, and Mauretania (5). How many were there in all? Ans. Twenty-seven. WTiat was the situation of each of these provinces? (See Map VH.) WTiat was the extent of the Roman Empire? Ans. About 2700 miles, from east to west; and about 1000, from north to south. * So called from /)roe^ori«m, the name given to the tent of the general in every Roman camp. The praetorian guard comprised ten cohorts of a thousand men each, and consisteil exclusively of Italian soldiers. Augustus kept three cohorts 272 Ancient History, council of state with whom he advised iu regard to his measures. 140. Under his direction, campaigns were carried on against the tribes in northern Spain and among the eastern Alps — the Rhaetians and Vindelicians, as well as in the terri- tories bordering on the Rhine and Danube. The provinces of Rhsetia, Noricum, Pannonia, and Mcesia were annexed to the empire during his Military operations. reign; but his forces met with a severe defeat in the attempt to conquer the Germans living to the east of the Rhine. Led by the brave and patriotic Ar-min'i-us, or Her'mann, some of the tribes that had submitted to the Romans revolted, and the proconsul Va'rus was surprised, and his army cut to pieces (a.d. 10). This disaster so preyed upon the emperor's mind that he died a short time after (a.d. 14), leaving the government to his stej^son Tiberius. Birth of Christ. The reign of Augustus is especially memorable for the birth of Christ, in Judea (4 B.C.). [See page 21.] 141. The Twelve Caesars include Julius, the illustrious founder of the line, Augustus, who is considered the first emperor (imperator), and his ten successors. Most of these were odious tyrants, distinguished for nothing but their sensuality and bloodthirsty The twelve Caesars. cruelty.* Vespasian and his son Titus, the latter of whom in Rome, and distributed the otliera among the neighboring cities. HiH successor, Tiberius, collected the whole body in a camp just outside the walls of liome. These praetorian guards afterward became the ciiief instruments of usurpation and tyranny. The Roman standing army maintained by Augustus at diflTerent points of the frontier and in the provinces, amounted to about 350,(XX) men. * Tlie following is a list of the Twelve Cuesara, witli the date of the death of each: JuliuflCassar 44 bo. Augustus 14 A.D. Tibenus 87 " Caligula 41 *' Claudius 64 " Nero 68 " Qalba 60 a.d. Otho GO " VitellluR 60 '• Vespasian ;.... 79 " Titus 81 " Domition 96 ** The Caesarian lino really tenninate*^hile disregarded by the successor of Galerius, and the per- Arch of Constantine, Rome, (in its present condition). secutions were renewed, until Constantine, two years later, issued the edict of Milan, to which we have already referred. 158. The vision of Constantine, followed by a remarkable dream, prompted him, it is said, to adopt the celebrated LaVa-rum, or standard of the cross, which afterward was borne by the Christian emperors. This is described as a "long pike intersected by a transversal beam. The silken veil which hung down from the beam was The Labarum. curiously inwrought with the images of the reigning monarch 282 Ancient History, and Lis children. The summit of tlie pike supported a crown of gold, which inclosed the mysterious monogram, at once expressive of the figure of the cross and the initial letters of the name of Christ."* Fifty guards constantly watched over the safety of the Laharum ; and in battle the sight of it in- spired the soldiers of Constantine with invincible enthusiasm, and scattered terror and dismay through the ranks of the opposing legions. 159. Constantine, until near the close of his life, did not forbid the practice of paganism; but he carefully encouraged Christianity. He caused the old churches to be repaired, and splendid edifices to be erected for Christian worship. lie exempted the Christian Measures of Constantine. priesthood from taxes, and proclaimed the first day of the week, Sunday {dies solis), a day of rest. During his reign, the celebrated Council of Nice (in Bithynia) was held, in which the doctrines of the Council of Nice. Church wore more clearly defined (325 A.D.).t Constantine died in 337 A. D.t 160. A few years later, an attempt was made by the emperor Julian to re-esta])lish paganism as the national religion. This emi)eror had been educated in Athens, and had imbibed a great fondness for the pagan philosophy and religion. On his accession, therefore, he Revival of paganism. determined to overthrow Christianity, and restore the ancient faith and worship; and hence he has been called "the Apos- tate." To disprove the prophecy of Christ, lie attempted to ♦ Sometimes the monopram wna inscribed on the banderole, or fdlken veil, and the crown omittod. The ori(,'in of the name Inbarvm is imknown. + In this conncil, which was convened and attended by Constantine. the NIcene Creed was adopted In opposition to the opponents of the doi-trine of the Trinity," and this creed was ratified by Constantine, who pronounced a sentence of Im- mediate exile upon all who opposed it. X "It must be confessed that the life and actions of this prince were not such as the Christian relijrion demands from those who profess t-o believe its sub- lime doctrines; yet the sincerity of hi -i zeal for Christianity can scarcely be doubted." —MttHheim. The Roman Empire, 283 rebuild the temple at Jerusalem; but the design, it is said, was frustrated by a miracle, fire-balls breaking out from the foundation and driving the workmen away, so that they were obliged to abandon the attempt.* Julian was afterward killed in a disastrous expedition against the Persians, after a reign of sixteen months Christianity restored. (A.D. 363); and his successor, Jovian, re-established Chris- tianity as the religion of the state. The Ieeuptions of the Bakbakian& 161. It is now necessary to consider those great irniptions of the barbarous nations of the north and east, that, like a vast tide, constantly poured into the empire during more than three centuries, successively occupying various parts of its dominions, and at last caused its overthrow. ' These in- vasions were commenced by the German races in an attack on Pannonia, in the latter i:)art of the Germans. Goths. second century; but they were repelled by Marcus Aurelius. The attack was repeated in subsequent reigns; r and, during that of the emperor Decius, the L Goths, a Teutonic race from the north, made an incursion * " The desire of rebuilding the temple has in every age been the ruling passion of the children of Israel. In this propitious moment, the men forgot their avarice, and the women their delicacy ; spades and pickaxes of silver were provided by the vanity of the rich, and the rubbish was transported in mantles of silk and purple. Every purse was opened in liberal contributions, every hand claimed a share in the pious labor; and the commands of a great monarch were executed by the enthusiasm of a whole people. Yet, on this occasion, the joint efforts of power and enthusiasm were unsuccessful; and the ground of the Jewish temple, which is now covered by a Mahometan mosque, still continued to exhibit the same edifying spectacle of ruin and desolation. An earthquake, a whirlwind, and a fiery erupH tion, which overturned and scattered the new foundations of the temple, are attested, with some variations, by contemporary and respectable evidence. Even Ammianus Marcellinus, a contemporary and a pagan, relates that ' whilst Alypius, assisted by the governor of the province, urged with vigor and diligence the execution of the work, horrible balls of fire, breaking out near the foundations, with frequent and reiterated attacks, rendered the place, from time to time, inaccessible to the scorched and blasted workmen; and, the victorious element continuing in this manner obstinately and resolutely bent, as it were, to drive them to a distance, the undertaking was abandoned.' ^''—Gibbon. 284 Ancient History. into Dacia, and, crossing the Danube, attacked Moesia and Thrace. The Romans suffered a disastrous defeat; the city of Phil-ip-pop'o-lis was taken by storm, and 100,000 persons were massacred. In a second defeat, after a temfic conflict, Decius himself was slain (251 a.d.). 162. The emperor Claudius, a great general, about twenty years later, gained a signal victory over the Goths in Moesia, de- stroying one of the mightiest armaments that ever invaded the empire; but Aurelian, his successor, finding it impossible to withstand the vast hordes of the Goths, now joined by the Vandals, a kindred race, relinquished to them the large province of Dacia, most of the inhabitants of which removed to the south side of the Settlement of the Goths in Dacia. Danube (270 a.d.). Aurelian next defeated the Al-e-man'ni, a German tribe, who had invaded Italy and threatened the city of Rome itself. 163. The Goths for some time resided peacefully in their new home, and about the middle of the fourth century were converted to Christianity. About the same time they began to be known as the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths — that is, the western and the eiistern Visigoths and Ostrogoths. Goths — the former inhabiting the Dacian province, the latter the regions farther east, on the shores of the Black Sea. But now a new horde, called the Huns, an Asiatic or Mongolian tribe, poured into Europe, and Huns. attacked the Goths, who then, having api)licd to the Romans for protection, were allowed to cross the Danube into Moesia. A dispute, however, soon after arose between the Goths and the Romans, and a great battle was fought near Adrianople, in which Valens, the Roman emperor, lost his life (378 a.d.). His successor, Theodo- Victory of the Goths. sius the Great, the next year signally defeated them ; and great numbers of them were received into tlic Roman armies. 164. The subsequent part of the history of the empire is chielly occupied by accounts of the invasions of these bar- The Roman Empire. 285 barous races — tlie Goths, the Vandals, the Huns, and other tribes. This will be perceived as we rapidly sketch the most prominent events of the period succeeding the reign of the great Theodosius. The complete overthrow of paganism and the establishment of Christianity in the Roman dominions, as well as the repulse Reign of Theodosius. of the barbarians from every part of the frontier, were striking events of this reign — the last that reflected any credit upon the Roman name. Theodosius at his death divided the empire between his two sons, Ho-no'ri-us being placed on the throne of the West, and Ar-ca'di-us on that of the East (a.d. 395). 165. The reign of Honorius had scarcely commenced, when the Goths, indignant that their subsidy had not been paid, invaded Greece under their renowned leader Al'a-ric, and devastated the whole country from Thermopylae to Sparta. Stil'i-cho (-X'o), the brave Invasion of Alaric. and talented minister of Honorius, by a series of masterly move- ments, drove out the barbarians; but the pusillanimous Arca- dius made a disgraceful treaty with Alaric, which put an end to the campaign. Alaric soon after invaded Italy, and made a rapid march for Rome; but he was overtaken near Ve-ro'na and entirely defeated by Stilicho (a.d. 403). His departure from Italy was, however, purchased by the weak and timid Honorius by the payment of a large pension. 166. During the next five years Stilicho gained several victories over the barbarians; but the unworthy emperor, tired of his influence and jealous of his great fame, treaclierously caused him to be put to Death of Stilicho. death, appointing in his stead a minister of neither capacity nor worth. The latter having caused a massacre of the fami- lies of the barbarians throughout Italy, the Gothic soldiers in the Roman army revolted and joined the standard of Alnric, who immediately invaded Italy and marclied to Rome. The city was soon compelled by famine to surrender, and Hono- rius, who held his court at Baveuna, refusing to treat for peace, 286 Ancient History. the ancient capital was giveu up to pillage (a.d. 410). The devastation and massacre were frightful; but Ala- ric, professing Christianity, spared the cliurches; and, unwilling utterly to destroy the city which Taking of Rome by the Goths. had been the world's mistress, the sixth day after its capture he withdrew his forces. While about to invade Sicily, he was seized with a mortal disease; and his remains were buried beneath the bed of a small stream, in southern Italy. 167. A-dol'phus, the brother-in-law of Alaric, succeeded to the sovereignty of the Goths; and liaving married Pla- cid'i-a, the sister of Honorius, he made peace with the Ro- mans. He then retired to Spain, and founded in that coun- try the Kingdom of the Vis'i-goths. About the same time the Vandals settled in the central and southern parts of Spain; and the Sue'vi and other Kingdom of the Visigoths. German tribes, in the north-western part. Under the suc- cessors of Adolphus, the Vandals were exi)elled (a.d. 427),- the other nations subdued, and the Gothic monarchy extended over a large part of Gaul as well Jis Sj)ain. The Vandals, crossing into Africa, made themselves Vandals. masters of the northern part of that region. About this time also the Franks, Burgundians, and other barbarous tribes invaded Gaul. 168. After a disgraceful reign of twenty-eight years, Honorius died (a.d. 423), and was succeeded by Valentinian ni., a weak prince, under the guardianship of his mother Placidia, who ruled in his name for twenty-five years. During ^ 1 this period the Huns, under their terrible leader Attiia's invas ion. | ^^,^-_^j^^ haviug defeated several Koman armies, ravaged the Eastern Empire from the Euxine to the Adriatic (a.d. 441-450). After extorting immense treasures from the 1 Emperor of the East, as the price of peace, Attila ^*^'"*' I formed an alliance with the Franks, and marched into Gaul, where he was met and defeated with terrible slaugh- ter by the united forces of the Romans and Goths, the former TJie Roman Empire, 287 commanded by A-e'tius, (a-e' slie-us) the greatest general of his age, called by some *'the last of the Romans" (a.d. 451). 169. Notwithstanding this great defeat, Attila the next year invaded Italy, and committed the most dreadful devasta- tions, boasting that ^Hhe grass never grew on the spot where his horse had trod." Many of the most flourishing cities were taken and utterly Devastations by Attila. destroyed. The people of the Venetian territory (the Ven'e-ti) took refuge in the neighboring islands; and thus was founded a maritime city, which afterward became the greatest emporium of Europe. The entreaties of Leo, Bishop of Rome, and the payment of an Death of Attila. immense sum, finally induced Attila to depart from Italy; and the next year (a.d. 453) his death relieved the empire from the terror of his arms. 170. The emperor Valentinian having been assassinated, his widow implored the aid of Gen'se-ric, king of the Vandals, to avenge his death. With a numerous fleet he set sail from Carthage, his capital;: and, disem- barking at Ostia, marched to Rome, which be Pillage of Rome by the Vandals. came a prey to the violence of his followers. The pillage of the city lasted fourteen days and nights; and the vessels of the Vandals and Moors were laden with the spoils of temples and palaces (a.d. 455). During the next twenty- one years eight emperors successively assumed the purple, the last of whom was Romulus, the son of 0-res'tes, a Pannonian chief, who had been in the service of Attila. 171. The barbarian mercenaries, demanding from Orestes a third part of Italy and being refused, revolted, and chose Od-o-a'cer, chief of a Gothic tribe called the Her'uli, as their leader. Pavia was taken by storm; and Orestes, having been made a prisoner, End of the Western Empire. was put to death. Odoacer compelled Romulus, surnamed in derision Au-gus'tii-lics (that is, Augustus the Little), to resign the purple ; and then, abolishing the title and office of 288 Ancient History, Emperor of tlie West, he proclaimed liimself King of Italy (a.d. 47G). Thus terminated the western division of the Great Roman Empire. The eastern division, usually called the Eastern or Greek Empire, continued to exist for nearly one thousand years. The Roman Emperors. [The date is that of the commencement of the reign.] Name. Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus DomitifUi • Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. . Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus Septimius Severus Caracalla Macrinus Elagabalus Alexander Severus Maximiu Gordian I. Oordian Maximus and Balbinus (joint reign) Ooi-dianus m Philip Decius Gallus Date. 81 B.C. 14 A.D. 87 " 41 " 54 " 117 13S 101 180 192 198 193 211 217 217 \} IM4 S49 251 n.} Name. ^milianus.. "Valerian . . . Gallienus Claudius II. , Aurelian .... Tacitus Carinus Diocletian . . . Maximian . . Galerius Constantius Constantine , Constantino 11. Constantius Constans Julian Jovian , Valentinfan I , Gratian , Valentinian II , Theodosius the Great Honorius , Valentinian m , Maximus , Avitus Majorian , Jjibius Severus Arethemlus Olybrius , Glycerins Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus. . Date. 253 A.D. 254 " 2C0 " 268 " 2:0 " 275 " 288 " 284 " 286 •• 305 " 806 " 337 " 861 " 868 " 864 •* 375 " 425 455 455 457 461 407 4T3 473 474 475 Remew Outline. 289 Topical Review. STATESMEN AND GENERALS. In wliat period did they livef What was their character? With what events connected? page Junius Brutus 188, 189 Spurius Cassius 193 Coriolanus 194 Appius Claudius 195 Furius Camillus 196, 198, 200 Caius Licinius 199 Regulus 207 .-> Scipi. Africanus 213, 215 ^ Flamininus 214 Scipio Asiaticus 214 Porcius Cato 216 .(Emilius Paulus 215 Scipio uEmilianus 219 Scipio Nasica 220 V, Tiberius Giacchus 221 N Caius Gracchus 223 Caius Marius 224, 227 Sulla 226,229 ' .' Lucullus 226, 230 ^Pompey the Great 226,234 Sertorius 229 Crassus 229, 233 Lucius Catiline 231 Cicero 231. 240 Julius Caesar 232, 238 Cassius 234, 238, 242 Mark Antony 239, 243 Octavius Caesar, 240, 243 Lepidus 241, 242 Marcus Brutus .238, 242 EMINENT WRITERS. In what period did they live? What works did they ivrite? Livius Andronicus 257 Plautus 257 Terence 257 Varro 258 Lucretius 258 ^> Virgil 258 Horace 258 Uvy. 258 PAGE Sallusfc 258 Juvenal 258 Suetonius 258 Pliny 258 Seneca 258 Julius Caesar 258 MISCELLANEOUS. Who were they? When did tliey live? With what events connected? Lars Porsenna 189 Jloratius Codes 189,190 Mucins Scsevola 189, 190 Timoleon 204 Agathocles 184, 206 Hannibal 209, 213 Hiero .206, 211 Dionysius 204 Viriathus 217 Archimedes 206 Jugurtha 223, 224 Spartacus 229 Mithridates 225, 232 Tigranes 226 ^Cleopatra 242, 243 DECISIVE BATTLES. Where were they fought? What led to them? What resulted therefrom? Allia 197 Sentinum 201 Beneventum .202 Cannae 206 Zama 212 Cynoscephalae 214 Pydna 215 Magnesia 214 Pharsalia , 235 Ziela 236 Thapsus 236 Munda 237 >Philippi 232 ^ctium. 243 290 Ancient History. Topical Keview of the Roman Empire. EMINENT PERSONAGES. In what period did they live? What was their character? With wliat events connected? page A-ugustus CsBsar 271, 272 Arminius 272 Titus 272,273 Trajan 274, 275, 280 Marcus AureUus 275, 280, 283 Septimius Severus 275 Caracalla . 276 Alexander Severus 276 Odenathus 276,277 Zenobia 277 Ijonginus 277 Diocletian 277, 278 r^Constantine 278,281,282 Decius 281 , 283 JuUan 282,283 Aurelian 277, 284 Theodosius 285 Stilicho 285 Alaric 285 Adolphus 286 Attila 286 Genserlc 287 Odoacer 287 IMPORTANT EVENTS. When did they occur? ' What led to them? What resulted therefrom? Institution of the Prsetorians. 271, 274, 275, 27? Conquest of Moesla 278 Destruction of Jerusalem 278 Abolition of the Provincial System,. 278 Abdication of Diocletian 278 Vision of Constantine 278, 281 Edict of Milan 279 Council of Nice 282 Invasion of the Germans. 288, 286 Invasions of the Ooths 288, 284, 285 Invasion of the Huns 284, 286 Invasions of the Vandals. ... .284, 286, 287 Taking of Pavia 287 ROMAN PROVINCES. What vxi.'i their situation? Wlien were ttiey annexed to the em pire? Any other facts relating to them? PACK Rhaetia 272 Noricum 272 Pannonia 272, 283 McEsia 272,284 Armenia 274 Britain 272,275 Mesopotamia 278 OBJECTS OF INTEREST. How are they described? When and by whom were they erected and established? For what purpose? Roman Fonun 249, 250 Basilicee 250, n Mamertine Prison 250 Campus Martins 251 Pantheon 251,252 Aqueducts 262 Circus 253 Amphitheater 2r>3 Colosseum 2r)4 Pompey's Theater ,. 255 Mausolea . 2.^5 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. What account is given of them? College of Augiut» 200 College of Pontiffs 2G0 Haruspices 200 Flamens 2Cl Festivals 861 Houses 262 Household Goda 208 Furniture 268 Marriage 268 Schools 268 Writing and Books 264 Costume of Males 265 Costume of Females 86B Funerals 266 MUitary System 867 General Chronological Hemew, 291 Geneeal Chronological Eevlew. B.C. 2700. Commencement of the first Egyptian dynasty. 2200. Babylon founded. 1652. Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt 1550. Cecrops at Athens. 1492. Cadmus in Boeotia. 1200. Migration of the Hellenic races. 1184. Troy burned by the Greeks. 1124. Great Dorian migration. 1095. Saul liiug of Israel. 1055. David begins to reign over Israel. 1015. Accession of Solomon. "975. Secession of the Ten Tribes. Kingdom of Israel divided. •7 878. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. -, 776. Commencement of the Olympiads. % 753. Rome founded. ^ 747. Era of Nabonassar. 721. Samaria taken. End of the kingdom of IsraeL 625. Nineveh taken by the Medes. Periander tyrant of Corinth. > 624. Draco gives laws to Athens. ^ 594. Legislation of Solon at Athens. ^58,6. Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. "^ 585. Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 560. Usurpation of the government of Athens by Pisistrtjttia. 554. Croesus taken prisoner by Cyrus. End of the kingdom of Lydia 538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. 536. Restoration of the Jews by an edict of Cyrus. 525. Pelusium taken, and Egypt subdued by Cambyses. 522. Accession of Darius Hystaspes. 514. Conspiracy of Harmodius and Aristogiton. 510. Expulsion of Hippias from Athens. V 509. Expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome. ^ 500. Ionian revolt in Asia Minor. 494. Creation of the office of Tribunes at Rome. 490. Battle of Marathon. 292 Ancient History, B.C. 486. First agrarian law proposed at Rome. 485. Accession of Xerxes to tlie tlirone of Persia. > 483. Banislimeut of Aristides by tlie Ostracism. 480. Baltics of Tliermopylae and Salamis. 479. Battle of Plataja. 471. Confederacy of Delds. Commencement of Athenian supremacy. Banislimeut of Tliemistocles by the Ostracism. 468. Death of Aristides. y 461. Pericles at the head of public affairs at Athens. \ 458. The ^quians defeated by Cincinnatus. 451. Appointment of the Decemvirs at Rome. 449 Death of Cimon. End of the Persian war. > 445. Intermarriage of patricians and plebeians permitted at Rome. 431. Commencement of the Peloponnesian War. 429. Plague at Athens. Death of Pericles. 415. Expedition against Sicily under Alcibiades and Niciaa 405. Battle of J^gospotamos. Dionysius tyrant of Syracuse. 404. Death of Alcibiades. Taking of Athens by Lysander. 403. The Thirty Tyrants expelled from Athens. 401. Battle of Cunaxa, and retreat of the Ten Thousand. 899. Condemnation and death of Socrates. 894. Victoiy of Agcsilaus at Coronea. The Spartan fleet defeated by Conon. 890. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls. 887. Peace of Antalcidas. 884. Birth of Aristotle at Stagira. 871. Battle of Leuctra. The Spartans defeated by Epaminondas. 370. The Licinian laws proposed at Rome. 362. Battle of Man tinea. Death of Epaminondas. 359. Accession of Philip to the throne of Macedon. 855. End of the Social War in Greece. 846. End of the Sacred War. 344. The freedom of Syracuse restored by Timoleon. 343. War between the Romans and Samnites. 839. Latium annexed to the Roman territory. 338. Battle of Clucronea. 336. Accession of Alexander the Gren*" 834. Battle of the Granicus River 933. Battle of Issus. General Chronological Heview. 293 331. Battle of Arbela. 331. The Spartans under Agis defeated by Antipater. 333. Death of Alexander at Babylon. 333. The Lamian War. Defeat of Leosthenes. 331. Defeat of the Romans by the Samnites. Perdiccas assassinated. 317. Demetrius Phalereus at Athens. Despotism re-established at Syracuse by Agathocles. 313. Kingdom of the Seleucidae founded. 305, The Samnites subdued by the Romans. 301. Battle of Ipsus. Defeat of Antigonus. 395. Final defeat of the Samnites at Sentinum. 283. Death of Ptolemy Lagi. Kingdom of Pergamus founded. 281. Lysimachus defeated by Seleucus. 280. Seleucus assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus. Invasion of Greece by the Gauls. 279. The Gauls defeated at Delphi. 275. Pyrrhus defeated by the Romans at Beneventum. -> 264. Rome mistress of all Italy. r Commencement of the First Punic War. . 261. Antiochus Soter defeated by the Gauls. 255. Regulus defeated and taken prisoner by the Carthaginians. 247. Death of Ptolemy Philadelphus. 243. Aratus leader of the Achaean league. 241., End of the First Punic War. Agis (IV.), king of Sparta, put to death. 221. Sparta taken by Antigonus Doson. 219. Saguntum taken by Hannibal. 218. Commencement of tlie Second Punic War. The Romans defeated by Hannibal, at the Ticinus and Trebia. 217. Victory of Hannibal at Lake Trasimenus. 216. The Romans defeated at Cannae. 213. Assassination of Aratus of Sicyon. 212. Taking of Syracuse by Marcellus. Death of Archimedes. 207. Defeat and death of Hasdrubal. Defeat of the Spartans by Philopoemen. 205. Conquest of Spain by Scipio. 203. Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama. 197. Philip of Macedon defeated at Cynoscephalse. * 294 Ancient History, B.C. 190. Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Magnesia. 183. Philopoemen put to death by the Messenians. Death of Hannibal by suicide. 168. Battle of Pydna. End of the Macedonian monarchy. 146. Taking of Corinth by Mummius. Greece a Roman provinee. Destruction of Carthage by the Romans. 140. Viriatus assassinated, and Lusitania subjugated by the Romans. 133. Spain completely subjugated by the Romans. 133. Death of Tiberius Gracchus. 121. Caius Gracchus put to death. 106. Jugurtha taken prisoner by Marius and Sylla. 102. The Teutons defeated by Marius. 101. The Cimbrians defeated by 'Marius. 90. The Social War. 88. Commencement of the Mithridatic War. First CivU Ww 87. Marius's proscription. 82. Sylla's proscription. 72. Assassination of Sertorius in Spain. 71. Spartacus defeated and slain. 67. Ponipey clears the Mediterranean of pirates. 66. Mithridates subdued. Pontus a Roman province. 63. Conspiracy of Catiline. ,^. First Triumvirate. 55. Invasion of Britain by Caesar, 53. Crassus defeated and slain by the Parthiana. 48. Battle of Pharsalia. Pompey defeated. 46. Battle of Thapsus. Death of Cato. 44. Assassination of Caesar. ,- 43. Second Triumvirate. Assassination of Cicero by order of Antony. 42. Battles of Phili,ppi. Death of Brutus and Casaiu^ 31. Battle of Actium. 30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra. 29. Octavius emperor under the title of Augustus. 4. Birth of Christ. A.D. 10. Defeat of Varus by the Germans. 14, Death of Augustus. Accession of TibeiiuB^ 70. Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. y 79. Destruction of Pompeii ftftd I|erqulaneum., General Chronological Meview, 295 81. Death of Titus. 98. Accession of Trajan. 117. Accession of Hadrian. 161. Accession of Marcus Aurelius. 180. Death of Marcus Aurelius. 193. Didius Julianus buys the empire of the Praetorians, 211. Death of Septimius Severus. 226. End of the Parthian Empire. 235. Assassination of Alexander Severus. 251. Decius defeated and slain by the Goths. 270. Dacia surrendered to the Goths. 273. Palnlyra taken by Aurelian. 284. Diocletian proclaimed emperor. 305. Abdication of Diocletian. 311. Edict of Galerius in favor of the Christians. 313. Edict of Milan issued by Constantine. 323. Constantine emperor. 325. Council of Nice. 337. Death of Constantine. 361. Accession of Julian. Attempt to re-establish paganism. 363. Death of Julian the Apostate. Christianity restored by Jovian. 378. Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrianople. 395. Division of the Empire by Theodosius. 403. Alaric defeated at Verona by Stilicho. 410. Rome pillaged by the Goths. 423. Death of Honorius. 427. The Vandals expelled from Spain. 441. Invasion of the Huns. 451. Attila, king of the Huns, defeated by Aetius. 155. Rome pillaged by the Vandals and Moors. 176. Romulus Augustulus, the last of the Roman emperors, deposed. Odoacer proclaimed king of Italy. End of tlie Western Empire. s H S O }zi O M o d (4 1 'it, 1 - Aft 74 90 68 1 : ot = s S 5 : 00 1 1 ; .i i ■^ J y SS S : SS o '■ 1 : i : : l : : : : : ; : : : i 1 636 686 668 664 1 i 5 i 1 : ■ li '. '. m Nl 2 1 o» L • • © : : : i 1 : : : : :sj : - i i": : i i i 8 : mnn 8 ^.i ». ! I '. ! 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>r>^^^^ --y..^^ ;? ^ » 5 » s? PART II. Medleval and Modekn History. L MEDIEVAL HISTORY. CHAPTER I. A General View of Europe, a.d. 500. 1. Before taking up the march of events following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it is necessary that we glance at the general state of Europe at that period. While the Empire was gradually becom- ing enfeebled, in the slow process of national Conquering races. corruption and decay, its ruin was precipitated by the repeated irruptions of the conquering races — the Goths, the Vandals, the Sueves, and other German tribes, also the Huns. These, at the end of the fifth century (a.d. 500), had established themselves as shown in the map (Map No. VIII.). Besides these races we must mention the Burgundians, a peo- ple who, in the beginning of the fifth century. Burgundians. had made their way from the shores of the Baltic, and located themselves in the country between the Rhone and the Alps, Geographical Study, Map No. VIII. What was the situation and extent of: The Eastern Empire ? East Gothic Kingdom ? West Gothic Kingdom ? Burgundian Kingdom ? Frankish Kingdom ? SuEviAN Kingdom ? Vandal Kingdom ? Where was the territory of: The Huns ? Slavs ? Gepid^? Lombards ? Danes ? Scots ? Picts ? Britons ? Saxons ? Saracens ? Alemanni ? What was the sitvxition of: Persian Kingdom ? Illyricum ? Thrace ? Pontus ? Thuringia? Francia? Constantinople? Antioch? Nisibis? ^lia? ^ona? Ravenna? Milan? Aries? Narbonne? Toulouse? Cordova? Toledo? Meta? 298 MedicBval History. where at the period referred to they had founded a kingdom bearing their name. 2. The Goths, the first of the invading races who had pushed southward from Scandinavia, wei*e now divided into the two branches of Eastern Goths (Ostrogoths) and Western Goths (Visigoths). The former Ostrogoths. had established themselves in Italy and in the lands lying immediately north of it; the latter possessed the southwestern part of France and the whole of Visigoths. Spain except the small portion in the northwest occupied by the kingdom of the Sueves (Suevi). This was an adventurous German race, one horde of whom Sueves. located themselves in the south of Germany (hence the name Swabia, or Suabia); and another made a conquest of northern Spain, from which they were in part driven by the mor^ powerful Visigoths. 3. Early in. the fifth century, the Alans,* a people under Gothic influence, established themselves in the central part of the Spanish peninsula, possessing a territory that extended from sea to sea. Their domin- Alans. ions having been conquered by tl'e Sueves, they had ceased, at the period here spoken of, to have any place in the map of Europe. 4, The Vandals, who had occu])ied southern Si)ain,t had, at this period, i)assed into Africa, ah)ng the northern coast of which they founded a kingdom, with Cartliago as its capital. This was the only Teutonic king- Vandats. dom formed in that continent. It embraced also the largo islands in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea, includ* ♦ " The Alans are a puzzling race, our accounts of whom are somewhat contra* diutory, but who may perhaps be most safely set down as a nt)n-Aryan, or, at any rate, a non-Teutonic people, who had been largely brought under Gothic influ- ences."— jFVeeman'* Historical Geography of Europe. t"The Vandals, though th«'y pivssod alto^^elljcr out of .Spain, have Irft their name to this day in its southern i)art und»>r the form of Andalnsiay a name which, under the Saracen conquerors, spread Itself oyer th^ whole peninsula.*'— i^eematk General View of Burope. 299 ing Sicily. The Saxons, another fierce and powerful Teutonic race, had, for about half a century, kept up a series of invasions of the island of Britain, after its aban- Saxons. donment by the Komans, and had now established themselves in several parts of the island. 5. Another Teutonic race called the Gep'i-dae had made their home in Dacia; while the Lombards were about to cross the Danube into Pannonia. Subsequently the latter race allied themselves with the Avars (a-varz')f and after destroying the kingdom of Gepidae and Lombards. the Gepidae, poured into Italy, where they founded a kingdom of their own. The Slavonic races (Slavs) at this time were just hovering on the northern frontier Slavs. of the Eastern Empire, prepared to repeat in the east the part which the Teutons had played in the west. 6. At this time the Eastern Roman Empire extended from the Danube to the southern limit of Egypt, and from the Adriatic Sea on the west to the Persian Kingdom on the east. Thus it maintained its integrity Eastern Empire, while the barbaric nations were dismembering the Western Empire, out of which the various states of mediaeval and modern Europe were afterward formed. 7. Nearly all these conquering races were Aryans; indeed, Europe from the earliest historic period has been almost exclusively an Aryan continent. To find it other- wise we should have to go back probably to 2500 Aryans B.C., a period antecedent to those great Aryan migrations from Asia of the Greek and Italo-Celtic races that swept westward over Europe, driving before them or exterminating the races that previously occupied it. Remnants of the latter are still discovered in the Basques (basks) of the Pyrenees, the relics of a great people, and the Fins and Basques, etc. Laps of northern Europe. These are all that survive the conquests of the Celts, who were probably the vanguard oJ the Aryan conquering tribes. 300 MedicBval History, ETHNOLOGICAL SYNOPSIS OP THE RACES THAT INVADED EUROPB. I. ARYANS, or INDO-EUBOPEANS. I. Grj^co- Roman Races. II. Celtic Races. 1. Gauls. 2. Britons. 3. Gael. a. Irish. h. Old Scots. III. Slavo-German Races. 1. Teutonic races. a. Goths, Vandals, and GepidsB. b. Scandinavians, or Normans. c. Germans and AUcmanni. 1. Frisians. 2. Saxons, Angles, Jutee 3. Low Germans. d. Franks. e. Rurgundians. /. Lombards. g. Sueves. 2. Slavs, or Slavonians. a. Czechs. b. Poles. & Baltics. 1. Lithuanians 2. Letts. 3. Wends. II. NON-AKYAN EACES. I. BAsciUEs, Fins, Laps. II. TmiANiAN Races. 1. Huns. 2. Avars. 8. Bulgarians. 4. Magyars. 6. Turks. a. Seljuks. b. Ottomans III. SEMITIC. SARACBNa No. 9. ^ * 0» ft J ^^^. ^ ^--^^ \ i ^/ \ ^.^^-^m \\ ^/^ \ I •' \ 4^ — ■ ^ ? s s -Y^ r 5 '^\^' >o \ \ i \^\ L_ ^ — • 5 ■^1 « ■ ? /r^^.,^-4Lr^wXt \ \ j^i-'^ 5 ) I I / J r/^ V '^Mi 1 )__: ; •r- ::i- 7^^ n «fi W^ / J^ ^ ^ r^ t^ <> 55£^' ^ ( g ■** i (^ »j2-- -., '^* _^jv •, • V.^ = ^ N" M'~~^'^^ /'^ ^ y^---^ 7 -Mr '^ %- ~jA y^^ i^t^\\ kJ.^ / 3 v"'^ /a ^4 III 5 -^^^ ^^iaWA-^T^^^DQQ, "i^CX^'5^ ?/S°' 7iI2^^y\/ ^'•^^ffc / ■ral >o / ^^--^ / V "Ol Hi^l 'S^y^ r -1 * -» " ""^""-^ / ^^j' r\ ^i / \ 4 3'^^*no/"^-»-^ Qj ^^""^^C,^ , $ ;? 2 » « . CHAPTER n. The Eastern Empiee. 1. The Eastern or Byz'an-tine Empire, sometimes called the Greek Empire, was founded in a.d. 395, when Theodosius divided the Roman Empire between his two sons, Honorius and Arcadius, assigning to the latter Foundation. all the portion lying between the Adriatic Sea and the upper Tigris River. Arcadius was a weak monarch, who left the administration of the government to Arcadius. ambitious and corrupt ministers, while he himself lived in oriental luxury, indifferent to his duties and careless of the condition of his subjects. His death occurred in 408. 2. During the reign of his silCRssor, Theodosius H., the Huns under Attila, who assumed the title of the *' Scourge of God," invaded the empire, and having vanquished the armies sent to oppose him, committed the Huns. most dreadful ravages. They dictated terms of peace in the suburbs of Constantinople, exacting the enormous annual tribute of 2100 pounds of gold, and the immediate payment of an immense sum. Soon afterward, on the death of Attila (453), the Hunnish Empire was dissolved; and the Ostro- goths, under their leader The-od'o-ric, became the dominant^ people in eastern Europe. 3. Theodoric made war upon the Slavonic tribes, and con. quered the lands lying between the Adriatic and Black seas. Geographical Study, Map No. IX. WJiat was the situation and extent of : The Eastern Empire ? (Name the coun- tries it embraced.) Kingdom op the Franks? West Gothic Kingdom? Suevian Kingdom ? Where was the territory of : The Saxons ? The Frisians ? The Angles ? Britons ? Scots ? Danes ? Lombards ? Gepidsa ? Avars ? Saracens ? Where was the Persian Kingdom ? 302 MedicBval History. There he established a kingdom, and became the friend and ally of Zeno, the Greek emperor, who lavished upon him all kinds of honors. This friendship, Theodoric. however, was not lasting; and Theodoric led his hosts into Thrace, and threatened Constantinople. To save himself Zeno instigated or commissioned the Gothic conqueror to enter Italy, where 0-do-a'cer ruled, as he claimed, by author- ity of the Eastern emperor, over a population made up of many elements — native Italians, Visigoths, Huns, Vandiils, Franks, etc. 4. Theodoric, availing himself of Zeno's permission, in- vaded Italy, and after four years' war, in which lie received assistance from the Visigoths of Gaul and Spain, Odoacer was deposed and put to death, and The- odoric, being invested with the title of king of Gothic conquest of Italy. Italy, fixed his capital at Ravenna (493). Subsequently he took up his residence at Rome (500). He reigned over Italy thirty-three years (493-526), with such wisdom and modera- tion as to earn the title of ** Great." A large part of the Gothic nation had been transported into Italy, and after its conquest one third of all the lands wei'e divided among the followers of Theodoric; and yet such Government. was the efficiency of his government, that peace and pros- perity were everywhere pi-evalent, and it was a common say- ing ** that a purse of gold might be safely left in the lields.-' 5. The famous reign of Jus-tin'i-an over the empire of the East commenced in 527, and lasted thirty-eight years. It is remarkable for the code of laws which the Justinian. emperor caused to be framed, and for tlie vic- tories of Bel-i-sa'ri-us and Nar'ses, the two greatest generals of the age. The former defeated the Vandals, in Africa, and recovered the provinces which thoy had subdued (534). He next reduced Sicily, and, crossing into Belisariu*. Italy, defeated the Goths ami ca])tured their capital, Rji-ven'na (539). In 544 the barbarians having, under their king lie Eastern Empire, 3()3 Tot'i-la, again invaded and reconquered Italy, Belisarius waged war against them for five years, but with very inade- quate forces; and, through the jealousy and unjust suspicions of Justinian, was finally recalled. 6. After several years of retirement, Belisarius, in his old age, was called upon to defend Constantinople against the Bul-ga'ri-ans and Sla-vo'ni-ans,* who, after com mitting frightful ravages in various parts of the empire, threatened Constantinople. The aged Bulgarians and Slavonians. hero, by his skill and valor, entirely defeated these fierce bar- barians; but, four years afterward, notwithstanding his great services, he was unjustly accused of treason by the emperor, and the greater part of the last year of his life was passed in prison. He died in 565. 7. Meanwhile the war had been continued against the Goths in Italy. Rome, which had been taken by Totila, and its entire destruction threatened, was recaptured by Narses, and the Goths were defeated with great slaughter, their king, Totila, being slain Conquest o? Italy. (552). After he had gained another great victory over the Goths the next year, and defeated the Franks and other German tribes who had ravaged the peninsula from the Alps to Otranto, Narses entered Rome as a conqueror, and was afterward appointed by Justinian Exarch of Italy. He fixed his court at Ravenna, and continued to govern the country till the death of Justinian (565), by whose successor he was recalled. He died in Rome a short time afterward, at the age, it is said, of 95. 8. During the reign of Justinian, the A-vars',f a race similar in origin to the Huns, fleeing from the Turks, who * The Bulgarians were the remains of the Huns who, after the death of Attila, retreated to the Euxine and the lake Maeotis. The Slavonians were a barbarous race from the plains of Russia, who afterward settled in the vicinity of the Baltic Sea. t "In the thirty-first year of the reign of Justinian, an embassy of the Avars appeared at Constantinople. This people, who were Tartars, and belonged, like i^04 Mediceval History. lived at that time near the Altai Mountains, crossed the Tan'a-is and Bo-rys'the-nOs (Don and Dnieper rivers), and advanced into Poland and Germany. They then passed to the Danube, and, subduing the Bulgari- ans, took possession of the country which tlie latter had occupied (Dacia). This period is also noted for tlie passage to the south of the Lombards,* who had been invited by the emperor to enter Noricum and Lombards. Pannonia, in order to check the advance of another barbarous race called the Gej)'i-dae. These, after a thirty years' war, were almost entirely exterminated by Gepida the Lombards, under Al'bo-in, assisted by the Avars, the latter of whom continued to occupy Dacia and some of tlie adjacent countries for more than two centuries. 9. In the reign of Justinian's successor, the Lombards, under Alboin, entered- Italy ( 5G8), being invited, as it is said, by Narses, in revenge for the affront of liis recall. In a short time they conquered tlie whole countiy, except a small })ortion which continued, Conquest of Italy. under the name of the Exarchate of Ravenna, in possession of the Eastern Emi)ire. The kingdom of the Lombards in Italy lasted more than two centuries, their seat of govern- ment being Pa-vi'a. The famous *' iron crown" of the Lom- the Huns, to the Turkish stock, had then arrived at tlie foot of Mount Caucasus, flying l)efore tlie Turks, wlioso name now appears for the fli-st lime in liistory. The Avar anibaswulors professed their \villinKn^'«« to te theins««lves to the ser. viee of the emperor, and destroy all the enemies who dislurlKHl his ivpose; but they claimed, as the price of tlieir alliance and the reward of their vnlor, precious Kifts, annual subsidies, and fruitful possessions. .Justinian was now above .»;eventy- five years; his mind, as well as his bmly, was feeb' > and languid; and the con- queror of Africa and Italy, careless of the permant nt inU'rest of his people, aspired only to end his days in the bosom of inglorious peace. In a studied oration, ho Impart-ed to the Senate his re.sohition to dissemble the insult and to purcha.w the friendship of the Avars; and the whole Senate, like the mandarins of China, applaudetl the incomparable wisdom and foresight of their tovereign."— G»66<;ti'» Decline and Fall of the lioman Empire. ♦Tlie name Is derived from the I>afin form />ihi/o/ki»y/», or 7>)nf;oftatYfi'. stip- posed by some t«i ref«'r to the lonu' beards by whi«'h tJicse people weii> chanicter- Ized, but more probably derived fiom the word /unfa, or />fi/7t'. a battle-ax. The Romans flrst came la coutuct with thia tribe oa the lower Elbe iu ^be flrst century. Tlie Eastern Empire, 305 bards is said to have been presented to one of their queens by the celebrated Eoman pontiff, Gregory the Great, as a reward for converting the king to the Catholic faith (about 600). 10. The reigns of Justinian and several of his successors were much disturbed by the encroachments of Persia, then the most extensive and powerful monarchy of the East; but the emperor Her-a-cli'us, in the Persia. beginning of the seventh century (622-628), in three great expeditions, in which he displayed remarkable boldness, per- severance, and military skill, defeated Khos'ru, the greatest of the Persian monarchs, and effectu- Khosru. ally broke the Persian power. Eight years afterward, the last of the Persian dynasty called the Sas-san'i-des, which had occupied the throne for four centuries, was de- feated by the Saracens, and in a few years the Saracens. whole of the Persian dominions had yielded to their victorioua arms. (Khosru's name is also sjDelled Chosroes.) 11. The reign of Heraclius is notable for the commence- ment of the attacks of the Saracens upon the Eastern Empire. Syria was subdued (638), Damascus * and Jeru- salem falling a prey to these Mohammedan zea- lots seven centuries after Pompey had achieved Saracen conquests. the conquest of Syria and annexed it to the Roman Republic. Egypt shared the same fate within the next two years, Alex- andria being taken after a siege of fourteen months (640). It was on this occasion that the great Alexandrian library was * " This renowned and beautiful city, one of tlie largest and most magnificent of the East, and reputed to be the oldest in the world, stood in a i)lam of wonderful richness and fertility, covered with groves and gardens, and bounded by an amphitheater of hills, the skirts of Mount Lebanon. A river, called by the ancients Chrysorrhea, or the stream of gold, flows through this plain, feeding the canals and water-courses of its gardens, and the fountains of the city. The commerce of the place bespoke the luxuriance of the soil; dealing in wines, silks, wool, prunes, raisins, figs of unrivaled flavor, sweet-scented waters, and perfumes. The fields were covered with odoriferous flowers, and the rose of Damascus has become famous throughout the world. This is one of the few, the very few, cities famous in ancient times, which still retain a trace of ancient deMgh.ls,''''— Irving' s Mohamet and His Successors. 306 Mediceval History. burned, the bigoted Mohammedan Caliph saying that, if the books agreed with the Koran, they were unnecessary; and if they contradicted it they were pernicious.* 12. During the next half century the empire was despoiled of i^rovince after province by the irresistible valor and activity of the Saracens, who twice laid siege to Constantinople itself, but were repelled from its walls, partly by the use of the famous "Greek fire."f During the same period, also, the Bulgarians, who in the previous century had been subject to the Avars, crossed the Danube, fol- Bulgaria. lowed by various Slavonian tribes, the Ser'vi-ans, Bos'nians, and Cro-a'tians, and, having vanquished the Roman armies sent against them, founded (680) the Kingdom of Bulgaria, in the country a part of which still bears this name. This kingdom was a formidable enemy of the Greek Empire till the eleventh century, when, after a war of several years, it was entirely subdued. It then became again a province of the empire, and so remained till 1187, when it once more regained its independence. 13. In the ninth century (865), the Russians,! having * The Alexandrian library was a vast collection of manuseripti?. The ortler of the Caliph was punctually obeyed, the books being distributed among the four thousand baths of the city; but so numerous were they that it took six uionths to consume them. t The Greek Are was an invention of the Saracens, but a dest^rter from the ser- vice of the Cali,)h had disclosed the secret of its preparation to the emiH'ror. It was composed of bitumen, sulpliur, and pitch, and was jxiunMl from caldrons, «>r projected In flre-balls, or on arrows and javelins, around \\\w\\ tlax was rwist*^!, satutated with the compound. It was also blown throuprli lonp copptT tubes, some- times from the prows of flre-ships. For four centuries the mening to nationality during the ages of classic splendor, when Solon gav»' laws to the Athenians, and Rome strove after principles of public justice and liberty."^ Bancroft. The Eastern Empire, 307 descended the Dnieper Kiver in their rude boats and sailed into the Bosporus, made an attack upon Con- stantinople, but were repulsed. A few years Russicins. later (889), the Magyars {mod-yars')y or Himgarians, com- menced to make irruptions into the countries near the Danube, extending their ravages westward into the German Empire. They defeated the Bulgarians, and threatened Con- stantinople. The next formidable enemy of the empire were the Turks, who abandoned their ancient habita- tions in Central Asia; and, in the eleventh cen- Turks. tury, taking advantage of the dissensions of the Saracens, invaded their dominions and captured Bagdad (1055). Pre- vious to this they had carried their conquering arms as far as India. In 1090 they had subdued Asia Minor and Syria, and extended their sway from the Hellespont to the borders of Chinese Tartary. Of this kingdom Ispahan was the capital. 14. These Turks belonged to the tribe called Seljuks* (seVjooks), and are not to be confounded with the Ot'to- man Turks, to be treated of hereafter. The dominions cf the Seljuks were afterward divided, four monarchies being formed, of which Persia ^as the chief; and a new kingdom was established in Asia Minor, called the Sultanate of Roum (room), which lasted about two centuries (from 1075 to 1272), during which period it waged Roum. frequent wars with the Greek Em]^ire. Its capital was at first Nice, in Bithynia, but in 1097 was removed to I-co'- ni-um.f It was the taking of the holy sepulcher by the Seljuks that led to those remarkable ex- Crusadss. peditions called the Crusades. In the fii'st of these, Nice, * " The Seljuks were a tribe of Turcomans, followers and subjects of their great chief Seljuk, who first became distinguished in history by the conquests of the Sultan Mahmoud, who was succeeded by Alp Arslan {The Lion), under whom the Emperor Romanus was defeated and taken prisoner."— Gtftfton. t An ancient city of Phrygia, in Asia Minor. The Kingdom of Rouro (i.e. Of the Romans) was afterward called th^ Kingdom of Jconium. 308 Medlceval History, the capital of Sol'y-man, sultan of Eoum, was taken (1097), and soon after Antioch and Jerusalem * (see page 409). 15. In the fourth of these expeditions, during the reign of a usurping emperor at Constantinople, the Crusaders (French and Venetians) were induced by the son of the law- ful emperor to abandon the proper object of the expedition and attack Constantinople, with the view to restore the union of the Roman and Greek churches, which had separated on account of certain differences in doctrine. The city was accord- ingly besieged with all their forces, and, mainly by means of the powerful fleet of the Venetians, was taken; and the lawful emperor was restored Constantinople taken. to the throne. He being, however, the next year, by an insurrection of the inhabitants, deprived of his throne and put to death, the Crusaders again besieged the city, and took it by storm (1204). 16. Most of the dominions of the empire were then divided between the French and Venetians, who appointed Baldwin, Count of Flanders, emperor. He and his successors, called the Latin Emperors, continued to occupy the throne till 1261, when the Greeks, who in the Latin ennperors. meanwhile had held Nice as their ca])ital, again obtained pos- session of Constantinople, under their emperor Pal-ae-ol'o-gus. This emperor expelled the Latins from the city; but some few Latin principalities continued to exist within the limits of tlie empire until its final destruction. 17. Meanwhile, another tremendous revolution hwi taken place in western Asia, occasioned by an incursion of the ♦ "Daily, for eight days, and barefooted, the Crusaders liml walked In procession round Jenisalem; which done, a general assault was made by the whole army, Godfrey's tower rolled to the walls, and on Friday, the 15th of July, 105)9. nt thr«»e o'clock, on the very day, and the very hour of the PasHion. n«xlfrey of Bouillon descended from his tower on the walls of Jerusalem. The city was taktn, and a fearful massatTe followwl; for the Crusaders. In their blind fury, not taking into account the distance of time, believfd tiiat in t«a«'h innorium d t- ing the whole Byzantine period, its situation affording it many natural advantages for extensive commerce Its harbor, tlie Golden Horn, capacious and well protected, provided accommodation and shelter Constantinople as a mart. for ships of all sizes, and thus for many centuries attracted the commerce of the whole civilized world. " Wluitevcr rude commodities were collected in the forests of Germany or Scythia, as far as the sources of the Tanais and the Bory- sthenes; whatever was manufactured by the skill of Euroj^e or Asia; the corn of Egypt, and the gems and spices of the furthest India, were brought by the varying winds to the port of Constantinople." 26. The introduction of the silk-worm, in the reign of Justinian, gave a great impulse to both manufacturing and Tlie Eastern Empire. 313 commercial industry.* Silk-worm eggs became an article of extensive trade, and mulberry-trees were culti- vated in many parts. The Peloponnesus received Silk. the name Morea from its extensive growth of these trees. The trade with India was of chief importance. The Persians obstructing the Euphrates valley. Indian trade. Western trade. Date. this trade was carried on through Egypt; but after Alex- andria had been taken by the Saracens, a route was opened, by way of the Greek settlements on the Black Sea and western Tartary, which continued to be employed for two centuries. An active trade was also carried on with the west — Spain and the republics of Italy. 27. Byzantine Art, as distinct from the earlier styles, dates from the reign of Justinian, during which it received a great impulse from the many works constructed under the direction of that monarch, especially the case in church architecture. The largest edifice of this kind constructed under Justinian was the church of St. Sophia (now the great mosque of Constantinople).! It is a type of the Byzantine style, the chief features of which is the free use of the column and the dome. This style stands between the classic or pagan and the western Gothic styles. Sculpture and painting were cul- This was Church building. Sculpture and painting. tivated by the Byzantine Greeks, almost exclusively in con- nection with their system of church decoration. * Silk was at first brouglit from China, but of what and how it was produced Was for many years a mystery. At last, notwithstanding the efforts of the emperor of China to prevent it, the eggs or cocoons of silk-worms were brought to the Ertv peror Justinian by some missionaries, who, according to Procopius, concealed them in hollow sticks. t The original church of St. Sophia CDivine Wisdom) was built by Constantine, but was destroyed by fire in the reign of Justinian, who within six years caused a new cathedral to be constructed. This was partly thrown down by an earthquake, when it was again restored by the emperor. " In tlie thirty-sixth year of his reipra Justinian celebrated the second dedication of a temple which remains, after twelve centuries, a stately monument of his fame. "—Gibbon. 814 MedixBiml History. Principal Greek Emperors. Name. Arcadius , Theodosiusn Marcian — Leo I. (Thracian). Leo II , Zeno Anastasius I Justin I Justinian I Justin II Three reigns.... BeracliusI Twelve reigns.. Leo III Constantino V ... Nine reigns Michaellll BasUI..." Leo VI C!onstantine VII. . . Five reigns Basil II Constantine IX,.. Four reigns Date of reign. 395-408 408-450 450-457 457- 474 474- 474 474- 491 491- 518 518- 527 527- 565 565- 578 578- 610 610- &11 ft41- 717 717- 741 741- 775 775-842 842-- 8G7 867-886 886-911 911- 959 959- 976 976-1025 1025-1028 1028-1042 Name. Date ofreiffti. Constantine X. 1042-1054 Seven reigns 1054-lOHl Alexius I. (Comnenus). 1081-1118 Joannes II. " 1118-1143 Manuel L " 1143-1181 Six reigns 1181-1204 Latin Emperors. Baldwin 1 1204-1205 Henry III 1206-1216 Three reigns 1216-1237 Baldwin II 1237-1261 Greek Emperors of Niczi^ Theodorus 1 1206-1229 Joannes III 1222-1255 Tvvo reigns. 1255-1261 Greek Emperors Restored. Michael YIII. (Palffiologus) .... 1261-1282 Andronicus IL " .... 1282-1328 Five reigns " .... 1328-1448 Constantine Xm. " .... 1448-1453 Summary of Principal Events and Dates. AD. The Eastern Empire founded under Arcadius 395 Italy invaded by the Ostrogoths, under Theodorio 493 Italy wrested from the Goths by Belisarius 539 Italy invaded by the Ix)mbards 568 Conquest of Syria by the Saracens 688 Alexandria, in Egyi)t, taken by tlie Saracens WO Persian monarchy overturned by the Saracens 651 The kingdom of Bulgaria founded 680 The Russians make an attack on Constantinople 865 Bagdad taken L-y the Seljuk Turks 1055 Boum, or Iconium, founded by the Seljuks 1076 Jerusalem taken by the Seljuks 1078 Nice, the capital of Roum, taken by the Crusaders. 1097 Constantinople taken by the Crusaders 1204 Invasion of the East by Genghis Khan 1216-1227 Kingdom of Roum destroyed by the Mongols 1274 Invasion of Asia Minor by the Ottoman Turks 129» Adrianople tak«ui by the Ottomans tmder Amurath 1860 The Christians flefeated by Amutath at Cassova 1890 BajazHt, the Turkisli emperor,, t^ikou prisoner by TImour the Tartar. 1408 Constantinople taken by the Tuik* JOnd of the Greek Jiitnpire 1458 No. 10. The Franks and the Normans, 815 CHAPTER m. The CoifQUEEiNG Eaces. SECTION I. The Franks and the Normans. 1. We now come to the history of western and central Europe from tlie full of the Western Empire (47G) to the general establishment of the modern European states in the ninth and tenth centuries. This Dark ages. period of invasion, war, and revolution, carried on by the bar- baric liordes in their restless migrations, has been aptly called the Dark Ages: for ignorance, depravity, and superstition almost universally cliaracterized the people and their rulers. Prominent among the Barbarous tribes. barbarous tribes of this period were the Franks, the Normans, the Saxons, and the Saracens. 2. The Franks* {Freemen) were a confederation of Ger- man tribes living in the country near the lower part of the Geographical. Stttdy, Map No. X How far did the empire of Charlemagne extend from east to west? What river was its eastern boundaiy? How far did it extend toward the south?— ^-Ijis. To southern Ttal}'. IIow far did it extend toward the north?- Aiis. To the Baltic Sea. What country was east of the Rhone River? In the southwestern part?— ^>ts. Was- conia, afterward called Gascony. What people dwelt on the southern bank of the Upper Danube? What people occupied both banks of the Weser? What province near the head -waters of the Meuse and Rhone? AVhat province south of the Loire River? What province bordered on the English Channel? What was the situation of Paris? Tolosa (Toulouse)? Lugdunimi (Lyons)? Constantia (Constance)? Pavia? Verdun? Strasburg? Verona? Anglia (England)? * "The Franks were not a people, but a confederation, which varied in its mem- bers as it fluctuated in its influence, but which must have been powerful at the 316 Medicenal History. Rhine, who in the third century successfully opposed the Romans, committing great devastations through- out Gaul and Spain. In the fifth century (486), Franks. Clo'vis, cliief of a tribe known as the Sa'lian Franks, invaded Gaul, and having victoriously overrun the greater part of it, founded therein a new monarchy, the Clovis. capital of which he fixed at Lu-te'tia, or Paris.* He chose for his queen Clo-til'da, a Christian princess, and niece of the king of Burgundy, a country situated east of the Rhone; and through her influence he embraced Christianity.! He gained several great victories over the Al-e-man'm — a powerful con- federation of German tribes — rjid defeated the Burgundians close of the fourth century. At this period the Franks had indisputably large pos- sessions in the empire. Under the name of Franks, Germans of every race com- posed the best troops of the imperial armies and the body-guard of the ennx'ror. Floating between Germany and the empire, they generally declared against the other barbarians whose inniptions into Gaul succeeded theirs. They opposed, though unsuccessfully, the great invasion of the Burgundians, Suevi, and Vandals, in 400, and many of thcni fought against Attila. Seated in the north of Fnince, in the northwest comer of Europe, the Franks held their ground against the pagaa Saxons, the latest swarm from Germany; against the Arian Visigoths; angether, are in fact the same in origin and meaning. The name Frank carries the sense of boldness, deflauee, free- dom."— ry. TV. Kitchin, * Lntetia was the name given Vjy tho Romans to tho collection of huts built of nuid (lutum), and inhabited by a Gallic tribe called the rarisii, from whom it. was afterward called 2'aris. t ' Clevis's destiny was principally determine * " The northern part of Europe, peopled by a race closely akin to the Low Dutch, and speaking another dialect of the common Teutonic speech, now began to send forth swarms of pirates over all the seas of Europe, who from pirates often grew into conquerors. They were still heathens; and their incursions, both in Britain and on the Continent, must have been a scourge almost as frightful as the settlement of the English had been to the original Britons." — Freeman's History of the Norman Conquest. + " When the new duke was to receive investiture of Normandy from Charles, his pride was startled at the form wh.ch required him, in acknowledgment of the favor bestowed on him, to kneel to his liege lord, and kiss his foot. ' My knee shall never bend to mortal,' said the haughty Norman; 'and I will be, on no account, persuaded to kiss the foot of any one whatever.' The French counselors present suggested ' nat this difficulty might be surmounted by Rollo, or Robert, appointing a deputy to kiss, in his name, the foot of Charles. Accordingly, the duke com- manded a common soldier to perform the ceremony in his stead. The man showed the small value he attached to the ceremony, by the careless and disrespectful man- ner in which he performed it. Instead of kneeling to salute the royal foot, he caught it up and performed the ceremony by lifting it to his mouth. In this awk- ward operation the rude Norman well-nigh overturned the simple king, threne ami all, and exposed him to the laughter of all aTound.'*— Scott 322 Medicenal History, and embraced Christianity; and his followers also intermar- ried with the people among whom they had settled. The new Norman race that resulted from this union, retaining the daring and adventurous spirit of the old Scandinavian warriors combined with tlic New Norman race. higher civilization of the French, played a great part in the Bubsequent history of Europe. SECTION IL The Saxons, 11. The Saxons (German Sachsen, from sahs, a knife), like the Franks, were a confederation of Teutonic or Low German tribes. As early as the third century they made their appearance in northern Germany, from Saxons. •which they passed southward and invaded the Roman Empire. At a later period, in the fifth century, they commenced their incursions into Gaul and Britain.* After the abandonment of the latter province by the Ro- Incursions. mans, hordes of these barbarous tribes, associated with An'glea and Jutes from Denmark, rushed with irresistible force upon ♦ Britain had been in the possession of the Romans nearly four centuries. The Matter found the Britons a fierce, hardy, courageous race of warriors; they left them so effeminated by the corrupt civilization of Rome that they were unable to defend themselves from the warlike barbarians of the north ; and their appeals for ftid to the Roman Koverners were so frequent and urfjent that thej' were called the •'groans of the Britons." The ancient religion of the Britons was calltnl Druidism; nnd the Dniids, or priests, were not only ministers of religion, but judges, physi- cians, and teachers. They worshiped tlie stm and moon; and were accustomed to live in caverns or amid the gloom of forests. There are many remains of this curious religion, the most renmrlsisteriHh more Iji^nobly In the waters of tlie Guadnlqulver. Ills dinart of the civilized world, and as tliey were a highly intellectual and enterprising race, they soon learned to make their knowledge available. Tliis was first sliown in Commercial activity. their commercial activity. Planting trading stations along the African coast, they soon controlled the whole maritime commerce of the Mediterranean. They restored the ancient caravan routes, constructed highways, Routes of travel. opened wells along all the roads leading to every great center, ftud established caravan^ftries at convenient points. Bagdad, Saracenic CimUzation. 331 which became the center of the caravan routes, acquired a splen- dor and opulence that might almost vie with ancient Babylon. 28. Their trade extended to the far east as well as the west. There were caravan routes that led into Siberia, and their traders visited India and even China. They brought gold and negro slaves from the western Trade. coast of Africa; and, sailing along the east coast, spread their commerce to Madagascar. They exchanged their linen, silk, and cotton manufactures for the furs of the Kussians; and obtained the rich products Articles of exchange. of Independent Tartary and Persia in exchange for their tapestries and silk stuffs, the cloths of Yemen, the dates and flour of Sana, the balsams of Mecca, and the cutlery and textile fabrics of Damascus (damasks). 29. In Spain the Saracenic dominion was equally wealthy and magnificent. Of this Cordova was the capital, renowned for its splendid mosque and sumptuous palace. It was the seat of extensive manufactures of silk, leather, silver-work, and other articles. It con- Manufactures in Spain. Mines. tained 600 mosques, nearly 1000 baths, and 16,000 looms for silk-weaving. The old silver-mines of Spain were worked anew by the Moors, and yielded large treasures. In weaving and dyeing they showed a wonderful skill. Granada and other cities also enjoyed great prosperity. 30. In learning, the Saracens became equally advanced. They founded universities and schools, built observatories, and instituted public libraries and museums. They collected the works of the ancient classic Learning. writers, and translated many of them into Arabic, and cul- tivated with astonishing success almost every branch of science, particularly chemistry, as- Science. tronomy, and mathematics. They also introduced the arith- metical notation (Arabic) which we now use. The Saraceric architecture is a special order, of which the famous palace of Alhambra, in Granada, is a type. 332 MedicRtal History. Chronological Synopsis of Events. A..D. Eastern Empire. Wkstehk Europe. Saracens. 441 luvasion by the Huns. • 449 Saxon invasion of Britain. 486 The Franks xmder Clovis invade GauL 493 Italy invaded by the Ostro- goths. 511 Death of aovis. 568 Lombards invade Italy. 669 Birth of Mohammed. €22 Defeat of the Persians by Heraclius. Merovingians in France. The Hegira. 650 Conquest of Persia. 680 Bulgaria founded. 687 Pepin d'Heristal, Mayor of the Palace. 711 End of the Visigothic khig- dom in Spain. Conquest of Spato. 732 Defeated by Charles Martel. 752 End of the Merovingian dynasty. 762 Bagdad founded. 768 Accession of Charlemagne 786 Accession of Haroun al Raschid. 800 Charlemagne emperor of the West. 806 Death of Haroun. 843 Empire of Charlemagne divided. 865 Russian invasion. — Con- stantinople attacked. 884 Empire united under Charles the Fat. 887 Final division of the em- pire. 910 Commencement of the Fatimite dynasty. 912 Normans settle in France. 987 End of the Carlovlngians. 1055 Bagdad taken by the 1076 Jerusalem taken by the Seljuks. 1097 Nice taken by the Crusa- ders. 1204 Constantinople taken by the Crusaders. 1258 Bagdad taken byGenghIa Khan. -End of the * Saracen Empire. 1453 End of the Eastern Em- j pire. 1 1 No. 11 Saxon Period. 333 CHAPTER IV. England in the Middle Ages. SECTION I. AXON Period, 1. The Saxon period of the history of England includes that of the Heptarchy, about three and a half centuries pre- ceding the consolidation of the Saxon kingdoms by Egbert. To this period of British history Saxon period. belong the stories related of King Arthur, a famous British champion who became renowned for his many victories over the Saxon invaders; also the partial conversion of the Saxons to Christianity, which was effected Events. by St. Au'gus-tine and several monks, commissioned by Pope Gregory the Great to perform this work (597). The bar- barous and ferocious manners of the age, although softened,- were by no means removed, by the partial Chris tianization. thus effected. 2. In the same period, the Danes commenced their inva- sions. These people were Norsemen who had come from Norway to Denmark, and occupied the lands left uninhabited by the emigration of the Angles and Danes. Jutes to Britain. The Danes for a long time continued to harass the kingdom of England, in the reigns of both Egbert Geographical Study, Map No. XI. What was the situation of: Kent? Sussex? Wessex? Essex? East Amglia?' Mercia? Northumbria? Strathclyde? North Wales? West Wales? Senlacf Deal? Stonehenge? Glastonbury? Wareham? Stamford? Leicester? Derby? Not- tingham? Lincoln? York? Leeds? Stamford Bridge? Scarborough? The country of the Picts? Anglefpy? Isle of Wight? River Thames? Humber? Tees? T^e? Severn? Wye? Firth of Forth? Tay? Clyde? Sol way Firth f 334 Mediceval History. and his successors, the Saxon kings of England, who, except during the reigns of Canute the Dane and his two successors, held the throne a little over two centuries (827-1066). 3. Alfred the Great. The most eminent of these Saxon kings was Alfred the Great, who was the most illustrious monarch of his age, and one of the wisest and most virtuous kings that ever reigned. Though Reign of Alfred. at one time entirely overwhelmed by the Danes, and re- duced to such an extremity that he was obliged to seek safety in an obscure part of the country, in the disguise of a peasant, he at last, by his fortitude and address, was enabled to defeat his enemies, and to regain his throne. Tlie Danes being expelled, he restored tranquillity to the country, and endeavored, by judicious measures, to promote the prosperity and civilization of the people. lie caused the rights of prop- erty to be respected, improved the laws of tlie kingdom, and establislied schools for the education of the people. His reign lasted thirty years (871-901).* 4. During the next century, the Danes continued their incursions, until the English monarch was compelled to sur- render one half of his dominions to the Danish conqueror Can-ute'; and soon afterward the latter Canute. obtained full possession of the throne (1017), which he and his two successors held, until tlie Saxon line was again restored in the person of Edward, called the Confessor, on account of his studious habits Edward the Confessor and pious disposition. This monarch was canonized by the * " Alfred ig the most perfect character In histoty. He Is a sinsrular instance oT a prince whb has become a hero of romance, who, as such, has had coimtless imaginary exploits attributed to him, but to whose character romance has done no more than justice, and who appears in exactly the same Hcht in history and in fable. No other man on record has ever so thon)UKhIy tmited all the virtues both of the ruler and of the private man. In no other man on reconl were so many virtues disfigured by so little alloy. A saint without Kiiperstltion, a scholar without ostentation, a warrior all of whose wars were fought in the defense of his country, a conqueror whose laurels were never stainen himself from their roRentment; for that purpoM he took two precautions which were equally insupportahle to them. The first WM to take away their arms, the se<*on(l to forbid them any li)?hts in their hoiwes after eiffht o'clock, at which hour a bell was ruiijr to warn them to put out their fire and candle, tmder the penalty of a groat fine for every offense."— /?op»V« Huttoryof iMgland. Norman Period. 339 was to cause tlie compilation of the Domesday BooJc, which was a register of all the estates in the kingdom. Hunting was his favorite amusement; and in order to make a new forest near his residence, he laid waste a tract of country Geographical Study. What is the situation of: England? Wales? Scotland? Ireland? Londori f Dover? Hastings? Portsmouth? Canterbury? Cornwall? York? Carlislo? 0^ cerbum? Flodden Field? Edinburgh? Glasgow? Inverness? Pul^Up? 5^, 4IV»v^nat (^ftruet? WftkefleWf TQwtoar Isl^ of Wlufhtf 340 Mediceval History, extending thirty miles, driving out the inhabitants, demolish- ing houses and even churches, but making no compensation for the injury. To kill game in any of the forests was made a crime of greater enormity than murder.* He died during an invasion of France, in the twenty- Death. third year of his reign (1087). 14. William II., surnamed Ricfus, the Red, from the color of his hair, succeeded to the throne of England, by the will of his father, while his elder brother Robert assumed the government of Normandy. William inherited the courage and much of the ability of his father. Character. but was more cruel and unprincipled. His reign was much disturbed by quarrels with his brothers Robert and Henry, which caused him to invade Normandy. He also waged war with Malcolm, king of Scotland. During this period the First Crusade occurred; and Robert, Events. wishing to join it, mortgaged to William his duchy of Nor- mandy (1095), thp latter raising the money to ])ay for it by forced levies upon his subjects, even compelling the convents to melt their plate in order to furnish their quota. After a reign of thirteen years, he was shot while hunting in the New Forest (1100). The people viewed Death. this as a just retribution; for where the Conqueror had de- stroyed the homes of the Saxons, his son prematurely and miserably perished, f ♦ " ' Stark he was,' says the English chronicler, * to men that withstood him. So harsh and cruel was he that none dared resist his will. Earls that did aii^ht atrainst his bidding he cast into bonds, bishops lie stripped of their bishoprics, abbots of iheir abbacies. He spared not his own brotbcr; first he was in the land, but the king cast him into bondage. If a man would live and hold his lands, need it were that he followed the king's will.' But stern as he was, he gave peace to the land. Even amid the suflferings which necessarily sprang from the circtunstanpcs of the Con- quest itself, from the erection of castles, or the inclosure of forests, or the exac- tions which built up the great Hoard at Winchester. Englishmen were unable to forget ' the good peace he made in the land, so thnt a man miglit fare over his realm with a bosom full of gold.' "—Grt'e)i's Ilistort/ of the En{/lisk People. t " It was almost night, when a j»(»or charcoal-burner, pafwing through the New Forest with his cart, came upon the solit^r; body of a dead man, shot with an ftrrpw in the breast, and still bleeding. He got It Into his cart. It ww tbe'hody of Norman Period. 341 15. Henry I. (surnamed Beauclerk, tbe Scholar), the younger brother of William 11. , succeeded him; Kobert, the elder brother, being absent in the Holy Land. The latter, on his return, again received Nor- Robert mandy; but some time afterward, war arising between the brothers, Robert was made prisoner, sent to England, and confined in a castle in Wales till his death. The government of Henry was characterized by seve- Government. rity; and so strict and impartial was he in administering the laws, that he was styled the '' Lion of Justice." He married Matilda, daughter of the king of Scotland, and niece of Edgar Atheling, a prince of the old Matilda. Saxon line. Matilda was much beloved by the people, who called her Maud the Good. Henry's private life was, how- ever, very immoral; and he was so deceitful and treacherous that even his greatest favorites dis- Private life. trusted him. The latter part of his life was saddened by the loss of his only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy; after which event, it is said, Henry was never seen to smile. 16. Stephen, a nephew of Henry, succeeded him, although it had been his cherished wish that his daughter Matilda should have the throne. This princess, whose first husband was the emperor of Germany, and Matilda. who afterward married Geoffrey Plan-tag'e-net, Earl of Anjou, raised an army, and having defeated Stephen and made him a prisoner, was declared queen of England (1141). She, however, soon disgusted all her English friends and sup- porters by her despotic and arrogant behavior; and Stephen was enabled to regain the throne, Matilda being compelled to flee. Che king. Shaken and tumbled, with its red beard all whitened with lime and clotted with blood, it was driven in the cart by the charcoal-burner next day to Winchester Cathedral, where it was received and buried. By whose hand the Red King really tell, and whether that hand dispatched the arrow to his breast by accident or de- sign, is known only to Qo^.''— Dickens. 342 Mediceval History. 17. Some years after this, Henry Plantagenet, her son, made another effort to dethrone Stephen, but was finally reconciled to the king, being adopted by him as his son and successor; soon after which, on the Henry. death of Stephen, he became king (1154). During the reign of Stephen, on account of the weakness of the government, the country suffered greatly from the violence and rapacity of the feudal barons, each of whom occupied a fortified castle, from which, at the Condition of the country. head of his band of mercenary ruffians, he sallied forth day and night to plunder and oppress the inhabitants. This reigu terminates the Norman period. Norman Civilization.— The Feudal System. 18. The !Norman conquest of England wrought many great changes in the social as well as the political condition of the people. Among these the establishment of the Feudal System was the most important. This Feudal system. was a system by which, during the period from the ninth to the thirteenth century, social and political relations, includ- ing the rights of landed property, were regulated in nearly all the countries of Europe. A feudal proprietor was one who held his lands from another, on condition of certain ser- vices which he, as a vassal, was bound to perform for the other, as his suzerain^ or sicperior. 19. This peculiar relation was established for the pur- pose of obtaining and preserving military strength; and wjis admirably adapted to that end. Thus, when the king needed an army he summoned his barons, who in like manner called upon their vassals. Object of the system. and they at once made a similar demand upon their depen- dents; so that, with wonderful promptitude, the whole force of the nation was brought into the field. With the exception of the duty of milit^iry service to their superiors, the vassals of a king practically were invested Norman Period, 343 with sovereign power within their own dominions, having vassals in various degrees beneath them; and living in their fortified castles, often by means of pillage, while the peasan- try were bound as serfs, or slaves, to the soil. 20. These feudal castles soon became a striking feature in England and other parts of western Europe, their whole appearance indicating that the only Feudal castles. objects of their construction were strength and security. They were surrounded by walls often more than twelve feet high, within which was a lofty tower called the donjon, or Iceep, whose massive walls, pierced with small windows or loop-holes, defied the fierc- est assault. Here the baron ^ved, and here was stored the property of the castle. Under it was a gloomy dungeon, iii which those who had offended a feudal castle. its haughty master were thrust, and often left to starve. The ruins of some of these castles still exist. 21. The feudal nobles and gentlemen fought on horseback, and were protected by a close-fitting armor of steel, often ornamented with gold and silver. Their princi- pal weapons of offense were long lances, with which they rode fiercely against each other; and Modes of combat clubs, maces, or swords for hand-to-hand conflicts, when their lances were broken, or when the combatants became un- horsed. The common soldiers fought on foot, were unpro- vided with protective armor, and used bows and arrows — either long-bows or cross-bows. The Normans were "Skilled in the use of every species of arms, but particularly in the cross-bow; and, after the Norman invasion, the English became the most skillful archers in the world. 844 MediceGal History. 22. The most numerous class in England at this time were the Saxon churls, or, as called by the Normans, villains. These were farmers, and were obliged to place themselves under the protection of some noble, as otherwise they might be seized as robbers. They were \)ound to reside on Vitlaina. the lands which they held from their lords, unless permitted to leave them. Next below these were the serfs, who were in all respects bondsmen, being at- tached to Serfs. the soil, and subject to the will of their masters. The num- ber of these regis- tered in Domesday Book was 25,000. 23. The dress of the Normans was, in many respects, pecu- culiar. A short cloak, often richly furred and ornamented with gold lace, worn over a loose doublet reach- ing half way down the leg, formed the most A NORMAH CASTLB. 1. The Donjon: 2. Chapel; 3. Stables: 4. Inner Bal liiim (bailt'y, or court); 5. Outer Hallium ; iV Marba- can; 7. Mount, supposed to be the court-hill, or tribunal, and also the place where Justice waa executed; K. Soldiers' Lodgings. consj)icuous portion of a gentleman's costume. The shoes had vpry long pointed toes, sometimes twisted in a very curious manner, and occasionally fastened by gold or silver ckaius to the knees. Long hose, fastened to Costume. Norman Period, 345 the doublet by strings, called 'points, and a velvet bonnet, completed the costume. The Norman ladies wore a loose wide-sleeved robe reaching to the ground, and covering a kirtle or under-gown'of silk. Other modes of costume were peculiar to various characters. Thus the minstrel was dis- tinguished by his harp strung on his shoulder, a plate of silver on his arm, and a chain around M nstrel. his neck bearing the tuning-key; the fool, or jester, by his cap and bells, and his party-cMored dress; the palmer, or pilgrim, by his sandals, the scallop-shells border- ing his hat, and his iron-shod staff. The Saxon serf was clothed in un tanned hide, sandals of Dress of the serf. hog-skin, and leather hose, and wore a collar of braiss en- graved with his master's name. 24. Learning at this period was almost exclusively con- fined to the cloister, the monks and priests being the only scholars. Every monastery had its writing- room, where the copying of books was constantly Learning. carried on by the monks. The most noted among the English writers of this time were William of Malmsbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth, and Henry of Huntingdon. These were the au- thors of several interesting chronicles. Chivaley or Knighthood. 25. Chivalry or knighthood, like feudalism, was an insti- tution peculiar to this age, and exerted a powerful influence upon the social customs of the Normans. While i — the feudal system constituted the basis of the ! political system both of England and France at this time, chivalry controlled the moral and social character of the people. Though pertaining to the general history of Europe, we give a sketch of it here, because of its prominence among the Normans, both in Normandy and in the conquered Anglo- Saxon kingdom. 346 MedicBval History, 26. It was a singular combination of religion, military valor, and gallantry; and for several centuries continued to exercise a powerful influence upon the man- ners, customs, and opinions of all classes. Al- Development. Training for knighthood. though its origin can be faintly discerned in the institutions and practices of the German and Gothic nations, its full develop- ment was not reached till the eleventh or twelfth century, being rapidly matured by the Crusades, from which it received a strong religious character. Those destined for knighthood received, from their earliest years, a pe- culiar training. The first degree was that of page (called sometimes child or var- let): after the age of fourteen, the page might be made an es^quire, and was allowed to bear arms. He was then kept in con- stant service, waiting upon the master and mistress of the castle, and acquiring habits of perfect obedience and courtesy. Every care was taken to impress in- delibly upon his mind a love of chivalry; that is, a devotion to feats of arms in behalf of the weak and oppressed, or in vindication of religion, and of the honor and virtue of the female sex.* • ** The young man, the esquire, who asolred to the title of knight, was first stripped of his clothes and placed in a hath, which was symbolical f»f ptirifloation. On leavinf; the bath he was clothed in a white tunic, symbolical of purity: a red robe, symbolical of the blood he was bound to sheposilc ends of the lists; and meeting in the center with a terrific Combat. shock, one or the other was generally unhorsed, their lances often being shivered to pieces, and tlie vanquished thrown bruised and bleeding to the ground. The victor was usually * The kniRht is h«^re soen In his hnuherk, or coat of mall. A sort of overcoat was sometimes worn over this in warm roimtries to miti;?ate the heat of the sim on metal armor. This wuh nade of cloth or silk stuff, embroidered Id gold and silver. Norman Period. 349 rewarded by receiving his horse and armor, and sometimes by the privilege of naming some lady, who, with the title of Queen of Love, presided over the remainder of the tourna- ment. In other cases, he received a scarf, ribbon, or other favor from the lady in whose honor the tournament was held.* 29. These combats were not only used for sport, but were resorted to in order to discover the guilty; it being the pre- vailing belief that Providence would interpose, in all such cases, for the protection of the innocent. In this conviction, those who were charged with Judicial combat. crime were challenged by their accusers, and were compelled to abide the issue of a personal combat in the lists. This appeal of the Normans to the justice of Heaven closely resembled the ordeal of the Saxons; and upon it was based the practice of the duel in more modern times. 30. The customs and practices of chivalry varied in differ- ent countries, being modified by the character and circum- stances of the people. Being a Christian institu- tion, it was a very general object to fight against the infidel, and thus uphold, as was conceived, the cause of true religion. Hence, great military orders of knighthood were formed during tlie Crusades, or expeditions in protection of the Holy Land, of which we shall speak here- after. Knight-errantry was the practice as- Military orders. Knight-errantry. sumed by certain knights in wandering about in quest of persons in distress, the rescue of whom conferred special glory upon the champion, f * The tournament differed from the- joust principally in the greater number of the combatants. Both were held in the open air, the tournament lasting several days. Outside the lists were pitched the tents of the knights, decorated with their coats of arms, while immediately surrounding the lists, seats were arranged for spectators, who attended in large numbers. Special canopies of silk and other rich Stuffs were erected for the ladies, who thronged to the spectacle arrayed in their costliest dresses. At the close of the performance the victorious knights were pub- licly crowned by the ladies of their choice. t The knight-errant traveled about from tournament to tournament, everywhere receiving hospitable entertainment. Out of chivalry sprang the romance, in which 350 MedicBval History. SECTION III. The Plantagei^ets. 31. Henry XL, the first of the Plantagenets,* had married Eleanor, duchess of Guienne (ghe-en'), the divorced queen of Louis VII., king of France; and having inherited Anjou from Dominions. his father, and Maine and Normandy from liis moth- er, at his accession he be- came the ruler not only of England but of the greater part of France. His first acts were to reduce the re- Acts. fractory nobles to obedi- ence ; and, dispossessing them of their strongholds, to compel them to discon- tinue their lawless violence and pillage. His next ob- ject was to diminish the powers and privileges of tlie clergy, who were, by the institutions of William the Conqueror, amenable only to the ecclesiastical courts, by which, if found guilty, they were delivered up to the secular power for punishment. we find the deeds of such heroes as Arthur aiid Charlemagne relnt^y! and em- bellished. These were sunfc hy the trtrnvfres of Normandy, the troubadourt of pTDvence, and the minnesim/rm of Germany. (See pnn^e 484.) • Plantagenet means, in French, hrnom-plaut; and was given to this family, It Is said, because one of their ancestors had done penance by scourpring Idmself with twigs of that plant. Henry beinpr Dulce of Anjou, he and his successors, down to and including? John, are called the Atujevins. They po8s«?ssod a large part of France. (See Map.) Dominions of thk Anokvins. The Plantagenets. 351 32. Ill this undertaking he met with determined opposi- tion from Thomas a Becket, a man of great talent and fear- less courage, who, holding the highest office in the Church (that of Archbishop of Oan'ter- bu-ry), considered it his duty to defend the au- Thomas a Becket thority and privileges of his orders notwithstanding he had been elevated to this great dignity by the friendship and partiality of Henry II. At a grand council held at Claren- don (1164), the king presented sixteen propositions, called the *' Constitutions of Clarendon, one of which was that clergymen accused of any crime should be tried by the civil courts; while the others Constitutions of Clarendon. were designed to define and regulate the ecclesiastical au- thority, and make it subservient to the civil power. To these propositions Becket, by the request of the Pope, reluctantly gave his assent; but afterward, being charged with evading them, he was condemned by a council specially called by the king to pass judgment upon him. 33. He then secretly departed from England, and took refuge with the king of France, by whom, as well as by the Pope, he was encouraged and sustained. Henry at last becoming reconciled to him, he returned to England and resumed his high office. But he again opposed the royal au- thority; and the king was at last provoked into exclaiming, '^ Is there no one of my subjects who will rid me of this insolent priest?" Four knights, constru- ing this as a command, immediately proceeded Murder of Becket to the residence of the prelate, and, pursuing him into the cathedral, barbarously slew him before the altar (1170). 34. Henry was thrown into the greatest consternation on hearing of this event. He expressed the deepest sorrow for the words he had hastily uttered, and evinced the sincerity of his repentance by acts of the severest penance, consenting to go as a pilgrim Henry's penance. to the tomb of the murdered prelate, now canonized as a 352 Mediceval History, saint and martyr, and for miles of the way walked barefoot over the flinty road, marking his steps with blood. Inde- pendently of its atrocity, nothing could have been more dis- astrous to the king's cause than the murder of Becket; for the Church party gained more by the death of their champion th-an all his best Effect of Becket's death efforts could have won for them if he had lived, talented and determined as he was; and Henry only obtained pardon from the Roman pontiff on condition that he would submit entirely to the wishes and injunctions of the holy See. 36. One of the most important events of this reign was the conquest of Ireland, which Henry completed in 1172. Ireland, anciently called Hibernia, was peopled by a race similar to the Britons, but little is Ireland. known of them before the fourth century.* Each province had its separate king, but was dependent upon the monarch who held his court at Tara. \ In the fifth century the people were converted to Christianity, chiefly through the efforts of the renowned St. Patrick. From the sixth to the twelfth century, Ireland became famous for History. its progress in literature and art, and sent forth many learned men and missionaries from the monasteries which had been established.]; For three centuries it was much harassed by * " Many years before Chrl.st, a race of men inhabited Ireland, exactly identical with its present population, yet very 8uj)erIor to it in point of material well-belnj? ; a people acquainted with the use of the precious metals, with the manufacture of liim tissues, fotid of music and song, enjoying its literature and books; oftawi'« Iriah Races. t "The ancient Hall or Court of Tara, in which, for so many centuries, the Tri- ennial Councils of the nation had l)een held, saw for the last time (a.d. .VH) her kings and nobles assembled within its precincts. Some fugitive criminal, who had fled for sanctuary to the monast«rj' of St. Ruan, having been dragged forcibly from thence ♦© Tara, and there put to death, the holy abbot and his monks cried aloud againot the sacrilegious violation; and pronouncek, he exclainjed, *Can it be true that Jolm, my heart, the son of my choice, he whom I have doted on more than all the rest, and my love for whom has brtmpht on me all my woes, has fallen away from me?' They replied that it was even so; that nothing could be more true. ' Well, then,' he said, falling back on his l>ed. and turning his face to the wall, 'henceforward let all go on as it may; I no lonjfer vatfe for myself or for Che world.' "—Idirhrlrt. Philip and John. The Plantagenets. 355 in a dungeon, until his subjects paid a large sum of money for his deliverance (1194). During his absence, Philip, king of France, had seduced John, Kichard's brother, from his allegiance; and both had plotted for the destruction of Eichard, with the design of obtaining possession of his dominions; but this scheme was thwarted by the king's return. The rest of Richard's reign was occupied in contention with Philip; and after much petty and indecisive war, he was mortally wounded in an attack upon a castle in France, held by a rebellious vassal (1199). 40. The character of this monarch is one of the most romantic to be found in history, and displays a love of adven- ture, a militai-y daring, and a strength and skill in feats of arms, unsurpassed in ancient or modern times. His people, oppressed by the taxes which Character of Richard. were ruthlessly levied to carry out his useless projects, were jet proud of his fame, thougli he accomplished nothing for their benefit, nor advanced in any respect the prosperity of the country. He, indeed, spent but fourteen months in his kingdom during the ten years of his reign. 41. John {Lachland)y the brother of Richard, succeeded him, with the consent of the people, although Arthur, Geoffrey's son, was the rightful heir. This young prince, having fallen into the power of his uncle. Prince Arthur. was imprisoned, and, it is said, cruelly murdered by him. Philip, king of France, summoned John, his vassal, as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, to answer for this offense before a court of peers; but he refused to obey the sum- mons, and was accordingly branded as a murder- er, and adjudged to lose nearly all his French Loss of French territory. territories, which in a few years Philip succeeded in conquer- ing, and annexed them to his own dominions. John was called Lackland, because his father left him no possessions. 42. The Pope (Innocent III.) having caused Stephen Langton, a man of great talent and unblemished character, 350 MedicBval History. to be elected Archbishop of Canterbury, John refused to give his consent; whereupon Innocent placed the kingdom under an interdict, in consequence of which the churches were closed, the dead were reiused Christian burial, Interdict and all other religious offices ceased. The king, still resisting, was formally excommunicated by Pope Innocent, his people were absolved from their allegiance to him, and a solemn injunction was placed upon Philip of France to take posses- sion of the kingdom. John at last submitted, and solemnly surrendered his dominions to the Pope, promising to hold them as his obedieut vassal, and to pay to him an annual tri- bute (1^13). Philip, attempting to carry out his design of conquering England, sustained a great Defeat of Philip. disaster in the loss of his fleet, which was attacked by the English and destroyed. This was the first naval action of importance between the English and French. 43. John's next contest was with the barons, who, under the leadership of Langton, determined to compel his assent to a series of propositions designed to diminish the royal prerogatives and secure the liberties of the subjects by established principles. This John Contest with the barons. jteadily refused, until a large army had been raised by the barons, and the city of London taken; when he finally sub- mitted, and signed the famous Magna Charta (the Great Charter) at Run-ny-mcde' (June 15, 1215).* One of the most important articles of this instrument was that *' no delay should take place in doing jus- Magna Charta. tice to every one; and no freeman should bo taken or im- prisoned, dispossessed of his free tenement, outlawed, or ban- ♦ " This Holy Land of English liberty is about half way from Odiham to London, And It is a jjrassy plain, of alwiit one hundred and sixty acrt^s, on the south bank of the Thames, between Staines and Windsor. Various derivations are given for the name; that of the antiquary I^tland afYlrms it to liave been so called fn;)ni tl»e Baxon word Rune, or council, and to mean tlie Council Meadow, having been used in the old Saxon times as a place of a8seml)Iy. No column or memorial marks the gpot where the primary triinnph of the English constitution was achieved,"— Creasf/^B Rise and Progress of the English Constitution, The Plantageriets. 357 ished, unless ly the legal judgment of his peers" This famous charter, although granted to the nobles only, pro- tected the rights of all, and is justly regarded as the palladium of English liberty.* 44. John attempted afterward to resist the execution of this instrument, and levied an army of foreign mercenaries, by means of which he perpetrated the most atro- cious cruelties, and compelled the authors and supporters of Magna Charta to flee the country. John's resistance. In the midst of the troubles wliich this excited, his death fortunately occurred, and thus saved the people from the disaster and misery of a prolonged civil war (1216). The character of John was despi- Death and character. cable; cruelty, treachery, and cowardice being its prominent * " How is it possible that at least a third of the provisions of the Charter should have related to promises and guaranties made in behalf of the people, if the aris- tocracy had only aimed at obtaining that which would benefit themselves ? We have only to read the Great Charter in order to be convinced that the rights of all three orders of the nation (clergy, nobles, and common people) are equally re- spected and promoted."— Gwizof. The following is a paragraph in Magna Charta, as written: The same in Roman letters. Nullus liber homo capiatur, vel imprisonetur, aut dissaisiatur, aut utlagetvu", aut exuletur, aut aliquo modo destruatur; nee super eum ibimus, nee super eum mittemus, nisi per legale judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae. Translation. No freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or outlawed, or ban- ished, or any ways destroyed; nor will we pass upon him, nor will we send upoH him. unless by the lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. 358 MedicBval History. traits, unrelieved by a single redeeming virtue. He was suc- ceeded by his son Henry, then only nine years old. 45. Henry HI During the first part of this reign, the country was governed by the guardians of th« young king, and was much disturbed by wars with France. After attaining the age of majority, Henry had First events. frequent disputes with the barons, who compelled him to con- firm the Great Charter in the most solemn ni inner. They nevertheless continued to oppose the royal autliority, in con- sequence of the unwise exactions of Henry, and his submis- sion to the influence of foreigners, by whom the offices both of church and state were filled. 46. Through the efforts of Simon de Mont'fort, Earl of Leicester (les^ter), twenty-four barons were appointed by the great council to regulate the kingdom; and to this arrange- ment the king gave his assent (1258). A quarrel afterward — j arising between the nobles and the royalists, civil . _J war ensued; and the king's forces were defeated at Lew'es, and he and his son. Prince Edward, were taken prisoners (1264). This placed the government mainly under the control of Leicester, who, in order to strengthen his influ- ence, summoned a council (now styled a parlia- ment), and gave seats in it not only to the barons Parliament and knights, but to the representatives of the boroughs, or toivns (12C5). This is considered the first institution of the House of Commons — the most important branch of the Eng- lish legislature. 47. Prince Edward, having escaped from the confinement in which ho had been kept by Leicester, raised an army; and, in the battle of Eves'ham, entirely defeated the forces of Leicester, who, with his eldest son, was among the slain (1205).* This placed Henrv Defeat of LeicMtet. ♦ " The Earl moved to a place on the Avon, called Evesham, and with Kreat glad- ness saw his own banners cominj? ov«r the hills from Kt>niIworth. These, however, turned out to be the captured ^u^uUards u( hi^ 99a; aud when he looked to ether The Plantagenets, ^S'*^ again on the throne; and Prince Edward having by prudent measures restored general tranquillity, by infusing a wiser and more popular spirit in the government, went on a crusade to the Holy Land. Before his return^ his father died (1272), after the exceedingly long reign of fifty-six years. Henry was mild and pacific in his disposition, but pos- sessed neither the talents nor force of character required to cope successfully with the difficulties Character of Henry. of SO disturbed a period. England, however, increased in wealth and influence during this reign, and widely extended her commercial relations with other countries. 48. Edward I. The first important event of this reign was the conquest of Wales, which Edward undertook because Llew-el'lyn, prince of that country, refused to do him the homage which he owed as a vassal. The conquest was completed in 1283; Llewellyn being Conquest of Wales. defeated and slain, and the principality of Wales conferred upon the king's eldest son, called the *' Prince of Wales" — a title ever afterward borne by the eldest son of the English sovereign. The wars with Scotland occupy nearly all the rest of this reign. Alexander IIL, king of that country, having died without a male heir, several competi- tors arose for the throne, the most noted of whom were John Ba'li-ol and Robert Bruce, the former War with Scotland being the grandson of a second daughter, and the latter a points of the compass, he saw glittering files of spears advancing in converging lines toward the position he held. Bitterly, as he saw this sight, did he cry, ' It was I who taught them the art of war.' But bitter words were of little use at such a crisis. Having put his men in array of battle, he knelt down to say a short prayer, and then took the sacrament, as pious knights always did before going to battle. The fortunes of the day went against him from the first, but he resolved to sell his life dearly. His last stand was made on the top of a hill, where he gathered round him in a solid circle some of his bravest men. When his horse was killed he fought on foot: but the circle at length yielded to the pressure of charges from every side, and brave old Leicester, a benefactor of the English people second to none, fell on his last field. His head and limbs were brutally chopi)ed off, and the horrible frag- ments were sent as a present to %\\^ wife of bis greatest foe."— CoWier's Pictw'tA »/ En^luih History, 360 Mediceval History, son of a third daughter, of David, the brother of a previous king. A furious dispute having arisen in the Scotch parlia- ment, as to the succession, the matter was referred to the arbitration of Edward, who, in accordance with the unani- mous opinion of all the great lawyers of Europe, decided in favor of Baliol, as being the most direct descendant, and he was accordingly placed upon the throne. 49. Edward, however, had meanly taken advantage of the circumstances to compel Baliol to take an oath of fealty to him, and thus to acknowledge himself a vassal to the English crown; and he subsequently so harassed him by frequent and degrading commands, that Baliol was finally provoked into a refusal to comply, determining to make a stand for his own and his people's liberty. He was, however, unsuccessful; for Edward, invading Scotland with a large army, defeated Baliol in the battle of Dunbar (1296), after which the latter surrendered, and was carried Battle of Dunbar. captive to England. He was afterward released, and died in obscurity, in France. 60. Scotland, although subdued for a time, soon found a noble champion in the renowned William Wallace, who de- feated an English army of 40,000 men, near Stirling, and committed great ravages in the Wallace. north of England (1297). The next year, however, Edward defeated Wallace, in the battle of Fal'kirk, and again estab- lished his government in Scotland. Wallace was never after- ward able to gain a decisive victory over his country's enemies; although he fought bravely for several years, until, having been betrayed by one of his own countrymen into the power of Edward, that remorseless king sent him to London; and, in order to intimidate the Scottish leaders, caused him to bo executed (1305). 51. The people of Scotland made still another effort to regain their liberties, under tlie leadership of Robert Bruce, grandson of the competitor of Baliol, and now acknowledged The Plantagenets. 361 the rightful heir to the throne. The attempt was successful, the English being driven from the country. But Bruce afterward suffered a defeat from one of ' ° ^ Death of Edward. Edward's generals; and the king himself marched to com- plete the conquest, but was suddenly taken ill, and died, at Carlisle (1307), enjoining with his last breath his son Edward to prosecute the enter- prise, until the Scots should be entirely subdued. 62. Edward I. had also carried on war with Philip IV. of France, who had formed an alliance with the Scottish king, Baliol. He confirmed, but with great reluctance, the Great Charter; and (in 1295) caused the Parliament. deputies from the boroughs to meet the other representatives in Parliament, stating that " what concerns all should be approved by all," — a principle that lies at the foundation of all civil and political freedom. Edward was one of the ablest and most successful monarchs that ever reigned. He was politic and warlike, popu- Character of Edward I. lar on account of his majestic personal appearance, his mili- tary success, and his wise measures. His efforts to reform and establish the laws gained for him the appellation of the English Justinian. 63. Edward II., unmindful of his father's dying injunc- tion, withdrew his forces from Scotland, and the people of that country gradually recovered their freedom. Having, at last, in the seventh year of his reign, Bannockburn. invaded the country, he was disastrously defeated by Robert Bruce, in the famous battle of Bannockburn (1314). Of a character the very reverse of his father, Edward soon lost the respect of his people, and gave great offense to the nobles by surrendering himself to the influence of foreign favorites. Civil war finally broke out, in which Isabella, Edward's queen, took part against him; and Fate of the king. being deserted by his subjects, he foil into the hands of his enemies, who kept him for some time in prison, but at last 362 Mediceval History, caused hini to be put to deatli in the most shocking manner (1327). His son Edward bad i)reviously been decbired ting. 64. Edward III. In consequence of the youth of the king, a council of regency was appointed to administer the government; but the real i)ower was possessed by Isabella and her paramour, the infamous Mor'- ti-mer, a prominent baron, both of whom had Isabella and Mortimer. been accessory to the murder of the late king. This occa- sioned universal disgust and abhorrence; and the young king soon (1330) found means to punish the murderertj of his father, Mortimer being seized and executed as a common criminal, and Isabella placed in confinement, where she was kept until her death. The Scots were defeated by Edward in the great battle of Halidou Hill Halidon Hill. (1333), and thus were again brought into subjection to the English crown, the young king David Bruce fleeing to France. 65. Edward's next object of ambition was to acquire pos- session of the throne of France, circumstances Fceming to favor that project; for Charles IV., the king of lliat country, having died Avithout heirs, the nation had ])laood his cousin Philip VI. on the throne. But Edward, throngli his mother Isabella, was a more direct descendant; and on this ground, notwithstanding that the ancient laws of Franco (the Salic law — i.e.f law of the Salian Franks) excluded females from the throne, he claimed his right to the succession., and proceeded to vindicate it by force of arms. Having destroyed the French fleet in a great Attack on France. naval battle (1340), he invaded France, and with forces far inferior to those of Philip, defeated liim in the memorabh battle of Crecy {kres'e). This battle is made par- ticularly interesting, not only by the greatness of Crecy. the victory, but by the fact thiit in it cannon were for tho first time employed by the English,* and also as the occasion • Firearms appear to have been used by the Chinese in GlR B.C., nearly two thou- sand years before the ba(U9 9^ Qrvc^. Tbey were also iwed io different forms in The Plantagenets, 363 on which the king's son Edward, afterward styled the Black Prince (from the color of his armor), commenced his bril- liant military career (1346),* 56. Edward next took Calais {kaVis), after a long siege; and expelling all the inhabitants, peopled it anew with Eng- lish. This city, regarded as the key of France, the English retained for nearly two centuries. Calais. While Edward was thus engaged, the Scottish people had again placed David Bruce upon the throne, who invading England, was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Neville's Cross, near Dur'ham (1346). This vic- tory was due to the activity and heroism of Phi- Nevitle's Cross. lip'pa, Edward's queen, who, previous to the action, rode through the ranks of the army, encouraging the soldiers. A dreadful plague that swepb av/ay Plague. many thousands of the people, not only in England but in other parts of Europe, caused for a time a cessation of hostili- ties between the French and English. 67. Philip, king of France, having been succeeded by John (1350), and the country been distracted by factious dissensions, Edward resolved again to attack it; and for this purpose dispatched the Black Prince with an army to Guienne, while he himself was to make an incursion by way of Calais. India; and, as early as the eighth century, by the Saracens. The invention of gun- powder is generally attributed to Friar Bacon, who in 1270 announced its composi- tion ; but it was not till 1320 that the proper mode of making it was understood. King Edward's cannon were only o.. .^P'^^.g of duck-guns. * The young Prince of Wales had been knigHt^t' j)pl v a month before; and Ed- ward, who was watching the battle from a windmill, resolved to' leave to his son the glory of victory. Although the prince was then hard pressed "by ib« French, the king refused to send succor to his assistance, saying, ' Let the child win his spurs, and let the day be his.' . . . The whole French army took to flight, and was followed and put to the sword, without mercy, till the darkness of the night put an end to the pursuit. The king, on his return to the camp, flew into the arms of the Prince of Wales, and exclaimed, ' My brave son ! persevere in your honorable course; you are my son, for valiantly have you acquitted yourself to-day, and worthy are you of a cro-wn.' From this time the young prince became the terror of the French, by whom be was called the Black Princo, from the color of tlxe armor which he wore on that day.''— /fume's History of England. 864 MedicBval History, The former penetrated into the heart of France witli an army of 12,000 men; but at Poitiers {poi-terz') found himself confronted by a splendidly equipped force of 60,000 men, commanded by John in person. Desirous Poitiers. to retreat, the Prince offered to restore all his conquests and give up the war; but John declining any terms but uncon- ditional surrender, a battle ensued, which, owing to the skill MlUTAET AOCODTSBMBMTS OF THE BlAOK PrINCK, SuSPElTDKD OVKR Hlft TOMB AT Canterbury Cathkdbal. 1.'" and valor ot the Black Prince, resulted in the entire over- tnrow M" the French, John himself being made a prisoner (135G). The Frencli king was kept in captivity in London till ransomed by his subjects (1360); Death of John. but not being able to fulfill the terms of his release, he re- turned to London, where he died the next year (1364). 58. Under his successor war was renewed between the two countries; but Edward gained no permanent advantage, not- The Plantagenets. 365 withstanding the able generalship of the Black Prince. This renowned leader soon after died, worn out by incessant toil and exposure (1376). He was Black Prince. Death of the king. universally esteemed, not only for his heroism and military genius, but for the generosity, moderation, and amiability which shed still greater luster on his character. The king survived him only a year. _ He was succeeded by Richard, the son of the Black Prince, then only eleven years old (1377). 59. Edward III. was a wise and powerful monarch, popu- lar not only for his military success and prudent administra- tion, but for his many personal accomplishments. Although nearly all his time was spent in war, he Character. was comparatively quite a learned man. His familiarity with the Latin and German languages was of great service to him in his foreign wars and negotiations. He took no important steps without consulting his parliament, and so greatly en- couraged trade that he has been called the " Father of English commerce." Wool was the chief arti- Trade. cle of export, and an extensive trade was carried on with the ports of the Baltic. He kept up a close connection with the Flemings, then noted for their extensive woolen manufactures, and thus increased the English trade. 60. Richard II. The first part of this reign is noted for an insurrection of the lower orders of the people, occasioned by the condition of serfdom in which they were kept, and the miseries to which they were subjected Serfdom. by the unjust laws of the period, and by the oppressions of the wealthier classes. The immediate occasion of the out- break was the imposition of a tax on every person above fifteen years of age, and the indignity with which a young maiden, the daughter of one Wat Tyler (or Wat, ' Wat Tyler. [ the tiler), was treated by a brutal tax-gatherer. This so incensed her father that he struck the officer dead with his hammer; and, being joined by his friends and 366 MediGbnal History, neighbors, raised a revolt, and placed himself at the head of the insurgents. 61. The populace, to the number of 100,000 men, assem- bled at Blackheath, near London, broke into the city, burned the palaces and mansions of the nobles, plundered the ware- houses, and murdered the archbishop and many otlier persons of distinction. The king having entered upon a conference with Wat Tyler, tlie latter, it is said, acted with so much insolence that Wal'worth, the Mayor of London, struck him I with his sword; whereupon Tyler was imme- ^ ' I diately dispatched by others of the king's retinue. Richard, to quell the mutiny, acceded to the demands of the insurgents, and the latter dispersed; but the nobility having raised a large army, the ringleaders were apprehended and executed, and the concessions of the king were annulled (1381). This made Richard very unpopular with the com- mon people, for their demands had been reasonable and just; the most important being that vilhnage and serf- dom should be abolished, the people jiaying a fixed rent for their lands, instead of being bound Villenage and serfdom. to do such services as their feudal lords might recjuire. Serf- dom, however, did not entirely cease in England until more than four centuries after the date of these events. 62. The subsequent conduct of this king was characterized by indolence and inefficiency. He quarreled with the great officers and distinguished nobles of his court, and gave his entire confidence to unworthy favorites. He had banished his cousin Henry, son of Jolin of Gaunt. Duke of Lancaster, for being concerned in a duel; and, on the death of the duke, proceeded to dispossess Henry of his estates and annex them to those of the crown. Henry, however, taking advantage of Richard's absence in Ireland, lauded with a small force in England; and so unpopular was the king, that the invader was Deposition. Boon joined by a force of 60,000 men. Richard was accord- Tlie Plantagenets. 367 inglydepooed (1399), and, it is said, was soon afterward mur- dered. During this reign Wickliffe, called by some the "morning star of the Keformation," translated the Bible. He and his doctrines were Wickliffe and Chaucer. much favored by John of Gaunt.* Chaucer, styled the " Father of English poetry," also wrote his celebrated poem, "The Canterbury Tales." 63. Henry IV., the first of the house of Lancaster, had no legal right to the throne, being a descendant of the fourth son of Edward III., while Edmund Mortimer was living, who was descended from the third son of the same monarch; hence this reign was Right to the throne. little else than a series of insurrections. The most formidable was th^ excited by the Earl of Northumberland and his son, Harry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, on account of his fiery temper. This young nobleman was dis- Hotspur. tinguished for the battle which, in the previous reign, he had fought with the Scots at Otterburn (1388), and on which was founded the famous ballad of " Chevy Chase." He had also greatly aided Henry i^^ his efforts to obtain possession of the kingdom; but, afterward quarreling with him, joined his forces to those of the Scots under Douglas and the Welsh under Owen Glen'dower, with the object of placing Morti- mer on the throne. A terrific battle was fought near Shrewsbury (1403); but the rebels were Shrewsbury. defeated, and their brave leader, Percy, was slain. The king and his son took part in the battle, and signalized themselves by their feats of strength and daring. Henry IV., after his death in 1413, was succeeded by his son, Henry V. 64. Henry V., during his father's life, had been notorious for his riotous and disorderly conduct; and had, on one occa- * WicklifiFe advocated many of the reforms and doctrines afterward preached by Luther and his followers in the sixteenth century. The followers of Wickliffe were called Lollards, a name first used in th«» Netherlands about 1300. 368 Medlceval History. sion, been committed to prison by the chief -justice, whom he had insulted for indicting one of his dissohite companions. On his accession, however, he dismissed his profligate associates and thorouglily reformed his life, retaining in office the wise ministers of Change in character. his father, including the chief-justice by whom he had been so fearlessly punished. Soon afterward he invaded France; Und having taken Harfleur, after a long siege, he engaged the French army, four times as numerous as his own, and totally routed it in the memorable battle of Ag'in-court (1415), 10,000 of the French being slain and Agincourt. 14,000 taken prisoners; while, it is said, the English lost only 40. Henry then returned to England; but, two years later, he again crossed to France, and, after some successes, a treaty was concluded (1420) at Troyes (trwah), by which Henry was to marry the king's daughter Catharine, and to succeed to the French throne Treaty of Troyes. on the death of Charles, and the two kingdoms were to be united. This treaty was carried into effect, and Henry, as regent of France, entered Paris in triumph. But, in a few months, death stopped short his triumphant oai*eer, and put an end to all his schemes of vainglory and ambition (1422). -[ He left one son, Henry, less than a year old. The ! persecution of the Lollards, commenced in the previous reign, was continued in this. 65. Henry VI., at his accession, was proclaimed by the Parliament king of France as well as of England; and his uncle, the Duke of Bedford, the most accomplished j^rince of his age, was appointed Protector of the kingdom and guardian of the infant king. On arriving Protectorate. at the age of majority, he showed neither the capacity nor the disposition to take control of the government. He married Margaret of Anjou, a ])rinco?s whose accomplish- ments and masculine energy of character were Marriage. well suited to supply the defects and weaknesses of lier bus- Tlie Plantagenets. 869 band.* But the incapacity of the king encouraged the rival house of York to lay claim to the throne, in behalf of Kichard, Duke of York, the descendant of Edward's tliird son, who was a man of ability and valor, as well as immense wealth. In this pretension Kichard was upheld by the greatest noble- man of the kingdom, the renowned Earl of Warwick {war'' rick), afterward called the King-maker, whose means and possessions were so extensive that Warwick. 30,000 retainers were constantly supported by him in his various castles and manors, f An insurrection of the lower orders, under a leader named Jack Jack Cade. Cade, broke out about this time, but was soon put down. Cade being slain (1450). 66. The king's government being very unpopular, Richard raised an army, ostensibly for the redress of grievances; and in the battle of St. Albans {atvV- hans) defeated the royalists (1455), and took the War of the Roses. king prisoner. This was the first battle in that great civil war * *' When Henry was twenty-three years old, his council suggested that it was time he should marry ; and every one foresaw that the queen, whoever she might be, would possess the control over the weak mind of her husband. Tlie choice of Henry was directed toward Mai^aret the daughter of R6n6, King of Sicily and Duke of Anjou. In personal beauty she was thought superior to most women, in mental capacity equal to most men of the age. The marriage was agreed on. Margaret landed at Portchester, was married to Henry at Tichfield, and crowned May 30, 1444."— Lm(/ard's History of England. t " During the whole extent of England's history, under the Saxon, Dane, or Norman, the mightiest of her barons was the king-maker, Warwick. It was his power that made Edward king, and his that unmade him. It was his power that lethroned King Henry, and it was his that restored him. Each monarch in turn became the captive and prisoner of this great earl. With princely revenues and estates, Warwick's vassals were an army ; and some notion may be formed of the force he could, at will, bring armed into the field, from the fact that he is said to have daily feasted, at his numerous manors and castles, upward of thirty thousand persons. The other nobles possessed, in their degree, the power of an armed feu- dal retinue, ready to follow their lord to battle in any cause of his choosing ; and thus there was a baronial power of which modem England shows only the shadow. As the traveler now beholds the stately walls of W^arwick Castle, he can scarce, with all the impulse given to his imagination, call up the vision of the armed hosts which, some three hundred years ago. could, at a moment's summons, be gathered there in battle array." — Reed's Lectures on English History, 370 Mediceval History, - — - ' < styled the " War of the Eoses" (from the badges of the por- tJes, the Lancastrians wearing a red rose and the Yorkists a white rose). This war lasted thirty years, was signalized by twelve pitched battles, and almost annihilated the ancient nobility of England. The next year after the battle of St. Albans, the king was restored to his authority; but the con- test soon broke out with increased fury, and in the battle of Northampton the king was defeated and taken prisoner by the Earl of Warwick (1460), after which the Duke of York was proclaimed the lawful successor of Henry, and Edward, the son of Henry and Margaret, was excluded from the throne. The queen, however, fled to Scotland, and with the aid of the northern barons raised a large army, with which, in the battle of Wakefield, she defeated the Duke of York, who was taken prisoner and put to death (1460). A few weeks after this Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick and regained posses- sion of the king; but Edward, son of the late Duke of York, joining his forces with those of Edward IV. Warwick, compelled her to retreat, and, triumphantly enter- ing London, was proclaimed king, under the title of Edward IV. (1461). 67. Edward IV. Queen Margaret, however, was not sub- dued. She succeeded in collecting an army of 60,000 men in the northern counties, with which she encountered the forces of Edward and Warwick in the terrific battle of Tow'ton; but was totally defeated (1461), and comj)ellod, with her husband, to take refuge in Scotland. During the next throe years ^largaret made but Defeat of Margaret one effort to recover the lost kingdom, but was defeated and compelled to flee to France; a short time after which Henry fell into the possession of the king, and was confined in the Tower at London. Edward's vices, however, and his marriage with Elizabeth Gray, a Lan- castrian knight's widow, upon whose relatives vices of th« king. the infatuated monarch Bhowered all his favors, so dis- The Plantagenets. 371 gusted the brave and high-spirited Warwick that he de- serted the cause of Edward, and formed an alliance with Margaret. So popular was this nobleman that in a few days he raised an army of 60,000 men, compelled Edward to flee, and placed Henry again on the throne (1470). Disaster soon followed this great victory; for Edward landing in England with a small force, was soon joined by an immense army, and regaining possession of Henry again king. London, once more made prisoner the hapless Henry, and marched against Warwick, who had taken a position at Bar'- net, near London. 68. The king-maker, deserted by his son-in-law, the Duke of Clarence, brother to Edward, who with a hirge force went over to the Yorkists, was defeated in the battle of Barnet, and slain (1471); and, a fortnight afterward, Edward gained a decisive victory over the forces of Margaret at Tewks'bury, the latter, with her son Edward, being among the prisoners. The young prince was cruelly put to death by the Dukes of Clarence and Glos- ter, brothers of Edward IV., and Margaret was imprisoned in the Tower. A few days after this battle Henry expired in the Tower, according to general be- Defeat of Warwick. Death of Henry. lief, by the murderous hand of the cruel and wicked Duke of Gloster. Queen Margaret afterward found a refuge in France, where she died (1482). Edward, being now secure on the throne, gave himself up to every species of vice and debauch- ery. He caused his brother, Duke of Clarence, to be put to death on a charge of treason, being probably instigated to this crime by his younger Murder of Clarence. brother, Richard, Duke of Gloster, who was noted for his designing character and unrelenting ambition. Edward was about to engage in a war with France, when ho was seized with a distemper, of which he expired (1483). 69. Edward V., the eldest son of Edward IV., a youth of twelve years, was proclaimed king; and his uncle, the Duko 372 Mediceval History. of Gloster, was appointed Erotector. This artful and wicked prince, obtaining possession of the young king and his brother Richard, placed them in the Duke of Gloster. Tower; and caused Lord Rivers, their maternal uncle, and Lord Hastings, with several other distinguished persons, to be executed on a charge of treason. He then gave out that the young princes were illegitimate; and contrived that some of his friends should solicit him to take the crown, which, with pretended reluctance, he accepted, and held under the title of Richard III (1483). 70. Eichard III. The first act of this wicked usurper was to destroy the two young princes, who are supposed to have been smothered in their beds in the Tower by his orders. But he was not permitted quietly to enjoy the fruits of his crimes. A conspiracy Murder of the princes. was formed against him by his former friend, the Duke of Buckingham; but it failed, and Buckingham was seized and executed. The nation, however, soon found a deliverer in Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, tlie last heir of the house of Lancaster, wlio, landing at Mil'- Henry Tudor. fonl Haven, in Wales, was soon joined by sufficient forces to cope with those of the usurper. An engagement took place at Bosworth Field; and Ricliard, being deserted by Lord Stanley and a large jiart of his army, was Bosworth. defeated, and he himself, figliting desperately in tlie confiict, was slain. Richmond was proclaimed king on the battle-lSeld, with the title of Henry VII., by Sir William Stanley, brother of Lord Stanley (1485).* ♦ " The battle which brought to a close the famous War of the Roses was foufrht on Redmore Plain, about a mile to the south of Market-Bosworth In I^icestersliin . From this town It received the name by which It Is most generally calle(i-the Imi tie of Bosworth. The loaders of th«^ war were Richanl Plantu^enot. a little sharp- faced man, with one slioulder somewhat higher than the other, fn»in which slight deformity he was branded by his enemies with the name of Htmchback; and Henry Tudor, or Tydder. a gray-eyed cautious man, with long yellow hair. The former represented the House of York; the latter, the House of Lancaster."— CoMicr'« Pictures from English History. TTie Plantagenets. ^^^ State of Societt in ENOLAin), During the Period of the Plantageneis (1154-1485). 71. The institution of the House of Commons, the grant- ing of Magna Charta, and the decadence of serfdom were the most important events in" the political and social progress of England during this period. The English kings constantly souglit to evade the Political and social progress, provisions of the great charter, but without success, for no less than thirty-eight times were they compelled to ratify it. Trial by jury took the place of the ** judicial combat" of the Normans, the charter prescribing Trial by jury. ** the legal judgment of his peers" as necessary for the con- demnation of every one charged with committing crime. 72. In the earlier reigns, although so much had been ac- complished toward laying the foundation of English liberty, the condition of the common people was very little improved. A degrading system of serfdom con- Serfdom, tinned to exist. Slaves were bought and sold at the fairs, and it is said that the price of a man was less than that of a horse.* But in the Lancastrian period, the result of the great civil commotions was to introduce considerable changes in the social condition of the people. One of the most important of these was the extinction of Abolition. villanage, or serfdom. The nobles being compelled to arm their serfs in the Wars of the Eoses, could never afterward * " Of the two millions of human beings who inhabited England in the reign of John, a very large number, probably nearly half, were in a state of slavery. Those who are disposed to listen to tales about ' Merrie England ' and ' the good old times ' should remember this fact. At the commencement of true English history, we start with the laborers in abject wretchedness. The narrative of the changes in their social and political positions thenceforward to modern tunes is certainly a history of progressive amelioration, though lamentably slow and imperfect,"— Creasy. 374 MedicBval History, reduce them to servitude. The ancient nobility having nearly all perished in these long wars, feudalism in England was destroyed, and a better system Feudalism. took its place. 73. The great staple of commerce was wool, which, with other commodities — tin, lead, leather, etc. — was sold princi- pally tc the German merchants, who ex- Commerce. ported into England gold, silver, silks, wines, spices, and other lux- uries for exchange. In the latter part of the period silk -making was introduced, and a law was passed to protect those engaged in it from the competition of the _ Lombard merchants (1455). Agri- i, knight of gartkr; 2. Gmm* culture continued to be very rude; **^' ^- citizen. and large tracts of tilled land were converted into sheep-pastures, in order that the grain of foreign Agriculture. countries might be purchased with the wool thus obtained. 74. The modes of living gradually became more refined. Glass windows, vessels of earthenware, the use of coal for fuel — I and of candles for lighting purposes enlarged the """'' I comforts of the people. The costume of this period was curious and fantastic. Long-pointed shoes, with the toes fastened to the knees or the girdle; stockings of different colorsj a coat half blue or black, half white, with The Plantagenets, 87i trousers reaching scarcely to the knees, were some of the most prominent peculiarities in the dress of the fine gentlemen. The ladies wore party-colored Costume. tunics, very short tippets, small caps, and girdles orna- mented with gold and silver, in which they carried two small swords. Their trains were very long; and their head- liADiEs' Head-Dresses. {Froissart.) dresses towered sometimes two feet above their heads, and were decked at the summit with waving ribbons of various colors. 75. Science made some progress, particularly through the researches of Roger Bacon (1314-1292), who applied the learning which he had acquired at Oxford to the making of useful inventions. He discovered the composition of gunpowder and the use of the Science and learning. magnifying-glass, and devised various mathematical and philo- sophical instruments. This wonderful knowledge caused him to lie regarded by the people as a magician, and he was confined in prison for many years. Astrology and alchemy were favorite subjects of research; but though the alchemists failed in their laborious search for the *' philosopher's stone" and the *' elixir of life," they laid, by their experiments, the foundation of Astrology and alchemy. 376 3fedicdval History, modern chemistry, as the astrologers, by their constant obser- vations, contributed to the progress of astronomy. 76. The great event of this period was the introduction of printing by William Caxton, who, after acquiring a knowl- edge of the art in Holland and Germany, set up a press at Westminster, during the reign of Ed- ward IV. Previous to this there were no books except such as had been prepared with great expense of time and labor Printing. in the "writing-rooms" of the monasteries, for learning was confined almost exclusively to the clergy. The first book printed in England by Caxton was Caxton. English literature. The Game and Flaye of Chease (1474). The types used by him were like those used by the Ger^ mans (blach-leiter), which was the common style of print till the reign of James I. 77. The first era of English literature may be i)laccd in the reign of Edward III., when the Travels of Sir John Mandeville were published (1360). This is u^i'Oi^ the earliest known work in English prose. The famous John Wickliffe (1324-1384), who translated the Bible, and the poet Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400) flourished during the same reign. Tlie language of these writers is called "Middle English," because it comes between the " semi -Saxon," which preceded it, and modern English, which commenced in the reign of Elizabeth. Dra- matic literature included only such compositions as tlie Mysteries or Miracle Plays, the subjects selected being of a religious character. They were succeeded by the Moral Plays, tliC object of which was to give moral lessons by presenting on the stage ingenious allegories. Middle English. The drama. Principal Events and Dates. 377 Kings of England, From Egbert (827) to Henry VU. (1485). I) Line. Name. Egbert Four reigns Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Eight reigns Canute Harold I. (Harefoot). . Hardicanute Edward the Confessor. Harold H William I William U Henry I Stephen Date of reign. 827-836 830-871 871-901 901-925 925-1016 loifr-iass 1035-1040 1040-1012 1042-1066 1006-1066 1066-1087 1087-1100 1100-1135 1135-1154 Line. Name. Henry H.... Richard I... John . . . Henry m... Edward I... Edward H.. Edward HI. Richard H Henry IV... Henry#V.... I Henry VI... I Edward IV.. I Edward v.. , L Richard UI. Date of reign. 1154-1189 1189-1199 1199-1216 1216-1272 127rJ-lS07 1307-1327 1327-1377 1377-1399 139ft-1413 1413-1422 1422-1461 1461-1483 1483-1483 1483-1485 Summary of Peincipal Events and Dates. Union of the Saxon kingdoms under Egbert 827 Battle of Hastings. Hai-old defeated by the Normans 1066 Assassination of Thomas a Becket 1170 Conquest of Ireland 1172 Magna Charta signed by King John 1215 Battle of Lewes. Defeat of Henry III. by Leicester 1264 House of Commons instituted by Leicester.... 1265 Conquest of Wales by Edward 1 1283 The Scots defeated at Dunbar by Edward 1 1296 William Wallace defeated at Falkirk 1298 Wallace taken prisoner and executed 1305 Edward II. defeated by Robert Bi uce at Bannockbum 1314 The Scots defeated at Halidon Hill 1333 The French defeated at Crecy by Edward IH 1346 The French defeated at Poitiers by the Black Prince 1356 Death of Edward the Black Prince 1376 Insurrection under Wat Tyler 1381 Battle of Otterburn between Percy (Hotspur) and Douglas 1388 A Lollard clergyman burnt at the stake 1401 Battle of Shrewsbury. Percy defeated and slain 1403 The French defeated at Agincourt by Henry V 1415 Jack Cade's rebellion 1450 The royalists defeated at St. Albans 1455 Battle of Northampton. Henry VI. taken prisoner 1460 Queen Margaret defeated at Towton 1461 Warwick defeated by Edward IV. at Barnet 1471 Art of P*rinting mtroduced into England ..' 1474 Death of Queen Margaret in France 1482 Battle of Bosworth. Henry VTI. proclaimed king ,.,,.,, 1485 878 MedicBval History. Topical Eeview. CONQUERING RACES. Who were they? What conquests did they make? p^gj. Biirgundians 297, 316 Lombards 299, 304 Avars £99, 303 Bulgarians 803, 304, 306 Slavonians 303, 306 Sueves 297, 298 Magyars 307 Seljuks .]... 807, 330 Mongols and Ottomans 309 Franks 315 Alemanni 316 Normans 320 Saxons 822, 323 Saracens 805, 324, 826, 827, 828 EMINENT PERSONAGES. Who were they? In what period did they live? With what events connected? Theodoric 301, 302 Belisarius 302, 303 Alboin 304 Khosru 305 Genghis Khan, Anavirath 809 Timour 310 Clovis 816 Charles Martel 817, 828 Pepin the Short 818 Charlemagne 818 Alcuin 819 RoUo 821 Mohammed, Egbert 824 Omar 827 Haroun al Raschid 829 Alfred the Great 834 Harold, Sweyn 836 William the Conqueror 886, 888 Matilda, Geoffrey Plantagenet. 841 William of Malmsbury 846 Henry of Huntingdon 846 Geoffrey Monmouth 346 Eleanor of Guienne 830 Thomas & Becket 861 St. Patrick ,.,.. 95« PAOK Prince Arthur 855 Robert Bruce 359,360 Edward the Black Prince.. 863, 864, 365 Wat Tyler 365, 366 Harry Percy (Hotspur) 367 Earl of Warwick 369, 370, 371 Margaret of Anjou 868, 370, 371 Jack Cade 369 Elizabeth Gray 370 Richard, Duke of Gloster 371, 3^^ Henry Tudor 37? Roger Bacon 875 William Caxton 376 Sir John Mand-ville 876 Geoffrey Chaucer 867, 876 John Wickliffe 867, 376 IMPORTANT EVENTS. When did tliey occur? What led to them? What resulted tlierefrom? Conquest of Italy by the Goths 808 Lombard conquest of Italy 804 Fall of the Sassanides 805 Taking of Constantinople 808, 810 Foundation of the French monarchy 816 Defeat of the Saracens 817, 818 Hegira 825 Saracenic conquest of Spain SSS Taking of Bagdad 880 Danish invasion of England 831 Battle of Hastings 885 Conquest of Ireland 858, 868 Signing of Magna Charta 856 Institution of the House of Commons 858 Battle of Evesham »« Conquest of Wales 859 Conquest of Scotland 860 Battle of Bannockbum 861 Battle of Crecy . . . . . . , 862 Battle of Poitiers 864 Battle of Shrewsbury 867 Battle of Agincourt 868 Treaty of Troyes 868 Battle of Towton 870 Battle of Bamet 871 E»d of the PlantagenetQ 872 No. 12. S -i 5 s g Jx^c%i-<^^ V4 S \ ^,-^ * s ^j\^^ " ^ \ « ^T'^ \r\^.-A^^^^\t^T^\ \ \ ^-^Jx^rXM \ \\'~" A: ^i^^^^' 5 n^^^ \ / %\l __XftHMi ^*M^\/ 5 ^^L^ "^^ ; r/^ >^ tflhLi ilL-« li =^^^~:^ /^ . Hl)i 6 _jji«* ''^ ( i 5. M 9 V ^^ " ^ V V ••''' "^ -^ // 1/ 1/7 1 /t -^ -V-&___5vH JL//t>r /kv 1 fr -a ^sfiJ^ ::::7^^^^^^^t#=^>=^^ r ^ :M'^/^l"h^ •tLK^/^ MJ" 1 ^ L u/ /^^SJ^-i/ * / > A?/ 1 \ \- '2^^^!lr^^ f""^^ /^ ^--^/ J^^/ 0* i^^T^"^^ ^5 •*'?: ~ — O ? xS ' '^^ / /"'^)ll^n^^^^^ j^ AK,i^ 31 "^ 7^^^^^^::§lh^>^ "^^-«^ o 1 . » * « i? CHAPTEB V. France in the Middle Ages, SECTION I. The Capetiak Dynasty. 1. During the period of nearly two centuries (814-987) that elapsed from the death of Charlemagne to the termina- tion of the reign of his successors, called the Carlovingian dynasty, the throne of France was occupied mostly by weak princes. Toward Carlovingian princes. the close of this period, the feudal lords had shorn the king of most of his power, and the kingdom consisted of a loose collection of provinces over which they held sway. At length Hugh Capet {kali-pa'), son of Hugh Capet. Hugh the Great, the most powerful of these vassals, seized the throne, and inaugurated a new line of kings, named after him the Capet i an dynasty, 2. Hugh Capet. During the early reigns of this dynasty the actual dominions of the French king were of but small extent, a large part of the territory having been p usurped by the ambitious nobles and held only by the feudal tie. The most important of these pro- French dominions. vinces were Brittany, in the northwest; Normandy, in the north ; Aquitaine, or Guienne {ghe-en% and Anjou (ahnyoo), in the west; Gascony and Na- Provinces. varre, in the southwest; Provence (pro-vahns'), in the south- east; Burgundy and Champagne {shong-pahn^), in the east; Geographical Study, Map No. Xn. What xvas the sitxuition of : Francia (France)? Aquitania? Buroundy? Aus- tria? Nkustria? Bavaria? Emirate op Cordova? Bulgaria? Bagdad? Where toas the territory of: The Avars? Turks or Magyars? Who held the northern part of Africa? The territory between th<=! Mediterranean Sea and the E iphrates River? What did the Eastern Empire embrace? 880 MedicBval History. and Flanders, in the northeast. The history of this period is mainly occupied with the wars which were waged to bring Geooraphioal Study. What^was the situation of: Normandy? Brittany? Picardy? MAXinB? Anjoc? POITOU? GUIENNK? GaSCONY? LANaCEDOC ? PrOVENCE? DaUPHINY ? AUVERONE? Burgundy? Champaone? Ix)Rrainb? Alsace? Flanders? Netherlands? Savoy? Paris? Aix la Chapelle? Metz? Rheims? Troyea? Lyons? Avignon? Toulouse? Bor- deaux? Nantes? Orleans? Crecy? Calais? Rouen? Brest? about a consolidation of the kingdom. Hugh Capet was an active and prudent monarch; and, during his reign of nearly ten years, he succeeded iu overcoming all opposition to his authority, and Character of Cap«t in enlarging his dominions. At his death he left the throne to his son Robert (99G). The CapeUan Dynasty. 381 3. Robert succeeded in annexing Burgundy to his do- miuions. During this reign the year 1000 arrived, which, as the date of the millennium, had been very gener- ally predicted as the '' end of the world." * This Year looo. belief occasioned general neglect and idleness; and a dreadful famine and pestilence was the result, which swept away vast multitudes of people, and caused the most frightful miseries and crimes. The superstition and ignorance of the people, and the oppression and vices of the nobles, made this one of the darkest periods in human history. Robert died in 1031, leaving the throne to his son Henry. 4. Henry I. Tliis reign is noted for the repeated wars which Henry waged with the Duke of Normandy — William, afterward the Conqueror of England — who suc- cessfully defended his dominions against the at- tacks of the French king. Thus was produced Wars with Normandy. that aversion between the English and French monarchs that occasioned so many wars during the following reigns. The power of the Church was exercised during this reign to put a check to the unceasing warfare of the nobles, and to procure some respite for the unfortunate peasantry, so that they might cultivate the lands, and thus prevent famine and pestilence. This was effected by establishing what was called the Truce of God — a religious injunc- tion against all military operations, dueling, Truce of God. and other acts of violence, from Wednesday, at sunset, till sunrise on Monday, and on all feast and holy days. This regulation did much, eventually, to soften the ferocity of * " Toward the close of the tenth century, a false interpretation of a passage in the Gospels, according to which the end of the world and the second coming of Jesus Christ in Judea had been fixed for the year 1000, had struck all Christendom with stupor and affright. 'The end of the world being at hand.' were the opening words of all deeds and contracts; and the vanities of the world being forgotten in the near approach of the ' supreme and inevitable catastrophe,' every one was anxio?is to start for the Holy Land, in the hope of being present at the coming of the Saviour, and of finding there pardon for his sins, a peaceful death, and the .sal« vation of the soul."— Lacroix's Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages. 382 MedicBval History, these terrible tijnes. Henry was succeeded by his son Philip (1060). 6. Philip L and Louis VL Philip's reign is noted for the conquest of England by Duke William of Normandy (106G), and the preaching of the First Crusade (1095), an account of which is given further on (see Chief events. page 407). Philip was succeeded by his son Louis (1108). This king, surnamed the Faty was wise and ener- getic. He did important service to France by Louis the Fat. keeping the great vassals of the crown under control, and gave to the towns their first charters, thus relieving large numbers of the lower orders from the wretched condition of serfdom, in which they had been kept by the iron hand of the aristocracy. These early municipalities were called Co7n- munes, or commons (afterward the Third Estate)^ and consisted of citizens leagued together for Communes. mutual interest and defense. Louis VI. was succeeded by his son Louis (1137). 6. Louis Vn., by marrying Eleanor, became possessed of Guienne and Poitou {pwah-too')', but during the expedition which he undertook to the Holy Land (see page 411), and in which he was accompanied by his Eleanor. queen, he was so provoked by the freedom and levity of her conduct that he divorced her, and thus lost her great posses- sions. These he had the mortification of seeing annexed to the dominions of Henry, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and Maine, and afterward king Loss of territory. of England (Henry XL), whom Eleanor married after her divorce from the French king. In this way the English monarch came into possession of more extensive territories in France than those of the French king himself. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip (1180). 7. Philip XL (Augustus). During this reign the authority of the monarch was more generally acknowledged than it had been since the accession of Hugh Capet, and the country The Capetian Dynasty. 383 became more united and powerful. This was partly due to the great abihty and prudence of Philip, who knew how to make himself respected and feared. He engaged in the Third Crusade with Eichard I. Power of the king. of England; but, becoming jealous of the English monarch's fame, he deserted him, and, returning home, basely plotted Crusade. with Kichard's brother John to seize his domin- ions. Failing in this, he afterward obtained the English provinces in France by means of the wickedness and cowardice of John (1204). He thus added to his dominions Normandy, Maine, An- jou, Poitou, and Lou- vain ; and gradually ex- tended his sway to the Pyrenees. He greatly improved the discipline of the army, encouraged learning, and walled and paved Paris and several other towns. A-fter a reign of forty-three years, he left his kingdom in a state of tranquillity to his son Louis (1223). 8. This reign is memorable for the rise of the Al-bi-gen'- ses, a numerous sect of dissenters from the Catholic Church, who became prominent at the commencement of Measures of the king. CJrttsadixo Knioht. Albigente*. the thirteenth century, in Langnedoc (lan'ghe- doc), and were supported by Rpyraond VL, Count of that province. They received their name from Albigeois (al-h^ 384 MedicBval History. zhwali), the district in which they first appeared. During the reign of Phihp Augustus (1208), Pope Innocent III. caused a crusade to be preached against lliem, excommuni- cating both them and Count Raymond; and, in the war which ensued, many of their towns were taken, and the most dread- ful massacres perpetrated. Raymond was at hist ol hged to submit to the authority of the Pope. During the war Simon de Montfort, the elder,* took an active part against the Al- bigenses, and was conspicuous for his cruelty and perfidy. He was killed at the siege of Toulouse (1218). 9. Louis VIIL was a feeble monarch, but the wise policy of his father had given such an impulse to affairs, that France continued to be triumphant over the English, who, during the reign of Henry III., made re- English attacks. peated attacks upon tlio Fiencli territories (see page 358). Another crusade was undertaken {igainst the Al- bigenses by Louis YIII. by request of the Pope. With a large army he laid siege to Avignon {ah- War against th« Albigenses. ven'yong), but was kept so long under its walls that 20,000 men perished by disease and famine; and Louis himself died a short time after lie had received the submission of the con- quered inhabitants (1226). 10. Louis IX. (Saint Louis), son and successor of Louis VIIL, was but a youth at the time of his accession, and the government was administered by his mother, Blanche of Cas- tile (has-tecV), during whose regency the war against the Al- bigenses was closed by the com])lete submission of Count Raymond, and the cession, by formal treaty, of Languedoc to tlie crown of Fmnce Close of th« war. (1229). The remnant of this people emigrated to the east, ■ — ; 1 and are lost sight of in history a century later. log tcharacf f. | j^^^-g^ though uninstructcd m letters, had im- bibed the most excellent principles of conduct from Ins ♦ Father of the famous Karl of Leicester, who founded the English House o( Commons. (See page 8&8.) 5 • -The Capetian Dynasty. ^b motlier, and he strictly observed them after he attained the age of majority. He engaged in a crusade (1249) against the sultan of Egypt, but was taken prisoner, and ransomed by his subjects for an immense sum Other events. ($1,500,000). Returning after an absence of five years, he ruled with so much candor and moderation, and with such a conscientious regard for justice and rectitude, that he was universally esteemed, and was enabled to promote the true progress and happiness of his people. In another crusade, undertaken to check the Mohammedans in Syria, he died while on his way thither, near Tunis (1270). Some years after his death, he was canonized by Pope Boniface VIIL* 11. Philip IIL, called the Hardy (because his constitution had proved strong enough to resist the pestilence that carried off his father), continued the war against the Moors; and, with the aid of his uncle. Chai'les of Anjou, king of Sicily, reduced the king of Tunis to submis- sion. Charles, who had but recently acquired War against Tunis. possession of Sicily, became very odious to the people by his arbitrary government and the excesses of his followers; and this discontent was encouraged by Peter, king of Aragon,t who claimed the island. The result was that on Easter-day (1282), when the church-bells sounded for vespers, the Sicil- ians rushed on all the French inhabitants they i met, and massacred them without mercy. About I '^"'^" ^^^p^^- 8000 perished by this dreadful event, which is known in his- tory as the Massacre of the Siciliaji Vespers. Peter of Ara- * *' The character of St. Louis is one of the noblest that occurs In modem his tory. He possessed all the virtues of his age, untarnished by its vices; he was brave without cruelty or violence, pious without bigotry or weakness. Although more the hero of the legend than of romance, he commands our admiration by his rare disinterestedness, his bold attempt to rule his actions as a monarch by the rigid maxims of private honor, and by the great good sense that tempered his de- votion, and that never allowed him to sacrifice humanity or justice to the interests even of that Chiu-ch which he revered."— Crowe's Histoid) of France. t Aragon was at this time an important kingdom in the northeastern part of Spain; and Peter rested his claim to Sicily on his marriage with Constance, daugh* Ver of a previous king of that island. 386 Medieval History, gon, by this moans, succeeded in expelling Charles of Anjou from Sicily; and Philip III., taking np the cause of his uncle, made an unsuccessful invasion of Aragon, and died a short time afterward of a fever, resulting from disappointment and fatigue (1285). 12. Philip IV. {le Bel— the Fair) succeeded at the age of seventeen. His reign is one of the most important in French history. He carried on a war of seven years with Edward I. of England, in order to obtain Guienne; but finally consented to a treaty relin- War wfth England. quishing his chiims to that duchy. He obtained possession of Flanders, but governed it so oppressively that the people (called Flemings) rose in revolt and massacred the French to the number of 3000. Philip endeavored to re- duce the Flemings to submission, but this brave Flemish war. people successfully defended their liberties against his assaults. The Flemings were, at this period, greatly distinguished for tneir skill in weaving and in other industrial arts. One of the most remarkable events of this reign was the suppression of the famous order of Knights Tem- plars. Philip's measures were harsh and sum- Knights Tenriplars. mary. He ordered all the Templars in France to bo arrested on the same day; and the Grand Master and others, having been condemned for sacrilege and immorality, were burnt to death.* This order of knights w\as also prosecuted and con- demned in other parts of Europe, f Philip died in 1314. ♦ The king, Philip IV., ordered two Templars, one of them the Qrand Master, to bo burned. "It was probably owing to the last words of the Master— * God will avenge our death *— that there arose a popular rutnor tiiat the Master, at his death, had cited the Pope and the king to appear with liiin, the former at the end of forty days, and the latter witliin a year, before the judgmont-soat of Gml. Events gave a sanction to the legend;" for both Clement and Philip actually died within the time named. t This celebrated religious and military order was founded at Jerusalem in the beginning of the twelfth cantury, for the protection of the Holy Sepulcher, and the pilgrims who journeyed thither. It afterward spread all over Europe, and became noted for its vast possessions. It was stippresstMl in England by Edward II. (1309), and the general council that met at Vienna in 1311, nronoimced a decree annulling The Capetian Dynasty. 387 13. The most important act in the reign of Philip was his creation of the Third Estate {Tiers Etat), Up to this time there had been only two recognized orders in France, the nobles and the clergy. In 1302, Third Estate. however, Philip being then at the height of his quarrel with the Pope, and feeling his need of the suppori of the whole people of France, permitted the burghers, or common people, to send representatives to the States- General which he had called. In this general council, these representatives sat on equal terms with those of the nobles and the clergy; and thus one of the most despotic kings of France was the means of bringing about a great political advance in the condition of the people. From that time three estates were known i£i France: the nobles, the clergy, and the people, or, as the latter were called, the Third Estate, 14. Louis X. was surnamed Hutin (disorder, or tumult), from the tumultuous conduct of the nobles and clergy, who at- tempted to regain from Louis the powers and privileges of which they had been deprived by his artful and despotic father. He yielded to most Nobles and clergy. of their demands, and issued an ordinance enfranchising the serfs within the royal domains. During his short reign, he was under the influence of his uncle, Charles of Valois {iml-ioah'), who employed it to destroy Marigny (mah-reen'ye), the former prime minister of Philip Marigny. the Fair; and this distinguished man was condemned and put to death upon a malicious and absurd charge of sorcery. On the death of the king (1316), the government was admin- istered by his brother Philip, as regent; and, the infant son of Louis X. having died, Philip became king (1317). and abolishing the order, and bestowed its privileges on the Knights of St. John. At the time of its suppression in France, the number of the knights in that country was about 1.5,000. Their treasury contained 150,000 gold florins, besides large quan- tities of silver, precious stones, rich vases, etc. It is believed by many that Philip's persecution was instigated by the desire to obtain this vast hoard in orde»' to satisfy his cupidity. 388 MedicBval History. 15. Philip V. (Je Long — the Tall) assembled the States- General to pronounce upon his right to the throne, which was disputed by the daughter of Louis X.; and a decree was issued declaring that females are incapable of inheriting the crown of France. This decree, being based, as it was said, upon the barbarous code of tlie Salian Salic law. Franks, was called the SaVic Law. During this reign, France was the scene of dreadful religious persecutions, par- ticularly of the Jews, who were put to death in Tou-raine' with the most dreadful barbarity. Jews. Philip, after a brief reign of five years, was succeeded by his brother Charles (1322). 16. Charles IV. became king by the operation of the Salic law, for Philip V. had left daughters but no sons. His reign is almost a blank, being only noted for his inva- sion of Guienne, to which he was invited by the Guienne. troubles of Edward II. of England. It was in France that the wicked Queen Isabella, sister of Charles IV., plotted with Mortimer for the destruction of her unfortunate husband. 1 Charles afterward restored Guienne to Ed.rard III. On. the death of Charles without male heirs (1328), the direct line became extinct, and End of the Capets Philip of Valois, nepliew of Philip the Fair, succeeded to the throne. This introduces a collateral line of kings, called the Branch of Valois. State of Society Dimmo the Capetian Period. 17. The most important changes which took place in France during the Capetian period were the firm csUihlish- ment cf the monarchy and the elevation of tlio common people. A result of this was the slow Changes. decay of feudalism. Attacked from above by the king and from below by the people, it yielded gradually in the contest.* ♦ " The Introduction of standin^c armies was unquestionably the most important political cbanKe In the histoiy of modern Kiu-ope. Wbea introduced in one nation The Capetian Dynasty, 389 A new power rose into prominence during this period — the power of the people. The working-man became a soldier, and the tradesmen of the cities, whose friendship ^he king had found useful to him in his struggle frith the lords, were granted special charters, which protected them in their industries. At first the king Power of the people. left to each city the conduct of its affairs, being satisfied with appointing a royal superintendent. This was followed by Bauparts of a Town nr thb Middle Ages. other claims, from time to time, till, finally, each man, in- stead of boasting as before that he was the inhabitant of a particular city, came to pride himself upon being the king's yeoman. 18. The purchase of their freedom by the serfs, after it had begun, went on with great rapidity. A large middle all were obliged to follow the example. This at once made it impossible to continue the system of government which prevailed everywhere during the Middle Ages. On the Continent it led to despotic government, in England to the supremacy of Parliament."— TFi76£T/orce'5 Church and th" Empires. 390 ' Mediceval History. class of citizens was thus formed, the existence of which sup- plied a condition favorable to the existence of trade and commerce. The danger, however. Trade. which attended all communication between different parts of the country checked their growth. Kobbery and crime on the public highway were common, and only in the immediate neighborhood of towns and cities was property secure. This state of affairs was gradually amended by strict laws passed by the king as his power increased. The estab- lishment also of a uniform currency, and a system Currency. of regulations for the government of the different kinds of trades which existed, aided greatly in making them permanent. 19. Trade centers soon came to be established, which, by means of annual fairs, attracted merchants from all parts of Europe. The wines of southern France found a ready market in England and the Netherlands, Trade centers. and were exchanged in Spain for arms, and leather fabjics of many kinds. The fisheries of the southern ports also yielded a large revenue. Some of the j)rodncts intro- duced by the Crusaders gave rise to entirely new Wuiustries. industries. Among these were the glass of Tyro and the tissues of Damascus. The use of flax and silk, and the em- ployment of windmills, is also ascribed to them; and the intro- duction of the sugar-cane, the plum-tree, as well as the culti- vation of the mulberry. Enameling of various kinds, seal- engraving, and the art of the goldsmith had also reached a high degree of perfection. 20. In all parts of France, at the end of this period, schools existed in connection with the Church. There was, how- ever, a great want of books. Five universities afforded a higher education, of which the most Educction. noted was that of Paris, the independence of which wjis recog- nized by Philip Augustus in 1203. This was attended by between 15,000 and 20,000 students. Latin was the lan- guage employed in instruction, and all civilized countries The Capetian Dynasty, ^^i sent students to be educated there. In 1250 Kobert de Sor- bon, chaplain of Louis IX., founded a school of theology, afterward called the Sorbonne (sor-ion'). 21. Down to the thirteenth century, people of the lower classes were not permitted to wear the dress or ornaments peculiar to the nobility. An edict of Philip the Fair prescribes minutely the number and cost of Dress. the dresses the tradeswomen may wear. The dress of the villain consisted of a blouse of cloth or skin, fastened at the waist by a leather belt, a mantle of woolen stuff, trousers of the same, and shoes or large boots. Fastened to his belt was a wallet or purse, and a sheath for his knife. Notwithstand- ing the hard condition of the laboring classes, they had many holidays, nearly all the festival days of the Church being devoted partly to amusement. On these Holidays. occasions they drank, sang, danced, practiced archery, played athletic games, and passed most of the day in merriment. Nearly all the occupations now pursued in the rural districts were in use in the earliest times. 22. At this time the French language began to take defi- nite form, and the laws which heretofore had been written in Latin now were issued in French. The literature of the period embraces history, poetry, and ro- mance. In the middle and north of France the Language ana literature. Trouveres (troo-vare'), like the Troubadours* of the south, produced a series of poems that became models for other countries. Among the eminent men Trouveres. of this period may be mentioned Ab'el-ard (1079-1142), illus- trious for his genius as a philosopher and lectur- er; St. Bernard (1091-1153), the famous preacher Eminent men. of the Second Crusade, and celebrated not only for his piety * The Troubadours were accompanied in their wanderings by minstrels and jugglers, the latter displaying their skill at the close of the poem or recitation. Sometimes the minstrels were formed into an orchestra, to the music of which dancing took place. 392 MedicBval History. but for his extensive learning; Jehan de Joinville (1223-1317), who wrote a biography of St. Louis, noted for its graphic de- scription of all the minute events of that famous reign; and the Abbe Suger (soo-zha') (1085-1152), the most eminent of politicians during the reign of Louis VI. and Louis VIL SECTION IL Branch of Valois. 23. Philip VI. The claim set up by Edward III. of Eng- land to the throne of France, in opposition to the right of Philip of Valois, has already been referred to. The victories gained by Edward in the war that English claim. followed did not give him the object of his desires; and, a truce being agreed on, he returned to England. Dau'phiny was about this time ceded to the gnmd- Dauphiny. son of Philip, afterward King Charles V., and later was an- nexed to France. The king's eldest son there- after bore the title of Danphin. The Black Plague. Plague raged throughout France during this reign, and car- ried off vast multitudes of peo])le — 50,000 in Paris alone.* Philip was succeeded by his son John (1350). Qbooraphical Study, Maps Nos. XIII. and XIV. What was the extent of the Royal Domain in 987 ? What in 1398 ? WTiat did it embrace at the latter date? What were tho limits of Aquitaine at the former dntcf What at the latter? Mention the chief provinces at the time of Huph the Great:- At the time of Valois? What was the ntuation of: Bruges? (ihent? KOIn (Cologne)? Mainz? Strasburg? Basel? Metz? Nanoy? Chalons? Lyons? Avignon 1 Aries? Narbonne? Bayonne? Poitiers? Harfleur? Rouen? Soissons? Rheims? Amiens? Boulogne? Calais? * " Many died in the streets; others were left alone in their houses— but the fact of their death was known by the smoU. Often, husband and wife, son and father, were laid on the same bier. Largo dltohcs had hocn dug, in which the corpses were heaped by hundreds, like balos U\ a ship's hold. Every one carrit'd in his hand strong-smelling herbs. The air stank with the doad and dying, or witli infectious drugs. Alas! how many fine hoMses remained empty! How many forUmcs with- Nos. 13 & 14. rffi^ SBT cha -^ir> io . ) /Je V^ oAmieng /""— -j^ loueiXjn ^»^^'^ ,•' XoTJanso ^ Ortean )Caen« UKDEB HUGH CAPET A.D.987. lulouse larseilles A ' PortsHK ll-l Boulpgnoy BoTing "oTo-'^yVNamur BRITTANY > j, ,j^„3 > Or^^ W^'' "V^-^ -J (^-^'""'"^V Tours \'. ^Ci<""3/' o^^"^ . S Poitiers '"^-^^ «Oa/»„ \|* vlYchalons^^v«->,'J!'^*?5 IT FRANCE -^:;^r^"f:S^ AT THE TIME OP W^i?'^ ^Y Lf Wfe vALois A /:^',^#i.Ji VALOIS A.D.1328 ne i^KojIpj Grenoble •bateau R&ndbu , >Cahors ^'^0%^L \ Avignon ^ »^( GASCON Y'\\\?* S> Kimeso < >■ ^^ Montpelier w ^t , I I Jezlers o Tarbe»;bf"j.^>' ? % %--''N^rbonne -^^-E ,z,x*J5'' Branch of Valois. 893 24. John {le Bon — the Good). During this reign the Erc-^- lish, under the Black Prince, again invaded Erance, and the memorable battle of Poitiers was fought, in which John was taken prisoner, and no less than 2500 of the French nobility and chivalry were slain, being carried to England, his eldest son, Charles, became Poitiers. The king regent, and during his administration the people, under Mar- cel', head of the municipality of Paris, made a desperate strug- gle to curb the despotic power of the monarch and obtain a Caitnon of the FouBTBBaiTH Ckntttbt. share in the government. The States-G eneral were assembled, and granted the privileges demanded; but these being afterward annulled, an insurrection broke out which raged for some time, but was termin- PopuI?.r insurrection. ated by the death of Marcel, and the defeat of the popular cause. Cannon commenced to be used about this time. 25. At the same time a frightful insurrection of the peas- antry burst forth, caused by the hopeless misery m which out heirs 1 How many lovely ladies, how many amiable yoimg persons, dintd in the morning with their friends, who, when evening came, supped with their ancestors!" —Boccaccio. This terrible epidemic broke out in China, and carrie;! off. it is said. twe»^*'-four millions of the inhabitants. It appeared in Italy in 1346, and spread theuct* into France, Spain. Germany, and England, also, later, into Swedfen and Norwfcj , »wid, iri la")!, It frightfully desolated T/assia and Poland. 394 MedicBval History. they had been so long kept by the nobles. This revolt is called the Jacquerie {zhak-re'), from Jacques Bonhomme {zhak bon-om'), the name derisively Jacquerie. applied to a French peasant. The feudal castles were sacked and destroyed by the insurgents, and their inmates, of every age and sex, put to death with shocking barbarity. Being at last defeated in an attack upon one of the towns, the peasants were hunted down on all sides like wild beasts, and massacred by thousands; so that some of the rural districts were almost depopulated, and presented a ghastly scene of ruin and deso- lation (1358).* 26. In the mean time, John, being a prisoner in England, in order to obtain his release, consented to surrender a large part of his territories; but to this tlie States- General Avould not submit; and Edward III. John, again invaded France, but finally made i)eace, consenting to release John upon more reasonable terms. The latter, after four years' captivity, finally returned to liis kingdom, and was greeted with universal transports of joy and gratitude b^ his people; but his son Louis, who had been delivered to the king of England as a hostage, having escaped, John was so conscientious that he surrendered himself again to his English captors, and died a short time after his arrival in England (1364). Ho had previously (1363) given to his favorite son Philip the duchy of Burgundy in Burgundy. reward for his bravery at Poitiers; and thus was founded that * •• Not only did the peasants butcher their lords, but they tried toexterminate the fnmilies of their lortis, munleritiK their heirs. And tiien would these savages tuclc out themselves and their wives in rich habiliments, and bedeck themselves with glittering but blooec(>me his rival. No man ever so muck feared death, to avert which ho stooped to every meancess, and sought every remedy "-i/aMam'« Middle Ayeti Branch of Valoi$. 401 assembly, liowever, did not regularly meet, and was entirely subordinate to the royal authority. The first convocation of this body took place during the reign of Philip IV. (1302), this event serving to mark the pre- Tiers Etat. vailing influence of civil institutions over the military forms of feudalism. 36. In the assembly of 1357, the Third Estate came into conflict with the royal authority; and, at every subsequent convention, the proceedings showed a spirit of resistance to the corruptions and tyranny of the court, from which resulted measures of great Contests with the Commons. advantage to the people. The States-General of 1484 de- manded that these assemblies should be called at regular periods, and that taxes should be levied equally upon all classes. The effect of these measures, however, was not last- ing; the king .only convoked the States- General when he pleased, and the nobles and clergy together could always out- vote the Commons. Hence the people, during the troubled period of the English wars, made but little improvement in their political condition. 37. At the opening of the States-General, it was the custom for the king to be present, and to make a short speech, after which the Chancellor of France explained at length the purposes of the session. The nobles States-General. and clergy remained seated and covered, while the Com- mons stood with bare heads. After a reply to the Chancellor, from the president of each order, the three orders retired to their several rooms. When the deliberations were complete, they again convened, and presented to the king their wishes, demands, or complaints, in the form of suggestions. The king made no reply; and the assembly, after voting a pecu- niary tax, separated. Thus it will be seen that the States- General was not a legislative body, all laws being made by the king, who could listen or not to the demands of his people. 402 Medicevat History. 38. Schools scarcely existed at this time. Scholars wan- dered about, giving instruction to such pupils as they could collect. The methods of teaching were of the rudest description, and the discipline was brutal Education. in the extreme. The University of Paris was one of the most noted seats of learning in the world, being attended by stu- dents from all parts of Europe. Astrology was a favorite science at this period, the influence of the stars upon human affairs being almost universally be- Learning. lieved. The Koyal Library of Paris was founded by Charles the Wise, who was a generous patron of litera- ture and art. The fine arts had made little or Art no progress beyond the barbarism of the dark ages. 39. The drama was confined to the Mysteries and Morali- ties, the former representing incidents in sacred history. In 1385, at the marriage of Charles VI. and Isabel of Bavaria, a play was acted before the royal pair, The drama. entitled *' The History of the Death of our Saviour," which lasted eight days, having eighty-seven characters, the chief of whom was St. John. A similar Passion Play is still per- formed in Bavaria. In 1402, the king granted letters-patent to some of the citizens of Paris to form an association to rep- resent the Mystery of the Passion. This is the origin of the modern tragedy in France; as the performance of the Moral- ities or Moral Plays is of the comedy. 40. At the siege of Arras, in 1414, use was made for the first time of muskets, then called hand-cannons. Playing- cards were improved, games of cards having boon introduced to amuse the unfortunate Charles VI. during his lucid intervals. The figures on the cards were Inventions. the same as now used. The hearts signified the churchmen; the spades (pike-heads), the nobles or military; the diamonds (tiles), the working-class; and the clubs (clover-leaves), the peasantry. About 1420, painting in oils was introduced, before which time all pictures were in water-colors. Louis XL Branch of Valois, 403 faYored trade and commerce of every kind, encouraged the new art of printing, endowed a school of medi- cine at Paris, and inaugurated a postal system. An attempt was also made to light the streets of the capital. 41. Various changes occurred in the style of dress during this period. Charles VII. revived the fashion of long and loose garments; but, during the reign of Louis XI., a total revolution took place, the ladies lay- [ ing aside their long trains and sleeves, and assuming in their place broad borders of fur, velvet, or silk. In the reign of Charles VI. the head-dress was of extraordinary breadth; subsequently it was very high — sometimes more than three feet. Peaked shoes of great length were also a singular fea- ture of the costume. 42. The dwellings of the rich were sometimes furnished with great splendor. We read of the ** fine linen of Kheims," which was sold at an extravagant price; and of fabrics made of "silk and silver tissue." Houses. Rich carpets and tapestry, and other articles of furniture spoken of, give evidence that means were not wanting for luxurious living and for the gratification of expensive tastes. Stone was used in constructing the basements of houses, the upper portions being constructed of wood. In the richer kind of houses, the front was adorned with projecting cor- ner-posts, covered with carvings of figures — foliage, animals, heads of angels, etc. The castle had its cellar, wine-vault, bakery, fruitery, laundry, special rooms for glass, salt, furs, and tapestry; while near the guard-room and beyond were the porters' lodges and various other buildings, used by servants and retainers. 43. During this period, Paris was often the scene of dread- ful tumult;, and at times the mortality was fearful. In 1438, there were 45,000 deaths in the city. Wolves prowled through the streets, and often carried off Paris. children. Famine aad pestilence were frequent visitants and 404 Mediceval History. committed dreadful ravages. In 1466, the malefactors and vagrants of all countries were invited to come to the city, in order to fill up the broken ranks of the population. At the close of the reign of Louis XL, the city probably contained about 300,000 inhabitants.* 44. The most noted writers of the time are Jean Froissart (1337-1410), who wrote the Chron- ides, or annals of France during the part of the fourteenth Noted writers. greater century; and Philippe de Comines (1445-1509), for a time the favor- ite of Charles the Bold. He wrote the Memoires, giving a complete view of the affairs of his time, in- cluding a vivid picture of the character of Louis XL To these should be added Jean do Gerson (zhdr-song) (1363-1429), surnamed "The most Christian Doctor,"^ who became Chancellor of the Uni- versity of Paris. He wrote a treat- ise 071 the Consolation of Theology, and is supposed by some to have been the author of the celebrated religious work entitled The Imitation of Christ, which is usually ascribed to Thomas a Kempis.f Fkoissarx ♦The following is a description of scenes in Paris during this period: "At the early day.rn the death-criers, pereons clothed in block, and announcinfr tlu'ms«'lves by the tinkling of small bells, gave notice of the death of such pt'rsnns as hawn. the veteran leader, who had looked on ruthless slaughter witliout tiint-hing and had borne his share In swelling the stream of hloml. would wear no earthly dla«lem,nor tnke the tif le o, king. He would watch over his M.nster's grave and the Interest of his wci-shiiM'rs. tuider tlje hunihle giuse of Baron and Defender of the Holy Sepul Cher: and as such, a fortnight after his election. Ckxlfrey departed to do battle with the hosts of the Fatimite Calipb of Egypt."— Co;4;'« Cn4«n4e«. Tlie Crusades, 411 Second Gbusade. 8. The Second Crusade was excited by the dangers to which the Christians of Syria were exposed from the conquer- ing arms of a Turkish Emir, named Nou-red-din', who, having been appointed governor of Aleppo, Cause. had so increased his power, that he became master of all the ter- ritory between the Tigris and the Nile. He had defeated the Franks at Antioch, and taken Edessa, and now threat- ened the destruction of all the Christian kingdoms in Syria. This crusade was preached by the celebrated St. Ber'nard, Abbot of Clair- vaux (dare-vo')f in Cham- pagne, who was distinguished for his learning and devotion. CHRISTIAN- KINGDOMS SYRIA AND PALESTINE A.D. 1142 Two immense armies, num- bering over a million of men, under Louis VII., king of France, and Conrad III., emperor of Germany, the most powerful monarchs of Europe, marched for the Holy Land (1147). But, owing to the base treachery of Manuel Com-ne'nus, the Greek emperor, the armies met with a long series of disasters; and, after a fruit- less attempt to take Damascus, the expedition Result was abandoned, only a small remnant of the numerous host returning to Europe, the greater part being slain, and the rest left captives among the TurV^ 412 MedicBval History, 9. After this defeat of the Christians, Noureddin found himself more powerful than ever. He continued his attacks upon Jerusalem, but they were successfully re- pulsed. He next turned his attention to the Noureddin. Fatimite caliph of Egypt, sending to the court of Cairo two emissaries, one of whom was the renowned Saladin, more properly 8alah-Eddin, who succeeded in getting possession of the viziership of Egypt, when, find- Saladin. ing himself really master of the government, he abolished the Fatimite dynasty, and declared the reunion of Egypt with the orthodox caliphate of Bagdad. This was intended as a step to the government of the whole Mohammedan world, to which he aspired; and, as leading to that, he resolved to inibdue the Christian kingdoms of Palestine. Thibd Cbusade. 10. Saladin invaded Palestine with a large army, defeated the Christians in a great battle, captured the smaller towns, and laid siege to Jerusalem, which surrendered after a resistance of two weeks (1187). This event created a great sensation in Europe, and led to the Christian defeat Third Crusade, preached by William, archbishop of Tyre, who left Palestine to carry the news of the sub- jugation of the Christians to the people of the Third Crusade. West. Frederick Bar-ba-ros'sa, emperor of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard I. of England promptly an- nounced themselves leaders in the great expedition. Others followed their example. The emperor set out first (1189), but was drowned while crossing on horse- Events. back the river Calycad'nus, in Cilicia. His army joined the forces of the other two monarchs at Acre, which city, after a long siege of nearly two years, was compelled to surrender, though Saladin made every effort to relieve the defenders (1191). No less than nine battles were fought, and more Pian 100,000 Christians perished during this siege The Crusades. 413 11. Kichard and Philip having quarreled, the latter xe- tumed to Europe; but the former led his forces to Ascalon, and defeated Saladin, but was compelled to retire from Jerusalem. After accomplishing prodigies Richard. of valor, which excited the admiration of the Saracens, he made a treaty with Saladin, to protect the pilgrims from in- jury and oppression, and set out for Europe (1192). Saladin dying the next year, the unity of his empire was destroyed. The sultans of Death of Saladin. Egypt, Aleppo, and Damascus became hostile to each other; and the Christians of Syria were left secure in their possessions. FoTJETH Crusade. 12. The Fourth Crusade was enjoined by Pope Innocent III., without any special exigency such as had brought about the preceding ones, but as a matter of general policy to stimulate Christian feeling, and to foster Cause. the opposition to Mohammedan encroachments. Several French and Italian nobles, among whom were Simon de Montfort of France and Count Baldwin of Flan- ders, offered themselves as leaders; while the Participants. Venetians supplied most of the means for equipment, and directed their doge, the aged and valiant Dan'- dolo, to accompany the expedition. An im- Armament. mense armament was fitted out at Venice; but before it sailed, circumstances occurred to change its destination. 13. Ever since the First Crusade, the Greek emperors had excited the suspicion and hostility of the Western Crusaders by their selfishness and perfidy; and at this time the son of a former emperor, who had been deposed, arrived at Venice to solicit assistance in the recovery of the throne. The Crusaders, embracing the opportunity to re- dress former grievances, and urged also by the Attack on Constantinople. Venetians, who desired to establish Western influence in the Greek Empire, as well as to unite the Koman and Greek 414 MedicBval History. churches, agreed to direct their forces against Constantinople, thus changing the expedition from a crusade to an attack on a Christian power. Constantinople was besieged, and given up to pillage, and the Greek dynasty was set aside (1204). The Latin dynasty then founded occu- pied the throne for fifty-six years. The effect of this Crusade Latin dynasty. was entirely adverse to the general object of these expeditions. WaH-ShIPS of TH« THIBTBBlfTH C»NTURY. since it tended, by weakening the Greek Empire, to destroy the greatest barrier in Europe to the progress of Islamism westward. The subsequent fall of Constantin()])lc i)r()ved this. A little after this, occurred the remarkable expedition culled the Children's Crusade. It was preached by a French peasant- boy (1212); and, though the king of France issued an edict against it, thousands of boys embarked for Palestine, all of whom either perished, or were sold into slavery on reaching Alexandria. Tlie Crusades, 415 Subsequent Ceusades. 14. The Fifth Crusade was incited by Pope Innocent III., in 1216, and was joined by people of various nationalities in Europe. They at first kd their forces into Egypt, took Dami- et'ta, and advanced on Cairo; but were soon afterward glad to obtain the permission of the sultan to retire from the country (1218). The actual Crusade was led by Frederick II., emperor of Germany. It began in 1228, and was terminated by a treaty which the emperor made with the sultan of Egypt. In accordance with this treaty, Pales- Fifth Crusade. tine was ceded to Frederick, and free toleration granted of both the Christian and Mohammedan faiths. Under this arrangement, the Christians lived in Jerusalem in peace and prosperity, undisturbed until the irruption of the Mongols in the middle of the thirteenth century. The Sixth Crusade was undertaken by Louis IX. (St. Louis) of France (1249), in consequence of the capture and pillage of Jerusalem by the barbarous Mongols. The French monarch, after having taken Damietta, was utterly de- Sixth Crusade. feated by the sultan of Egypt, and taken prisoner. He was afterward ransomed by his subjects (1250). 15. The Seventh Crusade was undertaken by St. Louis in alliance with Prince Edward (afterward Edward I.) of Eng- land (1269), in consequence of the taking of Antioch by the Mam'e-luke* sultan of Egypt. Louis crossed to Africa, expecting to receive the Seventh Crusade. king of Tunis as a convert to Christianity; but, instead of a convert, he found a determined enemy; and a pestilence hav- ing broken out, the French perished by thousands on the burning sands. St. Louis died in his tent; and his son * The Mamelukes (a word meaning, in Arabic, slaves) were of Turkish origin, and were bought by the sultan of Egypt and placed in the army. In 1254, they had ad- vanced to such a degrree of power, that they made one of their number sultan, ami fo'sinded a dynasty which occupied the throne of Egypt for centuries. 416 MedicBval History. Philip, after making a treaty with the king of Tunis, re- turned to France (1270). Prince Edward, however, pro- ceeded to the Holy Land, and gained some advantages by his skill and valor; and after making a ten years' truce, he returned home to ascend the English throne. 16. This was the last of the Crusades. Antioch had been taken by the sultan of Egypt, and all its inhabitants slaugh- tered or made slaves in 1268; the other towns of Syria soon after fell successively into the hands of the Mohammedans, excepting Acre, which for a time was the metropolis of the Christians. This also was captured by the sultan in 1291, and its inhabitants, to the number of 60,000, put to deatli or sent into bondage. Soon afterward, all the churches and fortifica- tions of the Latin Christians throughout Syria were demolished. Influence of the Cbtjsades. 17. These enterprises indirectly contributed very greatly to the political and social improvement of the nations of Europe during the Middle Ages. They tended to break up the feudal system, by compelling the great barons to sell their lands, in order to On the feudal syslenrt. raise the money necessary to equip their troops and transport them to distant countries. They also aided popular freedom, by inducing kings to grant to the towns political privileges, in return for contribulions of money for the same purpose. They encouraged commerce, by employing so many ships and such vast supi)lies as were ro- quired to transport and sustain the vast armies On connmerce and navigation. which were raised and sent out to so great a distance. For- eign countries were brought into communication with each other, and the advantage of a mutual excliango of products soon became apparent. Thus the arts of navigation and ship- building rapidly advanced, and many cities situated in the route of these expeditions soon acquired extraordinary influ* ence and wealth. Of these Gen'oa and Venice are examplee. Principal Events and Dates. 417 18. They promoted the diffusion of knowledge, and the progress of science and literature. Those who engaged in them were at first grossly ignorant and illiterate; but coming in contact, with the Greek and Sara- cenic civilization, they soon imbibed a taste for On science and literature. the science and literature which constituted one of its most prominent features, and, on returning home, communicated the same spirit to their fellow-countrymen. Moreover, they were enterprises undertaken for a noble and un- selfish purpose; and although blended with it On character. was the desire of military distinction and renown, this was to be gratified by great self-sacrifice and personal devotion to a cause which conscience and religion approved. Hence were necessarily infused that heroic and disinterested spirit, that eagerness to succor the weak and distressed, that love of roman- tic adventure, and tliose elevated sentiments of honor, all of which went to form that remarkable feature of the manners of the Middle Ages known as chivalry. (See page 345.) Sttmmaey of Principal Events and Dates. A.D. The Seljuk Turks take possession of Jerusalem 1076 Council held at Clermont 1095 First Crusade, proclaimed by Pope Urban n. 1095 Peter the Hermit and the Crusaders start for the Holy Land 1096 Solyman def eatetl, and Nice taken by the Crusading armies 1097 Antioch taken by the Crusaders 1098 Jerusalem taken, and Godfrey of Bouillon elected king 1099 Second Crusade, undertaken by Louis VH. and Conrad 1147 Saladin defeats the Christians and takes Jerusalem 1187 Third Crusade, under Philip II., Richard I,, and Frederick Barbarossa 1189 Richard L set out on his return to Europe.... 1193 Saladin's death; his empire dissolved 1193 Fourth Crusade, under Baldwin, Count of Flanders 1203 Constantinople taken by the Crusaders 1204 Fifth Crusade, under the Emperor Frederick n 1228 Sixth Crusade, under Louis IX. (St. Louis), king of France 1249 Antioch taken by the Sultan of Egypt 1268 Seventh Crusade, under Louis IX. and Prince Edward of England 1269 Capture of Acre by the Mohammedans. Total conquest of Syria and subjuga- tion of the Latin Christians 1291 8 CHAPTER Vn. Centeal and Southern Europe. SECTION I. Germany. 1. After the battle of Fontenaille, in which the degen- erate grandsons of Charlemagne fought with each other over the territories subdued by his wisdom and valor, the empire was divided into three portions — France, Germany, and Italy; and the second Divisions of the empire. of these divisions was assigned to Louis (843). The Carlo- vingian race became extinct in 911; and there- after the Di'ety or Great Council, consisting of Diet. the great princes of Germany and the chief dignitaries of the Church, assumed the right of electing the emperor, subject to confirmation by the Pope, by whom alone he could bo crowned. Several races at this time occupied Germany, the chief of which were the Franks, Races. the Saxons, the Bavarians, and the Suabians. Tlie first choice of the electors was Otto the Ilhistrious, Duke of Saxony; but, he declining, they chose Conrad of Franconia (911). Conrad was a good Otto and Conrad. and wise monarch, but he I'cigned only seven years, his death occurring in 918. GEoaRAPRTCAL Stupy. (Map, page 419.) Whatis Vie situation of : Oermany? Kinodom op Bitroundy? AtrBTRiA? Hrw- GARYf Bohemia? Brandenburo? Poland? Pomerama? Saxony? Westphaija? Franoia? Lotharinoia? Suabia? Brabant? Flanders? France? Vienna? Prafriie? IlamburK? Frankfort? Aachen? Strashurg? Milan? Venice? Genoa? Geneva? Aries? Florence? Germany. 419 2. Five Saxon emperors succeeded {Saxon Dynasty), the first of Avhom, Henry L (called the Fowler)y* was a very great monarch. He subdued the rebellious and dis- orderly princes, and restored peace to the coun- try. Bohemia was made tributary to the German Empire, and the Suabians were subdued. Henry also gained a great Henry I. yictory over the Hungarians, who had swarmed into Saxony; Central Europe (about 1200). and so thankful were the people for their deliverance from these savage hordes, that he was hailed as the '' Father of his Country" (934). f To this great achievement was added * He received the title of Fowler, because he was flying his hawks on the Hartz mountains, when the messengers came to tell him that he had been chosen king. t " The nine years' truce being ended, the Hvmgarians sent to the Fowler for blackmail. Blackmail indeed I The only tribute Hem-y wpujd give them was ft •J^^ MedicBval History, an invasion of Denmark, and the reduction of the sea-kings to submission. His reformatory measures and institutions, both civil and religious, were very important. He died in 936, being succeeded by his son Otho, or Otto. 3. Otto L,(or Otho L), the Lion, on marrying the widow of the king of Lombardy, assumed himself that title, and made the kingdom a fief of Germany. The Hungarians renewed their invasions, but were defeated by Lombardy. Otto in a great battle fought in Bavaria. The Duke of Lom- bardy having revolted. Otto, at the head of a victorious army, passed the Alps, subdued the Hungarians. rebel duke, and after receiving at Milan the iron crown of the Lombards, was crowned by the Poj)e Emperor of the West {Kaiser — Ccesai'), like his great prede- cessor, Charlemagne (902). He was a zealous Crowned emperor. patron of letters, having a school in his own palace, though he could neither read nor write. He died in 973. In this reign the Hartz silver-mines were discovered. 4. Otto II., called the Red King, succeeded his father as ** King of Germany and Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire," being elected by the princes, and crowned by the Pope. His reign was a constant series of wars. He defeated the Saracens in Lower Italy, and made himself master of Nai)les and Tarentum; but the Greek emperor Saracens. having invited the Saracens again into Italy, Otto was entirely overwhelmed by them, and narrowly escaped with life. At a diet held in Ve-ro'na, he formally confirmed the privileges of the Republic of Venice; and was ])reparing a great expedition against the Greeks and Sara- Venice. cens, when he died in Italy, probably from the effects of poison (983). mangy cur, cropped of its ears and tail. The Hunfcarians were furious; they vowed vengeance, doath without mercy, battle without qimrter; but vengeance had jrone ovor to the other side. A battle was fought at ^^Icuehurs:. iu Saxony, and th«' Hun- garians were defeated. The massacre was dreadful ; the number of prisoners, we are told, was 800,000."— brewer'* History nf Germany. Germany. 421 5. Otto ni. (called the Wonder of the World), at the death of his father, was only three years old; and from an early age was the pupil of Gerbert, afterward Pope Sylves- ter II., one of the most accomplished scholars of his age. It was owing to his extraordinary attainments under this great teacher, that Otto received his title. On com- Sylvester. mencing his reign, at the age of sixteen, his principal am- A Summons to a Town to Open its Gates and Surrender. {From an old engraving.) bition seemed to be to introduce the customs of the Byzantine court, and to make Rome his capital. By for- mally acknowledging the Duke of Poland as a Poland. separate ruler, he raised the Polish territories to the rank of a kingdom. He died in Italy (1002). 6. Henry II. (the Lame), cousin of Otto, succeeded him. The Polish ruler having refused tribute and homage to the new kaiser, and, moreover, having annexed Bohe- mia to his dominions, and invaded the country Henry II. of the Prussians, Henry, after a war of several years, made a treaty with him, acknowledging the independence of Poland, but retaining Bohemia as a fief of Germany. The Lombards 422 Mediceval History. having revolted, he marclied into Italy, and took Pavia, which was burned. He also successfully made war upon the Greeks in southern Italy. He was Wars in Italy. a very pious king, and in great favor with the Church; hence sometimes called the Saint At his death (1024), the Saxon Dynasty terminated. 7. The Franconian Dynasty, consisting of four emperors, succeeded. The first was Conrad XL, who, by his marriage, annexed the kingdom of Burgundy to the empire (1033). He made a treaty of peace and friend- Conrad II. ship with Canute, king of Denmark and England; and, having been crowned with the iron crown of Lombardy, received the submission of all the cities in northern Italy, including Pavia. He also received the homage of the Nor- mans and Saracens in southern Italy. The '* Truce of God" (see page 381) was issued during this reign. Conrad died in 1039. 8. Henry XXL (called the Blade King, from the color of liis hair) succeeded. In the second year of liis reign, the ** Truce of God" was substituted for the '* Peace of God;"* and the emperor proclaimed that Ger- Peace. many enjoyed a universal peace, for the first time since the monarchy was founded. He gained a great vic- tory over the Hungarians (1044), and made their Hungarians. kingdom tributary to the empire. This great king died in early manhood, after a reign of seventeen years (105G). His son Henry, who liad previously re- ceived the title of " King of the Romans," suc- King of ihe Romans. cceded him. This title was subsequently borne by every heir-elect ol the empire. • " Henry summoned a diet of the German princes, urjfed the measure upon tlicrn in an eloquent speech, and set the exatnple by proclaiming a full and free p.nnlon to all who had been hia enemies. The chanpe was too sudden to U> accept- able to many of the princes, but they obeyed as far as convenient; and the German people, almost for the flrst time in their history, enjoyed a general peace and ie<;uritj^,"^J?ayarcf Taylor's History of Q^rmany, Germany, 423 9. Henry IV. (the Great), a child of five years at the death of his father, assumed the government at the age of fifteen. The extravagance of the court and the haughti- ness of the young king caused an insurrection of Saxons. the Saxons; and Henry, for a time, was compelled to yield to their demands; but finally he marched into Saxony with an immense army, defeated his enemies in a terrible battle, and laid waste their country with fire and sword (1075). His next contest was with the famous Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand). This talented and energetic Hildebrand. pontiff aimed to free the Church from its abuses and make it supreme over the civil power, and there- fore determined to put a stop to the cor- rupt sale of ecclesiastical offices by the emperor. Henry, resisting this, was ex- communicated; and, in 1077, the greatest temporal monarch in the world was forced ^^ to stand barefoot on the frosty eartli at Ca- ;^| nossa (a town in Italy) for three days, wait- ing for admission to Gregory, to whom he finally made the most abject submission.* 10. But Henry, stung to madness by the humiliation he had suffered, returned to Germany, raised a large army, and conquered Eudolf of Suabia, whom the Pope had caused to be elected in his place. Then passing into Italy, he took Rome (1084), and Gregort VII, Henry's revenge. * " It was the fourth day on which he had borne the humiliating garb of an affected penitent, and in that sordid raiment he drew near on his bare feet to the more than imperial majesty of the Chiu-ch, and prostrated himself, in more than servile deference, before the diminutive and emaciated old man, 'from the terrible glance of whose countenance,' we are told, ' the eye of every beholder recoiled as from the lightning.' Hunger, cold, nakedness, and shame had, for the moment, crushed the gallant spirit of the sufferer. He wept and cried for mercy, again and again renewing his entreaties until he had reached the lowest level of abasement to which his own enfeebled heart, or the haughtiness of his great antagonist, could depress him. Then, and not till then, did the Pope QQudesc^nd tp revoke the an- athema of the Vatican."— fi^ir J, St^h^n, 424 MedicBval History. ordered the election of a pope in place of Gregory, whom he declared to be deposed, and drove into exile at Salerno, a town in southern Italy. Here this zealous and able pontiff died (1085); but, notwithstanding his misfortunes, he left the papal power greatly strengthened and improved by his efforts.* Henry IV. reigned till 1106, when he was succeeded by Henry V., called the Parricide^ because he had deposed his father. f His reign was a constant Henry V. struggle with the Church and the nobles. He was the last of the Franconian emperors. The crown was next worn by Lothaire of Saxony (1125-1137), when it passed into the possession of Conrad of Suabia. 11. Conrad III., the first of the house of Hohenstaufen {-stow' fen) or Suabia, had been chosen by the electors in preference to his rival, Henry the Proud, son-in- law of Lothaire. Guelph, the brother of Henry, made war upon the new king, but being defeated Henry the Proud. took refuge in Weinsburg, which Conrad besieged and took (1140). J Unable to resist the eloquence of Bernard, in his passionate appeal for aid in the Second Crusade, Coni-ad * " The monk of Cluny, Hildebrand of Savona, who hml inspired the policy of four popes, during twenty-four years, became Pope himself in 1078, under the name of Gregory VII. He was a man of iron will and inexhaustible energ}*, wise and far-seeing beyond any of his contemporaries and unquestionably sincere in his BuimH.''''— Bayard Taylor. His last words were: "I have loved righteousness, and hated iniquity; and, therefore, I die in exile." t In the latter part of his life, a curse seemed to rest upon Henry IV. His sone rebelled against him, his wife proved imfaithful; and at last he was compelli'd to abdicate by his favorite son Henry. A homeless beggar, he wandered from house to house, refused by every one food and shelter. He ma«le his way to Lie^'«', wlifre he was found dead on the door-steps of a religious house from which he luid bren spumed. As he died under the ban of the Church, his body was denie youth, were led to the scaffold, wljile the savage Cliarles watched the scene from a window of his palace, and the people looked on in gloom ^ind discontent, only prevented from revolt by the royal guards. Konradin, standing on the scafTnld. threw his glove among the spectatoi-s, tiiat some friend might tnkei it up and avenge his death. Then, exclaiming, "O mother, what sorrow I hive caused tlieel" he kn«>lt, and received the fatal blow. Fi*ederick a>id thirteen others were execut^nl witli liim. In 1282, the massacre of the "Sicilian V.\sfx«r8" occurred: the French in Sicily were slaughtered, and P^ter pf Ara^oQ ^came king of the island. (See page sa*).) Germany, 427 fceen years (1256-1273), there were several who bore the title of Kaiser; but there was, in fact, no reigning em- peror. This period, called the Great Interregnum, is one of the darkest in German history. The Great Interregnum. country was filled with feudal castles, the residences of robber barons, whose quarrels, outrages, and depredations gave the people neither peace nor safety. 16. Rudolph L, the first of the Hapshurg* line, was just the man for the position which he was elected to fill. He was an experienced warrior, of determined will and indomitable courage, vigorous in intellect, and Character. of a powerful physical frame. He subdued Ot'to-car of Bo- hemia, and seized his dominions, including Austria, thus founding the present Austrian Empire. He ruled with much skill and energy; and, reducing Ottocar. the robber nobles to submission, greatly increased the imperial power, t On his death (1291), Albert, his son, was set aside by the electors, and Adolf of Nassau was ap- pointed in liis stead; but, a few years afterward, Albert. he was deposed, and Albert elected in his place (1298). Adolf, resisting, was slain in battle. 17. Albert I. was naturally a despot, and cared nothing for the welfare of his subjects. J During his reign, the Swiss cantons made their memorable rising for independence, being provoked, according to the popular tradition, by the * Hapsburg, meaning Hawlc's Castle, was the name given to the stronghold built on the Rhine by the feudal ancestors of this race. + " In Thuringia, which was perhaps the worst of the haunts, he leveled to the ground as many as sixty-six castles, and put to death twenty-nine of the robber nobles. Some were tied to the tails of their own horses and trampled to death; others were hung on the nearest tree."— Dr. Brewer. X His manners and personal appearance were by no means prepossessing. It is said he " looked like a clown and behaved like a loon." He was "big-nosed, loose- lipped, blind of one eye, ill-mannered, grasping, selfish, and overbearing." When Pope Boniface Vm. was told of his election, he exclaimed, " How can such a one- eyed lout be emperor of the Romans!" Indeed, the Pope refused to sanction his election, and excommunicated him; but he afterward became reconciled to the " one-eyed lout." 428 Mediceval History, tyranny of the governor, Gesler (ghes'ler), who commanded, as the story goes, the citizens of Al'torf to bow- before the ducal cap of Austria, set upon a pole Swiss cantons. in the market-place. This William Tell refused to do; and was condemned to lose his life, or shoot an apple from his son's head. Although he succeeded in this trying ordeal, the governor still refused to set him at William Tell. liberty; but a storm arising as he was carried in chains across the lake, he was unfettered, in order that he might render aid as a steersman; when, leaping from the vessel as it neared the shore, he escaped, and a short time after avenged himself and his country by slaying the tyrannical governor (1308).* The emperor himself was murdered the same year in Switzerland by his nephew, John of Suabia. 18. After the murder of Albert, the imperial throne was filled by Henry VII. (1308-1313), who released the three Swiss cantons from their allegiance to the house of Hapsburg, and gave Austria to the sons of Albert. Henry VII. The two rival kaisers, Frederick of Austria and Louis of Bavaria, followed, the latter of whom finally triumphed in battle (1322). Louis reigned till his death in 1347; but the year previous he was Frederick and Louis. excommunicated by the Pope; and the archbishops united with the latter in the selection of Charles of Luxemburg; but the free cities and most of the Charles. temporal princes stood by Louis. The free cities, of which there were about 150, now rose to great influence and prosperity. Thej encouraged leai'ning, i)ro- Free cities. mo ted commerce, and thus contributed greatly to the progress of Germany. 19. Charles IV., at first opposed by the electors, finally gained the throne. Having been nominated by the Pope without the consent of the electors, he was called the *' Pope's ♦ The Btory of William Tell is a traditionary legend, the details of which are noiT believed by many to be fictitious. Germany, 429 Kaiser." He was the grandson of Henry YII., and the son of John, King of Bohemia, who was slain by the Black Prince at the battle of Crecv. Charles Pope's Kaiser. possessed great learning himself, and encouraged it. He founded the three universities of Heidelberg, Vienna, and Prague. His most important act was the issue of the " Golden Bull," by which the electors of Golden Bull. the German Empire and the mode of election were defined (1356).* The famous Kienzi, "the last of the Koman Tribunes," was arrested by the emperor. Rienzi. and for a time kept a prisoner in Prague. Charles reigned till 1378. The "Black Death" raged during the first years of this reign. 20. The death of Charles IV. was followed by the reign of Wenceslas, called the Worthless (1378-1400), and Rupert (1400-1410), after whom the crown was con- ferred on Sig'is-mund of Hungary, a son of Sigismund. Charles IV. (1410), called the " Light of the World." This emperor had been king of Hungary, and was a very accom- plished man. It was in this reign that the great Council of Constance met (1414), at which, there being three competitors for the pontifical throne. Council of Constance. Martin V. was elected Pope, and the great schism extin- guished. The doctrines of Wickliffe were also condemned; and John Huss, rector of the University of Prague, having adopted and preached them, was Huss. cited to appear before the Council. Refusing to retract, he was degraded from the priesthood; and having been delivered up to the civil law, was burnt at the stake for heresy (1415). Huss had received from the emperor a safe-conduct; but * The Golden Bull was so called because its seal was inclosed in a gold case. By this instrument the number of electors was prescribed— three prelates and four lay princes; and no appeal was permitted from their decision by a majority vote. They were to meet at Frankfort; and the place of coronation was Aix-la-Chapelle. The college of electors thus constituted lasted, with few changes, 450 years, till the time of Napoleon, who broke up the German Empire. 430 MedicBval History. Sigismund broke his plighted word, in permitting this cruel sentence to be executed. Jerome of Prague, the friend and disciple of Huss, the next year shared Jerome. the same fate. 21. This led to a furious war of sixteen years, in the first part of which the Bohemians, or Hussites, were led by the famous John Zisca, and defeated the armies of Sigismund in many battles. In 1422, a treaty Bohemian war was made by the emperor, by which the religious liberty of the Hussites in Bohemia was fully acknowledged. The war, however, was afterward renewed, and continued till 1434. While the war was going on, Sigismund marched against the Ottoman Turks, whom he defeated in a great battle near Nissa (1419). By this victory, he Turks. not only took vengeance upon those fierce barbarians for his own disastrous defeat at Nicopolis, twenty-three years before, but checked for some time the Ottoman conquests on the eastern frontier. Sigismund died in 1437; and the house of Austria succeeded, which occupied the throne about three centuries (1437-1740). 22. The short reign of Albert 11, the lUnstrious (1438- 1439), was followed by that of Frederick HI., the Pacific, who, in order to aggrandize the hou^e of Austria,* neglected the general interests of the empire, and suffered the Ottomans, who had taken Constanti- nople (1453), to make great encroachments upon its terri- tories. He was the last German emperor that was crowned at Rome. He succeeded in effecting a marriage between his son Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, thus obtaining for the former the sovereignty of the Netherlands, which Mary had inherited from her father, Charles the Albert II. Frederick ill. Netherlartdt . Bold. Frederick's reign was the longest in German history, • Frederick adopted for his device an anaprram consisting: of the five vovels. A. E, I, O, U, meaninf?, In I^atln, Awtria Est Tmperatura Orbi Univeraa; or. in Eng lish, Atistria^s Empire la Ordained Universal. Germany, 431 lasting fifty-three years. He was succeeded by Maximilian (1493). During Frederick's reign, printing was invented in Germany (about 1450). With this Printing. reign terminates the mediaeval period of German history. State of Society in GERMAmr During the Middle Ages. 23. From the time of the great German warrior and patriot Hermann, to the reign of Charlemagne, the political history of Germany is almost a blank. Early period. Many petty states were formed, each under its own chief; and Christianity was introduced and propagated by English and Irish missionaries, among whom Christianity. should be especially mentioned the English monk Winifred, afterward named Boniface, and called, on account of his zeal, the "Apostle of the Germans." 24. The Feudal System was firmly established in Ger- many, with the resulting lawnessness and violence that charac- terized the institution in other parts of Euroi^e. The king or kaiser* was but a nominal sovereign; Feudal system. for many of his vassals were richer than himself and quite as powerful. They only owed theh' lord military service; and when that was rendered, they were free to do as they pleased. It was not until the close of the Saxon dynasty that Germany was formed into a really organized state, under the rule of laws, and with properly constituted Organization. magistrates to execute them. Churches were founded in every part of the country, and there were many walled towns * The title fca/ser— emperor— was conferred on Charlemagne when he was crowned Emperor of the West, or Emperor of the Romans. Louis le Dehonnaire also received the title, and afterward Lothaire, King of Italy. It then passed to the German King Louis, or Ludwig, and next to Charles the Fat, of France, on whose death the empire ceased to exist for abour three quarters of a century. Otto I. received the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, a title borne by all the sovereigns of Germany till the time of Napoleon I. This title is, however, synony- mous with Emperor of the West, Emperor of the Romans, or the German title kaiser. King of the Romans was a title conferred by Henry III, on his son as emperor elect or prospective, and was thus used up to the sixteenth century. 432 MedicB'cal History. in various parts, some of which were Imperial Free Cities, others ducal towns, and church cities, so called because built on church lands, and having the bishop as chief magistrate. 25. Notwithstanding the general spread of Christianity, the state of society was very low. There was but little respect for property or life. Almost any offense, except parricide, sacrilege, or the killing of a master by State of society. his slave, could be atoned for by paying a fine, called a moneys bote. Rough manners and coarse sensuality characterized the people of all classes, until the cities, having ac- quired a certain degree of independence, increased Cities. in industry and thrift. This was promoted by Henry V who admitted their artisans to the privileges of free burghers. Serfdom was gradually abolished; and, before the end of the thirteenth century, generally gave Serfdom. place to a free peasantry. 26. In the thirteenth century was formed the famous league of cities, called the Hansa, or Hanseatic League, the object being to protect their shipping against pirates, and to extend their commerce. Ham- burg and Lubeck were the first to form a union; Hanseatio League. but Brunswick, Bremen, Cologne, Dantzic, and many other towns soon joined the confederacy, which became veiy power- ful, and exerted an imi)ortant influence on the civilization and commercial prosperity of Germany. The chief foreign depots of the league were London, Bruges,* Novgorod,! and * Bruges, the chief city of Flanders, was. in the Middle Ages, the great emporium of central Europe, distinguished not only for its extensive commerce, but its manu* factures, particularly of cloths and tapestries. Hallam. remarks: "In the thir- teenth century, it was said that all the world \/aa clothed from Engli^i wool wrought in Flanders." t *' Novgorod, on the banks of the Dmen Lake, was the glory of Russia during the Middle Ages, with its strong walls, its 250 churches and convent.s glittering with gilt cupolas, and its 300,000 active citizens, who soon threw off the yoke of the wrangling Russian princes, and constituted themselves into the celebrated republic I>ater (after 1240), it entered the confederacy of the Hans«'ntlo cities, and became the great emporium of Indian commerce for the north of Europe."— JToeppcw'^ Middle Aqes. Germany. 433 Bergen.* Its deputies met every three years at Lubeck. The confederacy attained its greatest prosperity and influence in the foTu-teenth century. Its last general assembly met in 1630. t 27. The peasants or serfs lived in miserable hovels near the castle to whose lord they looked for protection. The townsfolk had wooden houses, with few con- veniences, and furnished in the rudest manner. Dwellings. The dwellings of the nobles were huge castles, gloomy and lonesome, built on a high hill or some other almost inaccessiblo place. The master and his numerous retainers, when not engaged in war and pillage, passed their time in feasting and revelry, interspersed with rough brawls. The women occu- pied themselves in spinning, embroidery, weaving gold fringe, making banners, etc., or playing on Employments. the harp or lute. During the grand banquets and festivals, crowds of minstrels, jugglers, mimics, and clowns flocked to the castle to amuse the guests. Some of the furniture was often rare and costly — fine table- Fumiture. linen from Damascus, and rich tapestry; and their drinking- vessels were sometimes of silver, though usually of horn or earthenware. They had only wooden platters or pewter trenchers, and knives and forks were not used at the table, each person taking up his food in his fingers. 28. The costume of the king and nobles was rich and elaborate. The former, on great occasions, wore a magnifi- cent purple tunic, with a golden girdle, from which hung a sword. On his head was a jeweled Costume. cap of crimson velvet, his hair flowing over his shoulders. * A commercial town on the western cca^t of Norway. t " Eighty of the most considerable places constituted the Hanseatic con- federacy, divided into four colleges, whereof Lubeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic were the leading towns. Lubeck held the chief rank, and became, as it were, the patriarchal see of the league; whose province it was to preside in all gen- eral discussions for mercantile, political, or military purposes, and to carry them Into execution. '—flaWam's Middle Ages. 434 MedicBval History, The tunic was also worn by the nobles. The shoes wei'e usually long and pointed, often made of purple cloth fringed with gold. Ladies wore very long robes with tiglit sleeves extending to the wrist, the body fitting close to the waist, and confined by a rich girdle. A wimple was usually worn round the face and chin, fastened at the forehead by a gold or jeweled fillet. 29. All through the gloomy period of the Dark Ages, there was but little of learning or literature in any part of Germany. Charlemagne and a few of his suc- cessors took an interest in intellectual culture; but, with the exception of a few histories and Learning and literature. poems in Latin, or in some of the German dialects, nothing was written. Among these may be mentioned a Latin chroni- cle of the world, by Hermann the Cripple,* a scholar of extraordinary genius and learning, who lived in the reign of - Henry IIL It was a monk named Conrad, in the service of Henry the Lion, who wrote the Conrad. famous Song of Roland (Rolands-lied), in the twelfth cen- tury. About the same time (1150-1250), flourished the cele- brated Min^7ie-si7ig-ers, or *Move-pocts" — the troubadours of Germany — wliose poems aided in Minnesingers. the revival of European literature.! The Nibelunyen-liedy a kind of epic poem in ballad form, belongs to this period. In ♦ Hermann was a wonder. His body was wholly paralyzed; he could scarcely hold a pen, or speak intelliffibly; yet hla leaniing and sagacity made him tin object of universal attention, people coming from different parts of Europe to converse with him. Hie Chronicle of the Six Ages of the World is a valuable work. esiHHji- ally because of its history of Germany during the tenth and eleventh centuries. He also wrote a treatise on mUfeic, and one on the antrolnlje, an instrument used in the Middle Ages for measuring the altitude of the heavenly boic deeds and wonderful exploits. The names of about one hundred and fifty of these poets are preserved. Many princes and knights, Frederick U. for example, were proud to be classed among them. Germany. 435 the fifteenth century arose in the cities the Mexster singer 8, a kind of literary society or guild, whose composi- tions were chiefly of a humorous or satiric charac- ter. Hans Sachs, one of these, a shoemaker by trade, was the Meistersingers. most distinguished German poet prior to the Reformation. 30. In the fifteenth century a stronger light began to pre- Tail. During the long reign of Frederick the Pacific, there were many learned men eminent in yarious branches of science and literature, among whom Eminent men. may be mentioned Nicholas of Cusa (1401-14G4), the son of a fisherman, who became one of the greatest scholars of his age; John Miiller (1436-147(5), con- sidered the restorer of astron- omy; and Rudolf Agric'ola (1443- 1485). Toward the end of the century, Copernicus, the reviver of tlie true theory of the solar system, was born; and Albert Durer commenced to be famous as a painter and engraver. The invention of printing gave an impulse to learning and literature which it had never before received. The credit of this inven- tion is contested by the Dutch in favor of Lau- AliBERT DUKBIL Invention of printing. reus Coster of Harlaem (1423), and by the Germans in behalf of John Gutenberg of Mentz (1436).* * Gutenberg, in 1450, entered into partnership with John Faust, or Fust, the latter furnishing the means of utihzing the invention ; and the work for printing the Bible in Latin was partly executed, when the partnership was dissolved, in 1455. The next year, Gutenberg completed the printing of the Bible ; and in the mean time, Faust entered into partnership with Peter SchoelTer, his son-in-law, and also printed books. Coster seems to have been the first to invent the method of im pressing characters on paper by means of blocks of carved wood, in 1423; while Gutenberg invented movable types, and Schoeffer, in conjunction with Faust, first founded types of metal. Thus Gutenberg is entitled to be considered the inventor of printing, and Schoeffer of type-founding. Faust was merely a patron, as he only furnished the means to carry on the work. 436 Medimval History. Emfebobs of Gebmant, Fbom Conrad I. (911) to Maximilian I (U93), Line K-5 Name. Date of reign. ConradI 911- 918 Henry 1 918-936 Ottol 936-973 Otton 973- e83 Ottom S83-1002 Henry n 1003-1024 Conrad H 1034-1039 Henry m 1039-1056 Henry IV 1056-1106 Henry V 1106-1125 Lothaire H 112^1137 Conrad HI 1138-1152 Frederick 1 1153-1190 Henry VI 1190-1197 Two reigns 1197-1215 Frederickn 1215-1250 Conrad IV 1250-1254 Line. Name. Interregnum f Rudolf I. Hapsburg. Adolf Albertl Henry VII Frederick of Austria. • Louis V. of Bavaria. . . Gunther Charles IV Wenceslas. Rupert 'Sigismund f Albert II Date I -j Frederick m. < I Maximilian... of reign. 1254-13?3 127^1291 1292-1298 1298-1308 130B-1313 1314-1330 1314-1*17 1*47-1*49 1347-1378 137*-1400 1400-1410 1410-1437 1438-1439 1440-1493 1493 Stjmmary of Principal Events and Dates. A.D. Carlovlngian race becomes extinct 911 Hungarians defeated by Henry the Fowler 934 Lombardy made a flef of the German Empire 961 Otto the Great crowned Emperor of tlie West (Kaiser) 9G8 Lower Burgundy annexed to the Empire of Germany by Conrad II 1088 The Hungarian Empire made tributary to Germany 1044 Bohemia added to the Empire 1045 The king-elect of Germany was styled " King of the Romans" 1056 Saxony invaded and ovemm by Henry IV 1075 Rome taken by Henry IV. ; Gregory driven into exile 1084 Frederick Barbarossa defeated by the Italians at Lignano 1176 The Italian cities gain their independence by the peade of Oonstance 118S Prussia became a part of the German Empire 1230 Execution of Konradin, the last of the HohenstAufens 1208 Insurrection of the Swiss cantons. Legend of William Tell 1308 The Golden Bull issued by Charles III 1356 Meeting of the Council of Constance 1414 John Huss condemned and burnt at the stake for heresy 1415 The Turks defeated at Nissa by SIgismund 1419 The religious lilierty of the Hussites in Bohemia acknowledged 1423 Frederick III. crowne'pt, the body of Saint Mark, tlio Evangelist, whom they chose patron of their stat*;. His winged Hon figured in th«*ir arms; and under his virtori- Otis banner they afterward raised their great colonial empire of the East." -Ko«p- pen's Middle Age», Italy. 441 of more than two hundred vessels to aid Godfrey of Bouillon (1099); and during the whole period of these expeditions, Venice was the great center of commerce, and the emporium by which the silks, spices, and gems of the East were dis- tributed to Europe. It was a prominent member of the League of Lombardy against Frederick Barbarossa; and, dur- ing the contest (in 1177), gained a splendid naval victory over the Ghibellines, under Otto, Frederick's son, in defense of the Pope, who had appealed to the republic for protection. It was after this victory that the ceremony of "wedding the Adriatic'* was instituted, the Pope presenting the doge with a ring for the purpose. This cere- mony was always afterward performed with great Wedding the Adriatic. pomp and festivity, a ring being cast into the sea, to indicate that it was '* subject to Venice as a bride is to her husband." 38. After the taking of Constantinople by the Crusaders (1204), Venice having supplied a fleet, under the venerable Doge Dan'do-lo, received, as her share of the spoils, the Mo-re'a, and several other territories Dandolo. in Europe. The doge, although blind and ninety years of age, so distinguished himself that the Crusaders, in admira- tion of his prowess and skill, offered him the imperial crown, which he refused. During the latter half of the thirteenth century and most of the fourteenth, Venice was engaged in almost constant war with her great rival, Gen'o-a. 39. In the latter part of the thirteenth century (1275), Mar'co Po'lo, the great Venetian traveler, crossed Asia, and, after visiting Tartary and China, returned home by way of the East Indies and the Persian Gulf. Marco Polo. The account which this traveler gave of the East did much to stimulate further adventure and exploration. After Genoa had passed away as an independent power (1396), Venice experienced her highest prosperity, and was the greatest maritime power in the world. She ac- Height of glory quired by conquest, in the beginning of the fifteenth century. 442 MedicBval History, a large domain in northern Italy, and did important service to Europe by repelling the attacks of the Turkish fleets in the Mediterranean. Her wars, however, soon wasted her treas- ures and impaired her commerce; while her government be- came tyrannical and corrupt. When the new route to the East, by way of the Cape of Good Decline. Hope, was discovered (1497), her glory soon departed. Southern Italy. 40. In the ninth century, southern Italy was invaded by the Saracens, against whom it was for a time defended by the armies of the Byzantine Empire. In the next century. Otto II. of Germany, having defeated Saracens. the Saracens, made himself master of Naples and Salerno, and finally of Tarentum. This so alarmed the Greek em- peror, that he formed an alliance with the Saracens; and, in the severe battle of Crotona, utterly defeated Otto, Avho with difficulty escaped from the hands of the victors. The Sara- cens held many of the most important places in southern Italy until they were expelled by the Normans, in tlie eleventh and twelfth centuries. 41. These were a band of adventurers from Normandy, who at first rendered aid in expelling the Saracens from Salerno (1016). Being joined by others, they soon made a lodgment in the delightful regions Nornnang. of southern Italy, repeatedly defeating the vastly more numer- ous forces of the Eastern Empire. Their numbers were in- creased by constant accessions from Normandy; and, in lOGO. the renowned Robert Guis'card (or ghecs-kar') was acknowledged by the Pope Duke of Apu'lia Guiscard and Cala'bria, and of such other lands, in Italy and Sicily, as he might rescue from the Greeks and Saracens. This Norman duke was, perhaps, the most accom])]ished soldier of his age; and extended his con((ucsts throughout soutliern Italy, thus putting an end to the long dominion of the Eastern emperors. Italy, 443 42. He subsequently raised an immense army, officered by Norman knights, and attacked the other territories of tlie Eastern Empire. Durazzo (doo-rat'so) fell, after a siege of seven months, before his invincible skill and valor; and thence he marched his army Conquests of Guiscard. into the heart of the empire, making Constantinople itself tremble. He was, however, hastily recalled to Italy to pro- tect Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) against his inveterate foe, Henry IV. of Germany; and, rais- Hildebrand. ing a large army, he marched rapidly from Salerno to Rome, and compelled the German emperor to seek safety in retreat. It was with the faithful Robert Guiscard that the illustrious pontiff at last found an asylum at Salerno. 43. Roger I., the brother of Robert Guiscard, conquered Sicily from the Saracens after several years of war; and his son, Roger II., ruled over the Norman posses- sions in both Sicily* and Italy, and subjugated Roger Guiscard. the free cities of Naples and Amal'fif (1127); but, in the person of William II., his grandson, the Norman dynasty became extinct, and the kingdom passed nnder the sway of the German emperors (1189). End of Norman rule. Thus it remained till the reign of Manfred, whom Charles of Anjou defeated in the battle of Beneven'to (1266), and thus obtained the throne of Naples and Sicily, which he retained till the dreadful massacre of the Anjou rule. Sicilian Vespers (1282). By this event he lost Sicily; but transmitted Naples to his descendants, who retained the throne of that country till 1435, when it passed to the kings * Roger Guiscard was crownerl king of the Two Sicilies at Palermo. He brought artisans from Athens, and founded a silk manufactory in that city in 1146. t A town on the Gulf of Salemo, southeast of Naples, noted for its extensive trade in the Middle Ages. "This little republic rose, reached the height of its power, and declined, between the sixth and twelfth centuries. Its career as a free trading state was brilliant till checked br the arms of Roger Cuiscard, king of Sicily, from which time its splendor was lost."~reats's Growth and Txissitudes of Commeroe. 444 MedicBval History, of Aragon, who had ruled Sicily from the time of the Sicilian Vespers. 44. Rome, or Papal Italy, was governed after the eighth century by the Popes, who, in succession, were elected to fill the chair of St. Peter. During a period of sixty -eight years (from 1309 to 1377) the Pope's residence was at Avig- non, in France. Rome, in the mean while, was the scene of constant disorder from the lawless acts of the great nobles, who prosecuted their Condition of Rome. family feuds with the utmost fury and license. Out of these struggles arose Rienzi {re-en'ze), the **Last of the Tribunes," who, in 1347, seized the chief Rienzl. power, and, having expelled the nobles, endeavored to restore the ancient liberties of the city. A counter-revolution over- turned his government after an existence of but seven months, and he was dirfen into exile. Rienzi was a friend of the famous poet Pe'trarch, and was distinguished for his learning and oratory.* Ancona, in Papal Ancona. Italy, was one of the most important commercial cities in the peninsula at this period, f • "Never perhaps has the energy and effect of a single mind been more remark- ably felt than in the sudden, though transient, reformation of Rome by the tribune Rienzi. A den of robbers was converted to the discipline of a camp or convent: patient to hear, swift to redress, inexorable to punish, his tribunal was alwaj-s accessible to the poor and stranger; nor could birth, or dignity, or the immunities of the Church protect the offender or his accomplices. The privileged houses, the private sanctuaries In Rome, on which no offlcer could presume to trespjiss, were abolished; and he applied the timber and iron of their barricades in the fortifica- tions of the capitol. ... In this time (says the historian), the woods began to rejoice that they were no longer infested with robbers; the oxen l>egan to plow, the pilgrims visited the sanctuaries; the roads and inns were replenlslied with travelers; trade, plenty, and good faith were restored in the markets; and a purse of gold might be exposed without danger in the midst of the highway. As soon as the life and property of the subject are secure, the labors and rewards of industry spontaneously revive; Rome was strill the metropolis of the Christian world; and the fame and fortune of the tribune were diffused In every country by the strangers who had enjoyed the blessings of his government."— ff/^foon, t "Ancona, in the Papal States, was founded by the Syraciisans about fotir cen- turies before Christ, and has ever been, next to Venice, the most considerable port on the Adriatic coast of Italy. Its early easteru trade was chiefly with Cyprus.*'-^ YeaU, Italy, 445 State of Society in Italy During tM Middle Ages. 45. The innumerable invasions and revolutions to which Italy was subjected in the Middle Ages, introduced vast changes not only in the political condition of the country, but in the manners and customs, the Changes. arts, occupations, and language of the people. Out of the barbarism resulting from this ruin and disorder, a new civilization slowly emerged, having its origin and principal growth in the cities, par- New civilization. ticularly those of the north. The Lombard rule was, on the whole, favorable to this improvement. The feudal system prevailed, but it acquired a more Feudal system. exact and legal form in Italy than in other parts of Europe. 46. The great commercial cities, Venice, Genoa, Florence, Ancona, and Amalfi, were the gateways not only of imported commodities, but of the civilization of the countries with which they were brought Commerce and manufactures. into communication. Manufactures were extensively carried on in all the cities of northern Italy; being in some the chief source of their wealth. In Florence this was especially true. Dyeing, and the making of cloth, scarlet stuffs, silk fabrics, tapestries, straw hats, with artistic work in mosaic, metal, and alabaster, were prominent industries. Lombard capital- •ists competed with the Jews as bankers and money-changers in every important city of Europe. Venice had, also, very numerous and extensive manufacturing industries. 47. Architecture in Italy gradually passed from the old classic style to the Gothic; but this mode of building did not progress as rapidly in this as in many other parts of Europe. The splendid palaces and mansions Architecture. erected in Florence, Bologna, Genoa, and other cities, show wonderful taste and genius in this branch of art. The works 446 MedicBval History. of the Roman architect Vi-tru'vi-us * were printed at Rome in 1486; and the adoption of his system by the Italian archi- tects led to the arrangement of the Five Orders of Architec- ture. 48. Many Byzantine artists passed into Italy, and intro- duced their various styles of painting and sculpture, thus laying, in the thirteenth century, at Venice, Pisa, and other cities, the foundation of the Italian schools of art. Sculpture, under Nicola Pisano Painting and sculpture. {ne'ko'lah pe-sah'no),\ took the lead in this age. The revival of painting, in the latter part of the thirteenth century, was greatly promoted by the celebrated Cimabue {che-mah-hoo' a) (1240-1300),}; of Florence; but Italian painting more prop- erly begins with the next century. Giotto (jot^to) (1276- 1336) was eminent not only as a painter, but an architect and a sculptor. In the fifteenth century, the fine arts made great progress, particularly in Florence, under the sway of the Medici. Leonardo da Vinci {vin'che)% painted his great pic- ture, ** The Last Supper," at the close of the mediaeval period (1497). He was noted for the universality of his genius. 49. The Italian literature dates from the thirteenth cen- tury, previous to which time there were dialects more or less * Vitruvf us, or more properly Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, lived in the time of Ai^rus- tus, by whom he was greatly admired and patronized as an architect. He wrote an elaborate woric, On Architecture, arranged in ten booka A second edition of this worlf was printed at Florence in 1496, and a third at Venice In 1497. It treats in detail of the four orders of architecture. t Pisano, bom about 1200, Inaugurated the revival of sculpture in Italy. He executed many magnificent works not only in sculpture, but in architecture. He died in 1278. t Giovanni Cimabue took the lead In the restoration of palntlnj?. Having studied under Byzantine masters, he soon laid aside their flxeRAFHIOATi StITDT. What voere the situation and boundaries of: Sbrvia? Bitloaria? WALLACHiAf Bosnia? Croatia? Where was the kingdom of Sicily? Hungary? The Dobrutchaf What was the extent of the Eastern Empire at this time? Of the Turkish domin- ions? To what did Trebizond belong? Armenia? What was the capital of the Greek Elmpire? region north of the Carpathian mountains, which they had left at the instigation of the Greek emperor, to give assist- ance against the Avars. For some time Servia continued in vassalage to the Eastern Empire; but subsequently it became subservient to Bulgaria, till the conquest of the latter (1018), Southeastern Europe, 455 5. It became an independent principality about the middle of the eleventh century (1043), and allied itself to Hungary against the empire; but its ruler was not crowned king until the commencement of the thirteenth century (1217). About the middle of the next Independent kingdom. century, it made extensive conquests, and soon comprehended Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly, northern Greece, and a part of Bulgaria (see map). Its ruler at this time took an imperial crown, with the title of Emperor of the Serbs and the Greeks. This was the height of its glory; for under subsequent rulers it fell to pieces; and in the latter part of the century, was overwhelmed by the Ottomans. Servia was not, however, permanently annexed to the Turkish Empire tiU 1521. HUNGAEY. 6. The Magyars or Hungarians, also a Turanian race, like the Bulgarians, made their way from their home between the mouths of the Dnieper and the Danube rivers, and founded, in the ninth century, a kingdom on the Magyars. north bank of the latter river (887). They were an active and warlike people; but their bold incursions were repressed, on the east by the Greek Empire, and on the west by the German emperors (934 and 955). From the beginning of the eleventh century, Hungary ranks as a kingdom of Latin Christianity, and after that time it grew in all directions. It made a permanent conquest of Croatia and Transylvania. The Turanian Cumans ad- vanced to the Danube; but, in the thirteenth century, the Mongolian invasion swept them away, and for a time crushed the Hungarian power. The rem- nant of the Cuman nation continued to exist Kingdom of Hungaiy. Mongol invasion. nnder Magyar rule, giving to the Hungarian monarch the additional title of King of Cumania. 7. The greatest extension of the Hungarian dominion was uj the fourteenth century, during the reign of the Angevin 456 Mediceval History. king, Louis the Great (1342-1382). He took Dalmatia from the Venetians, and reduced Wallachia, Moldavia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria to a state of dependence. Louis the Great. In 1370, by right of succession, he became King of Poland, and thus became the ruler of an empire stretching from the Baltic to the Adriatic. On his death, Poland was detached from Hungary ; and the latter, by the marriage of Mary, eldest daughter of Louis, to Sigismund, Later history. became united to Germany (1411). Hungary was subse- quently again independent ; and under its heroic kings Hunyadi and Matthias, recovered its strength, and extended its sway.* During the fifteenth century it waged incessant wars with the Ottomans, especially during the first half, pre- vious to the fall of Constantinople. Bosnia. 8. Bosnia was formed as an independent state by a Slavic irruption in the seventh century; but it maintained, for a considerable time, only an uncertain and change- ful independence. In the twelfth and thirteenth Hittoty. centuries, it was under the Hungarian sway; and, in the next (1339), it passed to the Servian Empire, to which it belonged for some time, when it again became independent (1370). It was under the last Bosnian dynasty, commencing in 1376, on the breaking up of the empire of Servia, that it acquired a real position among European powers; for it promised at one time to take the place of that fallen empire. Its greatness was, however, shattered at Cossova, with other Christian powers; and it finally succumbed to the sway of the Ottomans, becoming a province of their vast empire in 1463, but not permanently annexed to it until 1528. ♦ " Later In the fifteenth century came another day of Hunprarlan pjeatnesa under the son of Hunyady and Matthias Corvlnus. Its most distlnfcui.shliiK feature was the extension of the Majryar power to the west, over Bohemia and if« depend- encies, and even over the Austrian archduchy. In the southeastern lands, Wallor jhiH and Moldavia again became Hungarian dependenclo*"— freeman. Southeastern Europe, 4m Ottoman or Tubkish Empiee. 9. Of all the different conquering races that poured into Europe from the north of the Euxine or Black Sea, the most terrible were the Turkish hordes, first the Seljuks and then the Ottomans.* The attacks of the Turks. Ottomans on the Eastern Empire, and the successive con- Geographical Study. What were the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire in 1460? What was the situa- tion of Bosnia? Wallachia? Bulgaria? Roumelia? Albania? Morea? Hungary? SiiAVONiA? Croatia? DAlmatia? To whom did Dalmatia belong? quests which they made of its territories, have already been referred to. The Ottomans were originally a Turkish band who served the Seljuk sultan Origin. against the Mongols; and subsequently, as the vassals of that * "Most of these invading races have passed away from history; three still re- main in three different stages. The Bulgarian is lost among the Aryan people, who have taken his name. The Magyar abides, keeping liis non- Aryan language, but adopted into the European commonwealth by his acceptance of Christianity. The Ottoman Turk still abides on European soil, unchanged because Mahometan, fiviii an alien alike to the creed and to the tongues of Europe."— i?Veeman, 458 MedlcBval History. monarcli, they became a power in Asia, and soon afterward passed into Europe. 10. When Am'urath, the successor of Othman, had fixed his capital at Adrianople, in the middle of the thirteenth cen- tury, he had already in fact hemmed in the Greeks at Constantinople; and, under Bajazet, Conquests. the first Ottoman prince who bore the title of Sultan, the Ottoman dominions in Europe extended from the Danube River to the -^gean Sea, thus including Bulgaria, Macedonia, Thessaly, and Thrace. Servia and Wallachia were dependent states; and central and southern Greece, with Bosnia, Hun- gary, and other western lands, were open to the ravages of these Mohammedan conquerors. 11. But a mightier power than even the Ottomans was at hand to check their career. This was tlie Tartar horde under Timour, and the great Turkish dominion was for a time broken to pieces.* The Christian states enjoyed a resi)ite from attack, and the sons of Timour the Tartar. the defeated and captive Bajazet were contented to restore to the empire some portions of its lost territory. In the early part of the fifteenth century, the tide of Ottoman conquest turned again; and, under Mohammed the Conqueror (1451- 1481), made rapid progress. It was during the tliirty years of his reign, especially after the taking of Constantinople, that the Turkish do- Later conquests. minion was fully and firmly established as a great power in Europe. [For the extent of its territory in this reign, see map, p. 457.] The further development of this empire will be given in connection with modern history. • Timour, or Tamerlane, was born not far from Samarcand. At an enrly afro he rose to great eminence in his native country, and was invested with imperial au- thority. With insatiable ambition, he aspired to the dominion of the world. After many victories in Persia, Tartary, and India, he tunied his attention to the Ottomans who, under Bajazet, were makinfj preat conquests. The Inttrr colh'ctt'd an army of 400,000 men ; but he ni»»t with a terrible defeat, and fled from the Bcene of the conflict on a fleet horse (1402). He was, however, pursued and captured; and U (f said was kept for a time by bis conqueror iu an iron cage. (See page ai o.) Table of Contempokatteotts Events. A.D. England. TRAKCE. Othbb Nations. 7^9 Victory of Charles MarteL End of Merov. dynasty. Accession of Charlemagne.. Period 7n^ of the 768 786 The Saxon Heptarchy. Saracen Conouests. Haroun al Raschid. f¥M) Empire of the West restored Death of Charlemagne. Div.of Charlemagne's empire Charles the Fat. 814 827 848 Egbert, King of England Louis Emp. of Germany. 871 884 Alfred the Great. 910 Fatimite dynasty begina 919 Normans settle in France. 936 Otho the Great. 987 996 ^I^^^^'- 1013 1017 Sweyn. The Normans in Italy. lasi Henry L 1042 1055 Edward the Confessor. Seljuks take Bagdad. Henry IV. of Germany, Robert Guiscard. 1056 1060 PhiliD I 1066 1076 William the Conqueror. Turks take Jerusalem. 1084 Hildebrand deposed. 1087 1095 Wiiliam Riif us. First Crusade. Louis VI. Louis VIL 1100 1108 Henry L 1137 1153 Frederick Barbarossa. 1154 1176 Henry H. Battle of Legnano. 1180 Philip n. (Augustus). 1187 1189 1199 1216 1W3 Richard I. John. Henry HL Louis Vm. Louis IX. V?.9(y 1258 End of Saracen Empire. 1270 Philip IIL 1272 EdwardI Mongols take Iconimn. 12a5 Philip rv. Louis X 1307 1314 1315 Edward n. Battle of Bannockburn. . Battle of Morgarten. 1317 Philip V. Charles IV. Philip VI 1392, 1327 1328 1347 Edward m. RienzL 1350 John. Charles V. Charles VI. 1364 137r 1380 Richard n. 1386 Battle of Sempach. Battle of Nicopolis. 1396 1399 1413 1414 Henry rv Henry V. 1422 1453 Henry VI CalariesVii. Constantinople taken. 1461 1483 Edward IV. Edward V. Richard in. Louis XI. Charles VIH. 460 Medicexal History, Topical Eevtew. EMINENT PERSONAGES. Who were they? At what period did they live? With what events connected? pagb Peter the Hermit 408, 409 Urbann 408 Godfrey of Bouillon 409 Noureddin 411, 412 Saladin 412, 413 CJcunt Baldwin of Flanders. 413 Dandolo 413, 441 Otto the Illustrious 418 Henry the Fowler. 419 Otto the Lion 420 Otto the Red King 420 Otto the Wonder 421 Sylvester n 421 Otto the Larae 421 Henry the Black King 422 Henry the Great 423 Hildebrand (Gregory VH.) 423, 443 Frederick Barbarossa 412, 425 Konradin 426 Rudolf of Hapsburg 427, 437 Albertl 427, 437 William Tell 428 The Pope's Kaiser 428, 429 Rienzi 429, 444 Sigismund of Hungary 429 JohuHuss 429 Jerome of Prague 430 JohnZisca 430 Frederick the Pacific 430 Winifred or Boniface 431 Herman the Cripple 431 Hans Sachs 435 Nicholas of Cfusa 435 JohnMttller 436 Rudolf Agrlcola 435 Albert Durer 435 Arnold of Wlnkelried... 438 Marco Polo 441 Robert Guiscard 442 Roger I 443 Petrarch 444, 417 Dante 436, 447 Nicola Pisano 416 PAOI Cimabue 446 Giotto... 446 Leonardo da Vinci 446 Boccaccio 447 Ariosto 447 Lorenzo the Magnificent 447 Macchiavelli 447 Arezzo 447 Pelayo 448 Ferdinand the Catholic 449 BoabdU 450 Queen Isabella 449, 450 Prince Henry the Navigator. 450 Bartholomew Diaz 450 Hunyadi 456 Mohammed the Conqueror 458 Bajazet 458 GREAT EVENTS. When did they occur? What led to tJiem? What were the consequences t Preaching of Crusades. .408, 411, 412, 4l4l Taidng of Jerusalem 410 Children's Crusade 414 Captivity of St. Louis 415 Battle of FontenaUle, 418, 419 Defeat of the Hungarians 419, 420 Poland made a kingdom 421 Taking of Weinsburg 434 Battle of Legnano 425 Independence of the Italian Cities. . 426 Revolt of tlie Swiss 428 Growth of the Free CiUes 428, 438 Issue of the Golden Bull 429 Battle of Nissa 430 Revolt of the Hussites. 480 Introduction of Christianity 431 Union of the Hanso towns 488 Invention of Printing 485 Battle of Morgarten 488 Lombard League .• 489, 441 Foundation of Venice 440 Discovery of Cape of Good Hope.448, 460 Battle of Benevento 448 Expulsion of tlie Jews from Spain. . 4BC Orkney ^Is lands J> Q. lO 11. MODEEI^ HISTOET. CHAPTER IX. England, From 1485 to the Present Time. SECTION L The Tudor IjIWE, 1. Henry VII. With the accession of this king the long ciyil wars, by which the country had been devastated for so many years, were brought to an end. Henry was the son of Edmund Tu'dor and Margaret, a de- Descent. scendant of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. In order to strengthen his title to the throne, and put an end to all dissensions between the rival families, he mar- ried Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV. To Marriage. remove all competition for the crown, he imprisoned in the Tower the young Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clar- ence, and grandson of the renowned king-maker. 2. The general favor felt toward the house of York occa- sioned Henry much trouble, and many plots and insurrections Geographical Study, Map No. XVI. What 18 the situation of : Dover? Portsmouth? Canterbury? Winchester? Salis- bury? Shoreham? Windsor? Plymouth? Torbay? Taunton? Exeter? Sedgemoor? Bath? Bristol? Newbury? Gloucester? Cardiff? Milford? Caernarvon? Worcester? Tewksbury? Evesham? Worcester? Edgehill? Naseby? Northampton? Cambridge? Fotheringay? Norwich? Oxford? Bosworth? Shrewsbury? Derby? Nottingham? Manchester? Hull? York? Towton? Marston Moor? Durham? Carlisle? Pieston Pan? Dunbar? Stirling? Falkirk? Glencoe? Inverness? Culloden? 462 Modern History. were formed against him. A rumor having heen circulated among the people that Warwick had escaped from the Tower, an attempt was made to personate him; and for this purpose a handsome youth, named Lambert Simnel, a baker's son, was chosen. The impostor was car- Simnel. ried to Ireland, and was there proclaimed king under the title of Edward VI. (1487). The king prevented the insurrection from spreading in England by exhibiting in public the real Earl of Warwick; and the adherents of the impostor, having landed in England, were defeated in a decisive battle by the king's troops (1487). Simnel, being taken prisoner, was par- doned, and was afterward employed as a domestic in the king's, household. 3. Five years afterward, a more formidable attempt was made by the enemies of the king to raise a pretender to the throne, by counterfeiting Richard, the younger of the two sons of Edward IV., who were said to have been smothered in the Tower. The person selected for this purpose was a young man named Perkin Warbeck; and so well did he play his part, that Margaret, Duchess of Bur- gundy, sister of Edward IV., acknowledged him Perkin Warbeck. as her nephew, and greeted him with the title of the Wliite Rose of England.* James IV., king of Scotland, also ac- knowledged him, and gave him the noble Lady Gordon in marriage, and invaded England in order to raise an insurrec- tion in his favor. The attempt, however, failed; and Perkin finally gave himself up, and was imprisoned in the Towei * " Margaret was second sister to King Edward the Fourth, and had been second wife to Charles sumamed the Hardy, Duke of Burgundy, by whom having no children of her own she did with singular care and tenderneas intend the etiucatlon of Philip and Margaret, grandchildren to her f(iriner husband ; which won her great love and authority among the Dutch. This princess (having the spirit of a man and the malice of a woman), abounding in treasure by the greatness of her dower and her provident government, and being childless and without any nearer cares, made It her design and enterprise to see the Majesty Royal of England once again re- placed in her house; and had set up King Henry as a mark at whose overthrow al) her actions should aim and shoot; insomuch as all the counsels of his succeedinj troubles came chiefly out of that quiver."— .Bocoh'* Reign of Henry VIL England. 463 (1497). There, becoming acquainted with the Earl of War- wick, he planned with him an escape, but the plot was dis- covered, and both were executed, Perkin being hanged at Tyburn, and the unfortunate prince beheaded, on a charge of treason (1499). By this act of cruelty, Henry destroyed the last male descendant of the Plantagenets. 4. Henry was a prudent monarch, and very much averse to war, because it prevented the gratification of his ruling passion, avarice. In order to increase his hoards, he resorted to the most unjust and tyrannical exactions. His treasures amounted at his death Wealth of the king. to nearly two millions sterling — an enormous sum for that period. He died after a reign of twenty-four years, and was succeeded by his son Henry (1509). During the reign of Henry VII., the celebrated navigators, John and Sebastian Cab'ot, set sail from Bristol under a Cabots. commission from the king, and discovered the mainland of North America (1497). It was not until the year after this that Columbus, in his third voyage, reached the mainland of America. Henry built a large vessel which he named the Great Harry, thus laying the foundation of the English navy. 5. Henry VIII., when he ascended the throne, was only eighteen years of age, and was handsome, affable, and popu- lar. During the first year of his reign, he mar- ried Catharine of Aragon, aunt of the Emperor Marriage. Charles V., to whom he had been betrothed since his eleventh year. This princess had been previously married to his elder brother Arthur, a youth of sixteen years, who died a few months after the marriage. Henry made a special favorite of Thomas Wolsey {wooVze), and advanced him suc- cessively to the highest honors, though he was of Wolsey. very humble origin, being, as it is said, the son of a butcher. Wolsey had, however, received an excellent education, and was a man of very great talents. He was afterward made a cardinal by the Pope, and himself aspired to be pope. 464 Modern History, 6. Henry joined the league which Wcas formed against France by Spain, Venice, and the Pope; and, liaving invaded France at the head of 50,000 men, he routed the French in the celebrated Battle of the Spurs, so called from the rapid flight of the enemy Defeat of the French. (1513). In this campaign, the Emperor Maximilian enlisted in Henry's army, and received pay as one of his subjects and Flodden Field. Ship iw which Henry Vm. embarkrd tn lf520 Fon Franok. captains. In tlie same year, James IV., king of Scotland, having invaded England with a large army, was defeated by the Earl of Surrey in the battle of Flodden Field; and the king himself, with tlie flower of the Scottish nobility, was left dead on the field.* The French • The Scots woiild not believe that their king was slain, nsgertlng that the body which was taken to London and Interred as his. was in roallty that of one Elphin- stou, who, to deceive tlie English, was arrayed in anns resembling the king's England. 465 king, Francis I., desirous of effecting an alliance with Eng- land, planned a meeting with Henry, which took place near Calais, at what was called, from the gorgeousness of the dis- play made, the ''Field of the Cloth of Gold" (1520). 7. Martin Luther having caused great excitement in Europe by the promulgation of his doctrines, Henry VIII., who had been carefully educated in the Roman faith, wrote a treatise against them, and dedicated it to the Luther. Pope (Leo X.), who, as a recompense, conferred on the royal author the title of Defender of the Faith (1521). A few years after this, Henry applied to the Pope (Clement VII.) for a divorce from Queen Catharine, professing to have some doubts of the lawfulness of a marriage with his brother's i widow: while the real reason was that he desired I to marry Anne Boleyn {an hHVen), an attendant of the queen, with whom he had become enamored (1527). 8. Clement, unwilling to grant the request of the English monarch, put him off from time to time, thus keeping him in a state of suspense. The king's anger was first TTT -, 1 I Wolsey'sfall vented upon his great mmister, W olsey, to whose insincerity or neglect he attributed the disappointment of his wishes. Accordingly, the cardinal was dismissed from his high office, banished from court, and deprived of many of his great possessions. Being resolved upon his entire ruin, the king afterward caused him to be arrested on a charge of treason; but death saved the proud cardinal from any further disgi'acev Among his last words was the well-known excla- mation, '* Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs!'* 9. By the advice of Cranmer, the great universities of Europe were consulted with regard to the lawfulness of during the battle. Hence, the populace entertained the opinion that James waa still alive, having secretly gone on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and that he would return and take possession of the throne. To this fond conceit they clung for many years. 466 Modern History. Henry's marriage; and these having generally decided against it, Cranmor, who had recently been made Archbishop of Canterbury, opened a court to examine the question; but the queen refusing to appear before it, he declared the marriage invalid, and ratified that with Anne Boleyn, who was then formally crowned Divorce of Catharine. queen (1533). The Pope having pronounced the judgment of Cranmer illegal, and threatened Henry with excommuni- cation, the Parliament, under the king's iniluence, confirmed his marriage with Queen Anne, and formally declared him "the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England." By this declaration and other acts of Parliament, the English Church was separated entirely from the Catholic Church (1534). The monasteries were after- ward suppressed, and some modifications intro- English Reformation. duced in the doctrines and forms of religion. This event is known in history as the English Reformation. 10. Sir Thomas More, one of the most virtuous and learned men of the kingdom, who had succeeded Wolsey as chancellor, was beheaded for refusing to acknowl- edge the king's supremacy ; and the upright Bishop Fisher was condemned and executed for More and Fisher. the same offense (1535).* The king indeed evinced, during the whole of his subsequent reign, a spirit of the most cruel bigotry and persecution. In abandoning his allegiance to thePope, he by no means became a Henry's bigot^. convert to all the new doctrines of Luther and others against ♦ " Cromwell's ingenuity framed an act of succes.sion which not only sanctioned the re-marriage, but called on all who took the oath of allegiance to declare their belief in the religious validity of the divorce." It was this oath that More refused to take. "A mock trial was hardly necessary for his condemnation, or for that ol Fisher, the most learned among the prelates who had l>een Imprisoned on the same charge in the Tower. The old bishop approached the block witli a hook of the New Testament In his hand. He opened it at a venture ere he knelt, and read: 'This is life eternal to know Thee, the only true Ood.' Fisher s death was soon followed by that of More. On the eve of the fatal blow, he moved his beard carefully from the block, ' Pity that should he cut,' he was heard to mutter, with a touch of the old, sad irony; ' that has never committed treason.' "— co- ple. During the reign of Charles I. they manifested the most England. 493 intense zeal for liberty; but now they seemed eager to evince an equally extravagant spirit of submission. Under the control of the Puritans, they seemed to think that religion consisted in gloom, auster- Change in manners. ity, and the sacrifice of all social gayety and pleasure; but, going to the opposite extreme, they now plunged into riot and dissipation. Everything religious or serious was ridiculed; and nothing bat scenes of gallantry and festivity occupied the general attention. The monarch set the example, and in- dulged himself in mirth and festivity, while those who had suffered in his father's cause were left in wretchedness and neglect.* This profusion and reckless self-indulgence on the part of the king considerably abated the people's loyalty, for they could not forbear a comparison between this slothful and licentious monarch and Conduct of Charles. the great Protector who had made the name of England so glorious throughout the world. 67. Dunkirk, which had been acquired during that splen- did period, was now sold to the French to supply means for the king's extravagant pleasures (1664). The same year war was commenced against the Dutch; Dunkirk. and the English took possession of New Netherlands in North America, and captured some of the Dutch settlements in Af- rica. De Ruyter retaliated by attacking Barba- does and some of the other English dependencies. Outcli war. A great naval battle was fought off the eastern coast of Eng- land, in which James, Duke of York, brother of the king, defeated the Dutch fleet with immense loss (1665). France then took sides with the Dutch republic; but the combined fleets of the allies, commanded by French war. the great Admiral De Ruyter and the Duke of Beaufort, were * In the third year of his veign, Charles had married Catharine of Braganza, a Port;iignese princess, with •vrliom he received a large dowry; but finding her dis- position serious and her manners formal and grave, he entirely neglected her for the society of his gay and dissolute companions. 494 Modern History. defeated by the English under the Duke of Al'be-marle (pre- Tiously General Monk) and Prince Rupert. This battle Listed four days, and was one of the most terrific naval engagements ever fought (16G6). 68. It was at this time that the Great Plague broke out in London; and such was its virulence, that the deaths in the City alone were estimated at not less than 100,000 in one year (1665). Close upon this dreadful Great Plague. calamity followed the Great Fire, which raged for three days, and destroyed upward of 13,000 dwelling-houses and ninety churches (1G66). The desire of Charles to save expense, in order that he might have means for his extravagant indul- gences, led to neglect in keeping up the naval force of the kingdom; and the Dutch, taking advantage of this, defiantly entered the harbors, and did im- mense havoc to the shipping. They even sailed Attack of the Dutch. up the Thames, extending their ravages as far as London Bridge (1667). Peace was, however, declared the same year. 69. The disgraceful close of this war, together with the previous measures, made the government very unpopular; and Clarendon was impeached and banished. Five ministers, called afterward the Cabal* were then chosen, who adopted the policy of restraining the French The Cabal. king Louis XIV. in his ambitious scheme of seizing the Spanish Netherlands.! A league was formed with Holland and Sweden, called the Triple Alliance; and Louis was compelled to abandon his enterprise (1668). Triple Airinace. Charles afterward became dissatisfied with the alliance and concluded a disgraceful treaty with Louis, in which he agreed to assist the latter in subjugating Holland, and also consented ♦The initial lettcirs of the names of these ministers -Clifford, Ashley, Bucking- ham, Arlington, and I^udenlale-gave point to tliis term of reproach, which at that period, as at present, was used to signify any sc»cr"t committee, or junto. t That part of Netherlands which rnmained in posnession of Spain after the nutch provinces had revolted and achieved their independence. It iucluded the present kingdom of Belgium England. 495 to make a public profession of the Catholic faith. For this he was to receive as a compensation an immense sum of money yearly from the French coffers (1670). 70. Shortly afterward (1672), England joined France in a war against the Dutch; and while the fleets of the latter con- tended with those of the English commanded by the Duke of York, the French army invaded the Dutch war. territory of the republic, captured many of its cities, and drove it to the extreme measure of opening the sluices and inundating the country. In these perilous circumstances the Dutch forces were commanded by William, Prince of Orange, who gained great distinction by his determined courage and patriotism. The William of Orange. war continued till 1674, when it had become so unpopular that the king was compelled to make a treaty of peace with the Dutch provinces.* 71. While this war was in progress, the Test Ad was passed by Parliament, obliging all government officers to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and to ab- jure all the doctrines of the Catholic Church. Test Act. The Duke of York, brother of the king, who had made a public profession of his adherence to that church, resigned the office of admiral, and was succeeded by Prince Rupert. Much excitement was produced by an alleged conspiracy (called the ''Popish Plot"). It was Popish Plot. rumored that the Catholics had planned to set fire to the city of London, assassinate the king, and deliver the country to the French. The chief witness in this absurd accusation was one Titus Gates, who afterward was proved to be a most in- famous character. Before, however, the impos- ture was discovered, many innocent persons suf- fered death, among them the aged and illustrious Earl of Stafford (1680). * The Dutch republic was called the " Republic of the Seveu United Provincoi." It included the present kingdom of Holland. • Death of Surrey. 496 Modern History. 72. In the year 1679, was passed the famous Ha' be-as Cor' pus * act, securing all subjects from imprisonment, ex- cept where it can be shown to be justified by law. This was designed to check the illegal and arbi- Habeas corpus. trary arrests made by the authority of the king, who in every respect exercised the most despotic sway. He deprived many of the cities, London included, of their charters, in order to extort money for their restoration; and no one felt himself secure from the numerous gangs of spies and in- formers who were employed by the court. This Rye-House Plot. state of things led to a very remarkable conspiracy, called the Eye-House Plot (1683). 73. The members of this plot were. Lord William Russell, Algernon Sidney, John Hampden (grandson of the great patriot), the Duke of Monmouth (the king's natural son), and others. The object was to restore the liberties of the country by dethron- Members and object. ing its present arbitrary monarch, but the conspirators did not agree as to the mode of accomplishing it. Monmouth expected the throne himself, Russell wislied simply reform, and Sidney was enthusiastic for the restoration of the re- public. The plot having been discovered, Russell and Sidney were beheaded (1683); but Monmouth, who had succeeded in making his escape, was afterward pardoned. The death of Charles occurred a short Death of Charles. time afterward (1685); and his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded, under the title of James IT. 74. James 11., notwithstanding the glory he had acquired as a naval commander, was very unpopular on account of his religion, to which ho showed the greatest attachment. The Duke of Monmouth, who had lied to Holland during the pre- * Hahecut corpiut means " have the body." Tho writ, or order of the court of Justice, was so called becau8<> It enjoins any person n'sttiiinlnj? another's Iil)erty, to have his body, that Is, to prmluee the prisoner, before the court, so that the cause of his 'ietention may be ksiown. England. 497 ceding reign, now set up a claim to the throne, and landing in England, was soon joined by a considerable force. He was, however, completely defeated at Insurrection. Sedge'moor,* and being apprehended after the battle, was tried and executed (1685). The most dreadful persecution followed of those who were implicated in the rebellion. Trials were held under the infamous Judge Jeffreys; and many innocent persons were condemned and Jeffries. executed. This wicked judge boasted of the large number of persons (more than 300) whom he had caused to be hanged. 75. The imprudent zeal of the king in promoting the Catholics to power, occasioned great excitement and dissatis- faction. Having issued a proclamation allowing | liberty of conscience, and declaring that non-con- formity to the established religion should no Zeal of the king. longer be punished, he required that this declaration should be read in all the churches. The clergy refused to obey; and a petition was presented against the proclamation by seven bish- ops, including Sancroft, the primate. James, exasperated at this opposition, caused the bishops to be arrested and imprisoned in the Tower (1688). The popular excitement produced by this act of the king was Arrest of the bishops. intense. Crowds attended the bishops as they were con- ducted to the Tower, and signified their sympathy and venera- tion in every possible way. The acquittal of the bishops after their trial at Westminster Hall, still further increased the commotion, even the soldiers whom James had collected for his protection taking part against him. 76. A few months afterward, William, Pi'ince of Orange, f who had married Mary, eldest daughter of James II., taking advantage of the popular indignation against the king, set * Sedgemoor, a wild tract of country in the southwestern part of England, not far from Bristol Channel. t William was the son of Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I., and consequently was a nephew of James II. : and Mary, his wife, was his first cousin. Setting aside tbe family of James II., William was thus the next lawful heir to the throne. 498 Modern History. sail from Holland with a large fleet and army, and proceeded to England. Having el!ected a landing at Tor- bay, he marched toward London; whereupon James, finding himself without support, fled to France. A convention of representatives was immediately Landing of William. assembled (January 1689); and the crown was bestowed on William and Mary for their lives, the succes- sion being settled on the Princess Anne, second Convention. daughter of James II., who had married Prince George of Denmark. The convention an- nexed to this settlement a Decla- ration of Rights, definitely fixing the extent of the king's preroga- tive, and more precisely stating the constitutional principles of the government. 77. The most important arti- cles of this instrument were : 1. The king cannot suspend the laws or their execution; 2. He cannot levy money without the consent of Parliament; 3. The subjects have a riglit to peti- tion the crown; 4. A standing army cannot be kept in time of peace without the consent of Par- liament; 5. Elections and parliamentary debates must be free, and parliaments must be frequently assembled. These acts of the convention were afterward confirmed by a l)arliament regularly summoned, in an enactment called the Bill of Rights, and constituted what is William III. Declaration of rights. Revolution. called in English history the Glorious Revolution of 1G88.* 78. William and Mary. Although the crown had been conferred jointly upon William and Mary, the administration of the government was exclusively intrusted to the former. * So called, although It took place in 1689 (January); because, until 17&2, the English commenced the year on the 3&th of March. England, 499 James II. having received a considerable naval force from the French king, Louis XIV., proceeded to Ire- land, where the people were generally favorable James II. to his cause. He was received with great demonstrations of joy, and a large army was soon collected for his support. He was, however, entirely defeated by William in the celebrated Battle of the Boyne (1690), and was again compelled to take refuge in France. The next year Ireland was entirely subdued; and the Scottish Highlanders, who had taken up arms in favor of James, were Ireland and Scotland. induced to submit to the government. In connection with the pacification of the Highlands, occurred the dreadful Mas- sacre of Glencoe* (1692). 79. The war with France still continued; and, in 1692, the French fleet was defeated by the combined English and Dutch fleets, under the command of Admiral Russell, in the famous battle of La Hogue {hog). \ French war. This disastrous defeat decided the fate of James, and destj-oyed his hopes of ever regaining the English throne. The war, however, was not formally terminated until the treaty of Rys'wick (1697)4 William, by the death of Mary, in 1694, became sole ruler, under the title of William III. His own death occurred in 1702. He was a man William III. of great abilities, both for war and statesmanship, and a most excellent sovereign; but the austerity of his manners made him unpopular. The character of Mary was very amiable and exemplary. * Mclan of Glencoe, Chief of the McDonalds, had delayed taking the oath of allegiance to the king; and the enemies of the clan, taking advantage of this cir- cumstance, obtained an order for its military execution. Accordingly, a body of soldiers entered the valley of Glencoe, and cruelly put to the sword all who failed to escape, including men, women, and children. The signing of this order has sub- jected Eang William to very severe censure. Glencoe is situated at Loch Leven, in the western part of Scotland. t Cape La Hogue is in the northern part of France, a short distance east of Cher- bourg, and is not to be confounded with Cape La Hacfiie. to the west of Cherbourg. t Ryswick is a small town in the western part of Holland, 35 miles southwd the throne. «he was so much under the influence of Lady Marlborough and the duke, her husband, that these were regarded as virtually almost the reigning sovereigns, Pilnce George of Denmark making no interference in English aiTairs. The corre spondence of the queen and her favorite was of the most intimate and confidential character, and was carried on under the names of Mrs:. Morley and Mrs. Freeman, the latter name being a.ssumed by the duchess. t Rlntheim is a small village in Bavaria, on the Danube, 23 miles W. N. W of Augsburg. England. 501 iblen'Mme) (1704). The celebrated Prince Eugene* com- manded the imperial troops in this battle. During the same year, the English fleet captured 'Gibraltar; and this strong fortress has ever since remained in the possession of Great Britain. In 1706, Marl Victories of Marlborough. borough gained another brilliant victory over the French at Kamillies {ram'e-leez), and by means of it made almost an entire conquest of Flanders. The French also received the same year a terrible overthrow from Prince Eugene, at Tu'rin. The year 1708 was signalized by another great victory over the French at Ou'den-ar-de, which was followed, the next year, by the terrific battle of Malplaquet {mal-plah'ka), in which the allied army, under Marlborough, routed the French, but with the dreadful loss of 20,000 men. This decided vic- tory finished the campaign in Flanders (1709). 82. Shortly afterward, Marlborough, being accused of dis- honest practices in connection with the army contracts and accounts, was dismissed by the queen from all his appointments. The parliament also having passed a vote of censure of his conduct, he retired from Dismissal of Marlborough. England in disgust, and took up his abode in the Netherlands.! Peace was concluded with France by the treaty of Utrecht {u'trekt), in 1713. The following year the queen died. She was very popular, receiving the title Death of Anne. of the Good Queen Anne; but, according to some authorities, she was full of prejudices, easily influenced by flattery, and blindly guided by her female favorites. Her reign was not only distinguished for military achievements, but was charac- * Prince Eugene was bom in Paris in 1663. He was the son of Eugene Maurice, Count of Soissons, and of Olympia Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin. He entered the servioe of the emperor, and soon gained great distinction, especially in the wars with the Turks. He died in 1736. He was small in stature, simple in dress and manner, and kind-hearted in his treatment of his soldiers. t Marlborough was afterward restored to his position in the army. He died In "!792. He is said to have been so illiterate that he could not write his native lan- guage with tolerable correctness. Avarice was his greatest weakness. 602 Modern History, terized to such an extent for progress in literature, that it has been styled the ** Augustan Age of Enghiud." The chief political event was the ** Constitutional Union of England and Scotland," in 1707. These two countries, since the accession of James I., had Character and reign. acknowledged one sovereign, each having its own separate legislature; but, since the union of 1707, they have both sent representatives to the same parliament. Queen Anne was the last sovereign of the House of Stuart. State of Society ik England, During the Period of tite Stuarts (1603-1714). 83. This period is particularly noted for the rapid transit tions that occurred in moral and religious sentiments among the people, as well as their social manners. Party animosity was so intense that no mar- Party strife. riages, or alliances of any kind, were permitted between the members of the hostile factions. ** Your friends, the Cava- liers," said a parliamentarian to a royalist, ** are very disso- lute and debauched." *^True," replied the royalist, "they have the infirmities of men; but your friends, the Round- heads, have the vices of devils — tyranny, rebellion, and spiritual pride." 84. The Cavaliers were indeed gay in their manners and dress, being commonly men of birth and fortune, and they thus presented a marked contrast to the gloomy fanaticism of the Roundheads. The risrid sever- CavalJers. ity of the Puritans permitted no recreations, except such as were afforded by the singing of hymns and psalms. Plays, dances, and all other merry- Puritant. makings were sinful frivolities: horse-racing and bear-baiting — popular diversions of the time — were wicked enormities. Hence, Colonel Hewson with pious zeal marched his regiment into London and killed all the boars ; on which incident Butler based a part of his burlesque poem, styled ** Hudibnis." England. 503 86. During this period arose also the Quakers or Friends — a sect founded by George Fox, who was born in 1624. He was by trade a shoemaker; but feeling a strong impulse toward spiritual contemplations, he Quakers. abandoned this occupation, and wandered about the country, preaching the doctrines which had been suggested to his mind during his solitary meditations. Proselytes were soon gained, and a sect formed, peculiar not only in their religious views, but in all their social habits and customs. Their zeal was soon tried by bitter persecution. They were thrown into prison — sometimes into mad-houses; they were pilloried; they were whipped; they were burned in the face; and their tongues bored with red-hot irons; but nothing could overcome their fortitude, or quench their en- thusiasm. Driven out of England, they vainly sought an asylum among their former brethren in affliction, the Puritans of New England; but, under William Penn, found it in the wilds and among the wild men of Pennsyl- vania, as the Catholitjs, under Lord Baltimore, had previ- ously done in Maryland. 86. Commerce and navigation flourished greatly during the first part of the reign of Charles I. The trade to Guinea, the Levant, and the East Indies was quite large; immense quantities of cloth were annually ex- ported to Turkey; and the English possessed al- most the monopoly of the traffic with Spain. Interrupted during the civil wars, commerce soon recovered after the Restoration, and received additional encouragement from the losses sustained by the Dutch. The trade with the American colonies soon became considerable. At the close of the cen- tury, about five hundred vessels were employed in this trade Cavalier and Puritan. Commerce and navigation. 604 Modern History. and that with the West Indies. Of these some were engaged in the slave-trade. Tea and coffee were introduced from the East, but for a long time were so expensive that they were used only as luxuries. Tobacco became extensively an article of commerce, notwithstanding "The Counterblaste to To- bacco," written by James I., who had a great dislike to its 6HIF8 OV WAB in TBK 'i c;harles II. use. Whale-ships visited Greenland and Spitzbergen; and Madras and Bombay became important centers of the East Indian trade. 87. Next to the capital, the chief seaport was Bristol, and Norwich the chief manufacturing town. Manchester, now the great center of the cotton manufacture, was then a small town of about 6,000 inhabitants; Chi«f town*. Leeds, the great woolen mart, was but a little larger; Sheflficld and Birmingham were very small towns; and Liverpool, prob- ably, did not contain 200 seamen. The population of Ijon- don at the death of Charles II. is estimated at half a million. England. 505 The streets, narrow, dirty, unpayed, and not lighted till the last year of that monarch's reign, were infested with ruffians and robbers, against whom the watchmen, generally old and feeble men, could afford no protection. 88. Manufacturing industry began to assume that promi- nence in England which it at present possesses. The cotton manufacture was commenced at Manchester, and the art of dyeing woolen cloth was introduced Manufactures. from Flanders, thus saving the nation vast sums of money. New manufactures were also established in iron, brass, silk, paper, etc. Tiie trade with India and the Levant led to the introduction of many articles of luxury, both in dress and furniture. Carpets, from being used only as covers for tables, came gradually into Articles of luxury. their present use; although during most of this period rushes or matting constituted the only covering used for floors. The manufacture of oil-cloth was commenced in 1660. The Duke of Buckingham inti:oduced the making of glass from Venice. 89. TJie Stuarts were patrons of the fine arts. The value of pictures is said to have doubled in Europe in consequence of the competition of Charles I, and Philip IV. of Spain to obtain them. The distinguished Fine arts. Dutch painters, Van Dyke and Eubens, were invited into England, and received great attention from the Court. Inigo Jones and Sir Christopher Wren, the renowned architects, flourished during this period. The former built the beautiful banqueting-house at Whitehall; the latter is especially cele- brated as the designer of St. PauFs. In London alone, fifty- one churches were erected from Wren's designs. 90. During the reign of Charles 11. , there arose a galaxy of great men, distinguished for their researches in every branch of knowledge. Boyle, by his improve- ments in the air-pump, was enabled to make many Science. valuable experiments on the nature and properties of the air; 506 Modern History, Wallis and Hooke made some valuable improvements in op- tical instruments; Flamsteed and llalley wei'C eminent astron- omers — the former noted for the catalogue of stars which he made; the latter as the first to predict the return of a comet. Harvey also announced his famous discovery of the circulation of the blood (1628). Above all, however, towered the sublime genius of Newton, the discoverer of the law of universal gravi- tation. 91. The number of printing-presses in the kingdom was quite small; and, consequently, books were scarce and dear. A taste for reading had, however, become much more general; and there were many distinguished Books. writers in almost every branch of literature. In the first part of the reign of James I., the drama continued to be enriched by the Literature. SBAKK8PKAR& contributions of Shakespeare, who died in 1616. Beaumont, Fletcher, and Philip Massinger were noted dramatists of this reign, with Ben Jonson (1574- 1637), who was poet-laureate.* Sir Walter Kaleigh wrote, while in prison, the History of the World; and Lord Bacon pub- lished those great philosopliical works, The Advancement of Learnmg and the Novum Organina (New Instrument), wliich changed the methods of scientific investigation. Bacon is sometimes called the ** Father of the Inductive Philosophy."! ♦ Laureate means crowned with laurel, in allusion to the ancient practice of thiig rewaixling eminent poets. Traces of this appointment are found as early as the reign of Henry III. The office was made a patent one by Charles I., who fixed the salary at JBlOO a year, and a tierce of wine. t '* The power and compass of a mind which could form such a plan beforehand, and trace noc merely the outline, but many of the most minute ramifications of sciences whtch did not yet exist, must be an object of admiration t*) all succeeding age»."-/^o/. I'layfair, England, ^iff 92. In the next period, including the reigns of Charles I. and Charles II., the most prominent poets were Sir William Daveaant, who succeeded Ben Jonson as poet- laureate; Abraham Cowley, who at his death Noted writers. (1667) ranked as the first poet of England; John Milton (1608-1674), the illustrious author of Paradise Lost; Kobert Herrick, one of the most charm- ing of the early English lyric poets; and Samuel Butler, the author of the satirical poem Hu- dibras. The famous poet and dramatist John Dryden (1631- 1700), who was poet-laureate, belongs to the close of this period. The other most noted contri- butors to the drama were Ot- way, Congreve, and Wycherly, who lived during tlie reign of baoon. Charles II., in whicli the drama, taking its character from the court, was shamefully immoral. 93. The most celebrated prose writers of the period were Thomas Fuller, the quaint and Avitty historian, divine, and essayist; Lord Clarendon, the famous statesman, who wrote the History of the ReheUion, one of Noted w'ters. the most interesting historical works in the language; John Bunyan, the author of Pilgrim'' s Progress; and Jeremy Taylor, the writer of Holy Living and Dyi7ig, To the ''Augustan period*' of Queen Anne belong the celebrated essayists Addison and Steele, the prin- cipal contributors to the Spectator; De Foe, the Augustan period. author of Eobinsoji Crusoe; Alexander Pope, the author of many beautiful poems and the translator of Homer; and Jon- athan Swift, the author of Gulliver^ s Travels, and other satiri- cal works. The last-mentioned writers belong in part to the succeeding period. 508 Modern History. SECTION III. The House of Brunswick. 94. George I. was the son of the Duke of Brunswick, Elec- tor of Hanover, and of Sophia, gi'and daughter of James I. He was fifty-four years of age when he commenced to reign, and never acquired any sympathy for tho English people or their institutions. The Stuart party, who favored the placing of James the Pretender, son of James 11., on the throne (hence called Jac'o-Mtes)y excited an insurrection (1715); but the rebels were defeated; and many of their Jacob'tes. leaders, among them the Earl of Derwentwater, were executed. The Pretender, sometimes styled the Chevalier of St. George, escaped to France. George I. died of apoplexy while on a visit to his native country (1727). 95. George II. succeeded his father at the age of forty-four years. Sir Robert Walpole, who had been prime minister during a large part of the previous reign, was continued in office, and administered the govern- ment, in a manner conducive to the peace and Robert Walpole. prosperity of the country, till his resignation, in 1742. A difficulty occurred with Spain during his administration, partly on account of a dispute with respect to the boundary of Georgia, an American colony which had been settled by General Oglethorpe in 1733, and named Spanish war. after tho king; and several of the Spanish cities in South America were taken by the English fleets. It was during this war that Anson's famous expedition occurred, which lasted nearly four years, and in which this admiral sailed round tho world (1740-1744). 96. England, in the mean time, became involved in a continental war. On the death of Charles VI., emperor of Germany (1740), Louis XV., king of France, setting aside the hereditary claims of Maria Theresa {te-re'zah), the em- England. 609 peror's daughter, had caused the Elector of Ba-va'ri-a to be placed on the imperial throne, and had raised a large army for his defense. Maria Theresa taking refuge among the Hungarians, was acknowledged War with France. by them as their queen; while England, supporting the claims of the Austrian princess, was involved in a war with France. This is called in history the War of the Austrian Succession. The most important events of it were the defeat of the French at Dettingen {def ting-en),* by the allied army of the English and Germans, in part under the command of George II. in person (1743); and the defeat of the allies (England, Hol- land, and Austria), under the Duke of Cumberland, by the French, under Marshal Saxe {sax) (1745), in the memorable battle of Fontenoy {fon-ta-mvah') \. The operations of the war also extended to the American colonies; and Louisburg, an important French fortress, called, from its strength, the ** Gibraltar of America," was captured (1745). 97. While these events were in progress, an unsuccessful attempt to invade England and overturn the government was made by Prince Charles, grandson of James II. He effected a landing in Scotland, though with- Prince Charles. out any military support (1745). Being soon joined by a small army of Highlanders, he defeated the royal forces; and, having taken Edinburgh and some other cities, he caused his father to be proclaimed king of Scotland, under the title of James VIII. He next marched into England, but was soon compelled to retreat, being pursued by the royal army, under the Duke of Cumberland, second son of George II. The two armies at length met at Cul-lo'den; and a battle was fought, in which the Pretender and his ad- Culloden. herents were entirely defeated (174G). This was the last battle fought on the soil of Great Britain, and closed the * Dettingen is a village of Bavaria, on the Main River, east of Frankfort. + Fontenoy is a village of Belgium, 43 miles southwest from Brussels, about half- way between Oudenarde and Majplaquet, (See Map, page 380.) 610 Modern History, struggle made by the Stuarts to regain their lost throne. Prince Charles wandered in disguise through the country foi five months; but, at length, succeeded in effecting his escape to France. 98. A treaty of peace was made with France at Aix-la- Chapelle, in 1748, by which Maria Theresa's claim to the throne was confirmed; but the war was soon after renewed in consequence of disputes respect- French war. ing the boundary of the French and English territories in America. In 1755, General Braddock was defeated by the French in an expedition against Fort du Quesne (doo-lcane*)\ but General Johnson gained a victory over the French and Indians at the head of Lake George, Baron Dieskau (dees'- koiu'), tlieir commander, being wounded and taken prisoner. An expedition under Colonel Monckton {monh'tun), the same year, drove the French from Nova Scotia. In 1759, General Wolfe succeeded in reaching the Plains of Abra- ham with his army, and defeated the French forces Wolfe. under the Marquis of Montcalm (mont-Jcam'). Both generals were mortally wounded. Quebec capitulated after this vic- tory, which virtually gave to the English possession of Canada. 99. Meanwhile, England had taken part in the famous Seven Years' War, brought on by a coalition of France and several of the other European states, against Frederick the Great of Prussia. Principally witli the object of defending the Electorate of Han- Seven Years* War. over, England formed an alliance with the Prussian monarch; and, under the able r.d ministration of William Pitt, afterward Earl of Chatham, the government displayed great vigor and enterprise. The want of success, however, of the'Duko of Cumberland enjibled the French to overrun Hanover (1757), it which the king was so indignant that he treated his son with the greatest coldness. Offended by this treatment, the yictor of CuUoden resigned all his offices, and went into retirement, Hanover was recovered the next year after its England, 511 conquest, and important advantages were gained by Ered- erick. Lord Olive also won a series of splendid i victories over the French m Inaia, achieving the conquest of Bengal.* Before the war was brought to a close. Gkographicai. Study. What is tJie situation of: Bengal? Dkccan? Bombay? Madras? Afghanis TAN? ScrNDE? Punjab? Nkpaul? Bootan? Calcutta? Benares? Lucknowt Meerut? Delhi? Cawnpore? Arcot? Tanjore? Pondicherry? Lahore? CaboolJ the king died, and was succeeded by his grandson, under the title of George III. (1760). ♦"CUve was indeed, as Chatham once called him, a * Heaven-bom general,* who, with no military training, had shown consummate military genius. With nearly as little study cf politics, he displayed nearly ac great abilities for govern- 512 Modern History, 100. George III. was twenty-two years old when he as- cended the throne, and was the first king of the House of Brunswick that was born in England. Pitt soon afterward retired from the government, and was succeeded by Lord Bute, a man of indifferent merit, but an Lord Bute. especial favorite of the king. The arms of Great Britain and her allies continued to be successful in Europe, notwithstand- ing her enemies were strengthened by the accession of Spain; but the government desired peace, which was finally attained by the Treaty of Paris, made in 1763. The most important conquests made by the English during this long war were those in North America and India. In Conquests. the latter country, the genius of Olive had laid the founda- tion of the British power so firmly, that the French could never afterward regain their influence. 101. Shortly after this peace, the famous Stamp Act was for the purpose of raising a revenue in America (1765). The measure was greatly opposed in Parliament by the Earl of Chatham and others, as impolitic and unjust; but the government in- American revolution. sisted on its right to tax tlie colonies; and the latter, after a resistance of ten years, were finally driven into the War of the Revolution, which commenced at Lexington, in Massa- chusetts (April 19, 1775).* The next year, the thirteen ment.— Energy,— which perhaps, of all human qualities, is the one most conducive to success,— energy and fearlessness, were peculiarly his own. Whatever RT^titude Spain owes to her Cortes, or Portugal to her Albuquerque, tliis, and in its resijlta more than this. Is due from Enprland to Clive. Had he never been Iwm, I do not believe that we should, at least in that generation, have conquered Hindostan : had he lived longer, I doubt If we should, at least in that generation, have lost North America."— Lord Mahon'a History of England. Olive's conduct In India, a short time after his return to England, In 1787, was brought under parliamentary censure, and, smarting with disgrace, he i3ommitted suicide (1774). • " In order to enforce the monstrous claim of ta.dng a whole people without their consent, there was waged agixinst America a war ill ronductod. nnsuccpssful, and, what Is far worse, accompanied by crueltios disgraceful to a ci>*IlizpJi8 sonthe^stem part of China, 522 Modern History, which the elective franchise was greatly extended; the Abys' sinian war, in which King Theodore was defeated (1868); the disestablishment of the Irish Church (1869); and the passage of the first Irish land bill (1870), Other events. designed to regulate the relations between landlords and ten- ants, and giving to the latter several privileges. 117. In the same year (1870), popular education in Great Britain was placed on a more efficient basis by the passage of a law under which school boards were elected throughout the country, and great improvements Education. effected. Later a war broke out with the Ashantees in Africa, growing out of their attacks upon a tribe friendly to the English (1872). Under Sir Garnet Wol- Ashantee war. seley (wool'zlee), the English army defeated the barbarous king, and burned his capital, Coomassic. This was soon followed by a treaty of peace (1873). In 1872, the Ballot Act was passed, which prescribed a closed ballot for members of parliament. Dr. Livingstone, the celebrated African explorer, died this year, in Central Dr. Livingstone. Africa, and his remains were ta>kcn to England and buried with great ceremony in Westminster Abbey. In 1875, Great Britain purchased from the Khedive of Egypt a one-half ownership of the Suez Canal, with tlie Suez Canal. view to protect its route to India. 118. lu 1877, a British force entered and took possession of the Transvaal Republic, in South Africa. This subsequent- ly led to a difficulty with the Bvoers, living in the Transvaal, by whom a British force was dis- Trantvaal. astrously defeated (1880); but the matter was afterward amicably settled, a treaty being made with the Boers. The British interests were involved in the war be- tween Russia and Turkey — the Eastern War of Eastern war. 1877-8 — and, during the negotiations under the administra- tion of tl)e Englisli prime minister, the Earl of Boaconsfield, Turkey ceded the government of Cyprus to Great Britain, England. 523 which cession was afterward confirmed by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). 119. In 1878 occurred the war in Afghanistan, in which the country was invaded by the British from India, some of its chief cities occupied, and full submission to British demands compelled. In the same year a war broke out with the Zulus (zoo'looz), a fierce and barbarous tribe of South Afrion; and, in January, 1879, a British force was attacked by the savages, and almost destroyed. This led to de- Zulu war. cided measures, and, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, the war was brought to speedy termination, many of the villages of the Zu- lus being burned and their king captured (1879). In a skirmish in this war, the French Prince Im- Prince Imperial, perial, son of Napoleon III., who had gone out to Africa to witness the operations of the war, was killed. The admin- istration of Glad- stone* succeeded Gladstone. that of Beaconsfieldjf and was Gladstonk. signalized by the ]iassage of the Irish Land Bill (1881), rendered necessary by disturbances in Ireland, growing out of the Ireland. oppressive relations existing between the landlords and the peasant tenantry. Some of the evils complained of were re- moved by the measure which the minister introduced and carried through Parliament, after a great struggle. * William E. Gladstone, celebrated not only as a statesman and orator, but as a scholar and author, was born in 1809. He has been connected with some of the mo&' important measures of the British Government during the last thirty years. + jfTie Earl of Beaconsfield, better kno\vn as Benjamin Disraeli, son of the cele. brated writer Isaac Disraeli, was born in 1805, of a Jewish family. He won dis- tinction r)oth in the field of literature and politics. His course in Parliament was a very distinguished one, both as a Tory leader and minister. In 1877. he becam#» a member of the House of Lords with his title as earl. He died in 1881. 624 Modern History. State of Society in England, During the Brunswick Period, from 1714 to the Present Time. 120. During the period of the first three Georges (1714- 1820), the British Government assumed a settled character, and, as the people advanced in intelligence, be- came more and more dependent upon their Government. wishes. The king ruled through his ministers, who could continue in office only as long as they retained the support of Parliament. The royal authority in England has ever since been subordinate to public opinion. In the present century this has been illustrated by the repeal of the corn and naviga- tion laws, parliamentary reform, and other liberal measures.* 121. During the first part of this period, religion was at a yery low ebb among all classes. The clergy, often ordained without any regard to their intellectual and spirit- ual attainments, but simply as a provision for the Religion. younger sons of aristocratic families, neglected the duties of their sacred calling to indulge in fox-hunting, gaming, and the pleasures of the table. The preaching of George Whitefield t and John Wesley | did much to infuse into the public mind ahiglier regard for Whitefield and Wesley. spiritual matters. The religious society which they founded received, at first as a nickname, the appellation of **Metliod- * The emancipation of the Catholics from the political disabilities under which they suflfered so long, and the admission of Jews to Parliament (18r>8), are additional indications of the progress of enlightened sentiments, and the extinction of those prejudices which are the offspring of ignorance and bigotry. t Oeorye Whitefield was particularly celehrateee War. Cooniassie, the capitiil, burned 1873 Treaty of Berlin. Cypnis ce David Hume 638 William Robertson 633 Edward Gibbon 533 Laurence Sterne, John Keats. 683 Percy Bysshe Shelley 683 Thomas Moore 584 Thomas Campbell 684 William Wordsworth 684 Robert Southey 534 Samuel T. Coleridge. 631 Thomas Hood 5»» J. Sheridan Knowles 634 Sir Walter Scott 684 Dugald Stewart 685 Sir James Mackintosh. 686 Lord Jeffrey 685 Charles Lamb 635 Thomas De Quinoey 685 Alfred Tennyson 685 Thomas B. Macaulay 686 Lord Lytton (Bui wer) 686 Mrs. Lewes (Geonre EUot) 688 Charles Dickens 688 William M.Thackeray 686 John Stuart Mill 687 Thomas Carlyle 687 No. 17. CHAPTER X. France, From 1483 to the Present Time. SECTION I. The Valois-Orleans Branch. 1. Louis XII Charles VIII. dying without heirs, Louis, puke of Orleans, succeeded to the throne, being the great- grandson of Charles V. The nobleness of his character was displayed in his generous forgive- Character. ness toward his former enemies, for he said '*it did not be- come the king of France to resent the injuries of the Duke of Orleans." Most of this reign was occupied in wars waged for the possession of territories in Italy. Milan was taken (1500), and also Naples, with the aid War in Italy. of Ferdinand of Aragon; but the latter afterward disputed the French claim, and the French were defeated by the Spanish forces under Gon-sal'vo de Cordova, called the ** Great Captain," and Ferdinand thus gained almost ex- clusive possession of the Neapolitan States (1503). Louis attempted to retrieve his loss; but Gonzalvo inflicted upon the French one of the severest disasters that ever befell their arms (December, 1503). This defeat excluded the French from Naples, and a treaty of peace was made the next year. Geographical Study, Map No. XVII. What is the sittLation of ; Ykxsck^ Belgium? Germany? Switz'^rland? Italy? Austria? Paris? Rouen? Havre? Dieppe? Bologne? Amiens? Sedan? Rheims? Nancy? Luneville? Strasburg? Troyes? Chalons? Versailles? Orleans? Tours? Nantes? La Rochelle? Boraeaux? Toulouse? Avignon? Marseilles? Toulon? Brussels? Waterloo? Ghent? Metz? Leipsic? Munich? Hohenlinden? Augs- burg? Jena? Dresden? Prague? Sadowa? Milan? Campo Formio? Turin? Marengo? Lodi? Solferino? Magenta? Ravenna? Areola? FJba? 642 Modern History, League of Cam bray. 2. Louis, some time afterward, entered into the celebrated League of Cambray, formed by France, Germany, Spain, the Pope (Julius II.), and the minor states of Italy, in order to check the power of Venice, then at the height of its glory and influence. Under the command of the illustrious Chevalier Bay'ard, the French completely defeated the Venetians in the battle of Agnadello {aii-yah- deVIo); and the other allies were also success- ful (1509). But the intrigues of Julius II. soon afterward divert- ed the force of the alliance from Venice and turned it against France, with the view to deprive the latter of all her possessions in Italy. In this way the Holy League, consisting of the Pope, Ferdinand of Spain, and the Venetian Republic, was formed (1511); but the French, under the command of the renowned Gaston de Foix (fwah)y gained two brilliant vic- tories over the allies. That heroic general having fallen in one of these battles (1512), Louis was soon afterward obliged to succumb to the power of the League, and surrendered all his acquisitions in northern Itidy. 3. Louis then formed an alliance with Venice to recover these possessions (1513), and, at first, gained some successes; "I 1 but was finally defeated with severe loss by the , I Swiss, who had been hired by the Italians for their defense. This disaster encouraged the enemies of Pope Julius IJU Holy League. France, 543 France to attack it; and while it was threatened by Ferdinand of Spain, the Swiss invaded it from the west, and Henry VIII. landed with a large army at Calais. The latter, a short time afterward, fought the noted Battle of the Spurs, in which several of the French Battle of the Spurs. officers, including Bayard, were taken prisoners (1513) Louis, wearied with these harassing wars, shortly afterward succeeded in making a treaty of peace with his enemies, but survived it only a few End of the reign. months. His virtues had made him exceedingly popular, and he died universally regretted by his subjects (1515). 4. Francis I., Duke of Angouleme (ang-go-ldm)^ and cousin of Louis XIL, succeeded to the throne at the age of twenty-one years. He was of a very chivalrous disposition, and was eager to distinguish himself by military achievements. His first enterprise was to re- cover Milan, which had been lost during the First enterprise. previous reign; and, at the head of 40,000 men, command- ed by Bayard, tlie Constable Bour'bon, and other illus- trious generals, he invaded Italy. There, in the battle of Marignano (mah-reen-yali' no), he totally defeated the Swiss mercenaries, 10,000 of whom were left dead upon the field (1515). Milan, therefore, surrendered; and Francis wisely augmented his influence by establishing a lasting alliance with the Swiss Eepublic (1516). 5. On the death of Maximilian, emperor of Germany, Francis became a competitor with Charles of Spain for the vacant throne. The election of the latter ex- cited the anger of Francis, and gave rise to a series of wars that lasted nearly twenty-five Wars with Charles V. years, between him and his great rival, afterward so illus- trious as Charles V. of Germany. Both parties gought the alliance of Henry VIII. of England, ^nd, on the occasion of the interview which took Hen7 ar>d Francis. place, between the English and French monarchs, fUes cf 544 Modern History. such extraordinary splendor were given, that the place of the interview was called the " Field of the Cloth of Gold." Owing, however, to the intrigues of Wolsey, Henry declared in favor of the emperor. 6. Francis unwisely quarreled with his great general, the Constable of Bourbon, and the latter was gladly taken into the service of the emperor. The first step of the French Field of the Cborn op Gold. (From an old bas-relief.) king was to invade Italy; but his army wiis under the com. mand of an incompetent genenil, and Bourbon soon drove it into a disastrous retreat, during which the gallant and cliivalrous Bayard was Defeat in Italy. killed. Francis then conducted the army in ])er8on; but, at Pavi'a, suffered a dreadful defeat, all his most distinguished generals being slain, and he himself made ])risoner (1525). He remained in captivity more tlian a year, dur- ing which he suffered considerable indignity from Captivity. Charles V., who extorted from him an assent to the most humiliating conditions before he would grant his release. These, on regaining his liberty, he refused to fulfill, and con- France, 545 sequently the war was renewed, Francis having formed an alliance with Venice and the Pope. 7. Bourbon marched to Rome with a large army, consist- ing partly of German troops, whose minds had been excited by the new doctrines of Luther, and partly also composed of a multitude of adventurers and ban- dits, as ferocious as the Huns or Vandals. Bour- Taking of Rome. bon was slain in the first assault; but Rome was taken, and for seven months became a scene of the most remorseless vio- lence and pillage, the Pope (Clement VII.) being kept a prisoner, and treated with the grossest indignities (1527).* This led to an alliance be- tween the kings of France and England; and Charles, em- barrassed by the movements of the German Protestants, and threatened by the Turks under their great sultan, Soly- man the Magnificent, agreed to a treaty of peace with Fran- cis, made at Cambray (1529). 8. Twice, however, was the war renewed; and Francis degraded himself and shocked Christendom by forming an * "It is impossible to describe, or even to imagine, the misery and horror of the scenes which followed. Whatever a city taken by storm can dread from military rage mirestrained by discipline; whatever excesses the ferocity of the Germans, the avarice of the Spaniards, or the licentiousness of the Italians could commit, these the wretched inhabitants were obliged to suffer. Churches, palaces, and the houses of private persons were plundered without distinction. No age, or charac- ter, or sex was exempt from injury. Cardinals, nobles, priests, matrons, virgins, were all the prey of soldierr, and at the mercy of men deaf to the voice 3f humanity. Nor did these outrages cease, as is usual in towns which are carried by assault, when the first fury of the storm was over. The imperialists kept possession of Rome several months; and, during all that time, tho insolence and brutality of tho soldiers hardly abated."— i2o6erfeon'« Charlea the Fifth. Francis I. 646 Modern History. alliance with the Turkish sultan. In 1544, he wiped out the disgrace of his defeat at Pavia, by a splendid vic- tory in Italy over the imperial army; but Charles formed an alliance with Henry VIII., both mon- English alliance. archs engaging to invade France,- capture Paris, and divide the French dominions between them. The French king made a successful defense against the invading armies of these two powerful foes, and finally succeeded in making peace with both. His death occurred End of reign. the next year (1547). Francis was a liberal patron of litera- ture and the arts, both of which made very great progress during his reign. 9. Henry II., on his accession to the throne, was in the twenty-ninth year of his age. He was slothful and luxuri- ous in his disposition, and possessed but few of the talents of his father. Before he commenced Character. to reign, he married Catharine de' Medici {med'e-che), a de- scendant of the illustrious Lorenzo de' Medici, of the Florentine Republic, who, on account of Marriage. his accomplishments and his liberal patronage of learning and art, was styled the Magnificent.* 10. Hostilities between France and Charles V. were re- sumed soon after the commencement of Henry's reign; and the latter allied himself with the great Protestant champion, Maurice, Elector of Saxony, who at once declared war against the emperor as tlie War with Charles V. enemy of the civil and religious liberty of Germany. Charles v., prudently yielding to the force of so })owerful a combina- tion, concluded with the Germans the treaty of Passau, con- ceding to the Protestants freedom of worsliij) (1552). Henry II., however, having refused to be included in the treaty, the ♦ Pope Leo X. was a son of Lorenzo, and Clement Vn. a nephew; and when, through the influence of the latter and Charles V., Florence lost her lllierty, a membi'r of this celebrated family was made the first Duke of Florence (l.'VSfl); and its descendants, for a century afterward, continued to occupy the duoal throne of Tuacany. France, 547 imperial army was repulsed with severe loss at Metz, defended by the French under Francis, Duke of Guise (gweez). 11. Charles V. having i-esigned his throne to his son Philip, the French king embraced the occasion to invade the Netherlands and Italy; but sustained severe dis- asters in each of these enterprises. In the for- mer, the Constable Montmorency sustained a Battle of St. Quentin. total defeat at St. Quen'tin, where the flower of his army were either slain or taken prisoners (1557). Queen Mary of England had given assistance to her husband Philip; and, through tne energy of Guise, the French gained possession of Calais (1558). This was soon followed by a treaty of peace between the contending parties. Calais. and a little later by the king's death, which was occasioned by a wound received at a tournament (1559). 12. Francis II., a youth of sixteen years, succeeded to the throne. The year before, he married Mary Queen of Scots; and, being of feeble intellect, he was entirely ruled by his fascinating queen, who herself was Marriage. under the control of her uncles, the Duke of Guise and his brother. Cardinal of Lorraine. These two noblemen thus acquired the supreme power in the government; which they proceeded to employ for the destruction of the Protestants, or Huguenots, the persecution of whom had com- menced in the previous reign. The Huguenots Huguenots. had, nevertheless, rapidly increased in number and influence, and now included within their ranks the king of Navarre, his brother Louis, Prince of Conde {hon^da). Admiral Coligni {Jco-leen'ye), with many others of high rank and great ability. 13. On account of the tyrannical administration of the Guises, a conspiracy was formed, under Conde; which prov- ing unsuccessful, the Duke of Guise took the opportunity of executing a dreadful vengeance Duke of Guise. Qn those w|ip had been concerned in it, executing upward 648 Modern History, of twelve liundred persons with the most revolting cruelty (1560). This was soon followed by the arrest of the king of Navarre and the Prince of Conde, the latter of whom was convicted of high ti-eason and sen- Cond^. tenced to be executed; but the king's death taking j)lace soon afterward, he was released. The reign of Francis II. lasted less than eighteen months; and he was succeeded by his brother Charles, a youth ten years and a half old (15G0). 14. Charles IX. The government was now administered by the Queen-mother, Catharine de' Medici, who had pre- viously selected for her chief friend and adviser the moderate and virtuous Chancellor de rH6pital(o-/?e-^rt/ir); and the leaders of both religious parties wei*e L'Hdpital. placed in the great offices of state. The States- General were assembled, and proclaimed entire freedom of religion, which was afterward confirmed by a ro3al edict. These excellent measures, however, proved ineffectual, in consequence of the excesses and bitter feelings of both parties; and the country was soon plunged into the miseries of a civil war. 16. The Prince of Conde at first assumed the command of the Protestants, who were assisted by the English queen Elizabeth, while the government was aided by Philip of Spain. This war was carried on with great fury, and with various successes on both sides, till 1570, when peace was obtained by granting to the War with Protestants. Huguenots the free exercise of their religion in all parts of France, except Paris; and the administration placed in their power, as a guarantee, four cities, one of which was I^)chello (ro-sheV). While this arrangement gnve great dissatisfaction to the Catholic party, it did not restore confidence to the Protestants, who entertained a mistrust of the sincerity of Catharine, by' whose counsels and intrigues the king was entirely controlled. 16. Admiral Coligni and the other Protestant leaders finally repaired to the court; and the former gained so much France. 549 influence over the young king, that Catharine entered into a plot to remove him by assassination. The admiral, however, was but slightly wounded; and Catharine and her political accomplices resolved on a general destruction of the Protestant party. The dreadful ** Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day" followed, in which St. Bartholomew s Day. many of the Huguenots throughout France were butchered without distinction of age or sex, Coligni being the first victim. The number of those who fell in Paris alone has been estimated at 10,000; but it is impossible to ascertain the num- ber of victims with accuracy. This shocking event occurred August 24, 1572. The Huguenots were not, however, entirely crushed. They repelled the Huguenots. assaults made on Rochelle, and finally wrested favorable terms of peace from the government. Charles soon afterward died, having suffered the most poignant remorse for the atrocities perpetrated with his sanction. 17. Henry III, brother of the late king, succeeded to the throne; although, in the preceding year, he had been elected king of Poland. He was a ^eak and dissolute prince, neglecting his duties to indulge in the Character. most infamous debauchery. The Huguenots, under the leadership of Henry of Navarre and the Prince of Conde, became very powerful; and the king Huguenots. and Catharine were compelled to make the most humiliating concessions (1576). This led to a contest which has been styled the ''War of the Three Henries" — Henry the king, Henry of Guise, and Henry of Navarre. It was commenced in 1587; and the king, in union with the Leaguers, gained some advantages over their opponents. 18. At last^ disgusted and enraged at finding himself at the mercy of the Guises, and being treated with considerable indignity by them, he caused them to be assassi- nated. This crime excited a violent outbreak of Guises. popular fury against the king, who, in order to resist the 650 Modern History. opposition which he had created, allied himself to Henry of Navarre and tlie Huguenots. A few months after this, he was assassinated by a Dominican monk, named Clement, who was prompted to the deed by feel- ings of religious enthusiasm (1589). Thus ended Assassination of the king. the royal dynasty of Valois, the throne passing to the House of Bourbon, in the person of Henry III., king of Navarre, who therefore assumed the title of Henry IVo State of Societt vr Fbance, Dunng the Valms-Orleans Period. 19. The wars with Italy during this period led to the introduction of Italian art and artists into France, particu- larly in the reign of Francis I., who gave great encouragement to literature and art. His pa- Art. tronage of men of science and letters, as well as artists, was so earnest that he associated with some of the most eminent as his personal friends. Among these Leonardo da Vinci, the Italian painter, was es])ecially distinguished. During this ]^criod, called the Renaissance (new birth), French architecture was modified by the sub- Architecture. etitution of the lighter and more graceful Italian style.* This was true not only of the churches, but of domestic architecture. 20. Hunting and hawking were favorite amusements of the noble and wealthy. Each king had a large establishment specially devoted to the chase, for the support of which a large sum was annually appropriated. Annusements. Packs of hounds, also leopards, panthers, and falcons, were •"Four enormous walls, pierced promiscuously with small windows, flanked with ten small towers, and in the middle a larpre tower servinK for a prison and treasury— such was the habitation of our ancient kincrs. Upon the ruins of this edifice of a past a(?e was erected, little by little, a palace which, notwithstanding all its transformations, is still the most complete expression of tl»e French Renais- {Wince. Pierre I^scot constructed pnly a part of the fagade, lu which is placed the pavilion called the Jiorologe,"-^l*tii-ui^'(\ History o^ fYat^^ France, 551 employed; and a hunting party, especially of the monarch or of a great lord, brought together a numerous and gay com- pany, among them many ladies, who shared with eagerness in the excitement of the chase. Catherine de' Medici was espe- cially noted for her fondness for hunting. 21. The dress of both sexes also underwent much change during this period. The love of luxury introduced by Fran- cis I. led to the adoption by the ladies of elegant and costly dresses, made of the richest fabrics. Dress. and covered with lace and jewelry. The hair also was elabo- rately dressed, and decorated with nets of rare tissues; and ruffed collars, worn at first by women, at a later day be- came common for men. The heightening of the complexion by paint, and the use of patches and perfumes, were in- troduced from Italy. The men wore broad-brimmed hats decorated witli jewels and costly plumes, short mantles em- broidered with gold thread or trimmed with fur, and close- fitting slashed doublets with a belt at the waist in which was carried a rapier. Tliey also wore trunk-hose and tights. Silk stockings are said to have been introduced by Catharine de' Medici, who first wore them from motives of vanity; and gloves, though afterward common, were at first a royal lux- ury. 22. Tlie influence of women at court received a powerful impulse in the time of Francis I. Long before his time, indeed; Anne of Brittany had gathered around her the daughters of the nobility for education and instruction in manners; but these consti- Influence of women. tuted rather her private court, and the wives of the nobles remained at home to superintend the affairs of the household* Francis I., however, invited the wives of his nobles to attend their husbands at court; and, at one time, their number amounted to three hundred. From this time they began to take part in public affairs, their jealousies and rivalries enter- ing largely into almost all political agtion, Ministers and 65!!* Modern History, generals were sometimes deposed at their pleasure, and their favor came to be considered the stepping-stone to jiower. 23. Schools had begun to increase in number during tlifs period, though the instruction given in them was largely re- ligious, and the discipline strict. The hours of study were unusually long, and the rod was used Schools. unsparingly. Latin and Greek were especially studied, the remainder of the time, after these were disposed of, being devoted principally to music and religious and physical exer- cises. Science began to assume a more rational character toward the close of this period. The College of France was founded by Francis I., in College of France. 1530, designed especially to give instruction in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, hence called the College of the Three Languages. 24. Among the most noted men of influence and genius of the time may be particularly mentioned Michel de THo- pital {me-sheV de lo'pe-tal), Cliancellor of France during the reign of Henry U. Such was his tolerance and aversion to violence, that he re- Michet de i'Hopital. fused to sign the death-warrant of the Prince of Conde, and he successfully prevented the establishment of the Inquisition in France. At the massacre of St. Bartholomew's, the court sent a special guard for his protection; but supposing them to be assassins, he had his doors thrown open, saying that ho was ready to meet death whenever it was the will of God. 25. Distinguished among the men of genius of the time may be mentioned also Francis llabelais {rah'be-Id), the fa- mous satirist, who attacked the religious and i)riv- ileged orders; Clement Marot (mah-ro'), noted for his ballads and otlier ])oems, which were very Other noted men. popular; Pierre Lcscot {les-co'), the architect of tlie Louvre (1510-1571); Philibert Delorme {duh-lorm')y an eminent architect, the designer of the Tuileries (1518-1677);* Michel • The palace of the Tullleries was commenced by Catharine de' Medici in lfi64. AD(} was continued by Henry lY., who added n rangre of buildings with a splendid France, 553 de Montaigne (1533-1594), the celebrated essayist; Aiiguste de Thou ifoo), who wrote a general history of Europe during his time (1553-1617); and others who contributed to the for- mation of the French language as it now exists. SECTION n. The House of Bourbois". 26. Henry IV. was in his thirty-sixth year when he came to the throne, from which, the Catholic nobles at first at- tempted to exclude him, except on condition of his renouncing his religion, which he refused to do; but he promised to give security to the Catho- War with the League. lies and their religion, and to abide the decision of a national Council. This not being satisfactory to the League, now commanded by the Duke of May-enne', brother of the late Duke of Guise, a war ensued, in which Henry defeated his enemies in the famous battle of Ivry (eev're) (1590); but the fruits of this victory were afterward lost, and the Duke ot Mayenne entered Paris in triumph. 27. The war was continued for some time with varied suc- cess, Henry being aided by the English troops under the Earl of Essex. At last, the States -General were called; and Henry, to satisfy the prevailing party, and to secure a recognition of his right Henry a Catholc. to the throne, abjured Protestantism and declared himself satisfied with the truth of the Catholic faith (1593). By this act he delivered France from a condition of the most dreadful pavilion at each end. The whole front was more than 1000 feet in extent, with a depth of about 100 feet. Henry IV. also commenced a gallery to connect the Louvre and the Tuileries. This was continued by Louis Xni., and completed by Louis XIV. Napoleon I. added to this splendid edifice, and Napoleon HI. further enlarged it. 554 Modern History, anarchy;* and on patriotic considerations, it was approved bj many of the Huguenots themselves. The next five years wer^ occupied by the king in securing his possession of the throne, and in a war with Philip of Spain, which was concluded by a treaty in 1598, a year memorable for the grant by the king of the celebrated Edict of Nantes \71ants), in which he confirmed the rights and privileges of Edict of Nantes. the Huguenots, conferred upon them entire liberty of con- science, and admitted them to all offices of honor and emolu- ment. 28. He next directed his attention to the internal condi- tion of the kingdom, wliich, on account of the long con- tinuance of civil wai-, liad become entirely dis- organized. By the construction of roads and Internal affairs. canals, he brought all parts of the country into ready com- munication, encouraged traffic and commerce, and thus opened new sources of wealth and intelligence to tlie people. Manu- factures, mining, and every other department of industrj^ were fostered by liis beneficent measures, in devising which he was greatly aided by the wise and upright Duke of Sul'ly. The latter leorganized the Sully. finances; and, although many of the taxes were remitted, the national debt was almost entirely liquidated. 29. In the latter part of his reign, Henry IV. formed a project to rearrange the various states of Europe, and form them into an association, so as more completely to secure the balance of power, and to diminish Henry's plan. the influence of the imperial house of Austria. A disjiuto having arisen between the emperor and sorno of the Protestant princes of Germany, Henry took sides with the latter, and thus gave great offense to his Catholic subjects. He was on • " A contemporary estimated In 1.580 that at least 800.000 persons had perished by the war or by maspacret that 9 cities had been destroyed; 250 villages burned; and 128,000 dwellings demolished. The work-shops were unoccupied, commerce vas suspended, farms desolated, and everywhere brigandage. Such was the stat* Crom which Henry IV. was tQ rescue France."— />urM^'« Bistorjf of France. France. 555 the point of setting out to commence the war, when he was assassinated (1610), in the streets of Paris, by a half-insane fanatic, named Ravaillac {rah-val-yak'). The death of the king, who was the idol of the people, occasioned the utmost grief and indignation; and Death and character. his murderer was put to death with every refinement of torture. Henry was possessed of great abilities and force of character; and, as a monarch, was deserving of very high praise; but his private life was sullied with many vices and immoralities. 30. Louis XIII succeeded his father at the age of nine years, under the regency of his mother, Mary de' Medici. Sully, the great min- ister of Henry IV., Sully. Richelieu. becoming disgusted with the measures of the regent, and par- ticularly her attention to Italian favorites, resigned, and went into retirement. An assembly of the States-General, in 1614, is noted for the first great occasion on which the celebrated Richelieu (rees/iVZ^^) made dis- play of his extraor- Richelieu. dinary talents. He was made a cardinal in 1622; and, two years afterward, became the chief adviser of the king. Deter- mined to subdue the Huguenots, he laid siege to their chief city, Rochelle; and though Charles I. Huguenots. of England sent a considerable force to its assistance, it was compelled, after a vigorous defense of fifteen months, to sur- render (1628). Richelieu himself took an active part in this siege. The other towns in the possession of the Huguenots were soon afterward obliged to submit, and the Protestant power in France was completely crushed. 31. Richelieu's next object was to humble the power of the imperial house of Austria, to effect which he took part in 656 Modern History, the Thirty Years' War, on the side of the Protestants, against Spain and the empire (1635). The war was be- gun in the Netherlands, where the king's generals gained a victory near Liege, but the next year the suffered some reverses, the imperialists invading Thirty Years' iirtyY( War. French France, devastating the country, and penetrating to within three days' march of the capital. The persevering energy of Richelieu, however, finally triumphed over all his enemies; and the French made conquest of Alsace and other territories. 32. The vigor of Richelieu's government excited much opposition on the part of the princes and nobles of France, and many conspiracies were formed to destroy him. All tliese schemes he was enabled to Conspiracies. thwart by his consummate vigilance and address, and several of those who liad engaged in them he caused to bo executed. The most conspicuous among his ene- mies were Mary de' Medici, tlio queen-mother ; Gtiston, Duke of Orleans, the brother of the king; and the Duke of Montmorency. The last was executed, having been taken prisoner in a conflict with the government forces. Not- withstanding these difficulties, the great minister maintained tlie influence of France, and made it resi)ected by every foreign power. Beneath liis comprehensive genius and indefatigable energy, the king was a mere cipher. Riclielicu was also a patron of science and literature, and to him France owes the foundation of the French academy. His death occurred in 1643, and was followed the next year by that of the king. 33. Louis XIV. was scarcely five years of age when his father died; and the regency was intrusted to his mother, Anne of Austria, who selected as her prime minister Cardinal Mary dk' Medici. Richelieu's influence. France- 557 Maz'a-rin, a former disciple and associate of Richelieu. France was again drawn into the Tliirty Years' War, by the renewal of hostilities on the part of Regency. the house of Austria; but several splendid victories were gained by the French army, under the Prince of Conde, afterward so illustrious as the Great Conde, and by the celebrated Marshal Tu-renne'. This long war was closed by the Treaty of Westphalia, in Conde and Turenne. 1648, by which the boundaries of France were settled, nearly as they exist at present. 34. Meantime, the civil war of the Fronde* had broken out (1648), caused by the resistance of the people, represented in the parliament of Paris, to the unjust and oppressive measures of taxation adopted by the Fronde. government, and probably incited by the rebellion of the English against their king, Charles I., which had just been brought to a successful issue. In these commotions, the court was opposed by many of the nobles; and, during the latter part of the war, the Great Conde also took sides against the government. The principal leader of the revolt, how- ever, was Cardinal de Retz (rates). With much difficulty it was subdued in 1653, having lasted about five years. 35. The death of Mazarin, who had accumulated enor- mous wealth, occurred in 1661, after which date Louis XIV., from whom, on account of his neglected educa- tion, little had been expected, suddenly assumed Reign of Louis. the reins of government. He at once exhibited great sagacity and talent as a ruler; and during his subsequent reign, which lasted more than half a century, the vastness of his military enterprises, the grandeur of his plans for the internal improvement of his kingdom, his magnificent court ceremonial, and his enlightened patronage of literature and * " The members of the political faction opposed to the government were called, in derision, Frondeurs, that is, Slingers, being compared to the vagrant boys (gamins) of Paris who fought with slings (fronde). 558 Modern History, the arts and sciences, obtained for him the title of the Great King. His government was, however, a complete desjiotism, its fundamental principle being comprehended in his famous saying, "I am the state." The prosperity of France was at this time greatly promoted by the wise financial measures of Colbert {kole-hare')y and by the Colbert. ability with which the foreign affairs were administered by the prime minister Louvois {loo-vwaW). 36. The first military enterprise of Louis was the seizure of Flanders and Franche Comte (fransh kong'ta); but the Triple Alliance (England, Holland, and Sweden) arrested his career of conquest (1668). This ex- Triple Alliance. cited the anger of Louis against Holland ; and, having bribed Charles IL of Eng- land to aid him, and War in HoUand. obtained promises of neutrality from the other European powers, he directed his armies under Tu- renne and Conde against the Dutch, the king in person cross- ing the Rhine with the army. 37. Holland was at first power- less against this formidable com- bination. Her people were divided into two parties, one composed of the nobility, with tlio Prince of Orange, afterward William IIL, King Louis XIV. Prince of Orange. of England, as their leader; the other, of the merclianis and burghers, who formed a republican party, at the head of which were the brothers John and Corne- DaWItt lius De Witt. The country was, however, rich, and was pos- sessed of a powerful navy, commanded by the two most re- nowned admirals in Europe, De Kuyter (ri'lcr) and Van Tromp. 38. In their first movements, the French were successful. Several of the Dutch provinces were occupied, and Amsterdam France, 559 was threatened. Party dissensions became more bitter; the republicans demanding peace, while the Prince of Orange declared for war. A struggle ensued in which the De Witts were killed by the enraged Events of the war. populace, and the Prince of Orange was appointed Stadt- holder (1672). The tide of war then rapidly turned in favor of the Dutch. Amsterdam was relieved from its besiegers by cutting the dikes and flooding the surrounding country; De Ruyter and Van Tromp destroyed the allied fleets; and the Stadtholder, by his skillful negotiations, dissolved the Eng- lish and French alliance, and obtained the aid of Austria and Germany. Thus in two years, the greater part of Europe became involved in the war, and France stood alone. 39. But Louis, through the genius of his great general Turenne, gained several victories over the allied forces; and, in the Mediterranean, the French fleets defeated those of Holland, De Ruyter being slain in one of the battles. At last, however, beset on all French successes. sides, he sued for peace, and a treaty was concluded in 1678. The war had brought him no advantages. He gave up all his conquests in Holland. Turenne had fallen in battle (1675); and Conde, enfeebled Treaty of peace. by age, had retired forever from the army. Still great honors were conferred upon him at Paris, triumphal arches were erected to commemorate his victories, and he received the title of The Great {Louis le Grand). 40. The free city of Strasburg was taken by the French a short time afterward (1681); and through the engineering skill of the celebrated Vauban {vo-hahng^) it was made an impregnable bulwark of France on its Strasburg. eastern frontier. In 1683, the queen died, and Louis afterward married secretly Madame de Maintenon (nialin- ta-nong')i who had obtained a singular influence over him, which she ever afterward retained. Madanne de Maintenon. It was by the advice of this woman that the king adopted 660 Modern History, the impolitic measure of revoking the Edict of Nantes (1685), which was followed by a fierce persecution of the Huguenots, an immense number of whom were driven from the country.* Edict of Nantes. 41. The Catholic king of England, James II., having been dethroned, took refuge at the French court; and, Louis supporting his cause, war was declared between France and England (1689). All the great powers War renewed. of Europe were combined against the French monarch, who at once put his forces in motion to forestall the action of his enemies. He sent an army into Germany, captured several cities, and ruthlessly devastated a large tract of country in order to prevent it from being used by his adversaries. For over seven years was this mighty struggle maintained by sea and land; and, France being utterly exhausted, Louis was compelled to assent to the Treaty of Ryswick, and thus sub- mit to humiliating conditions of peace (1697). 42. A few years afterward, followed the great War of the Spanish Succession (1701). On the death of Charles II. of Spain, Louis claimed the throne of that country for his grand- son Philip v., whilst the emperor supported the claim of his son, afterward the Emperor Charles VI. This led to an alliance between Holland and War of the Spanish Succession. Germany against the French king; which was joined ])y Wil- liam of Orange, Louis having recognized the son of James II. as king of England. The war was carried on in Spain, Bel- gium, Germany, and Italy; and the French experienced a scries of disastrous defeats, having to contend against the genius of ♦ " It can never be known, with anything approaching to accuracy, how many persons fled from France In consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Vauban, writing a'few years after, said that ' France had lost a iuindred thousand Inhabitants, sixty millions of money, nine thousand sailors, twelve thousand tried soldiers, six hundred oflRcers, and its most flciuishing manufactures.'"— Smffe«'« Huguenots. A whole district of Ix>ndon is peopled by the descendants of the FTiiguenots, who transported their silk manufactories fnun Franco to Spitalflelds. Many found a home m northern Germany, carrying thither their arts, their thrift, and their industry. France. 561 Marlborough and Prince Eugene. The Treaty of Utrecht closed the war (1713), according to which Louis gave up some of his American possessions to England, but obtained the recognition of Philip V. as king of Spain. • 43. The condition of France was now most deplorable, through the ambition, pride, and bigotry of her despotic monarch. He sustained, however, his haughty mien and pompous state ceremonial to the last, notwithstanding he had lost by death his son. Condition of France, the Dauphin, his eldest grandson, and many others of his kindred. He died in 1715, after a reign of more than seventy-two years, and was succeeded by King's death. Louis, his gi-eat-grandson.* Louis XIV. left several volumes of writings, containing his *^ Instructions to his Sons," and his letters, which give valuable information respecting the events of his reign. This period is regarded as the Augustan- age of French literature. 44. Louis XVc was only five years of age on his accession, and the regency fell into the hands of tlie dissolute Duke of Orleans, who was controlled by his shameless and unprincipled minister, the infamous Abbe Dubois Regency. {du-hwah'). The education of the young king had been in- trusted from an early age to Fleu'ry, noted for his scholar- ship and the prominent position which he subse- quently occupied in the government of France. During the regency occurred the famous Missis- Mississippi Scheme. sippi Scheme, devised by a Scotch adventurer named John * ** At eight o'clock on the following morning, Louis XIV. expired. As he ex- haled his last sigh, a man was seen to approach a window of the state apartment which opened on the great balcony, and throw it suddenly back. It was the captain of the body-guard, who had no sooner attracted the attention of the populace, by whom the courtyard was thronged in expectation of the tidings which they knew could not be long delayed, than, raising his truncheon above his head, he broke it in the center, and throwing the pieces among the crowd, exclaimed in a loud voice, ' The king is dead ! ' Then, seizing another staff from an attendant, without the pause of an instant, he flourished it in the air as he shouted, ' Long live the king! ' And a multitudinous echo from the depths of the lately deserted apart/ ment answered as buoyantly, '• Long live the king I ' "— Pardee's Louis Xn^. 662 Modern History. Law, who proposed to issue paper-money on the security of certain gold and diamond mines said to exist near the Missis- sippi River, in Louisiana, and in this way to extinguish the vast debt of the country. Such was the rage for speculation excited by this project, that the shares sold for forty times their par value. Thousands were ultimately ruined by this scheme. 46. In 1726 Fleury was made prime minister and a cardinal, in the seventy-second year of his age; and the country greatly prospered under his prudent and skillful ad- ministration, which lasted seventeen years. His Fleury. policy was peaceful; but the marriage of Louis XV. with the daughter of the dethroned king of Poland, involved him in a war with Kussia, Austria, and Denmark, to reinstate his father-in-law, Stan'is-las, on the throne; but in this object he was unsuccessful. The War of the Austrian Succession followed soon after, during which Fleury died (1743). The most important victory gained by the French during this war was that of Fontenoy, under Marshal Saxe (1745). 46. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chajielle gave a brief rest to Europe, which was broken by the Seven Years' War in 175G. During this struggle, France lost Canada and some of her West Indian possessions; and her army was severely defeated at Min'den, by the Seven Years' War. English aiid Hanoverians, commanded by the Duke of Bruns- wick (1759). The Treaty of Paris deprived France of many important possessions, and left her heavily laden witli debt (1763). The year 1769 is remarkable for the conquest of Corsica, after a brave struggle for its independence, under Paoli. During the same year was born on this island Napo- leon Bonaparte, destined to play so great a part in the subsequent history of France. Louis XV. died in 1774, after having, by a long course Death and Character. of tyranny, debauchery, and reckless profusion, disgusted his subjects, and plunged the country into anarchy an4 France, 563 ruin.* Indeed, he partly realized the consequences of his reckless course, but joined with his favorite Madame de Pompadour in the well-known saying, "After us the del- uge!" State of Society in Feance, jyuring the Bourbon Period (1589-1774). 47. Absolutism characterizes this period of French his- tory, for the king absorbed all the powers of the government. The Parliament of Paris sometimes tried to assert the power of the people, but the king could Government. always crush its refractory spirit by a prompt dismissal of its members to their homes. The States-General gave place to the Assembly of the Notables, called to sanction the decrees of the monarch. Louis XIV. ruled with arrogance as well as supreme power. To one who spoke of the state in his pres- ence, he haughtily exclaimed: '' The state, — / am the state!" 48. The nobles, except those connected with the court, were poor and helpless; for, though their castles were in rums, their fields uncultivated and unproductive, and they themselves with scarcely the means of sub- sistence, their pride of rank forbade that they Condition of the people. should labor to improve their condition. The middle classes (bourgeoisie), merchants, trades-people, artisans, etc., were often affluent, sometimes rivaling the nobility in the richness of their houses, in their dress, and in their equipages. The general condition of the peasantry of France, during this whole period, was one of wretchedness and squalor, f * " A strong, firm hand was needed to grasp the scepter so triumphantly borne by Louis XIV. for seventy years; but Louis XV. was as weak as he was vicious. His reign is the most humiliating, the most deplorable, in French history. It was a reign unredeemed by any splendor or by any virtue."— Henri Martin's History oj France. + The noble exercised absolute power over the peasants living on his estate, and there were thousands of serfs who were bought and sold with the land. Large tracts of land were set apart for hunting: and the starving peasant was often »'or- biUdeiL to till his ground lest it miVht disturb or injure the gam©. The gabelle waf 664 Modern History, 49. Under the first of the Bourbons, who cherished the love of his country, great improvements were made; while the freedom granted by the Edict of Nantes gave an impulse to every kind of industry, fostered also by the wise measures of the Duke of Sully. The State of the nation under the Bourbons, successors of Henry IV. were selfish, dissolute, and vain- glorious; and while they encouraged science and art, they were utterly regardless of the interests of the people. The ontire substance of the nation was wasted in their costly wars, their extravagant enterprises, and their luxurious excesses. Splendid buildings and works of art commemorated their taste and refinement, while the great mass of their subjects lived in penury and servitude. *The ostentation and pride of the Grand Monarque reduced about one tenth of the people to hopeless beggary. 50. Commerce and manufactures of various kinds were encouraged by Henry IV.; but it was during the reign of Louis XIV. and under the administration of Col- bert, that every department of industrial and com- mercial enterprise received its greatest impulse. Connnnerce and manufactures. He established companies to trade in the East and West Indies, thus forming a rival to the Dutch; he promoted the manufacture of fine cloths, encouraged the cultivation of mul- berry-trees, and the art of making plate-glass, which had previously been imported into France from Venice. The manufacture of porcelain at Sevres {shr)^ and the world- renowned Gobelin tapestry, date from this period. Machin- ery for weaving stockings was imported by Colbert from Eng- land, and lace-making was introduced from Fhmdcrs and Venice. Commerce was greatly promoted by the construc- a moRt oppressive tax, each family being required to buy a certain quantity of salt at least four times a year whether it was needed or not. The i>easants were also compelled to labor upon the public works— building roads, bridjces, etc., any required time without comi>ensntion, and sometimes to i">erforra the most menial and dejH'adinp services for their tyrannical masters, who trampled under their feet even the most sacred rights of their dejjendenta. France, {)m tioii of the Canal of Languedoc, connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean (1664-1681). 51. Among the most important reforms introduced during the same reign was the re-organization of the army and navy, accomplished under the direction of the great war minister Louyois. For the army, schools of artil- Reforms. lery were founded at Metz, Doiiai {doo-a), and Strasburg; and the art of fortification was carried to a high degree of perfection by Vauban. The bayonet as now used was invented at Bayonne (hence its name), in 1640. Marme arsenals were built at various ports. The navy of France at this time was large, and powerful enough to cope with the Dutch. One hun- Paviuon of Henky IV. at St. Germain. dred vessels of war were built in the year 1672 alone. 62. Numerous buildings of great magnificence were erected during this period: only a few can be here referred to. Without loving the arts as did his immediate i \ • predecessors, Henry IV. was not wanting in a ' taste for splendid architecture. He caused a beautiful pa- vilion to be constructed at St. Germain, where Francis I. had built rather a fortress than a royal residence; and finished the fagade of the Hotel de Ville, which had been commenced by Francis I., besides erecting or completing many other struc- tures. Kichelieu had a great love and taste for architecture. The erection of the Palais Cardinal occupied his attention for years, but it was not completed till after his death, when it became the Palais Royal, and the residence of the king. In the reign of Louis XIV.. Paris was adorned with parks and £►66 Modern History. public buildings to an extent previously unknown; but beyond all others in extent and magnificence was the celebrated palace and gardens of Versailles (vdr-sdh'). The Pantheon was built at the instance of Madame de Pompadour, to replace the church of St. Genevieve, the patron saint of Paris. 53. Many scientific and literary institutions date from the time of Kichelieu. He established the French Academy in 1635, with the design to improve the language and literary taste of the people; and was a great Institutions. patron of men of letters, among them Corneille {kor-nale'), the dramatist. Mazarin was also a friend to art, literature, and education. He founded various colleges and academies. During the reign of Louis XV. a host of illustrious men flourished. The Observatory was erected at Paris, and the celebrated astronomers, Roemer (from Denmark), Hnyghens (from Holland), and Oassini (from Italy), were induced to settle in France.* The Military School was established in this reign. 54. The first newspaper in France was a weekly, issued in 1G31, under the name, at first, of the Gazette, but afterward the Gazette de Frafice. The paper was continued till 1789. The postal service was regulated in Innovations. 1627, the price of carrying a letter from Paris to Lyons being fixed at about two cents. The first tax on tobacco was imposed in 1620. The use of coffee was introduced from Constanti- nople in 1660; and in 1720, a coffee plant, raised in the hot- bouse of tlie Garden of Plants, led to the^ extensive cultivation of coffee in the French West Indies. The cotton manufac- ture was commenced in the latter ]mrt of this period; and the first steam-engine was used in 1770, at Shaillot (sha-yo'). Street lamps came into use in Paris in 1767. •The first of these. Roemer, discovered the velocity of lijrht; Huyghens dl» covered the rinj? and one of the satellites of Saturn: and Cassini. four other satel htes of the same planet, by<»nd the island where it belonged. France, on the contrary, was really at the head of nuxlern eivlllxatlon : and by the acknowledged superiority of its taste, it made all Kurope accept the jjeoceful dominion of its artists and its writers."— Z>unt^'« History of Prance. France, 569 (pooS'Sang') and Claude Lorraine; the architects Mansard and Claude Perrault (per-ro^); the philosopher and scientist Des Cartes {da kart), and the physicists Mariotte {mah-re-ot') and Delisle {de leel), with, toward the end of the century, the noted naturalist, Buffon {hoof-fong'), and Diderot {dee-dro'), D'Alembert {dd-long-hare'), the authors of the Encyclopm- diaj besides Lavoisier (lah-vwah-ze-d^), the father of modern chemistry, and the mathe- maticians La Place (lah plahce) and Legendre (lu- zliondr), 58. Above and beyond ill the literary men of his : me must be mentioned Vol-taire' (1694 Voltaire. 1778), who, whether as wit, poet, historian, or philosopher, shone with a luster sur- passing all others. Un- fortunately a skeptic in religion, he scoffed at Voltaire. (From a statue.) divine revelation; and, hence, the brighter his genius shone, the more baneful was his influence upon the moral and religious progiess of his time.* To Voltaire, Montesquieu (mon-tes-ku') (1689-1755), f * Voltaire's true name was Arouet. He was bom in Paris, in 1694; and at the age of twenty-one was sent to the Bastile for a satire on Louis XIV., of which, how- ever, he was not the author. In 1718, he pubhshed the tragedy entitled (Edipe, and in 1723, the poem La Henriade, in which he defended religious toleration. He subsequently spent three years in England, and some time afterward resided at the court of Frederick of Prussia on terras of intimacy with that monarch. + Montesquieu was the author of a work entitled The Spirit of the Laws, which is stiU a standard. His influence, though revolutionary, was beneficent; and his writings were far in advance of the age, in the lofty .'spirit of freedom and humanity with which they are replete. Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire, and the philosophers and free-thinkers of their age, hurried on a mighty convulsion which many believe could not long have been delayed. 570 Modern History. Rousseau,* and the EncyclopcBclists is attributed, in part, that dreadful overturning of the institutions of society that formed 80 terrible a characteristic of the great French Revolution. SECTION III. Revolutionary Frakce. 59. Louis XVI. succeeded his grandfather at the age of twenty years. His character presented a striking contrast to that of the preceding king, being beneficent and upright; and he commenced liis reign with the Character. sincere desire to ameliorate tlie condition of his suffering people, by redressing their grievances, and restoring the financial prosperity of the kingdom. He was, how- ever, deficient in judgment and decision; and, although he select- ed for his ministers the patriotic Turgot (toor-go^) and Malesherbes {mal-zdrb'), he soon became in- volved in srreat diffi- Difficultic Marib Antoinkttb. cuities on account of the irre))arablc confusion of the finances. These were still further deranged by the extravagant habits of the court, jn'csided over by the young • "The writer who acquired the most extensive and pomlcioua influence over the mind of France at this period was undoubtedly Jean Jacques Rousseau. In his works on the InequnUty of the Condition of Mankind, in his Emile, Contrat Sodal, and Nouvclle HHoisr, he developed his notions on the reconstruction of iwxiiety with a subtlety, a chann of styh'. a specious air of philanthropy, a false morbid 8c!isibility. peculiarly attractive to the Fr«'nch character, but the effects of which went directly to undermine and subvert the very foundations of religion, morality, and legitimate government."— 5e yours. ft is not fit that any agent of tlie Iclnj? of SardiiiKi, any KngliMhraan. Russian, or Swede, should reside at Rome, or in your Htates, or that any vessel of those poweri elj^Ml^l W^r your portq."-^o;)ofcon to Piu9 VU. (Feb. «, 18061. France, 583 82. Difficulties having arisen with Sweden and Russia, in consequence of the French emperor's arbitrary demands in the carrying out of the Continental System, the latter determined to invade Russia with an overwhelming force. Accordingly, in June, 1812, he set out with asplen- Russian war. didly equipped army of nearly 500,000 men, crossed the Nie- men, and directed his march to Mos'cow, the ancient capital of the Russian Empire. Arriving at Smo-lensk', he captured the city after a tremendous conflict, which closed with the retreat of the Russians. About two weeks after this, he fought a desperate battle with the Russian army at Bor-o- di'no {% like e)\ but although 45,000 of the enemy were either killed or wounded, he failed to destroy their army, and gained no decisive victory. His own losses in these engagements were immense (September 7). 83. Unable to defend Moscow, the Russians abandoned it, and the French entered it in triumph ten days after the bat- tle of Borodino. But the city had been set on fire by the Russians, and the French vainly at- tempted to stop the conflagration. Nine-tenths Burning of Moscow. of the whole city became a prey to the flames. This discon- certed the plans of Napoleon, who had designed to pass the winter at Moscow; and as the Russians were menacing his communications with Smolensk, where his magazines and re- serves had been left, he determined to retreat (October 19). 84. But the dreadful Russian winter having commenced, the French soldiers perished by thousands of cold and famine. To add to their sufferings, they were constantly harassed by the Russian army, par- ticularly by the Cossack cavalry, being in almost Retreat of the army. constant conflict with them, until they reached the Ber-e- si'na River, where their passage was disputed by the Rus- sians in strong force. The loss of life was frightful. Multi- tudes fell by the sabres of the Russians, but still larger Rumb^rs perished in the icy waters of the river; m that when 584 Modern History, the crossing was effected only 20,000 men remained to Na- poleon of the magnificent army with which he had set out. During those terrific scenes and confiicts, Mar- shal Ney {no) gained the appellation of the Ney. "Bravest of the Brave," by his fortitude and heroic conduct. 86. After the dreadful i)assage of the Beresina, Napoleon abandoned the army, and fled in disguise to Paris, where his arrival restored public confidence and courage: and such were his extraordinary energy and the Continued war. resources of the French nation, that, in the beginning of the next year (1813), he was enabled to resume operations with an army of 350,000 men, exclusive of his forces in Spain. Europe was once more allied against him; but, on the famous battle-ground of Lut'zen, he defeated the army of the allies, and triumphantly entered the city of Dresden. Two other battles were fought with indecisive results, after which he consented to an armistice. 86. But operations were soon resumed by the allies with an immense army; and they attacked the French at Dresden, but were i'ei)ulsed with severe loss. Moreau, fighting on the side of the allies, was here mor- Oresden. tally wounded (July 20). In October, the allies, with reinforcements, threatened Napoleon's communications, and compelled his retreat to Leip'sic, where tlie great- est conflict of tlie war ensued, tlie allied army Leipsic. amounting to about 250,000 men; while that of Na])oleon contained less than 150,000. Tliis has been called the Battle of the Nations. After a desperate struggle, wliich hu?ted three days, the French were compelled to retreat; and Napoleon's great conquests were at once lost. Against tlie overwhelm- ing forces of the allies, Napoleon could make no effectual resistance. Having defeated every army Parit taken. sent to impede their progress, they at last jienetrated into France, and Paris was finally obliged to capitulate (March 31, 1814). France. 585 Restoeation of the Bouebons. 87. After the capitulation of Paris, a provisional govern- ment was established under Talleyrand, by which the de- thronement of Napoleon was decreed, and the brother of Louis XVI. was placed on the throne Louis XVIII. with the title of Louis XVIIL, the dauphin Louis XVII. having died in the Temple, in Paris. Thus the Bourbon family was restored (May 3, 1814). In the mean time. Napo- leon, finding himself deserted by many of his most trusted generals, accepted the terms offered him by the allies, abdi- cating the throne and retiring to the island of Elba, near the western coast of Italy, the place appointed for his residence. The dismemberment Napoleon an exile. of the empire then followed, France being reduced to the limits which it had in 1792. Louis pretended to grant a con- stitutional charter, but, like a genuine Bourbon, he reserved the right to ^jlter its provisions according to his own pleasure. 88. The next year, while a congress of the European powers was assembled at Vienna, to arrange and settle the affairs of Europe, they were suddenly surprised by the escape of Napoleon from Elba. Landing on the southern shore of France (at Cannes Escape from Elba. [^a/i]), he was at once received with enthusiasm by the troops; and Marshal Ney, who had been sent to oppose his progress, having deserted to him, he once more entered Paris in triumph, and was greeted with acclamations of joy by all classes (March 20, 1815). Louis XVIIL having fled. Napo- leon found himself again on the throne of France; and in less than two months, an army was organized of over 200,000 men, exclusive of the National Guards. 89. Meantime, the allies had prepared for the impending conflict. Three vast armies were collected; the first consist- ing of Austrians, under Prince Schwarz'en-berg; the second, of British, Germans, and Prussians, under Wellington and ^^ Modern History, Blu'cher (bloo'ker); and the third, of Russians, under the Emperor Alexander. Operations commenced on the 15th of June; and, on the 18th, was fought the memor- able battle of Wa'ter-loo, in which the allies under Waterloo. Wellington repulsed the French, and drove them into irre- trievable retreat and ruin. Napoleon fled to Paris; but find- ing that no further effort could be made to retrieve his ruined fortunes, he proceeded to the coast, where he surrendered him- self to the commander of a British vessel of war. By agree- ment of the allied sovereigns, he was sent a captive to the little island of St. He-le'na, where he arrived in October, 1815, and where he continued to reside as a prisoner until his death, in 1821, at the age Final banishment. of fifty-two years. Such was the termination of this extraor- dinary career of ambition and conquest — the most extraor- dinary perhaps in the world's annals.* 90. Louis XVIIL Soon after the battle of Waterloo, Paris was entered by the allies, and the greater part of the French territory was occupied l)y foreign armies. Louis XVIIL was restored, and MarsiuU Nev, Chief events, who had deserted to Napoleon, was shot as a traitor. The same year Murat, liaviiig made a rasli attempt to regain the throne of Naples, was seized and put to death. Tlie measures of the restored Bourbon dynasties of Spain and Italy liad been se tyrannical, that insurrections broke out in those coun- tries. In Spain, tlic army, under General O'Donnell, suiv ported the liberal constitution, and Ferdinand, the king, was obliged to submit. Louis XVIIL Revolution. sent an army into Si)ain to restore the supreme authority to * In pereon, Napoleon was below the medium height, and, duriiiK his early years, was slenderly built; bein^ thin, at times, to emaciation. His liornl was dis- proportionately large, with features classicniUy moUhvl. an olive conjplexion, and large, dark eyes. He was habitually absirat'tetl, seeininj? U^ commune with him- self even when listening to others; yet his convensatlon wius engaging, from the vigor and clearness of his thought, and the condenses^D(^'e of splendor and Bolemnity. France, 587 Ferdinand; and the constitutionalists having been defeated, the liberal govern men t was overturned (1823). Louis XVIII. died the next year (1824), and was succeeded by his brother Charles, Count of Artois (ar'twali), 91. Charles X. During this reign, the contests between the ultra-royalist and liberal parties in the Chamber of Deputies, as the legislature was called, became very violent; and Charles, taking sides with the Chief events. former, adopted very arbitrary measures to enforce his views. The liberal party having secured a majority in the Chamber, the king caused the latter to be dissolved, altered the law of elections, and suspended the liberty of the press. In conse- quence of these despotic measures, the peoj)le rose in insur- rection; and, after a contest of three days, dis- persed the royal guards and sacked the Tuileries. Lafayette was then appointed general of the National Guards, and the Chamber of Deputies having declared the throne vacant, summoned Lou'is Phil'ippe (or loo'e fil-leep^) to oc- cupy it (1830). Charles took refuge in England. 92. Louis Philippe was the son of the infamous Duke of Orleans, wlio, under the assumed name of Philip EgaliU, had taken part in the excesses of the revolution, and had become one of its many victims. Since that dreadful period, Louis Philippe had suffered every variety of for- j \ — \ — tune, being an exile from his native land, and in I '^""""^ '^' a condition of privation and distress traveling or sojourning in foreign countries. A charter of rights was agreed upon by the Chamber of Deputies, and accepted by the newly elected king. His reign was for several years quite prosperous; and the country advanced in Chief events. education, commerce, and internal improvements. The king, however, was very odious to the extreme republi- cans, and several attempts were made upon his life. He afterward became generally unpopular by his opposition to the reforms which were demanded in the government, as well 588 Modern History, as by his avarice and his selfish concern for the aggrandize- ment of his family. 93. An attempt to repress, by arbitrary prohibition, a re- form banquet appointed on Washington's birthday (February 22, 1848), excited an insurrection of the people, with whom the troops fraternized; and Louis Revolution. Philippe was compelled to flee. With much diflBculty, he made his escape to England, where he died about two years afterward. One of the most important events of this reign was the conquest of Algiers (1847), after a long and sanguin- ary struggle on the part of the native tribes, under their leader Abd-el Ka'der (1847). It was annexed to France as a province under the name of Algeria. The Second Republic. 94. After the fliglit of the king, a provisional government was instituted, consisting of seven members, among whom were La-mar-tine'(-^eew) and Ar'a-go, distinguished for their attainments in literature and science. France was declared a republic, with the motto. Provisional government. "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity;" hereditary titles and distinctions of nobility were abolished, and a national assem- bly was called for the purpose of framing a constitution. The constitution afterward adopted vested the government in a president, to be elected for four years, and a national assembly. By the election which fol- Prestdent. lowed, Louis Napoleon was chosen, by an immense majority, first president of France (1848).* 95. In the first year of his presidency, a revolution broke out in Rome, and the Pope (Pius IX.) fled to Gaeta gah-a'- ♦ Louis Napoleon was the nephew of the great Napoleon, being the son of Ix)ui8 Bonaparte and Horteuse Beauhanmis, daughter of the Empress Josephine. During the reign of Louis Philippe, he beoanie noted for two atteinj>t8 to obtain posseswion of the government by endeavoring to raise a revolt in his favor among the troops. One of these was at Strasburg, in \m\, and the other at Boulogne. In 1840. For the second he was condemned to perpetual Inipriaonment, but succeeded in making his escape in 1846. These rash enterprises subjected him to considerable ridicule. France. 589 tall). Louis Napoleon having sent an army under General Oudinot (oo' de-no) to restore him to his government, the re- publicans under Gar-i-bal'di were entirely defeated, and Pius IX. returned to Kome the next year, Garibaldi. Revolutions broke out in other parts of Italy, with similar want of success. Difficulties arising between the President and the Assembly, the former determined to overturn the ex- isting form of government, so as to obtain an increase of power. His measures were devised and executed with great adroitness. Having gained over the military, he seized and imprisoned such of the members of the Assembly as were hostile to his views, as well Government change. as other distinguished citizens from whom he apprehended opposition. He then suppressed the newspapers, and pro- claimed a dissolution of the Assembly and Council of State (December, 1851). 96. A despotic constitution sketched by Louis Napoleon was accepted by the people, and he was elected president for a term of ten years. A short time after this, he obtained the passage of a decree by the Senate, Revolution. declaring him hereditary emperor; and this decree was rati- fied by the popular suffrages. Napoleon Bonaparte's son by Maria Louisa (Napoleon II.) having died, Louis Nai)oleon assumed the title of Napoleon III. Thus was effected one of the most disgraceful usurpations recorded in history, by means of a dishonorable stratagem which was dignified by the name of cowp d'etat {koo-de-tah') — i.e., stroke of state policy. The Second Empire. 97. In 1854 the French united with the English in the Russian "War, and under Marshal Pelissier {pa-lis-se-a') ac- quired the glory of the final storming of the tremendous fortresses of Sebastopol. In 1859, war Russian War. having arisen between Austria and Sardinia, the French emperor formed an alliance with the latter, and took the 590. Modern History, field in person in northern Italy. Austria suffered disas- trous defeats at Ma-gen'ta and Sol-fer-i'no (i like e), and by the treaty of Vil'lufran'ca was Austria. obliged to relinquish possession of Lombardy. In 1862 a French army occupied Mexico; and, on the invitation of Napoleon, Archduke Maximilian, of Austria, took the throne as emperor of that country. His Mexico. government was, however, soon overturned, and he himself was shot by order of the insurgent general (18G7). 98. The preservation of the papal power in Italy from the attacks of Garibaldi and his republican associates was a strik- ing feature of the emperor's policy, which in its general character was strongly on the side of absolutism as opposed to the spread of liberal Policy of Napoleon. principles and the establishment of democratic governments. Under his sway, France, though kept under severe restraint by the imperial jiower, made great and rapid strides in every department of national well-being; and her internal improve- ments and progress in commerce and manufactures were unsurpassed by those of any other nation. 99. In 1870 war was declared by France against Ger- many; and the French armies, under Marshals McMahon and Bazaine, marched to the Rhine. But the German states, with perfect unanimity, joined •German War. all their forces under King William of Prussia, to repel the invaders; and immense armies, splendid in discipline and equipment, were promptly concentrated near tlie east bank of the Rhine, under the Prussian monarch, aided by Von Moltke and other generals. In tlie first conflicts, McMahon was defeated and driven into retreat; but he took up a strong position at Sedan {sa-dojig'). Here was fought a great and decisive battle, on tlie 1st French disasters. of September; and the French, driven from their position and completely surrounded, were compelled to surrender. More than 80,000 men laid down their arms, and Napoleon France, 591 himself became a prisoner. "While a part of the German army marched on Paris, and invested that city, Bazaine was shut up in Metz, where, on the 21st of October, he surrendered his army prisoners of war. Third Republic. 100. Paris held out until January 28, 1871, when it yielded, and was occupied by the German forces. Mean- while, Napoleon being a prisoner, the French Kepublic had been declared, and Thiers was Republic. elected president. A treaty was then concluded, by which France ceded to Germany the greater part of Alsace and Lor- raine, and agreed to pay an immense sum of money as an indemnity for the war. Soon afterward an insurrection broke out in Paris, supported by the Commune, which lasted several months, during which the insur- Commune. gents committed many acts of atrocity and violence. It was put down in May, 1871. On this, finding it impossible to reconcile the hostile factions, Thiers resigned (May, 1873); and Marshal McMahon was elected president in his stead. The death of Napoleon occurred in England (1873). 101. During the same year, occurred also the trial of Marshal Bazaine, upon charges based on his surrender of the army at Metz. It resulted in his conviction, and he was sentenced to degradation from his rank Chief events. as general, and death. But he was recommended to mercy by his judges, and President McMahon commuted the sentence of death to twenty years' seclusion. In 1873, the German oc- cupation of French territory ceased, the last installment of the war indemnity having been paid. There were many parties at this time among the French people opposed to the repub- lic, causing much political agitation. The triumph of the republicans in 1879, was soon followed by the resignation of President McMahon; and he was succeeded bv M. Grevy, who was succeeded, in Dec, 1887, by M. Carnot {kar-no'). ^yQ^ Modern History. State of Society in France, During the Rewlutionary Period (1774-1881). 102. At the time of the accession of Louis XVI. there were many indications of an impending revolution. New ideas had been infused into the minds of men, which produced an opposition to prevailing institutions; Signsof change. and the wrongs which the people had suffered for centuries from the rule of an arbitrary monarchy, and from a corrupt court and nobility, began to be more clearly seen and more deeply felt. There were many influences that conspired to fan the smouldering fire into a flame. 103. The French Kevolution has been attributed to the following causes: 1. The despotism, recklessness, and profligacy of the French court during the three preceding reigns; 2. The unjust laws that favored the nobility and clergy at the expense of the lower Causes of the Revolution. classes; 3. The diffusion of knowledge and the spread of in- fidelity caused by the writings of Voltaire and others; 4. The desire for political freedom inspired by the success of the American Revolution, in which so many of the French had borne a prominent part. To these must be ndded the dis- order of the finances, which, in the first part of the reign of Louis XVL, almost stopped the wheels of government. 104. The people — the Third Estate — had bided their time, and at last it came. The first session of the far-famed States- General of 1789 gave, in various minor incidents, indications of the storm that was so soon to burst forth with resistless fury. The representatives Course of the people. of the people refused to sit with uncovced heads, when the nobles and clergy, according to the old custom of every former session, put on their hats after the completion of the king's speech; and this led to a tumult only to be ended by the king's taking off his own hat. Since that great era, revo- France. 593 lution has been the characteristic of French politics. No government that has been established has been other than insecure and temporary, because it has not rested on princi- ples thoroughly fixed in public opinion. The popular mind, indeed, has seemed to revolt from all government, only sub- mitting to it for a time as a necessity. The Commune of 1871 was the last, but perhaps the most striking, illustration of this fact. 105. In the first part of the reign of Louis XVI., when Dr. Franklin visited France in 1776, in behalf of his Ameri- can compatriots, the people were charmed with his simplicity of dress and manners; and their Costume. love for the cause which he represented led them to imitate him. Gold lace and embroidery and powdered curls gave way to plain dresses and straight-cut hair; but this was soon followed by an extraordinary affectation of English modes of costume. At the beginning of this period, the ladies wore hoops, and dressed their hair in the most extreme fashion. It was drawn up in the form of a huge pyramid on the top of the head; and caricatures might be seen representing the hair-dresser mounted on a ladder dressing a lady's hair. This extravagance was succeeded, for a time, by a period of great simplicity in dress, white muslin dresses and straw hats taking the place of silks, satins, and velvets. The antique then came into vogue in imitation of the classic heroes of Greece and Rome. In more modern times the world of fashion has constantly had its center at Paris. X06. The civil administration of the great Napoleon was characterized by the highest intelligence and the most benefi- cent enterprise. The Code Napoleon, a compila- tion of the laws of France, prepared under his direction, was perhaps the greatest of all his France under Napoleon. achievements for the good of France. He did much also for education, of which no system existed in France before his time. He created numerous lyceums, in which the instruc- 594 Modern History. tion given was literary, scientific, and moral; and several law and medical schools. Tlie system of primary instruction in France, now so complete, was created subsequent to Napo- leon's time. 107. The public works, including magnificent buildings, public monuments, roads, etc., are far too many to enumerate. Among them may be mentioned the great break- water at the harbor of Cherbourg, which was Public works. commenced in 1783, but not finished till 1853. During the present century, France has shared, in common with other civilized nations, that astonishing progress in science and in the useful arts which have done so much to ad- vance the interests of mankind by improving the Science and art. condition of society. The railroad, the steamship, and the tele- graph, have revolutionized the social, political, and military system of every civilized nation in the world; and in none has there been greater progress in the use of these than in France. The World's Fair {Exposition Universelle) has been an im- portant auxiliary in developing the industrial and artistic capabilities of this great nation.* 108. Every department of literature is adorned with the products of French genius. In the early jmrt of this period, the following writers may be enume- Literature. rated: Crebillon {kre-he-yov(f) (1C74-1762), a tragic poet, ranking next to Cor- iH'illc and Kucinc. Volney (1757-1793), eminent for his historical researclies. Malesherbes (1721-1794), an al)le statesman, and writer on politics, law, and finance; author of Thoughts and Maxima. Andr6 Chenier (xhen-ya') 1762-1794), the poet of the Revolution, whoso career was cut short by the guillotine. Beaumarchais {bo-mar- sha') (1732-1799), who wrote T?i4i Marriage of Figaro and T/ie Barber of Seville, two famous comedies. ♦ The Idea of the Exposition UniveraeUe originated in France, but was first realized in England. In the Paris Exponition of IfW7, as well aa in 1878, there was presented in an eminent degree the wonderful creative skill of the French people. France. 595 Bernardin St. Pieire (1737-1814), author of the popular story Pavl and Virginia. 109. At a later period, the following writers have been most conspicuous: De Stael (stah'el) (Mme.) (1766-1817), the most talented woman of her lime, who wrote Corinne, and other works of genius. Later period. De Crenlis {zhong-le) (Mme.) (1746-1830), author of many- interesting juvenile works, romances, memoirs, etc. Of the latter, her Observations on the Literary History of the Nine- teenth Century possesses the greatest interest. Sismondi (1773-1843), author of the History of the Italian ItepuUics. Chateaubriand {shah-to-bre-ahng') (1769-1848), author of the Genius of Christianity, a work remarkable for its purity and finished style. B6ranger {be-rahn-zha') (1780-1857), the greatest of French lyric poets, noted for his popular songs. Guizot (1787-1874), one of the most il- lustrious of Frencli statesmen and historians; author of the History of Civilization, and other works. Thierry {te-d'ree), author of the History of tJie Norman Conquest, and other historical w^orks. Comte {kongi) (1798-1857), author of the Positive Philosophy. Thiers (1797-1877), aathor of many valuable historical works. History cf the French Revolution, Consulate and Empire, etc. Michelet {meesh-la') (1798-1874), author of the History of France, and many other noted works. Cousin {koo zahng) (1793-1867), a noted philosopher. Victor Hugo (1803-1885), the most celebrated Frencli writer of modern times, — poet, dramatist, historian, philosopher, and moralist; remark- able for the splendor as well as the universality of his genius. Alexander Dumas (du-mah) (1803-1870), one of the most prolific of novel- ists. Ernest Kenan {re-nahng) (1833-1893), author of the Life of Jesus, Saint Paul, etc. Flammarion (born 1843), an astronomer and popular writer, author of Plurality of Worlds, Ood in Nature, etc. Victor Hugo. 596 Modern History. EULEBS OF FBANCE, DuBiNG THE Revolutionary Period. Name. Date of rule. Louis XVI., Bourbou king 1774-1793 Reign of Terror 1793-1794 Directory 1 794-1 799 Napoleon, First Consul 1800-1804 Napoleon I., Emperor 1804-1814 Louis XVIII., Bourbon king. . . 1814-1824 £!harles X., Bourbon king 1824-1830 Name. Date of rule. L. Philippe, Bourbon-Orleans.. 1830-1*48 Lotiis Napoleon, President 1848-1852 Napoleon III., Emperor 1852-1870 Thiers, L. A., President 1871-1873 McMahon, M. E. P. M., Prest.. 1873-1879 Gr6vy, F. J. P., President 1879-1887 Camot. M. F. S 1887- SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS AND DATES. A.D. Treaty of alliance with tlie United States 1778 Meeting of the States-General. Revolution commenced 1789 Meeting of the Legislative Assembly 1791 The first French republic declared 1792 Execution of Louis XVI. Reign of Terror 1793 Execution of Robespierre 1794 Napoleon's victorious campaign in northern Italy 179G Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. Battle of the Pyramids 1798 Napoleon's great victory over the Austrians at Marengo 1800 Treaty of Amiens 1808 Surrender of Ulm. Battle of Austerlitz. Battle of Trafalgar 1800 Battles of Jena and Auerstadt. Berlin taken 1808 Battle of Eylau. Peace of Tilsit 1807 Taking of Vienna. Battles of Aspern and Wagram 1809 Invasion of Russia by Napoleon. Moscow burned 1812 Battles of Lutzen, Dresden, and Leipsic 1818 Invasion of France. Capture of Paris. Abdication of Napoleon 1814 Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon banished to St. Helena 1816 Death of Napoleon at St. Helena 1821 Taking of Algiers. Abdication of Charles X 1880 Defeat of Abd-el-Kader. Conquest of Algeria 1847 The great breakwater completed at Cherbourg 18S8 Rome taken by the French. The Pope restored 1819 Termination of the Crimean war by the treaty of Paris 1850 Battles of Solferino and Magenta 1859 The city of Mexico entered by the Fi*erich under Marshal Bazalne 18(J8 The Archduke Maximilian declared Emperor of Mexico 1864 War against Germany. McMahon and Bazaine defeated 1870 Defeat of the French at Sedan. Napoleon a prisoner. 1870 Siege of Paris by the German army 1871 Resignation of President Thiers. Dtiath of Napoleon III 1878 Trial and condemnation of Marshal Bazaine 1878 Death of Thiers 1877 Resignation of President McMfthon , . 1879 Topical Review, 597 Topical Keview. EMINENT FERSONAG-ES. Who ware they? In what period did they live? With what events connected? page Gonsalvo de Cordova &41 Chevalier Bayard 542, 543, 544 Gaston deFoix 542 Constable Bourbon 543, 544, 545 Catharine de' Medici.. 546, 548, 549, 551 Constable Montmorency 547 Prince of Cond6 547, 548, 549 Admiral Coligni 547, 548 Duke of Guise 547 Chancellor de I'Hopital 548, 552 Henry of Navarre (Henry IV,).. 549, 553 Duke of Mayenne 553 Duke of Sully 554 Mary de' Medici 555, 556 RicheUeu 555, 556, 565 Cardinal Mazarin 557 Marshal Turenne 557, 558 Cardinal de Retz 557 Colbert 5.58, 564 Mme. de Maintenon 559, 567 Cardinal Fleury 561, 562 Marshal Saxe 562 NapoleonI 562, 577-586 Marie Antoinette 571 Mirabeau 572 Necker 572 Lafayette 573 Robespierre 575, 576, 577 Charlotte Corday 576 Moreau 579 Murat 582, 586 Marshal Ney 583, 585, 586 Napoleon in 588, 589, 590 Marshal McMahon 590 Corneille 567 Racine 567 MoliSre 567 F6n61on 568 Abb6 de Fleury 568 Diderot 569 LaPlace 569 Legendre 569 "Voltaire 569 PAOE Montesquieu 569 Rousseau 570 Malsherbes 570, 594 Madame Roland 576 Madame de StaSl 595 Chateaubriand 595 Guizot 595 Thiers 591, 595 Cousin 595 Victor Hugo 595 Ernest Renan 595 IMPORTANT EVENTS. When did they occur? What led to them? What resulted therefrom? League of Cambray 549 Battle of Agnadello 542 Battle of Marignano 543 Battle of Pavia 544 Sacking of Rome 545 Massacre of St. Bartholomew 549 Battle of Ivry 553 Edict of Nantes 554,560 War of the Fronde 557 Meeting of the States-General 571 Storming of the Bastile 572 Taking of the Tuileries 574 Execution of Louis XVI 575 Reign of Terror 576 Treaty of Campo Formic 577 Battle of the Pyramids 578 Battle of Austerlitz 579 Dissolution of the German Empire.. 580 Battle of Jena 580 Peace of Tilsit 581 Battle of Wagram 582 Russian Expedition 683, 584 Battle of Leipsic 584 Restoration of the Bourbons 585 Battle of Waterloo 586 Battle of Solferino 590 Battle of Sedan 590 Surrender of Bazaine 590 Occupation of Paris 591 Insurrection of the Commune 591 CHAPTER XL States of Modeen Europb. SECTION I. Germany and Austria. 1. The modern history of Germany begins with thb reign of Maximilian I. (1493-1519), called the Penniless, on account 1 of his want of money to carry on his numerous Contemporaries jj • . . I wars. He was one of the group of prominent characters for whom that age was especially celebrated, — Pope Julius XL, the founder of St. Peter's at Rome; Ferdinand of Aragon; Emanuel the Great of Portugal, the patron of arts and sciences and the friend of Vasco da Gama; Henry VIII. of England with his great minister, Cardinal Wolsey; and Bajazet II., one of the greatest of the Turkish sultans. It was in this reign that Martin Luther published his famous ninety-five theses against the doctrines of the Catholic Church (1517). 2. Charles V., the grandson of Maximilian, who succeeded him (1519), being crowned at Aix-la Chapelle, was one of the 1 greatest monarchs of ancient or modern times. . LJ He had become king of Spain by hereditary right, previous to his election as emperor of Germany; and ho wtis, besides, ruler over Austria, the Netherlands, and Naples. His Qkooraphical Study, Map No. XVI IT. What was the sitnation of: The Roman Empihk? Bohemia? Austria? HrNo/iRT? Ottoman Empire? Transylvania? Walijichia? Moldavia? Servia? BrixiARiA? Bos- nia? RoiTMKLiA? Poland? Lithuania? Prussia? Brandkkburo? Swiss Confe'^wu TioN? Franchk Comtb? Naples? States of the Church? No. 18, Germany and Austria. 699 contests with Francis I. of France have already been referred to. In 1521 a diet was held at Worms, at which Luther having been cited by Charles was commanded to recant; and on his refusal was pronounced a her- etic, and put to the ban of the empire. He, however, escaped. Luther. and was kept concealed for nine months by his friend and protector, Frederick of Saxony. From the spread of Luther's tenets grew what is called the Eeformation. Members op Maximilian's Court. (From a drawing by Albert Diirer, 1512.) 3. The doctrines of the Reformation made great progress in Saxony, favored as they were by the Elector; and several of the other princes of Germany supported Luther's views. In the diet held at Spire (1526), a tern- Reformation. porary decree of toleration was granted the Lutherans; but a subsequent diet at the same place revoked the decree, and declared Lutheranism heretical (1529). Against this revoca- tion fifteen imperial cities, and seven reigning princes, in- cluding the Elector of Saxony, protested as being unjust and 600 Modern History. oppressive; and hence the followers of Luther were after- ward called Protestants. At Augsburg they published their Confession of Faith, which had been drawn up by Melanchthon (1530),* and signed by the Protestant Protestants. Growth of Protestantism princes. The latter, after the condemnation of the Confession of Augsburg by the diet, formed for their defense the famous League of Smalcald (1531). 4. Meantime, the Lutheran doctrines had spread rapidly through several of the German states, from Saxony north- ward to the Baltic. After the peace of Cambray (see page 545), the emperor engaged to extirpate Lutheranism; but he was compelled to unite the German forces in order to repel the invasions of the Turks; and, consequently, at the diet of Nuremberg he made a treaty with the Protestant rulers, to be binding until a general coun- cil of the Church should be called. After the Turks had been defeated and driven back, Charles, being kept busy by his war with the Barbary powers and with France, found himself still unable to cope with the Protestant leaders, and renewed the peace of Nuremberg. Thus Protestantism was unchecked for the time, and spread not only in Germany, but in Denmark, Sweden, Holland, England, and other countries. Luther in the mean time translated the Bible into the German language, and also composed many hymns, one of which became the battle-song of the Reformation. He is regarded as the found- er of German church poetry and music. 5. A general council was at last called by Pope Paul IIL, to meet at Trent, f in the Italian part of the Tyrol, and the Protestants were invited to attend; but they refused to ♦ Philip Melanchthon (born In 1497, died In 1860) was, next to Lnther, the chief leader in the Protestant movement. He was eminent for his scholarship and Intel- lectual ability, as well as for his modesty and gentleness of disposition. tThe Council of Trent was one of the most important synods of the Catholic Church. It was opened in December, 1545, and was held at intervals until the twenty fifth session, December, 150.'i Its decrees, defining certain doctrines of the church, were confirmed by the Pope the next year. Germany and Austria, 601 acknowledge the Pope's authority or to be bound by the de- crees of the Council. This brought on a religious war, and Charles V. marched into northern Germany, and defeated the Elector of Saxony at Miihlberg, on the Elbe, taking him prisoner (1547). The latter was com- Religious war. Maurice. pelled to give up most of his dominions to Maurice, so cele- brated subsequently as the champion of Protestantism, though now he played the part of an apostate. Luther died just before this war commenced (February 18, 1546).* 6. Charles now eagerly pushed forward his plan to destroy Protestantism; and, under his orders, Maurice of Saxony laid siege to Magdeburg, and compelled its capitulation. Disgusted, how- ever, with the oppressive meas- ures of the emperor, Maurice now determined to take the side of the Protestants; and having formed an alliance with France (see page 546), he marched rap- idly to the south while Charles was busied in the affairs of the Council, and narrowly missed making him a prisoner (1552). f The next year, a diet was held, and the assembled German princes agreed to the Treaty of Passau, made in Charles V. Treaty of Passau. 1552 between Charles and Maurice, and permitting religious * " Charles V. was urged by the Duke of Alva and others to bum Luther's body and scatter the ashes, as those of a heretic ; but he answered like a man : ' I wage no war against the dead.' Herein he showed the better side of his nature, although only for a moment."— Bayard Taylor. t Apprised of his danger, Charles fled across the Alps amid the darkness of night and in a violent storm of rain, though he was suffering from the gout at the time, his courtiers following as best they could, many of them on foot. Maurice entered Innspruck a few hours after the emperor had left it; not sorry to find him gone, for he said he had "no conveoient cage for such a falcon." The Council of Tn-nt broke up, for the time, in dismay, its members scattering to their homes 6{)i Modern History, freedom to the Protestants. Three years afterward, tlie Diet of Augsburg, under the sanction of Charles V., confirmed these stipulations, and thus gave peace to Germany (1555). Charles V. abdicated the throne in 1556, and was succeeded by his brother Ferdinand (1556-1564). Thirty Yeaes' War. 7. The next important event in the history of Germany is the Thirty Years' War, which commenced in 1618, in Bohemia, on account of the attempt of the king (Ferdinand 11.) to extinguish Protestantism within Cause. his dominions. During this outbreak the king was elected emperor (Ferdinand II.); but the Bohemians refused to acknowledge him, and chose Frederick, Elector-palatine, son- in-law of James I. of England. Frederick being defeated in a great battle near Prague, was obliged to flee (1620); and the Bohemian Protestants were per- First period. secuted without mercy. Hostilities were continued in other parts under Count Mansfield, Frederick's general, against Tilly,* the imperial general, until 165^5, when several of the northern states of Germany formed a defensive union against the emperor, and invited Christian IV., King of Denmark, to act as their leader. This was the end of the first period of the war. 8. Christian entered Germany with his forces, and was joined by Count Mansfield and Duke Christian of Bruns- wick, a noted character at that time. James I. of England, his brother-in-law, also sent him Second period. assistance. There was, however, no zealous union among the German states. At this time Albert Wallenstein, a wealthy ♦ Tilly was already famous, in the Bavarian service, both for his military talent and his inhumanity. He was a small lean man, with a face almost comical in its ugliness. His nose was like a parrot's beak, his forehead seamed with deep wrinkles, his eyes sunk in their sockets and his cheek-bones projecting. He u.sually wore a dress of green satin, with a cocked hat and long red feather, and rode a Qinall, mean looking, gray horse."— i^a yard Taylor. Germany and Austria. 603 Bohemian, offered his services to Ferdinand in the Catholic interest, and they were accepted. Tilly and Wallenstein joining their forces soon drove the Danes out of Germany, and Christian made a treaty of peace with the emperor, at Lubeck (1629). This ended the second period of the war. 9. The next year, partly through the intrigues of Riche- lieu, Wallenstein, the greatest of the imperial generals, was dismissed: and Gustavus Adolphus, king of r— — — — ' 1 1 i i 1. Third period. Sweden, was induced to enter the contest as the I . . champion of the Protestant cause. With a small, but finely disciplined army, he invaded Germany, and passed triumph- antly through the country, after having defeated Tilly in a great battle near Leipsic (1631). Tilly being slain soon afterward, the emperor was obliged to recall Wallenstein, who by his skillful operations soon retrieved the imperial cause. In 1632 oc- curred the memorable battle of Lutzen, in which the Protes- Waixekstein. tants triumphed, but with the loss of their great leader Gustavus (1632). Soon after this, Wallenstein, being accused of treason, was assassinated by the command, as is supposed, of the emperor (1634). This ended the third period of the war. 10. Eichelieu now directly took part in the struggle on the side of the Protestants, allying France with Sweden, Holland, and the Protestant states of Germany against his implacable "foe, the House of Austria (1635). During the remainder of the war, the Intervention of France. imperial cause declined, through the influence of Eichelieu's masterly diplomacy and energetic military operations. The Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 1637, and was succeeded b^ 604 Modern History, his son, Ferdinand III. Richelieu died in 1642; but the war lingered on six years longer. The peace of Westphalia estab- lished the religious independence of the Protestant states, made Holland and Switzerland free, increased the territories of France, and stripped the German Empire of very much of its ancient power and splendor (1648). 11. The long reign of the emperor Leopold I. (1658-1705) was principally occupied in wars with the Turks and with France. The former, in 1683, penetrated to the heart of the empire, and laid siege to Vienna, Leopold I from which Le'o-pold was compelled to flee. Through the courage and address of the celebrated Polish king, John So-bi-es'ki, the city was relieved, and the Turks were obliged to retreat to their own dominions. Germany was involved in the wars caused by the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. of France; and several brilliant victories were gained in her interest by her illustrious general, Prince Eugene, who, as has been already stated, participated in the great battles fought during tlie War of the Spanish Succession (see page 560). 12. Prince Eugene also gained several important victories over the Turks, of which the greatest were that of Zenta, in Hungary (1697); and that of Bel-grudc' (1717), the latter resulting in an immense* loss to the Turks, including the city itself, over which, as Defeat of the Turks. being the key of Hungary, very many severe conflicts had taken i)laco between the Austrian and Ottoman forces. Charles VL, who reigned from 1711 to 1740, was the last of the male line of the Hapsburgs; and his deatli was followed by disputes which led to the famous War of the Austrian Succession. In this war. Austrian SucceMiort. Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, joined the enemies of Maria Theresa, in their attempt to deprive her of her do- minions; and the Elector of Bavaria, assuming the imperial throne, under the title of Charles VII., and being assisted by France, advanced to Vienna, and compelled her to flee to Germany and Austria, 605 Hungary. The Hungarians drew their swords enthusiasticallv in her favor, and Charles VII. was forced to retreat. The latter died in 1745; and Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, the husband of Maria Theresa, was elected emperor, under the title of Francis I. 13. The reign of Francis L was distinguished for the great Seven Years' War, which broke out eight years after the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1756). Great Britain and France quarreled about their colonial pos- sessions in North America; Austria was eager to Seven Years' War. regain the territories which Frederick of Prussia had con- quered during the previous war; and the Empress of Russia was desirous of curbing the pride and ambition of the Prussian monarch. Poland and Sweden joined Russia; and thus Freder- ick, whose only ally was Great Britain, had to contend against ^-^Q great states. The Prussian king was, however, the greatest general of his age ; and the many splendid victories which he gained with his small but highly disciplined army, illus- trate, in a very striking manner, to what an extent the genius of a military commander can triumph over superior numbers. This war was closed by the Treaty of Paris, in 1763. (See Prussia.) 14. During the reign of Francis II. (1792-1835), occurred the great wars with Napoleon, the result of whicli was, that the Empire of the West, or Holy Roman Empire, was dissolved in 1806, after an existence of more than a thousand years. Most of the Maria Theresa. End of the Empire. states were formed into the Confederation of the Rhine; and Austria became an hereditary empire, over which Francis 606 Modern History. continued to rule until his death in 1835.* After the defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, in 1814, the Confederation of the Ehine was dissolved; and in 1815 the Congress of Vienna formed the Germanic Confederation, Other changes. consisting of thirty-nine states, of which the central assembly, or diet, held its sessions at Frankfort on the Main {inine).\ Subsequently, the peace of Germany was much disturbed by the repeated contests of Austria and Prussia for supremacy in the affairs of the Confederation. During the revolutionary period of 1848-9, there was an earnest effort to establish a national union of the German states; and in 1849 "William L, King of Prussia, was elected by the National Parliament Hereditary Emperor of Germany; but tlie kingdoms of Bava- ria, Wiirtemberg, Hanover, and Saxony withheld their con- sent, and Austria protested against the measure. The Prus- sian king, therefore, declined the honor. 15. At this time Bismarck, since so prominent in Ger- man affairs, had commenced his career in the Prussian Par- liament, by an effort to consolidate the German nationality by harmonizing the measures of Aus- Bismarck. tria and Prussia. Schleswig and lEolstein, provinces of Den- mark, after a short war with the latter, were jointly occupied by these two powers (18G4), through his influence, he liaving ♦The disasters of 1805 destroyed the hold of Austria upon the Qennan states; and several of the latter allied themselves to Franco for self-protection. In 180fi, the arch-chancellor of Germany announced to the diet that he had cho.s(>n for his successor one of Napoleon's uncles; and shortly after this announcement sixtetn German princes signed an act of allegiance to the French eminnmr, and thus dis- solved their connection with the German emp'-e. This was followed by a di'olura- tlon on the part of Napoleon that he no longer recognized such an einpii-e. Thus a German confederation was formed independent of the Austrian Government, and Francis declared himself emperor of Austria. t The kingdom of Westphalia, created by Napoleon, was abollslied. Pnissia wag enlarged by the addition of the Rhineland, a part of Saxony, and Swedish Pomer- ania. The Tyrol and Salzburg were given back to Austria. Hanover was erected Into a kingdom; and Weimar, Oldenburg, and Mecklenburg became grand-duchles; Hamburg, Frankfort, Bremen, and Lubeck were declared free cities. Thus, Instead of the restoration of the empire, there was established a German Bund Political and religious freedom was proclaimed at the first session of the diet at Frankfort in 1R16 (November 6). Germany and Austria, 607 been made, two years before, the minister-president (prime minister) of Prussia. A quarrel ensued soon afterward; and Austria demanded that the diet should call into the field the military forces of War against Austria. the states against Prussia on account of her invasion of Hoi- stein. This brought on the war of 1866 against Austria. 16. Bismarck had sagaciously contrived to obtain the alliance and co-operation of Italy, with the design on the part of the latter to acquire possession of the Venetian territories. The Italians were defeated; but the Prussians, under the com- mand of their king (William I.), invaded Sadowa. B1SIIARC&. Bohemia; and, in the battle of Sad'o-wa, defeated the Austrians with great loss. A treaty soon followed, by whicli Austria was excluded from the Germanic Con- federation; and Prussia, after in- corporati;ig with her own domin- ions some of the states, formed the North German Confederation, con- Results. sisting of the states north of the Main, including herself as the leading state, and Berlin as the capital. Thus, through the Seven Weeks' War, Count Bismarck obtained for Prussia that controlling influence in Germany for which he had been for some time planning. 17. But the ultimate object of this wily and far-seeing statesman had not yet been attained. This was the complete union of Germany, with Prussia at its head. As auxiliary to that object, he concluded a secret I Bismilf treaty with the South German states, they en- I gaging to place their armies at the disposal of Prussia, in case of war. Napoleon III., becoming aware of the plans of the German minister, determined to thwart them, if possible. 608 Modern History. He demanded tlmt Luxemburg and Mentz should be ceded to France, thus extending its eastern frontier to the Rhine; but Bismarck replied; *^ Not an inch of land, not a single fortress, shall be given up, cost what it may. " War would have commenced immediately, but France was not prepared. In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War Francc-German War. broke out, by the march of the French armies to the Rhine, and resulted in their total defeat (see page 590). At its close William I. Avas proclaimed ^* King of Prussia and Em.peror of Germany" (1871). Bismarck was Result. shortly after promoted to the rank of prince, with the title of Chancellor of the German Empire. (See pp. 611, 612.) Austria. 18. Austria, after its organization as a separate empire in 1806, continued to be involved in the great conflict with Napoleon, in which she suffered terrible disasters. The great defeat at Wagram left her powerless; and the Emperor Francis was obliged to submit Wars with Napoleon. to the humiliation of accepting the victorious Corsican as his Bon-in-law (1810). The most important event in the history of Austria after the Congress of Vienna was the revolt of Hungary, followed by a terrible and Other events. gigantic war, which terminated in the total defeat of the Austrians, after which the Hungarians renounced their alle- giance to the House of Hapsburg, and chose their leader Kossuth (kosh'oot) as governor. Austria then obtained the intervention of Russia; and the Hungarian general treach- erously surrendered (1849). The revolt was then crushed with horrible cruelties ; but Kossuth and other Hungarian ]>atriot8 found an asylum in Turkey, and Kossuth esciii)ing visited England and the United States. Since then, concessions have been made to the Hungarians, and a sepanite ccmstitution and diet granted. This double nation now bears the title of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1886). No. 19. Prussia. 609 SECTION 11. Prussia. 19. Prussia derives its name from the Bo-rus'si, a fierce and warlike tribe of the Slavonic race, who early settled on the lands bordering on the Baltic Sea. In the first part of the eleventh century they were partially Early history. subdued by Bo-les'las, king of Poland; but, for more than two centuries, they resisted every effort made to convert them to Christianity. This was finally established among them by means of the crusade carried on against them by the Knights of the Teutonic Order,* during more than fifty years. The country remained under the government of the Knights for about two centuries, when it became partly dependent upon the great kingdom of Poland (1462). 20. The Duchy of Bran 'den-burg, a part of these Prussian territories, became, in 1640, the nucleus of the present king- dom of Prussia, through the efforts of Frederick William, styled the Great Elector. From Poland Great Elector. he obtained a recognition of his claim to the Duchy of Prus- sia, which had been hitherto possessed by that kingdom. He Geographical. Study, Map No. XIX. What is the sittiation of : Paris? Amiens? Luneville? Ivry? Rochelle? Orleans? Boulogne? Lyons? Frejus? Toulon? Brussels? Waterloo? Amsterdam? Berlin? Stralsund? Friedland? Dresden? Lutzeu? Jena? Leipsic? Ulm? Augsburg? Pas» sau? Spire? Hohenlinden? Hanover? Lubeek? Moscow? Warsaw? Cracow? Smolensk? Borodino? Wilna? Tilsit? Eilau? Poltava? Constantinople? Nissa? Widin? Belgrade? Nicopolis? Vienna? Presburg? Wagram? Austerlitz? Prague? Rome? Campo Formio? Marengo? Pavia? Palermo? Madrid? Vittoria? Corunna? Talavera? Ciudad Rodrigo? Lisbon? Vimeira? Albuera? Athens? Missolonghi? Navarino? * The order of Teutonic Knights was founded during the Crusades. Their first seat was at Acre ; but, after the destruction of the kingdom of Jerusalem, they »"emoved to the banks of the Vistula, and succeeded finally in establishing a sover «i'gnty, wliich had the control of nearly three millions of people. 610 Modern History, particularly distinguished himself for his successful wars against the Swedes, whom, in 1679, he entirely expelled from the country. He was also noted for his strenuous efforts in the cause of the Protestants; for which he received letters of congratulation and thanks from Oliver Cromwell. When the Edict of Nantes was revoked by Louis XIV., many of the exiled Huguenots found a refuge in the dominions of the Great Elector. 21. Prussia became a kingdom in 1701, the last elector, Frederick III., having been acknowledged king by the emperor of Germany, on condition that he should aid the cause of Austria in the AVar of Prussia a kingdom. the Spanish Succession. His troops gained great distinction by their valor in the battle of Blenheim. He was succeeded by Frederick William I., in 1713, noted for his harsh and eccentric character, his fondness for tall soldiers, and his savage treat- ment of his son, who succeeded him as Frederick II., known as Frederick the Great (1740-86). Under the latter, Prussia be- came one of the greatest mili- tary powers in Euroj^e, partly through the magnificent army which had been collected by Frederick William I., and disciplined to the highest degree of efficiency. 22. Taking advantage of the disputes regarding the claims of Maria Theresa, Frederick invaded Silesia, and defeated the Austrians (1741). This brought on the war of the Austrian Succession, in which the Prus- sian king gained several victories over the Aus- Fredkrick the Great. Frederick the Great. trians and Saxons, taking Dresden, where he made peace (1745). lu the Seven Years' War. his victories over the com- Prussia. 611 bined forces of the great powers of Europe gave him a place among the most renowned generals of history. French, Austri- an, and Eussian armies, each double the number of the Prussians, were defeated in turn (1757-8). The Eussian defeat at Zorndorf was perhaps the Seven Years' War. most memorable in the war (1758). The treaty of 1763 left him with considerably extended dominions. In 1772, the Prussian territories were also enlarged by the First Partition of Poland. Frederick by no means neglected the internal improvement of his kingdom, encouraging agriculture, manu- factures, and commerce. He was passionately r _ '_. . . » . T 1 Character. fond of literature, was an mtimate friend and L_ associate of Voltaire, and acquired himself some distinction as an author. 23. The wars with Napoleon occurred during the reign of Frederick William III. In these, Prussia suffered the terrible overthrow of Jena (1806), but redeemed her honor through the achievements of Blucher {hloo'ker), Jena. to whose skill, courage, and promptitude the great victories of Leipsic and Waterloo were partly due. Blucher's hatred of Napoleon and the French was intense; and, had he not been overruled by the other generals. Blucher. Paris, in 1814, would have been given up to be pillaged by the soldiers. 24. By the Congress of Vienna the Prussian territories were much enlarged; and during the subsequent part of the reign of Frederick William, the condition of Prussia was greatly improved. The establish- Later events. ment of common schools of a high order of excellence did much to enlighten the people and augment the real strength of the kingdom. Frederick William III. was succeeded in 1840 by his son, Frederick William IV., who died in 1861. During the reign of his successor, William I., Germany was reconstructed, as related in the history of that country, and the King of Prussia became the German Emperor, On his 612 Modern History. death, in March, 1888, his son succeeded, under the title of Frederick III., but died the following June, when he was succeeded by his son William II., who now reigns (1889). SECTION III. Holland and Belgium. 25. Holland and Belgium, called the Netherlands, or Low Countries, constituted, in 843, a part of Germany. For several centuries it was under the rule of petty princes, and afterward formed a part of the Early history. duchy of Burgundy. Several of its cities, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, and Mechlin, grew strong and rich by their trade and manufactures. The death of Charles the Bold and the marriage of his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, to Maximilian, brought the Netherlands for a time under the sway of Austria; but they subsequently passed by inheritance to Charles V., who was the grandson of Maximilian and Mary. 26. The historical impor- tance of these states commences in the reign of Philip II. of Spain, the son and successor of Charles, through the resistance made by their spirited inhabitants to the tyranny and intoler- ance of that bigoted monarch. Under their Willi A ii Rise of the republic. great leader, William of Orange, surnamed the "Silent," the ** Seven United Provinces" successfully revolted against the cruelties of the Duke of Alva, viceroy of Philip, and Holland and Belgium. 613 declared their independence, William becoming their first president with the title of Stadtholder (1581). This illustrious soldier and statesman was assas- sinated in 1584,* but the United Provinces were William of Orange. presided over by the princes of Orange until the French Revo- lution. The other provinces (Belgium) continued to belong to Spain until they were transferred to Austria (1713). 27. The Dutch republic became, a short time after its independence, the most formidable maritime power in the world. The part taken by it in the great Euro- pean wars, and its successive contests with Great Dutch republic. Britain, have already been related. During the French Revo- lution, the National Convention having declared war against Holland, the country was overrun by the French armies; and the anti-Orange faction excited a popular insurrection which expelled William V., the last of the Stadtholders, and led to the establishment of the Batavian Republic, under the control of the French (1795). Belgium became a part of France. 28. Napoleon Bonaparte made his brother Louis king of Holland, but afterward dethroned him, and annexed the country to France. After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna reunited Holland and Later changes. Belgium, and thus formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was placed under one of the Orange family, with the title of William I. This union lasted till 1830, when Bel- gium successfully revolted, and became a separate kingdom, Leopold, a German prince, being placed upon the throne. In 1865, he was succeeded by Leopold II. Holland's king from 1849 till 1890 was William III., of the Orange family. * "The gloom produced by the assassination of William of Orange was tragical. Never in human history was a more poignant and universal sorrow for the death of any individual. The despair was, for a brief season, absolute ; but it was soon succeeded by more lofty sentiments. It seemed, after they had laid their hero in the tomb, as though his spirit still hovered above the nation which he had loved so well, and was inspiring it with a portion of his own energy and wisdom." — Mo%' Igy^s United Netherlands. 614 Modern History, SECTION IV. Switzerland. 29. The chief events in the history of Switzerland, after the establishment of its independence in 1499, were those connected with the changes in religion brought about by the celebrated Protestant preacher Zwingli. Zwin'gli, an associate of Luther and Melanchthon. The can- tons were soon involved in a civil war on account of religious dissensions. Zurich, in 1523, adopted Religious wars. the opinions of Zwingli, and was followed by Berne, and other cantons in the north; wliile the forest cantons re- mained attached to the Catholic Church. In a battle fought in 1531, the iatter were victorious, and Zwingli was slain. Geneva was the residence of John Calvin, one of the most noted of the Protestant divines; and Calvin. from his preaching spread the doctrines which afterward characterized the Puritans of England, and the pe<»ple of Scotland. The death of Calvin occurred in 1564. 80. The neutrality of Switzerland was preserved during the Thirty Years' War; and at its close, the peace Ot West- l^halia secured the inde])endonce of tlic Con- federacy, by acknowledging it as a separate Later history. state. At this period, the Swiss were among the best soldiers in Europe, and were employed in immense numbers by foreign states. In 1798, the French nrmies overran Switzer- land; and, in 1802, Napoleon, as First Consul, annexed three of the cantons to France, and formed of the others a con- federation dependent upon it. The Congress of Vienna restored the cantons, and re-establislied the republic, consist- ing of twenty-two cantons (1815). The new constitution, adopted by the federal diet in the same j'car, was ratified by the great powers, and the perpetual independence of the Confederation was declared. Tho J^st r^vi^ipn of this con* stitutiou was adopted in 1874. Italy. 615 SECTION V. Italy. 31. Italy continued to be divided into a number of small states until the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy (1861). Among these states the Duchy of Sav'oy be- came, in tlie latter period of the Middle Ages, a Savoy. power of considerable importance. During the wars of Louis XIV. of France, it took sides with the allies, and was reward- ed, by the treaty of Utreclit, with the island of Sicily and other territories. The Kingdom of Sardinia originated in a treaty made between Savoy and Sardinia. Austria (1720), by which Sicily was exchanged for the island of Sardinia, and the Duke of Savoy was acknowledged king. By Napoleon it was stripped of much of its territory, which was restored by the Congress of Vienna, who also annexed to it the ancient republic of Genoa. 32. Charles Albert was a vigorous monarch of Sardi- nia; and, during his reign (1831-49), many reforms were introduced into the government, in compliance with the demands for a more liberal policy, by Charles Albert. the people. At the revolutionary period of 1848, the king announced a new constitution, which was hailed with much satisfaction. An insurrection of the Austrian states of Italy broke out, and the king placed himself at the head of the Italian forces. Being disastrously Victor Emanuel- defeated, he was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel (1849), during whose reign many changes occurred in Italy. Joseph Gar-i-bal'di, the famous Italian patriot, landing in Sicily, proclaimed himself dictator for Victor Emanuel. After taking Garibaldi. Palermo by storm, and defeating the army of the King of Naples, he invaded the peninsula, and continuing in his vic- torious career, compelled the king (Er^n^ls II.) to flee (1860), 616 Modern History, Kingdom of Italy. 33. Victor Emanuel afterward entered Naples, and was acknowledged king. Lombardy had been wrested the year before from Austria, through the aid of the French emperor, Napoleon III., who gained the splendid victories of Magenta and Solferino over the Austrian forces. As a result of the successful insurrec- tion of 1860, the states of Italy, except Venetia and a part of the Papal territories, were consolidated into the Kingdom of Italy; and Victor Emanuel, the former king of Sardinia, was placed on the throne by the Italian Parliament. He was soon afterward recognized as king of Italy by France and England, and fixed his capital at Florence (1861). After the war of 1867, Venetia was given up by Austria, and sub- sequently Garibaldi made an attack on the Papal Rome. territory, but his forces were repulsed by the French. After the Franco-German war, so disastrous to France, the French forces were withdrawn, and tlie Italian army soon afterward entered Rome, which the Italian Parliament pro- claimed the capital of the Kingdom of Italy Humbert I. (1870). Victor Emanuel made his formal entry into the city the next year. On his death, in 1878, this king was succeeded by his son, Humbert I., who still reigns (1886). SECTION VL Spain. 84. Charles V. of Germany, previous to his election as emperor, inherited the throne of Spain, being the grandson of Isabella of Castile. His reign (Don Carlos I.), which commenced at the death of Ferdinand Ximenet. (1516), lasted forty years; but is chiefly occupied with the general affairs of Europe. Cardinal Ximenes (ze-me'necz), one of the most celebrated personnges of his age, administered Bpain. 617 the government till 1517, with great vigor and ability, was succeeded, on his abdication, by Philip II. (1556), who thus became one of the greatest Charles Philip II. potentates on earth, being ruler over Spain, the Netherlands, Sicily, Naples, and other parts of Italy, besides of such parts of the New World as had been added to the dominions of Spain by the discoveries of Columbus and that navigator's successors. 36. Philip's schemes were principally actuated by bigotry, SPAIJT AND POKTUGAL Condition of Spain. and nearly all ended in utter failure; so that, at his death (1598), he left the country despoiled of some of its best possessions, impoverished by ruinous wars, and greatly lowered in the respect of foreign nations. His successor (Philip III.) still further weakened the kingdom by the expulsion of the Moors (1610), who had been permitted by Ferdi- Moors. nand to remain in the country, on condition gf th^il* accepting 618 Modern History, Christianity. This measure of Philip III., which was based on the charge of hypocrisy in the professed conversion of the Moors, deprived Spain of 500,000 of its most useful population. 36. The reign of Philip IV. (1621-65) was noted for the loss of Portugal, which had been annexed to Spain during the* reign of Philip II. (1580). It now re-estabhshed its independence as a separate kingdom under Portugal. the Duke of Bra-gan'za (1640). Philip IV. made the most strenuous exertions to recover the lost province, and his failure is said to have partly occasioned his death. During the next reign (Charles II., 1665-1700), Spain was left, by the imbecility of its government, a Later events. prey to the other nations of Europe, by whom it was despoiled of many of its best possessions. The i)lacing of Philip V. upon the throne, by his grandfather, Louis XIV., led to the War of the Spanish Succession (see page 560.) 37. The attempts of the Emperor Napoleon I. to obtain the control of Spain, occasioned the Peninsular War, the chief events of which have already been related. The conclusion of peace, in 1814, restored Ferdinand American colonies. VII. to the throne, who dissolved the Cortes^ or Parliament, and established an absolute rule. A revolution which broke out in 1820, compelled him to restore the free constitution formed in 1812, and placed him under restraint. Louis XVIII. of France, however, sending an army into Spain, released him, and restored his authonty. The War of Spanish Independence in America, which broke out in 1810, by the revolt of New Grena'da and Venezue'la, ended in 1825, the American colonies, one by one, having achieved their independence.* ♦ Spain, once the richest nation in the world, from her American and other con- quests, had by this time lost the whole of her vast forei>?n dominions, except Cuba and Porto Rico in the west, and thy Philippine Islands in the east, with a few UU' Important possessions. Portugal. 619 38. Isabella II. was proclaimed queen on the death of Ferdinand, her father, in 1833, but was opposed by Don Carlos, her uncle, who claimed the throne on the ground that the law of succession excluded Isabella II. females. A war of four years ensued ; and finally Great Britain sent an army in aid of Isabella, whereupon Don Carlos, hopeless of success, fled to France. Isabella's rule gave great dissatisfaction, and in 1868, after a successful insurrection, she was obliged to flee, seeking a refuge in France. A provisional government Revolution. was then organized, under Generals Serrano and Prim, fol- lowed by a regency with Serrano at its head. In 1871, Duke Aosta, second son of Victor Emanuel, became king by elec- tion of the Cortes, with the title of Amade'us I.; but, after a short and stormy reign, he abdicated (1873); and a republic was proclaimed. Civil war in various parts of Spain followed, until Alfonso, son of Isabella II., Alfonso. who had been proclaimed king in Madrid and acknowledged by some of the armies, landed in Spain; and the Carlist in- surrectionists* were overthrown (1876). This event placed Alfonso XII. on the throne, which he held until his death (1885). His widow, Christina, was then made regent. SECTION VII. Portugal. 39. It was during the reign of Emanuel, surnamed the Fortunate (1495-1521), that Vasco da Gama made his suc- cessful voyage to India, by way of the Cape of Good Hope (1497). This was soon followed by the accidental discovery of Brazil, by Cabral Maritinne enterprises. (1500), in a voyage to India, thus giving that extensive and * These were the supporters of the claims of Don Carlos, a grandson of Isabella's uncle, who had previously contended for -hy throne 620 Modern History, fertile region to the Portuguese. Important voyages were made to this region by Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian naviga- tor in the Portuguese service (1501 and 1504). In the same reign the Portuguese established their authority in India, making many conquests and founding several colonies. Among their conquests were Ceylon (1505) and Malacca (1511). Japan was discovered a few years later (1542).* 40. An unfortunate expedition of Sebastian III. to Mo- rocco (1578), from which he never returned, left Portugal without a sovereign, and occasioned disorder and anarchy, — the people constantly looking for the Sebastian III. return of their king, of whose fate no tidings were ever re- ceived. Philip II. of Spain, taking advantage of these cir- cumstances, seized upon the country (1580); and for sixty years it was held in subjection to the Spanish rule. Spanish crown. During this period, it suffered much from the oppressive exactions of its conquerors, being obliged to share in the taxation occasioned by the long and expensive wars waged by the Spanish monarchs. John IV. At last, it was set free by a revolution; and Joiin IV., Duke of Braganza, ascended the throne (1640). Long wars fol-. lowed with Spain, which did not acknowledge the independ- ence of Portugal till 1G68. 41. During the next century, Portugal remained in a state of inglorious stagnation, being steeped in ignorance and bigotry; and, after being one of the greatest mari- time nations of the world, was content to become a kind of commercial dependent of Great Britain. State of the nation. Under the reign of Joseph I. (1750-77), the genius and ♦ "Intercourse with the Chinefle was commence:,i-us'ko, who had so generously lent his sword to the cause of Ameri- 'O' Kosciuslto. can freedom, in the war of the Revolution. At first victorious, the brave Poles were soon obliged to succumb to the over- whelming masses of the Russians, commanded by the fierce :and relentless Suvaroff; and Kosciusko was wounded and made a pri^^oner (1704). Warsaw was soon after taken by >fitorm, and the last relic of Polish independence was destroyed Russia, C27 by the Third Pjirtition (1795). Stanislas died a broken- hearted exile in St. Petersburg (1798). Kosciusko, kept for some time a captive at St. Petersburg, was afterward released; and for many years wandered in America, France, and Switzerland. In the last-named country he died, from the effects of a fall from his horse (1817). 66. The wars waged by Napoleon I. against the enemies of Poland excited new hopes in the people of regaining their independence; but these were destroyed by the Congress of Vienna, who gave some of the Polish Russian control. territories to Prussia and Austria, and formed of the remain- der the kingdom of Poland, under the control of the czar. After an unsuccessful insurrection of the Poles in 1830, this kingdom was incorporated with the Russian Empire. Another insurrection took place in 1863; but it was soon crushed by the overwhelming force of the Russian Government, and the severest punishments were inflicted upon tens of thousands of the unfortunate insurgents. SECTION X. Russia. 57. The ancestors of the Russians were the Slavs, who at an early period formed settlements near the sources of the Dnieper, Dniester, and Don rivers, and the Baltic Sea. Of these Novgorod' and Kiev Ear'y history. {ke-ev') were the chief. The size and influence of the former, while it was a member of the Hanseatic League in the thir- teenth century, were so great, that it was called the Mighty Novgorod. It was the metropolis of Novgorod. one of the most extensive of the Russian states, occupying a vast tract that stretched from the Baltic to the White So*. 628 Modern History, 58. For several centuries Russia was overrun by the Mon- gols, from whom it was emancipated by Ivan {e-van') III., one of the greatest of its monarchs, who, during his reign of nearly half a century (1462-1505), did very much to improve and elevate the people. He liad married a niece fvan III. of Constantine Palaeologus, and endeavored to introduce into his country the laws, institutions, and arts of civilization peculiar to the Greek Empire. During this and the two suc- ceeding reigns, the petty principalities were abolished, and Russia assumed the character of a consolidated empire (1584). A short time previous to this, Siberia. the conquest of Siberia had been commenced ; and, in 1664, Ir-koutsk' was founded. 69. Russia owes its great- ness as a European power to the talents and energy of Peter theGreat,(l682- Peter the Great 1725) who was one of the most extraordinary personages de- scribed in history. With an in- fle:iible will, he was dismayed by no difficulty and appalled ^^""^ ""^ o»*^t- by no danger. With the spirit of an enliglitened patriot, he resolved to introduce among his people the useful arts, the civilized customs, and the beneficent institutions which he saw prevailing in other countries of Europe. To accomplish this, he visited England, Holland, and other countries; and even engaged himself as a common mechanic, to obtiiin a knowledge of the arts which he desired to teach his i)eople (1697-8). In 1703, the capital was removed from Moscow to liis new city, St. Petersburg. 60. Previous to this, the war with Charles XII. of Sweden bretB out; »nd Peter was defeated with great loss in the Bussia, 629 battle of Narva (1700). Profiting by this experience, the Russian monarch re-organized his army; and when Charles invaded Russia, in 1707, he was permitted to penetrate farther and farther into those dreary regions of frost and famine, till, with a small Defeat of Charles XII. Turks. and half-famished remnant of his great army, he was sur- rounded at Poltava, and entirely defeated (1709). Two years later, Peter allowed the Russian army to be surrounded by the Turks near the Pruth {proof) River; and was saved from a terrible disaster by an artifice of the Empress Catharine, who bought off the vizier with her jewels. Peter died in 1725. 61. Catharine I., the widow of the great czar, succeeded him, Catharine I. r ul in g for two years. Sh e had originally been a peasant girl; but, by her prudence, intel- ligence, and enterprise, she did mucli to facilitate the beneficent objects of her dis- tinguished husband. Prince Men'shi-koff, the chief min- ister of Peter, had also risen from a very humble station. During the reign of Eliza- beth, daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine, Russia became a prominent nation and took a distinguished part in the Seven Years' War (1741-62). 62. The profligate empress Catharine 11. (1762-96) had the celebrated Po-tem'kin for her minister and favorite. Wars were waged with Turkey and Poland, and the Crimea was wrested from the former in 1784. Catharine L Elizabeth. Catharine II. The Turks were afterwards severely defeated by the famous General Suvaroff, and were thus compelled to submit to further loss of territory (1792). This general also distin- 630 Modern History, guished himself during the next reign (Paul) in the wars waged against Napoleon. Paul was assassinated in 1801, and was succeeded bv Alexander I., who Paul. entered into the several co*ilitions foi-med against Naj^oleon. This monarch commenced his reign with liberal ideas and a desire to effect reforms, but he became Alexander I. arbitrary and misanthropic, and ruled as an absolute despot till his death in 1825. He was succeeded by his brother Nicholas. 63. The reign of Nicholas I., who was also a stern despot, is noted for tr.3 insurrection in Poland (1830), and the cruel punishments inflicted upon the unfortunate Poles by the remorseless emperor. The crushing out Nicholas. of the Hungarian insurrection by the interference of Russia, and the Crimean war (1853-5), were also events of this reign. Nicholas died while the latter was in progress, and was succeeded by his son, Alexander II. (1855). Alexander II. The next year, the treaty of Paris was concluded, by which Rus- sia was obliged to resign her claims to the Danubian princi' palities, and to the unrestricted navigation of the Black Sea. 64. Alexander II. commenced his reign with a series of liberal reforms, the greatest of which was the emancipation of the serfs by a decree issued in 1861, by means of which fourteen millions of people were re- Later history. leased from bondage, and made free citizens. The defeat of the celebrated leader Scha'myl, who had organized an inde- pendent government over the mountain tribes of the Caucasus, took place in 1859. An insurrection in Poland was suppressed in 1864, and the people were again treated with extreme rigor. Since 1865 Russia has mauc extensive conquests in central Asia, successively bringing under her sway the rich and fertile khanates of Turkistan (loor-kis-fan^). Kliiva, one of the most imjmrtant of tlicse, was conquered in 1875. 65. In 1875-6 insurrections broke out in the Christian provinces of Bos'nia, Scrvia, Bulgaria, and others; and the 'TurTzey. 631 atrocities committed by the Turkish soldiery in suppressing them caused a thrill of horror throughout the civilized world.* Russia took occasion to interfere in behalf of the religious freedom of the provinces, Eastetn war. and demanded guarantees of the Turkish Government which the latter refused to grant. War accordingly ensued, dur- ing which the Russian armies, having invaded the Ottoman dominions both in Europe and Asia, gained several important victories. This war was closed by the treaty of Berlin (1878), with the result stated in the history of Turkey (see page 634). The commotions excited by the extreme revolu- tionary party called Nihilists have for some years Nihilists. disturbed the nation; and several attempts were made on the czar's life, the last of which was successful, Alexander being assassinated in St. Petersburg (1881). He was succeeded by his son Alexander III, the present czar (1889). SECTION XL Turkey. 66. Mohammed II., the conqueror of Constantinople, greatly enlarged the Turkish territories; and his son Bajazet II. (1481-1512) extended his dominions still further, adding a part of the region north of the Conquests. Black Sea, together with portions of Italy and Austria. His * " These atrocities excited universal astonishment and horror when their full extent had been made known. Mr. W. E. Gladstone, late premier of the British cabinet, was prompted by them to write a pamphlet full of burning denunciation of the administration in power in Great Britain [Earl of Beaconsfield's], for its attempt to palliate the enormity of the offenses and its toleration of the Turkish Government, which, knowing that they had been committed, had not taken efficient measures to bring the perpetrators of them to justice. In this pamphlet he pro- nounced them ' the basest and blackest outrages upon record within the present century, if not Avithin the memory of man,' and characterized them as crimes and outrages so vast in scale as to exceed all modern example, and so unutterably vile as well as fierce in character, that it pains the power of heart to conceive, and of tongue and pen adequately to describe them."— *i. J. Sokem'i War in the East, 632 Modern History. successor, Selim I. (1512-20), made conquest of Syria, Egypt, and other countries, and laid the foundation of the Turkish naval power, which so long disputed the empire of the Mediterranean with the fleets of Venice. The gi-eatest power and splendor were, however, attained by the Ottoman Em- pire during the reign of Solyman, surnamed the Magnificent (1520-66). 67. This great monarch reduced the powerful Danubian fortresses of Belgrade (1521), wrested the island of Rhodes from its persevering and valiant defenders, the Knights of St. John (1522), and, having invaded Solyman. Hungary and taken Buda (1529), marched to Vienna, which he besieged for a long time, but was repulsed with great loss (1529). A second attempt, in 1532, was equally unsuccessful. He also carried on a successful war with the Shah (emperor) of Persia; and his fleets triumphantly swept the Mediterranean from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Levant. One of his last undertakings was an unsuccessful attack on the island of Malta, which the Emperor Charles V. had given to the Knights of St. John, after their expulsion from Rhodes (15G5). 68. During the reign of Selim II. (1566-74), the German emperor agreed to pay an annnal tribute to the Turks for their surrender of Hungary. The attempt to take Astrachan', a city on the Volga, preliminary to Selim II. the construction of a canal between the Don and Volga rivers — a scheme projected by the Turkish emperor for commercial purposes — aroused the hostility of the Russians, a people until that time little known in southern Europe. Tlius were com- menced those fierce wars, which for centuries have been waged by these neighboring empires. During the reign of Selim, the fleets of Turkey received a check by the great naval defeat at Lepanto, in Greece, from the allied forces of Spain, Venice, and the Pope, under Don Jolin of Austria (1571). 69. The subsequent reigns, for more than a century, pre- sent only a continuous series of contests with Germany, TurTcey, 633 Poland, and Russia, in which the Ottoman power succeeded in extending its dominions from the Danube to the Tigris, and from the southern limits of Egypt Wars. to the falls of the Dnieper River. It sustained, however, several defeats, of which that at Vienna by the Poles under their king, John vSobieski, was the Defeats. most memorable (1683);* and Prince Eugene, while in the imperial service, gained one of his greatest victories over the Turks at Zenta, a city in Hungary (L697). The Turks aban- doned all their Hungarian possessions in the treaty which followed (1699). The assistance given to Charles XIL, after the battle of Poltava, involved the Turks in a war with Peter the Great, to whom it would Morea. have proved a great disaster, had he not been rescued by the skillful artifice of the Empress Catharine. A short time after this, the Morea (southern part of Greece) was taken from the Venetians (1714). 70. Contests with Russia take up the largest part of its subsequent history. During a six years' war (1768-7-1), the Russians overran the Crimea, which they suc- ceeded in retaining, notwithstanding the most desperate efforts of the Turks to regain it. While Wars with Russia. Catharine II. of Russia was on the throne, the Turks were assailed by the combined power of Russia and Austria, the forces of the former being commanded by Marshal Savaroff, the most famous of Russian generals, and particularly noted for his resolution and relentless ferocity. Peace was con- cluded between Russia and Turkey in 1792. * " Never was there a more complete owerthrow. It was like the explosion of a mine; it was so sudden. After the battle, the Elector of Bavaria, and many others of the princes, fell on my neck and kissed me in the fullness of their joy. The generals hoisted me on their shoulders and carried me through their ranks. Wher- ever I went, ' Long live Sobieski I ' ' Sobieski forever ! ' ' Huzza I ' sounded on all sides. Mothere and children ran to touch me; old men covered my hands with kisses; and those who could not get through the crowd, waved their hats or hand- kerchiefs, shouting with one voice, ' God save thee, Sobieski T 'W^lQOwe, Sol?i^skiI ' ' Huzza r ''—Letter of Sohie^ to hU Wife, 634 Modern History, 71. The conquest of Egypt and tlie invasion of Syria by Napoleon have already been referred to. By the aid of the British, the lost territories were regained. One of the most interesting events since that time, wtis Later events. the successful insurrection of the Greeks, whose independence was secured by the battle of Navarino (1837). The wars waged with the rebellious Pacha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali {ma'hem-et ah'le), still further reduced the strength of the empire. This contest was terminated in 1841, by the surren- der of the government of Egypt to Mehemet Ali, he being made an hereditary ruler. One of his successors, Ismail {is- mali-eeV) Pasha, obtained from the sultan in 1867 the hered- itary title of khedive (viceroy). 72. Russia has repeatedly taken advantage of the weakness of the Ottoman Empire to attempt its spoliation. In the Crimean War Turkey was successfully aided by Great Britain and France in opposing the schemes Russian attacks. of conquest of Nicholas; and by the treaty of Paris it regained a portion of territory north of the Danube. In the Eastern War of 1877-8, the Turkish forces were unsuc- cessful in opposing the Russian armies; and the Eastern War. empire suffered a great loss of territory by the Treaty of Berlin, negotiated under the influence and direction of the leading powers of Europe, a congress of whose representatives met in that city. By this treaty Turkey was obliged to con- sent to the formation of the principalities of Bul- garia and Servia, with the partial independence Result. of East Rumo'lia, Bos'nia, and Ilorzegovi'na, the government of the last two to be administered by Austria-Hungary. In 1859 the Turkish dependencies Moldavia and Wallachia wore united, and a principality formed from thorn, to which the name of Roumania was given. The independence of this state Avas acknowledged by the sultan of Turkey in 1801. Rouma- nia subsequently assumed the rank and dignity of a kingdom (1881). Greece. 635 SECTION XII. Greece. 73. From the capture of Constantinople (1453) until a recent date, Greece was under the Mohammedan yoke, which was made galling and oppressive to the last degree by the brutal and fanatical Turks. In 1820, the Turkish rule. Greeks determined to make a struggle for their independence; and Mav-ro-cor-da'to was proclaimed president. His most celebrated compeer in the dreadful contest that ensued was Marco Bozzaris (bot'saJi-ris), called, sometimes, the **Leonidas of Modern Greece." This heroic chief perished in a night-attack upon the Turkish War for independence. camp (1823), near Missolonghi, one of the chief centers of the insurrection. This place also derives a mournful interest from the death of Lord Byron, who died there of a fever, occasioned by his earnest efforts in behalf of Greece (1824). 74. The fall of this place, after a long siege, in which its brave defenders suffered the most dreadful hardships from famine, and which was closed by their captivity, aroused the sympathy of Europe; and England, European aid. France, and Russia formed a league to assist the brave Greeks in their unequal contest. The combined fleets of the allies entirely destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleets in the harbor of Navarino (October 20, 1827). After this victory. Count Capo d'Istria, a native of the Navarmo. island of Corfu, was formally installed as President of Greece. Its independence was formally acknowledged by the Turkish sultan in 1829. 75. Made a separate kingdom by the allied powers, its first king was Otho, a Bavarian prince (1832). His reign was somewhat troubled, by the discontent of his sub- jects with his German officials and foreign troops. Otho. and by Russian intrigues for the purpose of involving the 636 Modern History, little kingdom in the insurrections of the neighboring prov- inces against Turkey. A successful revolution broke out in Athens in 1862; and Otho having abdicated, was succeeded the following year by Prince George of George I. Denmark, with the title of George I., King of the Hellenes. SECTION XIII. Progress of Civilization in Modern Europe. 76. Modern history commences at the epoch at which the dawn of intelligence broke upon Europe. In the latter part of the fifteenth century the civilization of the Greek Empire had disappeared before the con- Modem epoch. quering arms of the rude and ferocious Ottomans, atid the western nations, emerging from the night of mediaeval igno- rance, began to glow with tlie first beams of that intellectual and social illumination to which they have attained. Litera- ture, science, and art, at this auspicious era, sprang into active life; and the human mind, shaking off the chains of feudal barbarism, began its career of activity and freedom. 77. After the destruction of the feudal system, the masses were gradually released from the degrading condition of serf- dom, and acquired a share in the estiiblishment of civil and political institutions. Science soon Changes. began its wonderful reformation. The comforts and con- veniences of life were constantly increased ; the modes of warfare were revolutionized by tlie use of firearms;* the mariner's compass made ocean navigation possible, and the application of steam, at a later period, facilitated it; yhile • The process of making: grannlnted gunpowder wa.s invented by Sdtrvnrtt In 1320, and Immediately tlu»reafter almost every state comnieneed the use f* cannon of small size. In 1*46, P^dward III. uwmI them at Crecy Plated armor cculd then no lonjfer protect the feudal tyranf apoft^Ht the weapon of the oppreaaef* peasant. Cimlization in Modern Europe. 637 extended commerce gave an impulse to exploration and dis- covery. The invention of printing gave to the modern world the intellectual riches of the ancients, and literature com- menced its magnificent career. The later application of elec- tricity to the telegraph has brought the ends of the earth into rapid communication with each other. 78. The maritime enterprises of the Portuguese in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries gave them great commercial influence, especially in the trade of the East Indies; but they found at a later period a success- ful rival in the Dutch. The celebrated Dutch Maritime enterprise. East India Company was chartered in 1602, and through it the rival cities of the Netherlands united their interests and efforts.* Its center was at Batavia, called the *'* Pearl of the East," which at the close of the seventh century had reached a population of 160,000. The conflicts between the Dutch and the Portuguese resulted in the supremacy of the former, whose colonies soon became numerous and important. The French also established a company in the East India trade, besides which there was a Danish East India Company in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The English company, to which reference has already been made, acquired its great- est power in the eighteenth century. Companies were also organized for the West India trade. 79. Spain and Portugal for more than a century enjoyed a monopoly of the treasure and merchandise obtained from India and the New World. The Spanish colonies in Central and South America and in the West Colonies, Indies, and the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, were a source of vast wealth; but by folly, indolence, bigotry, and * "The naval and military power of the Dutch East India Company became at last enormous. Of ships of war carrying from twenty to sixty gims, they had, when powerful, one hundred and fifty, besides fifty smaller vessels, and an army of corresponding magnitude. The States General had from time to time to sub- sidize the Company in order to enable the directors to carry on their wars."— Yeats" s Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce. 638 Modern History, a thirst for gold and silver, the best fruits of these possessions were lost; and the maritime influence and glory of the Penin- sula, gained in the sixteenth century, was swept away in the next by Dutch enterprise and vigor. Holland, in its turn, yielded to English ascendency at a later period. 80. The wonderful commercial revival of the sixteenth century brought many changes — many new elements charac- teristic of modern civilization. Communication and correspondence became by degrees more easy Improvements. and rapid, by the construction of canals and militai-y roads; systems of commercial credit and exchange were established, as at Antwerp, London, and Amsterdam; great fairs for trading purposes were held at diiferent places, particularly at Brunswick and Leipsic;* and banks, insurance companies, and post-offices were founded in large numbers. 81. Progress in the industrial arts was greatly stimulated by this increased commercial activity. In these very great progress has been made in all civilized countries during the last three centuries. This is seen in Industrial arts. the improvements made in agriculture, in every kind of manufacturing industry, in mining, in the invention and use of labor-saving machinery, — particularly in that for the mak- ing of textile fabrics. The processes of spinning and weaving were at first simple, crude, and tedious, the instruments used being the spindle and distaff, and then the spinning-wheel; while weaving was dependent on the loom and shuttle, and embroidery was executed by hand. 82. With these simple means, however, weaving had reached, before the sixteenth century, a high degree of per- fection, especially in Flanders, Franco, and Italy, and in the cities of Brussels, Antwerp, Bruges, Valenciennes {vnh-long- • In more recent times such fairs have been held In various parts of the world, and many are utill maintained, NIzlmi Novgorod, on the Volpa River, Is still the center of a vast trade; and annual fairs are now lu'M there, at some of which M many as 200,000 traders are jfatherod. Tlie fairs at Leipsle, Brimswick, and Frank- fort are still very large and important. Cimlization in Modern Europe. 689 se-en'), Ar'ras, Genoa, and Florence. Tapestry-weaving dis- played the highest perfection of artistic excellence; and vast sums were given for the rich products of this skill. The silk velvets of Genoa were especially esteemed. Stock- ing-knitting was introduced in the first part of the sixteenth century;* and the invention of lace- Weaving and knitting. knitting is ascribed to a Saxon matron in the same century. The stocking-loom was also invented about the same time. Cotton fabrics were made in Italy and Spain in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The invention of the Jacquard loom in 1801, by a silk-weaver of Lyons, introduced an important improvement in silk manufacture. f 83. In the fine arts, — music, painting, and sculpture, — the achievements of modern times show the highest gifts of genius as well as perfection of skill. In music this is particularly the case, for the progress made in Fine artfe. the last three centuries exceeds that of every other period in history. This is seen not only in the works of eminent com- posers, but in the invention of musical instru- ments, and in the advancement of music as a Music. science. New forms of musical composition, as th6 oratorio and the opera, have sprung into existence during this period. The composers of great musical genius are very numerous, particularly those of Germany and Italy. Only a few can be referred to. 84. Among German composers may be mentioned: Bachjt John Sebastian (1685-1750), deemed by some the greatest musician tliat ever lived. Gluck (1714-1787), tlie composer of many great operas. ♦ PrevioiTs to the invention of close knitting, about 1517, in Spain, or as some contend in Scotland, coverings for the legs were made of woven cloth or leather. The greater convenience of knit hose was soon recognized, though for a long time the custom of wearing cloth leggings was persisted in. t By this invention of Jacquard. silks of the most beautiful fancy patterns could be woven as readily as plain silks. This innovation received much opposition at first from the workmen, but soon became universal. X For the pronunciation of all these proper names, see the Index 640 Modern History. Haydn (173^1809), especially noted for his symphonies; but his most popular works are the oratorio of the Creation and his cantata the Masons. Mozart (1756-1791), perhaps the greatest musical genius that ever lived, aud a perfect master of the art. He German composers. Beethoven. excelled in every species of composition, but his masterpieces are his operas and symphonies. Beethoven (1770-1827), one of the greatest of modern composers. His symphonies and his opera of Fidelia are his principal works. Weber (1786-1836), composer of the popular operas Ber FreischUtz and Oberon, with many other works. Schubert (1797-1828), a writer of almost every kind of musical composi- tion, but especially noted for his songs. Mendelssohn (1809-1847), composer of the oratorios Elijah and St. Paul^ with several well-known sympho- nies, and many other works of merit. Meyerbeer (1794-1864), author of sev- eral grand operas, of which Robert le Didble, the Huguenots, and the PropJiet are the best known. Schumann (1810-1856), noted for his symphonies and his songs. Wagner (1813-1883), one of the greatest composers; author of the grand operas — musical dramas — lannhauser, TjoJiengrin, the Meistersinger^ and other works of extraordinary merit. 85. Among Italian composers may be mentioned: Stradella (1645-1678), noted as a singer, violinist, and composer. Piccini (1728-1800), the composer of many openw. Cimarosa (1750-1801). a musician of great genius; he com- posed a large number of operas and other works. Rossini (1792-1868), one of the greatest of composers. Many of his operas are very popular. Donizetti (1798-1848), author of many popular operas. Bellini (1802-1835). a very celebrated composer; his operas Norma SomnambuUi, and the Puritans are very popular, Verdi (born 1814), noted for his numerous operas. Italian compoten. Cimlization in Modern Europe. 641 To these may be added the noted French composers Auber (1782-1871) and Gounod (born 1818), both of whom have written several popular operas; and Berlioz (1803-1869), one of the greatest of modern Other composers. composers. AVhile some of the other countries of Europe have produced a few eminent composers, Italy and Germany, as already stated, have far surpassed them all. 86. Painting had its greatest representatives in the age just succeeding and connected with the mediaeval period, which was illumined by the genius of Leonardo da "Vinci in Italy and Albert Durer in Germany. Painting. The greatest artists of that age were Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Titian in Italy, and Quentin Matsys and Louis Kranacb in Germany, the latter a personal friend of Luther. In more decidedly modern times, the Italian school includes a host of luminaries, such as Correggio, the three Caraccis of Bologna, Salvator Rosa, and Carlo Dolci. These all belong to the sev- enteenth century; and have but few successors of great merit in later times. Holbein, Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, and many others of the Flemish and Dutch schools were their con- temporaries; and the Spanish and French schools contained several others of kindred genius and merit. Velasquez (1599- 1660) and Murillo (1618-1682) are the special pride of Spanish art. Sculpture has its greatest representatives in the Italians Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1570), Sculpture. Antonio Canova (1757-1822), and the Danish artist Thor- waldsen (1770-1844), whose chief works were executed in Rome; but a host of others have achieved distinction in this branch of art. 87. Science in each of its departments has been extended by the efforts of men of various nationalities. Only a few of the great names can be given in this brief sketch, in addition to those already referred to in the Science. histories of England and France. Among the distinguished mathematicians may be specially mentioned: 642 Modern History, Cardan (1501-1576), an Italian, a man of wonderful genius, but noted for his eccentricities. Napier (1550-1617), a Scotchman, the inventor of loga- rithms. Mathematicians. Leibnitz (1646-1716), a German, not only eminent as a mathematician (claiming against Newton the invention of fluxions), but in almost every other department of science and philosophy. Euler (1707-1783), born in Switzerland, one of the greatest masters of mathematical science. 88. In astronomy the following persons have distinguished themselves for important discoveries: Copernicus (1473-1543), a Pole, the reviver of the true theory of the solar system, which places the sun in the center, in Astronomers. Opposition to the system of Ptolemy, which conceived ' the earth to be the center of the universe. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), a Dane, noted for the vast number of facts he collected at his great observatory in Copenhagen, and for his theory of the solar system, called the Tychonic System. Galileo (1564-1642), the illustrious Italian physicist, who, improving upon the telescope previously in- vented in Holland, discovered the spots on the sun and the four satellites of Jupiter. lie also as- serted the rotation of the earth, in opposition to the prevailing notion tlmt the earth is fixed in the center of the universe. Galileo also dis- covered the value of the pendulum in the construction of cUxks. Kepler (1571-1630), a German astronomer, the illustrious discoverer of the great laws of planetary motion. Huyghens (or lluygem) (1629-1695), a Dutch astronomer, the discoverer of Saturn's ring and one of its satellites. Cassini (1625-1712), an Italian, discovered four satellites of Saturn, and made other important discoveries in relation to several of the planeta His son, James Cassini, discovered the divisions in Sattirn's ring. Other noted astronomers of the period have heeu nuMitioucd *m connection with English and French history. Copernicus. Cimlization in Modern Europe. 643 89. There are many other renowDed discoverers and writers within the domain of physical science and natural history, among whom we may men- tion: Discoverers and writers. Torricelli (1608-1647), an Italian, the inventor of the barometer. Guericke (1603-1686), a German, the inventor of the air-pump. Fahrenheit (1690-1736), a Hollander, who invented the mercurial ther- mometer that bears his name. Linnseus (1707-1778), a Swedish naturalist, the author of the artificial or Linusean system of botany. Haller (1708-1777), sometimes called the "Father of Physiology;" one of the world's great physicians. His writings are very numerous. Galvani (1737-1798), an Italian, the discoverer of galvanism. Volta (1745-1837), an Italian, the inventor of the voltaic pile or battery. Dr. Gall (1758-1828), a German, the founder of phrenology. Mesmer (1734-1815), the discoverer of animal magnetism, or mesmerism. Lavater (1741-1801), the famous writer on Physiognomy. Dr. Hahnemann (1755-1843), a German, the originator of homeopathy. Humboldt (1769-1859), the illustrious German natural philosopher, noted for his deep an 1 a\ ide researches into the laws of the physical uni- verse, explained in his great work called Kosmos. Oersted (1777-1851), a Dane, who discovered the identity of magnetism and electricity. Liebig (1803-1873), a celebrated German chemist, and writer on agri- cultural and physiological chemistry. 90. The literary history of Europe during the period of modern history is enriched with the productions of every department of genius. In a rapid glance Literature. the mind rests upon only a few of the most conspicuous in this vast field. The prominent characters in French and English literature have been already presented, and a brief summary of the great names in the Great names. literature of other countries. Among the writers of the six- teenth century may particularly be mentioned the following: Erasmus (1467-1536), a celebrated Dutch scholar and phi- Sixteenth century. losopher, one of the restorers of ancient learning, at the head of tho literary world in his age. G44 Modern History. Scaliger (1484^1558), an Italian philologist, one of the most famous scliolars and writers of his time. Tasso (1544-1595), an Italian poet, noted for his great poem Jerusalem Delivered, founded on the First Crusade. Camoens (1524^1579), the only eminent Portuguese poet. His great poem the Lusiad celebrates the naval exploits of the Portuguese. Cervantes (1547-1616), the noted Spanish writer, author of the famous satirical novel Don Quixote. Vega, Lope de (1562-1635), a Spanish dramatist, who wrote a vast nuni' her of popular plays, some of very great merit. 91. Of the writers of the seventeenth century, the follow- ing deserve to be especially mentioned: Qnevedo (1580-1645), a Spanish author of great fame, noted for his critical and political writings. Grotius, Hugo (1583-1645), an eminent Dutch jurist, tlieologian, and writer. He wjis a profound and versatile scholar as well as writer. One of his best Seventeenth century. known works is a treatise On the Truth of the Chi'istian Religion. Calderon (de la Barca) (1600-1681), a noted Spanish dramatist. Spinoza (1632-1677), born in Amster- dam, of Hebrew extraction; one of the most celebrated speculative philosophers of his age; his writ- ings are skeptical or atheistical. Salvator Kosa (1615-1673), illustrious as a painter and a poet. He has been called by some the Juvenal of Italy. Muratori (1672-1750), one of the most Schiller. noted historical writers of Italy. 92. From the vast host of writers of the eighteenth cen- tury, we may particularize the following: Swedenborg (1688-1772), born in Sweden, one of the most prolific writers on various scientific subjects, but chiefly known for his claims to a new and special revelation, on which the Church of the New Jerusalem is found- ed. Mosheim (1694-1755), celebraRd as the author of an Ecehfiastical Eighteenth centuiy. Cimllzation in Modern Europe. 645 History, which for many years was the chief standard upon that subject. Metastasio (1698-1782), the most illustrious of modern Italian poets. He wrote operas, oratorios, sonnets, and miscellaneous poems. Klopstock (1708-1803), a noted German poet. His great work is an epic poem called The Messiah. Xant, Immanuel (1724-1804), one of the most celebrated of German metaphysicians. Lessing (1729-1781), a celebrated German poet and dramatist. Wieland (1733-1813), a noted German poet and novelist. Heyne (1729-1812), an illustrious German scholar and critic. His edi- tions of the classical writers are highly esteemed. Schiller (1759-1805), one of the most illustrious of German poets. His dramas Wallenstein, Mai^j Stuart, William Tell, and the Bobbers are among his greatest works. He also wrote a History of the Thirty Tears* War. Herder (1744^1803), one of the most gifted and versatile of German writ- ers. His works are critical and phil- osophical. Alfieri (1749-1803), the most celebrated Italian poet of the century. He wrote many tragedies of singular merit, and many miscellaneous poems. His character and genius resembled those of Lord Byron, to whom he has been often compared, ifestalozzi (1746-1827), one of the most celebrated teachers and writers upon education in his age. His great work was the development of the system of object-teaching. 93. The nineteenth century has been exceedingly prolific in men of genius. Its chief characteristic has been intellectual activity in every department of literature and science. To the names already given Nineteenth century. in connection with France and England we add the following: Bichter, John Paul (1763-1825), a German writer of great eminence; his style is very beautiful, and his works are noted for their humor, originality, and pathos. Most of his writings have been translated into English and other languages. 046 Modern History. Fichte (1762-1814), a noted German metaphysician. He was distin- guished more for his lectures than liis writings. His system of phi- losophy is known as "idealism." Hegel (1770-18^31), one of the most distinguished thinkers and writers of the German school of philosophy, — ^the founder of a new school of speculative doctrine. Schelling (1775-1854), a German philosopher, one of the four great representatives of the speculative philosophy of Germany — Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, all of whom were contemporary. Goethe (1749-1832), the greatest name in German literature. Goethe was remarkable both as a poet and a prose writer. His drama called Faust is a wonderful work of gen- ius. Among his most popular prose writings are T/ie Sorrows of Wer- ther and WilJielm Meisier. Froebel (1782-1852), a noted educator; the founder of the famous Kinder- garten system of elementary in- struction. Niebuhr (1776-1831), a German histo- rian, whose researches into the his- tory of Rome have made his name illustrious. Keander (1789-1850), a German church historian. His great work, a General History of the Christian Religion and ChvrcJi, is a standard. Heine (1799-1856), one of the most distinguished of German poets. Pushkin (1799-1837), a Russian lyric poet of Jicgro descent; regarded by the Russians as their greatest poet, called sometimes the " Byron of Russia." Lermontoff (1814-1841), a native of Russia, called the " Russian Schiller," on account of his poetical genius. Bremer, Frederika (1801-1866), a celebrated Swedish novelist. Her translated works are very popular in the United States and England. Andersen, Hans Christian (1805-1875), a Danish writer of remarkable genius, chiefly noted for his juvenile works of fiction. Momxnsen (l)orn 1817), a German historian, particularly noted for his UMory of Ihme, which has been translated into English. Curtius, Ernst (born 1814). a celebrated German historian. His great work the History of Greece has been translated into English. Hia Other works treat of the antiquities pf Greec«. Goethe. Remew Outline. 647 Review Outline. GREAT EVENTS. Sixteenth Century.— The great events of this century are connected with: (1) The Kise of Protestantism, in the reign of Charles V. (151^-56), (2) The English Reformation, in the reigns of Henry VIII. (1509-47), Edward VI. (1547-5:3), and Elizabeth (1558-1603). (3) The Rise of the Dutch Republic, in the reign of Philip n. (1555-98). (4) The Religious Wars in France, in the reigns of Charles IX, (1560-74), Henrj^ III. (1574-89), and Henry IV. (till 1590). (5) The Ottoman Military Enterprises, under Bajazet II. (1481-1512^, Selim I. (1512-20), and Solyman II. (1520-56). (6) The Portuguese Maritime Enterprises, in the reign of Emanuel the Fortunate (1495-1521). (1) Rise of Protestantism. Luther published his theses against Catholic tenets. Luther at the Diet at Worms. The Lutherans protest at Spire. Called Protestant& The League of the Protestants at Smalcald. Council of Trent opened. Closed 1563. Frederick of Saxony defeated at Miihlberg. Death of Martin Luther. Treaty of Passau between Charles V. and Maurice. Peace of Augsburg. Religious freedom granted to the Protestants. (2) English Reformation. (See England.) (3) Rise of the Dutch Republic. Revolt of several of the Provinces under William the Silent, Stadtholden Union of the Seven Provinces. Foundation of the Republic. Independence of the United Provinces proclaimed. Death of William the Silent by assassination. (4) Religious Wars in France: (See France.) (5) Ottoman Military Enterprises. Accession of Solyman the Magnificent. Zenith of Turkish power. Belgrade, the Servian capital, taken by the Ottomans. The island of Rhodes taken by Solyman. Solyman's army repulsed at Vienna after a long siege. Second repulse of the Ottomans at Vienna. Unsuccessful attack of the Ottomans upon Malta. Great naval defeat of the Ottomans at Lepanto. (6) Portuguese Maritime Enterprises. Brazil accidentally discovered bj' Cabral. Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci to the coast of Brazil. Ceylon visited and partly conquered by the Portuguese. Conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese. The Japan Islands discovered by the Portuguese. 648 Modern History, Skventeenth Century.— The great events of this century are connected with: (1) The Thirty Years' War (1618-1&48). (2) The Great Civil War in England (1&43-1651). (3) The Age of Louis XIV. in France (1643-1715). (4j The Else of Russia under Peter the Great (1683-1725X (5) The Turkish Wars. (6) The Maritime Power of the Dutch. (1) Thirty Years' War. Frederick, Elector Palatine, defeated near Pragueu Dreadful persecution of the Bohemian Protestants. League of the North German states, under Christian IV. of Denmark Treaty of peace between Denmark and Germany. Defeat of Tilly by Gustavus Adolphus near Leipsic. Battle of Lutzen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus. Assassination of Wallenstein. French intervention in the war, under Richelieu. Death of the emperor Ferdinand II. Peace of Westphalia. Protestant independence established. (2) Great Civil War in England. (See ENaLAMo.) (3) Age of Louis XTV. (See France.) (4) Rise of Russia. Visit of Peter the Great to England and other countries of Europe. (5) Turkish Wars. The Ottomans repulsed at Vienna by John Sobieskl. Splendid victory of Prince Eugene over the Turks at Zenta. Treaty of peace with the Turks. Hungarian possessions given back. (6) Maritime Power of the Dutch. (See England and France.) EiOHTEENTH CENTURY.— The great events of this century are connected with: (1) England under the Georges (1714-1815). (2) Prussia under Frederick the Great (1740-86). (8) Russian Military Operations (under Peter the Great and the Catharines). (4) Decline and Fall of Poland. (6) Decline and Fall of the French Government. (1) England under the Georges. (See Enqland.) (2) Prussia under Frederick the Great. Invasion of Silesia by Frederick the Great. Capture of Dresden by the Prussians. Treaty of peace. Victories of Frederick the Great over the French, Austrians, and Russiana Treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia. (3) Russian Military Operations. Defeat of Peter tlie Great by (.'harles XII. of Sweden at Narva. Capital of Russia removed from Moscow to St. Petersburjf. Invasion of Russia by Charles XII. Victory of Peter the Great over Charles XII. at Poltava. Memew Outline. 649 Accession of Catharine I., empress of Russia. Menschikoff minister. Accession of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine, Accession of Catharine II. Potemkin minister. Defeat of the Russians at Zorndorf by Frederick the Great. (4) Decline and Fall of Poland. First Partition of Poland. Second Partition of Poland. Defeat of the Poles under Kosciusko by Suvaroflf. Third Partition of Poland. (5) Decline and Fall of the French Governnien<;. (See Francs.) Nineteenth Century.— The great events of this century are connecttfij with: (1) The Career of Napoleon. (See France.) (2) The Progress of Liberalism in England. (See Enolakd.^ (3) The Aggressions of Eussia. (4) The Growth of Prussia under Bismarck. (5) The Unification of Italy, under Victor Emanuel. (6) The Decline of Turkish Power in Europe (Ifiastera Questi (3) Aggressions of Bussia. Poland absorbed in the Russian Empire. Crimean War. Sebastopol taken by the French and English. Defeat and overthrow of Shamyl in the Caucasus. Russian conquests in Central Asia. The Eastern War— between Russia and Turkey. (4) Growth of Prussia under William I. (1861). Bismarck prime minister of William I. of Prussia. Schleswig and Holstein occupied by Pnissia and Austria. Holstein invaded and occupied by Prussian troops. Austro-Prussian War, called the Seven Weeks' War. Severe defeat of the Austrians at Sadowa. North German Confederation, under the headship of Prussia. The Prussian victories in the Franco-Prussian war. Paris entered by the Germans. William I. made emperor of Germany. (5) Unification of Italy. Accession of Victor Emanuel to the throne of Sardinia. Victories of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples. Victor Emanuel elected king of Italy. Rome entered by Victor Emanuel, and made the capital of Italy, Death of Victor Emanuel. Accession of Humbert L (6) Decline of the Turkish Power. Insurrection of the Greeks. Mavrocordato president. Death of Marco Bozzaris, the Greek patriot and general. The Turkish fleet defeated at Navarino. The independence of Greece acknowledged by the Turkish sultan Ismail Pasha hereditary viceroy (khedive) of Egypt. Turkish armies defeated by the Russians. Treaty of Berlin. Partial dismemberment of Turkey, 650 Contemporaneous Events. A.D. England. Fbancb. OtHSB COUMTBUBB. )483 1485 1493 1498 Charles VIIL Henry VIL Maximilian of Germany. Louis Xn. Francis L 1509 1515 Henry VIU. 1519 Charles V. of Germany. 1530 Solyman the Magnificent. Treaty of Passau. Philip II. of Spain. 1547 1552 Edward VI Henry n. 1553 1556 1558 1559 1560 1571 1574 15?9 1589 1603 1610 1618 >""^- :.... Elizabeth. Francis U. Charles IX Battle of Lepanto. Henry UI. William the Silent Henry IV. Louis Xin James L Moors expelled from Spain Thirty Years' War begins. Battle of Lutzen. 1625 1639 Charles I. 1640 Portugal independent. 1648 Louis XIV. 1648 Peace of Westphalia. 1653 1660 1688 Oomwell, Protector. Charles H. Sobieskl defeats the Turkb. 1685 1689 1700 James U. William and Mary. Battle of Narva. 1702 1709 Anne. ... Battle of Poltava. 1714 1715 George I. Louis XV. 1718 Death of Charles XIL 1727 1740 George IL Frederick the Great. 1760 1774 George lU. Louis XVI. French Revolution. 1789 1795 Third P&rtition of Poland 1799 Napoleon First Consul. Napoleon Emperor. 1804 1806 1S14 Louis XVIIL Charles X. 1830 18?4 George IV. 18?5 Brazil independent Battle of Navariuo. 18W 18:^ William rv. Louis Philippe. 1833 Isabella of Spain. 1887 1848 Victoria. Louis Philippe dethroned. lf^19 Victor Emanuel - 185« Napoleon HL 18m 1859 Hut tie of Solferino. 1861 HuHsiiiii serfs freed. 1870 Battle of Sedan Thiers. ] 'resident McMuhou, President. Ki>iue capital of Italy. William, German emperor. 1871 1878 1878 Treaty of Berlin. 1879 Ordw PresiH^nt 18»71 Carnot, President. Topical Heview, 651 Empeeors of Germany, From Maximilian I. (1493) to the Close op the Empire (1806). Date Name. Date of Reign. Maximilian I 1493-1519 Charles V 1519-1556 Ferdinand I ... 1556-1564 Maxinailianll 1564-1576 Rudolf n 1576-1612 Matthias 161^1619 Ferdinand n 1619-1637 Name. Date of Reign. Ferdinand m. 1637-1657 Leopoldl 1658-1705 Charles VI 1711-1740 Maria Theresa and Francis I . . 1740-1780 Joseph n 1780-1790 Leopold U 1790-1792 Francis n. 1792-1806 Topical Review NOTED PERSONAGES. Who toere they? For what noted f PAOE Martin Luther 599, 600, 601 Frederick of Saxony 599, 601 Maurice of Saxony 601 Tilly 602, 603 Wallenstein 602, 603 Gustavus Adolphus 603, 622 JohnSobieski 604, 626, 633 Prince Eugene 604 Maria Theresa 605, 611 Frederick the Great 605, 611, 612 Bismarck 606, 607 Kossuth 608 William the Silent 612, 613 Melanchthon 6C0, 614 William the Great Elector 609 John Calvin 614 Zwingli 614 ChariesAlbert 615 Joseph Garibaldi 615 Victor Emanuel 615, 616 Cardinal Xiraenes 616 VascodaGama 619 Gustavus Vasa 622 ChariesXIL of Sweden.... 623, 628, 629 Bernadotte 623 Prince Poniatowski 626 Thaddeus Kosciusko 626 Peter the Great 628 MenshikoflT 629 PAGE General SuvaroflF 629 Solyman the Magnificent 632 Mavrocordato 635 Marco Bozzaris 635 Count Capo distria 635 NOTED EVENTS. When did they occurf What led to ihemf Wliat resulted therefrom? Spread of Luther's tenets 599, 600 Diet of Spire 600 Confession of Augsburg 600 Council of Trent 600 Treaty of Passau 601 Thirty Years' War 602, 614 Battle of Lutzen 603 Peace of Westphalia 604 Revolt of the Hungarians 60S Battle of Zenta 604, 633 Seven Years' War 607, 610 Franco-German War 608 Battle of Zorndorf 611 Revolt of the Netherlands 612 Union of Italy 615, 616 Expulsion of the Moors from Spain. 618 Independence of the Spanish Colo- nies 619 Discovery of Brazil 619 Battle of Poltava 623, 629 Fall of Poland 626, 030 Battle of Navarino 635 Independence of Greece 635 CHAPTER XII Supplement art I Asiatic States. 1. China. The most important event in the modern liistory of China is the successful invasion of the empire by the Mantchou Tartars in tlie seventeenth century, followed (1644) by the overthrow of Tartar invasion, the reigning dynasty in favor of that which now occupies the throne. In the sixteenth century tlie Portuguese began to trade with the Chinese; but the Dutcli, who made repeated efforts to obtain admission into the ports of China, were Foreign trade. constantly rcpulsed ; though the Russians were permitted to trade in the empire as early as the middle of the six- teenth century. The British sought for some time for a similar per- mission, but obtained no encouragement until Lord Macartney's famous embassy (1793). The most important event in recent times was the famous Taiping rebellion, which broke out in 1850. It was both religious and political in its charac- ter; and before it was crushed, in 1864, the fairest prov- inces of the empire were laid waste, and an enormous number of lives sacrificed, 2. Japan. The first notice of Japan by any European traveler or explorer was that made by Marco Polo, who during his travels in the East (see page 441) visited an island which he called Taiping rebellion. Early accounts. Zipangu, of the riches of which he gave a glowing account. The Portuguese some time afterward made a discovery of the island; and in 1549 it was visited by the far famed missionary St. Francis Xavier, called the Apostle of the Christianity. Indies; and many of the Japanese were converted to Christianity. In the seventeenth century, the Portu- guese were expelled from the cmj>ire, and the Christians were perse- cuted, a great massacre of them occurring in 1623. The Japanese trade was then transferred to the Dutch, who had a monopoly of it for ihore than two centuries, the ports of Japan being closed against all other foreign powers. Foreign trade. Asiatic States. 653 3. la 1853, through the expedition of Commodore Perry, a treaty- was made between the United States and Japan, by which certain ports were opened to American trade ; and in 1858 Townsend Harris, American consul-general to Japan, was enabled to reach Yedo (now Tokio) and to negotiate a still more favorable treaty. Other foreign powers soon obtained Treaty with th» United States. similar privileges; and the Japanese, seeing the superiority of Ameri- can and European civilization, sent embassies to different countries, the first one visiting the United States in 1860. 4. The empire was then ruled in a peculiar manner, the actual powers of government being in possession of an officer called the SJiogun (commander-in-chief) or Tycoon (great sovereign). residing at Yedo, while the emperor, named Mikado, held Government. the title, and the symbols of authority and dignity at ' • another place. This state of things was the result of a usurpation which took place in 1195 on the part of the shogun of that time. In 1868 a revolution occurred by which the mikado was restored to his proper authority ; and this was followed by a more liberal Progress. Civilization. and enlightened policy in every respect, since which the empire has made wonderful progress in every element of modern civilization. Yokohama, a mere fishing village when Commo- dore Perry entered the bay with his squadron, is now a great commer- cial city of nearly 70,000 inhabitants. . 6. The civilization of Japan resembles that of the Chinese, as to manners and customs, language, and religion. The prevailing systems of the latter are SMntoism and Buddhism. The former is a kind of polytheism of a superior grade, the chief feature being the worship of the spirits of ancestors and departed heroes, to whom sacrifices are offered. The most prev- alent system, however, is Buddhism, as it has been for more than ten centuries, notwithstanding an attempt to uproot it, which was made shortly after the restoration of the mikado to his legitimate supremacy. 6. India. At the commencement of the mediaeval history, the peninsula of Hindostan was divided into many small states, of the history of which little or nothing is known. In the early part of the eighth century the Mohammedan sovereigns of Persia, Afghanistan, and other states began their con- quests, which were continued for several centuries; and. Mediaeval history. at the commencement of the thirteenth, the greater portion of northern Hindostan was subjugated. Soon after this a great independent Mo- 654 Modern History, bammedan empire was formed, having its capital at Delhi, which in the latter part of the century included all northern India. From this the Mohammedan dominions were gradually extended to tlie south, the whole of the Deccan soon being annexed. (See map, page 511.) 7. Toward the end of the fourteenth century, the great and terrible invasion of Tamerlane occurred; and Delhi being captured was given over to massacre and pillage, the conqueror proclaiming Mofi^uls. himself emperor of India. The restless warrior soon de- parted, however, leaving ruin and desolation in bis track. In the sixteenth century commenced the rule of the Moguls (Mongols), founded by a descendant of the great Tamerlane, the most noted of whom was the famous Aurungzebe (p-rung zabe) (1657-1707), who had an eventful reign of nearly fifty years. He was virtually the last Great Mogul; for after his depth the empire fell to pieces, different provinces being held as independent states by military usurpers. Among these the Mahratta empire was the most important. About the middle of the English conquest. Changes in government. eighteenth century the French and English contended for mastery in India; and through the genius of Clive the latter gained the supremacy, which was afterward confirmed by the wonderful military and adminis- trative ability of Warren Hastings. (See England.) 8. Persia. Tlie defeat of Khosru by the emperor Heraclius has been referred to (page 305), as well as the destruction of the dynasty of the Sassanides by the Saracens, which soon ensued, the great victory which the latter gained at Cadesia, followed by another, five years later (641), determining the fate of that famous line of kings. The Persians were then compelled to embrace Mohammedanism; though a considerable number persisted in their ancient faith, in spite of bitter persecution. These were called OiLehres, or Ohebers (infidels), their descendants being the present rem- nant of the Parsees. (See pp. 70 and 80.) 9. For two centuries Persia was under the sway of the Caliphs, till, in the ninth century, an adventurer named Soffar headed a revolt by wliich the Saracen government was overturned; and a dynasty of kings succeeded named after their founder the Sof-far'i-des, which was destroyed by the Seljuks, who conquered and ruled over Persia and Afghanistan. These in turn were subjugated by the Mongols under Genghis Khan, who established his empire in the twelfth century; but two centuries later it was overrun by Tamerlane. 1 1 is death was followed by a long series of civil wars, which continued till the sixteenth century, when a Further changes. Asiatic States. ^^^^ succession of energetic monarclis held tlie ttirone, among them the renowned Abbas (1587-1628). 10. In the eighteenth century Persia was conquered by the Afghan? (1722); but they were soon afterward expelled by Nadir Shah (1736) who thus obtained the throne, which has ever since been Later history. occupied by his successors. After the death of this mon- arch, in 1747, Afghanistan became independent. During this period Persia has been engaged in wars with Russia (1813 and 1828), which resulted in the loss of Georgia and other frontier provinces ; also, in a'war with England (1856-7) in which the British troops under General Havelock gained several victories. The population, in recent years, has been reduced by dreadful famines (1860 and 1871-2), in the latter of which, it is said, more than two millions of people perished. 11. Turkistan. In early times the western part of this region waa known as Turania; and there were fierce and long-continued contests between the Turanians who occupied this country and the Iranians of the region farther south (Persia). Mon- golian invasions from the fourth to the tenth century changed considerably the character of the population. Historical sketch. This country was ruled over successively by Genghis Khan and Timour or Tamerlane, and their successors.* Those of the latter held sway until they were driven out by a tribe of Tartars called Uzbecks, who established a powerful monarchy that lasted about 160 years, when it was broken up into several small states, or khanates, of which Bokhara, Khiva, and Khokan were the chief. Most of these have recently been conquered by Russia, which has thus extended its dominion over a large part of central Asia. n. American States. [The events connected with the colonization of North America and the history of the United States are not presented here, as this branch of history is treated in text-books specially devoted to that subject, which in elementary schools usually precedes the study of general history.] NOBTH AMERICA. 12. Mexico and Central America. Previous to the discovery of Amer ica by Columbus, this region was inhabited by a people called the ♦ Tamerlane is a corruption of Timour Lenk, or Timour the Lame. This mighty warrior was bom in 1336. He conceived the idea of reviving the empire of Genghis Khan, and after accomplishing this his restless ambition prompted him to other 656 Modern History, Mexico. Aztecs, who liad attained to a quite advanced state of civilization, and the ruins which still greet the traveler amid the overgrowing for- ests attest the genius, knowledge, and enterprise of this remarkable race. The great Aztec nation in Mexico was subjugated by a few Spaniards under the bold and un- scrupulous Cortez, and thus became a Spanish province (1521). It thus remained for three centuries, when it became an independent empire under a military adventurer (1822). After his fall a republic was established (1824). Owing to the restless ambition of its leaders, its government has been very unsettled. Among these the most noted was Santa Anna, conspicuous in the war between Mexico and the United States (1846-7). In 1864 Mexico was under the imperial government of the Austrian archduke Maximilian, but his government was over- turned by an insurrection under a Mexican leader, who caused the emperor to be shot (1867). The republic was then re-established. Central America was divided, in 1823, into five states, created under the title of the Central America. "United States of Central America," but in 1839 the union was dis- solved, and the states became independent republics. SOUTH AMERICA. 13. Brazil was discovered in 1500 by a Portuguese navigator named Cabral, who took possession of the country for the crown of Portugal, although the coast had been visited previously by one of Discovery. the Companions of Columbus. Settlements were after- ' ward made along the coast by the Portuguese, in whose possession the country continued until its independence was acknowl- edged in 1825. (See page 621.) The empire wns governed succes- sively by Dom Pedro I. and Dom Pedro II., till in 1889 it was de- clared !i republic. 14. Peru. After Balboa had crossed the isthmus of Darien. in 1513, he turned to the southward and penetrated many miles into the country. Subsequently, Francisco Pi-znr^ro, a brave but cruel leader. Pizarro. who had accompanied Balboa in the previous expedition, sailed from Panama with a company of less than 200 men, and landed on the western coast of Peru— the wealthiest and most powerful state in America at the time of its discovci-y. By means of the basest treachery and the most revolting cruelties, Pizarro sue ceeded in effecting the conquest of the country, altl»otigh the unfor- conquests. His capital was Samarcand. He i>erisluHl in an expedition across the Jaxartea Ur ^<05. His descendant Rat>ef was tlie founder of the Mogul dynasty in India. American States, 657 tunate natives defended their liberties with admirable spirit and valor (1533). The monster, Pizarro, was afterward assassinatea (1541). After Pizarro's conquest Peru became the chief seat of the Spanish empire in America, and Lima {le'mah), its capital, rose to a very high degree of magnificence. It received from Pizarro the appellation of the City of the Kings. 15. Chili, Venezuela, etc. — Chili, which originally belonged to the native Peruvian empire, was conquered by two of the Chili successors of Pizarro, one of whom founded Santiago {sahn-teah'go) in 1541. Southern Chili was so bravely defended by the Indians, that it resisted for centuries the rule of the invaders. Venezuela {ven-e-zwe' lah) was so called by Venezuela. Vespucci and Ojeda (o-ha'dah), the latter one of the com- panions of Columbus, who, near the Lake of Maracaybo (mah-rah-ki'bo), discovered an Indian village built on piles in the water. Hence, they named it Venezuela, or Little Venice (1499). Colonies independent. The interior of the country was not conquered till the La Plata. middle of the next century. The Rio de la Plata was explored in 1530, by Sebastian Cabot, then in the service of Spain; and, in 1580, the city of Buenos Ayres (bo'nus a'riz) was founded by the Spaniards. 16. Thus, nearly all South America, except Brazil, fell into the possession of Spain, and was retained under her rule until the beginning of the present century, when, by a series of revolutions, commencing in Chili, this extensive region was wrested from her, and formed into independent states. Peru was the last to secure her independence, which was acknowl- edged In 1836. The most prominent individual connected with these movements was the patriot Bolivar, in honor of whom the republic of Bo-liv'i-a received its name. Nine states now occupy the territory for- merly included in the several Spanish viceroyalties of South America: Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador {ek-wah-dore'), Co-lom'bia, Venezuela, Chili, the Argentine Republic, Paraguay {pah-rah-gwi'), and Uruguay {oo-roogwi'). These states, since their formation, have been under republican governments, but have been very much disturbed by internal dissensions and civil war. Recently a war has been waged between Peru and Bolivia and Chili, in which the latter has gained several im- portant victories. Its armies now occupy the territories of the defeated republics, including the Peruvian capital Lima (1882). INDEX General Rules for the Proitoncla.tion of Greek and Latin Names.— The diacritical marks used are the same as those employed in Webster's Dictionary; and the pronmiciation, when indicated, agrees with that authority. The sound of c before a, o, and u is the same as k; before e, i, and y, the same as s. The sound of g is hard, as in go, before a, o, and u; and soft, like j, before e, i, and y. Quite general usage, however, in pronouncing Greek and Latin at present gives to c the uniform sound of k, and to g the hard sound. Ch xmiformly has the sound of k. S, when final and preceded by e, has the sound of z, and the e is long; thus es is pronoimced eez as in Andes. Initial x has the sound of z; initial p before s and t, m and c before n, t before m, and ph before a mute consonant, are silent. T, s, and c before ia, ii, io, iu. and eu preceded immediately by the accent, are pronounced like sh; except when the t follows s, t, or z, or when the accent falls on the syllable ending with the letter i; as, Ae'tius = A-e'she-us, Milti'ades = Mil- ti'a-des. In the termination tion, t retains its proper sound. ^milius Paulus, completes the conquest of Macedonia, 215. ^-ne'id, plot of, 182. M-ne'Sis, Trojan prince, 182. ^E-o'h-ans, migrations of, 86, 89, 92. .(E'qvu-ans, deieated by Cincinnatus, 194. ^schines {es'ke-nez), Athenian orator. Ab'bas, king of Persia, 655. Abbasides (ab-bas'e-deez), 329. Abd-el Ka'der, 588. Ab'e-lard, 391. Ab-er-crom'by, Sir Ralph, 514. Aboukir {ak-boo-keer'), battle of, 578. A' bra-ham, 66. Abu-Bekr {ah'boo-bekr'), caliph, 326. Abyssinian War, 522. Academic School, 158. Ac-ar-na'ni-a, 85. Ac'cad, 28, 35. ' A-chas'an League, how and when formed, 130. A-chae'ans, their migrations and settle- ment, 89, 92, 93. Achaemenes (a-kem'e-nez), founder of the Persian monarchy, 74. Achaia (a-ka'ijah), one of the Pelopon- nesian states, 85; twelve cities of, 131. Achaia, Roman province of, 133. Achilles (a-kil'lez), 89. Acre (ah'ker), 412, 416, 578. A-crop'o-hs, 106. Actium (ak'she-um), battle of, 243. Ad'di-son, 507. A-dol'phus, king of the Groths, 286; founds the kingdom of the Visigoths, 286. A-dri-an-o'ple, battle of, 284. Ad-ri-an-o'ple, 309, 458. Ad-ri-at'ic, wedding of the, 441, yE-gos-pot'a-mos, battle of. 111. iE-mil-i-a'nus, emperor, 288. ^mil'i-us, Roman consul, 210, ^schylus (es'ke-lus), the rounder of Greek tragic poetry, 156. ^s-cu-la'pi-us, 150. A-e'tius (she-us), defeats the Huns, 287. ^-to'li-a, 85. iEtolian League, its formation, 131. .iEtolians, ' igration of, 92. Af-ghan is tan', English driven from, 519; English war in, 523; history of, 655. Africa, Roman province of, 217. Ag-a-mem'non, king of Mycenae, 90, 144. A-gath'o-cles, king of Syracuse, 204, 206. Age of Despots, 99. A-ges-i-la'us, king of Sparta, gains a vic- tory at Coronea. 114; defeated byEpa- minondas, 115; his death, 116. Ag'in-court (a/-), battle of, 368, 396. A'gis, king of Sparta, defeated by An- tipater, 125, Agis (III.), attempts to reform the Spar- tan manners, 131 ; his death. 131, n. Agnadello (ahn-yah-del'lo). battle of, 542. Agrarian Laws in Rome. 193, 221, 222. Agriculture, among the Assyrians. 37; among the Egj'ptians, 51 ; in England, 374, 477. Ag-n-gen'tum, 87; taken by the Romans, Index. Ah'ri-man, principle of evil in the relig- I ious system of the Persians, 80. i A-hu'ra Maz'da, worshiped by the Per- sians, 80; explanation of, 80. Aix-la-Chapelle {akes-lah-sha-pel'), cap- ital of Charlemagne, 319; treaty of, 510, 568. Akbar (ak'ber), 327. A'ken-side, Mark, 522. Alans', 298. Al'a-ric, invades Italy, 285; captures Rome, 285. Al'ba Lon'ga, 183, 184, 185. Al'be-marle, duke of. See Monk. Albert I., emperor, 427, 437. Albert 11., emperor, 430. Albert, prince, 519, 521. Albert Du'rer, 435, 641. Al-bi-gen'ses (-jen-), 383, 384. Al'boin, king of the Lombards, 304. Al-cae'us, a Greek poet, 155. Al-ci-bi'a-des, his conduct during the Peloponnesian war, 110; his character and death, 110, n. Alcuin (al'kwin), 319. Al-e-man'ni, defeated by the Romans, 284; by the Franks, 316; overrun Switz- erland, 437. Al-ex-an'der the Great, ascends the throne of Macedon, 119; destroys Thebes, 119; defeats the Persians, 120; takes Tyre and Gaza, 122; gains a vic- tory at Ai-bela; 122; other victories, 123; dies at Babylon, 1;^; his charac- ter, 124. Alexander I., czar of Russia, 630. Alexander II., " " 630. Alexander III., " " 681. Alexander III. of Scotland, .359. Alexandria, its foundation, 122; its greatness under the Ptolemies, ViG; the library at burnt, 2:3(i; taken by the Saracens, 305; taken by Napoleon, 578. Al-ex-an'dra, princess of Wales, 625. A-lex'i-us Com-ne'nus, 312. Alfleri {(il-fe-a're), 645. Al-fon'so VI. of Castile, 450. Alfonso X. " " 451. Alfonso XII. of Spain, 619. Alfonso III. of Portugal, 450. Alfred the Great, ;«4. Algarve (al-gar'va), conquest of, 450. Algiers, conquest of, 5HH. Al-nam'bra, |>alaceof,*il ; fortress of, 450. AH (nk'lct'), caliph, 827. Al'i-son, Archibald, 5:^6. Al'li-a, battle of, 197. Al'ina, battle of, 519. Al Man-sour' (soor), caliph, 329. Alphabet, Phcenician, 64. Alsace (al-saliAH'), conquest of, 66C. Al'va, duke of, 612. Am-a-de'u8 I., king of Spain, 619. Amalfl (ahmal'fee), 443, 445. A-ma'sis, reiiern of, in Egypt, BO. A-mer'l-ca, discovery of, 460. American colonies of Spain and Portu- gal, 637. Amerigo Vespucci {ah-ma-re'go vea- puot'che), 620. Am'i-ens, treaty of, 514, 579. Am'mon, Jupiter, temple of, visited by Cambyses, 76; by Alexander, 122. Am-phic-ty-on'ic Council, 91. Am-phip'o-lis, battle of, 109. Am'u-rath (or ah-moo-rat'), sultan of Turkey, 309, 458. A-na'cre-on, odes of, 155. An-ax-ag'o-ras, 158. An-co'na, 444, 445. An'cus Martins {mar'she-us), defeats the Latins, 185; length of his reign, 186. Andersen, Hans Christian, 646. An-dro-ni'cus, 257. An'ge-lo, Michael, 641. Angles, invasion of Britain by, 322. Anglo-Saxon civilization, 336. Anglo-Saxons, government of, 3.36; dwdll- ings, 3;^6; science, 337; commerce, 337. Anjou (atui'joo), 350, 379. Anna Com-ne'na, 312. Anne, queen of England, 500, 501, 502. Anne Boleyn {hul'en), 465, 466, 467. Anne of Austria, 556. Anne of Brittany, 400. Anne of Cleves, 467. Anson, expedition of, .508. An-tal'ci-aas, treaty of, 115. An-tig'o-nus, enters into league against Penliccas, 126; war against, 127; his defeat and deAth, 127. Antigonus Doson, takes Sparta, 132. Antigonus Go-na'tas, tyranny of, 130. An'ti-och, foundation of, 131 ; taken by the Seljuks, 30vS, 409; by the Mame- lukes, 41.5. An-ti'o-chus I. (Soter), defeats the Gauls and afterward defeated by them, 135. Antiochus II., 134. Antiochus III. (the Great), reign of, 185. An-tip'a-ter, regent in .Macedonia, 120; defeats the Athenians inThessaly, 136; his death. 127. An-to-ni'nus, Marcus Aurelius, 274; per- secutes the Christians, 280; repulses the barbarians, 28;i; date and length of rtMgn, 288. Antoninus Pius, one of the " five good emperors," 274; date and length of reign, 288. An'to-ny. Mark, his oration over Caesar's body, 2:W; master of Rome, 239; joins the se<'ond triumvimt4>, 2<1 ; tak«'s part in the bottle of IMiilippi, 2»2; nlliaiue with Cleopatra, 243; defeat and death, 243. Ant'werp, 380. A-os'ta, duke, king of Spain, 337. A-pel'les, his genius as a portrait- painter, 160. Aph-ro-di'te, h-r characteristics and worship, 149. A-pol'Io, different names of, his wor- ship, characteristics, etc., 147. Ap-ol-io'ni-us, a noted mathematician, 161 Index. 661 Apollonius Rhodius, his poem on the Ar^onautic expedition, 1(50. Ap'pi-an Way, the construction of, 203. Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us, one of the decem- virs, his tyranny, 195; his death, 196. Appius Claudius Caecus, 203. Aqueducts, among the Chaldeans, 36; among the Romans, 203, 252. Aquitaine (ak-ive-tain'), 317, 379. Ar'a-dus, 61. Ar'a-go, 588. Ar'a-gon, kingdom of, 448; invaded by Philip in., ^; foreign possessions of, 449. A'ram, 65. A-ra'tus of Sicyon, takes the lead of the Achaean league, 131 ; his death, 132. Ar-be'Ja, battle of, 122. Ar-ca'di-a, 85. Arcadians, become subject to Sparta, 95. Ar-ca'di-us, becomes emperor of the East, 285; his character, 301, Arch, invention of, 182, n. Archaeology, relation to historv, 17. Ar-chil'o-chus, inventor of the elegy, 155. Archimedes (ar-ke-me'dez), when he flourished, 206; aids in the defense of Syracuse, 211; his death, 211, n. Architecture, among the Chaldeans, 27, 35; among the Medes, 41 ; among the Egyptians, 57; among the Persians, 79; among the early Greeks (Cyclopean), 145; the later Greeks, 163: the three orders of, 163; among the Etrurians, 182; among the Romans, 255; the Tus- can order of, 256; Byzantine, 313; Saracenic, 331; ItaUan, 445; orders of , 446; French, 565. Archon (ar'kon), office of in Athens, 97. Ard-e-shir', revolt of the Persians under, 276. A-re-op'a-gus, court of, 97. A'res, the god of war among the Greeks, 147. A-re-the'mi-us, Roman emperor, 290. Argentine (ar-jen-teen' ) Republic, 657, Ar'gives, subject to Sparta, 95. Ar'go-lis, 85; Egyptians settle in, 90. Ar-go-nau'tic Expedition, date of, 89; its object, 89. Ar'gos, one of the ancient kingdoms of the Peloponnesus, 89; settlements in, 90. A-ri'on, the poet and musician, story of, 155. Ar-i-os'to, 447. A-ris-tar'chus, the critic, 160. Ar-is-ti'des, his moderation, 100, n. ; at Plataea, 103; acquires the chief com- mand, 104; rival of Themistocles, 104; called the Just. 105; his death, 105. Ar-is-tip'pus, philosopher, 158, Ar-is-to-bu'lus, becomes king of Judea, 69. Ar-is-to-gi'ton, aids in expelling the ty- rants from Athens, 98. Ar-is-toph'a-nes, his comedies, 159. Aristotle (.ar-is-tot'l), tutor of Alexander, 119; his birth, education, and school of philosophy, 119, n,; his lectures in the Lyceum, 159. Aries (arl), 320. Arkwright, Sir Richard, .527. Ar-me'ni-a, one of the Minor Kingdoms, becomes independent, 136; its history, 142; taken from the Parthians, 274. Arne, Thomas Augustine, Dr., 529, Arnold, Thomas, 535. Arnold of Win'kel-ried (-reed), 438. Ar-sin'o-e, sister of Cleopatra, walks in Caesar's triumph, 237. Arsinoe, wife of Seleuous, 130, Arsinoe, port of, 139. Art, Assyrian, 36, 37; Egyptian, 55, 59; Phoenician, 63; Hebrew, 69; Persian, 79; Greek, 166, 172; Etruscan, 255; Ro- man, 255; Byzantine, 313; French, 402; ItaUan, 446; in England, 505, 589; in France, 566; general progress of in Europe, 639. Ar-ta-pher'nes, exi)edition of, 100. Ar-tax-erx'es I. (Longimanus), makes peace with the Greeks, 78; date of his reign, 84. Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon), expedition against, 113; date of reign, 84. Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), his reign, 84. Ar'te-mis, how represented, 148. Arthur, brother of Henry VIH., 463, Arthur, king, a3S. Arthur, prince, 355. A'runs, conflict of with Brutus, 189. Ar'yans, one of the great races, 18; lan- guage of, 19; descendants of, 20; mi- gration of, 70, 79,88; conquering tribes of, 299. Ar'ya-a-var'ta,the home of the Aryans,70 As'ca-lon, 61. 66; battle of, 413. As'cham (-kam), Roger, 468, 477. Ash-an-tee' War, 522. Ash'dod, 66. Asia Minor, kingdoms of, 41. As-mo-ne'an Dynasty, 69, As-pa'si-a, 172, As'pem, battle of, 582. Asshur (ash'ur), 31, 38, As'shur-ba'ni-pal, 33. As-syr'i-a, its situation, 26. Assyrian Canon, 21. Assyrian Empire, foundation of, 31 ; his- tory of, 31, 32, 33, M. As-tra-chan' (-kan), 632. Astrology, 402. Astronomy, among the Chaldeans, 37; among the Egyptians, 59; as taught by Pythagoras, 156; Ptolemaic sys- tem, 161. See Science. As-tu'ri-as, kingdom of, 448. As-ty'a-ges, reign of, 40; court of, 41. A-the'ne, described, 148; how repre- sented, 148; temple of, 148. Ath'ens, aids in the revolt of the lonians, 77; last king of, 96; taken and de- stroyed by the Persians, 103; long walls of built, 107; plagxie at, 109; 662 Index. schools at, 171, n.; market scene at, 173, n. Atlantic Cable, laying of the, 521. At'ta-lus, king of Pergamus, his alliance with the Romans, 141. Attains III., bequeaths Pergamus to the Romans, 141. At'ti-ca, 85. At'tila, leader of the Huns, 286; invades Italy, 287; invades the Greek Empire, 301. Augs'burg, confession of, 600; diet of, 602. Augustan Age, of English literature, 502; of French literature, 561, 566. Au-gus'tu-lus, Romulus, resigns the of- fice of Emperor of the West, 287. Au-gus'tus Ueesar, acquires absolute au- thority, 243; his reign, 271; his death, 272. Au-re'li-an, emperor, defeats Zenobia, 277; defeats the Alemanni, 284; date of his reign 288. Aurungzebe (o-rung-zabe'), 654. Aus'ter-litz, battle of, 5V9. Aus-tra'si-a, 317. Aus'tri-a, foundation of, 427; an heredi- tary empire, 605; history of modern, 608. Austrian Succession, war of, 509, 562, 604. Austro- Hungarian monarchy, 608. A-vars', 299, 303, 318. Avignon {ah-veen'yong), 384. 444. A-vi'tus, emperor, date of his reign, 288. A-zo'tus, 66. Az'tecs, 656. Baal'bec, ruins of, 134. Bab'y-lon, early history of, 27; descrip- tion of, 29; taken by Cyrus, 29. Bab-y-lo'ni-a, its situation and fertility, 25,3.5. Babylonian monarchies, 27. Habylonians. civihzation of, 85. Bac-cha-iia'li-a. See Dionysia. Bac'chus, 150. Bach ibahk), Sebastian, 639. Bacon, Lord, 50<). Bacon, Roger, »«, 375. Bactrian kingdom, 134; its history, 143. P.ag-dad', 329, 3i0. liailly (ba'le, or hak'ye), 572. Baj'a-zet I., 310, 458. Baiazet II., 631. Balaklava {bah-lah-klah'vah\ battle of, 519. Bal-bi'nus, emperor, 288. Bal-bo'a, «i56. Baldwin, count of Flanders, 808, 413. liahlwin, prince of Kdessa, 410. Ba'll ol, .John, 359, 860. Ballot Act, 522. Bal'ti-more, Lonl, 503. Balzac' 568. Ban'nock-hurn, battle of, 861. Bar-ba'does. 493. Barbauld. Anna Letitia, 536. Bar-ce-lo'na, commerce of, 451. Bar'di-us, 76. Barnet, battle of, 371. Basques {basks), 299, 318. j Bastile {bas-teel'), taking of, 572. Ba-ta'vi-a, 637. Batavian Republic, 613. Bay'ard, chevalier, 542, 543, 544. Bayonet, 565. Ba-zaine', marshal, 590, 591. Beaeonsfield, earl of (Disraeli), 522, 523» 537. Beat'tie, James, 532. Beauf oi-t (bu'/ort), duke of, 493. 'Beaumarchais {bo-mar-sha'), 594. Beamnont (bo'mont), 506. Becket, Thomas a, 351. Bedford, duke of, 368, 396. Beethoven (ba'tu-iKn), 640. Be'his-tun, rock of, 27, n., 80. Belgium, history of, 613. Bel-^rade', battle of, 604; taking of, 632. Bel-i-sa'ri-us, defeats the Vandals and Goths, 302; conquest of Italy, 303. Bellini {bel-le'ne), 640. Bel-shaz'zar, 30; feast of, 30, n. Ben-e-ven'to, battle of, 443. Ben-e-ven'tum, battle of, 202. Bengal, conquest of, 511. Ben-ha'clad, 65. Ben-ve-nu'to Cellini (chel-e'yte), 641. Beranger {ba-rahn-zha'), 5i>5. Berbei-s, subdued by the Saracens, 838. Ber-e-ni'ce, port of, 139. Beresina (ber-e-ze' nah), battle of, 583. Bergen, 433. Benin, treaty of, 523, 634; entered by Napoleon, 580. Berlin Decree, 580, 581. Berlioz ibare-le-o'), 641. Ber-na-dotte' (dot), 62:3. Be-ro'sus, lists of, 28; life of, 28. Biblp, English, printing of, 467; transla- tion of. 4H\. Bill of Rights, 498. Bi'on, pastoral poet, 160. Birniingliaiii, 5(V4. Bismarck, WKi, (K»7. Bi-thyn'i-a, history of, 142; Ottoman kingdom of. 3(K). Black, chemist, 530. Black Death, in Germany. 429. Black I'lagut^ in France, 392. Bhiek Prince, at Crecy, 363; at Poitiers, 361; death of, '.Wi. Blake, admirai. JN9. 490, 491. Blanche of Ca.stile. 3K1. Blen'heini {-hime), battle of, 500. , Blucher {bloo'kcr) r^m, 611. Bo-ab-dil' i-dcrt), king of Qrauada, 450. Boccaccio (bok-kat'cho), 447. Bavo'ti-a. W; PIxiMiician settlements in, 5X); rebellion in. lOH. Bo-he'mi-a, a fief of Germany, 421 ; a kingdom, 42.'i ; religious war m, 4?0, 602. Bo'he-raond. count, 409. Boileau (bwahlo'), 567. j Bok-ha'ra, 666. Index, 663 Bo-les'las, 609. Bol'i-var, 657. Bo-iiv'i-a, 657. Bologna {bo-lone'yah), 445. Bombay, 504. Bo'na-parte, Jerome, 581. Bonaparte, Joseph, ^, 581. Bonaparte, Loms, 613. Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon. See Napo- leon III. Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I. Bon'i-t'ace Vlli., pope, 385. Book of Common Prayer, 468. Book of the Dead, 55. Books of the ancient Greeks, 162; of the Romans, 264, n. Borussi {bo-roos'se), 609. Borodino (bor-o-de'no), battle of, 583. Bos'ni-a, history of, 456; insm*rection in, 630. Bossuet (bos-sica'), 568. Bosworth Field, battle of, 372. Both'ni-a, 623. Bothwell, earl of, 472. Bourbon (booi-'bon), constable, 543, 544, 545. Bourbon, house of, 553. Bourbons, restoration of, 585. Bourdaloue {boor-da-loo'), 568. Boyle, 505. Boyne, battle of the, 499. Bozzaris (bot'zah-ris), 635. Brad'dock, general, 510. Bradshaw, John, 487. Bra-gan'za, Catharine of, 493, n. Braganza, duke of, 618. Brahe (brah), Tycho, 642. Brah'ma, worshiped by the Hindoos, 70. Brahmanism. introduced into India, 70; religion of Iran, 79. Brandenburg, duchy of, 609. Bras'iKias, victory of. 109. Brazil, discovery of, 619; history of, 656. Brem'en, city of, 432. Bre'mer, Frederika, 646. Brewster, David, 537. Bridgewater, duke of, 528. Brindley, James, 528. Bristol, 504. Britain probably visited by the Phoeni- cians, 63; invaded by Caesar, 233; war against the Scots in, 275; wall built by Hadrian, 275; by Seveiois, 276. Britons, 323. r.rit'ta-ny, 323. Bron'te, Charlotte, 536. Brougham (broo'am). Lord, 517, 535. Browning, Elizabeth B., 536. Browning, Robert, 536. Bruce, David, 363. Bruce, Robert, 359. Bruce, Robert (younger), 360. Bru'ges (hroo'jis), 432. Brunswick, city of, 432; duke of, 562; house of, .508. Brussels, 612. Bru'tTis, Junius, made consul, 188; le- gends concerning, 189. Brutus (the Younger), conspires against Caesar, 238; his defeat and death, 242. Buchanan, George, 480. Buckingham, duke of, minister of Richard HI., 372; minister of James I,, 480, 481, 482, 505. Buckle, Henry T., 537. Bu'da, taken by the Tm-ks, 632. Buddha {bood'dah), foimder of a new religion, 71. BuddJaism, its foundation and doctrines, 71, n. Buenos AjTes {bo'nus a'riz), 657. Buff on {boof-fony), 569. Bul-ga'ri-a, kiugtlom of, 306; history of, 45Ji; insurrection in, 630. Bulgarians, -HXi, 304. Bulwer i,Lord Lytton), 536. Bunyan, John, 507. Bm-gundians, 297, 316, 437. Bm-'gun-dy, 316, 317, 320, 379, 394, 422 Bm-ke, Edmund, 513, 533. Bumey, Charles, 529. Bm-ney, Frances, 535. Burns, Robert, 532. Bushire (boo-sheei-'), taking of, 520. Bute, Lord, 512. Butler, Samuel, 502, 507. Byron, Lord, 517, 533, 635. Byz'an-tine Civilization, 310. By-zan'ti-um, taken by Pausanias, 103; becomes the capital of the Eastern Empire, 278. Cabal, the, 494. Cab'ot, John and Sebastian, 463, 657. Ca-bral', 619, 656. Cabul (kah-bool'). insurrection in, 519. Cade, Jack, 369. Ca-de'si-a, battle of. 327. Cad-mei'ans, driven out bj* the Thessa- Hans, 92. Cad'mus brings the Phoenician alphabet into Greece, 64; founder of Thebes, 91. Capsar, Augustus. See Octavius and Auffustus Coesar. Caesar, Juhus, rise of, 232; forms the first triumvirate, 233; proconsul of Gaul, 2*^; his campaigns. 233; crosses the Rubicon . 234 ; defeats Pompey , 235 ; defeats Pharnaces, 236 ; gains the bat- tles of Thapsus and Mimda. 237; mas- ter of Rome, 237; his triumph, 237; assassinated, 2:^; his character, 239; his Commentaries, 258; first of the Twelve Caesars, 272. ' Caesars, the Twelve, 272, n. Caesars, under Diocletian and his suc- cessors, 277. Cairo (ki'ro), building of, 329; entered by Napoleon, 578. Ca-la'bri-a, 181. Ca'lah, ancient capital of Assyria, al ; its ruins, 32. Calais (kal'is), 363, 469, 547. Cal-de-ron' de la Barca, 044- 664 Index, Cal'e-do'ni-ans, defeated by Septimius Severus, 275. Ca-lig'u-la, one of the Twelve Csesars, 272; date of reign, 288. Cal-lim'a-chus, Greek poet, his hymns and elegies, 160. Callimachus, Greek sculptor, suggests the Corinthian capital, IW. Cal'neh, 28. Calvin, John, 614. Cam' bray, league of, 542; treaty of, 545. Cam-by 'ses, his conquests, 76; his atroci- ties in Egypt, 70; his death, 76. Ca-mil'lus, takes Veii, 196; his exile. 197; vanquishes the Gauls, 197 ; made dic- tator, 198 ; dedicates a temple to Con- cord, 200. Cft-mo'ens (or cam'o-ens), C44. Cam-pa'ni-ans, invoke the aid of the Ro- mans, 201. Campbell (kam'el), Sir Col'in, 520. Campbell, Thomas, 534. Campo For'mi-o, treaty of, 577. Ca'naan-ites, 66. Can'a-da, insurrection in, 518; taken by the British, 562. Canal Navigation in England, 628. Ca-na'ries, visited by the Phoenicians, 63. Can'nae, battle of, 210. Cannon, first use of, 362, 393, 402. Canon of Ptolemy, 29. Ca-no'va, Antonio, 641. Can-ton', taken by the English, 521. Ca-nute' the Dane, king, 334. Ca'pet (or kah-pa'), Hugh, 379 Capetian Dynasty, 379. Ca'po d'Istria, Count, 635. Cap-pa-do'ci-a, history of, 142. Car-a-cal'la, emperor, his character, 276; date of reign, 288. Car'dan, 642. Ca-ri'nus, emperor, date of reign, 288. Car'lo Dolci (dtWche), 641. Car'lo-man, 318. Carlovingian Dyna-sty, 318, 879. Carlyle, Thomas, 537. Caroline of Bnuiswick, 517. Carr, Robert, 480. Carracci {kar-rat'chee), 641. Car'thage, a Phoenician or Tyrlan col- ony, 61; when settled, 61, 204; her power, 204; war of Agathocles with, 206; wars with the Romans, 206, 209, 215; destruction of, 217; capital of the kingdom, of the Vandals, 287, 298; taken by the Saracens, 328. Cas-san'der, son of Antipater, war with Polysperchon, 127: king of Greece and Macedonia. 128; his death, 129. Cas'i-mir, John, king of Poland, 626. CassinI (kahs-se'nf), .WO, (\\2. Cassius (kash'e-tm). lieutenant of Craa- sus, 284; conspires against Cffisar, 238; defeat and death, 242. Castile (kahs-teel'), kingdom of, 448. Casfilian Dialects, 451; writers, 451. Catharine I., empress of Russia, 6W. Catharine U., *' " " 629. Catharine of Aragon, 463. Catharine de' Medici. See Medici. Ca-thay', empire of, 72. Catholic Chui-ch, 311. Catholics, disabilities of removed, 517. Cat'i-line, Lucius, character of, 231 ; his plot frustrated, 231; defeated and slain, 232. Ca'to, Porcius, the Censor, his hatred to Carthage, 216. Cato, the Stoic, commits suicide at Utica, 237. Ca-tul'lus, Roman poet, 258. Cau'ca-sus, 630. Cau'dine Forks, battle of, 201. Cavaliers or Royalists, 485, 502. Cavendish, 530. Cawn-pore', 520, Cax'ton, William, 376. Cecil (ses'iT), Lord Burleigh, 470, 477. Ce'crops, founder of Athens, 91. Cellini {chel-le'nc), Benvenuto, 641. Cel-ti-be'ri-ans, war with, 217. Celts, 299. Censors, establishment of, 196. Central America. 656. Centiu-ies, assembly of, 196. Ce-phis'sus, 92. Cere a'li a, 261. Ce'res. See Demeter. Cer-van'tes, 644. Ceylon {se'lon), reached by the Phoeni- cians, 63; conquest of by the Portu- guese, 620. Cha?-ro-ne'a, battle of, 119. Chal-de'a, situation and fertility of, 25, 27. Chal-dees', or Chaldean.s, progress in the arts, etc., 27; an architectural people, 35; their commerce, 36. Champagne (sli(in(i-j)ahn'). 379. Charlemagne {shar-le-mahn'), emperor, 318; character, 319; defeats the Sara- • cens, ^J8. Charles All)ert of Sanlinia, 615. Charles of Anion, 3S5, 386, 426, 443. Charles, arclKlnke, 582. Charles the Bold. 399, 404. 4-38. Charles 1. of F.ngland. reign of, 481; exe cution of, 487; chanieter, 4F8. Charles 11. of England, 188, 492. Charles the Fat, 320. Charles IV. of France, im. Charles V. " 395. Charles VI. " 3J>5. Charles VH. " 3JH'.. Charles VIIL " 3%. Charles IX. " MH. Charles X. " M7. Charles IV. of Gennany, 428. Charles V. " 698. Charles VI. •* 604. Charles vn. '* 6(M. Charles of Lnx-etiiburg, 428. Charles >Iancl,:ur,m Charles flic I'reteiider, 509, 610, Charles the Simple, 821. I Charles I. of Spain, 616. 1 Charles U. ^' 618. Index. 665 Charles XI. of Sweden, 622, Charles XII. " 623, 628. Charles Xm. " 623. Charles XIV. " 623. Charles XV. " 623. Charles of Valois {val-wah'), 387. Cha'ron, 174. Chartists, 518. Chateaubriand (shah-to-bre-ahng')y 595. Chatham, earl of. See Pitt. Chatterton, Thomas, 532. Chaucer (chaw'ser), Geoffrey, 367, 376. Chemi {ka'me), ancient name of Egj-pt, 51. Chenier {shen-ya'), Andr6, 594. Cheops (ke'ops), builder of the Great Pyramid, 58. Cherbourg (sher'boorg), 594. Chevy Chace, battle of, 367. Chil'der-ic (chil'der-ic), 318. Children's Crusade, 414. ChiU {chil'e), 657. China, origin of the name, 72; ancient history of, 72; modern history of, 652; war with, 521 . Chinese, history of, 72; civilization and language, 73; religion, 74. Chios (ke'os), 86. Chivalry, or Knighthood, 345. Christian Church, 311. Christian IV. of Denmark, 602, 634. Christian IX. " 625. Christian, duke of Brunswick, 602. Christianity, its rise and progress, 279; embraced by the Franks, 316; intro- duced into Germany, 431; into Bul- garia, 452. Christina {kris-te' nah\ queen of Sweden, 622. Chronology, 20. Churchill, John (IVIarlborough), 500, n. Cic'e-ro, education and history, 2:31 , n. ; denounces Catiline, 231; causes the conspirators to be put to death, 232; his Phihppics, 240: assassinated by order of Anton v, 241. Cid, exploits of the, 451. Cilicia {se-lish'e-ah), kingdom of, 41. Cimabue (che-mafi-boo'a), 446. Cimarosa (che-mah-ro'sah), 640. Cim'bri, defeated by Marius, 224,<225. Ci'mon, his victory over the Pei-sians, 106; his character, 106, n. ; his admin- istration, 106, 107; his death, 106. Cin-cin-na'tus, dictator, 194. Cin'na, consul with Marius, 228. Cisalpine Republic, 577. Citiura, (slsh'e-wn), siege of, 106. Civilization, Chaldean, Babvlonian, and Assyrian, 35; Median. 41 ; Egyptian, 45; Phoenician, 63; Hebrew, 69; Chinese, 73; Persian, 78; Grecian, 143; Roman, 249; Byzantine, 310; Saracenic, 3:i0: Anglo-Saxon, 336; Norman, 342; Eng- lish, 373, 474, .502, 5^4; French, 398, 401, 5.50,-563,592; German, 431 ; Italian, 445; progress of in Spain and Portugal, 451 ; progress of in modem Europe, 636. Clarence, duke of, 371. Clarence, duke of (William IV.), 517. Clarendon, earl of. See Hyde. Claude Lorraine', 569. Clau'di-us I., one of the Twelve Csesars, 272; date of his reign,288. Claudius II., 2^, 288. Cle-ar'chus, a Spartan general, enters the service of Cyrus, 113. Clement VII., pope, 465, 545. Clement, assassin of Henry III., 550. Cle-om'e-nes, king of Sparta, 131. Cle'on, successor of Pericles, 109. Cle-o-pa'tra, last of the Ptolemies, 141, 236, 242, 243. Clepsydra, set up in Rome, 220. Clermont, council of, 408. Clis'the-nes, his administration at Athens. 98. Cli'tus, killed by Alexander, 123. Clive, Lord, 511, 512. Clo'di-us, 234, Clon-tarf, battle of, 353. Cloth Manufacture in England, 476. Clo'vis, 316, 317. Clu'si-vmi, attacked by the Gauls, 197. Cnidus (ni'dus), battle of, 114. Code Napoleon, 593. Co'drus, last king; of Athens, 96. Coe'le-Sj^ria, its situation, 135. Coffee, mtroduced into France, 566. Colbert (kol-bare'), 558, 5&4. Colchis {kol'kis), 89. Cole'ridge, Samuel T., 534. Coligni (ko-leen'ye), admiral, 547, 548, Col-la-ti'nus, 188. Collins, William, 531. Cologne {ko-lone'), 432. Co-lom'bi-a, 657. Col-os-se'um, or Flavian Amphitheater, description of, 254, ?i.; completed by Titus, 274. Co-los'sus of Rhodes, 147, 148, 327. Co-lum'bus, Christopher, 450, 4ft3. Commerce, of the Clialdeans, 36; of the Egyptians, 55; of the Phoenicians, 62; of the Hebrews, 67; of the Hindoos, 71 \. of the kingdom of the Ptolemies, 136, 139; of the early Greeks, 144; of Athens, 172; of the Greek Empire, 312; of the Saracens, aso, 331 ; of the Anglo- Saxons, :337; in England, 374, 425, 503, 525; in France, 390, 564. Com'mo-dus, emperor, 288. Commonwealth, English, 488. Commune, insurrection of the Paris, 591. Communes, in France, 382. Com-ne'na, Anna, 312. Comte {kongt), 595. Con'd6, prince of, 547, 548, M9. Cond6 the Great, 5.57. Confederation of the Rhme, 580. Conformity, Act of, 470. Con-fu'ci-us, his teachings, 73; works compiled by, 74. Con'greve, 507. 666 Index. Co'non, defeated by the Spartans, 111; gains a victory at Cuidus, 114; thrown into prison, 115. Con'rad, author of Song of Roland, 434. Conrad I. (of Francouia), emperor, 418, Conrad II., emperor, \£i. Conrad III., emperor, 411, 424. Conrad IV., emperor, 426. Constance, comicil of, 429; peace of, 439. Con'stans, emi)eror, 288. Con'stan-tine 1. (the Great), saluted em- peror, 278; his conversion, 278; re- moves the capital, 278; issues the edict of Milan, 271); his measures in favor of Christianity, 282; his death, 282. Constantine II., 288. Constautine (Pal-aj-ol'o-gus), 310. Con-stan-ti-no'ple, the capital of the Ro- man Empire, 278; besieged by the Saracens, 300, 327; taken by the Turks, 310; commerce of, 312; taken by the Crusaders, 308, 414. Con-stau'ti-us I., 278. Constantius II., 288. Constitutions of Clarendon, 351. Consulate and Empire, 578. Consulship, Roman, established, 188; plebeians admitted to, 196. Coo-mas'sie, 522. Co-pen-ha'gen, battle of, 514, 624. Co-per'ni-cus, 435, 642, Cop'tos, 139. Cor-cy'ra, island of, 85; difllculty with Corinth, 109. Cor'day, Charlotte, 576. Cor'do-va, caliphate of, 329; city of, 331. Cordova, Gonsalvo de, 541. Corinth, under Periauder, 99; taken by the Romans, 215. Co-rin'thi-a, 85. Corinthian Order of Architecture, 164. Co-ri-o-la'nus, account of, 194. Comeille (kor-iiale'), 566, 567. Corn Laws, repeal of, 519. Cornwallis, surrender of, 51.1. Cor-o-ne'a, defeat of the Athenians at, 108; victory of Agesilaus at, 114. Correggio {kirr-red'jo), 641. Cor'tez, 6,56. Co-run'na, battle of, 515. Co8-80'va, battle of, 309, 454. Cos'ter, Laurens, 435. Costume, Greek, 169; Roman, 547; in France, 391, 403, 567, 593; in Germany, 433, 551. Cotton Manufacture, in France, 566; of the Normans, 844; in England, 374, 376. Cousin (koo-zdiig'), 595. Covenant, Scottish, 4^3, 486. Covenanters, defeated by Cromwell, 488. Coverdah*. Miles, 467, Cowley, Abraham, .507. Cowptir. William. 532. Cranmer, archbishop. 405, 466, 468. 469. Cras'sus. (lefeats SparUicus, 22^i; his great wealth, 2-*J0: joins the first tri- umvirate, 23:3; defeated and slain by tbe Tarthians, 234. Crat'e-rus, with Antipater defeats the Athenians, 125; enters the league against Perdiccas, 127. Crebillon (krt-be'ymiy), 594. Crecy {,kres'e), battle of, 362. Cri-me'an War, 519. Cro-a'ti-a, conquest of, 455. CroB'sus, king of Lydia, his immense wealth, 43; defeated and taken prisoner by Cyrus, 43; alUance witn Egypt, 50. Cromwell, OUver, 486, 488, 490, 491. Cromwell, Richard, 492. CYo'ton, 87. Cro-to'na, battle of, 442. Crusades, :W7, 308; cause of, 407; first, 408; second, 411; third, 412; tourtu, 413; subsequent, 415; influence of, 416. Clesias (te'sht-as), his account of Sar- danapalus, 31. Ctes'i-phon, 274, 275. Cul-lo'den, battle of, 509. Cu'maj, 87. Cu-ma'ni-a, 45.5. Cumans, invasion of, 455. Cumberland, duke of, 509, 510, 518. Cu-nax'a, battle of, 113. Cu-ne'i-form Inscriptions, 27, 36, 80. Cu-re'tes, 88. Curfew Bell, 338. Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tUo, defeats Pyrrhus, 202. Curtius, 646. Cy-ax'a-res, king of the Medes, takes and destroys Nineveh, 34; iiia con- quests, 40. Cyc'la-des, 85, 92. Cyclopean Architecture, 88. 145. Cyn-os-ceph'a-la>, battle of, 132, 214. Cyprus taken by Sargon, 32; siege of. 106; taken by the Saracens, 327; ceded to Great Britain, 522. Cy-re-na'i-ca, province of, 87; subdued by Ptolemy I., 137. Cy-re'ne, 87. Cyril {sir'il),ot Alexandria, 311. Cyrus the Great, his V)irt.h, 40; subdues Media, 40; his rapid concjuests, 75; his death, 75. Cyrus the Younger, his expedition inU> Persia, 113; his death, 113. Cyz'i-cus, 87. Da'ci-a, given up to the Goths. 284; oc- cupied by the Bulgarians and Avars 304. D'Alembert (tians. 5<5: the Gn^f'ks. 162: the Romans, 255; in England. 505. .528.639; in ItAly. 446; in moersoji of Hannibal, 218, n. Flam-ma'ri-on. 50.5. Flanist4»e, 210; his re- call and defeat at Zania, 212; assists Antiochus again.st the Romans, 213; his death, 213. n. Hanover, 510, 518. Hansa. or Hanseatic League, 482, 488. Hanse Towns, 582. Hans Saclis, 435. Hapsburg, house of, 427. Har'tleur, 368, 396. Hargreaves, .James, 527. Har-mo'di-us, 98. Harold, king of England, a35. Ha-roun' alHasch'id, caliph, 329. Harpies, 150. Ha-rus'pi-ces, 260. Harvey, 506. Has'dru-bal, brother of Hannibal, de feated and slain, 212. Hasdmbal, defense of Carthage by, 217. Hastings, battle of, 335. Hastings, Warren, 513. Hav'e-lock, general, 520, 655. Hawkins, admiral, 471. Haydn (ha'dn), 640. Haz'a-el, king of Syria, 65. He'be, 150. Hebrews, a Semitic nation, 20; histor; of, 66. Hec'tor, son of Priam, 90. Hegel {ha'get), 646. He gira, era of the, 21, 325. Heine (hi'neh), 646. Helen, wife of Menelaus, 90. He-li-op'o-lis. See Baalbec. Hel'las, states of, a5. Hel-le'nes, land of the, 85; migration of 89. He'lots, revolt of, 107. Helvetians, 437. He'mans, Felicia D., 534. Henrietta Maria, 481. Henry of Burgundy, 450. Henry, duke of I>ancaster, 366. Henry L of England, M\. Henry H. ^' 350. Henry HL " 858. Henr>' IV. " 367. Henry V. " 367. Henry VI. " 368. Henry VII. " 372, 461, Henry VIII. " 463. Henry I. of France, 381. Henry II. " 546. Henry III. " 549, 62.5. Henry IV. " 5.58, .5(J5. Henrv I. of Germany, 419. Henry II. " 421. Henry IH. " 422. Henrv IV. " 423. Henry V. " 424, 432. Henry Vn. " 428. Henrv of Huntingdon, »15. Henr\', king of Ca.stile. 419. Henry, prince, the Navigator, 450. He-pha's'tos. worship of, 147. Hep-tan'o-mis. situation of, 58. Hep'tar-chy, 82-1. Hpr-a-clei'cW. return of the, 98, 98 Her-a-cli'us, emperor, .'105. Her-cti-la'ne-uin. destruction of, 27& Her'«Mi-les. 89, 98; worship of, 150. Her'der. 645. He're. worship of, 148. Index. 671 Her'mann, 431. Hermann the Cripple, 434» Her'mes, his attributes j how repre- sented, 148. Her'od the Great, 69. He-rod'o-tus, 2:2, 45; visit tO Tyre, 63; his history, 157. Herrick, Robert. 507. Herschel, Sir Wiliiam, 530. Her'u-li, 287. He'si-od, poems of, 155. Hes'ii-a, worship of, 149. He-tae'rai, character of the, 172* Hewson, colonel, 502. Heyne (Jii'neh), 645. Heywood, John, 478. Hez-e-ki'ah, taken captive, 68. Hibernia, 352. Hi'e-ro, king of Syracuse, 206, 211. Hieroglyphics, for what used, and how written, 59: how deciphered, 59, n. High Commission, court of, 474. Hil'de-brand (Gregory VH.), 408, 423, 443. Hin'doos, origin of, 18; history of, 70; commerce and wealth of, 71. Hin-do-stan', peninsula of, 653. Hip-par^chus, 97, 98. Hip'pi-as, 97, 98, 100. Historical Records, among the Chal- deans, 36. History, defined, 17; how divided, 23; philosophy of, 23. Hogarth, William, 528. Ho-hen-lin'den, battle of, 579. Hol'bein {-bine), 641. Holland, history of, 612. Hol'stein (stine), 606, 624. Holy League, 542. Holy Roman Empire, 580, 605. Ho'mer, poems of, 90; Greek manners described by, 144; account of, 155. Hong Kong, 521. Ho-no'ri-us, emperor of the West, 285; his death, 286. Hood, Thomas, 534. Hooke, 506. Hopital io-pe-tahl') chancellor de 1', 548, 552. Hor'ace, poems of, 258. Ho-ra'ti-us Co'cles, legend of, 189, 190. Ho-she'a, surrenders Samaria, 68. Hospitallers, knights, 410. Hotel de Ville (vil), 565. House of Commons, 358, 373. House of Lords, 488. Household Gods, among the Greeks, 168, n. ; among the Romans, 262. Howard, Catharine, 467. Howard, Henry, 467. Howard, Lord, admiral, 471. Hugh the Great, 379, 409. Huguenots, 547, 548, 549. , 560,.n. Humbert I., 616. Humboldt, 613. Hume, David, 5.33. Hungarian Insurrection, 630. Hungarians. 307, 422, 455. Hungary, history of, 455. Hunnish Empire, 301. Huns, yivade Europe, 284, 297; ravage the Eastern Empire, and invade Gaul, 286; defeat of , 287. Hxmter, John, 530. Htm-ya'di, king, 456. Huss, John, 429. Huxley, Thomas H., 537. Huyghens or Huygens Qd'ghens) , 566, 642. Hy-das'pes, 123. Hyde, Sir Edward, earl of Clarendon, 492 ; impeachment of, 494; an author, 507 Hyk'sos, shepherd kings, their rule in Egypt, 48. Hyph'a-sis, 124. Hyp'nos, 149. I-a-pyg'i-ans, 181, 182. I-ax'ar-tes, 123. Iceland, 321. I-cil'i-an Law, 192. I-co'ni-um, 307. Xl'i-um, 90. Il-lyr'i-an Pirates, 208. Independents, 487. India, invaded by Alexander, 71, 1'Zh India Trade, 313, 653. Indian Mutiny, 520. Indo-Europeans, 18. Indus River, 124. Industrial Arts In England, 526. Ingelow, Jean, 586. Inker-man', battle of, 519. Innocent III., pope, 355, 356, 384, 413, iH. Interregnum, the great, 427. Invincible Armada, 471. I-o'ni-a, 92. Ionian Colonies, 86; revolt of, 99. lonians, 86. Ionic Order of Architecture, 164. Ip'sus, battle of, 127. Tran, plateau of. 18; nations of, 41. Ireland, early history of, 352; conquest of, 353; reduced by Ireton, 499; consti tutionally united to Great Biitain, 514 Ire'ton, 489. I'ris, 150. Irish Church, disestablishment of, 522. Irish Land Bill, 522, 523. Ir-koutsk' {-kootsk), foundation of, 628. Iron Crown of the Lombards, 304. Isabella, queen of Castile, 449. Isabella, queen of England, 361, 362, 388. Isabella II. , queen of Spain, 619. Islam, 326. Ismail Pacha {is-mah'eel pa-shaw'), 634. I-soc'ra-tes, orator, 160. Is-pa-han', 307. Is'ra-el, kingdom of, 66 ; destruction ot 68. Israelites, in Egypt, 48. Is'sus, battle of, 120 Isth'mi-an Games, 153. Italian Republics, 426. It'a-lo-Celtic Races, 299. 672 Index. Italy, early history of. 181, 439; races of, l»i •, conquest of, 202; popiiUftion of, 220; northern, 439; southern, 442; pa- pal, 414; state of society in, 445; republics of northern, 439; dialects of. 447; modern history of, 615; a united kingdom, CI6. Ith'a-ca, 90. Ivan IIL (c'-ran'), 628. Ivry (eei/re), battle of, 553. Jacob, 66. Jac'o-bin Club, Paris, 574. Jac'o-bites, 508. Jacquard {zliak-kar^, 639. Jacquerie {zhak-re'), 394. Jaffa, 578. Jamaica, taken by the English, 491. James, duke ot York, defeats the Dutch, 493; king of England, .4%; flight to France, 498; defeated in Ireland, 499. James I. of England, 478. James II. . ** 496. James FV. of Scotland, 464. Jamestown, settlement of, 480. Ja-nic'u-lan Hill, fortified, 185. Ja'nus, temple of, erected, 185; con- stantly open in time of war, 204; closed for the third time, 243; described, 250. Japan, discovery of, !J20; history of, 652. Jean de Gerson (zhdr-song% 404. Jeffrey, Lord. 535. Jeffreys, judge, 497. Jehan de Joinville (zh7i}ahng-veel'\ 392. Je-hoi'a-kim, subdued by Nebuchadnez- zar, 29; date and length of reign, 8;i. Je-hosli'a-phat, reign of, 68. Jemmappes {zhem-map'), battle of, 575. Jena, battle at, .580, 611. Jenner, Etlward, 5:^0.. Jer-o-Jjo'ain, firsfc king of .Israel, 67. Jerome of Prague, 430. Je-ru'sa-lem, plundered by Shi.shak, 49; taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 68; temple of rebuilt, 08; taken by Pompey, 231; dastroyed by Titus, 2f3; attetnpt to rebuild the temple, 283, n.\ taken by the Saracens, 306, 326; by the Cnisad- ers, 410; kingdom of, 410; taken by Saladin, 412. Jews, persecution of, 888; expelled from Spain, 450. John of Damascus, 312. John, Don, of Austria, 632. John, king of England, 356. John, king of France, 393, 894. John of Oaunt, 360, 3(57, 461. Jolin of Sual)ia, 428. John I., king of Portugal, 460. John II. of Portugal, 460. John VI. " 621. John IV., duke of Braganza, 620 Johnson, general, 610. Johnson, Samuel, 681, 682. Jones, Inigo, 505. Joason, Ben, 506. Joseph, son of Jacob, 48. Joseph I. of Portugal, 620. Josephine, empress, 582. Jo-se'phus, 161. Josh'u-a, 66. Jo'vi-an, Roman emperor, 283, 288. Ju'ba, king of Mauritania, 237. Ju'dali, kingdom of, 67, 68. Ju'das Mac-ca-be'us, revolt of the Jetvs under, 69. Ju-de'a, a Roman province, 69; kingdom of matle subject to the Romans, 231. Judicial Combat, 349, 373. Ju-^ur'tha, his crimes, 22-3; war against him, 224; his capture and death, 224. Julia, daughter of Cajsar, given in mar- riage to Pompey, 23A. Juli-an the Apostate, his education, 282; attempts to reinstate jiagunism, 2*2: undertakes to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem, 283; his death, 283. Ju'li-us Cas'sar. See L'oisar. Julius Nepos, emperor, 288. Julius n., pope, 542. Ju'no, worship of, 148; temple of, 1&4. Junot {zhoo-no'), general, 581, 621. Jupiter Capitolinus, temple of, ISd. Jury, trial by, 373. Jus-tin'i-an, emperor, 302. Jutes, :j22. Ju've-nal, kioman poet, 258. Kairwahn {kare-toahn'), 827, 830. Kant, (>45. Kar'nak, great hall of, 48; temple of, 138. Keats, John, 533. Kempis, Thomas A, 404. Kenilworth, castle of, 477. Kepler, 642. Kha'led, 826. Khiva {ke'vnh), conquest of, 630, 665. Kho'kan, 65.'). Khor'sa-bad. temple at, 32; ruins of, 82; Jnscrii)tions found therein, 82. Khos'ni. 305. Kiel {keel), treaty of, 624. Kingsley, Charles, 536. Kleber {kla'l>rr), 578. Klopstock, (JJ.'). Knight-errantry, 349. Knight liood. :Ur,, 316, 348. Knights, IIospitAJlers, 410; Templars,410 Knowles. J. Sheridan, 634. Kon-rad'in. 426. Koran, 32«5. Kos-ci-us'ko, Thaddeug, 688, 687. Kossuth (kosh'oot). 608. Kranach ikrak'niUc), Ix>ui8, 641. Krou'os, 149. Lab'a-nim, standard of the troM de* scripfion of. 881.282. Lac-e-dut'inon, conquered by the Dor* ans. 93. Index, 673 La-co'ni-a, one of the states oj Pelopon- nesus, 85; increased by the annexa- tion of Messenia, 95. Lae-vi'nus, consul, 202. Lafayette (lah-fa-et'), 573, 574, 587. La Fontaine (fon-tain'), 567. La Hogue {hog), battle of, 499. Lam'ar-tine (-teen), 588. Lamb, Charles, 535. Lambert, Simnel, 462. La'mi-a, battle of, 125. Lamiau War, its cause, 125; termination of, 126. Landon, Letitia E , 534. Langton, 356. Language and Literature, of the Egyp- tians. 59; of the Phoenicians, 64; of the Hindoos, 70~; of the Chinese, 73; of the Persians, 80; of the Greeks, 154; of the Romans, 257. Languages, classification of, 19. Languedoc ilong-gha-doc'), ceded to France, 384. Lantern of Demosthenes, 164. Laotse(Zoi«-43, Lith-u-a'ni-a, 625. Liverpool, 504. Livingstone, Dr., 522. Liv'y,- Roman historian, 258, Llewellyn (floo-el'lin), king of Wales, 359. Locji Lev'in, 473. Lo'cris, East and West. 85. Lombard League, 439, 441. Lombards, 299. 304, 318. Lombardy, cities of, 425; league of, 441 ^ ceded to Italy, 590. London, 432; great fire at. 494; popula- tion of, 504; university of, 525. Lon-gi'nus. minister of Zenobia, 277 Lorenzo de' Medici (vied'e-che), 447. Lorraine', cardinal, 547. Lorraine, duke of, 409. Lo-thaire', 320. Lothaire of Saxony, 424. Louis of Bavaria, 428. Louisburg. fortress of, 509, Louis, count of Flanders, 395. Louis le D6bonnaire, 319. Louis VI. of France, 382, Louis VII. " 382, 411. Louis Vni. " 384, Louis IX. " 384, 385, 415. Louis X. " 387. Louis XI, " 398. Louis XII. " 541. Louis XIIL " 555. Louis XIV. " 556. Louis XV. " 561. i^ouis XVI. " 570. 674 Index, Louis XVII. of France, 585. Louis XVm. " 585, 586. Louis, king of Gennany, 319. Louis tile Great, king of Hungary, 456. Louis Napoleon. See Napoleon III. Louis Phuippe (fe-leep'), 587. Louis I. of Portugal, ii2l. Louvois {loo-vwali'), 558. Lu'beck, city of, 432; treaty of, G03. Lu-ca'ni-ans, 202. Lu'cl-an, satirist, 161. Luck'now, .520. Lu-cre'ti-us, Roman poet, 258. Lu-cul'lus, his victory over Mithi idates, 226 ; mutiny of his troops, 230. Lulli (lool'le), 568. Lune'ville, treaty of, 579. Lu-per-ca'li-a, 261. Lu-si-ta'ni-ans, subdued by the Romans, 217. Lu-te'ti-a, or Paris, 316. Luther, Martin, 598, 599, 60L Lut'zen, battle of, 581, 603. Ly-ce'uni, in Greece, 1.59, 171: in France, 593. Ly-cur'gus, laws of, 93. Lyd'i-a and the Lydians, history of, 42; annexed to tlie Persian Empire, 43. Ly'ell, Sir Charles, 537. Ly-san'der, victory gained by. 111. Lys'i-as, orator, 160. Ly-sic'ra-tes, monument of, 164. Ly-sira'a-chu8, .\sia Minor, assigned to, 128; obtains the government of Mace- donia, 129; defeated and slain, 129. Lytton, Lord (Bulwer), 5m. McCartney, Lord, 652. Ma-cau'Iay, Thomas B., 5.36. Mac'ca-bees, 69. Mac-ca-be'iLs. Judas, 69. Macchiavelli (rnak-e-ah-vel'le), 447. Mac-e-do'ni-a, 8): early history of, 117; the leading state in Greece, 119; his- tory under Alexander, 120; under his successors, 126; becomes a Roman province, 133. 214, 215. Mackintosh, Sir James, 53.5. McMahon, Marshal, .590. .591. Ma-cri'nus, emneror, '2i^. Maileira Islands, visited by the Phoeni- cians, 63. Ma-dras', .504. Mre-ce'nas, 258. Ma-gel'lan, 475. Ma-gen'ta, battle of, 590. Magi, their influence, 41, 76; corruptions Magianism, system of. 76. n. Magna Charta. 356, .V)7. 373. Magna OrnRcia. oitlos in. 87. Mag-ne'si-a. battle of, 136, 214. Magyars {mod-ynrit'\ 807, 455. Maintenon (mdhn-ta-ncmn), Madame de, 550. Ma-jo'ri-an, emperor, 288. . Malacca, 620. I Malplanal-zdrb'), 570, 594. Maltii, 6:32. Mani'e-lukes, 578. Mam'er-tines, account of the, 206. Man-as'seh, king of Judah, taken prison- er, 3S. Manchester, city of, 501. Mandeville, Sir John. 376. Man'e-tlio, history of, 22; Egyptian dynasties of, 45, 47. Manfred, king of Naples and Sicily, 420, 44^3. Mansard, 569. Mansfield, count, 602. Mautchou Tartai-s, 652. Man-ti-ne'a, battle of, 115. Mau'u-el Com-ne'nus, 411. Manufactures, among the Assyrians. 36, 37; anaong tlie Egyptians, 5.j; the Phce- nicians, 63; the Greeks, 172; in Eng- land, 476, 505. Mar-a-can'da, taken by Alexander, 123. Marat ( mah-rali')^ 575, 576, Mar'a-thon, battle of, 100. Marcel, 3i)3. Mar-cel'lus, the Shield of Rome, taking of Syracuse by, 211. Mar'co Po'lo, travels of, 72, 441, 652. Mar'cus Au-i*e'li-us, a stoic, 159; one of the Ave good emperors, 274 ; repels the barbarians, 565. Mar-do'ni us, expedition of against the Greeks, 100; lieutenant of Xerxes, 102; army of defeated by the Gi-eeks, 103 Marengci, battle of, .579. Maigaret of .Vnjou, .3«)8, .370, ,371. Margaret of Denmark, 622. Margaret, duche.ss of Burgundy, 468. Maria da Gloria. 621. Maria Ijouisa, 582. Maria Theresa, .509, 604. Marie Antoinette {an-ttmh-net'), 571, B7B. Marignano {mah-reen-rjnh'no\ battle of. ,543. Marigny (mah-reen'yp). 387. Mariotte (mah-re-nf), .5(50. Ma'ri-ua, his rise, 221; carries on tlie v*- agalnst .Tugurtha, 221; defeat.s ''> • CJmbri and Teutons, 224. 225; his exilo. 227; war with Sulla, 228; his death. 228. Marlborottgh, duke of. .500. .501. Marot dnnh-ro'), Clement, 5.52. Marriage, among the (Jreeks, IH ; among the Romans. 263. Mai-ston Moor, battle of, 486. Martin V.. pope, 429. Martin I^utner. See Lnther. Mary of Burginidy. 3i)9. 130. Marv, queen of England. 468. M.irV. niieen of Sects. 4?>. 473. 547. Mis ill is'sa. king n{ Niunidia, 216. Mass.whusefts, .settlement of, 483. Mas-sag'e-tii>. 75. 3Ias-8iri-a, Cn^clan colony of. 87. Mas.^illon (tnas-sccl-pony'), 568. Index. 675 Massiuger, Philip, 506. Matilda, wife of Henry I., 341. Matilda, queen uf England, 341. Mat'sys, Quentin, Wl. Mattluas, kuig of Hungary, 45(j. Maiu-ice, elector of fcjaxouy, 54G, 601. Mav-ro-cor-da'to, 6i5. Max-im'i-an, emperor, 278, 288. Max-i-mil'i-an 1., emperor, 4;i0, 431, 464, 598. Maximilian, archduke. 590, 050. Max'i-inin, emperor, 288. Max'i-mus I., emperor, 28«. Maxim us 11., emperor, 2iorman, 345. - Mirabeau {me-rah-bo'), 572. Mississippi Scheme, 561. Mis-so-lon'ghi (,-y/te), siege of, 635. Mith-ri-da'tes, kmg of Pontus, 136; his character and accomplishments, 225; war with the Romans, 226; his defeat and death, 226. Moawiyah {mo-ah-we'yah), 327. M(je'si-a, annexed to the Roman Empire, 2^2; attacked by the barbarians, 284. Mogiils, 652. Mo-ham'med, 324, 325, 326. Mohammed U. (the Conqueror), 310, 458, 631. Mol-da'vi-a, 456, 519. Moliere {rno-lyure'), 567. Moram'sen, 646. Monckton, colonel, 510. Mongols, 309. Monk, general, 489. 492, 494. Monmouth, duke of, 496. 497. Montaigne {mon-tain'), Michel de, 552. Montcalm (mont-kahm'), marquis of, 510. Montesquieu (mon-ies-kii'), 569. Montgomery, James, 534. Mont-mo-ren'cy, duke of. Constable, 547; execution of, 556. Moore, Sir John, 515. MooTe, Thomas, 534. i'^ ,ors, sack of Rome by, 287; origin of, 328; in Spain, 331; expulsion of, 617. Moral Plavs, 376, 402. More, Sir Tliomas, 466, 478. Mo-re'a,origin of the name,31 3; acquired by Venice, 441. Moreau (mo-ro'), general. 579, 584. Mor'gar-ten, battle of, 4-*38. Moi"se, profes.sor, 5:30. Mor'ti-mer. Edmimd, 367. Mortimer, English baron, 362. Mos'chus, poems of, 160. Moscow, burning of, 583. Moses, 66. Mos'heim i-hime), 644. Moslems, 326. Mount Tabor, battle of, 578. Moimtain Party, 575. Mo'zart, 640. Mu'ci-us Scae'vo-la, legend of, 189, 190. Muhl'berg. battle of, 601. Miiller. John, 4.35. Mum'mi-us, takes Coiinth, t33. Murat (mu-rah'), general. 578; king of Naples, 581 ; execution of, 586. Mu-ra-to'ri (-re), 644. Murillo (moo-reeV yo\ 641. Murray, regent of Scotland, 473. 676 Index, Musa, Saracen general, 328. Music, among tlie Greeks, 173; in Italy and (Jermauy, 447, 448; progress in. Musical Composers, 039, 640. Myc'a-le, battle of, 103. My-ce'nai, ancient kingdom of, 89; ruins of, 145; i-emains found at, 1(52; gate- way of the ancient city of, 165. My'ron, sculpture of, 105. Mysteiies, or Miracle Flays, 376, 402. Mythology, of the Greeks, 146; of the Roi )mans, 258. N Na-bo-na'di-us, defeat of, 80. Na-bo-nas'sar, era of, 21, 29. Na-bo-po-las'sar, reign of, 29; joins with the Medes against Nineveh, 34. Na'dir Shah, 655. Nai'vi-us, Roman poet, 220. Nana Siihib (sah'ecb), ri20, Nancy, battle of, 399. Nantes {tiantu), edict of. 554, 560, 564. Napier {nu'pe-er). Sir Cnarles, 519. Naples, 400, 442, 541. Napoleon 1., 562, 577, 578, 579, 586. Nai)olecn II., 589. Napoleon lU., 588, 589. Nar'ses, 303. Nar'va, battle of, 628. Nase'by, battle of, 486. Na-si'ca, PubUus Sci^no, 220. National Assembly, l^rench, 571. National Convention, French, 574. Nations, origin of, 299. Navarino (nah-vah-re'no), battle of, 517, (iHi, 6:i'i. Navarre (nah-var'), province of, ^li^ NavaiTcte («a/(-?-a7--?a' fa), battle of, .'"^k'' Navigation Act, 489. Ne-an'der, 646. Ne-ar'chu8, voyage of, 124. Neb-u-chad-nez'zar, his conquests, 29; his death, 30. Ne'cho, or Ne-ka'o, reign of, 50. Neck'er, 571,572. Nelson, 514, 578, 624. Ne-me'an Games, 153. Nep'tuiie. See Poneidon. Nero, emperor, 272, «. Ner'va, one of the " Five Good Empe- rors," 274. Nes'tor, 145. Netherlands, 4:30; history of, 612; king- dom of, 613. Netherlands, New, taken by the English, 493. Netherlands, Spanish, 494. Nen'.Htri-a. 317. Neville's Cross, battle of, 863 Newbury battle of, 486. New Ora na'da, 618. New Netherlands, 493. New Rome, 278. Newspapei-H, 567. Newton, 506. Ney (wa). Marshal, 584, 585, 586. Nice (nees), comicil of, 282; capital of lloum, 307; taken by the Crusaders, 307, 409; battle of, 4U9; capital of the Greek emperors, 308. Nicholas of Cusa, *i5. Nicholas, emperor of Russia, 630. Ni'ci-as, defeat of, 110. Nic-o-me'des, king of Tergamus, 142. Ni-cop'o-Hs, battle of, 430. Niebelungen-lied ( ne-bel-oon'gen-lved ), 434. Niebuhr (ne'boor). 646 Nihili-sls, 631. Nile, battle of the, 514, 578. Nin'e-veh, situation of, 81; destructioD of, 34. Nis'sa, battle of, 430. Normandy, settlement of, 321; dukes of, 321; province of, 379; conquest of, 396. Normans,origin of, 3xX); mode of warfare, 343; expel the Saracens from south Italy, 439. Noreemen, or Northmen, 821. Northampton, battle of, 370. Northern War, 623. North Gennan Confederation, 607. Northumberland, duke of, 468, Norway, history of, 624. Norwich {nor'rij), 504. Notables, assembly of the, 568. Noureddin (noor-ed-deen'), 411, 412. Nov-go-rod',432, 627. Nu'ma Pom-pil'i-us, reign of, 185, 187. Nu-man'ti-a, t«.ken by the Romans, 119. Nu-mid'i-a, a Ronmn province, 237. Nu'rem-berg, peace or, 600. Gates, Titus, 495. Obelisk, 57, n. Observatory, Paris, 566. O-ce'a-nus, 149. O'Connell, Daniel, 517. Oc-ta'vi-us Ca'sjir, heir to .Julius Cu'sar, 240; forms the sei-tmd triumvirate, 241 ; with Antony defeats Rrutus and Cas- sius, 242; defeats Antony and Cleo- patra, 243; receives the title of Augustus, 243. See Av(pistu., .588, .589. Pi-zar'ro, Francisco, 6.57. Pla-cid'i-a, mother of Vnlentinian. 286. Plague, in Kngland. 3(«. 494. Plan-tag'e-net (-tnj-), fleoffrey, 841. Plantjigi-net, Henry, 312. pla-tn>'a. battle of, 103; defense Of ftgainst the SportanEt. 109. Pla'to, disciple of Socrates, 118; his teachings and writings, 158. Plau'tus, cuMiedies of, 22U, 257. Playing C;ards, invention of, 408. Plu'tarch, his LiceSy 161. Plu'to. See Hades. Plymouth, settlement of, 481. Poitiers {poi-tt'crz'), battle of, 364. Poland, a kingdom, 421 ; connected with Hungary, 4.^6; partition of, 611; his- tory of, 625; insurrection in, 630. Pole, cai-dinal, 4(i9. Pollok, Robert 5;i4. Poltava (pOl-tcth'rah), battle of, 623, 629. Po-lyb'i-u.s, his character of Philopui- men. i;«; his writings, 161. Pol-y-cle'tus, 165. Pol-yg-no'tus, 165. Pol-y-spei-'chon, regent of Macedonia, Pom'pa-dour, Madame de, 56^3, 566. Pompeii ( pom-pa' ye), destruction of, 273. Pom'pey the Great, overcomes Tigraues andMithridates, 226; his rise to power, 230; reduces Pontus. Syria, and Judea, 231; his triumi)h, 2.i2; member of the first triumvirate, 2;W; master of Rome, 234; defeated by Ctesar, 285; assasisi- nated, 2^35. Po-ni-a-tow'ski, prince, 680. Pon'tus, histery of, 142. Pope, Alexander, 507. Pope's Kaiser, 429. Popish Plot, 495. Por'ci-us Cato, 216. Por'sen-na or Por-sen'na, 189. 190. Portugal, history of in the Middle Ages, 4.50; maritime enteri)rises of, 451; de- clared a French province, 581 ; modem history of. 619. Portuguese literature. 451 . Po'nis. defeated by Alexander, 128. Po-sei'don, worship of, 147. Po.stal Service in France. 566. Potatoes, introduction of, 477. Po-tem'kin, 629. Poussin ( /«»o.s-.vo7jy/'), .568. Prii'torian (luards, institution of, 271; strengthened by Tiberius, 274 ; power of, 275. Prax-it'l-les. 165. PresV)tirg. treaty of, 5801 PresbvleriauR, 48'/. Prid.'." colonel, 487. Priestley, .5:«). Prim, general. 619. Piinee Imperial. French, 528. Printing. intro«hn!ed into Kngland, 876; into France. 103; invention of , 485. Pro-co'pi-u.s 312. Pro-poet. 258. Pros'er-i>ine. See Prrnrphone. Proti'stunllsm. See lic/onnntion. l»rot4'.»; Pha?nicians, 64; Hiniloos, 70; Chi- nese, 74; Persians, 79; U reeks, 145; Ro- mans, 258. Religious Festivals, among the Greeks, 151 ; among the Romans, 261. Rem'brandt, 641. Re'muS; 183. Renaissance, 550. Renan {re-nahng'), Ernest, 595. Retz (ratez), cardinal de, 557. Revolution, American, 512; French, 572j English of 1688, 498. Reynolds. Sir Joshua, 529. Rhe'a, Sil'via, 18:3. Rhine, confederation of the, 605. Rhodes, 327, 632. Rialto (re-aJiI'to), 440. Richard I. of England, 354, 412, 413. Richard II. " 365, 366. Richard UI. " 372. Richard, duke of York, 369. Richardson, 533. Richelieu {reesh'e-lu\ hlb, 556, 603. Richmond, earl of, 372. Richter (rik'tn-), John Paul, 645. Ridley, 468, 469. Ri-en'zi, 429, 444. Rizzio (rit'se-o), 472. Robert, count of Flanders, 409. Robeit, duke of Normandy. 340, 341, 409. Robert, king of France, .381. Robertson, "William, 533. Robespierre {ro'bes-peer), 575, 576, 577. Rochefoucauld (rom-foo-ko), 568. Roehelle (ro-nhel'), 5.55. Roderick, king of the Visigoths, 328. Roemer (i-o'rnei-), 566. Roger I. of Sicily, 443. Roger II. " 443. Roland, 318. Roland, Madame, 576. RoUo, duke, ;:21. Roman Emjiire, founded by Augustus, 271; divided bj' Theodosius, 285; wes- tern, 297. Roman Kingdom, 184. Roman Pontiff, temporal dominion of, 318. Roman Republic, 187. Romans, origin of the, 184. Rome, foundation of, 183; early govern- ment, 184; traditionary historj', 185; destruction of. 249; burning of, 274; taken by the Goths, 285; by the Van- dals, 287; sacked by the Imperialists, 545; history of, 444; capital of Italy, 616. Rom'u-lus, birth and education of, 183, n.; reign of, 185. Romulus, Au-gus'tu-lus, last empei'or of the West, 287. Ron'ces-val'les, battle of, 318. Rosamond Clifford, .3.54. Rosebecgue (rose beck), battle of, 895, Rosetta stone, 22, 59, n. 680 Index, Rosse, Lord, 530. Roueu, 3%. Roum {room), sultanate of, 307. Roundheads, 4«j, 50JJ. Rousseau {roo-so'), 5GH, 670. Rox-a'na, marriecl by Alexander, 123; put to (leath, 127, n. Royal Library, at Paris, 3^5, 403. Royal Oak, Am. Ru'bens, 505, G41. Ru'bi-con, 51G. Rudolf, Agiicola, 435. Rudolf I. of Hapsburg, emperor, 427, 437. Rudolf of Suabia, 423. Run'ny-mede, 350. Rupert, emperor, 429. Rupert, prince, 4a5, 486, 4»1 Ruskin, John, 537. Russell, admiral, 499. Russell, Lord John, 517. Kussell, Lord William, 496. Russia, history of, G27; commerce of with England, 475. Russians, 307. Rye-House Plot, 496. Rys'wick, treaty of, 499. Sa-ba'co, or So, 49. Sa-bel'li-ans, 181. Sa'bines, 181 ; defeated by the Romans, 186. Sacred Mount, secession of the Romans to, 192. Sacred War, 118. Sad'o-wa (-loah), battle of, 607. Sa-gun'tum, taken by Ilaimibal, 209. St. Albans (awl'hans), battle of, 369, St. Au'gus-tine (-tine), 333. St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, 549. St. Bei-'nard, 391, 411. St. Francis Xavier (zav'e-er), 652. St. Genevieve (jen-e-veev'), 566. St. George, clievalier of, 508. St. Gennain(2/wtr-//itt/i.7jr Ro'sa, 611, (M4. Sa-ma'ri-a, taken by Sargon, 32, 68; cap- ital of Israel, 67. Sam-ni'tes, IKl ; defeat the Romans, 201; submit to the Romans, 202; take up arms against Sulla. 228, Sam'ni-um, 202. Sam'u-el, the last of the Judges, 66. San-cho-ni'a-thon or San-chu-ui'a-thonf fragments of his history, 22. Sancroft, i>rimate of England, 497. Santa Anna, 656. Santiago isahn-te-ah'yo), 657. Sappho (saf'fo), poems of, 155. Saracen Empire, ;i2y, ;i;W. Saracenic Civihzation, :i:iO, 3;^1. Saracens, attack the EasUirn Empire, 305; conquest of Pei-sia by, 305 1 de- feated by the Franks, 317; origin of the name, 324 ; conquests of, 3^, 327, 328; commerce, 3;i0, 3;}1; learning, 331 ; invasion of southern Italy by, 439, 442, Sar'a-cus, king of Assyria, perishes in the burning of Nineveh, 34, Saratoga, surrender of the English at, 513, Sar-dan-a-pa'lus, 33. Sai danapalus II. See Saracus. Sar-din'i-a, island of, taken by the Ro- mans, 208; kingdom of, 615, Sar'dis, taken by Cyrus, 43; burned by the Greeks, 77. Sar'gon, reign of, 32. Sas-san'i-des, dyntisty of, 276; end of, 305. Sat-ur-na'lia, 261. Saul, 66. Sav'oy, duchy of, 615. Saxe (s(ur), marshal, 509. Saxons, 299, 318, 322. Scal'i-ger, 644. Scarron (skar-ron;;'), 567. Schamyl (shah' mil), ChiO. SchelUng (tihel'limi), 046. Schiller (shil'ler), 645. Schles'wig or Sles'wick, 606, 624. Schlie'niann {side-), explorations by, 145. Schools, 402, 525. 552, 565, 611. Schubert {.thoo'bert), 640. Schumann (shoo'man), 640. Schwaraenberg(»/it«irte'e»-6crflr),prince, 585. Schwytz (shvitrz), 487, Science, among the Chaldeans, 87; among the Egyi>tians, 59; among tlie Greeks, 161; among the .\nglo-Sa.\on8, .837; in England, 375, 505, 5.30; in mo- dem F^urope, 641. Scinde (8ind), reduction of, 519. Scip'i-o, consul, defeated by Uanibal, m. Sciplo, defeated at Thajwus, by Julius, Caesar. 237. Scipio iE-mil'i-a-nas, takes Numantia, 219, n. Scipio, Lucius Aslaticu.s, 214. S<-ipio, Njusica. 222. Scipto, Publius Cornelius Africanus, destroys tlie ('artliaginlan power in Spain, 210; defeats the Carthaginians at Utica, 2i;>; vanquishes Hannibal at Zama.213; his death. 215. Index. 681 Scotland, 360, 361, 503. Scots, 360, 361, 363. Scott, Sir Walter, 534. Sculptui-e, Grecian. 165; in Italy, 446; in modern Europe, 641. Scyth'i-ans, invade Assyria, 34; war against by Darius, 77; defeated by Alexander, 133. Sebastian III. of Spain, 630. Se-bas'to-pol, 519, 589. Sedan i_sa-dung'), battle of, 590. Sedgemooi-, battle of, 497. Se-leu'ci-a, built by Seleucus, 134 ; taken bv Trajan, 374 ; by Severus, 375. Se-leu'ci-dae, kingdom of tlie, 133. Se-leu'cus, obtains a division of the em- pire of Alexander, 138; acquires near- ly the whole empire, 139; assassmation of, 130. Selim I., 6:33. Selim II., 6:33. Sel'juks {-jooks), 307, 330. Semi-Saxon, 376. Sem'ites, or Shem'ites, 18. Se-mit'ic Nations, 24. Sem'pach, battle of, 438. Sem-pro'ni-us, consul, defeated by Han- nibal, 309. Sen'e-ca, Roman philosopher, 258. Sen-nach'e-rib, reign of, 32. Sen-ti'num, battle of, 201. Sep'tu-a-gint, 140, n., 161. Se-ra'pis, temple of, 138. Se'res, land of the, 73. Serfdom, in England, 344, 373; abolition of, 366, 373; in France, 389; in Ger- many, 433. Ser'ra-no, general, 619. Ser-to'ri-us, astablishes a power in Spain ; his death, 239. Ser'vi-a, history of. 454 ; insurrection in, 630. Ser'vi-us Tul'li-us, reign of, 186. Se-sos'tris, reign of, 48. Se'ti, reign of, 48. Seven Sages of Greece. 96, n., 156. Seven United Provinces of the Nether- lands, revolt of the, 613. Seven Weeks' War. (07. Seven Years' War. 510. 562, 605, 610. Se-ve'rus. Alexander, reign of, 276. Severus, Sep-tim'i-us, reign of, 275. Sevigne {sa-veen' ifn), Mailame de, 568. Seymour, Jane. 467. Shaillot ishd-yo'). .566. Shakespeare. William, 506. Shal-man-e'ser I., reign of, 31. Shalmaneser IV., 32. She'chem (she'kem), 67. Sheffield. 504. Shelley. Percy Bysshe. 533. She'shonk. reign of, 49. Shi'ites. 327. Ship Money, 482. Shi'shak, 49. Shrewsbury, battle of, 367. Shri'f u, builder of the Great Pyramids, 58. Siberia, conquest of, 628. Sibylline Books, 359. Sicilian Vespei-s, massacre of, 385, 443. Si'ci-ly, colonies in, 87; becomes a Ro- man province, 308; modem history of, 443. Sic-y-o'ni-a (sish-), 85. Sidney, Algernon, 496. Sidney, Sir Philip, 478. Si'don, city of, 61, 63. Sigismund (sif is-mund) of Hungary emperor of Germany, 439. Sigismimd I. of Poland, 635. Sikhs {siks). war with, 519. Si-le'si-a, invasion of, 610. Silk-making, in England, 374. Silk-W^orm, 313. Simon de Montfort, 384, 413. Sis-mon'di, 595. Si-mon'i-des, poems of, 156. Si-no'pe, city of, 87. Siva (se'vah), 70. Slavery, among the Greeks, 167, 172; among the Romans, 330, «,., 221, 230; abolished in the English colonies, 517. Sla-vo'ni-aus, 303, 306. Sla-vs, 399. Smal'cald, league of, 600. Smer'dis, the Magiau, 76. Smolensk', battle of, 583. Smol'lett, 533. So. See Sabaco. So-bi-es'ki {-ke), John, 604, 626, 633. Social War, Greek, 118; Roman, 225. Soc'ra-tes, condemnation and death of, 111; character of, 113, n.\ account of by Xenophon, 157. Socrates, church historian, 311. Sof'far, 654. Sof-far'i-des, 654. Sog-di-a'na. 133. Solferino (sol-fa-re' no\ battle of, 590. Sol'o-mon, reign of, 67. So'lon, his laws, 96; effect of, 97. Sol'y-man. sultan of Roima, 409. Solyman the Magnificent, 6:32. Som'er-set, duke of. 468. Soph'o-cles, tragedies of, 157, 159. Sorbonne {sor-bon'), Robert de, 391. South'ey, Robert, 5*4. So-zo'men, 311. Spain, increavse of the Carthaginian power in, 208: subjugated by the Ro- mans, 310; invaded by Charlemagne, 318; conquered by the Saracens, 338; history of in the Middle Ages, 548; maritime enterprises of. 450; dialects in, 451 ; modem history of, 616. Spanish Independence in America, 618. Spanish Language and Literature. 451. Spanish Succession, Avar of. 500, 560. Spar'ta, ancient kingdom of. 89; institu- tions of, 93; wars waged by, 95; war with Athens, 108; saved from capture by Agesilaus, 115; corrupted and enervated, 117; taken by Antigonus, 132. Spfvr'ta-cus, revolt under, 229. 682 Index, Spencer, Herbert, 537. Spenser, Edmund, 478. Spinoza (spc-no'zah), 644. Spire, diet of, 591), Spui-s, battle of, 4G4, W3. Stamp Act, ^A'-i. Stan'is-las, king of Poland, 562, 623, 626. Stanley, Lord, 872. Stanley, Sir William. 372. Star Chamber, court of, 474, 482. States-General of France, assemblage of, 387, :i88, 393, 400, 401, 548, 553, 555, 571, 5S)2; order of opening, 401. Steam Navigation, .526. . Steele, 507. Stephen, king of Eh'gland, 341. Stephenson, George, 528. Sterne, Laurence, 533. Stewart, Dugald, 535. Stil'i-cho (-ko), 285. Stocking-Knitting, 639. Stoics, school of the, 158. Stonehenge, 32:1 Stra'bo, the geographer, 161. Stra-del'la, 040. Strasburg, taken by the French, 559. Stuart, Arabella, 478. Stuart, Mary, 47'2. Styx, river, 174. Sua'bi-a, or Svvabia, 298. Sue-to'nl-us, Roman historian, 258, Sueves or Hwevi, 297, 298. Sue'vi, settlement of in Spain, 286. Suez Canal, 522. Suger isoo-zha'), Abb6, 392. Sul'la, defeats Mithridates, 226; war with Marius, 227; massacre by, 228; perpet- ual dictator, 229; his death, 229. Sul'ly (or soo-yc'), duke of, 551, 555, 561. Sunday, institution of, 282. Sunday-schf)ols, 525. Sun'nites. 327. Suo-ve-tau-ril'i-a, 261. Su'phis, 58. Sui)remacy, Act of, 470. Surr<'y, earl of, 4(54, 495. Su'sa, capilal of the empire of Darius, 77; taken by Alexander, 123. Su-Hi-a'na, 134. 8u-var'off. g«-neral, 578, 626, 629, 633. Sweden, history of, 622. Swe'den-borg. (V44. Swevti {sinnir}, 'Wi. Swi^t, .Jonathan, .507. Swinburne, Algernon C, 536. Swiss Confedenujy, 438. Swiss, insurrection of, 427, 437. Switzerland, history of, 4:^7, 614. Syb'a-ris, 87. Sylvester IL, pope, 421, Syn-cel'Ius, 312. Syr'a-cuse, hi.story of, 204 ; independent of Carthage, 208; taken by the Ro- mans, 211. Syr-i'a, situation and liistory, 65; sub- dued by th»* Sarac!ens, 305, ga«; In- vaded by Napoleon, 678, 034, Syrian Kingdom, 133, Ta'ci-tus, en»i>«M-or, 2?<8. Tacitus, liistoriuii. 2r>«. Tad'mor or I'almyra. 07. Tai'ping Rebellion, 052. Talavera (tali-lah-ia'rah), battle of, 515. Tal'ley-rand, 585. Tam'er-lane. See Timour. Tancred, 409. Tau'ites, dynasty of, 49, Ta'ou-ism, 73. Tapestry Weaving, 639. Ta-ren'tum, city of, 87; war against, 201; taken by the Romans, 202; taken by the emperor of Germany, 412. Tarik {tah-reek'), 328. Tar-pei'an Rock, 199. Tar-quin'i-us Priscus. reign of, 186, Taniuinius Superbus, 180. Tar'shisk, a PhcLmician colony, 61 ; mines of, 04. Tar'sus, foundation of, 41, Tar'tai-s, incursions of, ?2. Tas'so, i)oet, (»44. Taylor, Jei'emy, 507, Teh'rak, 50. Tell, William, story of. 428. Templai-s, knights, 410; suppression ol in France, l^O. Ten'ny-son, Alfred, Ty.V>. Ter'encts cinnedies of, 220. Test Act, 49.5. Teutonic Order, knights of the, 000, 025. Teu'tons, defeated bv Maiius. 221, 225. Tewksbury, battle of, 371. Thack'e-ray, William M., r;30. Tha'les of Af ilctus. doctrines of, 1.56. Thap'sus, battle of. 2:^0. Thebes, capital of Ufiper Fg.vpt, de- scription of, 52; most fk>uri.shing period of, Kl Thebes, in Bu^otia, foundation of, 91; war with Sparta, 115; invites tlie in- terference of Philij), 118. The-mis'to-<'les, his <-ourse at the battle of Salamis. 103; rivalship with Aris- tides. 104; banished by the ostnicLsni, 104; his death. KM. The-oc'ri-tus, poems of, 160. The-od'o-ric. king of the Ostrogoths. 301. The-o-do'si-us the (Jreat, rrign of. 2S5. TIkhmIosIus II.. Roman einiK*ri»r, JJOl. The-o-phv-lact', 312. Ther-nioi/y-lic, Imttle of, 102; second battle of 136, 214. Thestnis (tne'niise). 89. The8-mo-i)ho'ri-a, festival of, l.'i2. Thes'pis, founder of (irevk tragedy, V.l^. Tlie-s-sii'li-ans, migration of, 92. Thes'sa-ly, K5. Thiers [tr-dr'), president of the French republic, 6»li author, 595. Thierrv (tf-dr'rr), .595. Third i^lstatc. creation of, 387; in conflict with the king, 401, 571, 692. Thirty Tyrants, in Athens, 111. , Thirty YuarB' War, 602, 008, 604. Index, 683 Thomson, James, 531. Thorwaldsen (tor'wald-sen), 641. Thoth'mes 111., conquests of, 48; ooe- iisks erected by, 57, n. Thothmes IV., builder of the Sphinx, 48. Thou (too), Auguste de, 568. Thras-y-bu'his, 111. Three Henries, war of, 549. Thu-cyd'i-des, historian, 111, 157. Ti-be'ri-us, emperor. 272. Ti-bul'lus, Roman poet, 258. Ti-ci'nus, battle of, 209. Tig'lath-pileser I., 31. Tiglath-pileser II., 32. Ti-gra'nes, defeated by the Romans, 136, 226. Ti-gran-o-cer'ta, battle of, 226. Til'ly, general, 602, 603. Til'sit, treaty of, 581. Ti-mo'le-on, freedom of Syracuse les tored by, 204, Timour (te-moor*), or Tamerlane, 310, 4.58, 6.54. Tir-ha'kah, reign of, 50. Ti'ryns, ruins of; 145. Tir'zah, capital of Israel, 67. Tis-sa-pher'nes, 110. Ti'tans, 149, Titian (tish'an), 641. Ti'tus, takes Jerusalem, 273; reign of, 273. Titus, colonel, 491. Tobacco, introduction of, 477; an article of commerce, 504. To'ki-o, 653. ro-lo'sa, battle of, 448. Tom'y-ris, 75, n. Tonnage and Poundage, 482. Torricelli (tor-re-sel'le), 643. Tos'tig, :i35. Tot'i-la, king of the Goths, 303. Toulouse (too-loose'), siege of, 384. Tournament, 348. Tours (toor), battle of, 317. Towns in France, chartered, 382. Tow'ton, battle of, 370, Traf-al-gar', cape, battle of, 515. Tra'jan, emperor, his character and con- quests, 274; column erected by, 275. Transvaal, republic, 522. Tran-syl-va'ni-a, 4.55. Tras-i-me'nus. Lake, battle of, 209. Treb'i-a, battle of, 209. Trent, council of, 600. Tri-bo'ni-an, 312. Tribunes, Roman, creation of, 192. Iriple Alliance, 558. Triumvirate, first, 233; second, 341. Trojan War, 89, 90. Troubadours, 391, 447. Trouv6res (troo-vare'), 391. Troy, 90. Troyes (trwah\ treaty of^368, 396. Truce of God, in France, 381 ; in Ger- many, 422. Tu'dor, Edmund, 461. Tudor, Henry, 372. Tudors. character of the, 474 Tuileries {t^O€el're)y storming of the, 574, 587. Tul'lus, Hos-til'i-us, reign of, 185. Tu-ra'ni-an Languages, 19. Turanians, 35. Turenne (tu-ren'), marshal, 557, 559. Turgot itoor-go'), 570. Turkey, trade with, 476; history of mc em, 631. Turkish Empire, history of, 457. Turkistan (toor-kis-tan'), 630, 655. Turks, 303, 307. Tuscan Architecture, 182, n. Tuscan Dialect, 447. Tuscans, 182. Tus'cu-lum, 189. Twelve Tables, laws of the, 195. Tyn'dale, William, 467. Tyn'dall, John, 537. Tyre, taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 29 ; its government, 61; revolt of from the Babylonians, 62; taken by Alexander, 62, 122. Tyr-tae'us, elegies of, 155. U Ulm, battle of, 579. U-lys'ses, 90, 145. Um'bri-ans, 181,182. Umbro-Sa-bel 'li-ans, 181 . University College, Bristol, 525. University of Oxford, 3^4; of Paris, 390, 402. Universities, in France, 390; of Heidel berg, Vienna, and Prague, 429. Unterwalden {oon-ter-wal'den\ 437. Ur, 28. U'ra-nos, 149. Urban n., pope, 408. Uri {oo're), canton of, 437. Uraguay (oo-roo-gua'), 6.57. U'ti-ca, 61 ; capital of Africa, 217. U'trecht, treaty of, 561. Uz'becks, 655. Valens, emperor, defeated by the Goths, 284. Val-en-tin'i-an I., 288. Valentinian II., 288. Valentinian III., 286. Va-le'ri-an. emperor, persecutes the Christians, 280. Valois (val-wah'), branch of, 388. Valois-Orleans Branch, .541. Van Artevelde iar-ia-veW), Philip, 395. Vandals, join the Goths, 284; settle in Spain, 286: pass into Afiica, 286, 298. Van Dyke (dike), 505, 641. Vane. Sir Henry, 486. Van Tromp, 489, 490, 558, 559. Var'ro, consul, defeated by Hannibal 210. Vasco da Gama (gah'mah\ 619. Vauban (vo-bahng'), 559. Ve'das, age of, 70. Ve'ga, Lope de, 644. 684 Index, Veil (ve'yi), war of against Rome. 198; taken by Caniillus, 196. Ve-las'quez, 641. Ven'a-bles, admiral, 491. Ven'e-ti, attacked by the Huns, 287; cities of the, 440. Ven-e'ti-a, ceded to Italy, 616. Venetians, 181, 'SOU. Venezia, 440. Venezuela (ven-e-zwe'lah), 618, 657. Venice, republic of, 420; history of, 440; city of, 440; commerce of, 441; decline of, 442; manufactures of, 443; war be- tween France and, 542. Ve'nus. See Ajihrodite. Verdi {vdr'de), 640. Verdun (vdr-duhng'), treaty of, 319. Vei-gniaud (vdrn-yo'), 57'5. Ve-ro'na, battle of, 285. Versailles {ver-sales'), palace of, 566. "Ves-pa'si-an, reign of, 272, n., 283. Ves'ta. See Hestia. Ve-su'vi-us, eruption of, 273. Victor E-man'u-el, 615, 616. Victor Hu'go, 595. Victoria, queen of England, 518, 519, 521. Vi'kings, or sea-kings, 321. Vil-la-fran'ca, treaty of, 590. VillainM, in Englauff, 344. Villiers (vil't/erz), George, duke of Buck- injrham. 480. 481, 482. r)05. Vimeira (ve-ma'e-roA), battle of, 516. Vi-na'11-a, 261. Vinci (vin'che), Leonardo da, 446, 550, 641. Vir'gil, Roman poet, 258, Virginia, discovery of, 471; settlement of, 480. Vlr-l-a'tu8, defends Lusitania against the Romans, 217. Vlsh'nu. 70. Vis'i-goths, 2R4: kingdom of in Spain, 286 298; defeated by the Franks, 317. Vi-tel'11-us, emperor, 272. n. Vi-tru'vi-us, Rf)man architect- 446. Vit-to'ri-a, battle of, 515. Voiture (inmh-ture'), 567. Vol'e-ro, Pub-Ul'i-us, 193. Vol'ney, 594. Vol'sci-ans, 194. Vol'ta. 043. Voltaire*, .569. 611. Von Molt'ke, generdl, 590. Vul'can. See Hephaestoi, W Wag'oer (or vnhq'ner), 6401 Wa'gram, battle of, 582. WakeflcM, battle of, 370. Wales, ronquest of. :W9. Wales, prince of, y)9. Wallace, William, 360. Walla'chl-a, 450. 634. Wal'len -stein, Albert, 602, OOS. Wal'lis, 506. Walpole, Horace, 538. Walpole. Sir Robert, 508. Walter the Penniless, 409. Walworth, mayor of London, 366. War of the Roses, 370, 373. War'saw, taking of, 626. Warwick {war'rik), earl of, the King Maker, 369, 370, 371. Warwick, earl of, the Younger, 461, 4C8 463. Washington, George, 513. Waterloo, battle of, 516, 586. Wat Tyler, insurrection of, 365, 366. Watt, James, 527. Watts, 525. Weaving, 6:38. Weber (wa'ber or va'ber), 640. Wedgewood, Josiah, 528. Weins'burg, taking of by Conrad, 434. Wellesley, Sir Arthur. See Wellington Wellington, duke of, 51.5. 516. Wen'ces-las, emperor, 429. Wentworth, Sir Thomas, 482, 483. Wesley, John, .524. West-pha'li-a, king of, 581. Westphalia, treaty of, .557, 604. Whewell (/at'cZ), William, 537. Whitefield (hwW field), George, 531 Wick'lilTe, John, 367, 376. Wie'land, 645. William, archbishop of Tyre, 412. William, duke of Normandy, :381; con- quers England. 335; William I., king, William II. of England, 840. William III. '^ 499. William IV. " 517. William and Mary, 498. William III. of Holland. 618. William of Malmsbury, 34.5. William I. of the Netherlands, 613. William of Orange, Stadtholder, 495, 612. William I. of Prussia, 606; emperor of Germany, (iOS. 611. William II. of Sicily, 443. Wit-en-a-ge-mote' {-ghe-\ 388. Wolfe, general, 510. Wolsey {nH)ol'z<'\ Thomas. 468, 465. Wolseley (vuwl'zlec). Sir Garnet, 522, 528. Women, treatment of by the early Greeks, 144; by the later Greeks. 171, costume of among the Romans. 2(55 Wonders of the World, Seven, i:38, n. Wool, trade in, 3<55. Worcester (mxts'ter), battle of, 489. Wordsworth, William, 634. World's Fair, .527, 5M. Worms, diet, of, .599. Wren, Sir Christopher, 605. Wych'er-ly, or Wycherley, 607. Xan-thlp'pufl, assists the Canhiuflnian\ 207. Xavier (znv'e-cr), St. Francis. 662. Xen-o«*'ra-tes. philosopher, 158 Xen-oj)h'a-nes. of F^lea, 15<5. Xen'o-phon. 111. 112; engaged in the e3^ sedition of Cyrus, 113; writings of, 167. Index, 685 Xei-x'es I., king of Prussia, 78, 101, 102. 2Qiueues (ze-me'nees), 616. \ed'o, cltyof, 653. Yo-ko-ha'ma, city of, 653. York Minster, 519. Yorktown, surrender of, 513. Young, Edward, 531. Zach'd-ry, pope, 318. Zft'ma, Cattle of, 212, 213. Za-ra-thus'tra, See Zoroaster. Zed-e-ki'ah, last kingdom of Judah, 29; made captive by Nebuchadnezzar, 68. Zend-a-ves'ta, doctrines of, 41 ; meaning of the term, 80. Ze'no, teachings of, 156; school of, 158; taught in the painted porch, 166. Zeno, Greek emperor, 3^. . Ze-no'bi-a, character and accomplish- ments of, 277; made captive by Aure- lian, 277. Zen'ta, battle of, 604, 633. Zeus (zusc), worship of, 146; temple ol at Elis, 165. Zeux'is, paintings of, 166. Zie'la, battle of, 236. Zi-pan'gu, 652. Zis'ca, John, 430. Zom'dorf, battle of, 611. Zo-ro-as'ter. doctrines of, 4l; period in which he lived, 41, n.; meaning of the term, 79; religion taught by, 80. Zulus (zoo'looz)^ war with, 523. Zu'rich, 614. Zwingli (ziving'glee), 614 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED EDUCATION - PSYCHOLOGY LIBRARY This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. 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