??/ THE - PROGRESS^ AMERICA, ^r ^ ~ , ht^V* FROM THE DISCOVERY BY COLUMBUS TO THE YEAR 1846 BY JOHN MACGREGOR, SECRETARY TO THE BOARD OF TRADE ; AUTHOR OF " COMMERCIAL STATISTICS," &c. &c. VOL. I. HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL. LONDON: WHITTAKER AND CO., AVE MARIA-LANE. 1847. C. WHITING, BEAUFOKT-HOUSK, STKANO. TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE LORD JOHN RUSSELL, M.P., FIRST LORD OF THE TREASURY, &c. &c. MY DEAR LORD, I TAKE the liberty, without consulting your Lordship, to dedicate to you these volumes on the Progress of the European Settlements in America ; and I beg to offer this testimony of respect and confidence, not merely to the Prime Minister of the Crown, but especially to your Lordship individually, as a Man of Letters, an Historian, and a Statesman. Believe me, MY DEAR LORD, Ever yours, With great faithfulness, JOHN MACGREGOR. 3, Lcwndes Square, London, March 20th, 1847. 438587 PROGRESS OF AMERICA. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. BOOK I. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. CHAP. PAGE I. Epoch of Discovery 1 H. Second and Third Voyages of Co lumbus 5 III. Discoveries continued Torres de Pincon Vespuci Bastidas Ca- thagena Ponce de Leon, conquers Porto-Rico, and discovers Florida Conquest of Cuba Jamaica Nunez de Balbao discovers the Pacific 8 IV. Discovery of Mexico Hernandez discovers Cainpeachy Grijalva sails to Florida and along the Shores of Mexico Cortez sails from Cuba to conquer Mexico 12 V. Conquest of Mexico continued The Aztecs, or Mexicanos Their Government and Religion Moctec- zuma confined by Cortez Progress of the War Death of Mocteczuma His Successor Guatimozin taken Prisoner, and final Surrender of Mexico 21 VI. Conquest of Peru and the remain ing Countries of Spanish America... 37 VII. Conduct of the Spanish Con querors towards the Aborigines of America 50 VIII. Discovery and Conquests of the Portuguese and Dutch in America. . . 53 IX. Origin and Progress of Negro- Slavery in America 57 X. French Discoveries and Settle ments in America Francis I. com- PAOE missions Verranoni to make Disco veries Jacques Cartier discovers the St. Lawrence Coligni The Huguenots, under his auspices, at tempt to colonise Brazil and Florida Disastrous End of those Colonists 60 CHAP. XL Aborigines of North America ..... 67 CHAP. XII. Settlement of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, by France 74 CHAP. XIII. French Settlements in the West Indies 89 CHAP. XIV. French Settlements at New foundland, Cape Breton, and St. John s Island 99 CHAP. XV. French Discoveries and Settle ments in Canada 105 CHAP. XVI. Company of New France, sur render their charter 112 CHAP. XVII. The Jesuits in Canada Dis covery of the Mississippi , 115 CHAP. XVIII." Jealousies of French and Eng lish in regard to the Fur Trade, &c.. 119 CHAP. XIX. Perilous Condition of Canada.... 124 CHAP. XX. French Settlements in Louisiana Mississippi Scheme 130 CHAP. XXI. Condition of Canada before its Conquest by the English 139 CHAP. XXII. Conquest of Canada 143 CHAP. XXIII. Condition of the French Cana dians on their becoming subject to the British Crown 145 CHAP. XXIV. Present Condition and Charac ter of Canadians of French Origin.,. 148 BOOK II. BRITISH AMERICA. I. English Voyagers to America 158 II. Attempt to Colonise Virginia Sir Walter Ealeigh 160 III. First permanent Settlement in Virginia Gosnold s Voyage Ex pedition sent to James s River Captain Smith 164 IV. Settlement of the New England and Midland States 172 V. Causes of Discontent in the Colo nies 181 VI. Europe and America, during the Revolution 187 VII. Condition of the United States at the Peace of 1783 Washington Constitution and Laws Resources., 193 CHAP. VIII. Characteristics of the Anglo- Americans 199 CHAP. IX. The Intercourse of the United States with Foreign Nations Neu tral Trade Napoleon s Decrees Confiscation of American Ships and Cargoes British Orders in Council England and America 206 CHAP. X. Review of Events in the United States since the Peace of 1815 Presidencies of Mr. Munroe and John Quincy Adams 224 CHAP. XL Administrations of General An drew Jackson, General Harrison, President Tyler, and President Polk 229 Notes to Book II 252 CONTENTS- PAGE Trade of Buenos Ay res, during 1842 and 1843 1133 Direct French Trade with Buenos Ay res, from 1840 to 1844, inclusive 1136 Customs Duties and Regu lations of Buenos Ay res 1137 PAGE CHAP. XV. Customs Regulations and Tariff Duties of the Republic of Uruguay and Montevideo 1138 CHAP. XVI. Commercial Laws and Trade of Paraguay , 1143 BOOK VIII. HAYTI AND FOREIGN WEST INDIES. CHAP. I. Colonial Policy of France 1147 CHAP. II. Hayti, or St. Domingo, General Statistics of 1149 CHAP. III. Sketch of the Revolution and In dependence of Hayti 1153 CHAP. IV. Reign of Toussaint 1168 CHAP. V. ofDessalines 1178 CHAP. VI. Reigns of Christophe and Petion.,1183 CHAP. VII. Reign of President Boyer 1189 CHAP. VIII. Administrations of Presidents Herard, Guerrier, Pierrot, andRiche.1195 CHAP. IX. Statistics of Hayti : General State of Agriculture and Manufactures in the French Di vision of the Island in 1791 1204 Trade with France in 1791 and 1798 (Four Tables) ib. . Foreign and Spanish Trade of St. Domingo, in 1788 1206 Table of Exports, from Hayti, between the years 1789 and 1836.. ..1207 British and Foreign Trade at Haytian Ports during 1841 (Five Tables) 1208 Memorandum on the Trade of Hayti in 1841 1210 Revenue and Expenditure of Hayti, in 1837, 1840-1841 1211 Tonnage Duties 1213 CHAP. X. Spanish West Indies ib. CHAP. XI. Cuba, General Statistics of. 1214 CHAP. XII. Customs Duties and Regulations of Cuba 1219 Tonnage Duties and Port Charges 1221 Imports and Exports of the Precious Metals 1223 Statistics of the Commerce of Cuba with all Nations, from 1826 to 1842, both inclusive ib. Value of Imports into Cuba, in 1839, 1840, 1841, and 1842 1224 Arrivals and Departures of Vessels, in 1840, 1841, and 1842 1228 Tonnage entered Imports and Import Duties, &c., 1839 to 1842 ib. Value of Exports from Cuba, 1839 to 1842 1229 Tonnage Cleared, with Ex ports and Export Duties, 1839 to 1842, both inclusive 1230 Exports of Sugar and Coffee, in 1841 and 1842 1231 CHAP. XIII. Seaports of Cuba Description of Havana 1232 CHAP. XIV. Recent Customs Regulations Trade of Havana in 1844 1248 CHAP. XV. Outports and Towns Port of Matanzas Puerto Principe 1250 CHAP. XVI. Descriptive and Agricultural Sketches of Cuba 1259 CHAP. XVII. Porto Rico, General Description and Statistics of 1266 Exports from Porto Rico, in 1840 1272 Imports in 1839 and 1840 (Five Tables) 1273 British Ships Entered and Cleared, in 1843 1275 Imports into, and Exports from, Porto Rico, in 1843, in which British Trade was interested ib. Value of Merchandise placed in, and taken out of Bond, in 1843 1277 Particulars of the Exports from Porto Rico, in 1843 1278 Particulars of the Imports into Porto Rico, in 1843 1280 Value of the different Ar ticles of Importation 1285 Regulations, relating to the Payment of Duties in Porto Rico.. ..1287 CHAP. XVIII. French West Indies, General Description of 1291 Statistics relating to Population, Agriculture, Trade, &c. of .1292 CHAP. CHAP. Agriculture and Produce of French Guayana in 1840 1296 Imports of Sugar into France from French West Indies, 1831 to 1840 ib. Navigation and Trade between France and Guadaloupe, 1831 to 1841 (Four Tables) 1297 Commerce of Martinique 1298 Navigation and Trade between France and Martinique, 1831 to 1841 (Four Tables) 1299 Navigation and Trade between France and Cayenne 1831 to 1841 (Four Tables) 1300 Navigation and Trade between France and the French Es tablishments at St. Pierre and Mi- quelon, 1831 to 1841 (Four Tables) 1302 XIX. Dutch West Indies, General De scription of. 1303 XX. Danish West Indies 1305 CONTENTS. XI BOOK IX. EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. PAGE CHAP. I. Descriptive Sketches and Statistics of Brazil 1308 CHAP. II. Lakes and Kivers of Brazil 1311 the River Amazon 1313 the Rio Francisco 1318 CHAP. III. Climate, Soil and Productions of Brazil 1322 CHAP. IV. Minerals of Brazil 1345 CHAP. V. Population Social Condition Education, Religion, and Govern ment of Brazil 1352 Population of Brazil in 1844. ..1353 CHAP. VI. Constitution, Government, Army and Navy of Brazil 1358 CHAP. VII. Political Divisions, or Provinces of the Empire 1365 City of Para, and entrance to the Amazon 1372 Commerce and Navigation of Para 1376 CHAP. VIII. Provinces of Maranham, Piauhy, Ceara, and Rio Grande 1378 Trade and Navigation of Parahiba 1389 CHAP. IX. Provinces of Pernambuco and Alagoas 1390 Trade of Pernambuco 1402 Return of British and Foreign Trade at Pernambuco, during 1845, &c. &c. (Six Tables). ..1405 CHAP. X. Provinces of Bahia, Sergipe, Espi- ritu Santo, and Porto Seguro 1417 Trade of Bahia (SixTables)...1424 Consular Return of British and Foreign Trade at Bahia, during 1844 and 1845 1426 Principal Imports from Great Britain and the British Colonies 1427 Port Charges, &c., at Bahia... 1428 of Espiritu Santo and Porto Seguro ib. District of Porto Seguro 1433 CHAP. XI. Interior Provinces of Minas Ge- raes, Matto Grosso, and Goyaz 1439 CHAP. XII. Provinces of Santa Catharina, and of Rio Grande do Sul 1454 PAGE CHAP. XIII. Province and City of Rio Ja neiro J457 . Public Buildings, &c., of Rio Janeiro 1459 Environs of Rio Janeiro 1468 CHAP. XIV. Commerce of Rio Janeiro ..1473 Commercial Regulations of Rio Janeiro and other Brazilian Ports 1474 Comparative Value of Im ports into, and Exports from Rio Janeiro, 1830 to 1840, and 1842- 1843 ....1479 Number of Vessels employed in the Export Trade . ....1480 Products Exported in 1841, 1842, and 1843 ib. Arrivals and Departures of Vessels, Coastwise and Foreign, during 1845, compared with the Four preceding Years 1481 Comparative Importations of leading Articles into Rio Janeiro, from Foreign Countries, in 1843, 1844, and 1845 1482 Destination, by Countries and Ports, of Produce Exported in 1845 1484 Demonstrative Table of the Value of the Export of Produce from Brazil to Foreign Countries, in the Year 1842-1843 1486 Do. of the Value of Foreign Merchandise Imported and Entered for Consumption, in 1842 and 1843..1487 Official Account of the Ex ternal and Internal Funded Debt of Brazil 1488 Specification of the Value of each Article of Merchandise, Im ported from Foreign Countries, into Brazil, and Entered for Consump tion, at the several Custom-Houses of the Empire, during the Financial Year 1842-1843 1489 CHAP. XV. Army and Navy, &c., of Brazil. . . 1495 BOOK X. MISCELLANEOUS CHAPTERS. CHAP. I. Trade and Navigation of Great Bri tain, with Cuba, Spanish and Ame rican Republics, and Brazil 1498 A Return of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels entered and cleared in Trade with Mexico, from 1820, to the latest Account 1499 An Account of the Number and Tonnage of British and Foreign Ships engaged in the Trade between Cuba and the United Kingdom, during the Five Years ending the 5th of January, 1846 ib. An Account of the Number and Tonnage of British and Foreign Ships, engaged in the Trade between Brazil and the United Kingdom, during the Five Years ending the 5th of January, 1846 1499 An Account of the Number and Tonnage of British and Foreig- n Ships, engaged in the Trade betwe en Mexico, and the other Ports of Sou th America, and the United Kingdo m, during the Five Years ending the 5th of January, 1846 X1L CONTENTS. PAGE British and Irish Produce and Manufactures, Exported from the United Kingdom to Cuba in each Year, from 1840 to 1845 both in clusive 1500 Quantities of the Principal Im ports into the United Kingdom from Cuba, 1840 to 1845 1501 British and Irish Produce and Manufactures, Exported from the United Kingdom to Brazil, 1840 to 1845 ib. Quantities of the Principal Ar ticles, Imported into the United Kingdom from Brazil, 1840 to 1845..1503 PAGE British and Irish Produce and Manufactures, Exported from the United Kingdom to Mexico and other States of Central and South America, exclusive of Brazil, during the Years 1840 to 1845 1504 Quantities of Principal Imports into the United Kingdom, from Mexico and the other States of Cen tral and South America, during the Years 1840 to 1845 1516 CHAP. II. Statistics of the Precious Metals and Coinage of the Spanish Ame rican Kepublics and of Brazil (various Tables) 1517 INTRODUCTION. THE progress of Europeans in America, from the discovery of that hemi sphere by Columbus in 1492, down to the present time, affords the most interest ing, as well as the most instructive, study for all classes of readers. The philosopher, the historian, the legislator, the statesman, the agriculturist, the manufacturer, the merchant, the navigator, the traveller, and the enthusiastic adventurer, will all find the most abundant materials for study, in the facts, as far as they can be ascertained, which have distinguished the modern nations of America from the date of their first settlement, and during their struggles and growth, in maintaining their establishments, until they became more powerful than, the aboriginal occupants. The progress, and present condition, of the Spanish and Anglo-Saxon colo nies, which have achieved their independence, as organised republics, of the vast region in which Portugal planted settlements, and which has become an inde pendent sovereign hereditary empire, and of those colonies, which still remain subject to the crowns of England, France, and Spain, constitute a work of such varied magnitude, that, the mere attempt to have undertaken it, maybe considered rash and presumptuous. That the application and labour which has enabled me to produce the work that I now submit to the world, has been necessarily long and severe, will, I believe, not be denied me. That it is the first work embracing so many subjects, will also be granted. The responsibility of undertaking it, I can merely justify by ascribing its origin to an enthusiasm, which accompanied me in my youth to the British settlements, in America, and which was first inspired by the writings of Robertson, Charlevoix, and Raynal by poring over Hakluyt, and Purchas, and the more recent collections of voyages and travels, and by an ambition, entertained on perusing with delight the travels of a near relative, the late Sir Alexander Mackenzie, to the arctic shores, and afterwards across the broadest part of the continent of America to the Pacific. The more I studied the progress of the European settlements in America, the more thoroughly was 11 INTRODUCTION- I convinced of what I deem an infallible truth, THAT THE HISTORY OF NAVIGA TION AND COMMERCE is THE HISTORY OF CIVILISATION. I admit civilisation and civil liberty do not necessarily accompany the progress of navigation and commerce : for there may exist a highly refined state of civilisation, and at the same time extensive commerce, without civil liberty, as we have ample proofs of, in Italy during the rule of the Medici, and in France, during the age of Louis the Fourteenth. But the mechanical achievements, the civilisation, and the in telligence, which are infallibly the results of the intercourse of nations, and of the interchange of commodities, have been the great causes and the palladiums of civil liberty. This undeniable truth will be found evident in tracing the progress of the Anglo-American and the Spanish- American states. Robertson, Raynal, Burke, and others, but none down to the more recent, and, in a political, commercial, and maritime view the most important, period, have written historical annals of the progress of European settlements in America. But all published accounts appeared to me defective, if not altogether wanting, in statistical accounts of the planting, growth, and condition of the several states of North and South America ; and during the many years which occupied me in collecting and arranging the materials of these volumes, I was throughout convinced that no satisfactory accounts, of the western hemisphere, could be executed, unless the work comprehended the historical, geographical, and statis tical progress of America. This was the groundwork of my attempt and of my labour. This work, which has been the result of both, I now humbly submit to the public judg ment. The AUTHORITIES upon which I have relied are generally given in the text of, or in the notes to, these volumes. The historical parts, are, according to the most accredited Spanish, French, Portuguese, Dutch, and English authorities, compared with records, which have more recently been discovered in Madrid, Venice, Paris, and Mexico. I regret that the historical sketch, and the account which I have given of Mexico, was written, and printed, before I saw the history of that conquest by Mr. Prestcott, which will account for my not even alluding to a history that must ever retain the highest and the most deserved rank in the annals of America. It is, however, satisfactory to me, although I have not had recourse to so many authorities as Mr. Prestcott has discovered, that my brief account of the conquest of Mexico, is not at variance with his work. Of English writers on Mexico and South America, Robertson and Southey have been consulted, but neither, except when corroborated by the ablest Spanish authorities. Among the other works to which I have referred, are those written by the Jesuit missionaries, by Dobrizhofier, Charlevoix, Herrara, Las Casas, Clavigero, Siman de Vasconcellos, Pietro Martine, Gomara, Lery, Hans Stade, Bernard Diaz, and De Solis ; also, the letters of Cortez, several archives rela- INTRODUCTION. Hi tive to America in the Bibliotheque da Hoi, and copies of records which were formerly transmitted from the French American settlements to the Bureau de la Marine et des Colonies, at Paris ; the admirable collection of voyages, in Italian, byRamusio, printed at Venice; the most trustworthy parts of the work of the Abbe Raynal ; and that great collection, L Histoire General des Voyages, par VAbbe Prevost; the admirable accounts of South America, in the collection of voyages by Harris ; and the quaint writings of Hakluyt and Purchas. A work, little, if at all, known in England, but which I have consulted is, L Histoire da Brezil dcpuis sa decouverte, in I500,jusqu > en 1810. Par M. Alphonse de Beauchamp : Paris, 1815. It is in many respects, more to be relied on than either Robertson or Southey : not but that both the latter were conscientiously honest, as historians. The first, however, held untenable opinions respecting the aborigines of America, and Southey was over credulous. The Geographical Dictionary of America, by Alcedo, in Spanish, has been much celebrated, but we have found it, generally, a worthless authority, except to those who are curious about chronological lists of bishops in Spanish America. The notes, or additions to it, by Thompson are valuable ; and the Dictionnaire Geographique de la Martiniere, published at Venice, in 1738, in ten folio volumes, though at one time a work of great authority, has become nearly obsolete in its descriptions. I collected several of the journals, published chiefly at Paris, of those daring adventurers the buccaneers, and referred to them with little confidence, but was astonished at the remarkably correct descriptions they gave of the places which they had infested. The small, and more recent work on the Portuguese colonies, by Da Cunha de Azerado Coutinho, Bishop of Pernambuco, the writings of modern Bra zilians, and of all the recent travellers who have published accounts of Mexico, Central, and South America, have also been consulted. With respect to North America, I have had recourse to the best authorities in English and French. These, with the records which I personally collected, official reports made to the general and state governments of the United States, especially those presented annually to Congress, and those of the several expeditions by sea to the coasts of Oregon and California, and, by land, to both the latter, and to Mexico, the official reports received from South America, the statistical returns which have been drawn up for the government of Brazil, and those published at Carracas, the work of Juarros on Guatemala, the work of De Lavaysse on Venezuela, numerous official returns relative to Cuba and Porto Rico, several records, and consular reports on Hayti,- Mr. Consul Cowper s excellent report on the pro vince of Pernambuco, Alagoas, and the Rio de Francisco, late official returns from Rio Janeiro and Para, an account of the latter province and the Amazon by a native, M. de] la Condamine s Voyage and Survey of V INTRODUCTION* the River Amazon, Mr. Belford Wilson s reports on the Columbian States ; the valuable returns made by the French consuls, and printed by the Minister of Commerce at Paris, are the chief authorities on the present state of South America. Generally, with the exceptions above-stated, I have been unable to obtain little information from the British consuls in America. They afford nothing from Mexico, or Central America, worth quoting, and the consular re turns, from the United States, have been so utterly worthless that, with the excep tion of one return from Boston, I have scarcely once alluded to them. This want of consular information has, however, been amply supplied by the official returns forwarded to me, and for which I am gratefully indebted to my friends in the United States. Mr. Webster and the late lamented Mr. Upshur have obligingly sent me very ample official returns. These, with the reports of the Commissioner of Patents, various returns sent me by Mr. Hunt, the intelligent and able editor of the Merchants Magazine, numerous returns from Boston, Washington, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, New Orleans, and the western states, official returns of the state of New York, sent me by my friend, Mr. Isaiah Townsend, of Albany, reports on the whale and other fisheries of the United States, Mr. Lee s Letters to Cotton Manufacturers, the reports of Mr. Dallas those of Mr. Walker, the secretary of the treasury, and numerous reports on the banks, currency, finances, canals, railways, manufactures, agriculture, trade, and navigation of the United States, form the groundwork of all the statistical information contained in the second volume of this work. The article on the constitution of the United States see Supplement to the first volume by the late Hon. Judge Upshur, was forwarded by him to me, I believe, on the morning of the very day on which a lamentable catastrophe deprived America of one of her most virtuous citizens. I have not attempted to write a detailed history of the United States. My ob ject has been to exhibit the progress of settlement, population, commerce, and navi gation, the causes of colonial discontent, the independence, and the present physical, moral, social, and political condition of the great Anglo-Saxon re public. Its history has been partially written by many authors. It has been admirably commenced, and will be completed throughout, with great care and ability by an historian worthy of the subject, my friend, Mr. Bancroft, now the representative of the United States in Great Britain. In the second volume will be found a criticism on Mr. TJpshur s Review of the " Constitution of the United States/ by the Hon. J. C. Spencer, one of the ablest jurists in the state of New York, and,, although it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to controvert altogether Mr. Upshur s conclusions, I am de cidedly of opinion that those great men, who framed the constitution of the United States of America, considered its principles, and its spirit, to be in accord ance with the judgment recorded by Mr. Spencer upon that extraordinary code: INTRODUCTION. v a constitution, probably the nearest to perfection, which the conception, forecast, and judgment of the human intellect is capable of producing, for the union, peace, and liberty of mankind. To say that it is perfect, it would first be ne cessary to prove that human nature has attained perfection. That the constitu tion of the United States is to be an ever-enduring code, which shall bind in harmony that vast region, is more than we can hope to anticipate, however anxiously we may desire, that it may continue, in peaceful integrity, to be the sacred palladium of federal liberty, order, and power. Without entering into these historically minute details, which would extend this work to many additional volumes, my great object has been to exhibit clearly to the world the progress of all America since the discovery, by Columbus, in 1492. In tracing this progress, the reader will not fail to remark the astonishingly rapid and brilliant subjugation by the Spaniards of the fairest regions of the new world, during the first century after its discovery. He will also remark that all attempts on the part of England and France failed for the first 110 years; and, that, after the first huts were erected by the French in Acadia and Canada, in the year 1605, how painfully slow and unprofitable was the progress of France in all her struggles to colonise America. The early attempts of England were still more disastrous ; and even when a permanent settlement was finally, in 1607, established in Virginia, and, in 1620, in New England, the progress of English colonisation was at last only success ful by the most enduring perseverance and industry; and, by the adventurers suffering the most incredible privations. But, although the progress of the Anglo-American colonies was for some time slow, and unattended with brilliant military exploits, its establishment was founded on civil liberty and on religious freedom, and on intelligent and practical principles of government. The structure which, consequently, arose on this solid groundwork became durable and power ful. In the year 1759, no one speaking the English language owned an acre of land, in any of the countries wiihin the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence, nor on the banks of the Great Lakes, nor in Florida, Mississippi, nor in any of the regions west of the Allehany mountains. In all the territories, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from Hudson s Bay to the Gulf of Mexico, the power of France has vanished. In all North America, with the exception of part of Mexico and Guatemala, those who speak the Spanish tongue cease to possess the soil, or to rule the people. A race, speaking the English language, have ad vanced over, and subdued, the most wilderness regions by an indomitable spirit of progress ; which would seem to gain strength as it grows. Whether the Anglo-Saxon power shall continue to be wielded by two governments, as at present the British and the great Anglo-American republic; or, whether, as is most probable, it will hereafter separate into many ; yet, the people speak- VI INTRODUCTION. ing, and reading, and legislating, and governing in the use of, the English language, appear to have a destiny in the progress of the future; as they have had, in that of the past, which neither policy, nor diplomacy, can prevent, which circumstances will as surely accelerate, as physical elements move the great bodies which revolve in the heavens, until that progress shall present to future generations in each region of North and South America, its natural and certain effect. That effect will inevitably be, that the legislation and the literature will be written, the debates spoken, the arts and sciences expounded, and the conversation between man and man be expressed, in the English language. We may safely hazard this forecast of the future, by a rational examination of the past. Contemplating this, to me, inevitable destiny of the Anglo-Saxon progress, I have examined the past, and the present, of America, completely divested of political bias, and apart from the prejudices of education, language, or country. I have deliberately considered the history, the sequences, and consequences, of eventful facts. All my researches prove the undeniable fact that the history of commerce is the history of civilisation. The records, from the earliest periods, of the intercourse and of the interchange of commodities first between families and tribes, afterwards between the nations of the earth, fully demonstrate that those people become the most powerful, and intelligent, who are impelled for ward, the most, by the spirit of industry, invention, production, navigation, and trade, the necessary elements of commerce and its progress. When the vice-royalties of Spain, in America, revolted against the crown, they engaged in their cause, in like manner, as every people struggling for liberty have, and ever will, the most ardent hopes, and the most generous sympathies, of the intelligent, the virtuous, and the liberal minds of Europe, and of Anglo-Saxon America. They beheld the Spanish colonists as determined to rival the bold and suc cessful resistance of the British Americans to a domination, which, though often severe arid unjust, was paternal, when compared to the royal absolutism, and the hierarchical bondage of the crown and church of Spain, which smothered both civil liberty and religious freedom. The world, however, knew not the political, the social, the moral, or the edu cational condition of the people who inhabited Spanish America. Europe, and especially England and France, and Holland, beheld the progress of the revolu tions in South and Central America and in Mexico, as glorious efforts, which would release them from the tyranny of Spanish kings, and a popish church, and which would bring forth new, independent, and free, nations. It was hoped and believed, that if once independent of the domination of Ferdinand, and if their new, free, governments were recognised by England, France, Holland, and the United States, the Spanish American Republics, animated by the progress, and INTRODUCTION. v * instructed by the example, of the great Anglo-Saxon Republic, would have ad vanced steadily along with the march of civilisation, in civil liberty, and religious freedom, in the useful education of the people, in bringing forth, profitably, the great agricultural, mineral, forest, and commercial resources of their vast and fertile territories. But the inhabitants of free countries had not studied in truth, it was almost impossible for them to know the condition, morally and physically, of the Spanish race in the colonies. Hence has arisen the disappointment which has been expe rienced in regard to the progress of the republics of Mexico and South America ; and, had he lived, no man would have been more thoroughly mortified at the present condition, and the deplorable prospects of those states, than George Canning, the British minister, who first announced that England had acknow ledged, and added, more free and independent notions, to the constitutional states of the world. In our examination of the progress of the revolutions in Spanish America, we have discovered no formidable impediment to the final success of those revolts against the crown and domination of Spain. But it is an extraordinary fact in the history of a people once so formidable, that there is not at the present time, in the year 1846-7, any portion of the known world where the Spanish language is spoken, in which there is either civil liberty or religious freedom, in which there is not the spirit of anarchy, and, in which there is confidence, or security, in the go vernment. CHILE forms in some respects an exception, but disturbance has been so frequent, that the world has not confidence in the security even of this state. VENEZUELA has been for some time in comparative tranquillity, but order and peace have been too often interrupted for us to consider that state as secure in its future prospects. All the Argentine states have long been, and are still, involved amidst the most barbarous civil war or anarchy. Paraguay may still be considered as a partial exception. The Peruvian states and New Granada have been long in anarchy or at war. The annals of Central America recapitulate only civil war, and massacre, and, for some years, an uneducated man of aboriginal race, named Herara, has domineered in Guatemala. The condition of Mexico is hopeless. This will appear fully detailed in the fourth book of the first volume of this work. Ignorance, the bigotry of the priesthood, the tenacity with which the race speaking the Spanish language inherit all the vices and forget most of the virtues of their ancestors, the retention, too generally in practice, of the vicious fiscal and commercial regulations of old Spain, the absolute decrease or the scarcely perceptible increase of the population, the want of enterprise, the prevalence of indolence, and of slovenly agriculture, the absence of commercial habits, are far more than sufficient to account for the powerless condition of the Spanish American republics. It is a deplorable fact, that the Spanish republics V - INTRODUCTION. are in an infinitely less prosperous condition than the slave-holding colonies of Cuba and Porto Rico : not that we consider the peace of Cuba as likely to be permanent, for we believe, that if the slave-trade is not effectually abolished, that Cuba is destined to share the fate of Hayti. The condition of the latter republic we have also included in this work. The extraordinary power, wealth, and prosperity of Anglo-America, are owing to far different causes; to a population which has increased in numbers with unexampled prosperity, possessing abundant employment, and an untiring energy, industry, and self-reliance, animated at all times by a sleepless commer cial and maritime spirit with extraordinary intelligence, as to all matters con cerning the active affairs of the world, and a fearless perseverance in search of adventure, coupled with the passion for gain : all these are maintained by that feeling of independent action, which civil liberty and religious freedom inspire, Whatever may be the imperfections of humanity, and especially that of slavery in the southern states, which we may not approve of in the Anglo-Americans, the destiny of their progress will, in the western world, however they may here after be divided into governments, be indomitable in its advancement. The reader will find in these volumes sketches of the colonial policy of European nations in America. The barbarising colonial policy of Spain, the blind colonial policy of Portugal, and the delusive colonial policy of France, are all examined. The latter is, however, like many other fallacies, eulogised by Burke, but he understood it not, and was merely dazzled by the mechanism of its centralisation in a bureau at Paris. As intimately connected with the progress of America, I have concluded the second volume with an essay on the commercial and fiscal legislation of England and the United States. PROGRESS OF AMERICA. HISTORICAL. BOOK I. CHAPTER I. EPOCH OF DISCOVERY. THE history of the world does not afford an epoch more important to mankind than the discovery of America* by Columbus, in 1492. It formed, as is well known, an era that gave a new, and more adventurous, direction to the ambition of European nations ; and, while the consequent passion of enterprise sent bold spirits to the vast regions of the newly-found world, and, simultaneously, by an almost equally great discovery, that of sailing round Africa, to the eastern Indies, fresh explorations enriched the sciences, and, from that period, geography, astronomy, and navigation, became more practically, and more usefully, known. The beginning of the fifteenth century the epoch preceding the discovery of the western world, and the first voyage, accomplished by sea, to the oriental Indies may well be considered the great advent of European regeneration. It was at this period that the people, and the intellect, of Europe manifested a decided reaction from a state of degradation, below which mankind could not have been brutalised, either by eccle siastical terror, or baronial tyranny. Charles VII., and Louis XL, were among the first princes, who exercised their authority, in humbling the power, and check ing the licentiousness, of the barons. The church, in the assumption of universal, temporal as well as spiritual, power, had long disregarded, both in practice and in precept, the simple and beautiful doctrines of primitive Christianity ; and imposed, instead, over the human mind, a most darkening absolutism, and a most passive obedience. It was the glaring wickedness of the papal exactions that brought forth Luther it was the vices of the clergy that rendered inevitable a Reformation, which, even in that great division of the Christian world that did not abandon its doctrines, nor, change its cere monies, tended greatly to purify the Romish church, itself, of its disgusting immoralities and, finally, to render its ecclesiastics, in moral character, as they were afterwards known to be, and are now found to be, among the most exemplary of pastors. * This false name should be suppressed, and that of COLUMBIA ought, in truth and justice, to be adopted by the general consent of mankind. VOL. I. B t /. ; AMERICA. But amidst all the barbarous turmoils of Europe, during the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, we find that it was the fisheries, the navigation, and the trade which had struggled through the middle ages, that originated the spirit of liberty and intel ligence which has civilised Europe that is civilising, and will civilise, the whole world. It was to enjoy freedom that the fishermen who founded Venice fled from the northern barbarians, to sterile, sandy, or marshy islands in the Adriatic ; that the fishermen and traders of the Low Countries founded, in a country of difficult access, and without minerals or building materials, the navigation, fleets, and commerce of Holland. The safety and extension of maritime voyages, and trading intercourse, created that Hanseatic league, which destroyed the pirates who ravaged the Atlantic coasts and the shores of the Baltic. The Florentine merchant-princes were the first to revive the arts, and learning? in Italy. The discovery of the powers of the magnet was successfully applied to naviga tion ; and by this wonderful and certain guide, in traversing the ocean with confidence, the Venetians, Genoese, Florentines, and Pisans, were emboldened to extend their voyages to unusual distances, and to send trading adventurers to the ports of western Europe. The Portuguese became also, in consequence, a maritime power. England, from her position, her wants, and her products, and in consequence of the descents of the North men, began to share early in navigation and trade; but the bloody contests for sovereign power the wars with Scotland the wars and the turbulence of government, in Ireland and the ignorance, or the selfishness, of the British sovereigns and barons, until after the reign of Henry VII., retarded that progress of maritime discovery and power, and of commercial enterprise, which has advanced with a greater rapidity, since that period, than can elsewhere be found in the records of history. France is considered to have become a maritime power soon after the accession of Charlemagne ; and the ships of that prince are said to have defeated the Saracens in a sea-fight off Genoa. The author of the Orbis Maritimus, says, Charles Martel van quished the ships of the Prisons, in 528. A most remarkable coincidence of events distinguishes the period which followed the application of the magnet to the mariner s compass, and the age which, immediately, commenced after the discovery of America, and of the East Indies by sea. During this epoch gunpowder and the art of printing were both invented ; ancient learning, the arts and sciences, were revived ; a powerful and successful resistance to the papal authority was declared; and the balance of power, among princes, became a leading policy in Europe. To Portugal, and to her sovereign, King John I., is due the honour of being the first nation, and prince, in Europe, to undertake great discoveries. Some adventurers from Spain fell in, previously, with the Canaries ; but this discovery was not considered a national enterprise; although the Pope, in his assumed divine right to all the countries of the world, granted, in perpetuity, these Fortunate Islands, as they were called, with their infidel inhabitants, as slaves to Louis de la Cerda, of the royal family of Castile, who transferred them afterwards to a Norman baron. In the year 1412, John I., King of Portugal, commenced those voyages along the coasts of Africa, directed by his son Prince Henry, which, in 1419, discovered Madeira, and in 1433, extended so far south as to double Cape Boyador, and to enter the dreaded Torrid Zone. Before the death of Prince Henry, in 1463, the Azores, and EPOCH OF DISCOVERY. 3 Cape de Verd Islands, were discovered by the Portuguese. From this period, until the accession of John II., the nephew of Prince Henry, in 1481, the spirit of maritime dis covery languished, in Portugal, although a trade, with the previously-found countries was carried on without interruption. In 1484, John II. fitted out a powerful fleet and declared himself the patron of navigation and discovery. It was in his service, that Columbus completed that knowledge, and acquired that distinction, which prepared him for engaging in the voyages that render his name immortal.* The Portuguese, after advancing south, and forming establishments along the coast of Africa, reached the Cape of Good Hope ; and a voyage round it was accomplished by Vasco de Gama, in the year 1417, five years after the discovery of America by Columbus. The mind of this extraordinary man had, from an early period, been occupied in pre paring the design of the sublime enterprise that was destined to extend the limits, to which ignorance, and superstition had confined the boundaries of the earth. He, as a dutiful citizen, made his first proposal, to sail westward to the Indies, to Genoa. His offer was rejected, as that of a visionary adventurer. He felt the consolation arising from having discharged a patriotic obligation, but was mortified, but not disheartened, that his native country, should have derided a project, which he foresaw would extend fame to the nation, under whose auspices it should be undertaken. He was received favourably by John II. of Portugal, where the intelligence, and nautical skill, and boldness of Columbus were well known, and where he had married the daughter of Perestrello, the discoverer of Madeira. But Ortis, the bishop of Ceuta, not only thwarted his views, and derided them as chimerical, but meanly attempted to deprive him of the honour, by sending in the direction proposed by Columbus, a vessel under a Portuguese pilot, in order to attempt and secure the glory of the discovery. The pilot had neither the genius nor the fortitude which are necessary to accomplish bold enterprises. He consequently failed in the treacherous attempt. Columbus applied soon afterwards to the government of France. But neither the prince nor the people had, at that period, been animated by the spirit of maritime dis covery. The chivalrous and generous Francis I. had not ascended the throne; and, it was destined that the most brilliant project, ever made, was rejected : a project which finally succeeded under the patronage of a royal family, which became, in consequence, the most powerful rival that ever mortified the predecessors of the house of Bourbon. f Columbus then sent his brother, Bartholomew, to the court of Henry VII. of England. That distrustful prince, after one bold and successful attempt to obtain the crown, never encouraged great, if, in his mind, the least hazardous or doubtful, enterprises. He, how ever, by slight, but not conclusive, promises, detained Bartholomew in England for six years; and the latter finally arranged with the king for the employment of his brother Christopher in the proposed voyage of discovery.:): * Columbus, previously to his serving in the navy of Portugal, was bred to the sea in the Mediteranean. He had also sailed as far north as Iceland, and within the Arctic circle. t This offer to France is stated by Burke in his account of the European Settlements in America. Robertson does not allude to it. t Bartholomew, on concluding this contract, proceeded to Portugal, or Spain, to join li brother. It was at Paris, on his way, that he first learnt, that Christopher had, since they parted, discovered the New World. 4 AMERICA. In the meantime Columbus, disgusted with the meanness, and exasperated by the treachery of Ortis, proceeded with his charts, and proposals, to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. For eight years, he exercised his address, bis patience, his interest, and his abilities, at this court, so remarkable then, and long after, for the tardiness of its de cisions. It is a trite remark, that projectors are enthusiasts. It is fortunate that this accusation is true as regards the projectors of arduous undertakings ; otherwise the spirit and the health of Columbus, would have been subdued, before he accomplished his great mission. He had to endure the most fatiguing delays, and to hear pronounced against him presumptuous, and insulting judgments, by the ignorant, and by the bigoted. To the honour of Isabella and her sex, and at her own expense,* we are bound to attribute, in justice, the final success of Columbus : who, after displaying, during eight years, in his whole character and conduct, an assiduity, a firmness and resolve of mind, never sufficiently to be applauded and imitated, sailed from Cadiz on the 3rd of August, 1492, on the most daring enterprise ever undertaken by man. He proceeded on this voyage without any chart to guide him, with no acquaintance with the currents, the winds, or climates, of unknown seas and lands, and in ignorance of the magnetic variation. His own genius and instinctive judgment, his confidence in the spherical system of the world, although the law of gravity was undiscovered, his knowledge of the human heart, and his address in commanding, and winning, those placed under his authority, enabled him to prevail over a crew which at length became impatient, and to advance in ignorance of imaginary, as well as real dangers, until he discovered the island of San Salvador, on the 12th of October, 1472. Columbus, on his first voyage, discovered San Salvador, Hayti, and Cuba. He opened a friendly intercourse with the inhabitants ; obtained permission to build a fort, at a place which he called Navidad, on the north side of Hayti, where he left a colony of thirty men, with various stores. He then returned towards Europe with gold, cotton, &c., and accompanied by some of the natives. He experienced a boisterous, dangerous, and tedious passage. He put into the port of Lisbon with his vessels crippled. John II. received him with honourable respect, although mortified at having lost for ever, by re jecting the offer made formerly by Columbus, the glory of discovering a world, which was now to be assigned to Spain. Columbus proceeded to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, where he was received with as much distinction, as was consistent with the cold, and formal etiquette of the royal household of Spain. It is not within our present design to enter on the history of this memorable achieve ment. The voyages of Columbus, have often been, and especially by a distinguished American, well narrated. It was, comparatively speaking, at a late period of the world s history, that the dis covery, by Columbus, constituted the first, known, Christian acquaintance with a whole hemisphere, possessing all climates, fertile soils, precious metals and stones; all the ordinary minerals; forests of the most useful and beautiful wood; magnificent rivers; numerous and safe harbours; plentiful fisheries ; inhabited by a human race, unknown to, and differing in colour, in manners, and in religion, from the people of all previously * She actually borrowed the money to fit out the expedition on the security of her own jewels. VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 5 known countries; and abounding, also, in multitudes of wild animals. This discovery was no sooner announced than the Romish church, and the ambitious princes of Chris tendom, resolved that all its regions should be explored, the natives conquered, converted, or exterminated ; and that the discovered regions should be subjected to the sovereigns, who sent forth men to discover, and conquer, and possess them. It would, at the same time, have been well for the reputation of Europeans, if their acquaintance with, and colonisation of, those territories, had been equally distinguished for justice and humanity. Of all the tenures on which the right of soil is founded, there is none superior to that of immemorial occupancy. This supreme right of the red men, to the country they inhabited, was founded in nature. It was to the aborigines of America, the free and bounteous gift of heaven. Europeans declared this tenure of no validity ; for the dark superstition of the times, and the passions of avarice, and conquest, represented the all- just, and merciful Deity, as the partial God of Christians. The Spaniards were the first to inculcate this monstrous doctrine ; and, under the authority of their king, and the sanction of the pope, instituted it as their measure of right, in robbing, from the abori ginal nations, the richest countries of the continent, and the magnificent islands of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. Queen Elizabeth and King James denied the papal authority, but the same spirit of avarice and ambition made them adopt, without scruple, the subterfuge of Christian, over heathen, right to the countries discovered by their servants. The Aboriginal tribes, however numerous, were at first easily subdued, or betrayed, by Europeans. Being ignorant of the use of fire-arms, and of scientific warfare, they looked upon their invaders, not, as men, but as supernatural, invulnerable spirits, sent forth by the gods ; nor did they fully believe that white men were mortals, until they became masters of the red nations, and of the lands in which their fathers lay entombed. Columbus, on his first voyage, opened a friendly intercourse with the natives of St. Salvador, Hayti, and Cuba ; and that great man was alone guiltless of the atrocities and cruelties towards the aborigines, which were exercised by the succeeding Spanish governors and adventurers. CHAPTER II. SECOND AND THIRD VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. ON the 25th of September, 1493, Columbus sailed on his second voyage, as admiral and commander-in-chief, with a fleet of seventeen ships of various sizes, and 1500 men : many of whom were of noble families. He carried with him several European plants, trees, seeds, wheat, and other grain for sowing; horses, and a bull and cows; also materials, and tools, for building houses and ships. On the 2nd of November he dis covered Dominica, and from thence he sailed to Marigalante, Guadaloupe, and several b AMERICA. other islands. On his way towards Hayti, where he arrived on the 21st of November, he discovered Porto Rico. He sailed along the coast of Hayti, and on the 28th arrived at Navidad. He found the fort completely destroyed by fire, and some of the Spaniards lying dead in the neighbourhood. He was informed that, after his departure, they quarrelled, among themselves, about gold and women; that they had been guilty of murdering one another; and, that they also offended the natives, who consequently destroyed the fort. On ascertaining the full extent of this calamity, which he rightly attributed to the avaricious and immoral conduct of the Spaniards, he sailed eastward ; and near Monte Christo, on the north side of Hayti, began building a town, which he named Isabelica. Fatigue and care, at sea, and on shore, reduced him to such weakness and sickness, that he was unable to leave the habitation, he lodged in, for some months. Meantime, his mind was not idle. He sent Alonzo de Hojeda into the interior, to the mines of Cibao ; and in February, 1494, he despatched twelve of his ships to Spain, under the command of Captain Anthony de Torres, with an account of all that passed, and of his future projects. Hojeda, who had explored a great part of the interior, returned, and gave a glowing account of the mines, and the gold found in the washings of the rivers. Columbus, as soon as he regained his health, explored the country, with an armed escort, leaving his brother Diego in command of the then remaining ships, and to control several of his men, who had conspired to mutiny. On returning from the interior of Hayti, which he had extensively, and with great satisfaction, explored, he made several wise regulations for the judicious management of the settlement, by a council, which he appointed. He then sailed, in the end of April, in order to explore the western continent: of which he believed Cuba to form a part. On the 29th he reached Cuba, coasted along its shores, then crossed over to Jamaica, where he landed, took possession of that island, and traded with the inhabitants. His men, however, were, as usual, difficult to control ; and they had a sharp skirmish with the natives. Columbus, having previously brought the latter to a peaceable understanding, left Jamaica on the 15th of May. He was more than once nearly shipwrecked, among the shoals ; and, during violent storms, off the coast of Cuba : a great extent of which he explored. He was forced b ack to Jamaica, coasted its northern shores, encountered contrary winds, with leaky ships ; and, after a tedious voyage, reached Isabelica, in Hayti, on the 29th of September, where he met his brother Bartholomew, who had arrived from Spain with three ships. The conduct of the Spaniards, to the natives, during the absence of Columbus, was of the most dishonourable character ; while, among each other, envy, hatred, and dis order prevailed. These contentions, Columbus, with the assistance of Bartholomew, finally subdued. But the native caciques, having been provoked by the intolerable aggressions of the Spaniards, had on his return combined against him, under circum stances, which rendered it indispensable for him to reduce them, by force, to obedience. Father Boyl, and other dissatisfied and jealous persons, had previously returned to Spain; and the foul representations which they made against Columbus, to Ferdinand and Isabella, induced their majesties to send out John Aguado with four ships, and with instructions, to watch over the movements of the admiral. The conduct of Aguado, who assumed much greater powers, than his commission authorised, rendered it necessary for Columbus to return to Europe. He left his brother Bartho- lomecw in command, and arrived in Spain after a most disastrous voyage. He so far over- ame the prejudice and suspicion which had been entertained, in consequence of the alse charges made by his enemies during his absence, that, after a delay of more than a year, he was enabled to sail on his third voyage, with six ships, from the port of St. Lucar, on the 3rd of February, 1498. He steered by a more southerly course than he did on his former voyages ; and, after a long passage, reached the Island of Trinidad, and discovered the continent of America on the 2d of August, 1498. On the 19th he arrived at Hayti. He found that during his absence, one Francis Roldan had induced several men to revolt, and had proceeded with them to another part of the island. Columbus was further mortified by the accounts he received of the many disorders, and the mutinous spirit, which had, generally prevailed during his absence. It was the VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 7 misfortune of this great man, that affairs which were prosperous on his departure from Hayti, were replaced by disorder, and a mutinous spirit, during his absence ; and that when he was not in Spain, the envy and malice of his enemies, encouraged by the Bishop of Burgos, assailed him, and misrepresented all his actions to the court. Columbus had no sooner sailed on his third voyage, than the representations, and calumnies, caused by jealousy and hatred, against him partly because he was a foreigner, but chiefly on account of his extraordinary abilities, merit, and success, were so unremittingly brought forward, that they revived the former distrust of the suspicious and cold Fercfinand, and even biassed Isabella so far, that they resolved to send Francis de Bovadilla, or Bobadilla, a needy knight, as judge to Hayti, to inquire into the conduct of Columbus ; and with powers, if he were found guilty of the alleged charges, to send him back to Spain. In August, 1500, the admiral was absent from the seat of government, reducing to obedience and order those, who, before his arrival, had revolted against the Spanish authority. Bobadilla, who arrived in the end of August, took advantage of Columbus being at a distance, unceremoniously occupied his house; and, appropriating to himself all that it contained, gathered round him the admiral s enemies, and declared himself governor. He then summoned Columbus to appear, in order to be made acquainted with their Catholic Majesties pleasure. On the arrival of Columbus at St. Domingo, the capital, he and his brother Diego were subjected to the insults of his enemies; and then, by command of Bobadilla, with out further inquiry, put in irons, and sent on ship-board, with orders that no one should speak to them during the voyage, nor until after they were carried, in chains, to Fonseca, the Bishop of Burgos. The ship-master, soon after sailing, offered, on his own responsi bility, to release Columbus from his irons ; but the latter resolved that he should remain in chains; and be conveyed in that state to Fonseca, his great enemy, as ordered by Bobadilla, who had received his powers from their Catholic Majesties. As for the fetters, he would keep them, as relics, and memorials of services, to be afterwards, by his will, buried with him. On his arrival at Cadiz, in November, 1500, he wrote to their majesties, in dignified language, acquainting them of his arrival, in chains, from the countries which he had added to their dominions. Ferdinand and Isabella, as has been supposed, became ashamed of their base conduct, in giving way to the Bishop of Burgos, and to other enemies of the admiral, who were envious of his fame and of his success. He received an order for his liberty, with a request to repair to Grenada, where he was received with apparent kindness. Their majesties denied they had ordered any harsh usages, and pro mised him satisfaction. Posterity may pardon Isabella, who was, no doubt, imposed on by confessors and courtiers. But the conduct of Ferdinand and Fonseca the prince and the priest, will ever merit the hatred and scorn of mankind. Bobadilla, who by his avarice, baseness, and partiality, had nearly ruined the affairs of Spain at Hayti, was superseded by Don Nicolas de Obando, who was reputed a wise and judicious personage, but who, in St. Domingo, proved a crafty, dark, cruel, and revengeful monster. During the following year, Columbus sailed on his last voyage from Spain. On his arrival at St. Domingo he was refused admittance by Obando, the governor ; although the admiral pleaded that the aspect and signs of the weather portended a great storm ; and, that it would be dangerous for him to put again to sea. He warned the governor not to allow a fleet of eighteen ships, then with their cargoes ready, to proceed to Spain for eight days, by which time the storm would pass over; but his advice, grounded on his experience, was disregarded. The fleet sailed ; a violent hurricane came on soon after. Bobadilla, the former governor, with his wealth; Roldan, who formerly revolted against Columbus, and several others, were on board. Fifteen ships, including that which carried Bobadilla, Roldan, and others, sent back by Obando, perished wit all on board. Three only reached Spain : of which one was that which carried that remained of the admiral s property. His own vessels, by skilful seamanship, w< thered the hurricane. This good fortune, and the arrival of the vessel, in whici 8 AMERICA. laden his effects, was ascribed by his enemies to the powers of sorcery, with which they charged him. Columbus, on leaving St. Domingo, proceeded westward, to the coast of America ; explored it from Cape Honduras to Cape Gracios a Dios ; and thence south, trading with the natives, to Porto Bello, Nombre de Dios, and Darien. He sent his brother some distance into the interior, from whence he returned with a considerable quantity of gold, which he received in exchange for European articles. He attempted to form a settlement, but was repulsed by the Aborigines. His ships were become nearly unable to float, from being worm-eaten, and otherwise shattered. His crew became mutinous; and he with difficulty reached Jamaica, where he ran his vessels (two out of four only remaining) ashore. He sent messengers, in a canoe, to Hayti, begging to be relieved ; and after remaining many months, with his mutinous crew, he was finally carried to Hayti, and thence to Spain ; where, persecuted by the envy of his enemies, and neglected by an ungrateful monarch, he died at Valladolid on the 20th of May, 1506, aged fifty-eight years. His body was deposited, first at Valladolid; six years after it was buried at Seville; and, in 1536, removed to St. Domingo: from whence, 260 years afterwards, in 1796, after the Spaniards lost that city, they carried away his coffin, with some remains,* and entombed them in the cathedral at Havana. It is impossible to say, what would have been the probable consequences to the British empire, if Henry VII. had not delayed to accept the proposal of Columbus, until after they were, unknown to Henry, or even to Bartholomew Columbus, accepted by Ferdinand and Isabella. That Columbus, himself, would have been so ungratefully treated, in England, is not probable ; yet Sebastian Cabot, notwithstanding the important disco veries which he made, was afterwards left unemployed, and entered the service of Spain. The merit of discovering the continent of the New World, was attempted to be denied to Columbus ; and so far with success, that an able, unprincipled, adventurer, with whom Fonseca, an unforgiving bishop, conspired, obtained by forgery and mis-state ments, the credit, for some time, of being the original discoverer, and had, in conse quence, his name given to all the vast regions of the West. Columbus discovered the continent of America in August, 1498; whereas, Alonzo Hojeda (one of the former companions of Columbus) and Americo Vespuci, did not sail, on their first voyage, from Cadiz until the 20th of May, 1499. Americo made skilful use of the admiral s maps and charts, which the Bishop of Burgos put, from hatred to Columbus, into his hands ; and to whom the bishop gave also clandestine licences, in contravention of the authority held by Columbus from Ferdinand and Isabella. CHAPTER III. DISCOVERIES CONTINUED TORRES DE PINCON VESPUCI BASTIDAS CAR- THAGENA PONCE DE LEON CONQUERS PORTO RICO, AND DISCOVERS FLORIDA CONQUEST OF CUBA JAMAICA NUNEZ DE BALBAO DISCOVERS THE PACIFIC. THE passion for discovering unknown countries, inspired by the success of the pro jects, which the great mind of Columbus conceived, and planned, and which his per severing character accomplished, became soon the mania of the age. The principal man among the adventurers of that period, was not Americo Vespuci, but Vincent Torres de Pirigon, who commanded one of the ships during the first voyage of Columbus. He was an able seaman, of liberal education, great courage, and of such ample fortune, as to enable him to fit out four stout ships, at his own expense, with which he sailed in January, 1500, on a voyage of discovery. He was the first Spanish subject, * It is doubtful if this coffin contained the bones of the great discoverer. SPANISH DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS. 9 who crossed the equinoctial line, and discovered the country of Santa Cruz, or the Holy Cross, and the river Maranon, or Amazon, in Brazil. He did not succeed in persuading the natives to trade with him. He returned north to the river Orinoco, which was dis covered previously by Columbus. He soon after encountered a great storm, lost two of his ships, before he reached Hayti, and finally arrived safely in Spain. In 1501, Roderic de Bastidas fitted out, at his own expense, two ships ; and sailing from Cadiz, he discovered the country since then called Carthagena, and Magdalenna and about 100 leagues more of the coast of America than was known to Columbus . He opened an intercourse with the natives, brought some of them away, and proceeded to Hayti. So jealous were the Spaniards of each other, that Bastidas was imprisoned for the success of his enterprise. St. Juan de Porto Rico, called Borriquen by the natives, was discovered by Columbus, in 1493, but neglected until 1509, when Juan Ponce de Leon, an enterprising, ambitious and tyrannical nobleman, was informed that gold was abundant in that island. He crossed over from Hayti, and was received kindly by the principal cacique and by the natives; who showed him the streams which carried down great quantities of gold, with the sands and washings, from the mountains. On returning to Hayti, he managed to obtain a commission, from Spain, for conquering Porto Rico ; and was, on landing received by the natives, who believed the Spaniards to be immortal, or they would from their superior numbers ; and, with their poisoned arrows, as was their man ner of defending themselves against the Caribbeans, probably, on the attempt of Ponce de Leon to subdue them, have driven back the Spaniards with great loss of life. The natives believed the Spaniards invulnerable, and they submitted to labour and to slavery, until a young Spaniard, on being carried across the ford of a river, on the shoulders of a native, of more than usual boldness, was thrown off by the latter, who, with the assistance of other natives, kept the Spaniard under water until he was drowned. They then dragged him ashore, and, doubting whether he was dead, the Indians cried out, asking pardon for the accident, during three days, until the body became so putrid, as to remove all their doubts. The natives being now convinced that the Spaniards could be killed, rose upon, and slaughtered more than one hundred of, their oppressors. Ponce de Leon finally succeeded in reducing the whole island to his authority, and the natives to slavery in the mines ; in which, and under other cruelties, they became extinct in a short period. Diego Velasquez sailed from Hayti, in November, 1511, to conquer Cuba ; which he accomplished, after committing the most horrible atrocities. Ponce de Leon, who had been degraded and deprived of his authority in Porto Rico, where he accumulated great wealth, had grown old, but his ambition, and his adventurous spirit, were unsubdued. He had often heard from the natives that there was, in a distant western country, a foun tain named Bimini, the virtues of which, when bathed in, renewed the youth and the strength of the old and the feeble. He mourned when he reflected that the probable duration of his life was far too short to enable him to make great discoveries and conquests. He believed there was still a third world to be found, that he only wanted length of life and bodily strength to become a greater discoverer than Columbus, and a greater conqueror than Julius Csesar. These ambitious thoughts, and his being reduced in Porto Rico to the condition of a private subject, caused the proud De Leon to become a melancholy man. He sailed, with two strong, well-manned ships, on the 1st of March, 1512, from Porto Rico ; and, passing westward, among the Lucayan islands, discovered Florida and the Bahama channel ; landed at several places, and had skirmishes with the natives, who were a much bolder race than any of the insular aborigines. But he discovered no foun tain of life, and he returned to Porto Rico, convinced that he was older and weaker than when he departed. Attempts were made at this period to conquer and settle on the coast of Carthagena and Darien. In 1509, John de Esquibel was sent by Diego Columbus from St. Domingo to form the first settlement in Jamaica, to which Alonzo de Hojeda laid a claim, and threatened to hang Esquibel. VOL. I. C 10 AMERICA. During the following year Hojeda and John de la Cosas, who had received a licence to capture and take possession of Veragua, Carthagena, and other western countries, sailed from St. Domingo, landed on the continent, and had several conflicts with the natives, who were a bolder and more advanced race than the aborigines of Hayti. In one attack seventy Spaniards were killed, and the remainder wounded with poisoned arrows. Hojeda and Cosas were saved by the arrival of another adventurer, Nicuessa, with four ships. The latter attacked the natives, burnt their town, in which they found a large store of gold, and taking a number of prisoners, sent them as slaves to work in the mines of Hayti. Among the commanders of these vessels was Francis Pizarro, whom Hojeda left at St. Sebastian, the place where he fixed upon for a settlement. The latter entered into an agreement with an outlaw, or pirate, to take him in his vessel to St. Domingo. The pirate s vessel was wrecked on the coast of Cuba; from whence they escaped to Jamaica in a canoe. The pirate was there apprehended and hanged. Pizarro was obliged to leave St. Sebastian, and escaped with a few men to Carthagena, where Enciso, with two ships, arrived from St. Domingo. Pizarro and Enciso then proceeded to St. Sebastian, where they were shipwrecked, and on landing found the place entirely destroyed by the natives. They saved from the wrecks, provisions, arms, and various articles, and proceeded to re-establish themselves at St. Sebastian, but they were reduced to great extremities by the attacks of the natives, and by the scanty supply of food. One of the most remarkable men among the explorers of America accompanied this expedition. This person was Vasquez Nunez de Balbao, a man of good family, who had formerly sailed with Bastidas on his voyage of discovery. He had obtained a settle ment at Hayti, but having been accused of some excesses, for which he was to have been executed, he escaped, by being concealed on board Enicso s ship in a bread-cask. He ventured after a day to make his appearance. Enciso was enraged, as he had been warned not to take any one, but those on his muster-roll, from Hayti ; but the principal persons on board interceded for Nunez, and he was consequently protected. He was afterwards almost the only person at St. Sebastian who had not absolutely given them selves up to despair. Enciso was rallied and encouraged by Nunez, by whose energy the stranded vessels were at last got afloat, and they sailed, according to the advice of Nunez, to where he had seen a town, when he had made the voyage with Bastidas. They accordingly steered for the River Darien, and found the place and country, such as both were described by Nunez. They marched against the cacique and his people, attacked and put them to flight, found in the town, which was immediately deserted, abundance of provisions, also cotton spun and unspun, household goods of various kinds, and more than the value of 10,000 pieces of eight in gold plates. The success of this adventure being justly attributed to Nunez, his reputation became great. He deprived Enciso, who bore him no good will from the first, of all authority ; gained by his boldness the confidence of the Spaniards, and founded the settlement of St. Maria. Nunez established his authority and retained his power in Darien, and the country then called Castell d Oro, by gaining over, or defeating the chiefs of the country; by buying with the gold he sent to St. Domingo, the authorities there over to his interest ; and by his superior fertility of resources under the most difficult circumstances. In the middle of September, 1513, having been informed of rich and vast regions to the southwest ; stretching along a great ocean, which was not far distant, he departed from St. Maria, accompanied by the afterwards celebrated Francis Pizarro, on an expe dition, which, after some desperate conflicts with the natives, advanced so far, on the 25th of September, as to behold, laying broad in view, the great Pacific Ocean. Nunez possessed the manner and ability of making himself beloved by his compa nions and followers. He was kind to the sick and the wounded, and shared the same fatigues, and the same food, as the humblest soldier. Before reaching the shores of the Pacific, he was opposed by Chiapes, the cacique of the country ; who, however, was soon routed, and several of the natives killed by fire-arms, or torn by blood-hounds, those powerful auxiliaries of the Spanish conquerors in America. Nunez then made peace with them, exchanging trinkets, of little cost, for gold to the value of four thousand pieces. Pizarro was then sent in advance to view the coast, and two others proceeded, SPANISH DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS. 11 on different routes, to find the nearest way from the heights to the sea. Nunez followed as soon as he could bring up the sick and wounded. On reaching the shore, he walked, with his armour on, into the sea, until the water reached his middle ; and then performed solemnly the ceremony of taking possession, in the name of the crown of Castile, of the ocean which he had discovered. The Indians provided him with canoes ; and contrary to the advice of the natives, he proceeded with about eighty Spaniards, and Chiapes, the cacique, to cross a broad bay. Bad weather came on, and they barely escaped perishing on an island, where several of their canoes were wrecked. On the following day they landed with great difficulty : being opposed by a cacique, whose people, however, were soon put to flight by the fire arms, and by the dogs of the Spaniards. Nunez soon brought this cacique to terms, and for a few trinkets received a considerable weight of gold, and a great number of lar^e pearls of great value. The different caciques gave him the most "flattering accounts of the vast countries, which they described as extending to the south and south-west. Before attempting further discoveries, he considered it prudent to return from the Pacific, and arrived at St. Maria about the end of January, 1513, with the gold and pearls he had collected, and which he distributed fairly among the soldiers, deducting one-fifth for the king. He immediately sent the king s share of gold and pearls and afl his own to Spain by an agent. On arriving at Seville, this agent applied first to the Bishop of Burgos, who was delighted at the sight of the gold and pearls. The bishop sent him to the king, and used all his influence with Ferdinand, who entertained a strong aversion to Nunez de Balbao. The old king, Ferdinand, who, unlike his deceased consort Isabella, was always jealous of superior men, and especially of discoverers, did not, on this occasion, depart from his former base policy of supplanting the men, who performed the most arduous undertak ings, by the worst and most perfidious of his own creatures; such as Obanda and Bobadilla. The Bishop of Burgos had, previous to the arrival of the a<jent with treasures from Nunez, counselled the king to supersede him by one of the worst characters in Spain. Instead of confirming Nunez de Balbao in the government of the countries he discovered, and annexed to the crown of Castile, Ferdinand appointed Pedro Arias d Avila, or, as the Spanish writers, by contracting the first name, call him, Pedrarias, governor of Castell d Oro. He was destitute of all the qualities which constitute a good man of great mind ; but haughty and ignorant, he was a master of the arts of oppression, violence, and fraud. He left Spain in April, 1514, with a fleet of fifteen ships, two thousand troops, a bishop, John de Quevedo and numerous greedy and rapacious followers of noble birth ; among others, Enciso, the enemy of Nunez. On their arrival at Santa Maria they were received by Nunez with great respect. They found the latter inhabiting a small house, in simple attire, living on the most frugal diet, and drinking no other liquid than water; while he had at the same time, a strong fort, with 450 brave soldiers faithfully attached to him. That he was ambitious, and did severe things to obtain that power which he was never known to abuse, is admitted. His accounts and statements were clear, and he had annexed the country, between the Atlantic and the sea which he had discovered, to the crown of Spain. Pedrarias imprisoned this great man, and sent strong representations against him to Spain. There were, however, some honest men, among those brought over by Pedrarias, who sent a true account of Nunez to the king; and the latter formally expressed his approba tion of the conduct of the late governor, and appointed him lord-lieutenant of the countries of the South Seas ; directing also that Pedrarias should act by the advice of his predecessor. On the king s letters arriving from Spain they were suppressed by Pedrarias ; who, in the mean time^ by his perfidy and cruel exactions, brought the whole native populatio into hostility and revolt against the Spaniards. The Bishop Quevedo then interfered, Nunez was liberated, and by his skill and demeanour established tranquillity, and prc ceeded to the South Sea to build a town, which he in a short time accomplished, and was then recalled by Pedrarias. To the astonishment and horror of all the Spaniards, IN was charged with treason by Pedrarias, and publicly beheaded, on the charge that he had 12 AMERICA. invaded the domains of the crown, merely by cutting down, without the governors licence, the trees used in erecting the town which he built. His execution was declared a murder by the Royal Audienza of St. Domingo; yet Pedrarias, whom the Bishop of Chiapa described as the most wicked monster who was ever sent to America, continued for many years, by the king s will, to exercise his cruelty and injustice. Thus perished Nunez de Balbao, in 1517, at the age of forty-two years, for having served his king with more fidelity than any of the Spanish conquerors; of whom, if we may except Cortez, he was the ablest ; and whose character stands far higher than any of those who added new territories to the dominions of Spain. Pedrarias, after the murder of Nunez, removed to Panama, where he erected a palace. In his hostilities arid cruelties to the caciques and the native tribes, he caused great destruction of life ; and so ill-judged and planned were his enterprises, that in subduing one cacique, Uracca of the mountain?, more Spanish lives were lost than during the whole conquest of Mexico by Cortez. The only important conquest made under Pedrarias, was by Frances Hernandez, of the territory of Nicaragua, to which the governor immediately repaired to take posses sion of for himself. Jealous of Hernandez, as he was of Nunez, he charged the former with a design to revolt ; which the latter, confident in his innocence, boldly denied. Pedrarias immediately ordered him to be executed : power was to be upheld by the immediate death, according to the maxim of this tyrant, of conquerors who were suspected. For this murder, equally barbarous as that of Nunez, Pedrarias was not called to account. CHAPTER IV. DISCOVERY OF MEXICO. HERNANDEZ DISCOVERS CAMPECHY. GRIJALVA SAILS TO FLORIDA AND ALONG THE SHORES OF MEXICO. CORTEZ SAILS FROM CUBA TO CONQUER MEXICO. IN 1517 Hernandez de Cordova sailed from Havana, by order of Velasquez, to explore countries lying west of Cuba, and discovered Campechy. He was repulsed by the natives, who killed and wounded several of his men. After falling in with Florida, he returned to Cuba, and ten days after, he died of his wounds. John Grijalva, a man of extraordinary boldness and experience, was despatched by Velasquez, on the following year, in three ships well equipped and armed. He fell in with the coast of Florida, sailed westward along the Mexican Gulf, and named the country New Spain. He was at first boldly repulsed by the natives, who had heard of the atro cities of the Spaniards at St. Domingo. Sixty soldiers and Grijalva were wounded, and three of his men killed. He then sailed farther westward ; opened at length, and with much difficulty, a peaceable intercourse with the inhabitants ; and exchanged looking- glasses, trinkets, and beads, for plates and other articles of gold. He sailed farther to the bottom of the Gulf, and landed on the territory of Moctezuma : of whose great em pire, riches, and power, he obtained the information that gave rise to the expedition which conquered Mexico. Grijalva returned to Cuba with a considerable treasure of gold and some precious stones. Velasquez, either jealous of Grijalva, or from having injured him on his return, refused, in consequence, to intrust him with the conquest of Mexico. The command of that famous expedition was given to the celebrated Hernandez Cortez: a man of the greatest natural abilities, and one of the most ambitious, unscrupulous, bold, and successful warriors that was ever destined to scourge the human race. Cortez, who was of noble extraction, was educated at Salamanca, and intended for the legal profession ; but, disliking a studious life, he resolved, contrary to the wish of his CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 13 parents, to follow the profession of arms. With his father s approbation, he left Spain for St. Domingo in 1504, bringing credentials to his kinsman the governor Obando. On his arrival Obando received him as one of his friends. Hayti being then completely subdued, there was no sphere for military activity in St. Domingo. Cortez soon after became impatient, and solicited and obtained leave from Obando, to serve in the reduc tion of Cuba under Velasquez. He was admirably constituted, mentally and bodily, for the profession of arms. He had many generous qualities. He was not avaricious, and he had none of the mean vices. He was fluent and agreeable in conversation ; and he neither spoke maliciously of others, nor vainly of himself. For gaining the affections of a noble young lady, who afterwards became his wife, he was imprisoned by Velasquez. They became friends, on the latter consenting to the marriage. Cortez, who had acquired high military reputation, was soon after recommended by two friends of the governor, as the most fit person to command the expedition destined for the conquest of Mexico. Velasquez acquiesced, and Cortez received this appointment with expressions of gratitude and respect. He departed from St. Jago de Cuba, in November, 1518, with a few vessels, and about three hundred soldiers, accompanied by Diego de Ordez, who was a friend of Velas quez, Francisco de Morla, and Bernard Diaz, the historian of the conquest. He sailed first west to the port of Trinidada, to take on board a reinforcement of men, arms, and horses, collected by some friends which Cortez had at that place. Before his arrival at Trinidada, his rivals, who, as such, were his enemies, urged an astrologer to represent to Velasquez that he had ascertained, from the stars, that this expedition would have a fortunate and unfortunate event. The governor, though he disclaimed believing in the prognostic, found in it a cause of some uneasiness, not of itself, but in creating suspi cions, which led him abruptly to decide on depriving Cortez of the command of the expedition which had sailed. Couriers were immediately despatched, ordering Verdago, the alcalde at Trinidada, to supersede Cortez. The latter obtained accidental intimation of this. He consulted his companions, and they all resolved to stand by him : even to the extremity of taking up arms in his defence. Being confident of the fidelity of his followers, he presented himself immediately before the alcalde; and the latter, from motives of generosity, wrote to Velasquez, supplicating a suspension of the orders he had received. The principal officers who accompanied Cortez did the same. Cortez also wrote complaining of the sudden change in the governor s mind ; and sailed along the coast, with his small fleet, which separated from him in the night ; his own ship grounding on a shoal near the Isle of Pines. This accident retarded his arrival at the Havana for some days after the other ships, and the delay had nearly ruined the enterprise ; but the ability and address which he had displayed in saving his ship, and bringing her with all her equipage and cargo safely into port, added greatly to his reputation. At the Havana several of the principal inhabitants and soldiers joined him. He displayed, while he remained there, great activity ; landed his cannon for artillery practice ; formed his men into companies; drilled them in military exercises, and in the use of crossbows and i arms. He discovered that cotton padded between folds of cloth formed a better defc against arrows than iron armour, and substituted the former for the latter. While thus 14 AMERICA. actively engaged, the governor of the Havana received orders from Velasquez to deprive Cortez of his command, and to send him a prisoner, under a strong- escort, to St. Jago de Cuba. Cortez, who, with his friends, had raised the troops and provided for the expedition, nearly altogether at the sacrifice of their personal fortunes, resolved that this second attempt of Velasquez was not to be endured. On the pretence of procuring provisions, he despatched a vessel for Guanicanico, under the command of the only man he distrusted, Diego d Or- daz, the confidant of Velasquez. He then gained over the governor of the Ha vana, who declared publicly he would not execute the unprovoked, and unjust, orders of Velasquez. Cortez then, in the event of the vessels separating at sea, drew up instructions for his officers, and the commanders of each of the eighteen vessels which composed his fleet ; and, giving their patron, St. Peter, as the final word of command, sailed from the Havana, on the 19th February, 1519; and, after encountering a storm, and being afterwards joined by Ordaz, and, landing on an island near Yucatan, he finally reached that part of the coast and the river formerly visited by Grijalva. He endeavoured to enter the river peace ably, but the natives refused permission ; and advancing closely in their canoes, and on the banks, attacked the ships, but were soon repulsed by the Spanish artillery and fire-arms, and their town, Tabasco, was stormed and taken in a few hours. Some skirmishes followed, and some days after, the caciques of the surrounding country, having resolved to collect all their warriors, as sembled with the determination of destroying the Spaniards before they could advance further into the country. They advanced in countless numbers upon Cortez ; a desperate fight followed ; and the Spanish artillery caused great havoc among the undisciplined, bold, furious, native masses. Cortez, leading on his cavalry, cut and trod down all before him; and after leaving about 800 dead behind them, the natives fled with greater celerity than they advanced. Two Spaniards only were killed, and about seventy were wounded. Cortez treated the prisoners with mildness ; and telling them, when they expected to be put to death, by excruciating torture, that his only wish was peace and friendship, he set them at liberty. Having concluded peace with the caciques, and having received provisions and other articles from them, he sailed westward the day after Palm Sunday. The chief cacique, on his departure, pressed upon Cortez to receive twenty Indian women, whom he said were excellent cooks. In a short time the fleet arrived at the port of St. John d Ulloa. Here some large canoes approached the ships without any fear ; but, to the great perplexity of the Spaniards, they spoke in a language not understood by their interpreter, Aguilar. Among the women received from the cacique of Tabasco, there was one who spoke both the language of that place, being the same as that which Aguilar understood, and also the language of the people among whom Cortez now ar- CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 15 rived. He chose her for his mistress, and called her Donna Marina. She was said to be the daughter of the Mexican cacique of Guazacoalco. By some unfortunate circumstance she fell into the hands of the cacique of Tabasco and became his slave. Until she learned Spanish, Cortez, by the double channel of communica tion of Aguilar and Donna Marina, conducted his discourses with the Mexicans. He was soon informed of the great power, wealth, and extensive empire of Moctezuma, and sent the messengers, who came to him from the neighbouring caciques, away well pleased with various trinkets. On Good Friday he gave orders for landing the horses and artillery, and commenced erecting sheds to shelter his people from the sun, and surrounded them with fascines. He was even assisted in these works, and supplied with provisions, by Teutile, a neighbouring cacique. Cortez, in the meantime, disposed of his artillery so as to command the surrounding approaches to his encampment. Having erected a temporary chapel, on the altar of which he erected the cross, and an image of the Virgin, he celebrated Easter with great pomp. On all occasions he observed strictly the ceremonies of the church. On the same day, after mass, the two caciques, Teutile and Pelpatoe, were received by him with stately magnificence. They made him presents of cloths, provisions, and a box containing gold ; but when he told them he must, as the ambassador of the great Emperor of the East, Charles of Austria and Spain, have a personal interview with the Emperor Moctezuma, and that he must proceed to Mexico, in order to fulfil his mission, they were utterly dismayed. They said they were but the slaves of Moctezuma ; that they would be sacri ficed if they allowed him to proceed to the imperial city ; and they en treated him not to undertake his journey until permission was obtained from the emperor. They offered him, in the meantime, plentiful supplies of pro visions. The Mexican chiefs brought with them painters, who drew on pressed cotton cloth, figures of the Spanish troops, ships, artillery, and horses, for the purpose of sending these drawings to Mexico, for the information of Moctezuma. In order that they might introduce into their pictures some idea of the Spaniards in action, he caused his cavalry and artillery to have a sham fight. The Mexicans were by this display both confused and astonished. Accounts were then despatched to Moctezuma ; and the messengers returned with presents carried by about a hundred Mexicans, consisting of large plates of gold and silver, representing the sun and moon ; and many other valuable articles of gold, silver, precious stones, fine cotton, Mexican arms, and curiosities; but with the information that the unknown strangers could not possibly be received by the emperor. Cortez however persisted, notwithstanding the small number of his forces, and the great extent, power, and population of the Mexican empire. Moctezuma, who was the eleventh emperor, was famed, before he succeeded to power, for his bravery, and afterwards for his despotism, and the heavy taxes to 1(> AMERICA. which he subjected the Mexicans. He had reigned fourteen years when Cortez arrived, and Tlascala and two other provinces, were the only countries of Mexico which were not under his subjection. The messengers returned a second time with presents from Mexico, but Moctezuma not only refused permission for Cortez to proceed, but the caciques assumed a haughty demeanour. They re treated suddenly with their people, and no longer supplied the Spaniards with provisions : hoping to expel them from the country by starvation. Several dis contented Spaniards, headed by Ordaz, the confidant of Velasquez, insisted on returning to Cuba. Cortez, with his usual ability and address, not only calmed the discontented, but having managed to receive the promise of alliance from the Zempoallans, a powerful nation, he removed to a more convenient harbour, where he arranged matters in order to form a settlement, which, from the richness of the surrounding country, he called Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, The Rich City of the True Cross. He appointed alcaldes, regidores, and other municipal officers. These magistrates formed a council, among whom he appeared as a private per son; laid before them the commission he had received from Velasquez and his truncheon : and delivering both to the alcalde, resigned, and left for his barrack. They accepted his resignation, but immediately elected him commander-in- chief ; giving him his commission in the name of the King of Spain. Ordaz? Pedro el Escudero, and Velasquez de Leon, having attempted to produce dis content, he arrested them for sedition, and sent them in irons on .shipboard. He then sent Alvarado, with a hundred men, to view the interior country, and to collect provisions. The inhabitants fled before them to the woods, leaving their habitations with all they contained. Alvarado disturbed nothing, except taking back such provisions as he found to the head quarters. Cortez then di rected his march to Zempoalla, sending before him an exploring party. He directed the ships at the same time to sail north to the Bay of Quilabislan. On his approaching Zempoalla, he found the villages not only deserted, but the houses without either furniture or provisions. On passing an extensive meadow he was met by Indians, with presents from the cacique of Zempoalla, and an in vitation to visit him. The buildings of this large town, situated between two rivers, were of stone, covered with a fine white stucco. It was intersected by streets, with several squares ; which, as Cortez entered, were crowded with in habitants. The cacique, who was so enormously fat that he could not walk, came out, supported by his attendants, to welcome Cortez. He received the Spaniards with hospitality and confidence ; supplied them with provisions, and allotted to them the best quarters in the town. He made a present at the same time to Cortez of jewels, gold, and various curiosities. At the next interview, when the cacique and Cortez met in full state, the latter drew the former to speak of his position in relation to Moctezuma. The cacique, after some time, and in great dejection, informed Cortez that all the CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 17 neighbouring caciques, and himself, were little more than slaves under the tyranny and power of the great Moctezuma; that they had neither the ability nor courage, to think of rendering themselves independent, and that, in despair, they all submitted to the despot of Mexico : who expected to be considered more like a god than an emperor. Cortez promised, if the caciques stood by him, he would relieve them from their degrading bondage to Moctezuma. Having animated, and gained over, the cacique of Zempoalla, who provided him with all necessaries, and with four hundred men to carry forward his artillery and heavy luggage, he marched forward to a town called Quilabislan, which he entered without opposition : the cacique having retired to some distance, and nearly all the inhabitants having fled. The latter, on their being assured of kind treat ment from Cortez, returned ; and, soon after, the cacique, accompanied by the cacique of Zempoalla, both carried on a sort of palankin on men s shoulders, returned to the town. They complained of the cruelties of Moctezuma, and offered Cortez their aid and friendship. Meantime the town, the people, and the caciques, were surprised by the arrival of six commissioners from Moctezuma, who passed Cortez with looks and gestures of indignation, rather than of respect. They summoned the caciques before them, and reprimanded them publicly, for admitting Cortez, and demanded of them twenty of their people, to be sacrificed as an atonement to the Mexican gods. Cortez prohibited the caciques to accede to this tyrannical demand; and ordered them, authoritatively, to seize the com missioners : which order the caciques, finally, with reluctance and fear, executed. The commissioners were imprisoned, and placed in a sort of pillory, by the caciques, who now wished to kill them. Cortez released two of them at night, directed them to proceed, without delay, to Moctezuma, and to acquaint him that the sovereign of Spain only required peace and friendship with the sovereign of Mexico. He sent the four other commissioners to where his ships lay, and ordered them to be taken on board and treated with kindness and respect. He managed, also, to gain, with incredible rapidity, the confidence of the people among whom he came ; and, in a short time, the fame of his power, and huma nity, spread in all directions over the country. Thirty caciques, who had but lately submitted to Moctezuma, came to Cortez from the mountainous regions ; and, offering him aid against the Mexican emperor, swore allegiance to the King of Spain. The different caciques afforded, also, all the assistance that Cortez required for building the town at Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz : the site for which he chose, not where he first erected a temporary town, but in a more convenient and fertile situation ; situated in a plain between Quilabislan and the sea, and having the advantage of good water. Moctezuma, indignant at these proceedings, resolved not only to march against the caciques to punish them for their conduct, but also to exterminate the audacious Spaniards, who had presumed to treat him, and his supposed uncon- 18 AMERICA. querable power, with disrespect. The two commissioners who had been libe rated by Cortez arrived in a few days at Mexico. Their representations, true or exaggerated, changed the warlike preparations of Moctezuma into peaceful over tures. He sent to Cortez a new embassy, consisting of the emperor s two nephews and four others, to prevail upon him not to approach the city of Mexico. This embassy carried a rich present, and reached Cortez about the time that he had completed his fortress, church, and various buildings for lodging his troops, and depositing their arms, ammunition, and other stores, at Villa Rica. Cortez heard, with courteous patience, the representations made by the embassy. They said Moctezuma had, in respect to Cortez, changed his resolu tion of punishing the caciques, or visiting them with the justice of his vengeance ; but that the obstacles to the Spaniards visiting the capital, or seeing the emperor, were insurmountable. Cortez replied, that he thanked the emperor, with the utmost respect, for his present; but that no difficulty could discourage him in fulfilling the mission intrusted to him by his great master, Don Carlos, of Aus tria and Spain. He, therefore, regardless of the protestations of the ambassadors of Mocte zuma, collected his forces ; promised to defend the caciques, whose warriors joined him in great numbers; and having prepared all that was necessary to carry on this daring expedition, he left Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, to prepare other places for his march to Mexico. The cacique of Zempoalla provided him with about two thousand men, armed in the Indian manner. These troops, for some time, rather embarrassed than aided him, from their desire to pillage one of the towns before he reached it with his small army. Before his final de parture, he sent two ships to Spain with despatches to Charles the Fifth, describing the country, and all that he had accomplished ; and he sent, also, such gold and treasure as he could to the king : directing his agents, on their arrival in Spain, to acquaint his majesty with his position, and all that he had endured and overcome. He also instructed those delegated on this mission, to avoid St Jago de Cuba ; but they could not forbear touching at the Havana, and were the first to return to Spain by the Bahama channel. Attempts at conspiracy, and to return to Cuba, by seizing on one of the ships at night, being attempted by the alguizil and another, Cortez caused them both to be hanged. He then resolved on an act so desperate, that it could only have been conceived by the most fertile and judicious, and executed by the most bold, mind. In order to prevent conspirators, or dissatisfied persons, prevailing over any portion of his forces to return to Cuba, he managed to obtain the consent of those most at tached to him, and who were, fortunately, the most numerous, to his proposal of destroying the fleet at Villa Rica. This act, which, on the part of a less able general would have proved a deed of insanity, was decided upon, and almost CONQUEST OF MEXICO. JQ immediately executed, -the anchors, sails, and various materials were landed, and the ships scuttled, sunk, or burnt. The old sailors he left at Villa Rica. The able-bodied seamen he added to his forces. Cortez had not advanced far on his march, when he received intelligence, that a small squadron from Cuba appeared off the coast ; and, evidently, to inter fere with his progress. He marched back with some troops to Villa Rica, and by stratagem, he compelled the principal ship to depart : the others also disap peared. Cortez resumed his march to invade Mexico; and passed with his auxiliaries through several towns, in each of which he erected crosses, and performed religious ceremonies. Having entered Zocotlan, a city with thirteen temples, which was subject to Moctezuma, and who had then 5000 troops there, the cacique de clared that he was the humble slave of the Mexican emperor, and would obey no commands but those of his master. He was for some days slow in giving any provisions to the Spaniards; but he soon became hospitable, and even presented Cortez with rich presents. He advised Cortez to pass by way of Cholula to Mexico. The Zempoallans opposed this advice, on the ground that theCholulans were treacherous to strangers, and attached to Moctezuma ; while the Tlascalaris, who were a faithful nation, were his enemies. Cortez then advanced towards Tlascala, and sent messengers before him to offer alliance and peace. An attempt was made by the rulers of that place to oppose him ; and his people were at tacked by the Otomies, whom the Tlascalans employed, but afterwards disclaimed, on their being defeated with great loss of life. Cortez lost two horses in the engagement. The Tlascalans then invited him to their city, towards which he inarched next day. On his way he discovered the perfidy of the rulers of that nation. His Zempoallan messengers had been arrested by the Tlascalans, and condemned to be sacrificed to their gods, and saved their lives only by being enabled to release each other and fly. Cortez met about 10,000 Tlascalans on a hill near a difficult pass. He invited them to peace, but as they uttered defiance, he attacked them, and they soon gave way. He then pursued them ; they suddenly disappeared ; and he found himself and his forces surrounded, among low hills, by an ambuscade, according to De Solis and others, of 30,000 men. His situation appeared irretrievable, but his resources, and power of command, roused all the valorous spirit and energy of his followers. A battle of extraordinary skill, and desperate bravery, in which he was met with furious disregard of life by the Tlascalans, enabled him to extricate his forces from the difficult pass and its defiles, and to gain the plain. His artillery and cavalry having then space to charge and fire, he soon routed the Tlascalans with great destruction of life. Some Spaniards were wounded, but none killed in this hazardous action. Some skirmishing fights, and the destruction of small towns, and taking several hundred prisoners by the Spaniards, followed. An army, said to amount to 150,000 men, appeared soon after, in order at once 20 AMERICA, to exterminate the Spaniards, and to offer those of them and of their allies^ taken alive, as sacrifices to the God of Victory. In derision of the Spanish and Zempoalken power, Xicotencatl, the Tlascalan general, sent 100 turkeys and 200 baskets of bread to Cortez, for the purpose of sustaining his men until they were killed or made prisoners. Xicotencatl then ordered 2000 men to advance and take the Spaniards. The latter charged with their horses and some artillery, and destroyed, or made prisoners of, most of those who attacked them. Xicotencatl then advanced with all his forces, and attacked the Spaniards with undisciplined and furious courage. The battle lasted for about four hours; the Tlascalans retreated with great loss of life, and many wounded; and discovered that their weapons were unfit to kill a single Spaniard. On the following day, Cortez burnt several villages, and another battle, which lasted about five hours, was fought. The Spanish horse and artillery caused great destruction wherever they charged the undisciplined masses. The Tlascalans retreated before night, and sent mes sages next day with fair promises to Cortez. They still kept in an aggres sive attitude, and attacked him again with about 30,000 men; whom he repulsed, with greater slaughter than in the two former battles. Several attempts were then made by the Tlascalans, to bring Cortez into a belief of security by promises, and by sending presents to him. He was undeceived by his Zempoallan allies, and he followed up his victories, by a succession of brilliant attacks, until he came before the city of Tlascala. Some skirmishes then took place ; and ambassadors with presents from Moctezuma arrived ac knowledging his friendship, but with a request that Cortez would not march to Mexico. The Tlascalans, at the same time, sent Xicotencatl, their old cacique, from the town to mediate with Cortez, and a treaty of peace and alliance was concluded. Meantime one of the messengers of Moctezuma to Cortez, who had gone to Mexico, returned in six days with rich presents. Cortez then entered the city of Tlascala, where he took up his quarters with his troops, and was, according to his historians Diaz and Solis, presented with 300 beautiful young women, who were destined to have been sacrificed to propitiate the evil god. The Tlascala women, if the Spanish historians are to be credited, became so attached to the Spaniards, that those ladies were afterwards the most ardent friends of Cortez and his followers. Xicotencatl gave his fairest daughter to Peter Alverado ; and the whole nation of Tlascala, soon after, united with Cortez, in an alliance against; Moctezuma. Cortez now prepared to march with his forces and allies towards Mexico, by way of Cholula. The inhabitants of that place met him with bread, fowls, and other articles; and he entered the town without resistance; but he soon discovered their insincerity, and that they had made preparations to cut him and his forces off. He, in consequence, arrested their chiefs and priests; put about GOOO of their men to death; saved their women; and destroyed CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 21 a great part of the town. He gave all the plunder, except the gold, to the Tlascalans. He then liberated the Cholula chiefs, whom he had arrested, and ordered them to sue for friendship, and ally themselves with the Tlascalans. Moctezuma, in the meantime, contrived to send the most costly presents to Cor- tez; and, on hearing of his victories, believed him invincible, and no longer persisted in refusing to receive him at Mexico. This degenerate emperor, mean while, shut himself up in a temple, sacrificing daily a great number of human victims ; hoping to allure and appease the evil spirit of his dynasty. CHAPTER V. CONQUEST OF MEXICO CONTINUED. THE AZTECS OR MEXICANOS. THEIll GO VERNMENT AND RELIGION. MOCTEZUMA CONFINED BY CORTEZ. PROGRESS OF THE WAR. DEATH OF MOCTEZUMA. HIS SUCCESSOR, GUAT1MOZIN, TAKEN PRISONER, AND FINAL SURRENDER OF MEXICO. THE ancient Mexicanos were descendantsof the Aztecas, who had migrated from a northerly kingdom called Azllan : they assumed the name of Mexicos, from Mexictl, that of their chief idol or god ; and they are said to have wandered for about fifty years before they finally settled on the islands of lake Tenochtitlan. Having become a stationary, instead of a nomade, people, their numbers from that period increased rapidly. Their first government was an oligarchy. They afterwards elected a king, and formed the Mexican empire. The Aztecs were of a darker colour than the other aborigines ; and lived under a system of civil and political order for a long time previous to the arrival of the Spaniards. They were idolaters, and worshipped a plurality of good and evil deities, to whom they offered up sacrifices of human blood. The Mexican government was monarchical. Its absolute head was the king or emperor, who had a council of revenue, which took cognizance of the ex penses of the royal palace, and to which the collectors of the tributes in the different provinces rendered their accounts, and paid the tributes ; a court of justice, in which was vested the nomination of inferior tribunals; a council of war, which took charge of the organization and maintenance of the army ; a council of state, which generally, but not always, deliberated in the emperor s presence; also judges of commerce, and of supplies; and administrators of police. The judgments were summary and verbal ; the plaintiff and defendant, wit their witnesses, stated their respective cases, and the cause was decided, had no written laws, but they were governed by traditional ordinances, except in cases where the monarch interfered. They were strictly attentive to rewards 22 AMERICA. and punishments : holding as capital crimes, theft, homicide, and adultery ; also transgressions against the king or religion, however trifling : many other crimes were with little difficulty pardoned. Any breach of faith amongst the emperor s ministers was liable to be punished with death; and no pardon, on proof of such charge, was ever granted. The general education of youth was provided for in public schools, and in special colleges for the nobility. They were taught a mode of writing which con sisted of certain characters and figures, which made them learn, by heart, historical rhymes or songs, which narrated the exploits of their ancestors, and repeated the praises of their deities ; they were also taught athletic exercises ; and they afterwards assumed places either in the civil service, in the army, or in the priesthood, which were the three great professions. The girls of rank were brought up in special schools, under the care of matrons : they were kept closely confined from their earliest infancy, and taught all that was considered accomplishments. The progress they made in civilisation, or, more properly speaking, in know ledge and virtue, was probably greater than among any other of the aboriginal nations of America, if we except the Peruvians. According to La Place, their knowledge of the length of the year, and their intercalation at the end of their great cycle of 104 years, were almost perfectly accurate ; and more so than the calculations of the Romans, Greeks, or Egyptians. Their writings were painted hieroglyphics, representing events, rather than expressing ideas. Their maps were tolerably accurate delineations of the country. They built towns, but their architecture was rude, and destitute of beauty ; though many of the edi fices, and the pyramids, they erected, were large structures. They made roads and dug canals. The emperors and the chiefs had flower-gardens, and flowers were considered amongst precious luxuries. Their knowledge of agriculture was rude and limited to a kind of spade culture, and chiefly to raising maize for food. They had established markets, and the interchange of commo dities, and the business of dealers, was regulated by laws; but money, or coins to represent values, were unknown. Their trade was mere barter. They had a feudal system a civil and military hierarchy; under which the bulk of the people were held in poverty and servility, if not as slaves. Slavery was also legalized, and all the lands belonged to the emperor, or, to the nobles and priests. They understood the art of founding and working gold and silver, and the weaving or making of cotton cloth, and making ornaments of feathers. They knew, like all the aborigines of America, how to construct canoes ; but they were ignorant of the use of iron, without which no people ever made great advances in agricul ture, or in other arts or sciences ; and without which no nation ever became for midable in war. To the inefficiency of their warlike weapons, we must ascribe the successive victories of Cortez, and the final subjugation of the Mexicans. CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 23 The Mexicans are described as having no barbarous customs, except in the superstitious ceremonies and rites of their religion. Among these rites, the immolation of human beings, whom the priests sacrificed to their gods, was the most horrible. Were not the auto-da-fes the victims of the inquisition in Spain and Portugal, the St. Bartolomews and Dragonades in France, the burning of heretics in England and other countries, either religious sacrifices, or political murders ? It has been supposed that offering human victims, as sacrifices to their gods, by the Aztecs, originated at a period when their weakness rendered it expedient to destroy the prisoners whom they captured in war. That from not having prisons, it was impossible to retain them alive as captives ; and that the danger of allowing them to escape, rendered it politic to destroy them. That, to avoid the charge of mere cruelty, instead of putting them to death, as prisoners, they were offered as victims to the gods ; and, that a practice which originated in policy, had, in time, become familiar to, and interwoven with, the fears, faith, and superstitions of the nation : and, consequently, an element of awful autho rity, too efficient to be abandoned, in maintaining the power of the priests. The abuses which have crept into the religions of the ancient world, and which superstition, and credulity, and priestcraft have consecrated; and for attempting to reform which, such men as Savonarola, John Huss, Jerome of Prague, Servetus, and many thousands have been burnt, or otherwise murdered, had all, probably, their political origin. The Mexican priests were the monsters of the nation ; the tyrants who made the most horrible abuse of the abominable worship which they had imposed, from age to age, upon the natural credulity of the human mind. They acknow ledged one supreme God, a future existence, with its rewards and penalties ; they also invoked, worshipped, and erected temples, to numerous subaltern deities, each of whom was believed to exercise his special good or evil function. Pilgrimages, processions, and gifts to the priests and temples, were among the good works which were acceptable to their deities. A slave was chosen annually, shut up in the great temple, worshipped, in voked, incense offered him, and then strangled. Another superstition was, composing a large statue of maize paste, which, on being baked, was placed as an idol, or deity, on the great altar; worshipped, and afterwards cut up by the priests, who gave a small piece to each of the assembled multitude, who be lieved themselves sanctified by swallowing a part of the idol. Raynal observes, " It is better to eat false gods than real men ;" and the Spanish historians accuse the priests of eating the prisoners of war, who were sacrificed ; and that parts were sent, for the same purpose, to the emperor and the principal chiefs When peace lasted so long that there were no prisoners to be sacnfi ed, t priests represented to the emperor that the gods were dying with hunger, ancJ 24 AMERICA. war was then made for the sole object of capturing victims for the sacrificial rites. In every respect the Mexican worship was atrocious and terrible : it held the human mind in terror, reconciled the heart to inhumanity, and rendered the priests all-powerful. Many writers have endeavoured to prove that not only the Mexicans but all the aboriginal nations of America were of Asiatic, and especially of Mongolian, descent. Others, more absurdly, (one of whom lately), have endeavoured to bring forward evidence of their being of Israelitish origin. The latter is evidently neither probable, nor likely possible : for the Hebrews, if we even go back to Tubal Cain, knew the use of iron ; they were also a pastoral race, of which the scriptural history of Abraham affords proof, before they were Israelites : they also ate wheaten bread. None of the aborigines of America, from Hudson s Bay to Patagonia, knew the use of iron, or drank milk, or ate wheaten bread : although the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms of America enabled them to use ail these articles, which are now classed among their first necessities. If they were of Mongolian extraction, they must have left Asia before the Asiatics knew the use of the plough, iron, milk, or wheaten bread. Cortez, in disregard of many subterfuges on the part of the Mexicans, marched steadily forward, through various passes, plains, villages, and towns, until he reached Iztapalapa, within five or six miles of Mexico. He next day entered that city, and Moctezuma came out to receive him. They exchanged presents. Cortez putting round the emperor s neck a collar of sparkling glass brilliants, of various colours, and of little value. Moctezuma, in return, presented him with valuable articles of gold, silver, and featherwork. Harmony pre vailed for several days. An attack made by some Mexican allies upon some Zempoallans, whom Juan de Esculante, the governor at Vera Cruz, assisted to repel, founded grounds for a rupture with Moctezuma. Escu lante defeated the Mexican auxiliaries, but was so severely wounded that he died a few days after ; and a Spanish soldier, who was made prisoner, died on his way to Mexico, also of his wounds. His head was sent to Moctezu ma. Cortez, in consequence of this catastrophe, and from information he re ceived that a conspiracy was forming in the city against him, resolved to seize on the person of Moctezuma. He called his council together, communicated his decision, arranged his plans for the purpose, and proceeded armed, and ac companied by a guard, at the usual hour of interview, to Moctezuma s palace. He then accused the emperor of the attack on Vera Cruz, and the conspiracy which was formed against the Spaniards in the city of Mexico ; and then urged the necessity of Moctezuma accompanying him from his palace to the residence of Cortez. Moctezuma, finding his designs were discovered, acceded to the de grading proposal. Cortez fearing that the causeways, which connected the city with the shores of the lake, might be broken down, ordered two brigantines, CONQUEST OF MEXICO, 25 sufficiently large to carry 200 men, to be constructed on the opposite banks. These vessels were completed, in a rude but sufficient manner, in a very short time, and brought, and kept under a strong guard, close to his quar ters. Moctezuma was still detained a prisoner, but treated with ^reat outward ceremony. Qualpopoca, who had been secretly instigated by Mocte zuma to attack Esculante, having with others arrived at Mexico, were brought before Moctezuma, who accused him of attacking and killing the Spaniards at Villa Rica, without any authority from Mexico. Cortez having discovered the duplicity practised by Moctezuma, or his vassal, ordered the latter and some of his followers to be taken away, and on being examined separately, they confessed they had killed the Spaniards by the express command of Moc tezuma. Cortez then committed an act of horrible atrocity, which neither the real or pretended duplicity of Moctezuma, and far less the conduct of the vassals who obeyed his commands, could justify. Qualpopoca, his son, and followers, were conducted, by orders, given by Cortez, to the great square of the city ; and there, to the utter astonishment of the armed Mexicans, and in the presence of Moctezuma, publicly burnt to death. Cortez having upbraided Moctezuma in stern language, said, that although, as a murderer, he deserved to be immediately executed, he would extend his mercy by doing no more than putting him in irons, and placing him in front of the great square, in order that he might behold the execution of his subjects. These irons were taken off the same day by Cortez, and an apparent good under standing established between him and Moctezuma. The latter was so far terrified by the execution he witnessed, and the dread caused by the intrepid mental character of Cortez, that he appears to have lost all powers either of deception, or of moral energy. He afterwards concealed nothing from Cortez ; described to him the gold mines, and where they were situated ; gave him finely-drawn maps of his dominions, and of the sea-coasts by which they were bounded. Meantime, a nephew of Moctezuma, reflecting on the degraded position of the latter, plotted an attack against Cortez, in order to release his uncle, and drive the Spaniards from Mexico. This attempt was immediately extinguished, by its timely discovery, and from its receiving no countenance from the timid Mocte zuma. The latter, however, began to find his confinement so tedious, and so far to feel its degradation, that he suddenly resolved to conceal his real views. He then called together a general assembly of his principal chiefs; and, in the midst of them, acknowledged his allegiance to the King of Spain. This part he performed, with admirable dramatic effect, to the apparent astonishment of the Mexicans, who, however, feigned their assent. A treasure of gold, and emeralds, of great value, were then collected by Moctezuma and his chiefs, and presented with solemn pomp to Cortez : a part to be transmitted to the King o Spain, and the rest for the use of Cortez and his officers. This treasure was fairly E 26 AMERICA. distributed ; and Cortez set apart the full value of all that Velasquez and his friends had contributed towards the expense of the expedition. This generosity on the part of Moctezuma was, however, advisedly made, when the chiefs had resolved to release him ; and some time after, he gave notice to Cortez that the latter, and his troops, must depart from the city. Cortez acquiesced, and pleaded only for time to have vessels built at Vera Cruz to carry his people from the country. This re quest was granted ; and further, that men should be at once sent by the emperor to fell timber near Vera Cruz for the purpose. Delay, having been gained which was the first object of Cortez, who waited for the commission he expected from Spain, and his people having now such unlimited confidence in him, that they unanimously obeyed all his commands, he expected that, for some time, he would have continued unmolested, in the pursuit of his designs for conquering the rich territories of Mexico. This expectation was soon interrupted, by the arrival of messengers from the coast, with intelligence, and a representation in painting, of a fleet of eight ships, which appeared off the coast, near Villa Rica. Cortez, uncertain whether this was a squadron bearing his commission and reinforcements from Spain, or an expedition sent against him, disguised his views, by telling Moctezuma, it was now unnecessary to go on with building the ships at Vera Cruz, and that he would merely delay leaving Mexico, until he heard again of the fleet, in which he would embark with his people for Spain. A messenger arrived soon after from the commander of Vera Cruz, informing Cortez, by letter, that the ships were not from Spain, but from Cuba ; and fitted out by Velasquez, with 800 foot soldiers, eighty horses, and twelve pieces of artillery, on board, under the com mand of Pamphilo de Narvaez, who was named Lieutenant of New Spain, for the discomfiture and arrest of Cortez, and to take possession, for Velasquez, as the king s lieutenant, of all the country. Cortez resolved at once to march against Narvaez ; and, taking every neces sary precaution, for that purpose, he took farewell of Moctezuma, as if he were strictly fulfilling the promise he had made to leave his territories. This profession ill accorded with a force being left at Mexico, for the purpose of retaining Moctezuma a prisoner, under pretence of this precaution being necessary, as a guarantee of safety to the Spaniards, on their march to Vera Cruz. Cortez on passing through Cholula was magnificently entertained and pro vided for, and he was soon joined by a numerous body of Tlascalans. Narvaez had landed his forces, and encamped near Zempoalla : having ineffectually at tempted to enter Villa Rica. Cortez sent John Velasquez, in whom, as well as Ordaz, he now placed great confidence, to bring Narvaez to a reconciliation. The latter spoke of Cortez as a traitor; and Velasquez, after being shown the great force brought by Narvaez, returned without any other result to Cortez. Meantime the latter found means to distribute, through his chaplain, Olmeda, CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 27 large sums of money, and other allurements, among the newly arrived troops. His force was greatly inferior in numbers ; but his officers and solders resolved to conquer or perish for their leader. He attacked Narvaez at night with such extra ordinary skill, as well as impetuousity, that the latter was surprised, wounded taken prisoner, and sent next day in irons to Villa Rica. The army of Narvaez, 300 excepted, swore that day fidelity to Cortez, as the king s captain-general in New Spain. The 300, who did not swear fidelity, were encompassed within an entrench ment, and for some time they were inclined to be refractory, but they at last sur rendered and joined Cortez, who only lost two soldiers in this daring action. After various preparations, and securing the future alliance of the Tlascalans, and other native tribes, he marched again towards Mexico, for its final conquest: justifying himself for his return, on the ground of relieving Alverado. He en tered Mexico on the feast of St. John. Moctezuma was still confined to his quarters by Alverado, and consequently still a prisoner. The Mexicans resorted to arms, defended themselves from the house-tops : hurling down stones on the Spaniards, one of whom they took alive. Meantime Cortez brought up all his forces, and a battle, or fight, was carried on for several days : reckless of life by the Mexicans, who destroyed their bridges, and continued to hurl down stones and other missiles from the houses. Moctezuma having presented himself to appease them, he was answered by the most degrading, and certainly not unde served reproofs ; and although he escaped several arrows shot at him, he was wounded mortally, by a stone, in the head ; and, refusing sustenance of any kind, died in sorrow four days afterwards. Guatimozin, who was afterwards elected emperor, conducted, with undaunted bravery, the attacks and defence against the Spaniards. On killing one of whom, of considerable rank, he communicated to Cortez, " That being now convinced the Spaniards were vulnerable, though the death of each should cost the lives of 20,000 Mexicans, he should still have a multitude of subjects left to celebrate the final victory." He also projected the destruction of the Spaniards by famine. Cortez had, as prisoners, in his camp, three sons of Moctezuma, and many of the chief Mexicans, and the chief of their priests. The want of sup plies however reduced him to determine on leaving the city ; and, to baffle the plans of Guatimozin, to retreat at night. He accomplished this retreat with extraordinary skill, but with considerable loss. The design he formed was, not to invest the city until he had collected a sufficient force ; with which, and by a regular system of tactics, he could utterly discomfit the Mexicans. He had collected such a great quantity of gold, and other treasure, as to be unable to carry the whole away, leaving behind, according to De Solis, the value of 700,000 pieces-of-eight. When retreating he was attacked, on the land and on the water, by a greater number of Mexicans than he had ever encountered 28 AMERICA. before. They fought desperately, but the Spanish artillery shattered their canoes, and the cavalry, artillery, and foot, caused the greatest destruction among the Mexicans, who approached in deep masses. This was, however, the most disas trous battle in which Cortez had been engaged. Two hundred Spaniards, most of whom were those who lagged behind carrying off gold, were either killed or taken prisoners, and forty horses were killed, Cortez not being able to carry off his artillery, rolled it into the lake : 1000 Tlascalans also perished, together with two sons of Moctezuma. Juan de Velasquez, his most distinguished officer, was also cut down, together with Salcedo, Morla, and other brave leaders. Donna Marina, and the interpreter Aguilar, were however safe to serve him. On the fol lowing day Cortez was attacked by a considerable force ; which he, in the first on set, repulsed; and then, fighting on his way, gained possession of a temple on an eminence, which, with its area inclosed by walls, he transformed into a fortress, not difficult with his skill to defend. He reposed there until midnight, and then continued his march, meeting with occasional attacks, which he easily repulsed. Scarcity, of provisions and water, was the greatest cause of suffering among his troops, until, on arriving at a friendly canton, they were amply sup plied. The Mexican army not only followed, but by an indirect route, advanced before the Spanish forces, and defended a valley or rather a pass, through which the road lay. Cortez now found his enemies in his front as well as in his rear. The whole population of Mexico appeared to have risen, and sallied forth, commanded by the captain-general of the empire : who, alone, was ever per mitted to unfurl the sacred standard. Cortez was now in a position, which rendered it inevitable, for him, either to fight, and defeat this formidable force, or to surrender. He harangued, and ani mated his troops, lie then, on horseback, instantly led the attack, and with his cavalry, musketeers, and cross-bowmen, caused all before him to fly or fall. Cortez himself closed with the captain-general of the Mexicans, wounded him mortally with the first stroke of his lance, and a private cavalry soldier, Juan de Salamanca, leaped from his horse, seized the imperial standard, and handed it to Cortez. On observing their standard lost, the Mexicans fled with great fear and speed. The destruction of Mexican life on this battle-field is stated by the Spanish writers at 20,000 men ; and the whole routed army, they say, amounted, in numbers, to 200,000. Cortez was slightly wounded in the hand ; three Spaniards, only, died of their wounds ; none were killed in the battle. The spoil taken in the field is stated to have been of considerable value ; and Cortez ordered it all to be distributed among the soldiers. On the following day he marched to Tlascala, and was received with much respect and rejoicings. He suffered from neglecting the wound in his hand, but the Tlascalans healed it by simple vegetable applications. He was then anxious to know the condition of his small garrison at Vera CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 20 Cruz ; and his messengers returned with letters from his lieutenant, who informed him that they were all well ; that vessels had approached the coast; that Narvaez and Salvatierra were in safe custody; that the soldiers were content; and that the Zempoallans and neighbouring nations continued friendly. Cortez then joined the Tlascalans against the Tepeacans, who were sup ported by the Mexicans. He defeated them and took their town, which, lying between Vera Cruz and Mexico, he fortified and named it Segiira de la Frontera. The numerous prisoners were sent to Tlascala, to be sold as slaves ; a practice said to have been first practised by the Spaniards at Cuba. He marched, with the Tlascalans, and part of his own forces, against Guaca- chula, which was occupied by a strong Mexican force. He captured this town, which was obstinately defended. A small reinforcement arrived soon after, sent by Diego Velasquez from Cuba, not to assist Cortez but to aid Narvaez, whom the Governor of Cuba had believed to have been successful in his expedition. The Lieutenant of Vera Cruz answered the commander of the reinforcement, by saying he would lead him and his small force to Narvaez, who was well. Instead of which he proceeded with them to Cortez, whom they willingly joined. The ship they came in brought good supplies of ammunition ; and the letters to Narvaez directed that Cortez, if he were not dead, should be immediately sent to Velasquez, under the semblance of justice, for disobeying orders, but, in reality, to satisfy a particular revenge of the Bishop of Burgos. A second small reinforcement arrived in another vessel, with like instructions. This force also joined Cortez. He now resolved not to delay the conquest of Mexico. He had not only consolidated the friendship of his allies, but he had trained the Tlascalans, in some degree, to the European mode of warfare. The arms, artillery, and ammu nition, brought by the two last vessels from Cuba ; the ship carpenters at Vera Cruz; the materials for constructing vessels which he possessed; the multitudes which he could call forth to carry all these stores to the banks of the Mexican lakes ; and his having an able naval architect, Martin Lopez, were all favourable to his plans. Lopez undertook building several small brigantines at Tlascala, to be carried over land to Mexico. Powder was the only article of which he had a scanty supply ; but as sulphur was discovered in sufficient abundance, charcoal easily made, arid he either had, or found the elements for making, saltpetre, he was enabled to manufacture any quantity of powder. Three vessels arrived soon after from St. Domingo, sent by Francisco Garay, to claim possession of the coast; but being resisted, this force also joined Cortez. These vessels brought 150 well armed soldiers, seven- teen horses, and a great abundance of stores. This succour was of the utmc assistance: for a number of the soldiers who came with Narvaez, no* demanded of Cortez to fulfil his promise, to allow them to return to Cuba aftt 30 AMERICA. the expedition to Tepeaca. Instead of complying at once, he considering it essential that all the soldiers who were to accompany him to the final conquest of Mexico, should do so unanimously, as volunteers ; and he issued a proclamation declaring that whoever wished to return to Cuba were free to go, and should be furnished with vessels, and provisions, for the voyage. Most of the soldiers of Narvaez accepted this offer ; the rest joined the army of Cortez. He at the same time sent two vessels, with trusty agents on board, to Spain, with a full account of the country, and all that he had done and experienced, concealing nothing; and, with all the treasures that he could to Charles V. His instructions, to the agents whom he sent on this mission were, that before they disclosed any thing, to find his father, and the agents whom he sent the previous year to Spain, and to act in concert with his father, and, also, if he thought proper, with the former agents. The latter had arrived safe in Spain, and were, with the father of Cortez, well received by the king, who, on leaving the kingdom, recommended them, during his absence, to his regent Cardinal Adriano ; but the latter finding the Bishop of Burgos, president of the council of the Indies, opposed to them and to Cortez, wished the matter delayed until the king returned. The second agents arrived safely at Cadiz, and narrowly escaping being imprisoned, by order of the Bishop of Burgos. Preserving their letters, and leaving their presents behind at Cadiz, they joined the father of Cortez, and the first agents, at Medellin. The emperor having returned soon after, Cardinal Adriano heard, attentively, all the representations made by the father and the agents, as well as those made by the enemies, of Cortez. He was highly displeased at the orders issued by the Bishop of Burgos, and the deten tion of the presents intended for the emperor. The cardinal having become pope, the emperor, " advised by him, received the agents, and appointed a council to examine the affairs of Cortez. Matters were finally decided in his favour ; Velas quez was censured ; perpetual silence was imposed upon him, in regard to the continent of America ; and Cortez was confirmed in his command. Several regular friars were then ordered to New Spain, to convert the Mexicans ; a fleet with arms and horses for Cortez, was directed to be equipped ; and the royal letters, to him were signed at Valladolid, on the 22d October, 1522. During this period, when, unknown to Cortez, his affairs were proceeding so favourably to him in Spain, he was actively engaged in reducing all Mexico. Towards the end of the year 1520, a ship fitted out by private adventurers, with a cargo of arms, ammunition, and stores, arrived at Vera Cruz, and the captain and his men joining Cortez, delivered the ships, and cargoes, to his lieutenant. He was at this time ready to march against Mexico, and on the following day he drew up the forces, with which he intended to advance, and found they consisted of 540 Spanish foot soldiers, forty mounted horses, and nine pieces of field artillery ; exclusive of 10,000 Tlascalans, and a numerous body of CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 3^ confederate warriors. On the first day they reached Tezmeluca, near the Mexican frontier. The cacique of this place had provided all necessary provisions for the march to Tezcuca: the place, which, not far from the city of Mexico, Cortez had designed for his head-quarters during the intended siege. He found, next dav, the road for several leagues, closed up by trees felled across it hy the Mexicans. " The Tlascalans, however, soon cleared the way for the artillery, cavalry, and ba^- gage. The Mexican army covered the whole plain before him; but they re treated, or dispersed, as Cortez advanced ; and, on the following day, he entered Tezcuca, invited by its inhabitants, who became his allies. Leaving Sandoval in possession, Cortez proceeded, with 300 Spaniards, to take Iztapalapa, si tuated opposite, and near one of the causeways leading, to Mexico. He then advanced against the Mexicans, and in three days, it is said, that 6000 of them were killed by the Spaniards and Tlascalans. Several other caciques now allied themselves to Cortez. Battles, fights, or skirmishes, followed in various ad joining places, in all which the Mexicans were defeated with great loss of life. In one place, Tacuba, Cortez was, however, compelled to retreat. Finding that Lopez had completed the construction of the brigantines, 10,000 Tlascalans were ordered, by their cacique, to carry them to Tezcuca. This extraordinary project of Cortez was completely accomplished; and, if fully ap preciated, it was one of the ablest and boldest of his plans. A fresh supply of arms, accompanied by Father Urrea, and several persons of distinction, and sol diers, arrived at the same time at Vera Cruz. Guatimozin, a nephew of Moc- tezuma, having become emperor, made greater efforts, than any of his prede cessors, to augment the military power of Mexico. Several battles were fought, by his forces, with furious desperation, but they all ended by the Spaniards being victorious; and by the latter taking several towns, and gaining over the caciques. At the same time a conspiracy of a few Spanish soldiers to assassinate Cor tez, and some of his principal followers, was discovered. This he very dis creetly suppressed. The conduct of young Xicontecatl, one of the commanders of the Tlascaians, and son of the old cacique, so far provoked Cortez, that he ordered him to be taken alive or dead. He refused to surrender, and was killed in defending himself. Though the son of their chief, he was disliked by the Tlascalans, and his own father approved of his death. The brigantines were, in a short time, fitted, rigged, and launched on the lake, and the troops reviewed by Cortez. His whole European force consisted of 900 men ; of which 494 were either musqueteers or cross -bowmen: the rest of the foot were armed with swords, bucklers, or lances. Eighty-six were on horseback, and there were eighteen pieces of artillery mounted. A piece of artillery, with twenty-five armed men, besides rowers, were put on board of each of the bri gantines. At the same time that the brigantines were to attack by the lake, Cortez laid his plans to invest the principal causeways. In this order the siege of 32 AMERICA. Mexico commenced. The aqueducts, conveying water to the city were cut off by the Spaniards. On the lake they were opposed by about 4000 canoes filled with armed men, decked with feathers and other ornaments. The whole lake appeared nearly covered with an armament of canoes. Cortez advanced towards them, with his thirteen brigantines in the form of a crescent; and, with the advantage of a light breeze, bore down upon the canoes; and with his cannon, fire-arms, and cross-bows, and by running down and oversetting the canoes, killed and drowned so great a number of the Mexicans, that the battle on the lake, might be compared to a massacre. The fleet of canoes was in a short time put in the utmost confusion ; and finding it impossible to sustain the shock of the bri gantines, those which were not overset or destroyed, fled with the greatest speed. The causeways were also invested by the artillery, and a temple close to one of those, which was defended by a numerous Jjody of Mexicans, was assaulted and taken. Cortez then attacked and took several of the towns on the lake, which might have been considered faubourgs of the city. The Mexicans were described as defending them with intrepidity at first, but as abandoning them in a short time. The approaches to the city were found very difficult, in consequence of the dikes which had been cut through the causeways. Filling up these was a work of great labour, requiring much time. Whenever the Spaniards, and their auxiliaries, approached without the brigantines, they were greatly annoyed by the Mexicans in their canoes : of which they had still several thousands. Cortez, therefore, found it necessary to collect as many canoes as possible, and man them with his auxiliaries, from the towns around the lakes. He divided his brigantines into three squadrons, and the canoes he distributed into fleets attached to each squadron. The Mexicans finding their canoes, however numerous, unable to sustain the attacks of the brigantines, built piraguas of a much larger size, with very thick planks ; and, one time, by decoying two brigantines to follow some canoes, laden, on purpose, with pro - visions, among the high reeds, where several piraguas filled with men lay in ambush, the Spaniards were very nearly disabled ; the captain of one of the brigantines was killed, the other, and several men wounded. After a desperate resistance, the piraguas were partly sunk, and the others driven from their place of ambuscade. Several large piraguas, newly built, and filled with men, were found to be concealed, soon after, amidst the reeds, which grew to a great height, even where the water was sufficiently deep for the brigantines, in various parts of the lake. The Mexicans drove stakes down into the mud, until their sharp- pointed tops were a little beneath the water, for the purpose of rendering the manoeuvres or sailing of the brigantines impracticable. The skill of the Spaniards enabled them to remove these stakes, and to dislodge and sink most of the newly-built piraguas. The inhabitants and troops in the city were, it was told to Cortez by some of CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 33 the prisoners he had taken, suffering from scarcity of food and water. lie was at the same time anxious to save the city from destruction, and made proposals for peace with Guatimozin. The latter was disposed to treat with Cortez, but being opposed by the priests, hostility was renewed. The Mexicans raised bar ricades of thick planks, with loop-holes ; and widened and deepened the ditches. The Spanish artillery, in a short time, levelled those wooden barricades and drove the Mexicans back to the city ; against which, Cortez advanced with his troops and the brigantines. He ordered one of his officers, whom he left with men for that purpose, to fill up the principal ditch in the grand causeway. This was unfortunately neglected. The first attack upon the city was met with more than usual bravery on the part of the Mexicans ; and although the Spaniards killed great numbers of them, set fire to many houses, and destroyed a con siderable portion of the approaches, yet, on retreating for the night, the sacred trumpet of the city was sounded by the priests. None else were ever allowed to blow it ; and the Mexicans followed the Spaniards with unexampled bold ness. Cortez had his horse killed under him. The neglect of filling up the ditch, according to his orders, occasioned greater loss of life, among his allies, than on any former day. Forty Spaniards were taken prisoners, one piece of ar tillery was lost ; it was with difficulty Cortez gained the way to his brigantines; and he reached his head- quarters, wounded, and as he considered defeated. Above 1000 Tlascalans were killed. Sandoval and Alverado, who had been directed to assault the city in opposite directions, lost about twenty Spaniards; but not having, in their retreat, to repass an open ditch, the loss of life was pro- portionably much less. The Spanish prisoners were sacrificed, the same night, to the Mexican idols. The city was illuminated, and the rejoicings were heard in the Spanish camp. Next morning, before daybreak, the Mexicans sallied forth, by the three cause ways, to attack the Spaniards. The latter, though greatly fatigued, were pre pared, and with the artillery, drove back the Mexicans. The disasters of the previous day, and the declaration of Guatimozin, that his gods had revealed to him that in eight days, precisely, he should destroy all the Spaniards, caused the greatest apprehension among the allies of Cortez : many of whom deserted during the first three nights. Guatimozin had sent to the neighbouring tribes heralds, each with the head of one of the sacrificed Spaniards, and gave out that Cortez himself was killed. Even the Tlascalans, and Tescucans, abandoned him until the eight days expired: when they were convinced that the Mexican oracle was false. He was soon after aided by the Otomies, a bold mountain race. In a short time he was joined, according to the Spanish historians, by nearly 200,000 men. Meanwhile the Mexicans, though reduced to dis tress from want of bread and water, made frequent sallies, and reconstructed their defences. Cortez then invested the city, on several points at the same 34 AMERICA. time with his brigantines; and, having broke down the new works, he approached the parts of the city formerly destroyed by his forces, and effected on the first day a lodgement among the ruins. A final effort was made by Guatimozin to exter minate the Spaniards ; but the artillery, commanding the three avenues of ap proach, drove the Mexicans back, leaving the ground covered with dead bodies. On the third day, the Spaniards became masters of the principal square, in which the Mexicans had concentrated in an immense mass ; and, on being attacked by their enemies, from different points, were actually massacred. The Mexicans, who escaped, fled with great precipitation ; and those who were in another quarter, entrenched around Guatimozin, began to contrive mea sures to secure his retreat. A suspension of arms for three days followed. But the priests succeeded again in preventing a peace being concluded. Guatimozin ordered all his piraguas and canoes to assemble near the fortified quarter of the town, to which he had retired. Cortez ordered his brigantines, under the com mand of Sandoval, to the same part of the lake, while he approached on the land side. The Mexicans began the attack with impetuous bravery, but they could not resist the Spanish artillery. A truce was entered upon, but various excuses were sent to Cortez as to the final surrender of the city. Meantime Guatimozin was preparing to retreat. On the 13th of August, 1521, the feast of St. Hypolito, and the fourth day of the truce, the Mexicans began at daybreak to embark in the canoes and pira guas. Sandoval observed, a little after sunrise, in a distant part of the lake, several piraguas paddling, with their utmost speed, for the mainland; and he imme diately ordered off one of the swiftest brigantines, commanded by Holguin, to capture them. The brigantine overtook the piraguas, and firing into, and capturing, the foremost, Guatimozin, with his wife and attendants, were found on board. Guatimozin, whom the Spanish historians describe as a prince of great bravery, and dignified bearing, surrendered with majestic grace: asking, only, respect and kind treatment for his consort and the women who accompanied her. He then declared that he was prepared to meet his fate, whatever it might be ; that he was ready to follow Holguin, wherever the latter was pleased to carry him ; and, that his subjects would cease to oppose the Spaniards, when they knew their emperor was a prisoner. He was about twenty-four years of age, handsome, well-proportioned, and fairer than the general complexion of the Mexicans. His empress, who was of nearly the same age, was the daughter of Moctezuma, of graceful carriage, but rather of a majestic than of a delicate appearance. The Spanish general behaved, at first, to the captives with courteous respect; but as Guatimozin did not expect either his liberty or that his life should be spared, he desired that he should fall by the sword of Cortez, and not by viler weapons. The latter promised him his empire, under the suzerainety of Charles V., but this fair promise, arid outward respect, did not endure long. The CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 35 eulogists of Cortez contended that he was unable to resist the clamours of the soldiery, and of the king s treasurer, Alderete, nephew of the Bishop of Burgos. That Alderete demanded that Guatimozin and his minister should be placed in his hands for examination, as to where the imperial treasures were to be found. Cortez, according to his historians, could not but comply with this demand ; the soldiers, dissatisfied at not finding the gold for which they had fought, charged their general with having discovered and secreted the treasure for his own use. Alderete put Guatimozin, and his minister, on an iron rack, or grate, under which were placed burning coals. The minister shrieking, Guatimozin is said to have exclaimed, " Am I on a bed of flowers ?" which silenced the minister, who died without further complaint, and without any other confession, than the truth, that all the Mexican treasure was thrown into the lake. Cortez, it is related, on hearing the shrieks of the minister, broke into the place of torture, and released Guatimozin, when he was half-roasted, but that afterwards he consented, in order to extort information as to where to find the treasure, for which the Spaniards continued their clamours, to allow the soles of the emperor s feet, after being soaked in oil, to be roasted. The tombs were then opened, and all the gold and precious stones, which were found buried with the dead, and all that was discovered on ransacking the temples, were distributed among the soldiers. Guatimozin was kept a close prisoner ; and, afterwards, under pretence of a conspiracy which was not proved, he was, with the kings of Acolhuacan (Tezcuco) and Tlacopan (Tacuba), hung on the same tree, by the feet, to prolong their tor ments. This act of cruelty has been defended, even by modern historians, as a deed justifiable on the part of the great conqueror, on the ground of religion and state necessity. The deaths of Savonarola, John Huss, Jerome of Prague, Servetus, Mary Queen of Scots, Charles I., Louis XVI., and countless others, in Christian Europe ; Nuncomar, and many thousands in Pagan Asia, perished, according to the doctrine of those who put them to death, either for the honour of the all- powerful Deity, or, for the safety of the state. Bernard Diaz, one of the oldest soldiers in the army of Cortez, says, " that the death of the young Mexican emperor was a very unjust thing, and blamed by us all so long as we were in the suite of the captain ;" and the Abbe Clavi- gero observes, " that this cruelty, afterwards, made Cortez melancholy, and gave him a few sleepless nights" (ana gran malenconiaed alcune vegghie). He adds, the Mexican kings were baptised, and confessed, and comforted, in their sufferings, by friar Juan de Varillas, and they were hung in good preparation for death, as Christians (li confesso e conforto nel supplicio : ch eglino erano buoni Cristiani, e che morirono ben diposito : on d manifesto ch erano stato battezzati). On the fall of the capital of the empire, after two-thirds of its edifices and streets had been laid in ruins, all the neighbouring towns, and nearest provinces, surrendered. The kingdom of Mechoacan was then conquered, and its sovereign 36 AMERICA. driven to the mountains. Cortez, afterwards, marched to the South Sea, where he erected forts, and employed his carpenters in constructing ships. His Lieute nant, Gonzalo de Sandoval, reduced to submission the countries north of Ta basco; and Alverado, brought under subjection the region south-east of the city of Mexico, near the valley of Guazaco, or Oaxaco. Christopher de Tapia, who had been commanded by Charles V., before the arrival of the agents of Cortez in Spain, to take possession of all the conquests made by the latter, appeared off Vera Cruz, but the governor of this place ter rified the new rival ; who immediately left the coast. Cortez then advanced in person against the province of Panuco, which he conquered, and, according to his general practice, divided among his officers and soldiers, and appropriated to them the inhabitants as slaves. The atrocious cruelties of Cortez are not even defended by his most ardent eulogists.* He at one time burnt to death sixty caciques, and 400 nobles. Sandoval carried this atrocious sentence into execution after a grave consultation with Cortez, and the relatives, wives, and children of the victims, were com pelled to be present to witness the excruciating deaths of their husbands, fathers, and brothers. f He then commenced rebuilding the city of Mexico ; and com pelled the inhabitants to labour incessantly in procuring materials, and construct ing new edifices : among which his own palace, erected on the site of that of Moc- tezuma, was built with great and extravagant magnificence. He continued to send rich presents to the emperor, and the expedition bringing his commission from the king, as captain-general and governor of New Spain, arrived soon after the conquest of Mexico. The haughtiness and cruelty of Cortez, after, as well as before, the acquisition of this new dignity, are not denied. Some of his ablest officers in consequence plotted against him ; and several attempts were made to assassinate him. In 1528, he considered it necessary to return to Spain, where his enemies were not complaining of his acts of real injustice, but assiduously misrepresenting his conduct as treacherous, to Charles V. He was received graciously at court ; the order of St. Jago was conferred on him ; and the whole fertile valley of Oaxaco, with the title of marquis ; and with its towns and villages, were confirmed to him and his heirs. He married a rich lady, by favour of the king; returned as captain- general to Mexico ; but the title of viceroy was bestowed on another person, under whom the royal audienza was established. Cortez remained, however, twelve years in Mexico : where, besides the natural children he had by Donna Marina, several others were born to him. He returned to Spain in 1542, accompanied the emperor on a disastrous expedition to Algiers ; found that his * Among the eulogists of Cortez is Dr. Robertson ; but he, even, in the text of his work, admits the above account, though he afterwards palliates the cruelty in a note, quoting Herrara, who says that thirty was the number of caciques burnt to death. f Gomara Cron. c. 155. Cortez Relat. c. 291. CONQUEST OF PERU. 37 sovereign entertained a jealousy of him, and living afterwards in retirement, and engaged, it is said, chiefly in directing the education of his legitimate and illegi timate children, he died at a village near Seville, on the 2nd of August, 1554, in the sixty-third year of his age. His body was afterwards, according to his will, removed to Mexico. Having succeeded in conquering all Mexico, under every discouragement from Cuba, and from Spain, and, with his small forces, opposed by such formidable difficulties; having not only received no assistance, and no countenance, from his sovereign, nor from Velasquez, but had been superseded, in his command, by both, and having had the boldness to continue in authority, and in following up, and completing his conquest, in disobedience of royal orders and vice-royal com missions, Cortez must undoubtedly be considered one of the most intrepid, skilful, and successful, generals of any country or age. It was not until after he had completely subdued Mexico ; and, when uncertain whether his deeds or his authority should ever be acknowledged by Charles V., that he obtained the royal commission, confirming him in the authority, which his own ability alone enabled him to assume, and wield, from his first attempt at conquest, with the full confidence of nearly all those whom he commanded. We must, however, admit, that the spirit, the conduct, and the acts, whether religious or ambitious, which originated, and prevailed through the progress, to the end, and after the conquest, of Mexico, cannot be defended, either by the laws of God, or by the generally admitted moral principles of man. CHAPTER VI. CONQUEST OF PERU AND THE REMAINING COUNTRIES OF SPANISH AMERICA. THREE men, of obscure origin, arose to carry out the designs conceived by a far greater man, the celebrated and unfortunate Nunez de Balbao. Francis Pizzaro, the natural son of a gentleman of Estremadura, was born in the city of Truxillo, in Spain. His first employment in youth was that of a shepherd ; and, not having even learnt to read, he left his home, to better his fortune in the western hemisphere. He distinguished himself soon after, as an officer, in the conquest of Cuba, arid as one of the companions of Vasques Nunez. He afterwards became a lieutenant-general in Darien. His avarice, his disregard of moral scruples, and his ambition, stimulated in him a spirit of action that had no limit to its boldness, nor to its perseverance. When the city of Panama was built, he settled there, professedly, with the intention of living in retirement. This was, however, not believed to be expected from a man, who had pre viously acquired a bold and skilful military and political reputation. S8 AMERICA. execution of Nunez, under whom he had served, and with whose plans he was intimately acquainted, he resolved on exploring, and conquering, Peru. Almagro, who was born of an obscure family, in the town in Spain, from which he took his surname, was a man of genius and abilities, who acquired a fortune in the Now World ; and who also became an inhabitant of the new city of Panama. Ferdinand de Luques, or Lugne, was a priest, and a man of great penetration, firmness, and judgment. He had amassed a large fortune in mining, and acquired the proprietorship of Tobago, in the bay of Panama, and in the city of the latter he was an inhabitant These three personages, powerful in character, and in wealth, and all at an advanced age, joined their fortunes, in order to accomplish the great designs planned by Vasques Nunez. As to the origin of the nation called Peruvians by the Spaniards, there have been written many speculative dissertations: all as obscure, and unsatisfactory, as those written to account for the origin of the aborigines of all parts of America : nor, are those recent works, which hare been written to prove the Israelitish origin of the Peruvians, and based upon no more reasonable authority, than the fabulous histories and genealogies of the ancient world. Manco Capac, or the rich, and his wife, Mama Ocolla, are supposed to have founded the empire of Peru, about the middle of the twelfth century; and, to have been the parents of the race of Incas. Manco is said to have taught the natives agriculture, and the useful arts ; and that his wife taught the females to spin and weave ; that he laid the foundation of the capital Cuzco, built the temple of the sun, of which he taught them the worship; framed patriarchal laws for governing the country ; and, that he suddenly disappeared, a great num ber of years after he founded the monarchy. The Incas, his descendants, who succeeded him, were invested, or invested themselves, with unlimited power but they bound themselves to govern accord ing to the paternal laws of Manco Capac. They added numerous large provinces to the original territory. The thirteenth Inca, in descent from Manco, was Huana Capac, who left his territory to two sons, Huascar and Atahualpa ; the former being declared Inca, the latter rose an army, and attacked him ; and after a desperate and bloody battle, took Huascar prisoner, and declared himself Inca in his bro thers stead. The death of Huana Capac occurred a short time after the first invasion of Peru by the Spaniards. The progress of the Peruvians, in civilisation, and in some of the useful arts, appears to have advanced to a higher degree than that of any other aboriginal people raerica. They had acquired, comparatively speaking, a more skilful knowledge of agriculture, architecture, sculpture, mining, and working the precious metals and stones. They irrigated their fields, and understood the fertilising power of the manure called guano, or huano, which has lately been imported into Eng land from the islands off the coast of Peru, and supposed to be the ordure de- coxgnsr OF PERU. posited by sea-fc>wk, during an unknown number of ages. Thev <frrided then- lands into aUotments : one portkin being appropriated for soi of theson, the second for the maintenance of the Ineas and the pobfcc ad- " " *!*-*=* illrjfnrtbr Mialii iMiiiai^fui Aypenpi,. rally, who cultivated Ike soil in by a plough, but dehred by a hardwood spade. They mad stone, and made nnle hatchets and tcwis <rf the hanlest kinds of stooe _ Theyhadiron ? butdidnotknowhow toworkor useit. Nor, from the want of tools, were they abfe to torn wcx)d to useful purposes. They seem not to have had any important kuiiab iW of cckamcs: and the policy being fcnw- A ^ :".: :ks :: s:;:.i. :: -;..; :/.t; -: 7 ; ;r.:rr.;:t I. --:e ::" ez::i: :_..- .i~ sions. Trade and commerce was scarcely known amoog diem. They had no eons or Mary. Their religion and laws were unfavourable In great **nH r to commerce, and to die spirit of enterprise. The Peruvians were clothed; and they had a special code of cxvU and refigioiB .:-- s 7. T _-Tei: itziy .e :: :/.- Sir. i: ?^.:.-;i_i:. ir.i :.-.i ;^^;e i: : ::.e ::rrij = ^f thelaea, were connected together so as to form one great hwMhig, of ardiitec- triral skill, aboat a mik and a haK in circuit. The rains of their nomerous and palaces are still to be traced. There were obelisks of ness; aadwMHBelewB% and conical strvctMres, erected mTaoow parti of the em pire. The great city of Cusco was die only large town. The spirit of their rrBgirwi was mikL Their deities were visible objects, not invisible bciag*. The sun, as the dispenser of light, warmth, vitality, and fertility, was their supreme deity, 10 whom their nfiriingft were, not human !!, bet other mm]^ and the fruits of the earth. The moon and stars were secondary objects of liaitiiwi Peace, with the rest of the world, was one of the great principles religious code- When they niade war, h was not m a ferodous spirit ; and they treated their prisoners with tenderness, and admitted them into their nation as brethren. Feudality was, however, slaHhhrdl although it may be said, that property was held in common; for none had more than a teaiporary usunact in the soil, or, in what it produced. Sock was the nation whose menaced, whose destruction was solemnly decreed, by Chtfrtiani Francis Pixzaro, Almagro, and the priest Luques, having condafted wafer into three pieces, each took one, i|; that, with thi perseverance with which they followed their salvation, they should conquest of the empire of the Incas, It wa* agreed that HoM was to lead first ej^edition ; that Almagro should take ihiiy of bringing luuwili^ arms, and other supplies; and that Luques should remain at Panama to provide the :/. i". ".:::". 5. :. :v. :~".r . . . . . - - - ~. ^--~ ? 40 AMERICA. Iii November, 1524, Pizzaro departed from Panama, in a large strong ship, which had been constructed and equipped by the unfortunate Nunez de Balbao, with about eighty soldiers and sailors ; and, including officers, and gentlemen who accompanied the expedition, the whole number amounted to 1 14. He had on board some horses, and a good supply of arms, ammunition, and other articles. They touched at some islands, and landed at a place named Pinas, south of the Bay of Panama, where he found the country deserted, and covered with woods, thickets, bogs, and mountains. The few inhabitants had fled on the approach of the Spaniards. As he approached the equator it rained incessantly ; and he lost some of his men by sickness. He was followed by Almagro, with two ships and sixty men. They had, soon after, some skirmishes with the natives ; in one of which Almagro lost an eye. They afterwards found some gold ; and one of the vessels which had proceeded south to Cape Pasado, captured some natives, who described as exhaustless the riches of the empire of the Incas. Almagro returned to Panama. Pizzaro having remained on shore, suffered great hardships ; and on the return of the former with supplies, was found with his men reduced to almost helpless wretchedness, by the rains, unhealthy climate, and scarcity of food. They embarked for and landed on an island off the coast, and Almagro returned for fresh supplies to Panama ; but on arriving, the governor, instead of allowing him per mission to raise fresh recruits, sent a ship to bring back the Spaniards who were with Pizzaro. This vessel brought to Panama all but thirteen men, who volunteered to remain with Pizzaro, who was joined soon after by Almagro with a few men. They then sailed along the coast until they reached, it is stated, the thirtieth degree of south latitude. They were two years in making this voyage. They captured during that time several piraguas, some of which are said to have been laden with cargoes of considerable value ; and Pizzaro having gained certain intel ligence, by means of sending a trustworthy person into the country, of the great riches of the Incas, he and Almagro, with their remaining small force, returned to Panama. Difficulties arising on the refusal of the governor to allow them to depart on a third expedition, Pizzaro departed for Spain, and on his arrival at Toledo, where the court resided, he was received graciously by Charles V., to whom Piz zaro brought as a present some Peruvians in their national dress, three apalcas, or Peruvian sheep, and gold and silver articles of considerable value. He related all his adventures and described the countries he had discovered for his sove reign, who conferred on him the authority of governor and captain-general, and the title of Adelantado ; and he recommended that Luques should be appointed by the pope, bishop of those countries. Almagro was appointed governor of Tumbez. Pizzaro with these powers left Toledo in July, 1528, accompanied by six friars to convert the Mexicans. He remained for a considerable time after wards in Spain raising forces and supplies, and sailed in January, 1530, from CONQUEST OF PERU. .] \ i Seville, with the friars, his four brothers, and his troops and stores. They arrived safely at Nombre de Dios, from whence they crossed the country to Panama. Almagro, on being informed of what his colleagues had accomplished, be came exasperated at Pizzaro having acquired the chief honours for himself, and refused to co-operate with him, until Pizzaro should relinquish the title of Ade- lantado, and should agree to share equally with Almagro the territories to be conquered, and the spoils, after deducting the rights of the king, and the shares of the officers and soldiers. Pizzaro then embarked at Panama in three ships, with 185 foot soldiers; 37 horses, and with artillery, fire-arms, ammunition, and stores. Meeting with contrary winds, he landed 100 miles north of Tumbez, attacked and slaughtered the natives and plundered their villages. His troops, soon after, began to experience great suffering from sickness, scarcity of food, and other privations. He sent his ships back to Panama with the gold and silver he had plundered, and to bring back reinforcements. Fresh troops, sent by Almagro, having arrived from Panama, and reinforcements also from Nicaragua. Pizzaro, according to the Spanish writers, made rafts to float along the coast as far as Tumbez, which he finally reached : having been surprised more than once, and some of his people cut off, by the natives ; to whom, from the first, his conduct was perfidious and cruel. He then advanced with his artillery, cavalry, and foot, to the town of Tum bez, and after defeating the Peruvians, by the slaughter of several thousands, he drove the survivors from that place, and from the valley of the same name, leaving behind them all the rich treasures of the Temple of the Sun, and of the Inca s palace, and other rich buildings. This vast treasure consisted of enormous gold and silver plates and utensils ; emeralds, pearls, and other articles of pre cious value. Pizzaro then erected a fortress near the sea coast which he named St. Miguel. He then divided the gold and silver among the officers and sol diers, and made various arrangements for retaining possession of that part of the country, and for conquering all the remaining provinces. At this time the throne of Peru was contended for by Huascar and Atahu- alpa, the two sons of the late Inca. The forces of Huascar, who, as the eldest son, succeeded his father, were defeated with great slaughter, a little before this time, by those of his half-bro ther, Atahualpa, or Atabaliba, who also destroyed most of the inhabitants o Tumbez, who had declared for Huascar, This civil war enabled Pizzaro to ne gotiate successfully, as well as treacherously, with each of the brothers, who by their folly, or ambition, precipitated the ruin of their country. Atahualpa was the son, by a second marriage of Huana Capac to the Princess of Quito, a country which he had conquered. He was left by his father 1 Quito, as his natural inheritance. Huascar claimed it as sole heir t G 42 AMERICA. Capac ; Atahualpa determined to retain what his father had bequeathed. War followed. Atahualpa was defeated and taken prisoner. He escaped and joined his people, whom he found dispirited, and ready to yield to the Inca. Atahu.ilpa roused them, by declaring that when in prison, his father, Huana Capac, ap peared to him, instructed him how to proceed, and transformed him into a ser pent, in which form he was enabled to slip through a small aperture in the wall. This deception was rapidly circulated, and believed as a miracle, over the province. His people rose, nearly en masse, and he defeated in two or three battles the armies of Huascar, who was captured and kept as a prisoner. Atahualpa then usurped supreme authority over Peru, as well as over Quito. At this juncture he sent a mission, proffering friendship to Pizzaro. The latter ad vanced over a burning desert to visit Atahualpa at Caxamalca. He was met at the rich valley of Motupe by a second mission, headed by a person of the family of the Incas. He brought, exclusive of other rich presents and provisions for the army, a splendid pair of buskins, curiously wrought in gold, and bracelets cf emerald and gold : requesting Pizzaro to put them on when he came into the presence of the Inca, that the latter might recognise and honour him, by observ ing him decked in those ornaments. It appears that, from not understanding the language of each other, and having no good interpreter, the message of the Inca was not comprehended at the time by the Spaniards. Pizzaro then sent his brother, Ferdinand, and some others, as an embassy to Atahualpa. They were everywhere, on the route, abundantly supplied with conveniences and necessaries, and were received by the Inca in a splendid palace, where he, with those of his court, wore magnificent dresses, adorned with gold, emeralds, and feathers ; and Ferdinand Pizzaro was served with liqueurs, in gold vessels, by two beautiful princesses. The Peruvians, and the Spaniards, understood not a word of the discourse of the other. Through the medium of a wretched interpreter, called Philippoli, who comprehended but little of the Peruvian tongue, Ferdinand Pizzaro said " that he came to congratulate the Inca on the merciful goodness of his king, and of the pope, who sent the Spaniards, expressly, to deliver the Inca and his people from the tyranny of the devil, and, in futurity, from the eternal torments of hell/ Not comprehending this insulting address, the Inca is said to have replied, that he believed the Spaniards to be the children of the sun, to whose protection he recommended his subjects, and that he would next day visit the Spanish general in person. The Inca advanced to the quarters of Pizzaro in magnificent state, escorted by an army ; and Pizzaro, having drawn out his small force, in such order, as to present, in the front and flank, the appearance of an imposing body. Vincent de Valvarde, who was appointed Bishop of Peru, walked forward to the Inca, with a crucifix and breviary ; and, by means of an interpreter, pronounced a long and confused discourse, the substance of which, as related by various historians, was CONQUEST OF PERU. 40 that the Spaniards were sent by the King of Spain and the pope to make Chris- tians of the Peruvians ; that the crucifix was the symbol of worshipping Jesus, who had died to save mankind; and that the pope, who, as representing the Saviour on earth, held authority over all the nations of the world, had, in virtue of that right, granted the whole country of Peru to the King of Spain, to whom the Inca was now required to swear allegiance. The Inca is said to have an swered, that he would willingly become the ally and friend of the Spanish mo narch, but not his vassal, and that the pope must be a very munificent priest to grant away, so profusely, that which did not belong to him. That if the Christians adored a deity, who had suffered death, the Peruvians worshipped the sun, which could never die, and that he should wish to know where the Spa niards learnt their knowledge of religion. Vincent, delivering his breviary to the Inca, replied, in this book. The Inca placed the breviary close to his ear, and then throwing the book on the ground, replied, it tells me nothing of what you have said. The bishop, who observed the eager looks of the Spaniards, on beholding the great quantity of gold ornaments, and other rich articles, which adorned, or appeared among, the Peruvians, called out loudly, s: Vengeance ! Christians, vengeance ! witness how this infidel despises your religion. Kill these dogs, who throw under their feet the law of God." The Peruvians were immediately attacked : they offered no resistance, and several thousands were slaughtered, as passively, as if they had been sheep. This atrocious carnage could not be termed a battle. It was a massacre. Pizzaro seized the Inca by the hair ; dragged him from the golden litter, in which he was carried ; and putting him in fetters, placed him, as a prisoner, in close confinement. The spoils of the day were collected and brought to Pizzaro. This booty consisted of large gold and silver vessels ; ornaments and utensils of gold ; jewels and various other articles belonging to the court, and to the great officers of state and of the Peruvian army. A great number of Peruvian women, including several virgins of the sun, were also made captives. The Peruvian camp which was a few miles distant, was plundered the next day, and the Inca, observing that gold and silver were the first objects which the Spaniards seized, offered as much gold as would fill three apartments as large as his prison, in consideration of receiving his liberty. Pizzaro, regardless of the means, provided he succeeded in obtain ing gold, or in acquiring territory, sent three Spanish officers, with the Peruvian messengers, to Cusco, to receive and conduct back the ransom agreed upon by the Inca. They passed, on their way, through the town where Huascar was im prisoned. The latter was told that Atahualpa was a prisoner, and that they were going for the gold to ransom him. Huascar related the circumstances under, and by, which he was dethroned ; and promised three times as much treasure for his liberty as was agreed to be given on the part of his brother. The Spanish officers promised him redress, but left him in prison, until they had first secured 44 AMERICA. the treasures of Atahualpa. The conference of the Spaniards with Huascar, was immediately communicated to Atahualpa by his messengers. On receiving this intelligence, Atahualpa, to whose liberty, life, and power, the liberation of his bro ther would be fatal, gave instantly secret orders, which were immediately executed, directing that Huascar should be put to death. The treasure for the ransom of Atahualpa was brought to Caxamalca, besides a great quantity of gold, silver, and jewels, which were obtained by plunder. Meantime, Almagro, jealous of Pizzaro, arrived from Panama with a rein forcement. In order to appease Almagro, Pizzaro gave him a large sum in gold, and the value of 100,000 pesos, to distribute among his men. The value of the gold and silver given to his own troops, (only 1 60 in number) by Pizzaro, is stated to have been equal to 1,000,000 crowns of the money of that period, and equal to more than 10,000,000 crowns of the money of the present time. By far the greatest sum ever known to have been divided among the same number of soldiers. When the soldiers received their money, about sixty of them demanded their discharge, in order to return home and live peaceably on their fortunes. Al magro opposed this, while Pizzaro contended, that for every man who returned to Spain with money, ten would leave home for Peru. He then sent his brother Ferdinand with the king s share of the treasure, and with the men who returned to Spain. The accounts brought back of the exhaustless riches of the temples and of the capital, by the Spaniards who were sent for Atahualpa s ransom, induced Pizzaro and Almagro to become possessed of those treasures without further delay. Al magro urged, as the most effective measure, the immediate execution of the Inca. Pizzaro acquiesced in this barbarous demand. A sham trial was instituted, and Atahualpa was sentenced to be burnt, as a heretic and usurper. Father Vincent promising the Inca, that if he were to be baptised, he should not be burnt, but strangled. The Inca agreed, and he was hanged. This execution has been designated by Raynal, and others, a judicial assassination (assassinat juridique) . Pizzaro then marched with his forces to Cusco, the capital, from which the inhabitants, with their women and children, fled, with a few necessaries only, to the mountains. The treasures found in this city were described as of enormous amount and value. It was also discovered, that the chief people of the country were, from time immemorial, buried with their most valuable ornaments, whether of gold or of precious stones. The tombs of the dead were, in consequence, soon despoiled by the Spaniards : who are said to have found greater treasures in the city of the dead, than in that of the living. Manco Capac, who was, after the death of Huascar, thejieir to the throne of the Incas, had also fled to the moun tains. Pizzaro, by flattering promises, induced him, and many of the Peruvians, to return to Cusco. He then perceived that the Peruvians adored Manco ; that they were rising, in arms, in nearly all the provinces ; and that they might, from CONQUEST OF PEKU. 45 their great numbers, if resolutely determined, overwhelm the Spaniards, who were greatly reduced by the departure of those who returned to Panama. He therefore considered it safer to invest Manco with authority as Inca, than risk an attack by the Peruvians. Temporary peace was consequently established, until a strong reinforcement arrived soon after from Spain: which enabled Pizzaro to reduce Quito and several other provinces, and Peru may be said to have been conquered. It was not, however, the fortune of the Spanish invaders to remain undisturbed in their acquisitions. Pizzaro and Almagro had scarcely conquered the empire of the Incas, be fore a bold attempt was made to dispossess them. A new adventurer, Benal- cazar, governor of St. Michael, marched across the mountains, with a strong force, and conquered Quito. The famous General Alverado, the companion and lieutenant of Cortez, who had been placed by the King of Spain in the command and in possession of Guatemala, having heard of the great riches of the empire of the Incas, marched across the Andes ; and after enduring great hardships, and losing about sixty men, reached Peru, with about 400 horse and foot soldiers, with the determination to dislodge both Pizzaro and Almagro. Alverado finding Pizzaro, and his colleague, more securely and strongly established than he had expected, this hostile expedition was terminated by two treaties : the one pro viding a share of the plunder for the soldiers of Alverado, the other, stipulating that the latter should return to Guatemala, leaving his troops with Pizzaro, on his paying 100,000 pesos of gold to Alverado ; who received also, as a present, from Pizzaro 20,000 pesos, and valuable precious stones and ornaments. Pizzaro founded Lima in 1534. He soon after received from Spain the title of Marquis, and Governor of Peru. Almagro received also the title of marshal, and authority to conquer the territories, extending 200 leagues south of the countries previously comprehended within the empire of the Incas. Almagro, however, assumed the government of Cusco, which Pizzaro claimed. War between them followed. After several Spaniards were slain on both sides, they at last arranged temporarily their differences ; and Almagro marched south to conquer Chili, which he entered with difficulty, over the snow and the mountain passes. He is said to have lost on this perilous expedition 10,000 Peruvians, and more than 150 Spaniards, amidst the snows of the Andes. He fought several battles with the Chilians ; who, though a brave and fierce race, were, in all, defeated ; but Almagro, in consequence of new troubles in Peru, abandoned Chili. During this period Manco Capac obtained the consent of Ferdinand Pizzaro, who was an educated, and, compared to his half-brother Francis, a humane person, to attend what he designated a feast, but what was, in reality, a council of his chief countrymen. Among the natives, who had plotted under the tyranny of Almagro, was Philippillo, an interpreter, who had basely given false evidence 46 AMERICA. on the trial of Atahualpa. He afterwards joined a number of Peruvians, who had conspired to assassinate Almagro, and his treachery being discovered, he was executed by excruciating tortures. This execution occurred, when Manco Capac appeared amidst the council; at which, he prevailed upon the chiefs of the several provinces to rise, with all the Peruvians, simultaneously ; and, by one last, and desperate effort, surprise and cut off the Spaniards. The Peruvian chiefs, faithful to their promises, secretly communicated with the people, who rose on the appointed day, invested and took the castle of Cusco ; besieged with one army the large city in which there were but seventy Spaniards ; marched rapidly with another army towards Lima, against Pizzaro, and with a third they designed to surprise and destroy Almagro on his return from Chili. Manco Capac, however, was weak in judgment, and incapable of perseverance. He entertained superstitious delusions, and wanting courage, he directed the dispersion of the armies ; and that they should all retire with out delay, for security, among the fastnesses of the mountain regions. In the meantime, Almagro invested Cusco, and summoned the commander, Ferdinand Pizzaro, to surrender that city ; which the former refused, but which was ac complished, by the soldiers from within, opening the gates and admitting Al magro with his forces at midnight. He made Ferdinand and Gonzalo Pizzaro prisoners. The war between him and Francis Pizzaro was renewed, and termi nated finally by a bloody action, or battle, in which Almagro was defeated, and most of his officers, and a great number of men, killed. Almagro, who was old, weak, and gouty, was carried to the field in a litter, and after the battle, captured and imprisoned. A few months after, he was tried arid judged by his enemies, and, by order of Pizzaro, strangled in prison. His head was cut off next day on a scaffold. His body lay unremoved, and exposed nearly naked, no one having courage to bury the corpse of the colleague, who had so efficiently assisted a tyrant, now become sole governor of the Perus. In the dusk of the evening, a poor negro slave of Almagro, who may be ranked worthily with the f reed-man of Pompey, appeared with a coarse sheet, rolled it over the body, and then, carrying it to the church, the friars interred it privately under the altar. The kingdom of Quito, which had been conquered by Benalcazar, was recon quered by Gonzalo Pizzaro ; and the latter was then ordered by his brother to march and conquer the countries east of the Andes. This bold enterprise was undertaken, with great spirit, and little success. After crossing the mountains, where a great part of his forces perished, from cold and want of sustenance, he reached the banks of the Naco, a branch of the Maragnon, or Amazon. He there constructed, with great patience and labour, a rude vessel, in order to con vey them towards countries, which were reported by the natives, as rich in gold, and abounding with provisions. Fifty soldiers, under the command of Francis CONQUEST OF PERU. 47 Orellana, were sent forward in this craft, with orders to await Gonzalo and the remaining troops, where the Naco joined the main stream, and which, by report, was not far distant. Orellana was a young, ambitious, and daring spirit. He floated rapidly down the Naco to the Maragnon, and regardless of his trust betrayed it, in the ardour of making new discoveries ; considering, probably, and with truth, that no one could exceed the Pizzaros in treachery. He held out to his companions the glory and advantages of discovering the vast regions through which so great a river must flow, wherever it might fall into the ocean : whether to the east, to the south, to the west, or to the north. They readily consented to follow him, on one of the most daring and perilous expeditions that had ever been conceived. In a frail leaky vessel, without a compass, and without any provisions, but such as they might be fortunate enough to procure by the way ; and ignorant as to whether the mighty stream was broken by waterfalls, or interrupted by rocks or other obstacles ; and without any information as to the nations, savage or civilised, who inhabited its banks, they floated down the greatest river in the world. They landed frequently, made various incursions on both sides ; some times obtaining provisions by friendly intercourse, at other times by force of arms; they encountered and overcame numerous dangers; and, finally, reached the mouth of the Amazon, and, without knowing the place, arrived at a Spanish settlement, which had been formed on the Island of Culagua. Orellana sailed soon after for Spain, where he gave the most exaggerated accounts of the country through which the Maragnon flows. He described a republic of giant female warriors ; and, the very river obtained a name from the supposed country of those Amazons. His golden descriptions gave the name of Eldorada to the newly- discovered regions. And Europe continued for a long time to entertain the delusions which those exaggerated accounts created. Gonzalo Pizzaro, and his remaining followers, on discovering that Orel lana had deserted them, began to retrace their way back, over the Andes ; and after enduring extraordinary fatigue, suffering, and privations, and feeding on roots, berries, and reptiles, after they had eaten their horses and dogs, reached Quito : having passed on their return over twelve hundred miles of country; and after losing, in this ill-planned and wild expedition, it is sai<i, 210 Spaniards and i native Peruvians. Pizzaro afterwards conquered the province of Charcas, in which were situate, the mines of Potosi. Several other places were also added by him t Spanish dominions. As he advanced in age, his natural tyrannical characl in his individual conduct and government, marked by increased haughtmes cruelty. After the death of Almagro, the adherents of the latter plotted agamst Pizzaro, in Spain; and the discontented, among all the Spaniards, conspired 4^ AMERICA. secretly against him, in Peru. Pizzaro, considering his authority unstable, until he had exterminated all those who were formerly attached to Almagro, he reduced them to beggary, and then forbade, by an edict, any one to relieve them, even by alms. On the publication of this decree, twelve of the former officers of Almagro, reduced to desperation, appeared suddenly on the grand square of Lima, where, it is said, there were at the time, it being Sunday, more than a thousand persons assembled ; and crying out loudly, " Long live the King, but let the Tyrant die," they rushed into the palace of Pizzaro, the doors and gates of which being open, they ascended the stairs, entered the hall, where they found the governor, with his brother-in-law and two officers. Most of the household fled : and after some spirited resistance, in which four of the Almagrian officers fell, Francis Pizzaro was run through the body, and died immediately. His brother-in-law, and the two officers were killed at the same time. Diego Almagro. natural son of Almagro. was immediately proclaimed governor of Peru in the great square ; where there were assembled, secretly, many of his father s former adherents, and numbers who detested, but who, an hour before, were terrified on hearing the name of Pizzaro. This happened on the 20th of June, 1541. Lima, Cusco, and most of the principal towns, declared for young Almagro ; but several places held out until the arrival of the new gover nor. Vaca de Castro, from Spain. This man was bred to the law : a profession not suitable to his mind. Charles V., who understood his character, appointed him governor of Peru. On assuming the government, he showed no respect for any one person, more than for all. He made no distinction between Spaniards and Peruvians; and considered both merely as Spanish subjects. He neither nattered nor threatened any one. He administered all public affairs, wholly as a governor ; and lived simply and frugally, as a private gentleman. Almagro refused to submit, being still supported by about 500 men, with a train of artil lery. A desperate battle was fought, September, 1542, from which, after a brave defence, the latter retreated. In this battle Almagro committed some acts of des perate resolution. On finding that Pedro de Candia, the commander of his artil lery, had betrayed him, Almagro ran him through the body and killed him on the field. He retreated upon Cusco, but was betrayed, and given up by his soldiers. Almagro, who was about twenty years old, was soon after tried and executed. His advisers and those who had chiefly supported him were subjected to a similar fate. During the government of De Castro, who was sacrificed to the spirit of jealousy, and imprisoned on no charge that could be proved, and who gave his mind altogether to the civil administration, to the maintenance of peace, to the building of new towns and forming new settlements, the state of Peru was gene- CONQUEST OF PERU. 4^ rally tranquil. From the time he was replaced by the Viceroy Nunez Vela, and the Royal Audience, corruption, intrigue, and jealousy, prevailed, battles, in which much blood was shed, were fought, among the contending Spanish leaders of the Pizzaro party, and those who were their rivals. Gonzalo Pizzaro, after various actions, utterly defeated the royal troops in a battle in which he killed the viceroy. Pedro de la Gasco, a priest, was afterwards sent from Spain as President of Peru, and aided by reinforcements, fought several battles and finally defeated and captured Pizzaro, who was immediately tried and beheaded in April 1548. Disorders, intrigues, and jealousies, continued to prevail among the authori ties : one administration succeeded another ; and the viceroys and judges quar relled. Under the Viceroy Toledo, Tupac Amaru, the son of Manco Capac, was attacked, on retreating among the mountains, taken prisoner, and beheaded. He was the last of the line of the Incas. Chili, from which Almagro had returned without establishing any settlement, was afterwards invaded by a force under Valdivia, who had several desperate en counters with the natives : who proved themselves a far more courageous and fierce race than those of Mexico and Peru. He was defeated, and cut off with great loss, and was succeeded in command by Viliagra. who, with the other Spanish officers and troops, finally conquered all Chili, or the plain country lying between the Andes and the Pacific. The country of Buenos Ayres had been discovered and partly explored, in 1515, by Juan Diaz di Solis, but was neglected from no gold having been found. The town, of the same name, was founded by Pedro de Mendoza, in 1535, and was afterwards twice abandoned, before it was rebuilt, as a permanent Spanish residence. The river and country of La Plata and Paraguay was discovered by Diaz de Solis, in 1516, and afterwards explored by Sebastian Cabot ; and by the Jesuits, who went forth, not with arms to destroy, and conquer ; but with eloquent tongues to persuade and win over, mildly, the possessors of those re gions. Mexico and California, part of Florida, nearly all South America, ex cepting acquisitions of the Jesuits, the Pampas, and the countries of diffied access, on the Eastern sides of the Andes, and including the Spani India Islands, and excepting Brazil, were, finally, by injustice, tread force, subjected to the crown of Spain. Slavery, exclusive commercetrading monopolies, the Royal Audiences, and the non-toleration of any r the Roman Catholic, were immediately afterwards introduced, and o almost uninterrupted, until all those countries, except Cuba an^ declared and established their independence. 50 AMERICA. CHAPTER VII. CONDUCT OF THE SPANISH CONQUERORS TOWARDS THE ABORIGINES OF AMERICA. ON reviewing the discovery and conquest of America by the Europeans, we are not the apologists, of the Portuguese, of the French, of the Dutch, or of the English. We will not overlook the conduct of either of these, towards the natives in the brief accounts, which we may give in this work, of the countries which have been subjected to each of those powers. In concluding this summary of the discovery, and conquest, of America, by Spain, we cannot dismiss this magnificent era, in the history of the world, without some remarks on the con duct of the Spanish conquerors towards the aborigines of America.* The Abbe Raynal philosophically, and humanely, observes, * The great moral advocate of the aborigines of America was Father La Casas, Bishop of Chiapa. Pnrchas, in his quaint style, gives the following summary of the statements of La Casas. " But for the poore Indians, Bartholomew de las Casas, a Dominike frier, of the same order as Fonseca, and after a Bishop of Chiapa, in America, hath written a large and vnanswerable treatise of the enormous cruelties, and vnchristian antichristian proceedings in the New World, the summe whereof is this, That the Indians were a simple harmelesse people, loyall to their lords, and such as gave no cause to the Spaniards of dislike, till they by extreame injuries were prouoked : they are also docile and pliant both to good doctrine and lining. To these lambes, sayeth he, the Spaniards came as cruell and hungry tygres, beares, and lions, intending nothing those forty yeeres (hee wrote this anno 1542), but bloud and slaughter, to satisfie their auarice and ambition : insomuch that of three millions of people which were contayned in Hispaniola of the naturall inhabitants, there scarce remayned at that time three hundred, and now, as Alexandre Vrsino reporteth, none at all : only two and twenty thousand negroes and some Spaniards reside there. " Cuba and the other islands had endured the like miserie ; and in the firme land ten king- domes, greater than all Spaine, were dispeopled and desolate ; and in that space there had not perished lesse than twelue millions by their tyrannic ; and he might truly say that fifty millions had payed nature s debt. " In the island Hispaniola the Spaniards had their first Indian habitations, where their cruelties draue the Indians to their shifts, and to their weake defence, which caused those enraged lions to spare neyther man, woman, nor childe : they ripped vp the great-bellied women, and would lay wagers, who could with most dexteritie strike off an Indian s head, or smite him asunder in the middle : they would plucke the infants by the heeles from their mothers brests, and dash out their braines against the stones, or with a scoffe hurle them into the riuer. They set vp gibbets, and in honour of Christ and his twelve apostles (as they said, and could the deuill say worse?), they would both hang and burne them. Others they tooke, and cutting their hands almost off, bid them carry those letters (their hands dropping bloud, and almost dropping off themselves) to their countrimen, which (for feare of the like) lay hidden in the mountaines. " The nobles and commanders they broyled on gridirons. I once (sayth our author) saw foure or fine of the chiefs of them thus roasted, which making a lamentable noyse, the nicer captaine bade they should be strangled, but the cruell tormentor chose rather to stop their mouthes, so to prevent their outcryes, and to continue their broyling till they were dead. They had dogs to hunt them out of their couerts, which deuoured the poore soules : and because sometimes the Indians, thus preuoked, would kill a Spaniard, if they found opportunitie, they made a law, that a hundred of them for one Spaniard should be slciine. The King of Magua offered to till the ground for them for fifty miles space, if they would spare him and his people FATE OF THE ABORIGINES. 51 " I have not undertaken to be the eulogist of the conquerors of the newly- discovered hemisphere. My judgment has not been corrupted, by the splendour of their success, to overlook their injustice, and their crimes. I write history. I write it often with sorrow. Astonishment has, alternately, succeeded my painful reflections. I have been astonished, that none of those bold warriors did not observe the more certain conduct of gentleness and humanity; that they pre ferred to act as the tyrants, than as the benefactors, of the native races. By what strange blindness did they not feel, that by devastating the countries which they conquered, they diminished their importance ; and that by cruelty they acquired possessions less tranquil, and less lucrative ? It is asserted, that in countries where man has never appeared, the most timid animals will approach him, without fear. No one shall ever persuade me, that at the first sight of Europeans, the savage was more wild than the quadrupeds. That experience was certainly fatal, which taught him the peril of familiarity with Europeans." We may reasonably conclude, that nearly all the accounts of the Spanish conquerors, and of the historians of their deeds, have greatly exaggerated the numbers of those whom they attacked and destroyed in battle; and we have no certain evidence to prove that in the accusations of Las Casas and others, the num ber of victims which were sacrificed to Spanish rapacity and fanaticism, were not overstated. But we have, after every deduction and allowance, sufficient proof of the extermination of whole tribes, and the annihilation, either by sudden means, or by slower destruction, of a great portion of the native inhabitants. from the mynes. The captaine, in recompence defloured his wife ; and hee, hiding himselfe, was taken, and sent into Spaine, but the ship perished in the way. " In the kingdom Xaraqua, in Hispaniola, the goueruour called before him three hundred Indian lords, which he partly burned in a house, arid put the rest to the sword, and hanged vp the Queene, as they did also to Hiquanama, the Queene of Hiquey. Of all which cruelties our author an eye-witness affirmeth, that the Indians gaue no cause by any crime, that had so deserued by any law. " And for the rest thatremayued after these warres, they shared them as slaues. They which should haue instructed them in the Catholike faith, were ignorant, cruell, and couetous. The men were spent in the mynes, the women consumed in tillage, and hoth by heauie burthen: which they made them carry, by famine, by scourging, and other miseries. " In New Spaine, from the yeere 1518 to 1530, in foure hundred and eighty miles aboii Mexico, they destroyed aboue foure millions of people in their conquests by fire and sword, n< reckoning those which dyed in seruitude and oppression. In the proumce of INaco and 1 ras, from the yeere 1524 to 1535, two millions of men perished, and scarcely two tl remayne. In Guatimala, from the yeere 1524 to 1540, they destroyed aboue foure or hue milli vnder that Aluarado who dying, by the fall off his horse, complained (when he was asked where his paine was most) of his soule-torment ; and his city Guatimala was with a threefold d earth, of water, of stones, oppressed and ouerwhelmed. " They did the like in the kingdom of Venezuela, destroying foure or hue millions ; ai n.t ofthatfirme land, carried to the islands for slaves at times, in seuenteene yeeres, a milli ^ But why doe I longer trace them in their bloudy steps ; seeing r much more than I, yet protested! that it was a thousand times worse. O their sparing no persons ? plucking the child from the brest, to quarter it turing kings with new deuices, borrowed eyther from the inquisition or from the noses and hands of men and women that lined in peace with them; selling .the and child, todiuers places and persons; lying with the women (as one ^ being with childe, they might yeeld more money in the sale ? How wa rate in these prodigious monsters ?" Purchas, vol. v., et scq. 52 AMERICA. The aborigines of Hay ti were estimated at not less than 1 ,000,000 of inhabitants, when discovered by Columbus. They were a sober hospitable people. Poverty was unknown among them. They led simple lives, their food was maize, fruits, esculant roots, shell-fish. The Spanish themselves describe them as a humane people,without malignity ; while Columbus gave them red caps, beads, pins, knives, small bells, &c., in exchange for gold and provisions. They assisted him in build ing his fort at Hayti. He always urged that they should be kindly treated; but the love of gold was paramount to humanity, among his followers, and among the Spaniards who afterwards resorted to Hayti : many of whom were convicts, who not only conspired against Columbus, but against all authority. Gold and food was supplied by the natives. The more they gave the more the insatiable Spaniards demanded. Under the pretence of forcing them to embrace Christianity, Ferdinand, after the death of Isabella, consented to divide the whole island, and all the aborigines, as slaves among the Spaniards according to their rank. The natives were hunted by blood-hounds, they were dragged to work, in the mines coupled, and chained together, without regard to sex. In despair, the natives often, first slaying their wives and children, poisoned, hung, or stabbed them selves. The Spaniards, in their superstition, also sacrificed thirteen aborigines daily, in honour of Jesus, and the twelve apostles. Fanaticism was always com bined with the rapacity of the Spanish conquerors and soldiers. The whole Haytian race was soon completely exterminated. The atrocities, cruelties, and base treacheries of Obando, of Pedrarius, and of Cortez, in Mexico ; of Pizzaro, in Peru; and of the Spaniards in every part of America which we have briefly alluded to, are well known to all readers of the early details, and of the various accounts of the European settlements in America.* The Peruvians, from all the information that we can rely upon, seem, from the first appearance of their conquerors, to have entertained the most superstitious and dispiriting fears of the Spaniards; and to have submitted or fled, or allowed themselves to be massacred, with much less bravery, and resistance, than was displayed by the Mexicans. The avarice, the cruelty, the deception, and treachery of the human monsters, who subdued Peru, would seem to have exceeded in atrocities those of all other conquests. But history, unfortunately, has had to record so many unjust wars, conquests, and tyrannies, in which carnage, treach ery, and cruelty are the conspicuous facts, that we are compelled to hesitate, in pronouncing a comparative judgment, even on the atrocious conquest of Peru. The Spaniards, whether in St. Domingo, Mexico, Peru, or wherever they acquired power in America, forgot every feeling of benevolence, in their avaricious passion for gold. They acted towards the most civilised of the aborigines, not as if they were human beings, but as brutes. They declared that even the Mexicans, Tlascalans, and Peruvians, had no governments worth preserving ; * See Herrara, Las Casas, B. Diaz, Ravnal, &c. CONQUEST OF BRAZIL. because they did not exactly resemble that of Spain ; that they had no magis tracy, inasmuch as it did not accord, in its forms, with the police of Madrid ; that they could have no virtue, as they had not been baptized, and that as they were not Christians, it was a duty, in order to punish them, to introduce the inquisition. The Jesuits, and such men as Bartholomew de las Casas, Bishop of Chiapi, were alone the Europeans, who, in Mexico, and in the other provinces of Spanish America, had acted like Christians, and as members of the great human family towards the red nations of the new hemisphere. CHAPTER VIII. DISCOVERY AND CONQUESTS OF THE PORTUGUESE AND DUTCH IN AMERICA. THE Portuguese, as early as 1482, extended their discoveries along various parts of the coast of Africa, from Tangier south to Benguela, in 10 deg. 35 min. south latitude. In 1487 they reached the Cape of Good Hope: and, they disco vered, and sailed, on a previously unknown route to India, in 1497. In 1500 Don Pedro Alvarez de Cabral, on sailing with a fleet of thirteen vessels from Portugal for India, proceeded to the Cape de Verd islands, and in order to avoid the calms, experienced by him, during previous voyages, off the coast of Africa, he sailed on a south-westerly course, and discovered, accidentally, the coast of Brazil. If the western hemisphere had not been discovered pre viously by Columbus, it would, soon after, have been found out by accident. But this circumstance, does not detract in the least, from the intrepidity and scientific ability of that great man. Cabral finding a heavy sea rolling on the coast, sailed as far as latitude 15 deg. south. He entered a harbour, which he called Porto Seguro; and finding the country fertile, healthy, and well watered, landed a number of his men. The natives were kind, charitable, and gentle. He erected a cross, and took possession of the country in the name of his king. He then despatched a vessel to Lisbon with an account of the discovery he had made ; and left two of the felons, he had on board for transportation, ashore in Porto Seguro, in order to learn the native language. Expeditions were soon after sent from Portugal to this new region ; and dis putes arising with the King of Spain as to its limit, it was finally agreed that Portugal should possess the country south from the river Maragnon, or Amazon, to the river Plate. The native inhabitants of this magnificent region resemble very nearly complexion, the Portuguese. The aboriginals of America, are, in truth, AMERICA. of a merchant of Amsterdam, a goldsmith of Ilarlaem, and a carpcter dk burg, who were prudent men in their several trades, which they uucr- horoughly; but they comprehended little else; and by endeavouring tace- rictly the orders of the company, and by demanding all exactions fronthe uese planters, a revolt was planned, under the countenance of the Prtu- Viceroy, by John Fernandez Veira, a man who had been formed* a r s apprentice in Portugal, afterwards a page to one of the magistrate -of , and after its capture, he became rich as a factor for the managemet) of itch sugar plantations. This revolt was carried into effect, with extror- skill, and with complete success, notwithstanding the great exertions nd 1 of the Dutch admiral, and of fresh reinforcements, by several fleets, fim d, and a war between the latter and Portugal, which was carried on at \st e and great loss to Holland until 1C55, when the Dutch were compelle>to n the last of the possessions which they had acquired in Brail. tails of the affairs of the Dutch in Brazil are remarkably instructi?<to rho would plant, or retain colonies. Public companies have, in the od, tceedingly injurious to the real interests of Holland. The exception. lire icre they have not, as trading companies, been pernicious in all count ra. cupidity of the Dutch West India company, Holland lost Brazil. lad tch government settled the country, by private enterprise, and protecnd 3nists only as citizens, it is probable that a great part of Brazil would hre ill held by the Netherlands. ; Dutch planted a colony on the banks of the river Hudson, in 1610, ad, :, they settled on the Island of Curacoa, on account of its good pastrc ivenient position ; and in 1G39, they established a colony at St. Eustatis, md been resorted to previously by some French, and soon after at^t. , In 1732-4 the Dutch settled also on the river Berbice. en Count Maurice departed from Brazil, the possessions which he had a- included seven captainships, one capital, thirty towns, and forty-fe fortresses. Exclusive of natives, and of the troops and sailors, there wre 3 territories above 20,000 Dutch citizens of all ages and of both sext ; negro slaves. The average produce of sugar cultivated by the lattr, other crops, amounted to 25,000 large chests. :e that period, the Portuguese have remained the undisputed masterof it Brazilian empire. The resources, the population, the productions, ad which, and the separation of its government from that of Portugal, tH a separated account, which we shall endeavour to detail in a separate forn ORIGIN OF AFRICAN SLAVERY IN AMERICA. CHAPTER IX. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF NEGRO SLAVERY IN AMERICA. THE Portuguese having formed establishments on the coast of Guinea, far south as St. Paulo de Loanda and Bengucla, before the discovei nerica, the traffic in slaves, at all periods carried on in Africa, was scarce indertaken by Europeans, until the rapacity of the Spaniards, first, ca nand for negro labour in the western hemisphere. Phe conquerors of St. Domingo, having plundered the meanest hut, in ore bun gold, and having afterwards worn out and exterminated the Aborigine ing them to work in the mines, they were the first to employ slave la iahe new world. Negroes were, previously, brought to the Portuguese statior rican coasts ; whence they were soon after transported, as were alsc coricts of Portugal, in order to cultivate the soil of Brazil. \.ll the European nations, who established colonies in America, introdi atofi labour at an early period ; but, for a long time, England was the contry, which had engaged in the disgraceful and atrocious traffic of suppl t foreign plantations of other Christian states with slaves. The early navig of .ngland, who frequented the coasts of Africa and America, cannot be cc dad in a more favourable light, however much their exploits have been exto tl piratical marauders. \Ve cannot even except Sir Francis Drake from btok catalogue ; and, excepting that their exploits were conducted upon agre oe, and that their plundering adventures were sanctioned by royal authorit ahough the latter was sometimes disregarded, the celebrated Buccaneer Antilles and Lucayan islands, had as high a moral justification, for t -ies and murders, as the authorised depredators, who sailed under the : Ig, Of those armed maritime rovers, the one who appears in the most dis notable character in the naval chronicles of England, is Sir John Hawkins, af *ais the treasurer of Queen Elizabeth s navy. His father, who had trade- tb<0anaries and to the coast of Africa and Brazil, left his journals, cont inflowing accounts of these countries, to his son, who was also brought u] tbesea. Hakluyt, describing the first slave-trading voyage of the right u and valiant knight, and treasurer of her Majesties navie," says, in style, "and bdn amongst other particulars assured, that NEGROES t GOOD MARC..ANDIZE i/i Ui,paHiola, and that store of NEGROES mieo ***d upon the coatt of Guinea, revived M* himselfe to make trial 56 AMERICA. sisting of a merchant of Amsterdam, a goldsmith of Harlaem, and a carpenter of Middleburg, who were prudent men in their several trades, which they under stood thoroughly; but they comprehended little else ; and by endeavouring to exe cute strictly the orders of the company, and by demanding all exactions from the Portuguese planters, a revolt was planned, under the countenance of the Portu guese Viceroy, by John Fernandez Veira, a man who had been formerly a butcher s apprentice in Portugal, afterwards a page to one of the magistrates of Olinda, and after its capture, he became rich as a factor for the management of the Dutch sugar plantations. This revolt was carried into effect, with extraor dinary skill, and with complete success, notwithstanding the great exertions and bravery of the Dutch admiral, and of fresh reinforcements, by several fleets, from Holland, and a war between the latter and Portugal, which was carried on at vast expense and great loss to Holland until 1655, when the Dutch were compelled to abandon the last of the possessions which they had acquired in Brazil. The details of the affairs of the Dutch in Brazil are remarkably instructive to those who would plant, or retain colonies. Public companies have, in the end, been exceedingly injurious to the real interests of Holland. The exceptions are few, where they have not, as trading companies, been pernicious in all countries. By the cupidity of the Dutch West India company, Holland lost Brazil. Had the Dutch government settled the country, by private enterprise, and protected the colonists only as citizens, it is probable that a great part of Brazil would have been still held by the Netherlands. The Dutch planted a colony on the banks of the river Hudson, in 1610, and, in 1634, they settled on the Island of Curacoa, on account of its good pasture and convenient position; and in 1639, they established a colony at St. Eustatius, which had been resorted to previously by some French, and soon after at St. Martin. In 1732-4 the Dutch settled also on the river Berbice. When Count Maurice departed from Brazil, the possessions which he had ac quired, included seven captainships, one capital, thirty towns, and forty-five regular fortresses. Exclusive of natives, and of the troops and sailors, there were in those territories above 20,000 Dutch citizens of all ages and of both sexes ; 60,000 negro slaves. The average produce of sugar cultivated by the latter, besides other crops, amounted to 25,000 large chests. Since that period, the Portuguese have remained the undisputed masters of the great Brazilian empire. The resources, the population, the productions, and trade of which, and the separation of its government from that of Portugal, will require a separated account, which we shall endeavour to detail in a separate form. ORIGIN OF AFRICAN SLAVERY IN AMERICA. CHAPTER IX. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF NEGRO SLAVERY IN AMERICA. THE Portuguese having formed establishments on the coast of Guinea, and as far south as St. Paulo de Loanda and Benguela, before the discovery of America, the traffic in slaves, at all periods carried on in Africa, was scarcely, if at all, undertaken by Europeans, until the rapacity of the Spaniards, first, caused a demand for negro labour in the western hemisphere. The conquerors of St. Domingo, having plundered the meanest hut, in order to obtain gold, and having afterwards worn out and exterminated the Aborigines, by subjecting them to work in the mines, they were the first to employ slave labour in the new world. Negroes were, previously, brought to the Portuguese stations on the African coasts ; whence they were soon after transported, as were also the convicts of Portugal, in order to cultivate the soil of Brazil. All the European nations, who established colonies in America, introduced slave labour at an early period; but, for a long time, England was the only country, which had engaged in the disgraceful and atrocious traffic of supplying the foreign plantations of other Christian states with slaves. The early navigators of England, who frequented the coasts of Africa and America, cannot be consi dered in a more favourable light, however much their exploits have been extolled, than piratical marauders. We cannot even except Sir Francis Drake from this black catalogue ; and, excepting that their exploits were conducted upon a greater scale, and that their plundering adventures were sanctioned by royal authority, although the latter was sometimes disregarded, the celebrated Buccaneers, of the Antilles and Lucayan islands, had as high a moral justification, for their piracies and murders, as the authorised depredators, who sailed under the En glish flag. Of those armed maritime rovers, the one who appears in the most disho nourable character in the naval chronicles of England, is Sir John Hawkins, after wards the treasurer of Queen Elizabeth s navy. His father, who had traded to the Canaries and to the coast of Africa and Brazil, left his journals, contain ing glowing accounts of these countries, to his son, who was also brought up to the sea. Hakluyt, describing the first slave-trading voyage of " the right wor- shipfull and valiant knight, and treasurer of her Majesties navie," says, in his quaint style, " and being amongst other particulars assured, that NEGROES were VERY GOOD MARCHANDizEm Hispaniola, and that store of NEGROES might easily be had upon the coast of Guinea, resolved within himself e to make trial then i 58 AMERICA. and communicated that device with his worshipful friends in London : namely, Sir Lionel Ducket, Sir Thomas Lodge, and many others, all which persons liked so well of his intention, that they became liberal contributors and adventurers in this action, for which purpose there were three good ships immediately provided. The one, called the Solomon, of 120 tunnes, wherein Mr. Hawkins went himself as general ; the 2nd, the Swallow, and of 100 tunnes ; and the 3d, the Jonas, of 40 tunnes, in which three ships Mr. Hawkins took no more than 100 men." With this fleet Hawkins sailed from England, in October 1562, and having touched at the Canaries, sailed for and arrived at Suruheme, " when" according to Hakluyt, "he stayed some good time, and got into his possession, partly hy the sword, partly by other meanes, to the nomber of 300 NEGROES at the least, with other marchandises which that countrey yeeldeth. With this praye he sailed over the ocean sea unto the island of Hispaniola, and arrived first at the port of Isabel/a, and there he had reasonable utterance of English commodities, as also of some part of negroes, trusting the Spaniards no further than that, by his owne strength he was able still to master them. From the port of Isabella he went to Porte de Plata, where he made like sales, standing always upon his gard : from thence he sailed to Monte Christi, another port on the north side of Hispaniola, and the last place of his touching, where he had peaceable trajique, and made vent of the whole number of his negroes, for which he received in those three places, by way of exchange, such quantitie of marchandise, that he did not onely loade his owne three ships with hides, ginger, sugaj s, and some quantities of pearles, but he fraighted also two other hulkes with hides and other like commodities, which he sent into Spaine, and thus leaving the island, he returned and disembarked, passing out by the islands of the Caycos, ivithout further entering into the bay of Mexico in this hisjirst voyage to the West India. And so with prosperous successe, and much gaine to himselfe and the aforesaid adventurers, he came home, and arrived in the month of September, 1563." Such is the account we have of the commencement of the trade in slaves by the English, as written about 1598, with complacent satisfaction, at its success, by the Reverend Richard Hakluyt, Prebend of Westminster. It appears that many of the negroes who had been sold in Hayti by Hawkins, were inveigled away by him from Africa, by his describing their wretched condi tion, in comparison to what it would be in the fertile and happy country, to which, if they pleased, he would convey them, and where they would be received with hospitality and friendship. These negroes had previously been attacked by a hostile tribe, and the former being assisted by Hawkins, captured several of the latter : by which means, he carried to Hayti a mixed cargo of nearly 400 of both tribes. When he returned to England with his ships richly laden, the success of his voyage occasioned the greatest curiosity and interest; and some persons, who ORIGIN OF AFRICAN SLAVERY IN AMERICA. 50 judged of the expedition according to its barbarous character, represented its ini quity to Queen Elizabeth; who sent for Hawkins, and expressed her displeasure at his carrying off the Africans without their consent. Hawkins denied his having done so; and that he considered what he had accomplished was an act of humanity, in carrying men with their own consent, from a country of heathen barbarism, to a land of Christians, who would soon convert the poor infidels. This canting hypocritical declaration satisfied the virgin queen; who promised her countenance and support to Hawkins, while he continued to carry Africans, with their free will, to where they should embrace the true faith. We may observe that the most cruel traffic in which the English were engaged, was like other atrocities, commenced under a religious pretence. Dr. Robertson, in his history of America, dwells upon, and exemplifies, the prevailing combination of fanaticism and avarice which distinguished the disco veries, conquests, and settlements of America. The endeavour to palliate in justice and cruelty by religious pretexts, or motives, is certainly among the most remarkable, and prevalent, iniquities of that period. In October, 1564, Hawkins sailed on his second slave-trading voyage, on board the Jesus, of Lubeck, of 700 tons : a great burthen for a ship at that period. He was accompanied by his former ship, the Solomon, and two smaller vessels; and, having met at sea with two of the queen s armed ships, the John Baptist, and Minion, they proceeded together to the coast of Africa. On his arrival, Hawkins commenced trafficking on the coast of Sierra Leone, and in order, if he could, to keep his promise to the queen, he began his former method of inveigling the negroes away from their country ; but as none of those, whom he carried away during the last voyage, had returned, he found the Africans suspicious ; and the masters and crews of the ships of war becoming impatient, some dying, and all suffering from the delay on an unhealthy coast, the masters proposed im mediate recourse to the compulsory capturing of negroes. The Africans were con sequently attacked several times ; sometimes with success, and often with the loss of life on both sides : at length they completed their cargoes of human victims. In the journal of this piratical expedition in Hakluyt s collection, it is stated: " The 29th of the same month (January), we departed with all our ships from the SIERRA LEONA, towards the West Indies, where, for the space of twenty- eight daies wee were becalmed, having nowe and then contrarie windes, and some tornados amongest the same calme, which happened to us very ill, being but reasonably watered for so great a companie of negroes and ourselves, which pinched us all; and that which was worst, put us in such feare, that many never thought of getting to the Indies, without great death of negroes and themselves : but Almighty God, who never suffereth his elect to perish, sent us the 16th of Februarie the ordinarie briese, which was the north-east winde, which never left 60 AMERICA. us until we came to an island of the cannybals, called Saneta Dominica, on the 9th of March." Hawkins proceeded with his vessels and slaves from one Spanish port to another in the West India islands, until he sold all his negroes, and retired to England by way of Florida. Such was the origin of that atrocious traffic, which England carried on, by many of her merchants, shipowners, and manners, becoming a confederation of legalised pirates ; who conducted their depredations, by fleets fitted out from her harbours; who entered into the assiento contracts to supply the Spanish West Indies with negro slaves ; and, who bequeathed to America the most pernicious and, up to the present day and probably hereafter, a greater curse than all the plagues which affected the Egyptians. CHAPTER X. FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA FRANCIS I. COMMIS SIONS VERRAZANI TO MAKE DISCOVERIES JACQUES CARTJER DISCOVERS THE ST. LAWRENCE COLIGNI; THE HUGUENOTS, UNDER HIS AUSPICES, ATTEMPT TO COLONIZE BRAZIL AND FLORIDA DISASTROUS END OF THOSE COLONISTS. FRANCIS I. of France, on being informed of the great discoveries and con quests made in America and the Indies, by the subjects of his ambitious rival, Charles V., and by the Portuguese, commissioned Verazani, an intrepid Florentine navigator, to proceed on a voyage of discovery in 1524. This navigator proceeded to the coast of America, along which he is said to have sailed from latitude 28 deg. N. to 50 deg. N. ; being about the same extent of coast as that which was discovered and explored by the Cabots in 1496-7. On a third voyage, Ver- razani was shipwrecked, and perished. It would appear from various records, that from the first establishment of settlements in America, by the Spaniards, the ships of war of France proceeded across the Atlantic, not on voyages of discovery, but to intercept Spanish vessels, several of which had been captured by the French. Canada is supposed to have been first discovered by the Spaniards, who despised the country ; which they considered unworthy of settlement, as they had pre viously considered Florida of no value ; because no gold was found in those re gions. The country is even said to have derived its name from the two Spanish words Aca Nada, here is nothing, which the Spaniards exclaimed, and which FRENCH ATTEMPT SETTLEMENTS. Gi being repeated by the natives on the arrival of the French, the latter mistook the words for the name of the country, which they pronounced Canada. Jacques Carder, a mariner of St. Maloes, was commissioned by the French government to make discoveries, and establish colonies in America. He sailed in two vessels of about 20 tons each, from St. Maloes, in April, and arrived on the coast of Newfoundland on the 10th of May, 1534. He entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the festival of that saint, gave the name to the gulf which it still retains, and after exploring the greater part of its coasts and islands, he returned to France in the end of August. On the following year he was invested with the command of three large ships, and arrived within the Gulf of St. Lawrence in July. He sailed up the great Hochelaga, or river of Canada, which he named the St. Lawrence. He explored the river as far as the island on which Montreal now stands. He was kindly treated by the natives, and he passed the winter in Canada. He returned to France the following summer. Yet, notwithstanding the favourable account he gave of the country, four years elapsed before another voyage was attempted. In January, 1540, Francois de la Roque, Seigneur de Roberva], received a patent from Francis I., declaring him Seigneur of Norembegue (the name by which nearly all North America was then designated), viceroy and lieutenant- general in Canada, Newfoundland, and the adjacent countries. Early in the summer of 1540, Roberval, with a squadron of five vessels, sailed for America, Jacques Cartier having the supreme naval command. They arrived at some part of the coast, and erected a fort; but whether in Cape Breton, or Canada appears uncertain. Cartier was left in command, while Roberval returned to France, but he was so harassed by the Indians, and despairing of RobervaPs arrival, that he embarked with all his people for France. On the banks of Newfoundland, however, he met M. de Roberval with some vessels, carrying men, arms, and provisions; and returning with him, reassumed the com mand of the garrison. M. R. Roberval then sailed up the St. Lawrence, and lauded at the mouth of the Saghunny. He made also some attempts to explore Labra dor; but Newfoundland was not then known to be an island. We have no information, on which we can rely, as to what took place some years afterwards, until we find Cartier again embarking for America, under the viceroy Roberval. This expedition was never heard of after its departure and for more than sixty years afterwards, the French government made further attempt at discovery in America. The fishing ships of France from ports of Normandy and Britanny, continued, however, to frequent banks of Newfoundland, in common with the Basques. Admiral Coligni projected the plan of an asylum for the French Protei in some part of America, where they might establish themselves peaceably, * enjoy civil and religious liberty undisturbed. The whole of his plan, whi 62 AMERICA. . was directed chiefly to the formation of agricultural settlements, was conceived and arranged with wisdom : provided that those who were intrusted to carry his views into execution were able and determined to follow his instructions. The plan of Coligni was patronised by Henry II.; and, it was afterwards, in reality, or feignedly, countenanced by that treacherous and heartless tyrant, Charles IX. Nicholas Durand di Villegagnon, a Knight of Malta, and Vice-admiral of Brit tany, abjured, or feigned an abjuration of the Romish faith, and assumed the profession of Calvinism. He had, for some time before, been treated with some contumely by the court ; and, being chagrined in consequence, he, under the pa tronage of Admiral Coligni, projected in 1555, the formation of a great colony in America, as the asylum of all French Protestants. This happened when political, under the banner of religious, strife was preparing all the diabolical elements which were finally consummated by the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Villegagnon was adventurous, brave, and so far accomplished, as to conceal his designs under a mask of simplicity and humility. He disguised his real views from Henry II. so well, that the latter allowed him to depart on a voyage of discovery with three vessels of his fleet, in which, however, the vice-admiral con trived to embark a great number of Calvinists, with whom he arrived on the coast of Brazil, and there landed on a large rock near the tropic of Cancer, and at the mouth of the bay and river afterwards called Rio Janeiro. He removed from the ill-chosen rock to an island farther up the river. Here, by accident, he found a place easily defended from all attacks, and commanding the entrance to an unknown, but rich country. In a few days he erected a rude encampment ; and then despatched tv/o vessels to France, sending an account to the court of his success, and favourable position, accompanied by letters to Coligni, and by secret letters to Geneva, in which he pretends entire submission to Calvin, as the greatest apostle of Christianity since the days of St. Paul. Calvin and the synods of Geneva, on receiving the letters of Villegagnon, seized with ardour the opportunity of sending their persecuted disciples, and par tisans to a country, which promised all that could be desired for establishing settlements, in order to enjoy that religious, and civil liberty, which was denied them in France. An old Protestant gentleman, of esteemed zeal and prudence, Phillipe Dupont, of Corquilleroy, near Chatillon sur 1 Oing, a neighbour and friend of Coligni, was recommended by the latter to conduct the Calvinists to Brazil. This expedition consisted of several adventurers of distinction, with the Pastor Richer, and other ministers of religion, and many followers. In all, 296 persons, including only six women, embarked at Honfleur, on board of three ships, under the command of Vice-admiral Bois-le-Comte, a nephew of Villegagnon. They encountered and survived a great tempest in the Bay of Biscay. Soon FRENCH ATTEMPT SETTLEMENTS. 63 after, in fair weather, they met with several Spanish caravalles. Bois-le-Comte considered himself justified, by referring to, and on the authority of the Bible, to seize and plunder those less powerful vessels. On the 26th of February, all the ships arrived safely, and anchored on the coast of Brazil. The savages came on board, bringing with them, in their canoes, diverse kinds of refreshments. Lery, a young Protestant, who accompanied this expedition, wrote an account of the voyage, and informs us in the quaint language of the French Calvinists of that period, of their reception by Villegagnon : which was as austere as that of the New England Puritans, in the manner and language, and in the rigidity of religious service. He compelled all those who arrived to labour hard^for six weeks, in constructing a fort, and he exacted the observance of a more puritanical form of worship than that promulgated by Calvin. When the fort and other buildings were sufficiently complete, the faith of a ci-devant doctor of the Sorbonne named John le Cointa, who had accompanied the expedition, was suspected. He was, therefore ordered to make a public confession of his belief. Le Cointa, says Lery, gave, on the sacrament day, this satisfaction to the spectators ; Villegagnon affecting, as usual, great zeal, then rose, and declared that neither the captains nor crews of the vessels, or others who would not make a similar de claration of faith, were worthy of partaking of the Holy Sacrament, and he ac cordingly commanded all such to withdraw from the place of worship. This order was readily obeyed. Villegagnon then announced, in a loud affected voice, that he was about dedicating his fort to God, and, kneeling down on a velvet cushion, which was carried behind him wherever he went, by a page, he read, in a loud voice, two prayers of his own composition, and then advanced the first to receive the Sacrament. Next day he despatched a vessel with letters and 12 Indian youths, all under 10 years of age, whom he had taken prisoners, to France, where they arrived safely. The boys were presented to the king, as natural curiosities, and Henry gave away les petits injidels to divers ladies of his court. Among the emigrants brought out to Fort Coligni were five young girls, no more, says Lery, could be induced, either by the eloquence of Calvin, or Ville gagnon s flattering accounts of Brazil, to leave France or Geneva; Villegagnon married two of these to two of his servants. The converted Sorbonne Doctor Cointa married a third, the relative of a Rouen merchant, who accompanied the expedition, and who, dying of the climate, left her all his goods. The other two girls were married to two Normans, who had been formerly wrecked on the coast, and from living among the Aborigines, learned their language. There was, indepen dently of others, one great vital drawback, even under better management, to to the prosperity of the colony. This was, if permanent settlement could have been contemplated, that the colonists were not accompanied by their wives and families, as was the case with the Pilgrim Fathers in New England. 64 AMERICA. But there was another cause which frustrated the success of a colony in a region most happily chosen. In order to maintain submission to his command, and, under pretence of maintaining the doctrines and the rigour of the principle which he professed, Villegagnon, like Calvin and many others, stained his name with acts of intolerance, and cruelty, which were ill calculated to insure suc cessful colonisation. Lery accuses him of the darkest designs, and Villegagnon, at last, altered his creed, and denounced Calvin as a wicked heretic, devoid of the true faith; and, this once declared, he expelled all Calvinists from his settlement : most of whom, after severe treatment, accompanied by Dupont de Corquilleroy, who had brought them to Brazil, sailed for France, and after great suffering during a long voyage, many dying of famine, they arrived at Rochelle, where they were hospitably received by the Protestants. Villegagnon, who was surnamed the Cain of America, abandoned that country; re-assumed the profession of Catholicism ; became an active persecutor of the Cal vinists, and died 1571, in the Commanderie of the Order of Malta, in Gatinois, near St. Jean de Nemours. Thus was the first attempt of France at colonisation, ruined by the conduct of one bad, vain man, in whom the unsuspecting Coligni had placed confidence. The grand admiral of France did not however relinquish his plan of colonisa tion. He abandoned Brazil, and turned his views towards Florida. Charles IX., who probably conceived, that Coligni s scheme of colonisation might finally enable the tyrant to expel all the Huguenots from France, consented so far as to allow the admiral to fit out two vessels, which sailed for America, under the command of Jean de Ribaut, of Dieppe, in February, 1562. This expedition arrived, in May following, off the coast of Florida ; and sailing northward, and landing at various places, in order to choose an advantageous situa tion for a settlement, he selected the site of a small deserted fort, or camp, and named the place Fort Charles. He then arranged the plan for future settlement, and leaving behind all the volunteers to be governed by a chief officer, and in ac cordance with the instructions of Coligni, Ribaut sailed back to France to procure necessary supplies, and to bring additional colonists to the settlement : he arrived at Dieppe in the end of July. The officer whom Ribaut had left in command at Fort Charles, unfortunately proved a man of suspicious and brutal character. He hung one soldier, with his own hands, degraded another, and punished several on the grounds of mere sus picious faults. The colonists at last turned upon the tyrant, executed him, and elected a better man. Civil war, however, broke out in France: Ribaut was unable to return with supplies, and the colonists in despair abandoned Flo rida. In 1564, a third attempt was made by Coligni. Two ships under the com- FRENCH COLONY IN FLORIDA DESTROYED. 65 mand of Laudonier, who, with the crew and colonists, were all Protestants sailed for Florida, where they arrived in June that year. He constructed a fort which he called Fort Caroline, and the forefathers of the very Red Men, upon whom, in the year 1840, were let loose bloodhounds to hunt them out of Florida received Laudonier with hospitality and friendship. They supplied him gene rously with maize, flour, various esculent roots, and abundance of venison. Sometimes these presents were accompanied by small pieces of gold and silver, and pearls and precious stones. Laudonier was a wise, cool-headed man ; but many of his companions, especially those of genteel families, expected to make fortunes without labour ; and when he insisted on all aiding at the necessary works, some mutinied ; but instead of punishing them he sent them back to France. He did not then know the extent of dissatisfaction which had prevailed. Gold and silver, not the laborious formation of permanent agricultural settlements, were what most of the adventurers looked for, but did not find in Florida. In a few days thirteen sailors deserted with one of his provision boats ; two carpenters escaped with the other and only provision boat; and six others revolted openly and became corsairs. They seized upon the person of Laudonier, forced him on shipboard, drew up a commission of aggression against the Spaniards, which they compelled him to sign, while they held a poignard to his breast. They sailed towards the Spanish settlements, the vessels separated, and one of the ships com manded by the rebels, captured a Spanish vessel laden with wine and other mer chandize, near Cuba ; they captured another, which the pirate commander made his flag ship, and soon after captured a third, which had on board the Spanish governor of Jamaica. For this personage a large ransom was demanded, and the governor s son was sent to bring it from the governor s wife. A letter was, how ever, given privately to the boy to deliver to his mother, telling her not to send the money, but that a force should be sent to recapture him. Two days after, the French pirates were attacked by three large Spanish vessels. The governor and the principal vessel were retaken, one of the vessels escaped, but getting into the stream was carried back towards Fort Caroline, where the crew was captured by Laudonier, who had managed to return, and four of the leaders tried and executed. Famine, however, at last menaced the existence of the remaining colonists; but they were unexpectedly saved by the appearance of an English vessel, which anchored near the coast, and supplied them with food, and soon after by the arrival of Ribaut, and seven ships with supplies from France. Affairs now seemed in a prosperous train, and the difficulties of forming a colony were considered overcome, But the pride and jealousy of the Spaniards could not bear the existence of a French colony in America ; and Menendez was sent, during peace, by Philip II., to exterminate the French Protestants in F rida. The squadron sent by Spain was part of the fleet, which had been equip to succour the knights of Malta against the Turks. The expedit.on arm CG AMERICA. safely at Fort Caroline; the fort was invested by a strong force and soon cap tured. Ribaut escaped with his squadron, and Laudonier escaped, also, by sea with a few others. Some fled into the interior among the Indians, who received them with hospitality. Those who were taken in the fort, or who, rather than follow Laudonier, surrendered in the hopes of their lives being spared, were hung by Menendez on the adjoining trees, where they were left suspended, with pla cards bearing the inscription, " THESE WRETCHES HAVE BEEN EXECUTED, NOT AS FRENCHMEN, BUT AS HERETICS." To close the calamity, Ribaut s squadron was wrecked on the Bahamas. The crews were saved ; but it was afterwards discovered that they fell into the hands of the Spaniards, that they were bound four and four, and then massacred upon the spot. Ribaut and his chief officer are said, by some accounts, to have been flayed alive, and their skins sent to Spain. The Indians who visited Fort Caro line, were accused of sheltering the French, and were, on that account, hunted and shot like wild beasts by the Spaniards. These horrible murders excited the indignation of all France, except that of the execrable Charles IX. and his minister, who rejoiced secretly at the annihila tion of Coligni s projects of colonisation : which the wicked king had feignedly approved of, but which he hated, because it was conceived by the chief of the Huguenots. Intreaties and memorials to punish the Spaniards were sent from all parts to the king and minister, who heeded neither the lamentations of the widow, nor the cries of the orphan ;* and who, with the delighted court, merely viewed the mas sacre in Florida, and that of Ribaut and his men at the Bahamas, as the extermina tion of the partisans of Admiral Coligni. The nation, however, breathed vengeance ; and this spirit gave birth to one of the most adventurous of the expeditions to the new world. The hero of this expedition was Dominique de Gourgue, a gentleman of dis tinguished family of Mont Marson, in Gascony, and a captain in the royal navy. During an action of extraordinary gallantry, as a subaltern officer, heading a small troop, against the Spaniards in Italy, he advanced until all his men fell around him. Being then made prisoner, the Spaniards, regardless of all the laws of honour and of war, chained him to a galley as a slave. This galley was soon after captured by the Turks, and sent to Constantinople, but De Gourgue was still in slavery, and still chained to the galley, in which, however, he was, in a short time, sent with a flotilla against the Knights of Malta. The galley was retaken by the latter, and our hero regained his liberty.f He afterwards, in a ship of the royal navy, made voyages to Africa and Brazil, and acquired, on his return to * One of the memorials, or papers, presented to the minister of Charles IX, was entitled. " Sup- phque des veuves et des enfans de ceux qui avaient etc massacres a La Floride" f There is a singular coincidence between the early life of Captain John Smith, the real founder of Virginia, and that of De Gourgue. ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA. 7 France, the reputation of being the most hardy, gallant, and skilful navigator of the age. This occurred, when the public indignation against Spain was shared by all, except the court ; and when no one seemed able to chastise the crime of the Spaniards. Fired with patriotism, and ambitious of distinction in perilous enterprises, De Gourgue sold his estate, built and equipped three ships, chose a band of gal lant men, sailed with them to Florida, attacked the fort of the murderers drove them from their posts, and with extraordinary bravery, and after great slaughter, captured the fort, and, in order to oppose one derision to another, hung the prisoners to the limbs of the adjoining trees, on the trunks of which he carved, " Hung, not as Spaniards, but as assassins." This intrepid Gascon returned to his country the same year (1567). From that day France seemed to have forgotten the new world. The nation was in- volved in a chaos of dogmas, and in the frenzy of religious and political fury all were ready executioners, each was considered a criminal by the other, each condemned the other to the flames of eternal wrath ; and the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and the murder of Coligni, are more disgraceful to the Christians of Europe, than all the atrocities that have ever been laid to the charge of the Red nations of America. CHAPTER XL ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA. BEFORE we proceed to give some account of the colonies of France and Eng land, in North America, it will be necessary, for the purpose of elucidation, to introduce a brief sketch of the Aboriginal inhabitants. The original peopling of America, to which we have already adverted, in our short account of Mexico and Peru, forms one of those perplexing inquiries which human research seems never likely to solve. We have no historical data to guide us. Chronology, and scrip tural records, are confined to the world, as known to us before the fifteenth century, and all opinions respecting America, before that period, are speculative, and end only in conjecture. The origin of the natives, and that of the wild animals, found on the smallest islands of the Pacific, are equally enveloped in mysterious darkness ; and we know only the fact, that there is scarcely any part of the globe, which affords sustenance for man, on which beings of the human species have not been found. Events which, in the history of Europe, appear as belonging to an age littl older than that in which we live, are, in point of time, coequal with those, in the 68 AMERICA. annals of the western hemisphere, which, when we read, appear as if they be longed to ages remote, and, in respect to North America, certainly as that of man in the first stage of society. We refer to the period, when the coasts of that wild empire were first visited by Europeans, when its vast regions, were co vered with those boundless, dense, and splendid forests which still, with the exception of trifling patches cleared by Europeans, and of the Savannahs and buffalo prairies of the far west, commence at the shores of the Atlantic, and from thence continue, branching luxuriantly over the banks of rivers and lakes, or, extending in stately grandeur over the plains, and stretching proudly up to the summits of the mountains, until those magnificent sylvan domains ter minate, only, where the surges of the Pacific bound their limits. Notwithstanding the advances of Europeans on the waters and hunting grounds of the red nations of America, we do not yet, in many of the most exten sive territories, observe the progress of improvement, nor any sign of what we consider civilisation. There the sublime landscape, reigning in its natural luxu riance, exhibits, in its primeval wildness, the same scenery as prevailed over all North America two centuries and a half ago, when none but the native hunter traversed its solitudes, and no vessel, but the white canoe of the red man, navi gated the waters of its inland seas, rivers, or oceans. The Aborigines of America, north and east of Mexico, have been, and are still, a far bolder race than the Mexicans or Peruvians appear to have been when conquered. As to civilisation, the North American Indians* were, in many re spects, far less advanced than either the Mexicans or Peruvians. Those of North America consisted nearly altogether of nations of hunters and fishers. In describing the character, the capacities, or deeds of the American Indians, and before we accuse them of barbarism, cruelty, or of treachery towards Euro peans, let us pause and ask, whether Europe has been guiltless, during the period that has elspsed since the year 1604 that in which the first permanent European settlement was established in North America? In England, we find Raleigh judicially assassinated by order of a base sove reign, to satiate the blood-thirsty court of Spain; then came the civil war; then the debaucheries of Charles II. ; then the bloody judgment-halls of James and Jeffreys; and, later still, the treacherous massacre of Glencoe. Neither can humanity nor Christian charity look over the murderous pages of Irish history without horror. And if we turn to our transactions in the East, avarice, cruelty, and rapine leave little that shines purely in English conduct. Without expatiat ing on the burnings in Smithfield, or the massacre of St. Bartholomew, if, in Paris, we walk along to the end of the Rue St. Honore, and halt and sympathise at the * This designation we confine to the natives north and east of Mexico, including the natives of Florida. The name of America, and that of calling its inhabitants Indians, are both unjust ; but usage has established terms, which we are compelled to adopt. ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA. (JQ very house in front of which the first and the best of the Bourbons was assas- inated; and then return to the Place de Greve, to the Place des Victoires, to the Place Carousal, to the Place de la Concorde, or to the Boulevards, at every step we tread over ground, which has been brutalised by murders, executions, and butcheries, from the earliest days of the capital of France, with little intermis sion, until within the last ten years, when, in order to murder the king and his family, a dark atrocity, of infernal conception, and fatal execution, was perpe trated in the open day, and in the full front of twenty thousand troops. If from Europe we traverse the Atlantic to the shores of North America, and glance at the deeds of the red heathens, while the civilised whites have been mas sacring, drowning, burning, and assassinating each other in the land of Christianity, of learning, and of politeness, we will find that what we have termed savage bar barism, has not been more base, or more cruel, than the deeds perpetrated under the sanction and direction of, what we have arrogated to Europeans as, civili sation. On the discovery of America, and on the exploring of the country by the several navigators, who succeeded Columbus, all those regions, from Hudson Bay to Patagonia, were found to be inhabited by a people who, with the exception of the Esquimaux, seem to have been of the same race. Under the torrid zones and the northern regions, the features, forms, and shining olive complexions of the Aborigines are nearly the same. Columbus, in describing the native Americans to Ferdinand and Isabella, says, " I swear to your majesties that there is not a better people in the world than these more affectionate, affable, or mild. They love their neighbours as themselves. Their language is the sweetest, the softest, and the most cheerful, for they always speak smiling; and although they go naked, let your majesties believe me they are very becoming." Whatever was the condition and character of the natives of North America three centuries ago, when the forests, prairies, lakes, and rivers, were theirs; and when they formed patriarchal tribes or families of hunters, it must have been happy in comparison with the state of deplorable wretchedness, to which European civilisation has subjected them. To assert, as some European and American writers have done, that the In dians of America are incapable of civilisation, would be uttering the most gross absurdity ever advanced. Unless he be maddened, or besotted, by the intoxicating fluids introduced f Europe, the Indian of North America in his undegraded state, as he may still be found in the far western forests, is a truly dignified and majestic personage. graceful, the grave, the naturally taciturn, but, on the proper occasion, tl quent gentleman of nature the " Stoic of the woods, the man without a tear" 70 AMERICA. whom Europeans, and especially the Anglo-Americans, have not only wronged, but to injustice added that galling, disdainful contempt, which hath festered in his proud soul ; and which, with the repeated aggressions that have deprived him of his beautiful country, the forests of which once afforded him abundant game, and in the rivers of which he alone fished, have nurtured eternal, unforgiving hatred in his heart towards the white man. No wonder that he pines away in silent anguish, while he beholds his tribe melting away before the advancing encroachments and prosperity of Europeans. We have, in the first chapter of this work, said that the right of the Indians to their country was founded in nature and immemorial occupancy that the free and bounteous gift of Heaven was their tenure. But the dark superstition of the times claimed the Deity as the God only of Christians ; and the Spaniards, and even our Elizabeth arid James, made this monstrous doctrine their measure of right, in wresting all the territories discovered by their subjects from " the infidels." We have shown that tribes, however numerous, who were unacquainted with the use or power of fire-arms, and who looked upon their invaders as spirits sent forth by the gods of thunder, were suddenly terrified, and subdued with feeble resistance. We have also exposed the cruelty and treachery of the Spaniards, in Cuba and in South America, as admitting of no parallel in the annals of perfidy, and as redeeming the savage state of man from the charge of being more cruel, base, and unprincipled, than that of the refined European. The French and English, by their avarice in trade, excited the Aborigines to slay each other ; and introduced among them the most terrible exterminators, in the form of gunpowder, brandy, and small-pox. The missionaries, of the two great divisions of the Christian faith, had early ventured to the savage encampments, but the Jesuits were the first who pene trated far into the wilderness. Among all the aboriginal nations of America, it has always been considered inhospitable, and ill-mannered, not to listen respectfully to what strangers relate ; and although they might not comprehend, nor credit what was said, they were so well-bred as never to tell the narrator they did not believe him. The courteous manners, and policy of the Jesuits, were exceed ingly accommodating to the Indians, in this respect, while those of the rigid protestant missionaries were as opposite to the tempers and ideas of the " Stoic of the Woods." The protestant preacher came among them relating the historical passages of the Scriptures, and then inculcating the Calvinistic doctrines of Christianity. The Indians, according to Dr. Franklin and other writers, listened patiently until the preacher finished, and then observed " that apples were not whole some, and that those who crucified Jesus were bad men." They then related their own traditions of the creation of the world and of man, of beasts, birds, ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA. 7^ and fishes. The protestant missionaries replied, These stories are idle fables, and not to be believed." The Indians answered, We have better manners than you have, for we have heard with patience what your mothers told you, and we were not so rude as to say that you did not speak the truth. We have in our turn, related to you what our mothers told us, and you say, that we repeat only idle fables. " Such was usually the result of the interviews which the protestant mission aries had with the savages of America ; consequently, they scarcely ever suc ceeded in making converts ; at least, not until a long period after the settlement of the old colonies; and then, only of such degenerated Indians as loitered about the towns, and had become first degraded by drunkenness, and other European vices. The Jesuits, and other catholic missionaries, listened patiently to all the Indians said, and denied nothing ; they related passages of Scriptural history, avoiding carefully the points most difficult of comprehension ; and, in place of reprobating the habits and manners of the Aborigines, the catholic missionary adopted the savage life. The showy forms of the catholic service were also attractive to the Indian fancy; and the pictures and images, exhibiting the tor turous death of the crucifixion, were in full accordance with savage feeling. When the barter trade, from its greater profits, with the colonists of New York, allied to the latter the Iroquois, or Six Nations, the hereditary enemies of the Algonquins and Hurons, and when the English and French were at war, the Jesuits, who, generally speaking, were the best friends of the Aborigines, are accused of having circulated, in the Indian language, an ingenious political sketch of Scriptural history, in the form of question and answer. This was called the Black Catechism a diabolical category denounced by all other catho lic missionaries, and differing in the form of its questions and replies, so as to suit the nations among whom it was distributed. That drawn up for Paraguay was in many parts different from those circulated on the Wabash, and in Louisiana. The answers were framed to correspond with Indian sentiments. For example : " Q. Who crucified Christ IA. The English, when he was on his road to assist the Shawanees and Hurons to destroy the Iroquois." With the exception of the Six Nations, and the tribes conciliated by the admirable and wise conduct of William Penn, the tomahawk of the red man has therefore, from the foregoing, and other causes, seldom without just provoca tion, been wielded against the Anglo-American : and when the French colonists of Canada came under the government of England, the Hurons, Shawanees, and their allies, remained in amity with the former, and with the English who settled in Upper Canada, although they committed frequent hostilities on the English of New York. 72 AMERICA. The colour of the Aborigines of America is a shining olive, not exactly a copper colour, as is usually stated. The stature of the men is generally not under five feet nine inches, and often six feet. Their persons are symmetrically pro portioned, never corpulent, and their hands and feet are small and finely formed. The lower part of the face is angular ; the upper part rather broad ; the forehead finely shaped ; the eye deep-set, black, quick, and piercing ; the upper part of the cheeks prominent ; the nose rather short, often with a little of the Roman form ; the teeth remarkably white, and scarcely ever subject to decay ; the hair dark, sleek, and shining it never curls : they have little or no beard, or hair on any part of the body, except the head. The aspect of the Indian is stern and dignified, and his looks suspicious. He is taciturn, thoughtful, and distrustful in making his replies. The women are rather of low stature, naturally of delicate forms ; but, being domestic drudges, become thick waisted, and coarse looking as they advance in years. There is an extraordinary difference between the natural disposition of the North American Indian and that of the African negro. The latter, sullenly it is true, submits to slavery ; the former disdains the most slender idea of servitude. Rather than submit to compulsory labour for others, he will endure the most excruciating and prolonged torture, without uttering a complaint, or exhibiting a convulsion. Their ties of friendship have been lasting, between man and man, among the Indians. An Iroquois, who was a Christian, but not living according to the precepts taught him by the missionary, was threatened with future damnation. He asked if his friend, who died some time before him, was in hell ? The mis sionary said " No." The Indian replied, " Well, then, I won t go there." They were, and have continued to be, very superstitious, and believe in dreams, apparitions, and all their jugglers tell them. Their language is meta phorical, harmonious, bold, and energetic. In its intonation, emphasis, and tones, it resembles Greek more than any of the languages of the old world. Revenge is their dominant passion. Like Homer s heroes, they believe that the shades of their departed friends call for revenge ; and they conceal their purpose for years, if a proper opportunity does not offer to satiate their resentment. They consider that our manner of bringing up youth would be useless to them. They never punished their children. To their enemies they have been malignant, cruel, and inexorable : to their friends they have been steadfast in their attachments. They have had little gaiety of disposition ; and their music and dancing was wild and passionate. At no period do they appear to have had any acquaintance with the sciences. When North America was discovered, they had neither forges, ploughs, nor looms. Bark canoes, or wooden ones hollowed out by burning ; fishing-hooks, made of bone ; and lines, made of the entrails or skins of animals ; clubs, hard- ABORIGINES OF NORTH AMERICA. 73 ened in the fire ; lances, armed with flint or bone ; bows, with arrows pointed in the same way; hatchets and chisels made of flinty or hard stones; bark and wooden dishes ; and skins and furs cut and sewed for clothing, were the articles which they made. The gun, tomahawk, and scalping-knife, have since been sub stituted for the bow and lance. Their architecture arrived at little more than rude erections : and conical wigwams, covered with the rinds of trees, have constituted their dwellings. They esteemed labour as slavish and base. They cared not for riches ; and whatever they had they consumed, without adding to their stock : depending on the chance of success, in hunting or fishing, and on what little maize their women cultivated, for future provision. They were, and, in the wilderness, still continue, hospitable to strangers, and they gave a share of their food and habitation freely ; but when they entered the houses of Europeans, they seldom met with the same kind treatment; and, to the everlasting shame of Christians, they have treated the Indian as if he were not of the human race, or not under the protection of the same God ! ! ! Order and gravity have always prevailed at their councils : in which, the old men occupied the first, the warriors the next, and the women the third places. The latter listened attentively to all that passed, registered it in their memories, and transmitted it to their children. While an orator spoke, the assembly listened with profound silence, and when he had finished, a little time was allowed to elapse to leave him the opportunity of recollecting any thing he might have omitted. Their speeches were grave and deliberate ; they never interrupted a speaker ; and, in conversation, never contradicted one another. They listened in patience, and seemed, by their not contradicting what was told them by strangers, to assent to the opinions of those who spoke. The missionaries have often been misled into the belief of having converted the Indians, when they have only listened, without dissenting, from an hereditary rule of politeness. Eloquence in council, and courage in war, were their ruling passions ; and the irresistible motive for war was revenge. When young, they were hunters and warriors, when old, they became counsellors. They were not averse to social life ; but the feeling of independence forbade all compulsion ; they could only be influenced, not commanded. The hunting Indian would scarcely work for any reward ; it sunk him from what he considered the high condition of a huntsman, warrior, and statesman, to that of a slave or mechanic. The love of indepen dence, the great instinct of their nature, was paramount to every consideration with the Aborigines of America, north and east of Mexico. To guide a canoe, to fish, hunt, and fight, were their necessary acquirements. Their talents were oratory, address in negotiation, patience, and travelling long without food. Their war chiefs acquired an ascendency by a fierce aspect, and i strong and terrible voice ; but eloquence and daring exploits were still greater recommendations. 74 AMERICA. In negotiations they used collars or belts of wampum, about three feet in length and six inches in breadth, and ornamented with small shells. No transac tion could be entered into without the intervention of these belts, which served, in the absence of writing, the place of contracts or obligations. They preserved them for many years, and their distinctive marks were well known to their sa chems or elders. To raise the hatchet was to proclaim war ; to bury it was to enter on terms of, or to conclude, peace. Such were the leading characteristics of the original inhabitants of North America ; and such are they in many aspects in the countries west of the Mis sissippi and the great lakes, except where the fur traders have corrupted them by increasing their wants, and teaching them the tricks of bargain- making ; and by persuasion and example, have made them more sensual, immodest, and unchaste. We shall, in another part of this work, appropriate a chapter to the present state of the Aborigines of America, after a collision of nearly two hundred and fifty years with Europeans. CHAPTER XII. SETTLEMENT OF ACADIA, OR NOVA SCOTIA, BY FRANCE. IN 1603, M. de Monts, a French protestant, and a gentleman of enterprising resolute spirit, obtained a commission from Henry IV., constituting him governor of all the countries of America, from 40 to 46 degrees north, under the name of New France, which included Nova Scotia (then called Acadia). Several French adventurers, who had previously visited Acadia and Canada, realised large profits by bartering European goods for furs. De Monts having secured by his charter a monopoly of the fur trade, associated with him several wealthy men. In March, 1604, De Monts, accompanied by Champlain, afterwards the celebrated founder of Quebec, Potrincourt, and many others, sailed with four ships from Havre, and arrived on the 15th of May at a har bour in Acadia, where he found a French adventurer, whose property he confis cated for trading without a commission. He called the port Rossignol, the name of the unfortunate trader. He then coasted westward to Port Mouton, where he landed and formed an encampment. He afterwards despatched one of his ships to Tadousac on the north side of the St. Lawrence, and the other two were ordered to cruise along the coasts of Cape Breton, the island of St. John and Acadia, in order to prevent unauthorised adventurers from trading with the natives. De Monts then sailed to the westward, and traversed the shores of the Bay of Fundy, which he named La Baie Francoise; and by the narrow strait, now called Digby Gut, on the east side, entered a beautiful and extensive basin ; SETTLEMENT OF ACADIA. 75 with which, and the surrounding prairies and luxuriant woods, Potrincourt was so much charmed, as to select it for his place of settlement. He accordingly received a grant of it from De Monts, named it Port Royal, and soon after re turned to France, for the purpose of carrying out his family, and the means of establishing himself in Acadia. De Monts, meantime, discovered, on the west side of the Bay of Fundy, and on the festival of St. John, a large river which he named after that saint. He after wards sailed southwards till he came to the river now called St. Croix. On a small island at the entrance of this river, he commenced forming a settlement. This place was most improvidently chosen. The water was unwholesome, and the country was not even the haunt of game, Thirty-seven of the colonists, out of the whole number, seventy-six, were carried off, during winter, by scurvy. This plague of the early settlements, was brought on by living on salt meat, and by having no water to drink but what was procured from melting snow. De Monts, after examining the coast as far as Cape Cod, in search of a more eligible situa tion, abandoned St. Croix, and removed, along with Pontgrave, who had arrived with supplies from Europe, to Port Royal. In this place they soon established themselves ; and with the usual success of the French in negotiating with the savages, secured the friendship of the Indians. De Monts sailed for France in the autumn of 1605, leaving Pontgrave, Champdore, and Champlain in the command of the colony. De Monts arrived during the following summer, after a tedious passage, at Canseau, from whence he despatched a party of Indians to communicate his arrival to the settlers at Port Royal. Notwithstanding the energy and perseverance of De Monts, the settlement at Port Royal would have been abandoned, were it not for measures pointed out by Lescarbot, a gentleman bred to the law, but who, from personal attachment, accompanied Potrincourt. He showed the earnest necessity of importing, and breeding, domestic cattle, and of cultivating the soil, in order to become inde pendent of the Indians for food, or of the chances of not receiving supplies of provisions from Europe. The settlers would then, he contended, be more secure in trading with the natives, by living more compactly, and not subjected to the precarious means of subsistence, which hunting alone afforded. De Monts left Acadia for France, in August, 1606. Still anxious to establish a colony further south, he despatched Potrincourt, in another vessel, to explore the country to the southward of Cape Cod ; but this, like his former voyage, was quite unsuccessful ; and he returned to Port Royal in November, where he was received with great joy, friendship, and respect, by Pontgrave, Lescarbot, and Champlain. The winter being remarkably mild, and the spring early, those enterpn men appear, from Lescarbot s account, to have passed their time most agree ably and sociably. At their principal mess-table, Pontgrave, Champlain, Les 76 AMERICA, carbot, and twelve others dined, taking upon them the offices of president and caterer in daily rotation. They occupied themselves by making short hunting excursions, and, by employing their people, in building two small shallops, and erecting a mill. After waiting a long time for the arrival of De Monts with supplies from France, a vessel at last appeared from Canseau, bringing only a few provisions and stores, and the mortifying information that the charter of De Monts was revoked, in consequence of the remonstrances made against it by the French merchants ; and, that he was therefore under the necessity of re linquishing all connection with Acadia. Potrincourt, distressed, but not disheartened, on receiving this intelligence, at a time when the colony was so far established, that nothing but an undisputed right to the soil, and some further assistance in the way of supplies, were neces sary to ensure its prosperity and permanency, resolved to return to France, for the purpose, if possible, of obtaining both. He did not leave, however, until he was enabled to carry with him samples of wheat, and other agricultural pro duce, some native animals, and several specimens of minerals, which, on his arrival in France, he presented to the king. He obtained a grant of Port Royal, with the disagreeable stipulation, to provide for two Jesuits, who were to accompany him, for the conversion of the savages. On his arrival at Port Royal, he resolved to exclude them from any interference with his affairs, and told them, "That their duty was limited to teaching men the way to Heaven, and that it remained for him to govern and direct those under him on earth. * Potrincourt was, however, very indiscreet in despising them : for their com plaints against him and his son, Biencourt, were readily believed in France ; though apparently terminated by the arrival of a vessel, despatched in 1613, by the patroness of the Jesuits, a pious lady, of the name of De Gaucherville. This ship, having on board two priests and some emigrants, carried away the Jesuits from Port Royal, and sailed down the Bay of Fundy, to the island of Mount Desert, which lies a few miles north of Penobscot Bay. Here they erected a cross, and set up the arms of their lady patroness. They named the place St. Saviour s. While erecting suitable buildings, and preparing the ground for cultivation, they were surprised by an English ship of war, from Virginia, commanded by a Captain Argall, who pillaged the place, and compelled them to surrender as prisoners of war, for having encroached upon, and settled on a place asserted by the English to be within the Virginian limits. One of the Jesuits was shot through the head, while urging the settlers to defend themselves; two ships, that lay at anchor, were seized, in one of which most of the prisoners were sent to France, and the others were carried to Virginia. A second armament was then sent from Virginia, commanded by Argall, for the purpose of destroying the French settlement in Acadia. Argall, piloted by SETTLEMENT OF ACADIA. 77 one of the Jesuits named Beart, proceeded to Port Royal, which was then com manded by Biencourt, the son of Potrincourt. The fort was levelled, but the mills and corn-fields were spared ; and Biencourt attempted to treat with Argall, by offering him an equal share in the trade, under the protection of England. He required also that the person of the Jesuit, Beart, should be delivered over to him ; but the negotiation failed, and some of the French associated them selves with the natives, others escaped and fled to Canada to join Champlain, and the remainder were sent as prisoners to England. This outrageous destruction of Port Royal, during a time of profound peace between England and France, could never be defended on the slightest ground of justice or provocation; and must be attributed principally to the thirst for plunder, and to religious bigotry. By this atrocious violation of private property, the first settlement made in North America was destroyed in 1615, after prospering for ten years, and without experiencing a share of that ferocious opposition, from the natives, which proved so fatal to the early attempts of England at colonisation. In 1621, when Sir William Alexander obtained from James I. one of those charters, which assumed very disputable rights, and which granted him the whole territory of Acadia, the name of the country was changed by that authority, and called Nova Scotia. Sir William was an accomplished gentle man, of high literary attainments, the author of several tragedies, and much about the court of James I., who afterwards appointed him a secretary of state, and created him a baron, with the title of Viscount Stirling.* During the summer which followed the date of his patent, Sir William de spatched a vessel with a small colony for Nova Scotia, which had to winter at Newfoundland, but proceeded to Nova Scotia in the spring, and then returned to England without making any attempt to establish a settlement. A most Uto pian account of the country, and climate, was published from the descriptions of those who had performed the voyage. From the time Port Royal was destroyed (1623), great numbers of French and Dutch adventurers resorted to the province, where they carried on a profitable fur trade, as well as a fishery at Canseau and other harbours. The war with France, however, in the early part of the reign of Charles I., completely crushed the French plantations in Acadia, and that monarch not only confirmed the grant to Sir William Alexander, but instituted the order of Baro nets in Nova Scotia. In 1627, Sir William Alexander, assisted by a French Calvinist of the name * Charles I., confirming the charter of King James L, added all Canada, and the Skater Part of the countries now forming the United States. Both sovereigns had almost an *^><" territories in China ; for neither did Nova Scotia or Canada cease to be P ^ 6 ^, *[!"" con . we finally secured both countries, the first by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1712, the latt. quest, in 1760, and by the treaty of 1763, 78 AMERICA. of Kircht, who fled to England from France, to escape religious persecution, fitted out a few vessels, well armed, for Nova Scotia. These vessels captured, on their way, a fleet of French transports laden with stores and 135 pieces of ordnance, intended for Quebec and Port Royal. In the following year he reduced Port Royal (which had been partially re-established). No settlement was however made at this period ; and two years after Sir Wil liam Alexander, discouraged at the failure of his attempts to colonise Nova Scotia, transferred the whole, except Port Royal, to Claude de la Tour, a French Protestant, who was on board the transports, when captured by Sir David Kirk (Kircht). This gentleman possessed wealth and talent. While in England, after his capture, he married a lady of the queen s household, and was knighted. He proceeded to Nova Scotia, where his son Etienne, by a former marriage, still commanded a fort at Cape Sable, on the part of France. His father, how ever, could not induce him to submit, and in consequence Sir Claude returned to England without being able to form a settlement. The treaty of St. Germain, in 1632, ceded Nova Scotia, with Cape Breton and Canada, to France; and a long train of unfortunate circumstances attended the American colonies in consequence. These possessions were then placed under the government of a company of merchants, embodied by royal charter, and styled the company of " New France," under which Acadia was governed by M. Razillais. The lands of the colony were divided principally between the governor, whose share fell to his successors, MM. Charnise, Denys, and Etienne de la Tour. The jealousy of Charnise and La Tour, arising principally from rivalship in the fur trade, partook for many years of a similar spirit to that which directed the predatory warfare of feudal chieftains ; and M. Denys, who occupied the country from Cape Canseau to Gaspe, and who built a fort, and resided at Chedebucto, where he carried on a profitable fur trade, was finally ruined and driven from the colony by the intrigues of his countrymen.* De La Tour s principal establishment was on the river St. John. His wife appears, from the records of that period, to have been a woman of extraordinary * In 1634, La Tour arrived at the harbour of Boston, in a ship having 140 men on board ; the master and crew of which were Protestants of Rochelle. He stated to the governor that his fort on the river St. John was besieged by his rival, and that he had come for the purpose of seeking aid to remove him. Recourse was had to the Bible, as was usual with the Puritans, on all doubtful occasions, to discover, if possible, some case which would, by analogy, apply to Latour, and furnish a rule for their conduct. On the one hand, it was said, the speech of the prophet to Je- hoshaphat, in 2 Chron. xix., 2, and the portion of Solomon s Proverbs contained in chap. 26th, 17th verse, not only discharged them from any obligation, but actually forbade them to assist La Tour ; while, on the other hand, it was agreed that it was as lawful for them to give him succour, as it was for Joshua to aid the Gibeonites against the rest of the Canaanites, or for Jehoshaphat to aid Jehoram against Moab, in which expedition Elisha was present, and did not reprove the King of Judah. These conflicting authorities divided their councils ; and though either course was sanctioned by Scripture, it did not appear that there was any certain rule on the subject, while the safest course was to adhere to the old maxim, " Dubia causa bellum non est suscipicndum? Haliburton s Nova Scotia, p. 54. CONQUEST OF PORT ROYAL. 79 high mind and heroism. In 1654, an armament, despatched by Oliver Crom well, conquered the province. La Tour transferred his allegiance to England, and two years after obtained a grant of his lands from the Protector. Heafter- wards sold his lands and property in Nova Scotia to Sir Thomas Temple, who, after forming establishments, was, most unjustly, deprived of the whole by the treaty of Breda, which ceded the province again to France. In 1690 an English squadron, commanded by Sir William Phipps, retook Port Royal, levelled its fortifications, and burnt the establishments at Chedebucto. The object of this expedition appears to have been more to annoy and pillage than to possess the country. Some aggressions on the part of France, who still occupied her usual places of resort for the fur trade ; and the demolition, by Villebon, the French governor, and the Baron Castine, reinforced by two ships of war, of the English fort at Perniquid, were resented by an expedition under the command of Colonel Church. He sailed up the Bay of Fundy, drove most of the Acadians to the woods ; and, on the refusal of those who surrendered, to join the English in the pursuit of the Indians, this brutal fanatic burnt their church and all their houses, destroyed their cattle, and demolished the dikes which guarded their rich marshes from the sea. Colonel Church, in 1704, with about 600 troops, pillaged a second time the French settlements in Acadia. He first burnt all the houses, and seized the pro perty of the inhabitants at Passatnaquaddy. He then crossed the bay to Port Royal, and sent the boats with a detachment to Minas, where they plundered and destroyed three flourishing villages. On their return to Port Royal, Church discovered that the fortresses, built since he destroyed the place eight years be fore, were too strong to be taken by the force under his command. He, therefore, sailed up the Basin of Minas, where he laid waste all the settlements, and carried the plunder to Massachusetts. The New England States, in 1707, raised a thousand troops, and with two ships of war, were sent to capture Port Royal ; but they were repulsed with great gallantry by the governor, M. Subercase. The same force was sent again from New England to Port Royal, but they returned a se cond time equally unsuccessful. The conquest of Port Royal was, however, determined upon; and in 1710, an armament, commanded by General Nicholson, an able and brave officer, con sisting of four men-of-war, nineteen transports, with one regiment of marines, and four provincial regiments, appeared before Port Royal. With the exception of those on board of one vessel that was wrecked, the troops landed without dif culty. Batteries were immediately erected by the English ; and after a heavy cannonading on both sides, the garrison capitulated. The conditions were honour able both to Nicholson and Subercase. The foregoing is a brief sketch of the very eventful history of Nova Scotia, from its first settlement by the French until final conquest by the English. The Indians, however, continued to harass the 80 AMERICA. British settlers, and the French were accused of instigating the former in their atrocious cruelties. On the west coast of the Bay of Fundy, the Abenaqui tribe were governed by Pere Ralle, a Jesuit priest, and a son of the Baron Castine by a native woman. Castine was their cacique, or war leader, and he and Pere Ralle resided at Norridgewauk on the Kennebec. The unfortunate Acadians wished to remain neuter, and to live by means of husbandry and fishing, but a force was sent from Massachusetts to Kennebec, where the Acadians and Indians were attacked and defeated, and most of them slaughtered. The chapel, crucifix, and all that was considered idolatrous, were then destroyed, the goods plundered, and all the buildings set on fire. Pere Ralle was among the slain. He had lived forty years among the Indians as a missionary, and had long won their affection and secured their confidence. He spoke the English and Dutch languages fluently ; and understood, and spoke all the Abenaqui dialects. Occasionally he had controversies with the learned men of Boston, to whom he wrote in correct and elegant Latin. Charlevoix says, " that although the good Father Ralle was unprepared, he was not intimidated; that he advanced towards the English to attract their at tention to him, and to secure his flock by the voluntary sacrifice of his own life ; but the moment he was known, the English shouted and fired a volley of bullets, which killed the venerable Jesuit and seven Indians, who rushed from their tents to shield him with their bodies. He fell at the foot of a cross which he had erected in the middle of the village, and when the pursuit had ceased, the savages returned and wept over their beloved missionary, whose body they found per forated with balls, with his head scalped, his skull fractured with hatchets, his mouth and eyes filled with mud, his legs broken, and his limbs horribly mutilated. They bathed him with tears, and buried his remains under the site of a chape], where, on the evening before, he had performed the holy rites of religion. The New Englanders, in their defence, alleged, that Baron Castine and Pere Ralle, were those who instigated the Indians to hostility, as well in Nova Scotia as on the confines of New England, and that they were in direct commu nication with, and acting under the directions of, the Governor of Canada. The hostile spirit of the Indians was not vanquished by the destruction of Norridgewauk, and it was asserted that the French colonists had never ceased to excite the savages to acts of depredation, so long as they held possession of Louisburg. The Acadian French, and the Indians, professed, by their deputies, submission to England, yet, as the former resolved to remain, as formerly, neu tral, it was asserted that they could not be depended upon. Their condition was a most difficult one, and circumstances would seem to warrant the charges against them. The Indians, soon after the defeat and de struction at Kennebec, plundered Canseau, attacked Dartmouth, opposite Hali fax, scalped some of the inhabitants, murdered nearly half the crew of two THE FRENCH ACADIANS. 81 ships in Halifax harbour, and carried off several prisoners, whom they sold at Louisburg. They were incessantly committing murders along the coasts ; and it was impossible to guard the colonists effectually against enemies, who sprung with the agility and fury of tigers from the thickets, or who came along silently in their birch canoes during night. The Governor of Louisburg invariably replied that he had no control over the savages, and that the premiums given for English prisoners were paid from feel ings of humanity, to prevent the horrible tortures and death which the savages would inflict. Dartmouth was again surprised by the Mic-macs, who scalped many, made prisoners of the majority of the inhabitants, plundered the houses, and escaped, by the Shubenacady lakes, to the Bay of Fundy. The settlement of Lunenburg, at Malagash, formed by a colony of industrious Germans, was about the same time harassed, and several of the inhabitants murdered, by the Indians. Many of the Acadian neutrals, who were settled at Minas and Chignecto, had, it was alleged, riot only sworn allegiance to France, but were preparing to join a force sent down from Canada, under M. la Corne, who had built forts at Minas and Bay de Vert. A small detachment, under Major Lawrence, was therefore despatched from Halifax to Chignecto, by Lord Cornwallis. The inhabitants, on hearing that he was approaching ; and, dreading that the massacre of Kennebec would be followed up by one fully as exterminating, they burnt their houses, and joined La Corne. After an unsatisfactory interview with that officer, Major Lawrence re turned to Halifax. He was soon after sent to Chignecto, with a force of 1000 men, and effected a landing, under sharp skirmishing, and the loss of several men. The French and Indians escaped across the river, and again joined La Corne. Lawrence then built a fort, to overawe the French, and to check the incursions of the Indians. The French, at the same time, erected several additional forts. In 1754, an expedition from New England, under the command of Colonel Monkton, proceeded to Chignecto, where he was joined by four ships of war and a detachment of regular troops. After bombarding and taking a light house and battery, Fort Beau Sejour, which mounted twenty-six pieces of artillery, was stormed, and the garrison made prisoners. The fort on Bay Vert was also invested and taken. Major Lawrence, then governor of Nova Scotia, determined to transport the Acadians, unless they subscribed to the oath of allegiance in the fullest manner. Their conduct at Chignecto he considered indefensible, although they always declared that they were forced to join La Corne, or else lose their lands, which he claimed as within the limits of Canada. They never had taken the oath of allegiance, and could not therefore be treated as rebels. They ex pressed all humility, and begged to be allowed to remove to Canada, or to Cape M 82 AMERICA. Breton, if they were to be sent from Nova Scotia, which they loved, and in which they were happy. On the latter condition, they offered willingly to swear allegiance to His Britannic Majesty, if they were exempted from bearing arms against their countrymen and the Indians. It was urged, on the other hand, that to remove them either to Canada or to Cape Breton, would be adding great colonial strength to the enemies of Britain ; and to allow them to remain in possession of their lands, situated in the most fertile part of the province, and commanding the easiest route for the French and Indians to enter Nova Scotia, would be equally dangerous. The puritanical spirit of the English colonists, which distrusted the neutrality of catholics, even under the sanction of an oath, consummated the difficulty of their position. Without any intimation as to the object, they were commanded to appear before Colonel Winslow, at Grand Pre; and, in consequence, about 400 Acadians obeyed the summons. These unfortunate men were shut up in their church, which was turned into a prison, and they were told that their lands and herds were confiscated, and that the Acadians and their families should all be, imme diately, transported from the province, to the southern British colonies. For many years after the first French adventurers resorted to Nova Scotia, the cultivation of the soil was neglected for hunting, fishing, and the fur- trade. The rich intervales, or alluvial meadows, and the extensive salt marshes, which abound within the basins of Minas and Chignecto, with the fertile lands of Port Royal, and Annapolis River, at length riveted the industry of the simple- mannered Acadians, to grazing and husbandry, and secured to them all that was necessary to render their condition equally remote from poverty or wealth. With their habits, customs, and education, in the medium state, between barbarism and refinement, their condition, if left undisturbed, probably em braced as much happiness as human nature can enjoy. They became affection ately attached to the country; and they formed among themselves a cheerful virtuous peasantry; who, when Nova Scotia was finally ceded, in 1?10, to the crown of England, had, by regularity of conduct, and steady industry, attained to sufficiently affluent circumstances ; so far, at least, as possession of extensively- cultivated farms, and large herds of cattle might constitute riches. In giving an account of the Acadians of that period, we shall extract the beautiful, and, we believe, just picture of their condition, drawn by the cele brated Abbe Raynal. " Such was the attachment which the French then had for the honour of their country, that the Acadians," says the abbe, " who, in submitting to a new yoke, had sworn never to bear arms against their former standards, were called French-neutrals. * " No magistrate was ever appointed to rule over them, and they were never acquainted with the laws of England. No rents, or taxes, of any kind were ever THE FRENCH ACADIANS. 83 exacted from them. Their new sovereign seemed to have forgotten them, and they were equally strangers to him. " Hunting, which had formerly been the delight of the colony, and might still have supplied it with subsistence, had no further attraction for a simple and quiet people, and it gave way to agriculture. It had been begun in the salt marshes and lowlands, by repelling, with dikes, the sea and rivers which overflowed those plains. Those soils, at first, yielded fifty times as much as before, and afterwards twenty times as much at least. Wheat and oats succeeded best in them, but they likewise produced rye, barley, arid maize. Potatoes were also grown, in great plenty, the use of which was become common. " At the same time they had immense meadows, with numerous flocks. Sixty thousand head of horned cattle were computed on them ; and most of the families had several horses, though the tillage was carried on by oxen. " The habitations, built chiefly of wood, were extremely convenient, and fur nished as neatly as a substantial farmer s house in Europe. The people bred poultry of all kinds, which made a variety in their food, and which was, in general, wholesome and plentiful. Their common drink was beer and cider, with which they sometimes mixed some rum. " Their usual clothing was, in general, the produce of their own flax and hemp, or the fleeces of their own sheep ; with these they made common linens and coarse cloths. If any of them had any inclination for articles of greater luxury, they procured them from Annapolis, or Louisburg, and they gave in exchange corn, cattle, or furs. "The neutral French had no other articles to dispose of among their neigh bours, and they made still fewer exchanges among themselves, because each family was able, and had been used, to provide for its wants. They therefore knew no thing of paper currency, which was so common throughout the rest of North America. Even the small quantity of specie which had flown into the colony did not enter into circulation, which is the only advantage that can be derived from it. " Their manners were, of course, extremely simple. There never was a cause, either civil, or criminal, of importance enough to be carried before the Court of Judicature established at Annapolis. Whatever little differences arose from time to time among them were amicably adjusted by their elders. All their public acts were drawn by their pastors, who had likewise the keeping of their wills, for which, and their religious services, the inhabitants voluntarily gave them a twenty-seventh part of their harvests. " These were plentiful enough to support more than a sufficiency for every a of liberality. Real misery was entirely unknown, and benevolence prevented t demands of poverty. Every misfortune was relieved before it was felt, anc was universally dispensed without ostentation on the part of the giver, ai 84 AMERICA. out humiliating the person who received. These people were, in a word, a so ciety of brethren, every individual of which was equally ready to give, and to receive, what he thought the common right of mankind. " So perfect a harmony naturally prevented all those connections of gallantry which are so often fatal to the peace of families. There never was an instance in this society of an unlawful commerce between the two sexes. This evil was prevented by early marriages ; for no one passed his youth in a state of celibacy. As soon as a young man came to the proper age, the community built him a house, ploughed the lands about it, sowed them, and supplied him with all the necessaries of life for a twelvemonth. Here he received the partner whom he had chosen, and who brought him her portion of her father s flocks. This family grew up and prospered like the others. They altogether amounted to 18,000 souls/ 5 The abbe continues to observe : " Who will not be affected with the innocent manners, and the tranquillity of this fortunate colony ? Who will not wish for the duration of its happiness ? Who will not construct, in imagination, an impenetrable wall, that may separate these colonies from their unjust and turbulent neighbours ? The calamities of the people have no period; but on the contrary, the end of their felicity is always at hand." These apprehensions of the Abbe Raynal were but too fully realised. The Acadians were accused of having joined the troops from Canada ; but those who did so, pleaded being forced to join their countrymen ; and certainly a great share of their misfortunes must be laid to the charge of the French at Cairada and Cape Breton. It must also be remembered that their accusers were their judges, and they were visited by punishment, the severity of which can scarcely be defended, had they been even guilty of the most capital crimes. Exclusive of the unsettled and adventurous French, there were at this time about 20,000 stationary Acadians living on their farms, which comprised some of the most fertile lands of the province; they possessed upwards of 60,000 head of horned cattle, 70,000 sheep, 50,000 hogs, besides horses. Many of them fled to the woods, and joined the Indians ; others found their way to Canada, and to the Island of St. John, now Prince Edward s. The set tlements at Chignecto and Minas were subjected to conflagration ; and all their villages and farms laid waste, and their churches and houses reduced to ashes.* * The following fragment, translated loosely by a gentleman in Nova Scotia, was written by M. de Chatelain, one of the sufferers of 1755. The original French manuscript is in the library of the " Hotel Dieu," Quebec. THE TEARS OF ACADIA. And must we from our native land depart ? Break, break asunder, oh my bleeding heart ! Driven from our altars, and our happy home Strangers and poor through other realms to roam. Our wives and infants share the direful fate Unspotted victims of tyrannic hate. THK FRENCH ACADIANS. 85 The wretched inhabitants, deprived of food and shelter, were obliged to surren der, or fly to the woods, in order finally to escape to Canada, the Island of St. John, or Cape Breton. Some found their way to, and established themselves in, Hayti and in Louisiana. From 7000 to 8000 surrendered, at discretion; and Colonel Win slow, in sending them away from a country to which they were so much attached, acted with far more kindness and delicacy than his orders strictly allowed. Their sufferings in the southern colonies, to which they were transported, were cruel and undeserved : they experienced the treatment not of prisoners of war, but of condemned convicts. Several families finally found their way to France, where they arrived utterly destitute ; and were, under the auspices of a worthy man, M. de Perusse, established at Cenan, in the arrondissement of Chatellerault (Vienne). But the place, or other circumstances, appears to have been unsuitable to them : many of them returned to America. Some, however, remained ; and four or five heads of families, descended from them, are still living at Cenan. The ardent attachment which the Acadian s cherished for Nova Scotia, during their exile in the southern British settlements, is forcibly and feelingly expressed by them, in the language of the following petition to his Majesty George III. This memorial, after stating their conscientious scruples as to the oath re quired of them concludes : " Thus we, our ancient parents and grand-parents (men of great integrity and approved fidelity to your Majesty,) and our innocent wives and children, became the unhappy victims to those groundless fears ; we were transported into the English colonies, and this was done in so much haste, and with so little regard to our necessities and the tenderest ties of nature, that, from the most social en joyments and affluent circumstances, many found themselves destitute of the ne cessaries of life ; parents were separated from childen, and husbands from wives, See them on bended knees, with tears o erflown, In our calamities lament their own ; Sever d from father, brother, son, and friend, Unheard of sorrows shall their steps attend. Yet some sad trembling hope still flutters near, That we shall meet again, though never here ; Meet to divide the mis ries of our chain, But never to enjoy a smile again ! * * * * * Our flocks shall follow strangers now no choice, Though still unknown to them the stranger voice. Our faithful dogs may trace these rums round, And mourn the masters never to be found. Oh never shall we tread the peaceful plain, Where our brave fathers toil^for us in vain! Oh never shall we see Acadia s shore Ours once, by Heaven s decree, but ours no more. Our churches burn behold the ascending glare, Bearing to Heaven our agonizing prayer! Eternal Judge, to whom revenge belongs, Forbear to visit for our num rous wrongs ; Let us impatience bow beneath the rod, And sav with Christ, - Thy will be done, oh God. 86 AMERICA. some of whom have not, to this day, met again ; and we were so crowded in the transport vessels that we had not room even for all our bodies to lay down at once, and consequently were prevented from carrying with us proper necessaries, espe cially for the support and comfort of the aged and weak, many of whom quickly ended their misery with their lives ; and even those amongst us who had suffered deeply from your Majesty s enemies, on account of their attachment to your Majesty s government, were equally involved in the common calamity of which Rene Leblanc, the notary-public before-mentioned, is a remarkable instance; he was seized, confined, and brought away among the rest of the people, and his family, consisting of 20 children, and about 150 grand-children, were scattered in different colonies, so that he was put on shore at New York, with only his wife and two youngest children, in an infirm state of health, from whence he joined three more of his children at Philadelphia, where he died without any more no tice being taken of him than of us, notwithstanding his many years labour and deep sufferings for your Majesty s service. " The miseries we have since endured are scarce sufficiently to be expressed, being reduced, for a livelihood, to toil and hard labour, in a southern clime, so disagreeable to our constitutions, that most of us have been prevented by sick ness from procuring the necessary subsistence for our families, and are, therefore, threatened with that, which we esteem the greatest aggravation of all our suffer ings, even of having our children forced from us, and bound out to strangers, and exposed to contagious distempers unknown in our native country. " This, compared with the affluence and ease we enjoyed, shows our condi tion to be extremely wretched. We have already seen, in this province of Penn sylvania, 250 of our people, which is more than half the number that were landed here, perish through misery and various diseases. In this great distress and misery, we have, under God, none but your Majesty to look to with hopes of relief and redress. We thereby hereby implore your gracious protection, and request you may be pleased to let the justice of our complaints be truly and im partially inquired into, and that your Majesty would please to grant us such relief as in your justice and clemency you will think our case requires, and we shall hold ourselves bound to pray, &c." This petition was, like many others, heartlessly disregarded by George III., who, unfortunately for the interests of England, never entertained any other idea but that of passive obedience from the colonists. The Acadians were allowed to pine, and many of them to die, in the southern colonies. Those who were afterwards allowed to return, settled where they best could, as the lands they previously possessed were confiscated and occupied by others. The Acadians descended from them are now to be found in various parts of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton, and the district of Gaspe, always living together in distinct villages. They love to cluster round their parish chapel, and not to live further from it than within hearing of its bell. They continue averse THE FRENCH ACADIANS. 87 to settle among other people, and we have not been able to discover more than five or six instances of their intermarrying with strangers. They profess and observe the most devoted adherence to the forms of the Romish church. On Sunday we observe a decorum, and simplicity, in the appearance of the Acadians, men, women, and children, that remind us of what history relates of primitive ages. They delight to assemble on that day, after the church service is over ; and on week-days, after the hours of labour, to talk with, and to please each other. Sunday, with them, is a day of amusement and delight, as well as of devotion. Their general character is virtuous, honest, and inoffensive. Reli giously tenacious of the costume, and all the habits and manners of their fore fathers, they have no ambition to rise, in the world, above the condition in which they have lived since their ancestors first became a pastoral, and agricultural, people in Acadia. The dread of being exposed to the derision of their neigh bours, for attempting to imitate the English inhabitants, and the want of an education that raises the mind above prejudice, are the principal causes that prevent individuals among them, who would willingly alter their dress and habits, from doing so. In Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Richibucto, and the Magdalene Islands, the Acadian women dress nearly in the same way as the peasantry near Dieppe, with neat calico caps, and sometimes a coiffe, or handkerchiefs tied over the head. Their petticoats of woollen stuff are liberally formed as to breadth, striped red, white, and blue, thickly plaited in large folds at the waists, but they seldom reach within six inches of the ankle: they usually wear blue stockings. On Sunday their linen and clothes are clean and neat, and they wear over their shoulders a small blue cloth cloak, reaching only half way down the body, and generally fas tened at the breast with a brass broach. On week days, they are more carelessly dressed, and they usually wear sabots, or wooden shoes. The men dress in round blue jackets, with straight collars, and metal buttons set close together ; blue or scarlet waistcoats, and blue trousers, and sometimes the bonnet rouge, or gris, but generally round hats. At Arichat, in Cape Breton, both men and women sometimes depart in their costume from the fashions of the Acadians, and wear coats and gowns made in the modern fashion. At the Bay de Chaleur one observes also a partial deviation from their usual dress, some of the men wearing long coats, and a few of the women with gowns, instead of the jerkin and petticoat. The head-dress of the females on the south side of the Bay de Chaleur seems peculiar to themselves. Instead of the smaller caps worn by the other Acadians, they delight in immense muslin caps in shape like a balloon, but not in the form of the Norman cauchoise. The Acadian women are always industrious, and in the cod-fishing set) like their ancestors at the fishing-ports of Normandy, Piccardy, and Bntanny, they 88 AMERICA. are perfect drudges. The men, after splitting the fish, leave the whole labour of curing to the women, who have also to cook, nurse their children, plant their gar dens, gather what little corn they raise, and spin and weave coarse cloth. The old worn clothes they either cut into small strips, and weave into coarse bed-covers, or they untwist the threads into wool, which they again spin and make into cloth. The occupations of the Acadians depend much upon their local situation. At Arichat, the Magdalene Islands, Rustico, Tracadie, the Bay de Chaleur, and some other places, where they principally follow fishing, they are not in such easy circumstances as at Clare, Cumberland, and in some villages in Prince Ed ward Island, where they chiefly depend on agriculture. Wherever we discover the Acadians depending on the cultivation of their lands, we find them nearly approaching the condition of their ancestors, as described by Raynal.* They marry very young, five to thirty couple at one time in the same chapel, are very affectionate to their children, and the husband seldom makes a bargain or enters on any project without first consulting i: sa femme." Domestic virtue they may lay an eminent claim to. One instance in a thousand cannot probably be dis covered of a child being born out of wedlock. They have large families, and their children, when young, are fat and chubby, but few are so when they grow up. The Acadians are nearly destitute of education ; scarcely any of the women, and few of the men, can read or write ; and, like all ignorant people, it matters not of what religion, they are exceedingly bigoted and superstitious. Most of the men understand English, but a French dialect is, and will long continue to be, their language. It is far more corrupted than that spoken by the Canadians ; but they perfectly understand French as spoken in France. Dancing, fiddling, and feasting at Christmas and on Mardi-gras, before Lent, and feasting at or after Easter, are among their amusements or indulgences. * Along the south side of St. Mary s Bay, extending nearly thirty miles towards Yarmouth, lies Clare, which contains a population of about 4500 Acadians, the descendants of those neutrals who were formerly banished from the province, but when allowed, returned to the country dear to their hearts from early affection. While in exile, they often visited Nova Scotia in small shal lops, which they built at Massachusetts ; and on being permitted, after repeated applications for leave to return, they immediately removed to this part of the country, where they have settled and prospered. They certainly occupy a fine portion of the province, the lands of which are fertile, and on the shores of which the sea throws up abundant manures to enrich it when neces sary. Fish also swarm round the shores : and, although the Acadians principally depend upon agriculture ; they are also fishermen occasionally, and carry the overplus produce of the soil and fishing, across the Bay of Fundy to sell at St. John s. All their wants are easily supplied ; and happy, contented, unambitious, retaining the habits and customs, language and religion, of their fathers, they seem to have nothing to wish for, and probably enjoy as much happiness as human nature admits. The main post road leading from Annapolis to Yarmouth, passes through Clare. There are two chapels, one riot far from each extremity of this long settlement The easternmost, which is the largest, will contain about 2500 persons ; its altar is a very splendid one. Here lives, and here has resided for thirty years, a man whom the revolution drove from France. In that country he was born, and there did he receive that education, and acquire those manners, which by being superinduced on a pure heart and sound head, constitute the worth of the amiable arid venerable Abbe Segoigne. This excellent cure is the priest, the comforter, the lawyer, and judge of all the Acadians of Clare and Tusket. As their lawyer, or rather notary, he keeps their 89 CHAPTER XIII. FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN THE WEST INDIES. AFTER the tragical end of Henry IV., Raynal observes that France was incessantly disordered by the caprices of an intriguing queen; by the vexa tious measures of a greedy foreigner ; and by the projects of a favourite, who possessed none of the abilities of an able statesman. A despotic ministry had enchained the energies of the country, at the time when a few bold navigators, ex cited by the spirit of independence, or by avarice, directed their views towards the Antilles, with the hope chiefly of interrupting Spanish vessels among those islands. After taking several prizes, they sought for a place to careen, and repair their ves sels, in the Island of St. Christopher. The chief of those Corsairs, Denambuc, had authority from the French government to form not only a settlement at St. Christopher, but wherever he pleased or could, on any of the Antilles. The government which granted this simple permission, but without any aid or supplies of any kind, exacted a twentieth part of all the produce of the colonies which might be formed under that authority. A company was formed in 1626 to establish colonies, under a patent, or charter, from the crown of France. The property of all, or any, of the Antilles, which this company should colonise, was vested in its shareholders : for which records, writes their deeds, notes, and contracts ; while his opinion as their judge, and his advice as their priest and father, convince his flock of the evils of litigation, from which they are taught to fly as from a pestilence. Woe be to the lawyers of Nova Scotia, if each settlement in the province had an Abbe Segoigrie for its pastor, and inhabitants that respected his advice. Since M. Segoigne retired to this peaceable and secluded settlement, he has only been once at Halifax, and only two or three times at the adjoining town of Digby. The urbanity of manner, and the polish which distinguished the gentleman of the old French school, are truly those of the abbe ; yet, for him, the world has no allurement to fascinate his thoughts from the calm, pious, cheerful, and useful life, which has diffused so much happiness among the Acadians. All the changes, politics, and vexations of the world, are unknown to him ; and he has, probably, no further connection out of Clare and Tusket with his own church, than an occasional letter from the Catholic bishop of Quebec and Halifax. He speaks the Indian language fluently; and the Micmacs regard him with the utmost veneration. The greater part of his flock have been born, or have grown up under him, while he has been among them ; and a few are accompanying him in the decline of his well-spent life. To him, with reverence and love, all look up for comfort in their afflictions, for advice in their mutual difficulties, and for the settlement of their little disputes. One of those tremendous fires, which makes such fearful ravages in America, nearly destroyed the district of Clare, in 1823. The chapel, and most of the houses and corn-fieKls, were consumed; and M. Segoigne had one of his hands severely burnt, while pushing through the fire to save the boxes which contained the land titles and other records of the inhabitants. This calamity was inevitably the cause of much distress and poverty, which the Acadians have long since completely overcome. The Acadian settlers at Tusket, about 200 families, are an orderly people, in tolerably g< circumstances. They have a neat chapel, amidst a beautiful grove of oak trees, in which Abbe Segoigne officiates occasionally. Mac Gregors British America, 2d edition, vol. i., page 356-7-8. N 90 AMERICA, grant the company were bound to pay one hundred pounds of tobacco, or fifty pounds of cotton for each settler between the ages of sixteen and sixty years. The company had the exclusive right of trading to and from those islands. " Un fortunately/ says Raynal, " this association did that which monopolists always will do ; the lust for excessive gain rendered it unjust and cruel." The Dutch, observing the tyranny of the French company towards the colonists settled at St. Christopher, offered the latter provisions, and merchandise, at moderate prices. A contraband intercourse was opened between them, which, from the first, it was found impossible to prevent. This trade and the policy of the government, which prevented the sale of any article the produce of the French islands, except in France, reduced the companies to the extremity of selling their possessions, in order to avoid total ruin. In 1649, an individual named Boisseret purchased for 63,000 livres the whole of Guadaloupe, Marigalante, and some minor isles, together with the effects of the company in those islands. In 1650, another individual purchased for 60,000 livres, Martinique, St. Lucia, Grenada, and the little Grenadas. Seven years after wards, he sold to the Count de Cerillac the two latter for a third more than he paid for the whole. The islands of St. Christopher, St. Martin, St. Bartholomew, St. Croix, and Tortola, were sold to a person named Malthe for 100,000 livres, which were paid by De Poincy the governor of the French Antilles. These proprietors, although the church claimed the Antilles as fiefs of the crown, received the rights of feudal lords. They re-sold, in subdivisions, their lands, and conferred all the civil and military appointments. Although under these petty sovereigns, the cultivation of the French Antilles was extended, their actual prosperity was retarded by restrictions ; and the profits expected to be derived from trade were, as under the company, absorbed by the Dutch smugglers. Colbert attempted to remedy the evil by the fallacies of premiums and protection. He repurchased Guadaloupe and its dependencies for 125,000 livres ; Mar tinique for 40,000 ; Grenada for 100,000; and all the possessions purchased by Malthe for 500,000 livres. Re-investing the sovereignty and property of these islands in the crown, would have been wise, if the lands were afterwards, without special privileges, sold or let to individuals. Colbert, dazzled by the delusive grandeur of establishing a great company, incorporated, under the monopoly of a royal charter, the whole agriculture and commerce of the French settlements in the Antilles, in Guyana, in North America, and in Africa. This was the Royal French Company of the Indies, established, with extra ordinary immunities and privileges. Money was advanced to this association without interest for four years. All imports and exports, in the trade between France and their possessions, were to pay no duty. The most brilliant success was promised by the minister and expected by France. By the company s mis- FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN THE WEST INDIES. 91 management, exclusive monopoly, the frauds of agents, the competition of the Dutch and English smugglers, the loss of ships and their cargoes during war, and the consequent disappointments, in France, and in the Colonies, caused a com plete derangement of the affairs of this ill-conceived association. In 1674, the French government, very prodigally, assumed the debts of the company, amounting to no less than 3,523,000 livres ; reimbursed the capital of 1,287,185 livres ; and, a second time, re-possessed the sovereignty, and proprietorship of the French Colonies. In 1643, the merchants of Rouen sent one Poncet de Bretigny to form a settlement on the island of Cayenne, in Guyana. His ferocious conduct towards the colonists and the natives caused a revolt, and he was killed. A second attempt to settle in Guyana was made in 1651, by a new association. The ex cellent Abbe de Marivault, who was to take charge of the colonists, was drowned in the Seine, on embarking for the ship which was to have carried him across the Atlantic. Roiville, a Norman gentleman, who was appointed to replace the abbe, was murdered on the outward voyage. Twelve of the principal assas sins arrived at Guyana ; where they soon quarrelled ; hung one of their number, sent three to perish on a desert island, and the remainder committed horrible atrocities and abominations. The commandant of the citadel deserted, with part of his troops, and joined the Dutch. Many died of hunger ; and several were killed by the natives. In less than fifteen months after landing, 500 to 600 perished in various ways ; and the few who survived, abandoned the fort, the arms, and stores, and arrived at the Windward islands, in a small ship and two canoes. The Dutch formed a small settlement on the same island, after the de parture of the French. In 1663, a new company was formed, under the direction of M. de la Barre, master of requests ; and the government aided him so far as to enable him to expel the Dutch from Cayenne. The place was taken by the English four years afterwards; and again, in 1771, by the Dutch: after which, it was re stored, and remained undisturbed, but in a state scarcely above the semblance of a colony, until some flibustiers, or buccaneers, arrived with the treasures which they had plundered from the Spaniards. With the riches which they had acquired by robbery and piracy, they resolved to begin cultivating Guyana. But in 1688, a mariner, of the name of Ducasse, who commanded some armed vessels, proposed to the flibustiers, who settled at Guyana, to aid him in pillaging Dutch Surinam. With the prospect of plunder, their former spirit revived. They re-assumed the life of Corsairs ; and they drew off with them most of the previously-settled colonists. The attack on Surinam was repelled. One division of the Corsair force perished in making the assault; and the others were made prisoners, and sent to 92 AMERICA. the Antilles. Cayenne still continued to exist as a French colony. The culture of rocou was first commenced; and before the year 1722, cotton, indigo, and sugar-canes were cultivated. In 1752, the population consisted of 86 French families, 125 Indians, and 1500 negro slaves. The exports of its produce that year, is stated to have amounted to 80,363 Ibs. of sugar ; 26,881 Ibs. of coffee ; 91,916 Ibs. of cacao; 260,541 Ibs. of rocou; 26,881 Ibs. of cotton; 618 feet of wood, and 104 deals. In 1763, France having lost Canada and Cape Breton, the government directed its views towards Guyana, for which 12,000 colonists sailed, without any preparation having been made previously for their reception. They were landed on a most unhealthy part of the continent, without habitations to lodge in ; and without any knowledge of the soil, climate, or the country. More than 10,000 were carried off by the diseases brought on by exposure to the climate, and the numerous privations incident to their situation. The re mainder wandered over, and settled in, different parts of that low region : they were suddenly destroyed by an inundation. This calamity was the consequence of their ignorance of such a phenomenon overflowing the country periodically. All the 12,000 colonists, on whose success great hopes were entertained in France, perished miserably, without leaving behind them a trace of their exist ence. France was, at this period, fully oppressed by those arbitrary financial exactions, and by those despotic and corrupt measures on the part of the court, the nobility, and the church, which constituted the preparative causes of the most terrible, though, probably, the most inevitable, of revolutions. Cayenne, and five other unimportant places, were still inhabited by some French colonists ; but the whole population, in the year 1772, did not exceed 1300 Europeans, and 9000 negro- slaves. Their live stock consisted of nearly 2000 horned cattle, and about 1000 other domestic animals; and its productions were even less than at a former period. The French, in 1650, began the planting of St. Lucia, which was neglected by England, and by all other powers. About forty colonists were conducted to this small island that year by a sagacious man of the name of Rousselan, who had married a Carrib woman. Through her influence and his own discretion, he lived in peace with that ferocious race until his death, four years afterwards. His three successors, one after the other, quarrelled with, and were massacred by, the Carribs ; and the settlement continued to decline until 1664, when it was cap tured by the English, who abandoned it in two years afterwards, as unworthy of colonisation. The French then returned to it ; but no great progress was ever made by them in planting or settlement; and the right to its possession was asserted by England as well as by France. In 1731, both nations agreed to evacuate St. Lucia, reserving to the subjects of either to resort to it for wood and water. From this period it became a lucrative point of intercourse for the contraband adventurers of different nations, until 1763, when England gave up FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN THE WEST INDIES. 93 its pretensions to France. The French minister, of that time, resolved to colo nise St. Lucia without delay. Seven to eight hundred men were embarked, at a heavy expense, and landed on the island, where they became the victims of a nearly similar calamity, to that which caused the destruction of those who perished at Surinam. Wiser measures were afterwards adopted by Count d Ennery, the practical founder of the colony. The vessels of all nations were then allowed to trade to it, with perfect freedom; roads were constructed; and in 1772, the population amounted to 2018 Europeans, 663 free blacks, and 12,795 negro slaves. The live stock on the island consisted of 928 horses and mules, 2070 horned cattle, and 3184 goats and sheep. There were thirty-eight sugar mills. The produce of agriculture was chiefly sugar, coffee, cacao, and cotton. In 1736, Martinique was so far advanced in its cultivation, that it possessed 447 sugar estates, besides several coffee, cacao, rocou, tobacco, and cotton plantations ; 4,806,142 banana trees ; and several plantations of manioc, pota toes, &c., for food ; all cultivated by 72,000 negro-slaves, of all ages and sexes. The exports were valued at 16,000,000 of livres, about 660,000/. sterling. About 200 vessels arrived annually at Martinique from France ; fourteen to fifteen with slaves from Guinea; thirty from Cape Breton and Canada, with provisions and fish ; besides the vessels which arrived from Trinidad, Margue rite, and the English and Dutch smugglers. The prosperity of the island was arrested by the war of 1774. The port of its capital, St. Pierre, became an arsenal, chiefly for equipping privateers, or rather corsairs, who, to the number of about forty, fought actions and made prizes, which rendered their exploits as famous as those of the old flibmtiers. While they brought plunder into St. Pierre, the adventurers became rich ; but the regular trade and navigation with France, Canada, and Cape Breton, was interrupted, and nearly destroyed ; the contraband trade with the Spanish colo nies ceased ; the sugar and coffee plantations were, in consequence, and from the great riches first brought in by the privateers, neglected ; sugar-mills and machinery were allowed to decay; the produce of food soon became inadequate to the consumption of the inhabitants; and many of the slaves are said to have died from want of nourishment. The consequent ruin was not easily repaired. The profitable contraband trade with the Spanish colonies was found to have been, during the war, transferred to new adventurers. A vicious system of com merce and navigation was, on the re-establishment of peace, instituted by the French ministry. In 1755, only four vessels arrived at Martinique from Quebec. The colonial administration of France was placed under the direction of corrupt and unscrupulous persons, who sold places, emoluments, and monopolies. In a few years, however, although the agricultural prosperity of Martinique was in a ruinous state, the trade of the port of St. Pierre reassumed considerable activity; especially the trade in Africans, brought there for sale chiefly to be 94 AMERICA. transhipped to Guadaloupe and the neutral islands. It became also a port for the sale of merchandise to, and purchase from, contrabandists. War again inter rupted all this commerce, and Martinique was conquered by the English, who re-ceded it to France at the peace of 1763. St. Vincent, St. Dominic, and Gre nada, remained, however, in the possession of England. Guadaloupe was still possessed by France ; but the intercourse between it and Martinique was most unwisely prohibited by the government. In 1769 the importation into France from Martinique, by 102 ships, con sisted of 177)116 quintals of white sugar; 12,579 quintals of brown raw sugar; 68,518 quintals of coffee; 11,731 quintals of cacao; 6048 quintals of cotton; 2518 quintals of cassia; 783 barrels of taffia ; 307 barrels of syrop; 150 Ibs of indigo; 2147 Ibs of confitures ; 47 Ibs of cacao paste; 282 Ibs of rasped tobacco; 294 Ibs. of rolled tobacco ; 3273 Ibs of anniseed ; 234 cases of liqueurs; 346 jars of refined syrops; 451 quintals of dye-woods; 12,108 skins: total value, only 12,265,862 livres. The value of imports from France, part of which only was consumed in Martinique, amounted to 13,449,436 livres. The sugar plantations declined to 286, in which 116 mills were worked by water, 12 by wind, and 184 by oxen. The population in 1770 consisted of only 12,450 whites of all ages and sexes; of 1814 free coloured; and 70,553 negro slaves. War, and the corrupt, and unsound, administration of the colonial direction, in France, were alone the causes which retarded the prosperity of this naturally rich and valuable possession. GUADALOUPE was neglected by all Europeans until 1635, when two French men, named Duplessis and Loliiie, arrived at this island with 550 colonists. Neither prudence nor common wisdom appear to have been considered in making their preparations. They were unprovided with proper food, and soon after their arrival, they found that they were unable to procure provisions. They, in consequence, resolved, most iniquitously, to plunder the natives, whom they attacked for the purpose, without success. The Carribs, not considering them selves able to defeat the French openly, destroyed the provisions which were demanded, levelled or burnt their habitations, and retreated to the fastnesses of Guadaloupe, or to the neighbouring islands. Famine among the French was the consequence. The living devoured the dead, and nearly the whole of the colonists perished. The few who survived were found and relieved, afterwards, by settlers from St. Christopher. Peace was also established with the Carribs ; the cultivation of Guadaloupe was then commenced ; a fresh number of adven turers resorted to the island soon afterwards ; and its prosperity seemed esta blished ; when its progress was suddenly retarded by disorders among the colonists, and by a preference which was consequently given to Martinique. In 1700, sixty years after its settlement, the whole population of Guadaloupe consisted of only 3825 whites; 325 free Carribs and coloured people; 6725 FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN THE WEST INDIES. 95 Carrib and negro slaves. It had only 60 small sugar plantations, 66 indigo gardens, and some insignificant spots planted with cotton and cacao. Its live stock comprised only 3700 horned cattle, and 1620 sheep and goats. In 1755, the population increased to 9643 whites and to 41,140 slaves of all ages and sexes. It had 334 sugar plantations : some indigo gardens ; with plantations of cotton, coffee, cacao, rice, maize, bannanas, manioc, &c. Its live stock consisted, in 1759, when conquered by the English, of 4946 horses; 2942 mules; 13,?16 horned cattle; 1162 sheep and goats, and 2444 hogs. It was re-ceded to France in 1763. During the period in which it was held by the English, they carried into Guadaloupe 18,721 negro slaves, and they proportionably increased its cultivation. In 1767 the population of this island consisted of 11,863 whites, 752 free coloured, and 72,761 slaves. Its live stock comprised 5060 horses; 4965 mules; 17>178 horned cattle; 14,895 sheep and goats; 2669 hogs. It cultivated for food 30,476,218 fosses of manioc, and 2,819,262 ban nanas. It had 21,474 carreaux planted with sugar canes; 5,881,176 square feet under coffee; 12,156,769 feet with cotton, besides some small plantations of cacao, rocou, &c. The sugar mills were, 140 worked by water, 263 by oxen, and 11 by wind. Its exports to France, in 1768, only amounted to 140,418 quintals of white sugar; 23,603 of brown; 24,205 of coffee; 11,955 of cotton; 456 of cacao; 1886 of ginger; 2529 of dye-woods ; 24 cases of confitures; 165 cases of liqueurs; 35 kegs of taffier, and 1202 skins. An extensive contraband was carried on at this period. The island of St. Bartholomew was resorted to in 1648 by about fifty French men, who settled on it, but who were massacred by the Carribs in 1656. Before 1757 a few French resorted to, and resettled in, this poor island, which the Swedes became possessed of afterwards. The French, in 1648, established themselves in Mariegalante, by acts of violence towards the inhabitants. HAYTI, or St. Domingo, was possessed solely by Spain ; from the period of its discovery and the extermination of its aborigines, until the French invaded a part of its territory. In 1630 the small island of La Tortue, two leagues from the northern shores of Hayti, was captured by some French and English adventurers, who fled from the island of St. Christopher. La Tortue is about twenty miles long and about five broad, inaccessible on the north, but with a good roadstead on the south side. It soon attracted a number of adventurers, many of them the most de sperate characters. Some, who were men of moderate pretensions, began cultivating tobacco, which was reputed for its good quality. Others resorted to hunt cattle at St. Domingo, for their skins, which they sold to the Dutch. But the bold and de sperate beczmejlibustiers, or corsairs, whose daring intrepidity and exploits became famous in the West Indian seas. They are generally called buccaneers by the English ; but the buccaneers, from the term boucan, smoked or hung beef, was the name given to the cattle hunters by the French. The court of Madrid became 96 AMERICA. alarmed at the position taken up by the occupants of La Tortue, and of a part of Hayti, and a General Galions was ordered to dislodge them. He chose for the pur pose a time when the boldest and most numerous of the men were absent hunting cattle, or roving on the seas ; and he hung, or put to the sword indiscriminately, all whom he found in the settlements. He left those places without a garrison, believing that the promptitude with which he put the inhabitants to death would prevent any further attempt at occupation. He deceived himself and his govern ment. The corsairs and hunters returned : they agreed to sacrifice to their com mon safety all jealousies, and elected a bold Englishman, named Willis, as their chief. They fortified the island, and attracted a great number of English sailors, and others, to this rendezvous for the bold and desperate. Such has often been the origin of monarchies : companions, in exile, in piracies and robberies ; in war or peace; in good or bad fortune, have elected their captain, who soon became their master, and founded a power extending over a territory and its inhabitants. The island of La Tortue was too small a field for a monarchy, and the French governor of the Windward Islands captured it. It was taken, and lost, three times afterwards, by the Spaniards ; and in 1659 it remained in the possession of France, who made it the then avowed post for invading Hayti, which they after wards continued to call St. Domingo. For this enterprise, the French government, in 1665, employed Bertrand Dogeron, a man who had previously distinguished himself in the Marine, and afterwards at Hayti, and at La Tortue ; where he became its governor, or rather the chief of the buccaneers, or hunters, and of thejflibustiersy or corsairs ; and of the few cultivators of the soil of that island, and of some places on the opposite shore. There was not, at the time he went to La Tortue, a woman on the island, nor among the French, n v/ho had planted themselves about the same time at Hayti ; and in the absence of females, the wild state of its society may be imagined, but it is not to be represented, Dogeron was convinced that no colony, no society could prosper, that no morals could be established, without the introduction of wives, among the lawless people, over whom he was deputed to rule. He consulted with them, and represented the evil. They requested him to send to France for virtuous women to become their wives ; he demanded the full number from the government. Fifty only were sent ; and in order to prevent an effusion of blood among the impetuous spirits, in competing for them, he found it necessary to let the highest bidder, at public auction, have a wife by purchase. Fifty others arrived soon after, and were taken as wives in like manner. But the course adopted, when all the remaining colonists demanded wives from France, was the most immoral and disgraceful that a minister could have conceived. It may not have been inconsistent with the code of morals which prevailed at the time in France ; but it shocked even the wild corsairs of La Tor tue and Hayti. The minister directed that a sufficient number of the prostitutes FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN THE WEST INDIES: I : 97 of Paris and some other places, should be collected and sent to Hayti ; where for three years after their arrival, they were directed to be hired to those Frenchmen who wanted wives, in La Tortue and Hayti. The minister excused himself by saying, his object was to purge Paris. If this had been true, which no one will believe, how could he justify that mode of purification by the pollution he sent to the colony ? The infection conveyed by this act of immorality, was disas trous. Many of the boldest colonists at Hayti were carried off. It transplanted there an immorality of character, that was not eradicated during the whole period of its possession by France. Dogeron struggled against the effects of the evil, and he succeeded so far as to increase the number of cultivators of the soil, from 400 to 1500; when in 1670, the Royal Company of the Indies monopolised its trade, and prohibited the introduction of merchandize by others. The monopolists sold their goods at a price two-thirds higher than that for which they had been obtained from the Dutch. The colonists resisted the imposition by armed force, until they obtained the privilege for all French vessels to trade with them, on condition of paying the company five per cent, upon the value of imports and exports. Dogeron managed this arrangement with great ability and with perfect disinterestedness. The colony continued to prosper under this excellent man, who was on no occa sion known to do any thing by which he could promote his pecuniary interest, until death carried him off in 1675. He governed the colony wisely, though he had neither troops nor the authority of laws. His nephew, who succeeded him, followed his example, though he did not inherit his abilities. After the death of the latter, a similar system of administration, and police, as that of Martinique, was established in Hayti. The tribunal at Cape Fran9ois was instituted in 1702. Trade and the sales of produce were restricted by monopoly. The hides which were obtained by hunting cattle, were purchased only at a limited and unprofit able price. Tobacco, which had been previously cultivated with profit, was subject to the monopoly of being farmed. Its cultivation was consequently limited. The colonists then directed their attention to other means of acquir ing wealth. They attacked the Spanish settlements, and carried off slaves to cultivate the grounds, which had previously been cultivated by the wages-paid labourers, brought from France. The sugar cane was introduced and cultivated ; but the monopoly of the Royal Company of St. Louis, or of the Indies, paralysed all enterprise, except that of the slave and contraband trade, until the company itself was finally ruined by its corrupt agents, and by its unsound principles of trade. In 1720, the government re-assumed the trade and administration of Hayti, then usually called St. Domingo. Many who had spent under the broiling sun of that climate from twenty to thirty years of their lives, had transmitted the proceeds of their labours and savings to France, in order to maintain them for o 98 AMERICA. the remainder of their lives ; but they received in payment only the notorious billets de banque created by the Mississippi scheme, and their ruin, with that of their families, was the consequence. The exclusive trade of supplying slaves was given to the agents of the Com pany of the Indies. Resistance in Hayti baffled this monopoly, and the colony, after suffering greatly by a bad administration, began afterwards to prosper, and its cultivation increased rapidly. It extended along eighty leagues of the north, west, and south coast of Hayti. The town of Cape Fran9ois, founded by a Calvinist, named Gobin, soon increased and flourished. In 1754, the produce of French Hayti was sold on the spot to the value, for exportation, of 28,832,851 livres. The imports from France were valued at 50.628.780 livres, or more than two millions sterling. In 1764, the white inhabitants able to carry arms, amounted to 8786, and the free -coloured, and freed negroes able to carry arms, to 4114. The number of slaves amounted to 206,000. In 1767* the exports to France amounted to 72.718.781 Ibs. raw sugar; 51,562,013 Ibs. brown sugar; 1,769,562 Ibs. indigo ; 150,000 ibs. of cacao; 12,197,977 Ibs. of coffee; 2,965,920 Ibs. of cotton ; 8470 packs of raw hides ; 10,350 tanned hides; 4108 barrels of taffia; and 21,194 barrels of syrop. These exports were carried to France in 347 vessels. To this trade we must add a contraband trade with their indolent Spanish neighbours. The cultivation of coffee extended rapidly, and it soon more than doubled in production. The slave trade augmented the number of slaves rapidly, while the free people increased but slowly in numbers. The sufferings of the former, and the generally unwise administration, caused finally the revolution in Hayti, which rendered it independent of France. St. Croix was lost in 1696, and St. Christopher by the peace of Utrecht. During the war which followed the first revolution, England became possessed of all the French West Indies. Martinique, Guadaloupe, and French Guyana, were re-ceded to France at the peace of 1814. The colonial policy of France, after the suppression of the Company of the Indies, is instructive and curious. We shall hereafter describe it, briefly, in a general view of the colonial policy of Spain, Portugal, France, Holland, and England. 99 CHAPTER XIV. FRENCH SETTLEMENTS AT NEWFOUNDLAND, CAPE BRETON, AND ST. JOHN S ISLAND. THE fisheries had, from an early period, attracted the French to the banks and coasts of Newfoundland, and they formed a settlement in Placentia Bay ; but England never acknowledged any sovereign right over the soil to France, further than curing fish on certain parts of the coast; and by the treaty of Utrecht, Placentia, and every other place occupied by the French at Newfoundland, were ceded to Great Britain : France, however, retaining the right to come and fish on, and depart from the coast, during the fishing season. CAPE BRETON. It has been said that Cape Breton obtained its name from the first discoverers being natives of Britany, but this is not true, as it was first discovered by Cabot, and afterwards by Verazani, who named it He du Cap. The name of Cape Breton was at first given to its most easterly point, which projects into the sea between Louisburg and Scatari, and afterwards extended to the whole island. In 1713, it was called by the French L lle Royale ; but it re mained unplanted until 1714, when the French, from Newfoundland and Acadia, made some settlements on it near the shore, where each person built according to his fancy, as he found ground convenient for drying cod fish, and for small gardens. In 1715, Louis XIV., after having been long contending with the united powers of Europe, made an offer to Queen Anne of part of the French pos sessions in North America, in order to detach Great Britain from that for midable alliance ; and by the Treaty of Utrecht, ceded to England all claims to Newfoundland, Hudson Bay, and Acadia (Nova Scotia). France preserved Ca nada, and the islands of Cape Breton, and St. John (Prince Edward). Cape Breton had, before this time, been considered altogether unfit for making any settlement on. In summer time it was frequented by a few fishermen, and, during winter, the inhabitants of Acadia resorted thither for the purpose of trading for furs with the Indians. But the French, with the view, partly, to repair the loss they sustained, as it was considered by them of the utmost consequence not to be entirely driven out of the cod-fishing, and, also, to maintain a post that would enable them to command the mouth of the river St. Lawrence, by which a communicatk was kept open with Canada, were induced to colonise Cape Breton, and to builc the town, and fortify the harbour, of Louisburg. The Seneglav, a French ship of war, commanded by M. de Contreville, 100 AMERICA. arrived at Louisburg on the 13th of August, 17 13, and took possession of it, but it was not fortified until 1720. It was taken by the British forces from New* England, in 1745, at which time they built a fort at Indian Bay, where they discovered coal, and opened a pit. The command of these forces, amounting to 4000, was given to William Pepperal,* a colonel of militia, but brought up to trade, and extensively engaged in commerce. His affability, and his general character, made him very popular among those volunteer troops. There was something like the spirit of the crusades in this expedition. The famous Mr. Whitfield supplied them with the motto, " Nil desperandum, Christo duce," for their banner ; and the military feeling of these forces was probably excited more by fanaticism than by any other motive. Commodore Warren, after some delay, joined the transports from New England ; and after a siege of forty-nine days, during which the provincials distinguished themselves by their endurance and bravery, Louisburg surrendered on the 18th of June. Commodore Warren, a few days before, captured the Vigilant, of 74 guns, commanded by the Marquis de la Maison Forte, with a great supply of stores; and some time after two French East India ships, and a South Sea ship, valued at 600,000/., were decoyed into Louisburg, by hoisting the French flag in the usual place. St. John s Island fell into the possession of England a little after ; and the inhabitants were transported to France. Some English, on that occasion, ven tured incautiously into the country, where they were surprised by the Indians, and twenty-eight were either massacred or made prisoners. The stores, merchandise, fish, &c,, taken at Louisburg, were of immense value ; and the importance of this place to France, as a rendezvous for its West India fleets, and as the head-quarters of their fisheries, was of vast consequence. Privateers were also fitted out here to disturb the British fisheries, and to infest the British colonial coasts. The Micmac Indians resorted to it with the scalps of the English who became victims to their cruelty ; and although the French considered them an independent people, they are accused of countenancing, even during peace, the aggressions of the savages on the English. Cape Breton was restored to France by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. in return for Madras, and remained in possession of that power until the surrender of Louisburg, on the 26th of July, 1758, to the British forces under the com mand of General Amherst, and Brigadier-generals Lawrence and Wolfe, and the fleet commanded by Admiral Boscawen. The French, commanded by M. de Drucourt, defended Louisburg, from the 8th of July, until its capitulation, with extraordinary bravery, against a powerful fleet, consisting of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen frigates, with sloops of war, and transports, amounting to 157 ships, and against 16,000 land forces. * Afterwards created a baronet. CAPE BRETON. On this occasion, Madame de Drucourt behaved with great heroism, appearing daily on the ramparts, animating the soldiers in the unceasing duty which the defence of the place demanded. The merchants and the greater part of the inhabitants of Louisburg, were, after its capture, sent to France in English vessels. But the civil officers of go vernment, the military and naval officers, soldiers, marines, and sailors, in number 5720, were transported as prisoners-of-war to England. The stores and ammu nition, besides 227 pieces of artillery, found in Louisburg, were of great value The following description of the then metropolis of Cape Breton, was written by a gentleman who was residing in Louisburg during the seige. " The French began to fortify this town in 1720. It is built on the neck of land which juts out into the sea south-east of the island. It is of an oblong figure, and nearly a league in circumference. The streets are wide and regular ; and near the prin cipal fort and citadel there is a handsome parade. To the north of the town there are three gates, and a spacious quay. They have likewise constructed a kind of bridges, called in French calks (wharfs), which project considerably into the sea, and are extremely convenient for loading and unloading goods/ " The fortifications consist of two bastions, called the King s and Queen s, and two demi-bastions, distinguished by the names of Dauphin and Princess. These two out-works are commanded by several eminences. The houses are almost all of wood ; the stone ones have been built at the king s expense, and are designed for the accommodation of the troops and officers. When the English were masters of the town, in 1745, they built very considerable caserns (barracks). The French transplanted the materials of their stone buildings, as well as their other works, from Europe. " There is hardly a settlement that has been attended with more expense to the French nation than this of Louisburg. It is certain that they have laid out about thirty millions of livres ; and so cogent were the motives which induced them to put this scheme into execution, that the preservation of Louisburg will always be considered as an object of too great importance not to sacrifice every thing to it. Cape Breton protects the whole French trade of North America, and is of equal consequence in regard to their commerce in the West Indies. If they had no settlement in this part of North America, their vessels, returning from St. Domingo or Martinique, would no longer be safe on the great bank of Newfoundland, particularly in time of war; lastly, as it is situated at the en trance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, it absolutely commands the river of that name. " The entrance of the harbour of Louisburg is defended by a battery, level with the surface of the water. It is planted opposite the light-house, on the other side of the Grande-terre, and consists of thirty-six pieces of cannon, a them four -and-twenty pounders. The harbour is also defended by a cavahe 102 AMERICA. called by the name of Maurepas, which has twelve embrasures. The Royal Battery, situated at the distance of a quarter of a league from the town, is mounted with thirty pieces of cannon, twenty-eight of which are thirty-six pounders. It commands the sea, the town, and the bottom of the bay. The port of Louisburg is at least a league in length, and upwards of a quarter of a league in its smallest breadth. There is very good holding ground, and generally from six to ten fathoms water. They have a very safe and convenient place to careen their ships, where they may also be laid up in winter, only taking proper precautions against the ice." The island battery not mentioned in the above description, commanding the harbour, mounted thirty guns, and some other batteries were planted before the siege. The town was surrounded, with the exception of about 200 yards of the sea, of most difficult access, by a broad stone rampart thirty feet high, and a wide ditch. An extensive marshy bog, in the rear, rendered the approach by land both difficult and dangerous. The population of Louisburg at that time, exclusive of troops, was about 5000. The administration was lodged in the governor and supreme council. There was also a bailiwick, or court of law, and a court of admiralty. It had an hospital for invalid soldiers and sailors, " which was served by six brothers of the charitable fraternity, of whose conduct, as well as that of the Recollet Friars, and other spiritual directors in Cape Breton, complaints were frequently made by the French inhabitants, and by the English of Nova Scotia, who charged them with the direction of the atrocities committed by the Indians/ The nuns of Louisburg called themselves of the Community of Q-uebec ; their province was to superintend the education of young girls. There were two handsome churches in the town, one of which was within the citadel ; and several other public buildings. The British government, fearing that Louisburg might again fall into the power of the French, ordered the town and fortifications to be demolished; and it has ever since remained in ruins, notwithstanding its excellent harbour, and the extraordinary importance attached at the time to its conquest. During the period that France held the colony, the inhabitants were chiefly engaged in fishing. In this trade were employed nearly 600 vessels, exclusive of boats, and between 27,000 and 28,000 seamen ; and the French ministry consi dered this fishery a more valuable source of wealth and power to France than the possession of the mines of Mexico and Peru would be. The principal set tlements at that time were within the Bras d Or, at Port Dauphin (St. Ann s), Spanish Bay (now Sydney), Port Toulouse (St. Peter s), Arichat, Petit de Grat, and river inhabitants. ST. JOHN S ISLAND, NOW CALLED PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. The first land Cabot met with, after leaving Newfoundland, is said to have been this ST JOHN S ISLAND. 103 island, on the 24th of June, 1497 (St. John s day), and that he called it St. John s Island. But the probability is, that the alleged discovery was some part of Newfoundland. The French, after the settlement of Canada, took possession of it, as within the limits of New France, and as having been discovered in 1523 by Verazani. It appears to have been granted, in 1663, by the Company of New France, together with the Magdalen, Bird and Brion Isles, to the Sieur Doublet, a captain in the French navy, to be held by him in vassalage of the Company of Miscou : one of the minor associations of that period. The Sieur s associates were two companies of fishing adventurers from the towns of Grenville and St. Maloes, who never made any permanent settlement on the island, except trifling fishing-posts at two or three places. After the peace of Utrecht, many of the French, who lived in Acadia, came and settled on the island ; and others flocked to it from Cape Breton, on finding they could have the advantage of a fertile soil, as well as the benefit of a plentiful fishery ; but so great was the apprehension of the French government, that these great natural advantages would drain off the fishermen settled at the important harbour of Louisburg, that the inhabitants were prohibited from fishing, except at two or three harbours. Afterwards the French garrison at Louisburg received from this island grain, vegetables, and cattle ; and two commissaries were sta tioned at different places for collecting and shipping the same. From the observations of a French officer, who visited this island in 1752, we may have some idea of its condition before it was taken by the British forces. He says, " St John s is the largest of all the islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and has the advantage of Cape Breton in point of fertility. It has safe harbours, plenty of wood, and as great a convenience for fishing as any place on the coast. It had been altogether neglected, as well as Cape Breton, until necessity having shown the French the utility of the latter, their eyes were also opened in regard to the former. They have since been at pains to plant it, though not enough, considering its advantageous situation. Though the Island of St. John is subject to no particular commandant, he receives his orders from the governor of Cape Breton, and administers justice conjointly with the sub-delegate of the intendant of New France. They reside at Port la Joye," (now Charlotte Town) " and the governor of Louisburg furnishes them with a garrison of sixty men. "It was from this place we set out in thebeginning of the month of August, 1752. We ascended the river to the north-east seven leagues, up to its very source, from whence we proceeded to the harbour of St. Peter s, after having made a carriage of four leagues across a plain, well cultivated and abounding in all sorts of gram." After remaining some days at St. Peter s, he visited the harbours of Fortune, De la Souris, and Matieu; "The neighbouring lands of which," he continues, "are exceeding good and proper for culture. We found several sorts of trees, wit! a prodigious number of foxes, martins, hares, partridges, &c. The rivers abound in 104 AMERICA. fish, and are bordered with pasture lands, which produce exceedingly good grass. The inhabitants came over here from Acadia, during the last war, and are about eight-and-forty in number. After coasting along, we doubled the east point, which we found deserted, because a fire had obliged the inhabitants to abandon it, in order to go and settle two leagues further upon the north side. " We continued our course six leagues, until we arrived at the Pool de Nau- frage. The coast, though very level, presents the eye with nothing but a country laid waste by fire ; and further on it is covered with woods. We met with but one inhabitant, who told us the lands about the pool were exceedingly good and easy to cultivate, and that every thing grows there in great plenty. Of this he gave us a demonstration that afforded us a singular pleasure ; this was a small quantity of wheat he had sown that year, and indeed nothing could be more beautiful than the ears, which were longer and fuller than any I had seen in Europe. " This place took the name of Pool de Naufrage, from a French ship that had been cast away on the coast. The vessel was lost four leagues out at sea; but a few passengers saved themselves upon the wreck, and were the first that settled at the harbour of St. Peter s. The coast swarms with all sorts of game, and with a variety of the very best fish." This writer, after briefly describing places at that time settled, namely, Port la Joye, Pointe Prime, St. Peter s, Savage Har bour, Fortune, Souris, Matieu, Trois Rivieres, Tracadie, Racico (Rustico), Malpec, (Richmond Bay), Cascampec, Bedec, Rivieres aux Blondes (Tryon), Rivieres des Crapauds, and des Sables, further observes, " The plantation of this island is of great consequence, as well in regard to the fishery, as to the commerce which the inhabitants may carry on in the interior parts ; but, to render it more solid and durable, they should attend to the more essential parts, namely, to agriculture, and pasturage for the breeding and maintaining of all sorts of cattle, and espe cially sheep ; by keeping them together in folds, the upper lands might be im proved, and the meadows and corn-fields laid out ; from whence the inhabitants would reap a plentiful harvest of all kinds of grain. For if they had the proper means of making these improvements, their own lands would abundantly supply all their wants, and they would be beholden to foreigners for nothing but salt, lines, hooks, and other fishing-tackle. Here they have likewise a vast quantity of plaice, thorn-backs, mackerel, and herrings. In several pools and lakes along the downs, they have excellent trout, and such a prodigious quantity of eels, that three men might fill three hogsheads of them in four- and- twenty hours. Lastly, you meet in all parts of the island with great plenty of game. It is, therefore, surprising that so plentiful a country should have so long been overlooked by the French." From the foregoing extracts, it is probable that the French government would not have allowed the natural resources of this island to have remained dormant, if they had retained its sovereignty. FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS IN CANADA. 1Q5 In 1758, this island surrendered to Great Britain, when its population is stated to have been 10,000, but an old Acadian, who was living in 1832, and was then on the island, told us that he recollected well the number of families in all the settlements, and that the population could not have exceeded 6000. It was stocked with above 10,000 head of black cattle, and some of the farmers raised 1200 bushels of corn each for the Quebec market. Lieutenant-Colonel Rollo was sent from Louisburg, by General Amherst, to take possession of the island; and, on its capture, the British commander asserted, that a vast number of English scalps were found hung up in the house of the French governor. The island for many years preceding, was the principal resort of the Micmac Indians, and from the immense quantity of oyster shells on the banks of rivers and bays in the neighbourhood of oyster beds, where the savages generally pitched their wigwams or tents, we may conclude that it was their rendezvous for many cen turies. In several places, these shells, which are partly in a pulverised state, cover several acres to the depth of from one to five or six feet. The old Acadian French, driven from Nova Scotia, assimilated themselves at that time in a great measure to the habits of the Indians. Some of these Aca- dians were sent to Canada, others to the southern colonies. At the peace of 1763, this colony and Cape Breton were annexed to the go vernment of Nova Scotia ; the progress of which we must include hereafter under that of the British possessions in America. CHAPTER XV. FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS IN CANADA. CANADA, from the time of its discovery by Cartier, was neglected, though visited by the French, until 1603, when Champlain, with Pontgrave, as the repre sentatives of a company who had procured a charter for prosecuting discoveries, and establishing settlements on the river of Canada, sailed from Honfleur on the 15th of March, and arrived on the 24th of May at Tadousac : a harbour at the mouth of the Saghunny, to which the French fur traders had resorted in 1600 and 1601. Champlain sailed up and explored the river St. Lawrence as far as the rapids of Lachine, above the island of Hochelaga, which he named Montreal. He then returned ; explored several parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; and arrived safely in France. In the following year he was nearly shipwrecked on the north coast of Cape Breton, where he was compelled to winter in a harbour which, from its form, he called Port Justaucorps, now Port Hood. 10f) AMERICA. The company by which Champlain was employed, and with which he was associated, directed its views exclusively to the gains made by the fur trade. All the other purposes of their charter were neglected, but Champlain inherited from nature a mind which would not confine its enterprise to the mere collection of peltry, and to his bold spirit and judgment are due the merit and honour of founding Quebec and of the settlement of Canada. On the 13th of July, 1608, he laid the foundation of the capital of Canada on a bold promontory, which forms a natural citadel, on the north side of and commanding the St. Lawrence, where its breadth is less than a mile, the water deep, and with a port more than sufficiently capacious for all the fleets of Europe. The choice of this situation confers immortal honour on his judgment. He erected, the first year, a fort, and habitations for the few settlers whom he brought with him from France. His judgment, afterwards, in selecting Montreal as a place of settlement, and an emporium for the trade of the interior country, is another proof of his foresight. He is not, however, entitled to praise for wis dom in his policy towards the Aborigines. At that period, the Algonquins, who inhabited the adjacent country, and the Montagnez (mountaineers), who occupied the hilly grounds, and the banks of the Saghunny, together with the Hurons of the upper country, were in alliance, as the common enemy of the powerful Iroquois nation.* Champlain, by joining those tribes in their wars against the Iroquois, com mitted a fatal error, which exposed the French settlements, in Canada, to all the calamities of savage warfare for nearly 100 years; and the introduction of fire- The Abbe Raynal observes " The character of the North Americans was singularly deve loped in the war between the Iroquois and Algonquins. These two tribes, the most numerous of Canada, had formed among themselves a kind of alliance. The former tilled the ground, and divided with their neighbours its produce, whilst the latter hunted, and also divided their spoil. In the severe frosts, when the ground could not be cultivated, they lived together: the Algon quins hunted, and the Iroquois contented themselves with drying the meat and dressing the skins. " A party of Algonquins one year came home unsuccessful from the hunt. The Iroquois who followed them asked permission to try whether they had better luck ; this was refused them. Such a refusal they could not submit to. They departed at night, and returned after a very suc cessful hunt. The confusion and shame of the Algonquins was great. To efface even the remem brance of it, they murdered in cold blood the Iroquois hunters. The Iroquois swore to be avenged, or to perish in the attempt. But not being experienced enough to attack their adversa ries, they resolved to make war with their less powerful neighbours, until they should have learned to come as the fox, to attack as the lion, and to fly as the bird; that then they would not fear to revenge the murder of their kindred. " About this time the French appeared. The Montagnez, who inhabited the mouth of the river St. Lawrence ; the Algonquins, who occupied its shores, from Quebec to Montreal; the Hurons, settled round the lake of the same name, and several other less important and wandering tribes, encouraged the settlement of these foreigners. " In alliance with each other against the Iroquois, without being able to resist them, these several nations saw in the French a valuable ally, with whom they promised themselves infallible success. They were not mistaken. Champlain, who ought to have profited by the greater foresight of the Europeans over the Americans, to seek some means to pacify them, did not even attempt a recon ciliation ; attaching themselves eagerly to the interests of their neighbours, they proceeded with them against the enemy." CANADA PLACED UNDER THE COMPANY OF NEW FRANCE. 107 arms, first among the Algonquins, and afterwards among the other Indian nations, was turned to the most terrible account, for more than a century, against the European settlements. Champlain explored the Ottawa, and many other parts of the country; and then returned to France, where he succeeded in forming, under the patronage of the Prince of Conde, who assumed the title of Viceroy of New France, a new association at Rouen. He returned to Canada in 1612, taking with him four Recollets, for the purpose of converting the savages. The war with the Iroquois seems principally to occupy the next eight years ; and in 1620, Champlain brought his family to Canada. The Prince of Conde surrendered his viceroyalty this year to the Marshal de Montmorency, who continued Champlain as his lieu tenant. Two years after, the Duke de Ventadour, having entered into holy orders, took charge, as viceroy, of the affairs of New France, solely with the view of convert ing the savages, and for this purpose he sent some Jesuits to Canada, to the great mortification of the Recollets. A number of Calvinists, associated with their leader, the Sieur de Caen, were at this period actively engaged in the fur trade ; and the jealousies and bicker ings maintained between them and the catholics, arising in reality from the spirit of trade, but attributed, as usual, to religious scruples, greatly retarded the prosperity of the French settlements. The Cardinal de Richelieu endeavoured to put an end to these causes of dis sension, by establishing the Company of New France. This company, consist ing of 100 associates, engaged to send 300 tradesmen to Canada, and to supply all those whom they settled in the country with lodging, food, clothing, and im plements, for three years : after which period they would allow each workman sufficient land to support him, with the grain necessary for seed. The company also engaged to have 6000 French inhabitants settled in the countries included in their charter before the year 1643, and to establish three priests in each settlement. The priests were also to be provided with every article necessary for their personal comfort, as well as the expenses attending their ministerial labours, for fifteen years ; after which cleared lands were to be granted by the company to the clergy, for maintaining the catholic church in New France. The prerogatives which the king reserved to himself, were the supremacy in matters of faith ; homage as sovereign of the country, with the acknowledg ment of a crown of gold, weighing eight marks, on each succession to the throne ; the nomination of all commanders and officers of forts ; and the appoint ment of the officers of justice, whenever it became necessary to establish courts of law. The royal charter then granted to the company and their successors for ever in consideration of their engagements to the crown, the fort and settlements 108 AMERICA. Quebec, all the territory of New France, including Florida, with all the countries along the course of the great river of Canada, and all the other rivers which discharge themselves thereinto, or which, throughout those vast regions, empty themselves into the sea, both on the eastern and western coasts of the continent, with all the harbours, islands, mines, and rights of fishery. The company was further empowered to confer titles of distinction, which, however, required, in the erection of marquisates, earldoms, baronies, and counties, the confirmation of the sovereign, on the recommendation of the Cardinal de Richelieu, superintendent-in-chief of the navigation and commerce of New France. The exclusive right of traffic in peltries, and all other com merce, for fifteen years, with the exception of the right to fish for cod and whales, was also granted to the company. Two ships of war were presented to the company by the king, the value of which was to be refunded, if the company failed in sending at least 1500 French inhabitants, of both sexes, to New France during the first ten years. The descendants of Frenchmen, inhabiting Canada, and savages who should be converted to the catholic faith, were also to be reputed as natural-born Frenchmen, and to enjoy the same privileges ; and all artificers, who were sent by the company to their American territories, arid who spent six years there, were permitted, if so inclined, to return to their native country, and to establish themselves in any trading-town in France. Such were the principal immunities and provisions of this celebrated charter : it was signed in April, 1627, and created the greatest and most flattering ex pectations. The administration under a viceroy being omitted, the company continued M. Champlain as Governor of Canada ; but untoward circumstances, particularly the capture of the first ships, sent from France with stores, by Sir David Kirke, reduced the colony to great distress. He even appeared with his squadron before Quebec; and might easily, had he known the famished con dition of the garrison, have compelled it to surrender. The prosperity of Canada was not only retarded, by the folly or corruption of the company s directors in France, but even the powerful mind of Champlain, so fertile in expedients on occasions of difficulty, was subjected to the most vexatious morti fications by orders and restrictions, and by various unfortunate circumstances in the colony. The hostilities of the savages were not the least of the evils that perplexed him ; and the Iroquois soon perceived the advantages which the continued jealousies and quarrels, between the catholics and Huguenots, enabled them to obtain over men whom they considered unwarrantable occupiers of their country. In 1629, at a period when Champlain was reduced to the utmost extremity, by the want of every article of food, clothing, implements, or ammunition, and DEATH OF CHAMPLAIN. j ( j(j exposed to the incessant attacks of the Iroquois, Sir David Kirke, commanding an English squadron, appeared again before Quebec. The deplorable situation of the colony, and the very honourable terms of capitulation proposed by him, induced Champlain to surrender the fortress of Quebec, with all Canada, to the crown of England. Kirke s generosity to the colonists induced them to remain ; but in 1632, three years afterwards, Canada, with Acadia, was restored, by the treaty of St. Germain s, to France. In the following year, Champlain, who was very properly re- appointed go vernor, sailed with a squadron, carrying all necessary supplies to Canada, where he found, on his arrival, most of his former colonists. The affairs of New France now assumed a more prosperous aspect; and measures were adopted for maintaining all practicable harmony among the in habitants, and preventing, as far as possible, those religious disturbances which previously convulsed the colony. The company was taught by former experi ence that their indiscriminate acceptation of all who presented themselves as adventurers, ready to embark for New France, constituted the leading cause of disorderly conduct and unsteady habits among the colonists. In 1635, the Marquis de Gamache, who had some years before joined the society of Jesuits, became the commander of their order in Canada. Their ser vices in preserving order and inculcating morality among the colonists, their ex traordinary perseverance in making discoveries and establishing missions the regulations of their great college, founded in 1635, by Father Reni Rohault, and thejfe/s which they obtained, form such important subjects in the early his tory of North America, that we must appropriate a separate chapter hereafter to the discoveries and establishments of the Jesuits in Canada. The death of Champlain, which happened this year, was a grievous misfor tune to Canada. In establishing and maintaining the colony, he surmounted difficulties that few men would have courage to encounter, and under which thousands of men, with minds even above the common standard, would have succumbed. The splendour of his views, which enabled him to perceive, and the soundness of his judgment, which led him to conclude, that a region pos sessing such advantages as Canada must, in the probable course of events, be come a great empire, stimulated and supported him in prosecuting, with un daunted perseverance, the vast undertaking in which he engaged. During the greater part of his active life, the sole object of his heart was to become the founder of a colony, which he felt confident would eventually attain extra ordinary power and grandeur. His anticipations have, since that period, b realised beyond those of most men who have spent their lives, like him, in gre undertakings. . After his death, however, although the governor, M. de Montmagny, ei into the views of his predecessor, yet, wanting the experience, the scientif 110 AMERICA. professional abilities, and probably the same confidence from the inhabitants, the improvement of the colony languished, and the fur trade alone seems to have been followed with any spirit. The ardent spirit of enthusiasm, which went forth during that age, to accom plish the conversion of the Aborigines of America, led to the establishment of religious institutions in Canada; and although these establishments did little for the immediate improvement of the colony, yet, as points of possession occupied by persons whose avocations were professedly holy and useful, they formed the foundation, on which arose the superstructure of those morals and habits that still, and will long, characterise the Gallo-Canadians. In 1636, a little after the college of the Jesuits was commenced, an institution for instructing the Indians was established at Sillery, a few miles above Quebec ; and two years after, the Duchesse d Aiguillon, under whose patronage the Hotel Dieu was founded by a Madame de Bouillon in 1644, sent three nuns from Dieppe to superintend its services. About the same time, Madame de la Peltrie, a young widow of rank, engaged several sisters of the Ursulines at Tours, with whom, with a vessel hired at her own expense, she sailed from Dieppe for Quebec, where she arrived after a tedious passage, and founded the convent of St. Ursula. The order of St. Sulpicius, instituted by the Abbe Olivier, sent a mission this year to Canada, and a situation was chosen at Montreal for a semi nary, which was consecrated with great ceremony and solemnity by the superior of the Jesuits, and for the maintenance of which the whole island of Montreal was granted by the king. The College of St. Sulpicius was founded in 1650 by the Abbe Quelus, and two years afterwards Madame de Youville, a young widow, founded the Gray Sisters. The Company of New France, who fulfilled none of the stipulations of their charter, arid who also found means to prevent the complaints of the inhabi tants being heard, or listened to, by the ministers of the crown, did nothing to wards settling or cultivating the country ; and the forts which they erected at Richelieu, and other places, were merely posts of defence, or storehouses for carrying on the fur trade. The characters of those employed in the service of the company were stamped with infamy, and they were described as generally licentious ; from among those men arose the race of vagabonds, known since that period by the name of Coureurs du Bois. Under such management Canada languished for several years ; while the Iroquois, with more experience in war, continued to harass the colony with unabated ferocity. The settlement at Montreal, which was very much exposed to the ravages of the Iroquois, suffered severely, and its extinction was only prevented by the ar rival of M. d Aillebout, in 1647, from France, with a reinforcement of 100 men. Marguerite Bourgeois, who accompanied him, founded at the same time the institution of the Daughters of the Congregation, or Saurs Noires, at Montreal. DEFENCELESS STATE OF CANADA TREMENDOUS EARTHQUAKE. Ill In 1658, the Marquis cTArgenson arrived in Canada with the commission of governor- general ; and in the following summer, Laval, Abbe de Montigny, and titular Bishop of Petrie, landed at Quebec with a brief from the pope, constitut ing him apostolic vicar. Curacies were at the same time established in Canada. The condition of the colony at this period appears, however, to have been truly wretched. Its defence and support were completely neglected by the Company of New France ; the associates of which, reduced to forty in number, at last gave up even the fur trade, for the seignorial acknowledgment of 1000 beaver skins. The Iroquois, who had spread terrible destruction among their old enemies, the Hurons and Algonquins, seemed also determined at this time to exterminate the French ; and several hundred of their warriors kept Quebec in a state little short of actual siege, while another band massacred a great number of the settlers at Montreal. The governor, who complained of ill-health, requested his recall, and, in 1661, he was relieved by the Baron d Avangour, an officer of great integrity and resolu tion, but considered too inflexible for the situation he held. His decisive mea sures appear, however, to have saved Canada ; the defenceless state of which, and the natural beauty and importance of the country, he stated in such forcible lan guage to the king, who was previously ignorant of its value or condition, that he immediately ordered 400 troops, with necessary supplies, to Canada, accompanied by a special commission. Their arrival gave life and confidence to the colonists, who were then^ for the first time, enabled to cultivate the soil with any security. A tremendous earthquake, which appears to have agitated the whole of Canada and a vast extent of the adjacent countries, in the year 1663, is described by the French writers of that time, as accompanied by the most violent phenomena, rendered more than usually terrific by the continuation of the shocks, at intervals, for nearly six months. On the evening of the 5th of February, a loud rumbling noise, seemingly occasioned by atmospheric detonation, was heard throughout the whole of those regions. The terrified inhabitants, having never heard of an earthquake in the country, at first conceived their houses on fire, and immediately flew out of doors ; and their astonishment was then increased by the violent agi tation of the earth, and every thing on its surface. The walls shook, the bells of the churches rang, and the doors flew open and closed again of themselves. The forest trees were seen all in violent motion, some thrown up from the roots, others with their tops bending nearly to the ground, first to one side, then to the other, or laid prostrate on the surface, from which again they were flung up in the air. The ice, which covered the lakes and rivers, in many places some feet was broken open, and frequently thrown, with rocks and mud from the bottom, a great distance upwards. Clouds of dust obscured the sky. The waters we; impregnated with sulphur, exhibiting yellow or reddish colours. From Tadousac 112 AMERICA. to Quebec, about 130 miles, the St. Lawrence appeared white and thickly im pregnated with sulphureous matter. The convulsion of elements produced the most awful and incessant sounds, roaring at one time like the sea, then reverberating like the rolling of thunder ; and again as if mountains were bursting, and the rocks which composed them cracking and rolling over each other. The darkness was rendered still more awful by the frequent flashes of lightning, or by the lamentations of women, the cries of children, and the howling of dogs and other animals. Walrusses and porpoises were said to have been seen as far up the St. Law rence as Three Rivers, where they never appeared before ; equally terrified with the inhabitants of the land, and the former howling in the piteous manner so peculiar to them. The first shock continued without intermission for about half an hour. It was followed, about eight o clock, by a second equally violent. Thirty shocks were numbered during the night, and the whole country continued to be violently agitated, at intervals, until the end of July. Such is the description written by the Jesuits. From all the accounts transmitted to us, it appears wonderful that no human lives were lost during this extraordinary convulsion ; nor does it appear that any change was caused in the configuration of the countries said to be so long and violently disturbed by the power of its action. The river St. Lawrence and its tributaries, the Saghunny, the islands, Quebec, Lakes St. Peter and Champlain, Montreal and the rapids of St. Louis, or La Chine, are apparently at this day exactly in the same position as when discovered by Cartier and Champlain. CHAPTER XVI. COMPANY OF NEW FRANCE SURRENDER THEIR CHARTER. THE Company of New France, who had from the first mismanaged the affairs of Canada, and who even lost the vast profits which might have been realised from its trade, by neglecting, from ill-timed avarice, to provide for the exigencies of the colony, at length surrendered their charter to the king. Its powers and immunities were transferred, in 1664, to the Company of the West Indies : from one ill-directed incapable association to another. The administration of the colony, without an effective government, or courts of justice, was wretchedly managed after the death of Champlain. The governor, the Jesuits, and the bishop, appear to have been equally anxious to supplant each other in power. The Baron d Avangour, just in his views, but at the same CANADA TRANSFERRED TO THE COMPANY OF THE INDIES. 113 time inflexible in his decisions, was recalled at his own request, and M. de Mesey, who was recommended by the bishop, succeeded him as the first go vernor under the Company of the West Indies. This officer quarrelled soon after with the bishop, who, with many good qualities, appears to have been a very arbitrary ecclesiastic. A council, composed of the governor-general, in- tendant-general, the bishop, and some others, removeable at the will of the go vernor, was established about this time, in which, as a court of justice, presided the superior of the Jesuits as Grand Seneschal of New France, to decide matters of dispute. The complaints of the bishop and others against M. de Mesey, the go vernor, induced M. Colbert to recall him ; and the Marquis de Tracy, who had been for some time before Viceroy of America, arrived in Canada from the West Indies, in June, 1665, with some companies of the regiment of Carignan, the remainder of which, with their colonel, M. de Sallierres, arrived soon after from France. Three forts were then erected on the river Richelieu, by which the Iroquois descended on their expeditions against the French. The first was built where the old one stood (now William Henry), and M. de Sorel. who was left there as commandant, superintended its structure, and transmitted his name not only to the fort but to the river. The second was erected by M. de Chambly, at a place still bearing his name ; and a third further up by M. de Sallierres, which he named St. Therese. These garrisons kept the Iroquois for some time in awe, but they soon recommenced their depredations, with greater fury than ever, by other routes, and it required all the vigilance of M. de Tracy to preserve the settlements from destruction. Before this officer returned to France, he placed the country in a state of defence, which enabled it for some time to enjoy peace ; and having established the Company of the West Indies in all the rights possessed by the Company of New France, he left M. de Courcelles governor-general, with several offi cers of great abilities under his command. From this period (1668) we find the affairs of Canada so far prosperous, that little apprehension was entertained as to the colony being established on a permanent foundation ; although the ferocity of the natives left no grounds for expecting a cessation of hostilities for any definite period. Several of the officers, who received grants of land about this time, with the rights of seigneurs, settled with their families in Canada ; and many of the private soldiers whom they com manded were also distributed among the other colonists, who were all equally ready to take up arms, whenever the incursions of the savages rendered it neces sary to defend the country. The French government, at the same time, sent 300 young women of loose character to Canada, who, in less than fifteen days after their arrival, were all disposed of in marriage among the inhabitants, on which occasion considerable presents were made to the latter, as part of the con- Q 114 AMERICA. dition of making chaste wives of females who had been reared in, and trans ported from, the pollution of Paris. They certainly did not improve the morals of Canada : yet the care which was afterwards bestowed by the religious orders, in bringing up the succeeding generations, has long effaced all traces of any unchaste origin. To all parents who had ten children, lawfully begotten, pensions were also given. In 1670, the church of Quebec was constituted a bishopric. The mission of Lorette, near Quebec, was established about the same time ; some important measures were also adopted for the better government of the country, and for maintaining peace with the savages ; and while the trade and agriculture of the colony were prospering during this interval of peace, the clerical orders became more enthusiastic than ever in their efforts to make proselytes of the Indians. The fur trade, however, was in a great measure intercepted by a fatal cala mity, previously unknown to the inhabitants of the western world. The small pox, more terrible to the savages than all the fire-arms of Europe, made its appearance this year among the tribes north of the St. Lawrence, and its ra vages carried off more than half their number. This contagion, and the use of ardent spirits, have, probably, since that time, destroyed a greater portion of the Aborigines of North America than war and all the diseases to which they were previously subjected. Fort Frontenac was built in 1672, where Kingston now stands, for the pur pose of awing the Indians, by Louis de Baude, Count de Frontenac, for whom, however, the right of ground was obtained with great adroitness by his predeces sor, M. de Courcelles : a man of great personal worth and practical abilities, but neither gifted with the splendid talents, nor blemished with the unyielding obsti nacy, of his successor. M. de Frontenac was by birth of distinguished family, and a lieutenant- general of high reputation in the royal army. His brilliant talents were some times obscured by prejudices ; but his plans for the aggrandisement of Canada were splendid and just ; and if his great views had not been thwarted by the jealousy of his enemies, his measures would certainly have soon placed Canada in a condition that would have prevented the depredations of the Indians, and en sured its rapid settlement and cultivation. He possessed, however, a spirit which could not bear contradiction in the prosecution of his plans, either from the eccle siastical orders, or from officers of whatever distinction in the colony. He was op posed in his measures, first by the clergy, and soon after by the intendant- general. Violent dissensions arose between them ; and M. de Frontenac was not a man inclined to execute his plans with indecision, or by withdrawing the orders he had previously given. The intendant-general, M. de Chezneau, having ne glected some orders, was imprisoned ; the procureur-general was exiled ; the go vernor of Montreal was put under arrest; and the Abbe de Salignac Fenelon, at JESUITS ESTABLISHMENTS. ] ] ;, that time in Canada superintending the seminary of St. Sulpicius at Montreal was imprisoned under pretence of having preached against M. de Frontenac, and having defended the governor of Montreal. The principal point of disagreement, between M. de Frontenac and the bishop, arose from a circumstance of very great importance, respecting which the former bishop had quarrelled with the Baron d Avangour. This was the traffic in brandy, in exchange for furs with the savages. This spirit was the most fatal article that Europeans ever introduced among the Aborigines of America. It produced evils among the Indians of the most deplorable description. It superinduced, on their natural habits and dispo sition, the most degrading of European vices, which enervated their constitutions and destroyed all that dignified their original character. The bishop at last suc ceeded in obtaining an ordinance of the king, enjoining M. de Frontenac to pro hibit the sale of spirits to the Indians, under the most severe penalties. This was considered as a victory obtained by the ecclesiastics over M. de Frontenac, who, however, notwithstanding the opposition to his government, had powerful friends at court, and retained his office as governor-general until 1682, when he and M. de Chezneau were recalled together. During the administration of M. de Frontenac and his predecessor, M. de Cour- celles, the French explored the greater part of Canada ; and the savages were taught to regard the colonists with some degree of awe. M. Perrot, an indefatigable traveller, visited all the nations in the vicinity of the Great Lakes; who shortly afterwards sent deputies to meet the sub-delegate, of the intendant of New France, at the falls of St. Mary ; where they finally agreed that he should possess and occupy that post in the name of his sovereign ; and a cross was there erected, on which were placed the arms of France. A tribe of the Hurons, who were converted and guided by Father Marquette, were soon after established at Makilimakinak ; and the Iroquois, who were con verted, and who separated from the rest of their nation, were settled about the same time on the south-side of the St. Lawrence, at the falls of St. Louis, near Montreal. CHAPTER XVII. THE JESUITS OF CANADA. -DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. THE Jesuits, who were at first only missionaries, accompanying the early ad ventures, became afterwards, by royal patent, holders of lands in Canada, a other parts of New France. Their estates were acquired by grants from the 1 or by gifts from individuals, and by purchase. The Jesuits afforded almost t 116 AMEHICA. only means of instruction which the country formerly possessed. To the con version of the savages, and to the education of youth, did these extraordinary men direct their labours with the most arduous zeal; and the course of instruction they taught was eminently practical. They did not attend funerals or visit the sick; these duties they left to the priests. But in their grand attempts to correct and civilise the Aborigines, they fearlessly endured the most extreme privations, and encountered the most formidable difficulties. Their ardour in the pursuit of discoveries and to make converts, led them undauntedly into the wildest regions, and along and beyond the Great Lakes. The priests were formerly the second in importance to the Jesuits. They never went beyond teaching their flocks the ceremonials and service of the church. Their influence and example, which were unfavourable to mental acquirements, were, however, beneficial in respect to morals. The Recollets, who made vows of eternal poverty, were the lowest religious order. The first property in land, possessed by the Jesuits in Canada, was the seigniory of Notre Dames des Anges, near Beauport and Quebec, and granted by deed, 1626, by the Duke de Ventadour. The edict of the King of France having revoked all deeds previous to the charter of the Company of New France, this seigniory was by the company granted anew to the Jesuits; and, on the com pany surrendering their charter to the crown, a fresh deed was granted, in 1652, of the seigniory en Franc aleu, with the usual feudal rights. It continued to be the property of the order until 1800, when, with the other property of the Jesuits, it was taken possession of by the British crown, on the death of Jean Joseph Cazot, the last of the order in Canada. It contained 28,000 square arpents. The fief of Pachigny, at Three Rivers, containing only 585 arpents, was granted to them in Franc Almoigtie, by deed, in 1736, from the company of New France, and secured by subsequent deeds. They next acquired, in 1639, by deed from James de la Ferte, abbot of Ste. Mary Madeline, of Chateaudun, and canon of the King s Chapel at Paris, the valuable and fertile seigniory of Batiscan, above Three Rivers, containing about 282,000 arpents. The seigniory of La Priaire de la Madeline, opposite Montreal, was granted, by deed, to the Jesuits in 1647, by M. de Lauzon. The Cap de la Madeline seigniory, on the river St. Maurice, was granted in 1650, by the abbot La Ferte, as an irrevocable gift, in like manner as he granted Batiscan. It contained 280,000 arpents of land. Isle St. Christopher, as the mouth of the seigniory, belonged to the same estate, by grant of the governor, in 1657. It contained 60 arpents of poor land. The seigniory of St. Gabriel was acquired in 1677? by deed from the seigneur, Robert Giflard, and Mary Renouard, his wife. It is near Quebec, and con- JESUITS COLLEGE. 117 tained about 180,000 arpents of land, of various degrees of fertility and barrenness. The beautiful seigniory of Sillery, near Quebec, was first granted by the company of New France, in 1651, to the Jesuits, and afterwards en Franc aleu, by M. De Callieres, in 1699. It contained nearly 900 arpents. The seigniory of Belair, or Montague Bonhomme, containing 14,000 arpents, was acquired, by purchase, from the heirs of the original seigneur, William Bonhomme. The fief of St. Nicholas de Lauzon contained about 1200 arpents of excellent land. Several lesser grants, in the cities of Montreal and Quebec, of valuable property, belonging to the order of Jesuits; and the whole contained an area of not less than 778 3 000 arpents. The motives for which these estates were granted, are stated in the different grants to be the love of God ; the great expenses which the order sustained in supporting missions ; the extraordinary fatigues and ha zards to which the Jesuits exposed themselves among the savages ; the instruction of the Indians; pious foundations, and the general purposes of " civil and reli gious " education in New France. The strong quadrangular building at Quebec, now used as barracks, was formerly the college of the Jesuits. When occupied by them, it was the most spacious building in America.* It is three stones high ; along each of these there was a long gallery, on each side of which were the private cells of the fathers. It contained a large public hall, in which seats were placed along the walls ; and be fore the seats were the dining tables. They never allowed women to reside among them. They were either fathers or brothers ; the latter were novices preparing for admission to the order. When the fathers dined, the brothers carried the dishes from the outer halls to the tables, for common servants were never admitted into the dining hall; nor were the brothers ever permitted to dine with the fathers. At dinner, the fathers all sat down with their backs to the walls ; and, in a pulpit opposite, one of them read aloud from some book during the repast; when strangers were invited, this observance was omitted, and animated conversation on general subjects, but seldom on religious matters, prevailed at the table. In this building there were also several public halls and rooms, a laboratory, refectory, &c., andan extensive orchard and kitchen garden were attached. The British government converted this magnificent edifice into barracks, for which purpose it has long been used. It was from this palace that the various directions conceived by the Jesuit missions issued. It was by these men that measure; were conceived for establishing a power on the banks and tributaries of Lawrence, fully as ^reat as that which was established in Paraguay. They planned settlements, and established missions, on the mos * Founded in 1635, by Pbre Reiii Hobauh. It will, it is said, lodge 2000 troops. 118 AMERICA. fertile grounds of the Saghunny river, at the Riviere des Trois, at the com manding passes of the countries between the Ottowa, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi ; and a leading principle of their policy was to secure an authority, parentally despotic, over the whole aboriginal mind of the people, who inhabited the vast regions west, and north, of the Alleghanny mountains. In 1672, M. Talon, who, during the period he held the office of intendant- general, in which he was succeeded by M. de Chezneau, had extended the autho rity of France into the most distant parts of Canada, concluded, from the reports of the Indians to the Jesuits, that there flowed west of the Great I/akes a magnificent river, which some of the native tribes called Mississippi, and others Mesha-shepi; and the course of which flowed towards the south. He therefore determined not to leave America until he should ascertain the truth of this important information. For this purpose he employed Father Marquette, who had previously travelled over the greater part of Canada, and who was, besides, peculiarly qualified to gain the confidence and esteem of the savages. M. Jolliet, a merchant of Quebec, and a man of well-known abilities and experience, was associated with Father Mar quette, in order to examine more fully the commercial resources of the countries they should discover. They proceeded to Lake Michigan, ascended the Fox River, which falls into an arm of that lake called Green Bay, up to near its source ; from whence they crossed the country by a short portage said not to be a league over to the River Esconsin, or Winconsin, which they descended, until it unites with the Mississippi, in about latitude 42 deg. 50 min. The magnitude and depth of the Mississippi, even at this point, so many thousand miles from its mouth, exceeded the most exaggerated accounts they had received from the Indians. They floated down its stream, which was deep, smooth, and seldom rapid, in a bark canoe, until they arrived at some villages of the Il linois, a few miles below the confluence of the Mississippi and the Missouri. The Illinois, who had heard of, but never before seen, the French, seemed anxious to form an alliance with them ; and they treated Marquette and Jolliet with great hospitality. Leaving the Illinois, they descended the river to Arkansas, in about 33 deg. N., when the exhausted state of their stock, and being convinced that the river disembogued in the Gulf of Mexico, induced them to return. They ascended the Mississippi, to where it receives the Illinois, up which they proceeded, and then crossed the country to Michigan, where they separated ; Marquette remain ing among the Miamis, while Jolliet proceeded to Quebec. Although the Mississippi was thus discovered, by a route through Canada, yet the advantages which it held out were neglected for some years, in conse quence of the death of Father Marquette, and the return of M. de Talon to France. In 1678, the Sieur de la Salle, accompanied by the Chevalier de Tonti, DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. arrived from France : he had previously spent some years in Canada, where he maintained a favourable understanding with M. de Frontenac. The king havin" granted him the seigniory of Cataraqui, he proceeded thither, and built the fort with stone. He then constructed a vessel, and sailed to Niagara, accompanied by Tonti and Father Hennepin, a Flemish Recollet. Here they remained during the winter, attending to the fur trade ; and in the following summer they built a vessel for navigating Lake Erie. They sailed up that lake, and proceeded afterwards, by different routes, to Mikilimakinak. Hennepin then proceeded to the Illinois, and La Salle returned to Cata raqui. Hennepin was afterwards despatched to the Mississippi, which lie ascended to the falls of St. Anthony. Three years were spent by La Salle, Tonti, and Father Hennepin, in exploring those vast and wild regions, and endeavouring to secure the alliance of the savages, and the gains also of the fur trade. Their sufferings, on many occasions, were exceedingly severe ; and the difficult situations, in which they found themselves among the Indian tribes, required extraordinary address, resolution, and endurance. On the 2nd of February, 1682, La Salle, having reached the Mississippi, determined on sailing down to the ocean. On the 4th of March, he reached Arkansas, of which he took formal possession ; and on the 9th of April he arrived at the sea, by one of the channels which leads the Mississippi through its delta to the ocean. He returned by the same route to Canada; but suffering severely from fatigue and sickness, he first sent De Tonti before him with the news of his discovery. He afterwards returned for France, where he was favour ably received ; and having been enabled to sail with some ships for the Gulf of Mexico, he landed to the west of the place he intended; and soon after, this remarkable and bold man perished, in the manner which will be found hereafter stated in our account of the French settlements and projects on the Mississippi. The vast regions discovered by these adventurous men have opened an arena for the boldest schemes, and their progress will require, at a subsequent period, a separate chapter. CHAPTER XVIII. JEALOUSIES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH IN REGARD TO THE FUR TRADE, &C. THE peace of Canada still continued to be disturbed by various causes which readily excited the ferocious spirit of the Iroquois, and which i, theHurons, Algonquins, and Abenaquis, in the wars occasioned by t picions, or by the jealousies of the French and English colonists. 120 AMERICA. The French had long supplied the Indians, in exchange for furs, with various articles of European manufacture, particularly coarse red cloth, which the English colonists were enabled to sell at a much cheaper rate ; and there were, besides, no restrictions on the trade, nor any duty on the furs at New York. The English, also, in order chiefly to engross as great a share as possible of the peltry trade, formed an alliance with the Iroquois ; and, as the scruples of honour were not regarded with much delicacy by those employed either by the French or English at their trading posts, whenever their profits were at hazard, fresh difficulties were created among the Indian nations, which were always followed by renewed hostilities on the part of the Iroquois against the French. Soon after the appointment of M. de la Barre, as successor to M. de Fron- tenac, the Iroquois assumed such a tone of defiance, and made such formidable preparations, as to cause the greatest apprehension of a general war among the Indians ; and the condition of Canada at this time (1683) was far from that state of prosperity, which it ought to have attained, and which was prevented solely by the mismanagement of an exclusive company, who cared little for the country, so long as they monopolised the fur trade. The whole population consisted only of 9000 inhabitants ; and M. de la Barre, to prevent the extermination of the colonists, anticipated the preparations of the Iroquois, by making an expedition to their country, with about 1000 troops, which ended, after his experiencing great hardship, in an unsatisfactory negotiation ; which, however, in the meantime, gave assurance of peace. The Marquis De Nonville arrived in Canada soon after, with a strong rein forcement, as governor-general. He immediately proceeded to Cataraqui, with about 2000 troops, where he asserted that the Iroquois had assumed a spirit of defiance ; that all attempts to reconcile, or assimilate them to the French, were altogether fruitless ; and that this tribe alone prevented the conversion of the others. The latter reason paramount, or rather, in that age, pretended to be so, to all others was considered more than sufficient to justify any measure against the Iroquois, whose extinction, as a nation, seemed determined upon by the go vernor ; and directions were also received, some time before, to send to France all able-bodied men of that tribe, who were made prisoners, as slaves for the galleys. This order, indefensible under the most aggravating circumstances, was exe cuted with the utmost baseness and treachery by M. De Nonville, who even em ployed two missionaries to effect his purpose. These men, particularly the priest de Lamberville, had gained such influence over several of the principal Iroquois chiefs, as to induce them, under various pretences, to meet M. De Nonville at Fort Frontenac, where he immediately loaded them with irons, and sent them to France, where they were condemned to the galleys. PERFIDY OF GOVERNOR DE NONVILLE. This act of infamous perfidy stamped eternal dishonour on the French name among the Iroquois ; yet did this people, whom we call barbarians, allow Lam- berville to depart in peace ; and it was this same priest who afterwards induced them to attend to pacific overtures. The other missionary fell into the hands of the Agniers, who condemned him to the flames; from which, he is said to have been saved by a woman who adopted him. Although M. De Nonville received instructions from France, that a treaty was signed at London by the governments of France and England, stipulating that, whatever difference should arise between them in Europe, their subjects in America should remain in perfect neutrality ; and, although the Governor of New York remonstrated against his building a fort at Niagara, and urged that the Iroquois were the subjects of England, yet he persisted in his imprudent purpose of building a fort there, at a time when the seizure of the Iroquois chiefs, which had renewed the passion of revenge with unexampled fury among their warriors, formed the greatest obstacle to peace that had occurred since the French first settled in Canada. The war had only partially commenced, when Fort Frontenac was attacked by the Iroquois, who also burnt all the corn- stacks in the neighbourhood ; and 500 of their canoes, which were on Lake Ontario, captured a French bark laden with provisions and stores. The Abenaquis, allies of the French, attacked at the same time the Iroquois of Sorrel, and committed depredations on the English settlements : plundering the property, and scalping several of the inhabitants. In the meantime, the Iroquois acted with great policy ; and while they made overtures for negotiation, they were accompanied by preparations not to be disregarded. Deputies;, attended by 500 warriors, were sent to treat with M. De Nonville ; and the lofty tone assumed by their orator, in stating the condition of his nations, and it being known that there were 1200 warriors within a short distance of Montreal, who could immediately fall upon the settlements, set fire to the build ings and corn-fields, and murder the inhabitants, induced the governor to accept the conditions of peace which they proposed, and to send without any delay for their chiefs, who were then chained to the galleys of France. The ratification of this treaty was, however, prevented by the political ma nagement of a young Huron chief, worthy of the most refined disciple of Macchia- velli ; and conducted with sufficient address and skill to rank this savage in the annals of political intrigue, with the Borgias of Europe ; while his callous dis regard to scruples, in seizing the means necessary to accomplish his ends, affords an example of dark resolute perseverance, not surpassed in the registers of diabo lical policy. Kondiaronk, or Le Rat, called also Adario, by La Hontan, and by the 122 AMERICA. English at New York, although not forty years of age, rose by the power of his eloquence, bravery, skill in hunting, and success in the enterprises he planned and conducted, to be the chief in war, and the first in council among the Hurons. He inherited inveterate hatred towards the Iroquois ; and their total extermination from his youth, was the ruling passion of his soul. He hated the French in his heart ; but his nation considered their friendship useful in protect ing them against the Iroquois ; and he hated the English also, as the allies of the latter, with all the animosity which an Indian bosom can cherish ; but policy made him conceal his feelings, while his people found it more convenient, or more profitable, to sell their furs to the English than to the French traders. M. DeNonville solicited, and pressed for, his alliance, to which Le Rat consented, on the sole condition that the war should only terminate by the extinction of the Iroquois nations. On this assurance, he soon after left Makilimakinak, with a chosen band of 100 warriors, in order to surprise the Iroquois, and to acquire additional fame by some brilliant exploit. He stopped on his way at Fort Fron- tenac, where he was informed by the commandant that M. De Nonville had entered into a treaty with the Iroquois nations, whose deputies he daily expected, with hostages to be left at Montreal for its final ratification. Le Rat, who was also told that it was consequently necessary for him and his warriors to return to Makilimakinak, suppressed the feelings that were maddening in his bosom, and very coolly observed that the request was reasonable. He then left the com mandant, under the impression that he would return peaceably with his warriors to his own country. Far different, however, was the resolution of Le Rat. He considered his whole nation, in not being consulted before treating with their enemies the Iroquois, insulted by a species of contempt, the most galling to the proud heart of an American Indian ; while the brilliant achievements, he antici pated on leaving his tribe, with the flower of their warriors, were at the same time completely blasted. Conceiving, therefore, that his own fame and the honour of his nation were sacrificed to the interests of the French, he formed a plan of terrible revenge ; which the deep address and perseverance of this fiend carried into full execution. What was said by the courtly Clarendon of Hampden, but without truth in respect to that patriot in the last words of the sentence, may be justly said of Le Rat : " He had a head to contrive, a tongue to per suade, and a hand to execute any evil." Instead of returning to Makilimakinak, he proceeded with his warriors to the cascades, which are about thirty miles above Montreal, and where he knew the Iroquois deputies, with their hostages, would pass. Here he remained in ambush, waiting for the deputies, who arrived in a few days, accompanied by forty young men. He surprised them as they landed from their canoes, killed several, and made the remainder prisoners. He then told the captives that he was directed by the governor to occupy that posi tion, in order to intercept a party of Iroquois warriors, who were to advance by COUNTER PERFIDY OF THE CHIEF OF THE 11URONS. 1 > ; that route to plunder the French settlements, and that he must immediately con duct them as prisoners to Montreal, where there was not the least hope of mercy for them. The deputies amazed at this intelligence, and their passions having been aggravated to fury, by recollecting that their chiefs were not yet sent back from France, considered the conduct of M. De Nonville, and particularly this last appa rent act of infamous perfidy, more horrible than all that their imagination had attributed to demons. They then related the object of their mission to Le Rat, who feigned astonishment ; and after remaining a short time silent, and seem ingly affected with sorrow, assumed a ferocious air and tone, and declaimed, with all the ingenuity and force of his eloquence, against M. De Nonville, for having made him the instrument of the most diabolical treachery. He then released the prisoners, and told them to return and tell their tribes that the governor of the French had made him engage in a deed so horribly treacherous, that he should never rest until he had satiated his revenge by the destruction of the French settlements. The Iroquois believed Le Rat ; and his apparent clemency in set ting them at liberty, so fully persuaded them of his sincerity, that they assured him that the five nations would immediately ratify such terms of peace with the Hurons, as they might then agree upon. He then gave them fusils, powder, and ball, to defend them on their way back ; and under the pretence of replacing one man whom he had lost in attacking the Iroquois, he retained an Indian of the Chouanari tribe, with whom he returned to Makilimakinak. This unfortunate prisoner, who believed himself safe, from Le Rat telling the Iroquois that he would retain him as an adopted son, was delivered to the French commandant, who was still ignorant of the proceedings of M. De Nonville, and who, through the statements made by Le Rat, condemned the unhappy wretch to be shot. Le Rat had an old Iroquois slave for a long time in his possession, to whom he afforded the opportunity of witnessing the execution of his adopted country man by the French, all the circumstances of which, however, he carefully con cealed from him. He then told the Iroquois, " I now give you your liberty ; return to your country, and there spend the remainder of your days in peace. Relate to your people the barbarous and unjust conduct of the French, who, while they are amusing your nation with offers of peace, seize every opportunity of betraying and murdering you; and that all my persuasions could not save the life even of one man of your tribe, whom I adopted to replace the warrior I lost at the cascades." The Iroquois returned to his country, and related what he had witnessed, gether with all that Le Rat had told him. The Iroquois warriors, as mig anticipated, were even before this sufficiently exasperated ; but this last maste: stroke of Le Rat s policy made their very blood boil furiously for reven; they dissembled their feelings of resentment so completely, that M. De Nonville, 124 AMERICA. who declared that he would hang Le Rat whenever he could be captured, still expected deputies from the Iroquois to ratify a peace. Le Rat s policy, however, operated more effectually than all the attempts of M. De Nonville ; and when the Iroquois arrived at Montreal, where the governor waited for their deputies, their appearance and purpose was indeed far different from what he expected. Twelve hundred warriors, who landed at the upper end of the island, plundered and burnt all the houses and corn-fields ; destroyed and carried off the cattle ; massacred men, women, and children ; defeated and cut in pieces nearly the whole of 100 regular troops, and fifty Hurons, who were sent to defend the approach of the town, and carried off about 200 prisoners. After spreading devastation over the whole island, with the loss only of three warriors, they embarked in their canoes with their plunder and their prisoners. One of the three Iroquois warriors captured, was brought before the governor, and declared, that the effect of Le Rat s policy was irreparable ; that the Iroquois, far from condemning him, were ready to enter into a treaty with his nation ; and that all the Iroquois tribes were so deeply impressed with a belief in the infamous atrocity of the French, that their thoughts were solely bent on the most deadly revenge. Their subsequent hostilities fully justified this information ; and the devasta tion of the island of Montreal was attended by other losses and calamities. The fort, which had been erected at much expense and labour at Niagara, was garri soned by 100 troops, among whom a malady was introduced, which proved fatal nearly to the whole ; and the survivors, finding it impossible to maintain the post, abandoned and demolished it. It was even found impracticable to maintain the important fort at Frontenac. It was also abandoned and blown up : and two ships that were built for the pur pose of navigating Lake Ontario, were burnt to prevent their falling into the possession of the Iroquois. The same malady which was so fatal to the garrison at Niagara, prevailed at the same time all over Canada ; and the affairs of the colony appeared altogether desperate. War, famine, and disease seemed com bined for the destruction of the French inhabitants. CHAPTER XIX. PERILOUS CONDITION OF CANADA. THE critical condition of Canada, and the war between England and France, imperatively required, that the affairs of the colony should be intrusted to a per son, whose experience, and abilities, would give energy to the execution of his PERILOUS STATE OF CANADA. 125 measures, and whose activity, resolution, and firmness, would command the re spect of the Indians, and exact implicit obedience from those under his com mand. These qualities in a person to manage, to govern, and preserve a colony, with its affairs in a posture like that of Canada, were found to be only combined in the Count de Frontenac. He was accordingly appointed to the chief command, and arrived at Quebec in October, 1689, accompanied by the Chevalier de Cal- lieres, as intendant, and the Iroquois chiefs who had been sent to France by De Nonville. He found the colony on the utmost verge of ruin ; but he expected that the great personal esteem which the Iroquois and other Indian nations entertained for him, during his former administration, and the confidence which was reposed in him by Ourehare, one of the Iroquois chiefs whom he brought back, would enable him to bring the five nations to pacific overtures. He was, however, disappointed. The Iroquois, while they pretended to wish for peace, avoided, with great address, coming to serious negotiations ; and they soon renewed their hostilities, by rushing suddenly on the settlements, killing or making prisoners of the inhabitants, and carrying off all the moveable property. M. de Frontenac, finding his attempts at negotiation useless, resolved to act with such determined vigour as eventually to humble the Iroquois confederacy, which alone prevented the French settlements enjoying any certain repose. He therefore collected his allies, divided them among his regular troops, and surprised, with great success, several of the English settlements, on account of their alliance with the Iroquois. Detachments which he sent to convey to Montreal the furs stored for a long time at Makilimakinak, met also with a numerous band of Iroquois warriors, whom they defeated after a sharp skirmish, in which a great number were killed on both sides. Although peace could not be secured with the five nations, yet they were con vinced that M. de Frontenac was more to be dreaded than his predecessor ; and the other tribes, who were about joining them, declined the alliance. An expe dition, fitted out under the command of Sir W. Phipps, for the conquest of Quebec, appeared in October, this year (1690), as far up the river as Tadousac, before its destination for Quebec was known. The defence of the town required all the vigilance of M. de Frontenac, and he certainly lost no time in placing it in a fit condition to stand a siege. The squadron, consisting of thirty- four vessels of dif ferent descriptions, and said to have 7000 men on board, advanced as far as Beau- port, when Phipps sent a flag of truce summoning the town to surrender, which was gallantly rejected by M. de Frontenac. On the 18th, the English troops disembarked near the river St. Charles, but not without great loss by the sharp fire from the French musketry. Four of the largest ships, which anchored op- 126 AMERICA. posite the town, commenced a bombardment; but the fire from the batteries was directed with such effect as to compel these vessels to remove up the river, beyond the range of the fortifications. A sharp skirmish between the troops took place next day; and, on the 20th, an action was fought, in which the English at first had the advantage, and pursued the French to the palisades of a large house, at which the latter made a gallant stand, and compelled the former to retreat towards Beauport, from which place they re-embarked two days after, when Sir W. Phipps raised the siege, and sailed with his squadron down the river on the 23d. Seven or eight of his vessels were lost in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Before he left Boston, it was arranged that a strong body of troops should march against Montreal, in order to create a division in the French forces. This was prevented by the defection of the Iroquois ; and M. de Frontenac was consequently enabled to concentrate all his strength to defend Quebec. This circumstance, the failure of ammunition, and the approaching winter, ren dered it expedient for Phipps to abandon the enterprise. On the following year the Iroquois renewed their depredations. About 1000 warriors appeared at the mouth of the Ottawa, landed on the island of Montreal at Point au Tremble, pillaged and burnt thirty houses and barns, and carried off several prisoners, whom they put to the most cruel tortures. Depredations and cruelties were also extended to many of the other French settlements, and va rious skirmishes took place between the French troops and the Iroquois, in which great numbers on both sides, and several French officers of rank and dis tinction, were sacrificed. The French, at last, treated their prisoners with nearly as much cruelty as was practised by the Indians ; and M. de Frontenac, at length, by the unremitting vigour of his measures, secured the defence of the colony so far, that in 1692 the inhabitants were enabled to cultivate their lands. The commerce in furs, although frequently interrupted, was also renewed and carried on with considerable advantage. In 1695, the fort at Frontenac was rebuilt, and additional security extended to the outposts at Makilimakinak and St. Joseph. In the following year M. de Frontenac made an expedition to the country of the Iroquois ; and, without pro ceeding to such extremities as his force empowered him, he burnt some of their villages, and liberated a number of French prisoners. He might, it is thought, have completely humbled the Iroquois at this time, but could not be prevailed upon to destroy the canton of Goyoquins, of which Ourehare was the chief. A fishery was also begun about this time at Mount Louis, on the south coast of the St. Lawrence ; and the missions and the trading posts were increased. The French suffered little further molestation from the Indians ; but animo sities still continued between the Algonquins and Iroquois, and frequent hostili- DEATH OF THE COUNT DE FRONTENAC. 127 ties among the other tribes. Ourehare, in whom M. de Frontcnac placed great and deserved confidence, and through whose influence he expected to bring the Iroquois to terms of friendship and permanent peace, died this year at Quebec. Peace was concluded by England and France in 1698; and the English and French governors entered mutually into arrangements for maintaining harmony with the Indians. Although either the English or French could now have crushed for ever the power of the Iroquois, yet the anxieties manifested by each government to conciliate the regard of that nation, were carried to an extent, which gave them an opinion of themselves that nothing but the jealousies of the English and the French could warrant, and of which the Indians well knew how to avail themselves. Soon after the conclusion of an understanding of friendship with the Iroquois, Louis, Count de Frontenac, died in the seventy-eighth year of his age, twenty of which he spent in Canada ; where his vigorous administration, and his great personal abilities, preserved the colony with little assistance from France, and always secured him the confidence of the king, the respect of his officers, even of those opposed to many of his measures, and the esteem of the Indians. He was succeeded by the Chevalier de Callieres, who had been for some years governor of Montreal, which office was supplied in the person of Chevalier de Vaudreuil. Some difficulties arose soon after in maintaining a good understand ing with the Indians, which were principally occasioned by the English governor; but the address of the French missionaries gave M. de Callieres an ascendant, which he held with great tact and able management, until his death in 1703. His loss was great to Canada ; and although his powers of mind wanted the splendid points that cast such brilliant lustre on the government of M. de Fron tenac, yet, from his great excellence of character, he was beloved and respected by all; and having never violated his word to the Indians, he always retained their implicit confidence. The Marquis de Vaudreuil was then appointed to the chief command, on ac count of his great services in Canada; and agreeably also to the unanimous petition of the inhabitants to the king. The Indian tribes, among whom jealousies were fomented by the English, and by numerous murders among themselves, occasioned much embarrassment in the affairs of Canada during the administra tion of M. de Vaudreuil. He, however, managed to prevent the colonists from being molested, and the trade and cultivation of the country continued t and prosper. The Jesuit missions were also further extended. England and France being again, in 1709, at war, an exped: sent from New York, which was joined by a great body of Iroquois and \ gans. M. de Ramsay, with 1000 regular troops, together with a body c and Indians, were sent to intercept them; but the want of confidence in t 128 AMERICA. commander, or some jealous feeling entertained by the other officers, rendered the expedition fruitless, and it returned to Montreal with a few prisoners only. M. de Vaudreuil, however, lost no time in putting Quebec in a proper state of defence, and took every precaution, by strengthening the outposts, to prevent the English entering Canada. The English were at this time fully confident of success, but the policy of an Iroquois chief not only blasted the hopes they had reasonably entertained, but subjected the army to the most severe distress. While the Iroquois warriors were exulting in the prospect of destroying the French, this crafty leader, to whom they had always listened with respect and deference, said to his people, " Ah ! but I have been considering what will become of us, if we destroy the French, who keep the English in check. The latter will then assuredly crush us, in order to possess our country. Let us not, therefore, foolishly bring certain ruin upon ourselves, merely to indulge our passions, or to please the English. Let us rather leave the French and English in a position, which will make either of them set a high value on our friendship." This was their former and favourite system, but as they considered it shameful to desert the English openly, they concluded on effecting their purpose by enveloping their treachery under the most profound secrecy and diabolical cruelty. " The lawless savages," says Raynal, ei the religious Hebrews, the wise and warlike Greeks and Romans, in a word, all people, whe ther civilised or not, have always made what is called the rights of nations to consist in craft or violence." The English army halted on the banks of a small river where they encamped and waited for the artillery and ammunition, which were following at a slower rate than the march of the main body of the troops. The Iroquois, who, in the meantime, spent their leisure hours in hunting, flayed all the animals they killed, and sunk their skins in a river, a little above the English camp. The English, who had no suspicion of the fatal treachery, continued to drink of the poisoned water ; and so many were carried off in con sequence, that it soon became necessary to suspend all military operations. They were, therefore, compelled to return to New York, where they learned that the destination of the fleet, which was to proceed with troops to besiege Quebec, was changed, and sent to Lisbon to protect Portugal from the Spaniards. The Eng lish colonists soon after renewed their preparations against the French ; and an army, accompanied by some Iroquois, marched towards Canada ; but, meeting with great difficulty, they returned, on receiving information that a second fleet, with the troops intended to besiege Quebec, was dispersed, and eight of the largest vessels lost near Seven Islands Bay. M. de Vaudreuil had, however, by this time, managed to engage some nu merous bodies of Indians, and to fortify Quebec so strongly, while he, at the STATE OF CANADA AFTER THE PEACE OF UTRECHT. 129 same time, guarded the advanced posts with such vigilance, that even if the Heet and the troops, from New York, had arrived safely before Quebec, there would have been little risk of France losing Canada, although there would have been in all probability, great loss of life on both sides. The treaty of Utrecht, in 1712*, gave peace to Canada, and M. de Vaudreuil had now leisure to direct his atten tion to the local affairs of the province. A little before this time, a powerful tribe of Indians, called the Autagamis, or the foxes, were instigated by the Iroquois to besiege Detroit, where thev built a fort near that of the French. The allies of the latter, however, arrived in great numbers, and a furious attack was made upon the fort of the Autagamis. The latter defended themselves with extraordinary obstinacy ; but, finding that nothing but death awaited their surrender, they contrived to escape from the fort at night, during a snow-storm. They were, however, soon afterwards overtaken, many of them massacred, and the remainder, amounting to 150 men, women, and children, were distributed among the allies and nearly all put to death. The loss of the Autagamis amounted to about 1000, and that of the allies to no more than sixty. The result of this expedition prevented the English from building a fort at Detroit, as they intended, which would have been almost ruinous to the fur trade of Canada. Soon after the treaty of Utrecht, the English built a fort on the banks of Lake Ontario, which secured them a great share of the fur trade. The French also rebuilt a fort at Niagara, and strengthened their garrison at Detroit, which commanded the great line of intercourse in their dealings with the Indians of the west, as well as the tracks of communications with Louisiana, the Illinois, and the Mississippi, which was frequently interrupted by the warlike Autagamis, and their allies the Sioux and Chicasaws. M. de Vaudreuil at length brought those tribes to pacific overtures ; and as a means of increasing the population of the French settlements, and strengthening the garrisons, he proposed that 150 of the convicts which were condemned in France to the galleys, should be an nually sent to Canada. At this period (1714), there were no more than 4500 men, from fourteen to sixty years of age, able to bear arms in all Canada, while the English colonies could raise about 60,000. During the remainder of M. de VaudreuiPs administration, terminated by his death in 1725, the French colonists enjoyed the blessings of peace, and the cultivation and trade of the province prospered under his vigi lant, firm, and just government, which for twenty-one years was attended with the approbation of his sovereign, and the esteem and admiration of those under his command. The Chevalier de Beauharnois, who succeeded to the government, planned an unsuccessful enterprise to cross America to the South Sea ; and he also erected an important fort at Crown Point, with several others, in order to keep 130 AMERICA. the English east of the Alleghanny Mountains. During his long administration the interests of Canada were generally attended to ; the colony enjoyed the blessings of peace ; some important changes were made in the laws ; several church decretals, which clogged industry and pressed heavily upon the people, were repealed ; and the conduct of the nuns, which was for some time com plained of as irregular, and very different from the vows by which they pretended to regulate their character and habits, was controlled. In 1745, a royal edict directed that no country houses should be built but on farms of one acre and a half in front, by forty back. This law confined also the resident population along the banks of the rivers. Expeditions were made from Canada to Hudson Bay before this period ; one of these as far back as the year 1659 : and adventurers from Acadia had also re sorted to Hudson Bay. But it does not appear that the French ever had any trading ports established there, though they made claims to parts of it, as having been discovered by Frenchmen who traversed the wilderness by land from Ca nada to Prince Rupert s River. CHAPTER XX. FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN LOUISIANA. MISSISSIPPI SCHEME. THE countries through which the Mississippi flows into the Gulf of Mexico, and which were first explored below the Arkansas, by La Salle, comprise all the abundant advantages of soil, minerals, forests, climate, capabilities of production, navigable rivers, and extent of territory, which form the elements of one of the most populous, rich, and powerful empires in the world. The descriptions of the first discoverers, and even of those who projected the disastrous schemes for deriving prodigies of wealth from the Mississippian regions, can scarcely be considered as exaggerated ; though the fatality attending the early expeditions, and of the subsequent fraudulent schemes, formed suffi cient grounds for the public to consider those countries, for a long period, of inferior importance. La Salle* was justly persuaded that the territories which he had traversed were capable of producing the greatest advantages to France. He was a native of Normandy. He passed his early life among the Jesuits, and acquired in their society, and amidst the wild regions, into which they had penetrated, habits of activity, and the power of enduring great fatigues, and of suffering extreme pri- * Robert Cavelier, Sienr de La Salle, having joined the Society of the Jesuits when young, was in consequence excluded from his heritage. Thevenot. FRENCH SETTLEMENTS. vations. He was enthusiastic, brave, and possessed those qualities of mind, and the talents which inspired the confidence, if not the affection, of others in what ever enterprise he undertook. He is accused of having an unbending will, and of regarding with haughty indifference the opinions or advice of other men. Finding that the Governor of Canada did not appreciate the value of the coun tries which he and the Jesuits had discovered, he sailed for Fiance. He had previously, assisted by M. Tonti, son of the celebrated projector of the Tontines, established posts at different points, as lines of communication, arid as head quarters for the fur trade, and of the religious missions, between Canada and the Mississippi. At the court of Versailles, he finally succeeded in procuring, by order of the king, from the marine department, a small squadron, to proceed under his orders to the Mississippi. This expedition consisted of a frigate of the royal navy, carrying forty guns ; a small sloop of war, which the king gave as a present to La Salle, and mounting six cannons ; a store-ship of 300 tons, laden with provisions, some horses, and other articles for the intended settlements; and a pinnace, of about thirty tons, laden with various stores. On board of these vessels there embarked La Salle and his two nephews, Cavelier and Mo- ranjet, one not more than fourteen years ; three ecclesiastics of St. Sulpice, one of which was the brother of La Salle ; four Recollet priests ; about thirty who embarked as carpenters and artisans ; 100 soldiers ; several volunteers ; several girls ; the Canadian family of Talon ; and Joutel of Rouen, whom La Salle ap pointed as his intendant: in all, including the commanders, officers, and crews of the vessels, 280 persons. La Salle was commissioned to take under his com mand the countries, and all the French and Indians, from the Illinois to the Gulf of Mexico. Beaujeu, the captain of the frigate, as well as the whole squadron, was also placed under the direction of La Salle, and they sailed from Rochelle, on the 24th of August, 1684. During the voyage, Beaujeu manifested a sullen jealousy of his authority, and an unpleasant understanding with La Salle was the con sequence. It was evident that Beaujeu wished that the expedition should mis carry. By his carelessness, the pinnace, which carried valuable stores, was captured, off the island of Hayti, by two Spanish boats. On the 28th of August they arrived off the southern shores of Florida, and, soon after, within the Gulf of Mexico. After searching a long time for the entrance of the Mis sissippi, which they actually had passed on the 10th of January, 1685, as they were informed by some natives, Beaujeu not only refused to obey La Salle s commands to return to it, but proceeded 100 leagues further west, and came to> and anchored at, the entrance of the Bay of St. Barnard, west of where Galveston, in Texas, now stands. La Salle landed, and finding a magnificent stream flow ing through a fertile territory, conjectured that it might be one of the western mouths of the Mississippi. Wearied also with the long voyage, and the per- 132 AMERICA. verseness of the commander of the frigate, and finding that he had been miserably deceived in the character and ability of those who were sent out with him ; that the men who had embarked as artisans were impostors ; and that the soldiers were decrepid and worn-out men, who had been disbanded as unfit for service in France, he determined to land the stores, and the people who were to remain. He ordered his small armed vessel to enter the bay; and finding that the depth of water over the bar was not more than twelve feet, he directed that the store-ship should be lightened to that draught, by landing part of the cargo. Extreme negligence, in attending to this order, was manifested by the master, as well as by Beaujeu. La Salle then directed the captain of his own vessel to carry out his instructions. The master of the store-ship considered this as de rogatory, and instead of steering by the proper channel, he most treacherously ran the vessel on a reef. Part of the stores was saved, but the vessel breaking up, the greater part was lost. The ecclesiastics, and those who were to remain in the country, were landed ; but before the necessary preparations were made, Beaujeu took on board the master and crew of the store-ship, and immediately after deserted La Salle, and sailed away from the coast. Two hundred and twenty persons were landed at the bay of St. Barnard. La Salle chose a place for a fort, which he commenced erecting, but afterwards abandoned for a more favourable position, where he constructed one : directing the works himself, and but wretchedly assisted by those who had been imposed on him as artisans. He then traversed the shores of the bay with his small vessel; landed at several places, and was absent from the fort nearly three months. In order to explore part of the interior he left his vessel in charge of a lieutenant and crew, who contrived to wreck her on the shallows which extend from the coast. During his absence from the fort, the people he left there mu tinied; some were killed by the natives, who proved afierce race ; others perished in the country ; and La Salle had the mortification to find his plans for settle ment impracticable, with the people whom he now had to manage, and who were, unlike those with whom he travelled and explored the interior of America, totally unfit for colonising a new country. The best of them had been brought up in France, utterly destitute of the training necessary to endure the fatigues which attend exploring unknown and wild regions. He therefore resolved to traverse the interior to the Illinois, and departed with five horses and sixteen men, on the 12th of January, 1686, and proceeded on his travels. He also constructed a portable canoe for crossing the rivers. On the 17th of May, some of those under him murdered his Indian huntsman and his principal servant, and one of them, on being discovered shot La Salle through the head. Thus perished one of the most enterprising and bold men that France ever sent to America. After his death the assassins murdered one another, or joined the Indians. Of those left at St. Barnard s Bay, some died of hunger, fatigue. FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN LOUISIANA. 133 and the climate; some were captured by the Spaniards, and sent as slaves to the mines ; others who lived within the small fort were attacked and massa cred by the natives. Of all who landed with La Salle, only seven escaped. They found their way by traversing the forests and ascending the rivers to Canada. Louisiana was then forgotten by France until 1697, when D Iberville, a brave French Canadian, who had distinguished himself during the war, and at Hudson Bay, Newfoundland, and Acadia, sailed for France, and on representing the great capabilities of the Mississippian territory, the minister entrusted to his command two vessels, which sailed from Rochfort in 1699, and entered the Mississippi on the 2nd of July. He ascended the river as far as to be convinced, from his own observations, of the natural fertility and resources of the country, and of the magnitude of its internal navigation. He erected a fort which was soon abandoned, but instead of establishing his small colony consisting of French Canadians on the Mississippi, he chose for settlement a sterile part, east of the Mississippi, at a place without any harbour, called Biloxi. Two years after a number of new colonists arrived from France, and they were settled three leagues east of Biloxi on the banks of the unnavigable Mobile, and opposite an island, which they called Isle Dauphin, and within which there was found shelter for vessels. This place formed the head quarters of the French colo nists, or rather traders, in Louisiana, until the sands, impelled by a violent storm, choked up the entrance to the anchorage within the Isle Dauphin. D Iberville died at sea in 1702. After his death the colony at Louisiana languished. France was involved, at that period, in all the disasters, which rendered the decline of the reign of Louis XIV. so mortifying to that monarch, and so fatal to the prosperity of that country, and which formed the causes of many of the calamities, cor ruptions, and frauds of the following reign. The whole of the French establishment in Louisiana was reduced to twenty- eight families, existing in a state of the most abject poverty. They subsisted chiefly on vegetables, with occasionally wild birds and animals, and were so poor and neglected that they had not the means of abandoning the ill-fated spot on which they had been left. Such was the state of the French colony in Louisiana, in 1712, when M. Crozat, a man of enterprising character, obtained a grant of the exclusive trade of that extensive country. His views were not directed to colonising and cultivating its soil, but to open a trade by contraband or otherwise with Mexico, through Louisiana, in order to obtain gold and silver in exchange for French, or other manufactures. He projected grand plans, which promised bril liant results; and, it is possible that if his agents had conducted the affairs in trusted to them with fidelity, success and consequent profit would have been realised. Disgusted with their fraudulent conduct, and with other circumstances which he could not overrule, he voluntarily transferred his privileges to a com pany, the operations of which in a short time astounded the world. 134 AMERICA. The projector and founder of this scheme, which, from its fatal consequences, has been considered a monstrous delusion, was John Law, son of a goldsmith of Lauris- ton, near Edinburgh, where he was born in 1671. He was not brought up to any profession, but was considered a gentleman of great accomplishments, expensive habits, fashionable appearance, fascinating manners, and a persuasive speaker, either in conversation or on most questions that might be discussed, whether of a public or private character. His powers of financial calculation were admitted to be clear, practical, and comprehensive ; and if the capabilities of the regions through which the Mississippi and its tributaries flowed, had only been explored and developed, by cultivation and by trade, to one-tenth the extent they have been since they came into the possession of the Anglo-Americans, the project of John Law, instead of involving so many thousands in ruin, might have realised, at least, a fair remunerating profit to those who gave their money in exchange for the paper which was presumed to represent the incalculably valuable property of the Mississippi scheme. But those who understood, and who could judge clearly of the moral, physical, political, and fiscal condition of France at that period, and of the consequent means by which the resources of the Mississip- pian territories, however rich and abundant, were to be developed, must have formed conclusions, very different from those brilliant delusions which enchanted the public mind of France. Law had been, in early life, intrusted by the British ministers to arrange the revenue accounts of Scotland, which were found to be in a state of the utmost disorder, at the time of settling what was termed the equivalent, immediately before the union with England. This arduous task he accomplished very cre ditably. He afterwards brought forward his scheme for a national Scotch bank, which he proposed should circulate, for the encouragement of agriculture and trade, paper to the value of all the lands in Scotland. This project was very pro perly rejected by the Scotch parliament; though, if planned upon a scale not exceeding the annual rental of the lands, it would not have been less safe than the land banks, established successfully afterwards by Frederick the Great, of Prussia. This early banking scheme of Law formed the basis of all his future plans. It was certainly specious : inasmuch as landed property might be consi dered the most easily realised security. But the value of land, like the value of all kinds of property, will rise or fall in the proportion which the quantity in the market bears to the demand, and power to pay, for it. Law s scheme for a bank of Scotland, though rejected by parliament, not only influenced and gave rise to the Scottish system of banks, and especially to the Ayr bank, which adopted it, but, as Adam Smith very justly observes, we may attribute to the principles of his scheme the extensive paper currency which was afterwards circulated, as well as much of the banking principles, which, at this day, governs the paper money circulation in Scotland. Law succeeded to the small estate of Lauriston, on his father s death, in 1704. THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME. 135 Its rents were inadequate to his expensive style of living; he gambled, won money, and fought a duel in consequence, killed his adversary, and fled from the kingdom. He passed over into Holland, where he studied, and brought under the scrutiny of his calculating powers, the fiscal condition and monetary system of that most practical of nations. He visited Italy, where he mixed with the aristocracy, laid bets, gambled, was almost invariably successful in winning money, and was banished, in consequence, from Venice and from Genoa. During his residence at both these commercial oligarchies, he applied himself as closely to the study of their fiscal and monied affairs, as he did to the calculation of chance, by which he ruined the most imprudent of them. He proposed a finance scheme to the Duke of Savoy, which would certainly have enriched the latter by impoverishing his subjects. It was in consequence rejected by a wise prince. It might have been accepted with avidity by an extravagant or ambitious monarch. He arrived at Paris before the death of Louis XIV. ; he presented his scheme. It was rejected by the financiers, Des Marest and Chamillard. Noailles examined his plans, by the direction of the Duke of Orleans, and reported favourably. By a decree of 2nd of March, 1716, the National Bank of France, planned by Law, was established, and he was placed at the head of its direction. Long before the Mississippi scheme was projected by Law, the mind of this extraordinary person was occupied in watching attentively the relative condition, physically, morally, and fiscally, of all the European Powers, with the view of acquiring a thorough knowledge of their various resources and capabilities, and of their financial operations. The disordered condition which the ambition and extravagance of Louis XTV. had entailed upon France, was examined and thoroughly comprehended by Law. He beheld an empire which, during a period of forty years, had been viewed with jealousy and alarm by the other nations of Europe, reduced to a powerless and bankrupt condition. The whole nation was paralysed by the demands of an exchequer, which was unable to meet its engagements. The amount of the public debt had been dishonourably and most iniquitously reduced, in order that the de creased amount of the recognised liabilities of the state might increase the market value of the royal securities. This national bankruptcy did not, how ever, cause the effect intended; for the royal bonds still remained greatly below their original value. Liquidating the royal bills or treasury bonds was imprac ticable : for the interest nearly absorbed the entire public revenue, consulted by the Regent Orleans, and intrusted with forming a scheme to relieve the treasury. In August 171 7, he organised, under the name of The Weste) Company, an association whose stock should consist entirely of obligate he named the Mississippian state securities. These billets or notes were at their full value, although for the purposes of trade they were mterch; a depreciation of fifty per cent. In the course of a few days, a capit 136 AMERICA. 100,000,000 livres, was raised. It is true that this sum was insufficient to found so powerful a colony in Louisiana, as its exclusive corporate privileges seemed to warrant : but the projector of this scheme held out more brilliant prospects to fascinate the public mind, and to obtain greater credit for the public treasury. From the day that Ponce de Leon landed in Florida, in 1512, in search of the fountain of health and youth, that region, and all those extending west to Mexico, and the Andes, were reported to contain, in abundance, the precious metals. No man ever knew more thoroughly than Law did, the unbounded influence which the speedy belief of realising a fortune, by the possession of the precious metals, exercises over all the other passions of the human heart, or that more ef fectually distracts the human head into all the hazards of trading or gambling speculation. The exclusive right to the precious metals, and stones, and of trading to the Mississippian territories, including Florida, was granted to the company, aided by the Bank of France. In consequence of this monopoly, and many other attractive privileges, the Senegal Company, and the French East India Company, were incorporated with the Mississippi, or Western Company. The shares soon rose to 500 per cent., and by a decree of 1719* the whole taxation and re venue of France were farmed to this company, with which the bank might also, as well as the whole trade of France with America, Africa, and Asia, be said to have been by the same decree incorporated. The condition of those exclusive, and, as declared at the time golden, privileges was to advance the government 1,200,000,000 livres (4,000,000/. sterling), at three per cent. Law readily persuaded the French nation that the famed gold and silver mines of Louisiana were at length discovered, and that their power of pro duction was far greater than had ever been anticipated. In order to give greater weight to a fabrication, eagerly credited, miners and labourers were sent out to commence working the mines, accompanied by a sufficient number of troops to protect them. This stratagem had its instant effect upon a people, always pleased with novelty : all were anxious to possess a share of the believed inex haustible sources of riches ; and, to the Mississippian regions were attracted all their credulities. A further sum of 50,000,000 livres (2,000,000/. sterling) was paid the govern ment by the company, for the exclusive privilege to the latter of working the mines for nine years. Foreigners also caught the infection. Germans and Swedes, were led to join the French emigrants, under an engagement that, on giving their gratuitous labour for a period of three years, they should then become entitled to the privileges of citizens, and consequently be entitled to hold lands in Louisiana. The stock rose in price to 1200 livres for every 100 livres of stock: 300,000,000 of livres (12,000,000/.) in addition to all former Joans, were, in consequence, lent to the government ; and such was the infatuation was FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN LOUISIANA of the public, that from November, 1719, to April following, the stock purchased with such avidity, that its price rose to 2500 livres for every 100 livres stock. The bank-notes in circulation amounted to 100,000,000,000 livres, equal to 40,000,000/. This artificial circulation, though presumed to be repre sented, and capable of immediate realisation, by the national property, experienced the natural reaction of speedy depreciation. Bank stock and Mississippi stock de creased rapidly in value : the various expedients of Law were ineffectual in main taining credit; and the unscrupulous regent reduced, by a decree, the artificial amount of both stocks to half their original value. Total ruin soon followed. While these tyrannical and fraudulent enormities were perpetrated in France, we will pass over to the attempts to colonise Louisiana. During the years 1718 and 1719, the emigrants sent to Louisiana were indis criminately crowded together, to the number of several thousands, on shipboard, and sent to sea, ill-provided with food and necessaries. They arrived at Isle Dauphin, where it was found that immense sand-banks had blocked up the har bour, and they could not enter : nor could they land at Mobile, from its port being completely destroyed. They proceeded to Biloxi, where several thousands, both of French and foreigners, were cast ashore without distinction, and without pro visions or means of future maintenance. They were sent from France in utter ignorance of the country. If they had been landed, with ordinary means of support and sustenance, on the fertile territories bordering the Mississippi, which they could easily have entered and ascended, either in the ships which carried them from France, or in large boats, they might, with ordinary industry, have maintained themselves ; yet, so great was the ignorance shown by those who had the direction of the expedition, that no such attempt was made. Soon after the return of the ships to France, in which these unfortunate people had sailed, it was found that the greater number of the vessels might easily have as cended the Mississippi ; instead of which, those victims of fiscal and political fraud, were left to perish, under want and desperation, at the sterile and un healthy Biloxi; the few who survived, were, five years afterwards, sent to the Mississippi, and settled at New Orleans. The monstrous delusion had totally vanished ; the gold and silver mines, and all the wealth which they were to pro duce, were not to be found; and Louisiana, instead of being considered, as before, " the promised land of flocks, milk, and honey; of corn, oil, and wine; of gold, silver, and diamonds," was viewed with execration, and its very name became a term of odious reprobation. It was transformed in the public mind from an El Dorado to a country only fit for punishing criminals ; and from the time the Mississippi scheme broke suddenly down, felons, and others of the most debauched character, were the description of men sent from France to the Mis sissippi. With such worthless and depraved materials, and under such a vicious state 188 AMERICA. of circumstances, it was impossible for the population to increase in prosperity, or for the cultivation of the colony to advance upon any firm or permanent basis. Hundreds of the most degraded and miserable objects, in a complete state of nakedness, presented themselves for relief at some English and Spanish trading posts ; others perished from a disease which they themselves had introduced ; but the far greater number wandered through the forests until hunger and fatigue terminated their wretched lives. Meantime, the directors of the company, after making large advances, commenced, in the capital of France, drawing up plans of operation for regulating all enterprises in the New World. "Every proceed ing," says Raynal, " was to be instituted at Paris by a conceited, hasty, and igno rant body of speculators, and the conduct of each inhabitant of Louisiana was to be fettered and confined in any manner, which might be viewed at the hotel of the company, as tending to favour a system of monopoly. Had they, on the other hand, held out some slight encouragement to the colonists, granting to every one his personal liberty of action, and the control over his property such encourage ments afforded to a class of proprietors guided by local experience and personal interest, would have offered a guarantee for results more satisfactory and durable for establishments founded upon a more extensive and solid basis than those which an exclusive system, with vast resources, but guided by incompetent agents, could ever hope to effect/ The French government considered that state necessity required that Loui siana should still be left in the hands of the company ; but this corporation was, in 1731, constrained to re-purchase its monopoly for 1,450,000 livres. During the period when a system of exclusive privileges had smothered the trade of Louisiana, premiums of 50, 60, 80, and 100 per cent, had been de manded, according to distance, for insuring merchandise exported to the Mis sissippi ; and the price at which the produce of the colony was to be sold, was fixed by a most oppressive tariff. It was impossible for the colony to prosper under a system so vexatious and tyrannical, even if the colonists had been the most industrious and economical of mankind. In order to infuse some energy into the minds of the planters and traders, the government determined to assi milate the commerce of Louisiana to that of the French Antilles, and it was de creed, that the produce of Louisiana and its trade with France, should, during a period of ten years, be exempt from all duties of importation or exportation. The settlement made at New Orleans, in 1717, was declared, in 1722, the chief place of the colony, and a plan for a town was traced, and streets were laid out, crossing each other at right angles. It was also intersected afterwards by canals. By degrees brick houses were constructed ; and habitations rose on each side of the river. Some of the German emigrants cleared lands about ten leagues above New Orleans ; and, with indefatigable industry, formed settlements, and for fifteen leagues dikes were raised to resist the overflowings of the Mis- CONDITION OF CANADA BEFORE ITS CONQUEST. 130 sissippi. The grounds were well cultivated, and produced rice, maize, tobacco, and other products. Little progress was afterwards made, further than erecting a fort at the mouth of the Red River, and digging through a narrow isthmus ten miles above New Orleans, a canal, through which the whole waters of the Mississippi forced their way, and abandoned their ancient channel ; which flowed round for fourteen leagues, and which was soon filled up by a rapid growth of weeds and trees. The white population of Louisiana, under the French, is said not to have exceeded 6000 persons, scattered along the banks of the Mississippi, and defended along a distance of 500 leagues, by only three wretched forts. They consisted (with the exception of the few German and Swiss colonists who survived,) of the felons of France. Most of them perished in Louisiana, M. Raynal observes, " hap pily without reproducing their species." The most efficient colonists after the Germans and Swiss, were brave and hardy men, who had penetrated into the country from Canada; and these, with the Germans and Swiss, and several emigrants from the British provinces, who formed a settlement on the Missis sippi, at a place called New Madrid, were the permanent founders of Louisiana. We shall, hereafter, notice the condition of this country after it was ceded to Spain, and before it was re-ceded to France, and sold to the United States of America. CHAPTER XXI. CONDITION OF CANADA BEFORE ITS CONQUEST BY THE ENGLISH. IN 1746, the Count de Galissoniere, a nobleman of great acquirement, suc ceeded M. de Beauharnois as Governor of Canada ; but being unable to obtain that assistance in carrying his plans into execution which he expected from France, he held office only until 1747, when he was succeeded by M. de la Jo quiere; who was also succeeded temporarily by the Baron de Longuieul the arrival of the Marquis du Quesne, in 1752, as governor-general Prepai tions were made by him immediately after for active warfare with the Englij colonists, and hostilities were commenced against their traders c The Sieur de Vaudreuil Cavagnal succeeded him in 1755. The English army, commanded by General Braddock, was repulsed this and on the following year the celebrated Marquis de Montcalm, who had from France, with a strong reinforcement of regular troops, destroyec Oswego, the outworks of Fort George, and the sloops and bateaux t intended to attack Crown Point. Next year he reduced Fort George, but 140 AMERICA. victory was disgraced by the massacre of 2000 of its inhabitants by the Indians under his command ; which completely roused the indignation of the British, and led to those mighty preparations, which we have already noticed in the Historical sketch of Nova Scotia, and which finally destroyed the power of France in America. The financial affairs of Canada, and the interests of private individuals, were also, about this time, placed in a ruinous position by the profligacy of M. Bigot, the intendant-general. His peculations, it was found, amounted to at least 400,000/., the greater part of which he lavished on a mistress. His bills on the French treasury and orders to the amount of 3,333,333/. 6s. Sd. sterling, were protested. When the Canadians became British subjects, an indemnity was ob tained for them of only 125,400/. in bonds, and 250,000/. in specie, for this immense debt.* The annual expenditure of the government of Canada in the year 1729, was only 16,666/. 13s. 4d., but it increased in 1759, to the enormous sum of 1,083,333/. 6s. 8d. sterling. At this period, from 1753 to 1759, the fisheries and navigation of Canada employed annually only five or six small vessels in the seal and whale fishery, and one or two traded to the Antilles. Nine or ten arrived from the Antilles with ratafia, molasses, coffee, and sugar; and thirty vessels, of various sizes, from France, the whole tonnage of which did not exceed 9000 tons. The imports from France in 1754 of manufactured goods, and other articles, amounted in value, reduced to sterling money, to 157,645/. ; of rum, sugar, &c. to 59,123/. ; total, 216,7697. The value of furs exported to France, amounted to 64,570/. ; of oil, ginseng, capillaire, timber, &c., to 7083/. ; of fish, oil, iron, &c., exported to the Antilles, and other places to 3906/. Total value of exports 75,560/., leaving a balance of trade against the colony of 141,209/. to be paid by bills drawn by the intendant on the treasury of France. When the French first took possession of Canada, they had scarcely any money. The little carried out by those who settled there was soon re-exported. This want of a circulating currency, retarded trade and agriculture. The court of Versailles, in 1670, ordered money to be coined for the use of the French American settlements to be valued one-quarter higher, for the same weight, than the money circulating in France. But this expedient did not answer, and to wards the close of the seventeenth century paper money was substituted, in Canada, for the payment of the troops, and the other expenses of government. * On further inquiry, we find the Canadians scarcely received any part of these immense claims, excepting a small proportion of the amount in specie. The French government, however, came to the resolution, several years after, to pay the bills or rescriptions due to the Canadians. These bills were purchased for trifling sums by capitalists. M. Beaujeu, a financier, made a profit, it is said of 18,000,000 of francs by the speculation ; and it was these bills that actually insured the success of M. Necker as a rich banker, being the first step which led to his fortune. STATE OF CANADA BEFORE ITS CONQUEST. 141 This currency continued until 1713, when the engagements made by the ad ministrators of the colony ceased to be fulfilled. The bills of exchange which they drew upon France were not honoured. They were liquidated in 1720, with a deduction of five-eighths of their nominal value. Specie was then resorted to for about two years. The traders in Canada, and all those who had payments to make in France, found it inconvenient, expen sive, and uncertain to remit specie, and they solicited the re-establishment of paper money. Billets were manufactured, bearing the arms of France and Na varre, which were signed by the governor, the intendant, and the comptroller. These billets were of the several values of twenty-four, twelve, six, and three livres, and of thirty, fifteen, and seven sols six deniers. The total value of all did not exceed one million of livres. This sum not being found sufficient for the public circulation, a larger quantity was supplied by command of, and signed only by, the intendant. The least of these, signed by him, were of twenty sols;value, and the greatest of one hundred livres. These billets were circulated, as a substitute for money, until October, the latest period for the departure of ships from Canada. The bills were then converted into bills of exchange, drawn by the intendant on the French treasury. Considering the defective and corrupt state of the finances of France, we need riot consider it surprising that the colonists of Canada should have suffered grievously from the dishonoured bills drawn by the intendant. Fiscal dishonesty has always corrupted morals ; and there is but little doubt that the profligacy of the administrators of the revenue in France, and the laxity of morals among those from whom the officers sent to Canada were chosen, super induced on Canadian manners a share of the immorality and corruption, which the Abbe de Raynal ascribes to the character of the Canadians living in the towns. But we consider his description of the rural, and especially the agricultural, inha bitants highly exaggerated. When he says that each agricultural family had from twenty to thirty sheep for their flesh and wool, ten or twelve cows for their milk, and oxen to plough the ground, and for their meat ; also horses, small but hardy, in great numbers ; and that such was the condition generally of 83,000 inhabitants settled on the banks of the St. Lawrence, they could neither have been a very indolent nor an immoral population.* * He observes, "that those whom rural labour fixed in the country allowed only a few mo ments to the care of their flocks, and to other indispensable occupations during wmi of the time was passed in idleness, at public-houses, or in running along the snow and ice i uished citizens. When the return of spring ca t ed them sledges, in imitation of the most distinguished citizens. out to the necessary labours of the field, they plough . manuring it; sowed it carelessly, and then returned to their former indolent manne negligence might be owing to several causes of idleness during the continuance of the severe weather that labour them, even in the finest weather. The numerous festivals prescribed by its increase to their establishment, prevented the first exertion, as well as interrupted 142 AMERICA. The eight thousand inhabitants employed in hunting and trading, and the inhabitants of the towns, may have deserved the character which he and Professor Kalm describes. of industry. Men are ready enough to comply with that species of devotion that flatters their indolence. Lastly, a passion for war, which had been purposely encouraged among these hold and courageous men, made them averse from the labours of husbandry. Their minds were so entirely captivated with military glory, that they thought only of war, though they engaged in it without pay. " The inhabitants of the towns, especially of the capital spent their winter as well as summer in a constant scene of dissipation. They were alike insensible of the beauties of nature, or of the pleasures of the imagination. They had no taste for arts or science, for reading or instruction. Their only passion was amusement. This manner of life considerably increased the influence of the women, who were possessed of every charm except those soft emotions of the soul, which alone constitute the merit and the charm of beauty. Lively, gay, and addicted to coquetry and gallantry, they were more fond of inspiring than feeling the tender passions. "There appeared in both sexes a greater degree of devotion than virtue, more religion than probity, a higher sense of honour than real honesty. Superstition took place of morality, which will always be the case, whenever men are taught to believe that ceremonies will compensate for good works, and that crimes are expiated by prayers." Professor Kalm remarks (in 1757), " A girl of eighteen is reckoned to be poorly off if she can not enumerate at least twenty lovers. These young ladies, especially those of a higher rank, get up at seven, and dress till nine, drinking their coffee at the same time. When a young fellow comes in, whether they be acquainted with him or not, they immediately lay aside their work, sit down by him, and begin to chat, laugh, joke, and invent double entendres, and this is reckoned being very witty. One of the first questions they propose to a stranger is, whether he is married ; the next, how he likes the ladies of the country ; and the third, whether he will take one home with him." If these descriptions be correct, the Canadian ladies of that time were very different from those of the present day ; for I believe them to be as modest and industrious as those of any country. They are, it is true, more affable, and ha.ve more freedom of manners than the English. The superior intelligence of the women in the country parishes of Lower Canada is by all acknowledged. It is worthy, however, of remark, that, until within the last twenty years, scarcely any measure for promoting education in the country was carried into operation by the govern ment ; and the instruction of boys was consequently much neglected, as they could not well afford to attend seminaries at a distance from home. In respect to girls in the country, the case wa. very different. The Convent of the Sisters of the Congregation, established by Madame de Bour geois, has for a long time provided schoolmistresses for from fifteen to twenty schools, in various parts of the province. In these schools, reading, writing, a little arithmetic, religious instruction, needlework, and such other knowledge as rendered the girls eminently useful in domestic manage ment, were taught. The Canadian women, therefore, owe their superior intelligence to the good Sisters of the Congregation. Macgregor s British America, vol. ii., page 341. 148 CHAPTER XXII. CONQUEST OF CANADA. SUCH was the condition of Canada, when the English government, exas perated by the massacre at Fort George, and animated by the surrender of Louis- burg, resolved on subduing all the northern French possessions in America. It was, therefore, determined to conquer Canada by simultaneously attacking Quebec, Fort Niagara, and the forts at Ticonderago and Crown Point. To the army under General Wolfe, and the fleet under Admiral Saunders, was assigned the conquest of Quebec; to General Amherst, the commander-in-chief in America, the reduc tion of the forts at Crown Point and Ticonderago ; and that of Niagara to General Prideaux, but which afterwards devolved on Sir William Johnson. The latter expeditions were afterwards to concentrate their forces with those under General Wolfe. In the month of June, 1759, the English fleet sailed up the St. Lawrence to the island of Orleans, where Wolfe landed with an army of 8000. The French disposable forces, exclusive of the garrison of Quebec, consisted of about 10,000 men, with a reserve of 2000. Wolfe first attempted the entrenchments at Mont- morency, landing his troops under cover of the fire from the ships of war ; but he was gallantly repulsed by the French. After some delay, it was determined to effect a landing in order to carry the heights of Abraham, above Quebec. This daring resolution was effected on the 12th of September, with surprising secrecy and intrepidity. The ships of war sailed nine miles up the river above Quebec to Cape Rouge. This feint deceived M. Bougainville, who, with his division of the French army, proceeded still further up along the banks of the river to prevent the British de barking. During the night, the English ships dropped down silently with the current to Wolfe s Cove, and at four o clock in the morning the troops began to land. At eight the British army ascended the precipitous heights, with two field pieces in front; the 48th regiment and light infantry forming a reserve, and the Royal Americans covering the landing. The Marquis de Montcalm, who was then at Beauport, marched across the St. Charles on the 13th, and imprudently formed in front of the British army with only one field piece, and before he could concentrate all his disposable forces. He then advanced most gallantly ; but the scattered quick firing of his troops, which commenced within about 250 yards of the English line, was far from being so effective as that of the British. The latter moved forward regularly, firing 144 AMERICA. steadily, until within twenty or thirty yards of the enemy, when they gave a ge neral volley, and the French were soon after routed. Bougainville had just then appeared in sight, but the fate of Canada was decreed the critical moment was gone and he retired to Point au Tremble, where he encamped : from thence he retreated, first to Three Rivers, and then to Montreal. There was also a body of French troops near Beauport, which were not engaged. Had all the forces been concentrated under Montcalm, it is doubtful if the heroism of the British troops could have secured the victory. The most extraordinary bravery was displayed both by the English and the French. Both armies lost their commanders. Wolfe expired with victory accompanying the close of his splendid career. At the age of thirty-five, when but few men begin even to appear on the theatre of great deeds, inheriting no family pretensions, and unassisted by faction or intrigue, he held a command of the highest responsibility, and with a truly unblemished cha racter, fulfilled the most sanguine expectations of his country. The Marquis de Montcalm, an officer of equal bravery, died of his wounds a few days after.* Quebec capitulated on the 18th to General Murray, who suc ceeded to the command. Ke, however, committed a most egregious blunder some time afterwards, by leaving Quebec to attack M. Levi, who was encamped with the French army at Sillery, and who completely defeated General Murray, and compelled him to retire within the walls of Quebec, with the loss of his artillery, and nearly one-third of his army. The fort of Niagara was, in the mean time, reduced by Sir William John son, and the forts at Ticonderago and Crown Point, by General Amherst. They were consequently enabled to concentrate their forces, and form a junction with General Murray. Previously to this, on learning that the English fleet was in the St. Lawrence, and that the armament sent from France to relieve Quebec was captured in the Bay de Chaleur, by a squadron from Louisburg, under Captain Byron, the French forces retreated to Montreal, where the governor- general, M. de Vaudreuil, determined to make a desperate stand. Being, how ever, invested by the united forces of the three British generals, he found further resistance useless, and capitulated on the 8th of September, 1760, when Mon treal, and all the French fortresses in Canada, were surrendered to Great Britain. The articles of capitulation under which Montreal surrendered were highly honourable to M. de Vaudreuil, who exacted, to the utmost that he could possibly expect to obtain, every advantage for the people he had previously * A misunderstanding, it is well known, existed between the Governor-general M. de Vau dreuil and General Montcalm. The latter proposed a different plan of attack and defence from that resolved upon by the former, who, in council a few days before even expressed his doubts as to the courage of the Marquis de Montcalm, who in a spirit of wounded honour, immediately fought a precipitate battle, before concentrating the forces, within less than a day s march. All the Canadians consider this circumstance, joined to the rapacity of the civil officers, who carried on a general system of pillage with the most audacious effrontery, as the causes which secured the easy conquest of Canada. CONDITION OF THE FRENCH CANADIANS. J 45 commanded. Three years afterwards France ceded to Spain, Louisiana, and all the French possessions on the Mississippi. The battle gained by Wolfe on the heights of Abraham, formed a pre liminary cause, which has already been attended with mighty consequences not contemplated at that period : those consequences themselves must again form successive causes of great effects. Had France retained the Canadas, British America would probably have continued for several years longer to be overawed into humble submission by England ; and the whole country of Upper Canada, of Michigan, and of the vast basins of the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri , would now, in all likelihood, be inhabited nearly altogether by people of French and not, as to-day, chiefly of English race. Nor would there ever, in all proba bility, bet he least prospect of the whole continent, of at least North America, including probably Mexico, and not unlikely the central republics, becoming eventually Anglo-American nations, speaking the same language, and possessing the same literature, however numerous the sovereign states, or separate govern ments, may become. CHAPTER XXIII. CONDITION OF THE FRENCH CANADIANS ON THEIR BECOMING SUBJECT TO THE BRITISH CROWN. HAVING described the French Acadians previous to, and after, their be coming British subjects, we consider it proper to give an account of the Canadians, of French race, who have remained under English allegiance. For some time after the capitulation of Canada, no regard was paid to the French laws or courts. Military tribunals were instituted in the districts, from which appeals might be made from the commanding officer. General Murray carefully guarded against the abuse of power in such absolute courts. Soon after the peace of 1763, which left to France no part of all her vast territories and power in North America. General Murray established new courts of civil and criminal jurisdiction, in which the laws of England were introduced, and continued in force until the year 1775. The following extracts from a letter, written in 1765, by Governor Murray, to the Lords of Trade and Plantations, afford, it is believed, a just account of the state of the province at that period. " It consists," he states, " of 110 parishes, exclusive of the towns of Quebec and Montreal. These parishes contain 9722 houses, and 54,575 Christian souls; they occupy, of arable land, 955,755 arpents. They sowed in the year 1765, 180,300^ minots of grain ; and that year they pos- 146 AMERICA. sessed 12,546 oxen; 22,724 cows; 15,039 young horned cattle ; 27,064 sheep; 28,976 swine; and 13,757 horses; as appears by the annexed recapitulation, taken by his order, in the year 1765. u The towns of Quebec and Montreal contain about 14,700 inhabitants. The savages, who are called Roman Catholics, being within the limits of the province, consist of 7400 souls, so that the whole, exclusive of the king s troops, amount to 76,275 souls ; of which in the parishes are nineteen Pro testant families; the rest of that persuasion (a few half-pay officers excepted), are traders, mechanics, and publicans, who reside in the lower towns of Que bec and Montreal. Most of them were followers of the army, of mean edu cation, or soldiers disbanded at the reduction of the troops. All have their fortunes to make, and I fear few are solicitous about the means, when the end can be obtained. I report them to be in general, the most immoral collection of men I ever knew : of course, little calculated to make the new subjects ena moured with our laws, religion, and customs ; and far less adapted to enforce those laws which are to govern them. (( On the other hand, the Canadians, accustomed to arbitrary, and a sort of military government, are a frugal, industrious, and moral race of men ; who, from the just and mild treatment they met with from his majesty s military officers, who ruled the country for four years, until the establishment of civil government, had greatly got the better of the natural antipathy they had to their conquerors. " They consist of a noblesse, who are numerous, and who pique themselves much upon the antiquity of their families, their own military glory, and that of their ancestors. These noblesse are seigneurs of the whole country ; and, though not rich, are in a situation, in that plentiful part of the world, where money is scarce and luxury still unknown, to support their dignity. Their tenants, who pay only an annual quit rent of about a dollar for 100 acres, are at their ease and comfortable. They have been accustomed to respect and obey their noblesse ; their tenures being military, in the feudal manner, they have shared with them the dangers of the field, and natural affection has been increased, in proportion to the calamities wlu ch have been common to both from the conquest of this country. " As they have been taught to respect their superiors, and are not yet intoxi cated with the abuse of liberty, they are shocked at the insults which their no blesse and the king s officers have received from the English traders and lawyers, since the civil government took piece. It is natural to suppose they are zealous of their religion. They are very ignorant ; it was the policy of the French govern ment to keep them so ; few or none can read. Printing was never permitted in Canada till we got possession of it. Their veneration for the priesthood is in proportion to their ignorance, it will probably decrease as they become enlight ened, for the clergy there are of mean birth and very illiterate ; and as they are FRENCH CANADIANS. 14 7 now debarred from supplies of ecclesiastics from France, that order of men will become more and more contemptible, provided they are not exposed to persecu tion.* Disorders and divisions, from the nature of things, could not be avoided in attempting to establish the civil government in Canada, agreeable to my instructions, while the same troops who conquered the country, for four years remained in it. They were commanded by an officer, who, by the civil establish ment, had been deprived of the government of half the province, and who remained, in every respect, independent of that establishment. Magistrates were to be made, and juries to be composed, out of 450 contemptible settlers and traders. It is easy to conceive how the narrow ideas and ignorance of such men must offend any troops, more especially those who had so long gor* verned them, and knew the means from which they were elevated. It would be very unreasonable to suppose that such men would not be intoxicated with the unexpected power put into their hands; and that they would not be eager to show how amply they possessed it. As there were no barracks in the country, the quartering of the troops furnished perpetual opportunities of displaying their importance and rancour. The Canadian noblesse were hated, because their birth and behaviour entitled them to respect; and the peasants were abhorred, be cause they were saved from the oppression they were threatened with. The presentment of the Grand Jury at Quebec puts the truth of these remarks be yond a doubt.f The silence of the king s servants to the governor s remon strances, in consequence of their presentment, though his secretary was sent to them on purpose to expedite an explanation, contributed to encourage the dis turbers of the peace. " The improper choice and numbers of the civil officers sent out from Eng land increased the inquietude of the colony. Instead of men of ingenious and untainted morals, the very reverse were appointed to the most important offices ; and it was impossible to communicate, through them, those impressions of the dignity of government, by which alone mankind can be held together in society. The judge fixed upon to conciliate the minds of 75,600 foreigners to the laws and government of Great Britain, was taken from a gaol, entirely ignorant of civil law, and of the language of the people. The attorney-general, with regar^ to the language of the people, was not better qualified. "The offices of the secretary of the province, registrar, clerk of the council, commissary of stores and provisions, provost-martial, &c., were given by patent * This observation is the only one objectionable, on account of truth, in this feel no fear in hazarding the assertion, that the Catholic clergy were not at that tm nor generally of low birth : and since that period, instead of becoming contemptil become, with the growing intelligence of the world, more learned and respec account of f The Protestant grand jury represented the Roman Catholics as a nuisance or account o theiT religion. "Us ont laisse beaucoup de successes, henteurs de ces sentin .as, learned Canadian to me, 148 AMERICA. to men of interest in England, who let them out to the best bidders ; and so little did they consider the capacity of their representatives, that not one of them understood the language of the natives. As no salary was annexed to these patent places, the value of them depended upon the fees, which, by my instruc tions, I was ordered to establish, equal to those of the richest ancient colony. This heavy tax, and the rapacity of the English lawyers, were severely felt by the poor Canadians ; but they patiently submitted, and, though stimulated to dispute it by some of the licentious traders from New York, they cheerfully obeyed the Stamp Act, in hopes that their good behaviour would recommend them to the favour and protection of their sovereign. 6( As the Council Book of the province, and likewise my answer to the com plaints made against my administration, have been laid before your lordships, it is needless to presume to say any thing further on that subject, than that I glory in having been accused of warmth and firmness in protecting the king s Canadian subjects, and of doing the utmost in my power to gain my royal master the affections of that brave, hardy people, whose emigration, if ever it should hap pen, will be an irreparable loss to their empire ; to prevent which, I declare to your lordships, I would cheerfully submit to greater calumnies and indignities (if greater can be devised) than hitherto I have undergone."* CHAPTER XXIV. PRESENT CONDITION AND CHARACTER OF. CANADIANS OF FRENCH ORIGIN. THE condition, manners, habits, and pursuits, of the Canadians of French origin, resemble, at the present time, many of the characteristics described by Go vernor Murray. While residing in that country, and travelling among the settle ments which they inhabited from Beauharnois down to Rimouski ; an extent of 300 miles along the southern shores of the St. Lawrence ; and on the north from the Ottawa, and upper point of Montreal, down to three rivers, Quebec, Beaufort, and the Isle of Orleans, we have examined with great care the condition, character, and disposition of an interesting people, who have been, unfortunately, but im perfectly known, or understood, in England. The following description which we have written from personal observation, applies to the settlements generally on the south shores of the St. Lawrence, and to those on the north banks between Quebec and Montreal : * " Rien de plus vrai et de plus exact que les observations du General Murray, sur les affaires du Canada apres la conquete," said a highly-talented Canadian gentleman to me, on reading this letter. FRENCH CANADIANS. 149 The villages and parishes have a great similarity of appearance, and although some of them are more extensive, and much more populous than others, yet one description is sufficient for all. We cannot but be pleased and happy 4hile travelling through them. They assuredly seem to be the very abodes of simpli city, virtue, and happiness. We pass along delighted through a beautiful rural country, with clumps of wood interspersed amidst cultivated farms, pastures, and herds, decent parish churches, and neat white houses or cottages. The inhabi tants are always not only civil, but polite and hospitable, and the absence of beg gary, and of the squalid beings whose misery harrows our feelings in the United Kingdom, is the best proof that they are in comfortable circumstances. Thefts are rare, and doors are rarely locked. You never meet a Canadian but he puts his hand to his hat or bonnet rouge, and he is always ready to inform you or to receive you into his house, and if you be hungry, the best he has is at your service. The manners of the women and children have nothing of the awkward bash- fulness which prevails among the peasants of Scotland, nor the boorish rudeness of those of England. While we know that each may be equally correct in heart, yet we cannot help being pleased with the manners that smooth our journeys ; and often have we compared the easy obliging manners of the Canadian habitans, with the rough What d ye want ? of the English boor, or the wondering What s your wull ? of the Scotch cotters. At the inns or auberges, many of which are post-houses, we find civility, ready attendance, and have seldom to complain of what we pay for. In travel ling we now and then meet a cross erected at the side of the road, on a spot to which some trifling legend is attached. In some places we see large plaster casts of the Crucifixion, under a wooden canopy, supported by four tall posts. I observed one of these in the middle of a marsh, near the post-road below Kamouraska. The house of a captain of militia is always distinguished by a tall flag-staff near it, painted red, or with circles of white, red, blue, or black. The priest s house is always close to the church, and you never see him ex cept in sacerdotal robe. Enter his house and you are welcome, nor will he let you depart hungry. The parish church, with a pretty bright tinned spire, and sometimes with two, is a striking characteristic feature which occurs at intervals of from four to eight miles along the banks of the St Lawrence. The houses of the habitans are sometimes built of stone, but generally of wood, and only one story high. The walls outside are whitewashed, which imparts to them, particularly i summer, when almost every thing else is green, a most lively and clean-looking appearance. Each contains a large kitchen, one good sitting-room, and as many sleeping or bed-rooms as may be judged requisite. The garret is generally used 150 AMERICA. for lumber and seldom for bed places. Some of the houses have verandas, and a small orchard and garden attached ; near the house there is always a clay-built bake oven and a well, from the latter the water is drawn by means of a lever. The elevation and ground plan of a family house are generally the same as the following outlines : The sitting-room or parlour, and bed-rooms, are lined with smoothly- planed boards, and painted with blue, red, green, yellow, &c., and according to our ideas, in very bad taste ; but according to Jean Baptiste s* fancy, very fine and pretty ; and why not, if he be happy in the idea ? Wax and brass images of the Virgin and Child, or the Crucifixion ; and pictures of grim saints, the Ma donna and Child, &c., all of the cheapest and most common kind, are hung round the room ; and one middle-sized and several common looking-glasses, and a common clock are seldom wanting. Sometimes we observe a looking-glass pic ture, which, from their curious wrought frames must be from one to two hun dred years old. There is also one or more cupboards or buffets in the room, which exhibit common glasses, decanters, cups and saucers, &c., and generally a large punchbowl, for the purpose usually of making eggf or milk punch. The geese raised on their farms afford sufficient feathers for beds ; and the habitans are never without them. Their sheets and blankets are rather coarse, but manufactured by themselves of the fleeces of their sheep, and of the flax they cultivate. The barns and cattle-houses are plain oblong buildings. The farms run parallel with each other : pole-fences occasionally separate them, and from ten to seventy arpents of each are cleared and cultivated. The post- road runs across them all, and each habitan keeps his own portion in repair. The parish of St. Thomas, on the Riviere de Sud, is one of the most popu lous below Quebec. The river flows from the south, through a beautiful, ex tensive, fertile, and rather thickly-settled country, and rolls over a ledge of rocks, twenty feet high, into the St. Lawrence. It has several excellent bridges over it; and along its banks are many of the best cultivated farms in Lower Canada. In the rear of the village, Chapel Hill, a pretty eminence, rises, amidst fertile fields. In the village there is a handsome, though plain, stone church, said to con tain near 3000 persons. We had the opportunity of being at this church on a Sunday. Nothing could be more pleasing than the scene which presented itself. It was on a delightful, calm, summer morning; the meadows, corn-fields, and woods, were as richly decked as imagination could well fancy, and the sur rounding scenery as interesting as a picturesque tourist could even wish. The * Jean Baptiste is as frequently a nom de guerre for Canadian habitans, as John Bull is for the English, or Saunders for the Scotch. f Egg punch, or egg nog, consists of eggs and sugar beat up together, to which is added a little milk or water, and as much spirits as will be equal to a quarter of the whole. This is a common treat among the Canadians. FRENCH CANADIANS. 151 whole creation was wrapt up in peaceful, but not solemn, stillness; for the lively verdure of the country, thickly decked with neat white cottages, and the smooth flowing beauty of the St. Lawrence, with several tall ships carried alon- by the tide, banished every impression except those of the most happy a dmi & - ration, while the spirits were just raised to that pitch of cheerfulness, in which neither volatility nor gloom has any share. About ten o clock, the roads leading through this extensive parish exhibited a decently-dressed peasantry, clad chiefly in fabrics manufactured by them selves, of the wool, flax, leather, and straw, produced on their farms. A great multitude moved on, with a sober trot, in caleches and cabriolets; several on horseback, and others on foot; but no one disturbed the calm tenor of the day, further than casual converse between two or three. In church, if the most close and devout attention during the whole service of mass, and the delivery of a short, practical, but not argumentative, sermon, which dwelt altogether on their moral conduct, without alluding to points of faith, be considered as general proofs of sincerity and piety, the habitans of this parish have undeniable claims to these virtues. We believe there is little differ ence to be found, in this respect, among the other parishes. If there be, we have failed to discover it : and admitting, as we have frequently heard, that they are religious by habit and imitation, rather than by conviction, no one who has travelled among them can deny that they are sincere, amiable, charitable, honest, and chaste. Let us leave abstract points of Christian doctrine to theological disputants ; but if we look for a more correct or moral people than the Cana dian habitans, we may search in vain. A Sabbath morning in the Scotch parishes most remote from towns, bears the nearest resemblance to a Sunday, before mass, in Canada. The interval, however, between morning and evening service, differs, but not widely; for, in both countries, those who do not return to their houses, spend the time in conversing on local incidents, or in communicating what news is gathered during the week. But the evenings of Sunday are far more cheer fully spent than in Scotland. The people of the parish often meet in small groups, or at each other s houses, for the sake of talking, and on these occasions they sometimes indulge in dancing. We may always observe beings kneeling along the aisles, or beside the columns, with their faces towards the altar ; and as we pass along, we hear the half-smothered breathing of their devotions. At such a time, rather than during the pompous celebration of high mass, few, we believe, have ever found them selves within the walls of a spacious Catholic cathedral, that have not experienced a deeper feeling of reverence, and a more impressive consciousness of the presence of Omnipotence, than is usually experienced within the temples of Protestantism. This, we know, is not philosophy but it is nature. 152 AMERICA. On Easter Sunday, and on some other feasts, especially the Fete Dieu, this Cathedral of Montreal exhibits ceremonies and solemnities widely different from the calm spirit of devotion that prevails on week days. The bishop, and some times twenty priests, officiate during the celebration of high mass. The pompous procession ; the chiming of the bells ; and, in the cathedral, the loud solemn tones of the organ ; the kneeling crowds ; the silver censers ; the incense ; the splendour which surrounds the altar ; and all the other various accompaniments of this high celebration, are infinitely more imposing than any religious cere mony to be witnessed in these days in England. The education of youth was long neglected in Canada. Among the habitans, it does not appear that the clergy, during the French government, encouraged learning, although they did not at the same time discourage education, otherwise than by the example which their indifference taught. At that time the priests were chiefly born and educated in France. Few of the habitans who have passed the middle age of life can read or write the women were more frequently taught both than the men. This arose from the extinction of the male religious frater nities, particularly the Jesuits ; while the nunneries were not disturbed by the British government, and the sisters and nuns in these nunneries have always given their attention to the instruction of young girls. As they applied their means, and devoted so great a portion of their lives to the useful instruction of mankind, however pernicious to liberty may have been the principles laid down in the secret institute of their order, it was expected by the Canadians that the revenues arising from the lands that belonged to the Je suits would be appropriated in aid of public instruction, after these revenues were possessed by the crown. The priests, who are now the only ecclesiastics in Canada, were formerly only second to the Jesuits, and seldom troubled their heads about giving more instruc tion to the people than was comprehended in the service and ceremonials of the church ; but their influence and example, although injurious as affecting mental improvement, was certainly beneficial in respect to morals. The Recollets were the lowest religious order in Canada ; they made vows of perpetual poverty, and were, it seems, little esteemed by the Jesuits. The Canadians had a proverb " Pour faire un Recollet il faut une hache, pour un pretre un ciseau ; mais pour faire un Jesuite il faut un pinceau." To the Catholic priests of the present day in Canada, justice requires us to acknowledge that there is great merit due. Although, generally speaking, their education and attainments do not, perhaps, exhibit the splendid points of ac quirement in polite literature, and in the sciences, which distinguished the Jesuits ; yet they neither want intelligence, nor are they destitute of useful or classical learning. Many of them are eloquent preachers ; and it is worthy of our consi deration to know, that since the Catholic clergy have consisted nearly all of Ca- CANADIANS OF FRENCH ORIGIN. 00 nadians, born in the province, and have themselves received their education in the colleges of Canada, they have directed their special attention to the instruc tion of youth.* They have been accused of silently opposing the establishing of schools, and the instruction of the Canadian youth, particularly in the English language. No charge can now be more unjust. Disputed points of faith do not belong to our province ; and having known many of the Canadian priests, truth and candour require us to declare, that they are pious and amiable ; and not only watch care fully, over the morals of their parishioners, but conduct themselves as individuals, and as a body, with praiseworthy correctness. They certainly never give any advice to others, that the example of their own conduct does not enforce. Many of the schools have been established by the cures. There is not, probably, in the world a more happy people than the habitans, or peasantry of Lower Canada. They are, with few exceptions, in easy circum stances ; and in all the villages, the church forms the point around which the inhabitants, born in the parish, delight to live ; and in no dwelling further from it than they can hear the ringing of its bell, can any of them feel happy. They are not anxious to become rich, but they possess the necessary comforts, and many of the luxuries of life. They are frugal, but not enterprising, and will seldom buy what they can make themselves. Their lands yield them grain and vegetables, and food for their horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, and poultry, as well as hemp, flax, and tobacco. They make coarse linen and woollen clothes, straw hats, worsted bonnets or caps, soap, candles, sugar,t and implements of husbandry. What they manufacture is seldom for sale, but for consumption. They have, in fact, every article of real utility every necessary resource within themselves, no penury, no uneasiness, no distress is visible. Their mode of agriculture is clumsy and tardy; yet the soil, with the most negligent culture, yields abundance for domestic consumption, and something over seignorial dues and the tithes, to sell, for the purchase of articles of convenience and luxury. Their farms are generally small, and often subdivided among a family. The agricultural societies may gradually improve husbandry among the habitans ; but, hitherto, neither * At the Rivieres des Trois lived, and (in 1823), nearly eighty years old, died, the vene rable, amiable, and accomplished Abbe de Calonne, brother of the famous financier and minister of Louis XVI. The revolution drove him from France to England He then sought .and foui an asylum in Prince Edward Island, which he left for Canada : a colony whose ****" * more agreeable to the association, of his life and education. The world for him had lost it nations" for when the Bourbons reascended the throne of France, he not only became -poses sed of considerable property, but he had offers to return to his native country, ^o^mimBU not have rejected. The property he at once distributed among others; and his little cur Point dii Lac, near Three Rivers, satisfied his ambition as to ecclesiastical PV , t Maple sugar. The season of manufacturing it is considered a Pf ^_fe ^d to be of fatigue, although it is attended with considerable labour. About 2,000,00 manufactured in the province by the Canadians. VOL. T. 15 i HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. example, nor the prospect of interest has been sufficient to induce many to adopt the more approved modes of husbandry, or any of the methods of shortening labour, discovered during the last or present century. They have gardens at tached to their houses, but the neatness and order which lend such charms to every little English cottage, is not to be found in the Canadian parishes. The women generally do all the garden work, and, like those of Normandy and Picardy, greatly assist in field labour. The occupations of the Canadians are neither severe nor incessant; as moderate industry secures all necessaries. They, however, plough a great portion of their lands in autumn, and there is little doubt, but they will gradually change their mode of culture. We discover among the Ca nadians the customs and manners that prevailed among the peasantry of France during the age of Louis XIV. ; and, to this day, the most rigid adherence to national customs is maintained among them. Contented to tread the path beaten by their forefathers, they, in the same manner, till the ground : commit, in the like way, the same kind of seeds to the earth ; and in a similar mode do they gather their harvest, feed their cattle, and prepare and cook their victuals. They rise, eat, and sleep, at the same hours ; and under the instruction of their pas tors, and the example of their elders, observe the same spirit in their de votions, with as ample a portion of all the forms of the Catholic religion, as their ancestors. They are fond of soups, which are seldom, even in Lent, of meagre quality. Bread, butter, cheese, with eggs, tea, poultry, fish, and flesh, constitute nearly all the other articles of their food. They have their jours gras, or feasting days, before and after Lent, on which they gormandise vast quantities of animal food, and indulge in drinking ; but on other occasions they are temperate. The amusements of former times are also common among them : especially at their weddings, feasts, and dances. Even the noisy, tumultuous charivari* is not entirely forgotten. They delight in driving about in caleches and carioles. To the harness of their horses they hang numerous bells, and on passing each other always, as in France, take the contrary side of the road to that which we are accustomed to in England. Dancing, fiddling, and singing, are among their amusements after vespers on Sunday : considering it no sin but a harmless recreation, never attended with dissipation or vice. Sunday is, indeed, the happiest day in a Canadian s week. The parish church collects all acquaintances. The young and old, men and women, drive thither in their caleches in summer, and in their well-furred carioles in * The charivari is a noisy assemblage of people, who proceed after bed-time to the house of a- newly-married couple, whenever there is a flagrant inconsistency in the match : such as a young girl marrying an old man for his money, or vice versa. Some come on horseback, some blow horns, some beat drums and tin kettles ; the English in the towns also join the charivari; others ring bells, shout, and swing rattles, continuing the charivari from night to night, until they receive a stipulated sum from the unhappy pair, for some charitable purpose. CANADIANS OF FRENCH ORIGIN. ] ;, r winter ; there they meet for devotion, pleasure, and love. Even on their little matters of business they consider it innocent to converse after dinner. Sunday is, therefore, truly a day of happiness in a Canadian parish. Thoir devotion is to them a pleasure. The habitan is sincerely pious ; and let him he taken where he may, if deprived of joining in the observances of religion, he is unhappy, superstitious, and fearful. This powerful feeling prevents him from going forth, like the American, with his family to settle, apart from all others, in the wilds. Politeness seems natural to the Canadians. Habit, imitation, and tempera ment have made them a courteous people; and the first thing a child learns is to say his prayers, to speak decorously and respectfully to every body, and to bow or courtesy to its elders and to all strangers. The habitans never meet one another without putting a hand to the hat or bonnet, or moving the head. Men and women are civil to all, not for mere form, or appearance, but from a sense of propriety ; and they always treat their superiors and parents with deference. Pa rents and children live frequently in one house to the third generation. They are exceedingly modest, the women from the natural delicacy and disposition of their sex ; the men from custom and a full sense of decency; the latter, in the country parishes, never bathe in the rivers, nor even in the most private places without being partially covered. The men are well proportioned, about, but something smaller than the middle size, and very rarely corpulent. From exposure to the climate their complexions are dark; the sun in summer, and the snow in winter, bronze their faces, and the general use of close iron stoves may also affect their colour. The features of their faces are characteristic. The nose is usually prominent, and often aquiline ; the eyes dark, rather small, and remarkably lively; the lips thin, chin sharp and projecting, and the cheeks inclining to lankness. Many of the girls are pretty oval-faced brunettes, with fine eyes, good teeth, and glossy locks. They make affectionate wives and tender mothers. Their feelings are keen and their attachments ardent. They are generally more intelli gent than the men; and a habitan rarely enters upon matters of any importance without saying " J en parlerai a ma femme ;" and on consulting his wife, but not before, will he conclude a bargain. On entering the house of a Canadian, his wife seems to anticipate our very wishes. If they have not at the time what we want , the landlady regrets it with such good grace that we cannot fail to be delighted with what she gives us. The habitans marry young ; sometimes twenty couple are joined in wedlock at one time in the same church. They hate being alone. The world is nothing to them unless a number of families have the opportunity of assembling toge ther. How very different from the Americans, among whom a man and his wife will leave a populous settlement, in which they were born, and all their friends 156 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. and relations without apparent regret, and plant themselves, regardless of all the human race, amidst the solitary gloom of the darkest forest ! A dance and feast always attends a wedding. The Canadian dances with all his heart ; and eats with all his vigour. On the day of a marriage, several ca- leches, or, if in winter, carioles, filled with friends and acquaintances, form a cor tege of imposing appearance. On these occasions, the gayest colours, the best dresses, the most spirited horses, and most fanciful caleches, or carioles, are brought into full display, and often continued for several days. The priests, by their admonitions restrain, to a certain degree, and more effectually than sumptuary laws ever could, the dress of the habitans. In winter, the men are clothed in long full-skirted dark grey coats (capots) buttoned close to the body, with a hood attached, to draw over the head, and with a many coloured sash, frequently ornamented with beads round the mid die ; and in pantaloons, bonnet rouge, or bonnet bleu, and mocassins, and never with out a pipe in their mouths. In summer, light short jackets and straw hats, are worn in place of the long coats and bonnet rouge. The dress of the women is old fashioned, even when they wear gowns. Petticoats and short jackets, or bed-gowns, long waists, neat white caps, and, in summer, straw bonnets form the prevailing dress. In towns, the modern English or French fashions prevail. The Canadian gentry all over the province, consisting chiefly of the descend ants of the old noblesse and gentry, retain the courteous urbanity of the French school of the last century. After the conquest, the society of the French families of education and respectability who remained, was eminently courteous and polite ; and they were anxious to secure the good feeling of the early English settlers, by inviting them to share in the hospitality, pleasures, and amusements of their houses and of their society. (" Une societe dans laquelle regnoit generalement une politesse et une brillante urbaniteV ) Canadian families of education, speak French as correctly as it is spoken in Paris. Many of them, also, converse fluently in English ; and although their disposition has been, and is, kind, and their manners agreeable, their society has not been sufficiently appreciated by the English. The cultivation of the soil, building their houses, attending to their live stock, providing fuel, and making implements of agriculture, and articles of con venience, form the leading occupation of the rural Canadians. Fishing is rather an amusement, than a laborious pursuit. Spear fishing, with torch light, in calm summer nights, along the shores of the rivers, conveys something peculiarly striking to the observer. The light canoes that bear the torches and the spear men over the surface of the smooth, limpid waters, follow in succession, each exhibiting a beautiful bright light. Those of Anglo-Saxon race, who navigate the long craft, called Durham boats, CANADIANS OF FRENCH ORIGIN. 157 are very different beings from the Canadian boatmen who man the river boats or bateaux. The former are generally tall, lank fellows, seldom without an im mense quid of tobacco in their mouths : grave-tempered schemers, yet vulgar and seldom cheerful; "grinning horribly," when they venture an attempt to laugh. The Canadian boatman, or voyageur, is naturally polite, and always cheerful ; fond enough of money when he once possesses it, although unacquainted with over-reaching ; and if he attempts to cheat, he knows not how. He sings, smokes, and enjoys whatever comes in his way, thanking " le bonDieu, laVierge et les Saints," for every thing. The voyageurs know every channel, rapid, rock, and shoal, in the rivers they navigate ; and, never pretending to question their leader, or bourgeois, fearlessly expose themselves to the greatest hardships, and the most frightful dangers. When singing their celebrated boat-songs, two usually begin, two others re spond, and then all join in full chorus. These songs make them forget their la bours, and enliven their long and perilous voyages. Nothing can be more im posing than a fleet of white canoes, and the voyageurs all singing " cheerily/ while paddling over the bosom of a lake, or along the sylvan shores of the St. Lawrence or Ottawa.* The inhabitants of Normandy and Picardy, from which parts of France the ancestry of the Canadian habitans chiefly emigrated, are those whom the latter resemble most in their morals, customs, and dwellings. But the peasantry of Normandy and Picardy have changed many of their habits and customs, while the Canadians have retained them. Crimes are very rare among the habitans. Honesty, chastity, piety, and su perstition, the latter not more common, however, than in Scotland and Ireland, are prominent in the Canadian character. Perhaps no people on earth have enjoyed more happiness in their circumstances, joined to so much virtue in their lives, than the rural population of French origin in Canada, until they were duped by political adventurers to join in a rebellion against a government, which, though it may have frequently erred, had always considered the new sub jects of the British crown as justly entitled to the full paternal and equal pro tection of its administration. We shall, hereafter, in our historical notice of Canada under the British government, point out the real causes of difficulty in the administration of that most important province. * The white canoe of the North American Indians, is beautifully constructed, by sewing th rind of a huge white-birch tree over a slender frame work. On ^e water tins fragaevjselfi gracefully ; and the long voyages of the Canadian fur traders, and those of Alexander . fie, to the Arctic Sea, and across the continent to the Pacific, were made in tl light, as to be easily carried over land, by two men, from one river, or lake, to 158 BOOK II. BRITISH AMERICA. CHAPTER I. ENGLISH VOYAGERS TO AMERICA. THE Spaniards having, by early discovery, force, injustice, cruelty, and treachery, conquered the richest countries of America, the English had either to make new discoveries, or remain contented with their possessions in Europe. Neither the ambition nor pride of England, nor the avarice of Henry VII., had sufficiently aroused the spirit of adventure to induce, either the people or the monarch, to undertake maritime discoveries, until after the Portuguese had explored the whole coast from Tangiers to the southern limits of Africa, and until the island, and the gold and silver treasures, of Hayti were seized by Spain. Henry VII., in the year 1495, granted to John Cabot, a Venetian, and his sons, a commission to navigate, with five ships, at their own expense, all parts of the ocean, for the purpose of discovering islands and countries, "either of Gentiles or of Infidels, which had hitherto been unknown to all Christian people ; and to take possession of, and to set up his standard in the same, as vassals of the crown of England ; and to return with merchandise to the port of Bristol." It is maintained that the first voyage which Sebastian Cabot had made with his father to America, was in 1494, before the date of his commission ; and that this date is in accordance with an extract from a map drawn by him and afterwards engraved, as stated by Hakluyt. They sailed from Bristol with one or more vessels, discovered Newfoundland, which he called Prima Vista, on the 24th of June. In 1497, John Cabot died, and his son, under a new patent from Henry VII., sailed with a large ship, fitted at the king s expense, from Bristol, accompanied by others, to discover a north-west passage to India ; and after making the coast of Labrador, he is said to have sailed north to 67 deg. r AMERIC 159 -.- ; * and then south, exploring the coast of North America to latitu-. -ntry. after the discovery of its more southerly parts, in Iol2, by ras called Florida. Cabot, not being able to procure provisions from the natives, his crews, who had manifested a disposition to mutiny, when he was in search of the north-west passage, became dissatisfied, and he was compelled to return to England, which he did by way of Newfoundland. If the accounts of Sebastian Cabot s voyage be true, as authenticated by Hakluyt, Peter Martyr, Lopez, Ramusio,and several French writers, he was the first discoverer of all the countries on the Atlantic coasts, from Florida to the northern parts of Labrador. It is even probable that he dis covered the continent of America before Columbus actually did so in 1493. But there is great obscurity as to the exact dates of the voyages of Cabot : for he either kept no journal, which is not probable, or his journal has not been found. On his return to England, he met with no further encouragement from Henry VII., who was then engaged in war against the Scotch. That monarch completely forsook Cabot, and neglected making any further discovery. It would appear, from different accounts, that Cabot made several voyages afterwards, and that he visited the coasts of America, and entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1502. But meeting with no encouragement from the crown, he went to Spain and was employed by the king to explore the southern part of Brazil. He sailed up the Rio-de-la-Plata, built a fort, and returned to Spain : where Charles V. treated him as ungratefully, as he had done all the previous discoverers employed by Spain. We find that before 1516, Cabot returned to England,* and departed that year on a voyage, of which we have but a very imperfect account in a frigate fitted out by Henry VIII., and sailed t ist of Brazil, from which he re turned by way of Hayti and Porto Rico. He was afterwards honoured (in : by Edward VI. conferring on him the title of Grand Pilot of England with an annual fee or salary of 1#3/. 13*. 4d., a large amount at that period. In 1557, we find that he was Governor of the Company of Merchant Adventurers for making discoveries ; under which was fitted out the expedition for finding a north-east passage to China, under Sir Hugh Willoughby, and which ended by the latter, with the crew of his own ship, being frozen to death ; and by Chancellor, commanded one of the other vessels, discovering the White Sea, and the por Archangel. Cabot must have been nearly eighty years of age, when he drew up the admirable instructions given by him : ugh Willoughby *n d to Cabot * Hakluyt and Purchas, quoting from the Preface to the 3rd volume of Ramusio s Voyages. Cabot sailed so far north is not probable, and in the third edition of Ramusio, printed at Venice, it is stated, vol. Hi., pasre 670, that Sebastian Cabot reached cintjuanta-tei grade totio, &c. f He built a handsome mansion near Blackwall, which he called Poplar, and which m though the house disappeared more than a century ago, is still applied to the district bebiJ Blackwall and the West India Docks. See " Eden s Book," published in 1553 ; which b or collection, led to Mr. Hakluyt *s celebrated " Collation of Voyages." 160 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. we must allow the merit of arousing the spirit of adventure which animated many Englishmen, and especially British seamen, about this period, and which brought forth the Drakes, Hawkins, Dampiers, and other bold mariners. During the reign of Queen Mary, and especially after her marriage with Philip of Spain, adventures by sea, which might cause the jealousy of, or in any way approach, the countries in America, conquered or claimed by Spain, was discouraged. The trade to the north of Europe, the Mediterranean, and to Africa, was, however, countenanced by her ministers ; and, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, every en couragement was given to, and the most honourable distinctions conferred on, her naval commanders. From this period England became a great maritime power, and her ships proceeded to all the sea-coasts of the world. The ignominy of carrying slaves from Africa to America was caused by the English, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In 15/8, Martin Frobisher sailed to discover a north-west passage, and reached Labrador. Drake, and many other daring navigators of that period, can scarcely be considered in a more favourable character than that of bold and successful pirates ; nor even the merchants who engaged in the early voyages to Africa, the West Indies, and coasts of South America, otherwise than as an association of robbers ; plunder, or the slave-trade being invariably the chief objects of these expeditions. Sir Francis Drake, in 1580-81, was the second circumnavigator of the globe, which voyage was also accomplished, a few years afterwards, by Cavendish ; and the trade round the Cape of Good Hope to India, was opened by the English in 1601. As early as 1534, Jacques Cartier, of St. Maloes, sailed from France, on a voyage of discovery, and entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on the festival of that saint, to which that Mediterranean Sea owes its name. The following year he sailed up the great Hachelaga, which he called the St. Lawrence, and win tered in Canada, of which he took the usual formal possession for his sovereign, and named the territory New France. CHAPTER II. ATTEMPT TO COLONISE VIRGINIA SIR WALTER RALEIGH WITH the exception of the fisheries on the banks and coasts of Newfound land, the countries discovered by Cabot from 1497 to 1502, were entirely ne glected until 1579 ; when the first attempts at settlements, by the English, were made by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who had obtained a patent from Queen Elizabeth to plant Newfoundland, and those parts of America discovered by Se- HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. 161 bastian Cabot. Gilbert was half-brother to Raleigh, and had distinguished him self in France and Ireland. But he was unsuccessful in his first voyage. The rocky, dark, and inhospitable aspect of the coasts of Newfoundland and Cape Breton, seems to have terrified his people ; and he returned home, after losing one of his ships. He made a second attempt the following year, and the ship he was in, and all on board perished, through ignorance, or imprudence. One of the most spirited, gallant, and accomplished men, that any age or country has given birth to, appeared at this time, as the enthusiastic promoter of navigation, commerce, discovery, and colonisation. This remarkable personage was Walter Raleigh. He was bom at Hadleigh, in Devonshire, in 1552, in a house called Hays, which had long been the patrimony of his family. His early education does not appear to have been complete : even in the obscure range of instruction then taught at the grammar schools, or at Oxford, where he had been for some time at Oriel College. At one of the inns of court, he studied law with close application ; but not for a long time : for he became, at the age of seventeen, one of the volunteers who went to assist the Queen of Navarre and the Huguenots, in France ; where, during four years of battles, sieges^ and negotiations, he was distinguished for his brilliant actions, and for his honourable conduct. He afterwards served, with reputation, in Holland; and, on returning, in his twenty-seventh year, he accompanied his relative, Sir Hum phrey Gilbert, on his first unsuccessful voyage. From that period he directed his mind and studies to maritime discovery and colonisation. Being early convinced of his imperfect education, he had for years, while engaged in his mili tary and maritime duties, studied four hours out of the twenty-four, and allowed himself but five hours for sleep. He never was known to shrink from the same labours, or fatigues, to which the humblest of his companions were subjected. He served afterwards with distinction in Ireland, and soon became a favourite with Queen Elizabeth. Florida was discovered, in 1498, by Cabot. The Spaniards, who visited the country, gave it that name by which the whole of that part of America, and the coast to an indefinite distance northward, was known until 15 84, when Sir Walter Raleigh and Adrian Gilbert obtained a second patent from Queen Elizabeth, by virtue of which they took possession of the country called Virginia. This was long the name by which the English designated all North America ; and was so called, by the courtly Raleigh, in honour of the unmarried sovereign of England. The enthusiastic ardour of Sir Walter was not to be frustrated by the unfortunate calamity which befel Sir Humphrey Gilbert ; and two vess were despatched by him in 1584, under the command of Captains Amad Barlow ; they discovered Roanoake; established a friendly intercourse wit! natives; and, on their return, gave a flattering description of the coi the people, two of whom accompanied the expedition back t< VOL. I. Y 162 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The first planting of a settlement by the English was, in 15 85, at Roanoake, in Virginia : one hundred and eight settlers were sent there during that year by Raleigh, in order to found a colony. They were accompanied by a Captain Lane and Captain Amadas, and by Heriot, the improver of algebraic calculation. But the predatory conduct of Sir Richard Grenville, who commanded the expedition, created an impatient spirit, very unfit for colonisation, among the people he landed in Virginia. Grenville has been extolled for heroism and brilliant exploits, in an age, when most of our naval commanders were, in reality, only bold corsairs. He commanded seven ships, which, exclusive of the colonists, who embarked for Vir ginia, were strongly equipped. Instead of sailing direct for Roanoake, he steered for the West Indies, in order to cruise among the islands, and intercept and capture Spanish ships. All on board the ships, including the colonists, were soon infected with the spirit of the commander. After committing depredations, and making captures, he finally, instead of primarily, landed the colonists to shift for themselves in Virginia. They disliked labour, became discontented on not finding gold ; and exhausted their provisions and resources, in a vain search after the precious metals. They quarrelled with the natives, and bloodshed was the con sequence. Many of the colonists perished, and the remainder, disheartened, or unable to maintain their ground, returned to England with Sir Francis Drake, who had then visited the colony. Such was the fate of the second attempt al settlement on the part of England. A few days after their departure, a small vessel despatched by Raleigh, arrived with supplies; but finding the place abandoned, returned to England. Sir Richard Grenville was sent out, a second time, by the persevering Raleigh, and arrived at Roan oake with three ships, and abundant supplies, a fortnight after the departure of Drake with the colonists. He left fifty men there to establish themselves in the deserted settlement. Sir Walter, impatient of delay, sailed a little before in a separate vessel, and made the coast near Cape Hatteras ; but not being able to find Roanoake, returned to England. In 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh sent out a ship with settlers, under the charge of Governor White. When the latter arrived in Virginia, he found that either famine or the savages had destroyed the whole of Grenville s colony. Governor White left 175 men and women in Virginia, well provided with all necessaries ; and, before his departure, an Indian, named Manteo, embraced Christianity. On the 18th of August, that year, Mrs. Dare gave birth to a daughter, christened Virginia. This unfortunate child was the first born of English parents in America. When White had returned, in 1587 3 he found England engaged in preparing for defending the country against the great Spanish Armada. Sir Walter Raleigh was among those most actively engaged in these preparations. He had not, however, forgotten his Virginian colony; and he equipped a small squadron, under the command of Grenville, to proceed with settlers, provisions, and other HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. J (I. , necessaries to Roanoake. These vessels were detained by Queen Elizabeth, as necessary for the national defence. White sailed with two small vessels, with which he attempted to take some Spanish vessels, but was defeated, disabled, and compelled to return to England. He returned to Virginia in 1590, and found the whole colony exterminated. The latter fruitless expedition was not directed by Raleigh, but by Sir Thomas Smith and some London associates, to whom Sir Walter had assigned his patent. So disheartening and unsuccessful were the attempts to settle the country, that in 1602, that is, 244 years ago, there was not an European in all North America. To the detention of the ships placed by Raleigh under Grenville, may be attributed the destruction of the settlement, founded in 1587. De Monts, from St. Maloes, established, in 1604, a small colony at Port Royal, Acadia (now Annapolis, Nova Scotia). This was the first permanent European settlement in North America. Raleigh, though he ceased, in consequence of his multifarious duties, to have any direct connexion with the expeditions to America, which, without returning the smallest return, had subjected him to a personal expense of more than 40,000/., still hoped that permanent settlements would be established by the new association of commercial adventurers. He accordingly transferred his patent to Sir Thomas Smith, without any other consideration than that he would establish and maintain a trade between England and America ; and that if gold and silver were afterwards found, that he should receive a share. But he had transfened his rights to men who were influenced by a very different spirit to that which guided arid animated him, in fitting out expeditions that had drawn so largely on his personal fortunes. The queen had conferred on him, before assigning his patent, arduous labours in Ireland, as well as a district, in that country, to people and improve. He was engaged also in attempting a scheme for the conduct and expense of an armament to re-establish Don Antonio in Portugal. These duties, with others, and the projecting of his last, and generally considered, most \vild arid visionary expedition, that for the discovery of an El Dorado, in Guiana, fully occupied his time. The fortunes of Raleigh were ruined after the death of Queen Elizabeth ; and by the accession to the crown of a despicable, and, almost in every meaning of the term, a bad monarch, and pedantic, mean, and selfish man. James I., was peaceful, as a king, from moral cowardice vain of the obscure learning of the schools, which scarcely comprised any knowledge of the arts or sciences: proud of being told by the flatterers, who despised and duped him, that he was the most wise and potent of princes ; and jealous of the prerogatives, which he most unconstitutionally arrogated, as his, by divine right his whole character, so destitute of any dignity or true honour, that he did no only submit to the most degrading and unjust acts within his own realms, but h 164 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. agreed to measures, the most unworthy of a prince, in his relations with foreign potentates. The most execrable acts which British history has recorded, are the mock trial, and cruel and long imprisonment, and after his release from confine ment in the Tower, and sailing and returning from his last expedition, the judicial assassination of Sir Walter Raleigh, under James I., King of England. Raleigh was, no doubt, an enthusiast and so was Columbus and every other man who has ever made great attempts, or that has ever achieved bold undertak ings; but whose projects have either been obstructed by the prejudices, by the jea lousies, or by the fears of princes, or of others in power, or in rivalship. There is scarcely a great discovery, or a great invention that has not brought down on the projector, or inventor, all possible discouragement from the prejudices, the igno rance, the doubts and suspicions, of those who have been, and are destitute, of su perior abilities. The most disheartening obstacles which enterprising men have encountered, and the most difficult to overcome, have been those created by the presumptuous judgment of ignorant, prejudiced, and feeble minds. During a considerable portion of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Walter Raleigh possessed the countenance and support of the queen : and he, by his en terprising and enthusiastic perseverance, aroused more than any other man of his age, that spirit of discovery, navigation, trade, and colonisation, which prepared the foundation upon which subsequently arose the British settlements in America, and which has rendered England a powerful maritime and great commer cial and wealthy power. CHAPTER III. >i FIRST PERMANENT SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA GOSNOLD S VOYAGE- EXPEDI TION SENT TO JAMES RIVER CAPTAIN SMITH. IN 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold sailed from Dartmouth, in a small vessel, and ventured on a direct course to America, instead of steering by the Canary Islands. He fell in with two islands on the coast of Massachusetts Bay named those islands Martha s Vineyard and Elizabeth sowed some wheat, which soon sprung up- traded with the Indians, and returned to England, laden with wood, furs, and gums. The success of this voyage, which diminished the distance more than 1000 miles, induced the Bristol merchants to send out two vessels in the same direc tion. They traded in like manner, and in the same places, where Gosnold had trafficked, and returned with furs, gums, and other articles. In 1605, a ship from London sailed by the direct course to America, and. fell HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. in with Long Island, where they sowed wheat, as an experiment, and found it to spring up quickly. They traded for furs with the Indians, at Connecticut River and other places, and returned to London with a valuable cargo of furs and other articles. Companies were then formed in London and Plymouth, under patent from King James I., to plant colonies in America. The patent, under which the Lon don Company was constituted, granted to Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Somers and to Richard Hakluyt,* Prebend of Westminster, " license to make habitation and plantation, and to deduce a colony of sundry of our people into that part of America commonly called Virginia." This company was to settle the southern parts. The Plymouth Company, consisting of knights, merchants, and others, of Bristol and Plymouth, was empowered to settle the country north of James River, to be named New England. Captain Smith, Captain Gosnold, and some other persons of note discovered James River. In December, 1606, the London Company sent to Virginia three vessels, under the command of Captains Smith and Newport, and accompanied by Mr. Percy, a brother of the Duke of Northumberland, Captain Gosnold, and others. They gave the name of Cape Henry to the most southerly point of Chesapeake Bay; on arriving, by way of the Canaries, and landed in April, 1607? at James River where they commenced the foundation of the first permanent English settlement, amidst the wilderness regions of the western world. They named the place James Town ; one hundred and four persons were carried there, with Edward Wingfield, as President. The Plymouth Company also sent two ships, under Admiral Gilbert, to North Virginia, with 100 planters, forty-five only of whom remained. Captain John Smith, who accompanied this expedition to James Town, was one of the most extraordinary, bold, and judicious men of the age. He was born in 1599, at Willoughby, in Lincolnshire, and was paternally descended from a re spectable family, the Smiths, of Crudely, Lancashire. HismotherwasoftheRickards of Great Heck, Yorkshire. He inherited a competent fortune, and was from his youth upwards, animated by the spirit of adventure. When only thirteen years of age he was ardently desirous of going to sea. His father then died suddenly. His trustees, who proved severe guardians, considered his genius folly ; and, resolving to save his money, bound him at the age of fifteen an apprentice to a merchant, or rather shopkeeper and small shipowner, at Lynn. Disliking his employment, he secretly, with only ten shillings and three pence in his purse, left his master. He met accidentally a young nobleman, second son of Peregrine * Richard Hakluyt was the greatest promoter at the time of the English settlements in America. He was also one of the most intelligent geographers ; and his collection of voyages ra those in Italian by Ramusio, and far excelled in language, and in good sense the c pedantic and canting, but laborious, Purchas. 166 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Bertie, Lord Willoughby, who was departing for the grand tour of Europe. He engaged in the service of the youthful lord ; but they soon became impatient of each other, although Bertie and his brother always entertained a friendship for him.* Smith then entered, and served three years in, the army of Hol land. He crossed over to Scotland, expecting to be employed by King James VI. On being disappointed he returned to Lincolnshire, where he lived for some time in retirement studying military and other works; and in the exercise of horsemanship and arms, with no associate but that of a poor Italian knight, Theodore Polaloga, an excellent horseman, who had been rider in the family of the Earl of Lincoln. On receiving a part of his fortune he departed for Flanders. He soon afterwards sailed from the Low Countries to France; and on landing at St. Vallery-sur-Somme, he was plundered of his money and luggage by four chevaliers d industrie, who connived with the master of the vessel in robbing Smith. He landed with only a penny, and had to sell his cloak to pay his passage. On his way south, he overtook and wounded the chief of those who robbed him, and made him acknowledge his crime. He continued his travels, and followed the whole littoral of France, from Dunkirk to Marseilles, examining the fortifications and naval arsenals. He then embarked for Italy, on board a vessel carrying pilgrims to Loretta. A storm arose, Smith was the only heretic on board ; the sailors declared him a second Jonas, and when close to the little islet of St. Marie, near Nice, threw him overboard. He saved himself by swim ming ashore. He was taken on board an armed ship that anchored for shelter close to the shore of St. Marie. This ship belonged to St. Maloes, in Brittany, and was bound for Alexandria in Egypt. Soon after sailing, they met a Venetian vessel richly-laden, attacked and captured her. They returned with the booty and landed it at Antibes, where they allotted to Smith a share of the prize. He then * Smith says himself, in the account of his life drawn up at the request of Sir Robert Cotton, " These two honourable brothers, Peregrine and Robert Bertie, gave him sufficient money to re turn to England. But it was the last thought of his determination, for now being freely at liberty at Paris, and growing acquainted with one Mr. David Hume, who making some use of his purse, gave him letters to some of his friends in Scotland to prefer him to King James. Arriving at Rouen, he better bethinks himself: seeing his money near spent, down the river he went to Havre de Grace, where he first began the life of a soldier. Peace being concluded in France, he went with Captain Joseph Duxbury into the Low Countries, under whose colours having served for three or four years, he took his journey to Scotland to deliver his letters. After much kind usage among these honest Scots at Ripwith and Broxmouth, but neither money nor means to make him a cavalier, he returned to Willoughby, in Lincolnshire, where, within a short time, being glutted with too much company, wherein he took small delight, he retired himself into a little woody pasture, a good way from any town, environed with many hundred acres of other woods. Here by a fair brook he built a pavilion of boughs, where only in his clothes he lay. His studies were * Machiavelli s Art of War, and Marcus Aurelius. His exercise, a good horse, with his lance and ring. His food was more of venison than any thing else. What he wanted his man brought to him. The country, won dering at such a hermit, his friends persuaded one Sigrior Polaloga, rider to Earl Lincoln, to in sinuate into his woodish acquaintance, whose languages, and good discourse, and exercise of riding drove him to stay at Tattersall. Long these pleasures would not content him, and he returned again into the Low Countries." HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. 167 traversed Italy to Rome and Naples ; and, by way of Rome, Florence, and Bologna, to Venice ; then crossed the Gulf of Venice to Ragusa, travelled over Albania^and returned through Dalmatia, and Capo d Istria. He passed into Styria, and en tered at Gratz, the service of the emperor, in the war against the Turks. In this war Smith distinguished himself by bravery and strategy. He drew the plan which was adopted to compel the Turks to raise the siege of Ollumpach; invented a night-telegraph, by means of fires ; and was promoted to the rank of captain in the Transylvanian cavalry regiment of Count Meldritch. The feats of Captain Smith became famous at the prolonged siege of Stoll-Weissenburg, in Transylvania. On the challenge sent by Tur-Pacha to fight in single combat any Christian officer, it was decided by lot. Whether by contrivance, or by chance it was the lot of Smith to accept the challenge. This contest was solemnly observed by the besieged and the besiegers, who were ranged on the walls, and on the ground occupied by the assaulting army. Smith slew the Osmanlis. Another powerful Turk advanced. Smith accepted the challenge: on the first shock Smith was nearly stunned by the heavy blow of the Turk s battle-axe ; but recovering himself immediately, he ran his antagonist through the body, cut off his head, and carried it in triumph to the Austrian camp. Smith, in his turn, was compelled to challenge any Turk, which was accepted by a powerful Bey, Bonny Mulgro, who was also slain by Smith. The latter ascribes his success, after the help of God, to the superior weapons, skill, and horsemanship of Europe. The town capitulated, but soon after a general battle was fought, and the Austrians were defeated. Smith was left wounded on the field, taken prisoner, and afterwards sold in the slave-market of Axiopolis. He was then sent to Constanti nople, where he managed, with extraordinary address^ to be sent from thence to serve Timour Pacha on the shores of Azof: from whence he expected to have more liberty and the opportunity to escape. He was disappointed, his hair was shaven off, and, with an iron collar round his neck, chained to work with the common slaves, and frequently beaten by the pacha. On one of these occasions, his chains having been loosened, when he was thrashing out corn, he fell on the pacha, levelled him to the ground by a blow with a thrashing-bat (used instead of a flail), clad himself in part of the pacha s robes ; and, covering the dead body over with straw, Smith, with a small bag of wheat for food, mounted the pacha s horse, gained the Desert, and reached the Russian advanced post on the Don. He was hospitably re ceived and provided with the means of returning to Transylvania ; where he arrived by a tedious and circuitous route; and was received joyfully by his friends. He afterwards traversed numerous parts of Europe. He visited Spain and Barbary ; was onboard a ship of war, commanded by a Captain Merham, m a fight with two Spanish ships, and returned to England some time before the departure of the first expedition sailed for Virginia. His testimonies from the 170 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Smith, who had been excluded from the government, was, during the period of its calamity, actually engaged in making himself well acquainted with the country and its resources. His constitution, although exposed for many years to great hardships, during his early military career, was still healthy and vigorous; and this blessing was justly attributed to the unexceptionably regular and moral habits of this excellent man. A number of the colonists, needlessly reduced by famine and disease, were only restrained from leaving the settlement by the efforts he made to procure supplies and by the labours he endured for them, until a reinforcement arrived of 120 men from England, with implements of husbandry, seeds, pro visions, and other supplies. These men consisted of gentlemen, labourers, jewellers, and refiners of gold. It soon became manifest that they were men in competent for any productive labour, except seeking for gold : they did nothing, but collect a cargo of a glittering sediment found on the shore, which was sent to England, believing it to be gold. All agricultural industry was suspended. A cargo of cedar wood, which had been sent to England the same year, proved the only article exported of any value. It was in consequence of this golden delusion, and the licentious conduct of the colonists, that Smith made the adventurous, and most fatiguing survey ever made by man, in an open boat : exploring, during two voyages, every inlet and bay on both sides of the Chesapeak, from Cape Charles to the Susquehanna. He also ascended the principal rivers to the falls. His object was lo ascertain the solid and durable resources of the countries he explored, and to establish conciliatory relations with the natives. While he was absent, the golden frenzy of the colonists calmed into reflection, on discovering that the cargo which they sent to England was merely an earthy substance. They now beheld, in the absence of the man whom they had in their avarice disregarded, famine and sickness ready to destroy them. Discontent among themselves, and inability to encounter difficulty, or to obtain food, rendered their condition hopeless. Smith again appeared, with supplies obtained from the aborigines, and again saved the settlement. He was then im mediately elected president. His detention by Opecanaugh, his condemnation to death by the Sachem Powhaton, his escape through the agency of the daughter, Pocahontas his pro viding supplies to the colonists, and the extraordinary survey which he made his election to the presidency, after saving the colony, and securing the friendship of Powhaton and the natives, by his address, his skill in obtaining provisions from the aborigines, the means he adopted for constructing dwellings for the colonists, and fortifying James Town, the whole course of his administration, and the dignified bearing, yet justness and morality, of his character, not only saved the place and the people from destruction, but established for John Smith the reputation of founding the first permanent settlement the first nucleus of civilisation in America. SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA CAPTAIX SMITH. 1 7 1 But his administration was, however, not acceptable to the London Company, the patentees of which regarded only the accumulation of wealth, the discovery of mines and metals, and opening a passage to the South Seas. They accord ingly obtained in May, 1609, a new charter, which entirely deranged the rights of the colonists, who had emigrated under the privileges of the former one. The new charter was granted to twenty-one peers, ninety-eight knights, and a multitude of esquires, doctors, gentlemen, merchants, and sundry of the corpora tion of London, under the title of " The Treasurer and Company of Adventurers of the City of London for the first colony of Virginia." A council in England had the whole patronage and power to administer its affairs. Lord De la Warre was appointed governor and captain- general of the colony. Nine ships, under Captain, Newton, were sent out with 500 emigrants, and with authority to supersede the existing administration. The emigrant vessels, except one, arrived at James Town, but that one was stranded on the Bermudas, on board of which were Captain Newton, Sir George Somers, and Sir Thomas Gates ; who had, by a most unfortunate spirit of caution, been empowered, each separately, with the same power given to Newton. The new emigrants consisted chiefly of profligate young men, of indigent gentle men, of tradesmen of broken fortune, and of family dependents, too infamous to be retained decently in society. The traders, though unprovided with any legal instruments, proclaimed the new charter, and overthrew the existing administra tion. The colony became a confused anarchy, the turbulence of which roused the vengeance of the Indians. In this emergency they were forced to appeal to Smith, who again saved the settlement. The accidental explosion near him of a quantity of gunpowder, at this juncture, completely disabled him physically, and forced him, from the want of surgical aid, to sail for England. He never returned to Virginia; the settlement of which he had conducted through such formidable pri vations and danger?. He left the colony opportunely, for he would have been soon deprived of authority by the company, and he lived honourably in England,* long enough to present to the world a valuable stock of knowledge, in an account of his travels and discoveries. In 1614 he went on a voyage of discovery to the countries north of Virginia, and explored the countries around Massachusetts Bay, and all those of the New England states. He penetrated the country, trafficked with the Indians, employed part of his crew in tracing a map of his surveys, and returned to England. He died on the 21st of June, 1631, aged only fifty-two years. Smith left the colony in Virginia, consisting of 500 persons, amply supplied with provisions, and having cattle, implements of agriculture, and arms for their defence wisdom and industry were alone wanted to insure its permanence and Stilth says, " He became so famous in England before his^death that his adventures were dramatised and represented on the stage much to his annoyance." 170 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Smith, who had been excluded from the government, was, during the period of its calamity, actually engaged in making himself well acquainted with the country and its resources. His constitution, although exposed for many years to great hardships, during his early military career, was still healthy and vigorous; and this blessing was justly attributed to the unexceptionably regular and moral habits of this excellent man. A number of the colonists, needlessly reduced by famine and disease, were only restrained from leaving the settlement by the efforts he made to procure supplies and by the labours he endured for them, until a reinforcement arrived of 120 men from England, with implements of husbandry, seeds, pro visions, and other supplies. These men consisted of gentlemen, labourers, jewellers, and refiners of gold. It soon became manifest that they were men in competent for any productive labour, except seeking for gold : they did nothing, but collect a cargo of a glittering sediment found on the shore, which was sent to England, believing it to be gold. All agricultural industry was suspended. A cargo of cedar wood, which had been sent to England the same year, proved the only article exported of any value. It was in consequence of this golden delusion, and the licentious conduct of the colonists, that Smith made the adventurous, and most fatiguing survey ever made by man, in an open boat : exploring, during two voyages, every inlet and bay on both sides of the Chesapeak, from Cape Charles to the Susquehanna. He also ascended the principal rivers to the falls. His object was to ascertain the solid and durable resources of the countries he explored, and to establish conciliatory relations with the natives. While he was absent, the golden frenzy of the colonists calmed into reflection, on discovering that the cargo which they sent to England was merely an earthy substance. They now beheld, in the absence of the man whom they had in their avarice disregarded, famine and sickness ready to destroy them. Discontent among themselves, and inability to encounter difficulty, or to obtain food, rendered their condition hopeless. Smith again appeared, with supplies obtained from the aborigines, and again saved the settlement. He was then im mediately elected president. His detention by Opecanaugh, his condemnation to death by the Sachem Powhaton, his escape through the agency of the daughter, Pocahontas his pro viding supplies to the colonists, and the extraordinary survey which he made his election to the presidency, after saving the colony, and securing the friendship of Powhaton and the natives, by his address, his skill in obtaining provisions from the aborigines, the means he adopted for constructing dwellings for the colonists, and fortifying James Town, the whole course of his administration, and the dignified bearing, yet justness and morality, of his character, not only saved the place and the people from destruction, but established for John Smith the reputation of foundmS the first permanent settlement the first nucleus of civilisation in America. SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIACAPTAIN SMITH. 171 But his administration was, however, not acceptable to the London Company, the patentees of which regarded only the accumulation of wealth, the discovery of mines and metals and opening a passage to the South Seas. They accord ingly obtained in May, 1609, a new charter, which entirely deranged the rights of the colonists, who had emigrated under the privileges of the former one. The new charter was granted to twenty-one peers, ninety-eight knights, and a multitude of esquires, doctors, gentlemen, merchants, and sundry of the corpora tion of London, under the title of " The Treasurer and Company of Adventurers of the City of London for the first colony of Virginia." A council in England had the whole patronage and power to administer its affairs. Lord Dela Warre was appointed governor and captain-general of the colony. Nine ships, under Captain Newton, were sent out with 500 emigrants, and with authority to supersede the existing administration. The emigrant vessels, except one, arrived at James Town, but that one was stranded on the Bermudas, on board of which were Captain Newton, Sir George Somers,and Sir Thomas Gates; who had, by a most unfortunate spirit of caution, been empowered, each separately, with the same power given to Newton. The new emigrants consisted chiefly of profligate young men, of indigent gentle men, of tradesmen of broken fortune, and of family dependents, too infamous to be retained decently in society. The traders, though unprovided with any legal instruments, proclaimed the new charter, and overthrew the existing administra tion. The colony became a confused anarchy, the turbulence of which roused the vengeance of the Indians. In this emergency they were forced to appeal to Smith, who again saved the settlement. The accidental explosion near him of a quantity of gunpowder, at this juncture, completely disabled him physically, and forced him, from the want of surgical aid, to sail for England. He never returned to Virginia; the settlement of which he had conducted through such formidable pri vations and danger?. He left the colony opportunely, for he would have been soon deprived of authority by the company, and he lived honourably in England,* long enough to present to the world a valuable stock of knowledge, in an account of his travels and discoveries. In 1614 he went on a voyage of discovery to the countries north of Virginia, and explored the countries around Massachusetts Bay, and all those of the New England states. He penetrated the country, trafficked with the Indians, employed part of his crew in tracing a map of his surveys, and returned to England. He died on the 21st of June, 1631, aged only fifty-two years. Smith left the colony in Virginia, consisting of 500 persons, amply supplied with provisions, and having cattle, implements of agriculture, and arms for their defence wisdom and industry were alone wanted to insure its permanence and Stilth says, " He became so famous in England before his^death that his adventures were dramatised and represented on the stage much to his annoyance." 172 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. prosperity. But, soon after his departure, folly, idleness, riot, and profligacy dis tracted the colonists and exasperated the aborigines. Famine was the conse quence ; the settlers were reduced to cannibals, they fed on the flesh of the natives whom they had shot, and of their companions who died from disease or hunger, and in six months after the departure of Smith, when Newton, Gates, and Somers arrived, the 500 colonists were reduced to sixty. The triumvirate immediately decided on abandoning the settlement, and they accordingly embarked for England. Before they descended to the mouth of James River they fortunately fell in with Lord De la Warre, who left England accompanied by a large colony, in three ships, amply supplied with all kinds of stores, and with a royal patent as governor of Virginia. He carried back the fugitives to James Town, and, by vigorous and wise administration, he re-established the settlement, and left it in a prosperous condition, when he was compelled by broken health to return to England. His successor,*Mr. Percy, was a far less efficient governor, and the colony of Virginia suffered reverses. But it is from the time of the presidency of Captain Smith, and the assumption of the government by Lord De la Warre in 1610, only 237 years ago, and 118 years after the discovery of America, that we date the per manent settlement, by England, of North America. Some time after, 100 planters were sent by the Plymouth Company to Saga- dahoc, at the mouth of the Kennebec, in the year 1609. The most conspicuous members of this company were Sir John Popham, chief justice of England, Sir Ferdinand Georges, governor of Plymouth, and Sir John Gilbert, nephew of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. The expedition was sent out under the judge s brothers, Henry and Raleigh Popham, brothers of Sir John. The place where they settled was small, and no more than forty-five colonists remained. They endured great privations. The president, Henry Popham, and many others, died during the water, and the remainder abandoned the colony, and retired in the next summer to England. The Plymouth Company made no further attempts than a few voyages to fish at Cape Cod. During the same year the French wintered in a few huts on the north bank of the Lawrence, where the town of Riviere des Trois now stands. CHAPTER IV. SETTLEMENT OF THE MEW ENGLAND AND MIDLAND STATES. IN order to comprehend and continue an account of the Progress of Ame rica, we must follow the advance of the European race into the wilderness NEW ENGLAND AND PENNSYLVANIA SETTLED. 173 regions which extend, first, along the Atlantic coast and rivers, back to the Alleghany mountains ; and then beyond those heights, over the regions comprised within the basins of the Ohio and Mississippi, and west to the Pacific Ocean. The spirit of enterprise and the love of adventure has urged bold men to encounter, amidst those vast wilds, the most perilous dangers, the greatest fa tigue, and the most incredible privations. From the time that Europeans first landed on the shores and penetrated the forests of the newly-found world, this daring spirit has been constantly manifested ; whether in the milder climate of the southern regions, or the bleak, frigid countries of the north. The man of European origin has persevered in traversing forests and prairies, in crossing rivers, lakes, and swamps, and in clambering up mountains, uncertain as to where rest was to be found at night, or food procured during the day. The pri vations of hunger, the fatigue of long journeys, and the attacks of wild beasts and of ferocious savages, have all been disregarded, and overcome, by indomitable perseverance and courage and not always with rectitude towards the abori ginal occupants of the soil. From the first planting of settlements by the English on the continent and islands of America, the most fearless spirit of enterprise animated, not only those who made voyages in pursuit of fame and gain, but those, also, who fled from their native homes, to escape from persecution, and, with the hope of enjoying on the shores and amidst the wilds, of the new world the blessings of religious freedom and civil liberty. Notwithstanding the deplorable failure of the first attempts at settlement in Virginia, and the almost incredible sufferings of the first New England colonies, multitudes began, soon after, to expatriate themselves, in order to find, in distant countries, those things, or those enjoyments, which they in reality did not, or could not, possess at home, or of which they fancied themselves destitute. Each annual emigration increased the succeeding years number of those who left Europe for America. For, according as men were driven from England, Scotland, or Ireland, either by the goading of poverty, or by disabilities on ac count of religious scruples, and the love of civil liberty, it was natural and com mon for them to remove to those parts of America where some of their friends or neighbours had previously gone. The hatred of arbitrary power, either in a political or religious form, was certainly the predominant cause of the emigrations that peopled Anglo-America. Its rapid settlement was caused, in a much greater degree, by the persecutions and disabilities which drove the Puritans to New England, the Quakers to Pennsyl vania, and the Catholics to Maryland, than by the mere spirit of adventure, or the more pressing considerations, which urge men to escape from the evils of poverty. In 1614 the Dutch colonised the banks of the Hudson. The important 174 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. permanent settlement of the New England States did not succeed until the year 1620, when the Pilgrim Fathers arrived at the place which they called Plymouth, in Massachusetts Bay. The perils they overcame, the privations they endured, and their final success, have been fully described by several writers, and by none more ably, than by Mr. Bancroft, the author of the " History of America." Our limits will not permit us to extend further than to a general sketch of the progress of the colonisation of the country. Three years after, the Pilgrim fathers were followed by others, who settled in New Hampshire. The Swedes and Finlanders purchased a tract of country from the aboriginals, near the falls of the Delaware. They gave their colony the name of New Swedeland, founded a settlement on it, and built forts for its defence. Settlements were made after the year 1606 by the French in Nova Scotia, and in 1608 in Canada. Cape Breton arid Placentia, in Newfoundland, then at tracted their attention. Florida was attempted, most disastrously, to be colo nised by France. In 1628 the next settlement in Massachusetts Bay was established by John Endicot and his wife. In 1633 Lord Baltimore began colonising Maryland, having previously established the colony of Avalon, or Ferryland. Settlements were formed in North Carolina in 1628 ; in Rhode Island in 1635 ; in New Jersey in 1664 ; and in South Carolina in 1669. The laws for governing the latter were drawn up by Locke. William Penn, in 1682, went out to the country which was named, for him, Pennsylvania, under the authority of a royal charter; but that just man pur chased all the lands he colonised from the aborigines, whose confidence and attachment he secured, This colony, having nothing to fear from the natives, prospered in consequence far more rapidly than all the others. Penn received from his sovereign an absolute title to the lands, on the fan ciful distinction, or rather wilful subterfuge, of Christian over heathen right to the soil but he, acting upon the principle of "uniform justice/ never would invade a foot of territory, which he had not before purchased from the Indians. Penn considered immemorial occupancy superior to all other tenures, that this right of the red man was founded in nature, that this tenure was the free gift of Heaven, which no king, no pope, no man, had a right to question, or any equitable pretence to destroy ; and, therefore, his principles required him to commence with justice to the natural occupant of the soil. " 3 Tis true," says an American reviewer, " that Penn designed to promote his own fortunes, while he secured an asylum for the persecuted while he designed * a holy experiment, and setting an example to nations, he spent money lavishly, and expected a return." One hundred and fifty-three years ago Penn writes, " Philadelphia, the expec- NEW ENGLAND AND PENNSYLVANIA SKTTLED. 1 75 tation of those who are concerned in the province, is at length laid out. It is advanced in less than a year to about eighty houses and cottages, such as they are, where merchants and handicrafts are following their avocations as fast as they can." Such was the commencement of his " dear city of Coaquonnoc," as the In dians called the ground on which it stands. Such the origin of Philadelphia a town, as it now stands, planned by its founder. The early moral and prosperous condition of Philadelphia, and the state of Pennsylvania generally, may be attributed entirely to the wise and well-adapted government and laws instituted by Penn.* In the first place, his conciliatory treaties with the red warriors, of whom, after giving an affecting account of that race, he says, " Do not abuse them ; but let them have justice, and you win them," might have been practised within the last twenty years towards the Indians of Florida, with an effect which would pro bably have prevented the horrible massacres which disgraced that territory. With the founder of Pennsylvania, the measures he adopted, and his demean our towards the aborigines were wise, and so happy that it became a maxim among them, " never to lift the tomahawk against the race of William Penn." Thus was his colony secured, from the first, against the most terrible ca lamity which had once exterminated, and long harassed, that of Virginia, and afflicted and kept all the others in a state of alarm.f The country of William Penn was called " The Poor Man s Paradise," Po verty was unknown within all its borders. The pleasant villages, on the eastern side of the Delaware, welcomed the virtuous exile with a homely and cordial wel come; and there was so little of bigotted human nature in these adventurers, that they were unequivocally and magnanimously tolerant, when all the rest of the European family in North America was engaged in religious persecutions. It was remarkable that such a person should have come from the halls of a * " Every Philadelphia!! has a right to be proud of the foundation and founder of his state. Never was an enterprise more wisely and happily conducted. It was the first time the world n ever seen an individual of commanding influence and station, acting so decidedly upon the tian principle, that no man can serve his own interests so well as by serving others. American Review. Unfortunately, Philadelphia has not maintained unstained, during the IE it seven years, this superior moral character. But we expect it will redeem itself in the near future. f With reference to the name given to the colony, Penn writes on the 5th of Janui " This day, after many waitings, watchings, solicitings, and disputes in councils, my cov confirmed to me under the great seal of England, with large powers and privileges, by the name of Pennsylvania ; a name the king would give it in honour of my father I chose New Wales, being a hilly country ; and when the secretary, being a Welshman, refused to call I proposed Sylvania, and they added Penn to it, though I much opposed it, and went to have it struck out. He said it was past, and would take it upon him ; nor could tv guineas move the under-secretary to vary the name (bribes were then common), tor should be looked on as a vanity in me and not as a respect in the king to my father, as u really was. Thou mayst communicate my grant to friends, and expect shortly my proposals dear and just thing ; and my God, who has given it me through many difficulties, *il lieve, bless and make it the seed of a nation. I shall take a tender care to the goveri ment that it be well laid first." 176 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. slavish court, and under the authority of an arbitrary king, and establish a state with the single-hearted ambition " to show men as free and as happy as they could be." It may be even doubted whether his institutions were not more mild than his colonists were fitted to enjoy ; certainly, the privileges which he gave them were not always used as gratitude would have directed. His laws and instructions were certainly not to favour evil-doers; "for all prisons," said he, " will be workhouses." On examining the laws of Pennsyl vania, we are immediately struck with the remarks of Chancellor Kent, one of, if not, the most eminent American writers on jurisprudence: speaking of an English law-book,* he observes, te The Pennsylvanian lawyer cannot but be struck on the perusal of this work equally remarkable for profound knowledge and condensed thought with the analogy between his proposed improvements, and of all essential reforms in the English laws, suggested by the greatest reformers of the law in England, and the long familiar practice of Penn- sylvania.f There have been lately some revisions in these laws, if possible, they are improvements, which go still further to secure the object of "uniform justice." " Whilst these laws/ 3 says an anonymous American writer, " are held sacred, and not even a majority can invade them, we have a bulwark more effectual in guarding liberty and preventing the intrusion of wild and dangerous reforms than that possessed in the institutions of any other nation under heaven. 3 It is not, however, sufficient to have good laws, but these must be obeyed, as they generally have been in Pennsylvania.^ Where they are not, the courts should have more power, as well as the authority to enforce them. This is vital to the honour and safety of America. With respect to the countries now forming British America, it was not until after the reduction of Cape Breton and the conquest of Canada, which added nearly the whole of North America to the British empire, that ad venturers, stimulated by the spirit of enterprise, left the mother countries, and established themselves in the newly-conquered territories. These were generally persons in trade. Farmers or others, who expected to derive their subsistence from cultivating the soil, directed their course to that part of Ame rica now forming the United States. * Humphreys on Real Property. f Among other practices, that of recognising foreign letters of administration has been in force since the days of Penn. J " And sovereign law the states collected will O er thrones and glohes elate, Sits empress, crowning good, repressing ill. Smit by her frown The fiend distraction like a vapour shrinks And e en the dazzling crown Hides her faint rays, and at her bidding sinks," SIR W. BRITISH AMERICAN SETTLEMENTS. 177 The American revolutionary war, it is true, arrested the spirit of emigration ; but no sooner was the independence of the American republic acknowledged by England, than the majority of those who left Great Britain and Ireland for America, were, as formerly, fascinated into the United States. This arose, in a great measure, from the mighty resources of the northern British possessions being imperfectly known in the United Kingdom. Some Scotch, and a few Irish families, together with a few German and Swiss Protestants, found their way before this period to Nova Scotia and Prince Ed ward Island (then called St. John s). A few Highlanders, also, many of whom were disbanded soldiers, settled at Glengarry, and other places above Montreal. It was not, however, until after the American revolutionary war that emigration, of any great consequence, to the British northern colonies took place. From that period to the present time, notwithstanding the vast swarms that have annually flocked to the United States, not less than from eight, to lately fifty thousand settlers, have arrived yearly in British America from England, Scotland, and Ireland. In those countries, which now form British America, with the exception of Nova Scotia, the colonists were not so often doomed to experience the terrible vengeance of the Indian tribes ; yet the hardships they had to encounter and overcome in other shapes were almost incredible. Slavery was introduced (" by special providence," as was said and is said in South Carolina), at the dawn of colonisation (1620), into the very land to which Englishmen, Christians, too, had flown to plant and enjoy liberty. There is no denying that the early settlers were greatly assisted and enriched by slave labour, and that the abominable traffic was first persevered in from an idea of its necessity, in order to bring a wilderness country under cultivation. But, exclusive of the injustice and immorality, how much greater the consequent evils are, and will be, than all the possible advantages ever derived or ever to be derived from the slave-trade and slave-holding. The privations which the early colonists endured, and the hardships to which circumstances connected with a wilderness country subjected them, were severe in a degree of which those who now plant themselves in America, or who go well provided and secure to Australia, Van Diemen s Land, or New Zealand, can have only the most feeble conception. They had not only to suffer the miserie of hunger and the want of almost every convenience to which they had accustomed in England, but they were always harassed and often murderec the Indians, and at all times exposed, with their families, to be mass burnt in their dwellings. . The winters were either much more severe than at present, or the s of the first settlers made them describe the frosts as more intense, t deeper, and the duration of cold much longer. VOL. I. ^ A 178 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The non-existence of roads, the want of boats, or even for some time of canoes, and the emigrants ignorance in the management of the latter, rendered it a business of great difficulty to pass from one part to another of a country covered with thick forests and intersected with rivers, lakes, and branches of the ocean. The use of the axe, also, or the art of chopping, is an acquirement in dispensable in a wooded country, with which most new settlers are unacquainted. With this tool, a gun, one or two hoes, and a pot, the American backwoodsman will make his way through, or plant himself and family in, the midst of a most dreary forest, and secure at the same time the means of subsistence. Innumerable, indeed, were the miseries which emigrants had to reconcile themselves to for several years after the early settlements of our colonies ; and it certainly required in them more than ordinary resolution and fortitude to es tablish themselves, in defiance of not only real but imaginary difficulties. Natural obstructions have in all countries been only removed by the industry and fearless intrepidity of man. Such formidable obstacles to settlement and cultivation as the New World at first presented, and which still characterise the remote districts, existed at one period in Britain, and in all the kingdoms of Europe ; and in the same progressive ratio as the settlement and^cultivation of any wilderness country proceeds, do natural obstructions disappear: those, there fore, of the most disheartening character to men accustomed to plough the long- cultivated lands of Britain and Ireland, were slowly but gradually overcome in North America. Leading roads were opened through the different provinces, and by-roads to the settlements ; the communication by water between different places, by means of craft of various descriptions, became attended with but little inconvenience ; the necessaries, and even the luxuries of life, were at last after great endurance and hard labour, to be obtained in abundance at moderate prices, and at no great distance from the most remote settlement. To these great advantages have, during the last twenty-five years, been added the railroad, the canal, and the steam-ship. Although the British possessions in America were, in some respects, natu rally inferior to those of other Europeans, yet the security of property, and more liberal treatment on the part of government, advanced their prosperity on a more solid foundation. The majority of the first settlers consisted of hardy yeomen, and men of education, rank, and enterprise, who, in leaving England, forsook their homes, and those comforts that are only found in old countries, and also those attach ments that are most dear to the human bosom. But these circumstances alone are not sufficient to do justice to their courage and magnanimity. The victories they obtained over all the complicated hardships that can assail the heart, and stagger the fortitude of man, exalt their character in the estimation of those who BRITISH AMERICAN SETTLEMENTS. 179 value facts, rather than military splendour, to a rank equally illustrious, as that of the greatest people recorded in history. They carried with them to America resolute hearts and intelligent understand ings, and that unconquerable spirit of perseverance which surmounts the number less difficulties that await all great undertakings. The success attending the actions of such men astonished Europe. Their industry and indefatigable activity insured their prosperity; their improve ments in all the useful arts did honour to their ingenuity ; and it must not be forgotten, that, notwithstanding their peculiar circumstances, and the occupations they followed, they were, from the first foundation of their settlements, particularly careful to provide for the education of their children. Their position was favourable to commerce ; and their natural turn and tem per, ever aiming at new discoveries, and incessantly employed in the search of whatever might better their circumstances, carried them into every quarter from whence profit could be obtained. There was hardly a port or spot in the Ame rican hemisphere, in which business could be transacted, where they were not to be found. Without living in European luxury, they secured all the substantial and comfortable enjoyments of life, with many of its elegances and refinements. They in reality became a rich and flourishing people ; and if ever any country might have been considered the seat of human felicity, British North America, previously to the sad story of colonial oppression, must unquestionably have deserved the appellation. The first habitation made by the English in the West India Islands, was on the island of Saint Christopher, in 1625. Barbadoes was settled by the English in 1627 8 ; Montserrat in 1632 ; Tortola was settled by the Dutch in 1648, from whence they were expelled by the English in 1666. The Bahamas were colonised by England in 16?2 ; Tobago was first settled by the Dutch in 1632, and ceded to England in 1763 ; Grenada, which was first settled by the French in 1650, and St. Vincent in 1655, were ceded to England in 1763 ; St. Lucia was attempted to be settled by England in 1639, and by France in 1650. The English purchased it from the Caribs in 1664, and dislodged the French. It was abandoned and declared neutral in 1713; added to France in 1763, taken by the English in 1778, restored to France in 1?83; taken by England in 1794; ceded to France in 1802, and finally taken by England in the following year. British Guayana, including Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, was first settled by the Dutch, and taken by the English in 1796, and ceded finally to England in 1814. The island of Trinidad was colonised by Spain, as early as 1588, and captured by the English in 1797. The settlement of Barbadoes, and the conquest of Jamaica by the fleet of the Commonwealth in 1655, formed the era in which British power acquired a permanency in the West Indies. Oliver Cromwell, in the prudent and vigorous ( ercise of his sovereignty, has been severely condemned by Hume, and even by that 180 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. ultra-republican historian, Catharine Macaulay, for his maritime expeditions against the Spaniards. Never did Hume write a paragraph which so glaringly exposes his superficial examination of facts, so frequent in many chapters of his fascinating history? than when he pronounces the armament sent forth by Cromwell against the Spaniards in the West Indies as "a most unwarrantable violation of all treaty." We have carefully examined all the facts which induced Cromwell to equip the fleet which conquered Jamaica, and if ever oppressions, and injustice, and cruelties, exercised by the people or power of one country against those of ano ther can justify a war, no monarch ever acted with more wisdom and dignity than the sovereign of the Commonwealth of England did, when he directed hostilities against the Spaniards in the West Indies.* England fostered and protected her colonies with parental solicitude, and only secured in return the exclusive right of their trade. We are far from considering this exclusive policy sound, or wise ; but the particular circumstances of the Bri tish Plantations did not cause it to operate perniciously. Spain and Portugal not only claimed the commerce of their colonies, but, governing them with despotic tyranny, seized the greatest share of their riches for the benefit of the crown, or for the purpose of upholding the splendour of a church, whose terrible power, aided by the superstition of the age, kept the human mind in servile degradation, and personal liberty under rigorous control. Holland and France sold the commercial property of their colonies to trading companies ; who, in order to make the most of their privileges, took all the ad vantages that the spirit of monopoly could devise. They not only fixed the value of the articles they sold to the colonists, but they also established the lowest prices for the produce of the lands, and prevented their occupants from growing any more than could be disposed of at an unreasonable profit in Europe. The British colonies did not experience the like ungracious and illiberal treat ment. Satisfied with the general profits of their commerce, England left the trade open to every individual in her dominions ; and did not either confine it to particular ports, like Spain and Portugal, nor sell it, as France and Holland did, to a company of traders. With the exceptions of the northern countries of Europe and the East Indies, the British colonists were permitted to trade with all parts of the world. In all the American hemisphere, in Africa, along all the coasts of the Mediterra nean, Portugal, and Spain, the vessels of British America enjoyed a lucrative commerce ; and they had the amplest liberty of trading with the English West India islands. Rum, sugar, with the produce of their fisheries, they carried to all the markets to which they traded ; so that, although a number of * We shall, in a subsequent volume, endeavour to prove the truth of this assertion, from evidence that none, not even the greatest admirer of the apologists of the Stuarts, can disprove. BRITISH AMERICAN SETTLEMENTS. articles were exclusively appropriated to an importation to and from Great Britain, yet enough was left for the colonists ; particularly, when we consider that the countries they possessed gave them so much occupation at home. England, on planting her American colonies, granted them the full privilege of governing themselves, and the right of forming such laws as the wisdom of their respective legislatures should consider necessary; and, in giving them such ample powers to provide for their interest and prosperity, only reserved the political con nexion under the same sovereign, with the general benefit resulting to the empire from their trade. In short, the conduct of Great Britain in her colonial management, from their first settlement to the year 1?55, and, with the exception of an unsound navigation law, and fallacious commercial regulations, which at the time were to a great degree inoperative, exhibits a lesson of wisdom to those powers who either possess or are disposed to plant colonies. But after that period, those who wish for the partition of great empires will learn useful instruction by studying the history of the measures that led to the independence of the United States. CHAPTER V. CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES. AMONG the first causes of discontent and complaint in the British colonies, were the restrictions which discouraged manufactures, by confining every province to the use of its own, and prohibiting the reciprocal importation of their respec tive fabrics. To prevent a whole people from following any branch of industry, is assuredly a measure which human nature cannot bear with tame submission : nor can the severity of the regulation be denied, even on the ground that the arti cles prohibited could be imported cheaper from England. The injury felt by the prohibition was not, at the time, of much consequence; but the regulation was in itself considered a kind of insult to the understanding, more intolerable than pecu niary oppression. (See Commercial Policy of England and America in the second volume of this work.) The discontent arising from this restriction would, in all probability, have passed away, had it not been succeeded by a deprivation of a more serious nature to the colonies, and equally injurious to the interests of England. For more than a century, a very lucrative branch of trade had been car ried on between the British West Indies and the Spanish settlements in the West Indies, and in Mexico, and South America. For many years 182 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. the North American colonies possessed a great share of this advantageous commerce. To the Britisli it was a pursuit of clear gain and prodigious value. It consisted of an exchange of vast quantities of all kinds of commodi ties for the precious metals, and various products, as cotton and indigo, which were all remitted to England. The Spanish monarchy, in the selfish and impolitic spirit of its colonial system, believed that the trade was ruinous to the Spaniards, in the same degree as its immense advantages were profitable to the English, sta tioned guarda-costas to scour the coasts, and to seize every vessel that approached near them. The indiscriminate licence with which they executed their orders pro voked the war of 1739, between Great Britain and Spain. England, at the peace, interdicted the trade by her home, or colonial vessels, with the Spanish settle ments. The Spaniards, in the colonies, secretly encouraged a contraband trade with the British colonists : which, though greatly limited in its extent, was still of considerable reciprocal profit. Although it was by no means the busi ness of England to prevent this trade, yet a system was afterwards adopted and pursued as effectually as if a convention had been entered into with Spain for the purpose, to reward the commanders of the British cruisers. The seizures made by the latter, who acted as if they had received their commissions and their pay from Spain, in a very short period completely destroyed this profitable commerce. As far back as the year 1755, limitations were imposed, by absurd and im politic laws and orders in council, upon the trade of the British plantations in North America and the West Indies, and prevented the importation of foreign goods, as formerly, free of duty, from Great Britain to North America, produced loud discontent both in England and America. Up to this period the trade and navigation between Great Britain and the colonies might be considered nearly under the same regulations as a coasting trade, much the same as between one county in England and another as between Middlesex and Northumberland. Unwise measures had previously been carried into effect: taxing the planta tions being one object ; an undue exercise of power on the part of the government in order that the colonists should be continually reminded and made to feel the royal prerogative was another. Jamaica resisted the arbitrary constitution which the then governor, Lord Carlisle, was directed to establish. The period of colonial mismanagement attained its enormity soon after the accession of George III. The annihilation of the trade with Spanish America was the first of the most grievous inflictions, as it was from it that the colonists drew the supplies of gold and silver that enabled them to make remittances to England, and to provide a circulating specie for the internal use of the colonies. The exports to Jamaica alone fell, in 1?65, short of the value exported in 1763 not less than 168,000/. The exports to the North American colonies were diminished in proportion. The prohibition of so profitable a commerce shook the vitals of American prosperity, CAUSES OF COLONIAL DISCONTENT. and distressed the manufacturers and merchants of England. The servile com plaisance of Great Britain to Spain, and the unwise policy of oppressing its own subjects to oblige foreigners, were complained of by the people of England as well as by the Americans, but not listened to by ministers. George III.was not alto gether as servile to Spain as James I. He did not cut off the heads of his sub jects to gratify the court of Madrid. He merely stopped short, by sacrificing their fortunes to Spanish colonial legality. The peace of 1763 terminated a war which was both advantageous and glo rious to Great Britain. The treaty of Paris, besides ceding to her several islands in the West Indies, and establishing her power in the East, gave her the sove reignty of the vast continent of America from the Floridas to the Arctic Sea. The expense of the war, however, was immense, and greatly increased the national debt. Resolutions were soon after taken by ministers to tax the colonies, in order to pay, in a direct and explicit manner, a share of the public burdens. Their ability was not doubted, and it was considered equitable that they should contribute largely for the advantages they possessed. The colonies were, however, fully persuaded, whatever might be the necessities of the mother coun try, that, exclusive of the restrictions laid, during late years, on their commerce, the sole enjoyment of their trade was a tax in itself more in proportion than all that were levied on the people of Britain. The right of taxing them, without their being represented in the British par liament, they denied, as resolutely as their ancestors did the payment of ship- money to Charles I. ; while they claimed also the privilege of being represented, as their undoubted birthright. Ministers expressed astonishment on hearing such language from the colonists, and charged them with ingratitude and disloyalty, and with being solicitous only to profit by the generosity of the mother country. The Americans repelled this unfounded charge with indignation. They gloried in calling Britain their mother country; they never disgraced the title; they always obeyed her just and lawful commands ; and they submitted, for her benefit, to heavy burdens and commer cial restrictions. During the last war they raised 20,000 men and maintained them at their own expense ; and they fitted out the expedition that took Louis- burg in 1745. Antecedent to which, they supplied the British expeditions against Spanish America with several thousands of their best men, and exerted them selves with equal bravery against the French in North America. They assured the king, in their petition, that, notwithstanding their sufferings they retained too high a regard for the kingdom from which they derived their origin to request any thing that might be inconsistent with her dignity or welfare. "These," said they, " related as we are to her, honour and duty, as well as inclma- tion,induce us to support and advance." "At the conclusion of the last war," they go on to observe, in one of their addresses to the king and people of Great Britain, "the 184 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Genius of England, and the spirit of wisdom, as if offended at the ungrateful treatment of her sons, withdrew from the British councils, and left the nat.ion a prey to a race of ministers, with whom ancient English honesty and benevolence disdained to dwell." " They did not complain of parliament, for it had done them no wrong, but solely of the measures of ministers," The complaints of the colonists have always been acknowledged temperate and well founded, until the conduct of ministers convinced them that nothing but passive obedience to any measure of taxation would be satisfactory.* That they afterwards, at their countless popular assemblies, but more especially in their public prints, used language both violent and licentious, can neither be denied nor defended ; and the outrageous conduct of the populace was not only unjusti fiable, but often highly indecorous. Nor were their bitter invectives against the British people, who long wished them success in resisting acts which were solely those of ministers, free from ingratitude. In all countries, however, we meet with frequent examples of violent conduct among the populace, and in none more frequently than in England. It is, there fore, unjust to stigmatise a whole people, by charging them with what should only be considered the clamours of turbulent individuals. The editors of their public prints were too often guilty of writing that which could only be intended to keep alive the passions of the vulgar; and such lan guage as filled the greater portions of the American newspapers must certainly have disgusted men like Washington and Franklin. Violent commotions always attend measures that entirely change the constitution or rulers of a country ; but the spirit, as well as the excesses of the American populace, throughout the struggle for independence, nearly resembled the vigorous determination and clamorous discontent of those who, with Oliver Cromwell, subverted the government of England ; and the colonists were altogether guiltless of such atrocities as disgraced the first French Revolution. In 1764, a bill was framed, lay ing heavy duties, payable into the British trea sury, in specie, on all articles imported into the colonies from the French and other islands in the West Indies. Another act followed, restraining the currency of paper money. The injustice and absurdity of these laws excited fresh mur- * At the beginning of the troubles of 1775, the united colonies offered to maintain their own civil list, and to give a clear contribution of 100,0007. per annum for 100 years, in aid of a sinking fund to pay the national debt of the mother country, with a proviso only of being treated like the other parts of the empire. The contumelious non-reception of the colonial agents by the ministry, prevented this liberal proposal from being formally made. The state papers, still on record, and drawn by Congress, are distinctly expressive of their sentiment to the above effect. Franklin s Miscellaneous Pieces, p. 257. See also Jefferson s Correspondence. Franklin, on these proposals being rejected by the British government, went to Paris, and it was in consequence that the declaration of independence was so soon after proclaimed. At a later period the contumelious treatment of the agents from Canada, the Honourable Denis R. Viger and his colleagues, by the Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1834, had no little share in producing the spirit of revolt in the minds of the Canadians in 1836 and 1837 a spirit which Lord Stanley might have easily allayed, almost by ordinary courtesy and common sense. INDEPENDENCE OF THE BRITISH PROVINCES. 185 murs. We do not deny that the excess of paper money formed a most pernicious evil, and, that its unsound character, was pregnant with all the mischief which was manifested in the depreciation of the paper called " Continental Money." But how could the colonists pay duties in specie, when deprived of the means of obtaining it? Then followed, in 1765, Grenville s famous Stamp Act, which was the prelude to the most tremendous and destructive quarrel which had befallen Britain in the course of ages. This act was styled, the "folly of England, and ruin of America." The colonists were now completely roused ; but they, at the same time, con ducted their measures with great wisdom, perseverance, and resolution. They united in a general opposition to the views of ministers, who disregarded their petitions and the statements of their agents; and, although some acts favourable to the commerce of the colonies were passed, the people became suspicious, and placed no reliance on the good-will of the British government. They especi ally mistrusted the king. Meetings were held, and resolutions were taken to make no further importations from Great Britain; and they, at the same time, encouraged to the utmost their own manufactures. So far did they persevere in this object, that they laid aside the use of elegances, and even abstained from eating lamb, in order to increase the growth of wool. In England, this measure excited the general indignation of the manufacturers against the ministry. The suspension of the trade with America, some time after, was followed by a resolution of the colonists not to allow the exportation of provisions ; which was seriously injurious to our West India islands, and of severe consequence to the fisheries of Newfoundland. The Stamp Act was abolished in 1766, which is one among many other proofs of the rash folly of the ministers who passed it. The opposition to the tea act, which was passed in 1767, and the resistance to the landing, and the throwing overboard, in December 1773, of the cargoes of the East India Company s ships, was another alarming proof of resolute determina tion on the part of the colonists. They had previously urged that, until their grievances were redressed no remittances should be made to England, nor any suit for debt allowed on the part of a resident of Great Britain. It was also threatened that the exportation of tobacco should be stopped; which, if carried into effect, would have cut off the immense revenue derived from its consump tion in Great Britain, and the vast benefits gained by its re-exportation to other parts of Europe. The Americans, in fact, could not possibly have persevered in measures to render the ruling powers of England more obnoxious to the people of Great Britain, or to attract the attention of all Europe more effectually than those they adopted. The remonstrances made by the colonies against taxation were listened to by VOL. I. 2B 186 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. the ruling powers only with anger and indignation ; and ministers were equally chagrined and astonished to find that a great portion of the nation espoused the cause of America. But the government disregarded not only all opposition in Parliament, but the remonstrances of the colonists, and the numerous petitions from the principal towns in Britain ; and madly proceeded in the prosecution of their impracticable schemes.* The fame and grandeur of Great Britain were, indeed, so great at this period, that it was never imagined the colonies would presume to dispute any measure dictated by ministers. The splendid triumphs of the British nation in all parts of the world had excited the jealousy of all Europe; and the idea of the colonies risking a trial of prowess with those armies and fleets which had defeated the combined strength of France and Spain, was considered presumptuous and visionary. It was, therefore, matter of astonish ment to learn the extraordinary and resolute conduct of the Americans, in oppos ing the restrictions on their commerce, and the operation of the Stamp and Tea Acts. Nor should it be overlooked, by the statesman and law-giver, that from the period the minister was compelled to abandon the Stamp Act in 1?66, the year after it was passed, until the cargoes of the tea ships were thrown overboard at Boston in December, 1773, included a period of seven years solemn resistance to arbitrary power. The British government were, at last, struck with alarm at the behaviour of the colonists, and determined to subdue them by force. " The British colonies," it was contended, ee had advantages which those of no other nation ever had." This was certainly true; and the liberality they had so long experienced, rendered the attempts at taxation, and the restrictions on their trade, the more obnoxious. Tithes and poor-rates were unknown ; pro tection they always received ; and they enjoyed another advantage, which they could only derive from England : this was the constant course of credit given them, without which they never could have risen to that extraordinary opulence which excited the admiration of Europe. " Would they relinquish these solid advantages, by increasing the displeasure of England, and disclaiming the au thority of the parent state, and stand against the consequent peril?" It was also considered, " that the people of America, unacquainted with the intrigues that agitated the courts of Europe, and ignorant of the secret designs that were lurking in the cabinets of ministers, were incompetent to the business of prevent ing or conquering difficulties, or shunning danger." That no opinion could have been more egregiously wrong than this, was too truly exemplified in the talents of the great men who acted so conspicuous a part, during the revolutionary war, and in all their negotiations at and since that period. * Mr. Henry, one of tlie American delegates, at the meeting of the Continental Congress said, during a debate on the Stamp Act, " Julius Caesar had his Brutus ; Charles the First his Cromwell ; and George the Third " here he was stopped by cries of treason, and then con cluded by saying, "and George the Third may profit by the example; if this be treason, make the most of it." INDEPENDENCE OF THE BRITISH PROVINCES. CHAPTER VI. EUROPE AND AMERICA DURING THI-; REVOLUTION. IT was a fact well known, that, from the time France lost Canada, secret intrigues were put in operation by that government, for the purpose of shaking the allegiance of the British American colonists. That they aided in effecting and carrying on the revolutionary war, is certain; but other causes, more powerful than all the address and assistance of France could bring about, governed the colonies, and enabled them finally to establish their independence. The inhabitants of the four New England provinces were principally the descendants of those stubborn republicans, who fled from England to enjoy their own ideas of politics and religion. They retained the hatred of their ancestors to hereditary kingly authority, and the strongest aversion to any endowed hierarchy : especially to the Church of England. These people were the life and prime support of that opposition, which did not abate until America was lost to Great Britain. The inhabitants of the other colonies, though numbers of them were of foreign extraction, were more moderate, but not less regardless of their civil and religious liberties. Some of them, it is true, were men of a licentious, audacious spirit, which was not to be awed by the deference due to civil authority; but the great majority, especially in Virginia and Maryland, were men of respect able rank and character, hitherto of a loyal turn, and warmly attached to the mother country. In fact, the colonies were chiefly peopled with spirited, intelligent, and enter prising individuals, of all denominations, who, at the peace of 1763, were flushed with uncommon prosperity in their commercial pursuits, and by the brilliancy of their military achievements. Their disposition prepared them for great under takings ; and it was difficult to limit their hopes and expectations. It must, at the same time, be remembered, that they used all the means that ingenuity, guided by interest, and that wisdom, directed by truth, could suggest, in their remonstrances to the ruling powers, and in their petitions to the king and Par liament, before they assumed the language of defiance, or set up the standard of revolt. But the monarch in his obstinacy, and ministers in their folly, still disregarded their representations, and treated their petitions with disdain; and a reconciliation was only, at last, seriously attempted, when the colonists had thoroughly com mitted themselves, as revolutionists, and gained those extraordinary advantages which insured their independence. The debates in both Houses of Parliament on the state of America, during 188 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. the war, will probably never be excelled in splendid diction, powerful arguments, or persuasive eloquence. The language of the colonists, in their petitions to the king, in their appeals to the people of Britain, in their speeches in Congress, and in their separate assemblies, as well as in the pulpit orations of their preachers, was equally remarkable. They certainly did not, for a long time, wish for any thing more than a redress of grievances. The thoughts of independence were foreign to their feelings and their wishes.* " Place us/ said they, "in the same situation that we were in at the close of the last war, and our former harmony will be restored." On the shutting up of the port of Boston, which they considered as a prelude to the destruction of the commerce of other towns, they state, " We will en deavour, therefore, to live without trade, and recur for subsistence to the fertility of our soil, which will afford us all the necessaries and some of the conveniences of life." One of their delegates to the Continental Congress, in a famous speech, urging the necessity of their taking up arms, which was repeated all over America, and published in Europe, exhibited a strong specimen of the animation and force which governed the resolutions of the colonists. " The great God," said he, " who is the searcher of all things, will witness for me, that I have spoken from the bottom and purity of my heart. It is an arduous consideration we are now upon ; and surely we have considered it earnestly. I may think of every gentle man here as 1 know of myself. For seven years past this question has filled the day with anxious thoughts, and the night with care. The God to whom we appeal must judge us. If the grievances of which we complain did not come upon us unprovoked and unexpected, when our hearts were filled with respectful affection for our parent state, and with loyalty to our king, let slavery, the worst of human evils, be our portion. Nothing less than seven years of insulted complaints and reiterated wrongs could have shaken such rooted sentiments. Unhappily for us, submission and slavery are the same; and we have only the melancholy alterna tive left of resistance or of ruin. "The last petition of the Congress to the king contained all that our un happy situation could suggest. It represented our grievances, implored redress, and professed our readiness to contribute, for the general wants, to the utmost of our abilities, when constitutionally required." After adverting to the unfor tunate fate of that petition, and stating the necessity of taking up arms, he con cluded in the following words : " Our sufferings have been great our endurance long ; every effort of complaint and patience has been exhausted. Let us, there- * When the crisis at length arrived which brought the Americans to abjure their allegiance to the crown of Great Britain, it is well known, that many who were most vigorously opposed to the measures of ministers, experienced the strongest feelings of affection for the country of their ancestors, when the sense of duty to the cause they engaged in, and to the land they lived in and obtained their subsistence from, influenced them to act contrary to the inclination of their hearts. su< INDEPENDENCE OF THE BRITISH PROVINCES. fore, consult only how we shall defend our liberties with dignity and . Our parent state will then think us worthy of her, when she sees that, tog7th with her liberty, we inherit her rigid resolution of maintaining it against til in vaders. She calls us her children; let us, by the spiritedness of our behaviour, give her reason to pride herself in the relationship." Every appeal and remonstrance being disregarded, the evil star* of Britain gained the ascendency, and ministers involved the country in a war that shook the vitals of both hemispheres. The details of this eventful period, which has already filled many volumes, it is not within the object of this work to dwell upon. From the commencement of hostilities to the peace which acknowledged the independence of the United States, the energy, perseverance, and wisdom of the republican leaders, and the strange mixture of obstinacy, weakness, vacillation, and folly, of the British cabinet, which lost the nation the fairest portion of the empire, are equally extraordinary.* Of all the measures of ministers, employing the Indians during this unnatural war was the most objectionable, or at least the most unwise, and revolting to humanity. The atrocity and cruelty of the savages exasperated the colonists beyond any former sense of injury, and thousands flocked in consequence to the standard of the States, who now, declaring themselves free and independent, abjured their allegiance to Great Britain. It is the opinion of many that the conciliatory plan proposed by the Earl of Chatham would have saved America ; but the famous bill, which he framed for that great purpose, was overthrown by a formidable ministerial majority. They went even so far, in order to give it a most marked and decided rejection, as not to let it even remain on the table. This must have been a severe mortification to so splendid a statesman to a giant in legislation and government whose abilities had raised the empire to an unexampled grandeur who had directed the measures that wrested Louisburg and Quebec from France, and whose opinion and judgment had once been considered the oracle of the country. The celebrated plan of Mr. Burke, supported by his eloquent and sound ar guments, together with the appeals and remonstrances of the people of England and America, were equally disregarded ; and New England, with all the south ern states, convinced of unjust treatment, and fired with indignation, were animated with that determinate resistance and patriotism which finally accom plished their independence. The assistance afforded the Americans by France, was from far different mo tives than those which are directed by a republican spirit, or by the virtuous ad mirations of either civil or religious freedom. Any attempt to abridge the * It would almost seem reasonable to conclude, that the ministry were governed by feelings similar to those expressed by Dr. Johnson, when he said, " Sir, they are a race of cor cts, ai ought to be thankful for any thing we allow them short of hanging." 190 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. supremacy of an European government over her colonies, was any thing but agreeable to the ideas always entertained at the court of Versailles. On this occasion, their grand policy was to humble the power of Great Britain at home, by disintegrating her empire in America. The consequence, however mortifying to England, was disastrous and terrible to France ; and prepared combustibles which exploded in all the horrors of the Revolution, and opened a theatre for the splendid victories, the absolute despotism, and the final downfall of Napo leon. The officers sent to America by France, carried back high revolutionary prin ciples and feelings, which were afterwards ingrafted on the philosophy of Vol taire and the Academy. These materials soon unfolded themselves, by subvert ing the whole royal government and constitution, accompanied by outrages and calamities which shocked and disquieted all the nations of Europe and Ame rica. In all Europe, the minds of men were predisposed to advocate the principles of liberty first promulgated by the French politicians. The brilliant success of the American revolution had dazzled the gravest thinkers, and realised the visions of the most sanguine worshippers of freedom. The wise system of government adopted in, and so peculiarly adapted to the people, and to the natural condition of the Anglo-American republic, had satisfied all the rational and prudent, unless it were the few who possessed hereditary power and special privileges in church, state, and person. Liberty, in truth, is so undeniably the birthright of mankind so evidently the natural free gift of Heaven, that not only all who have never known its bless ings, but even those who have scarcely a hope ever to enjoy its possession, will, when the sacred principles of freedom are once advocated by a people, earnestly pray for the success of those who have courage to assert this common right of all men. The very idea of public freedom is so endearing to the human bosom, that whenever the people solemnly, and with fearless determination, as the Americans did, take up arms either to defend or to recover their rights, they are certain of the open applause of all who dare express it, and the secret approbation of those by whom its avowal is suppressed by arbitrary power. Combating, with honest patriotism, for freedom, those who hazard their lives and fortunes are the champions of mankind, fighting for the universal benefit of society. The predilections of all who behold the strife, are engaged in their behalf, and tyrants with their supporters become objects of scorn and hatred. The Americans declared, " that when, in the course of human events, it be came necessary for one people to dissolve the political bonds which have con nected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature s God en- INDEPENDENCE OF THE BRITISH PROVINCES. J , | titled them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind, required that they should declare the causes which led to their separation. "That they held these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal that they are endowed by the Creator with certain unalienable ?i ff hts* that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness tint to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their powers from the consent of the governed that whenever any form of government becomes destructive to these ends, it is the right of the people to alter, or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organising its power in such forms, as to them shall seem most likely to secure their safety and happiness/ The Americans carried into wise execution the determination thus so ration ally and so intrepidly declared. The orgies and atrocities of the French revo lutionists were celebrated and perpetrated in the name of liberty and reason. Horrible profanation ! The visionaries of a revolution, grounded on what was termed Philosophy, was not confined to France. The Parisian philosophers had servile imitators : at the head of whom was the freethinker of Sa?is Souci, sur rounded by his Gallic adulators. Those philosophers had, before the revolution broke out in Paris, created in Europe the habit of scoffing at religion, and at the superstitious evils of Christianity. Frederick, although in government a despot, was, after Voltaire, the very prince of those men who persuaded themselves, and endeavoured to convince the world, that all social evils and religious absurdities sprang from Christianity alone, without ever seeming to consider that the pas sion for power and wealth, in the strong and crafty, and the fears and supersti tions of the weak and ignorant, were the causes to which the evils they denounced and ridiculed, were to be attributed ; and which might be based with equal results upon the Hindoo, Hebrew, Mahommedan, or any other religion, having in its organisation, that most awful auxiliary and support of tyranny, the government and power of a mighty hierarchy. To these opinions of religion, the speculative politicians added, that all our administrative abuses, and the consequent evils which harassed society, were to be attributed to established governments : this accusation was not easily to be disputed ; although those who held the power of ruling states were far more to be condemned than the particular forms of government. To destroy Christianity, and the existing systems of nations, was, therefore, the expedient proposed by the speculative politicians of the French revolutionary school, as the only panacea to heal all social maladies. In England, where the power of the sovereign could be exercised to an arbi trary extent, through his ministers and a parliament, the majority of the members * The unfortunate black mixed race are, however, denied the benefit of these blessings. 192 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. of which, before the Reform Bill could be elected by corruption, the spirit of revolution made little progress. But the principles of civil rights have advanced on solid and successful foundations. The liberty of the press, that " palladium of all our civil and political and religious rights/ was (except in Scotland) secured by the trial by jury. It is at the same time remarkable that in no Christian country in the world does the freedom of the press, or civil liberty exist, except in the United Kingdom, and in Anglo- America and the British colonies ; that is to say, wherever the English language is spoken. There is no liberty of the press, that is, in its true sense, in any German, Russian, Austrian, Italian, Slavonian, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Belgian, Danish, or Swedish country. In France, after two revolutions, and more bloodshed, in the name of liberty, than in any country in the world, the press is thoroughly fettered by the government, and a newspaper cannot be printed, until an enormous sum cf money is de posited with the government, to pay the fines which may be inflicted on its editor by the tribunals. No French citizen, or foreigner, can move in, or out of, or over, France without a written licence, or permission, to do so from the police. If a minister of religion attempts to preach, or, if a place of worship is opened without a licence, the first is liable to a penalty, the latter to be closed by the police. The freedom of assembling in public, or private, meetings, is prohibited by the infamous laws of September, 1834 laws which Berryer with truth said, " put into execution the ordonnances of Charles X." The representative system is so limited, by the high money rate, in direct taxation, required to be paid to qualify electors, as to amount to mockery of the whole population. In short, although there may be civil, military, and legislative equality for all before the tri bunals, and equality for all rich enough to qualify for electors, civil liberty does not exist in France. We may extend the same remarks, with more or less severity, to every state in Europe ; Norway and Switzerland forming a modified exception. England, at the peace of 1783, notwithstanding the heavy debt incurred by war, was still in a powerful condition. Her arms, except on the continent of America, were triumphant in all parts of the world; and, although the treaty, by which England acknowledged the independence of the United States, was at that time considered the termination of British grandeur, the prophecy has hap pily proved false. Great Britain, notwithstanding the unexampled expenses of two long wars, possessed at that period greater resources than any power on earth; and the ministers whose imbecility and perverseness lost America, were supplanted in the royal councils by men of ability and spirit. England, it was true, had lost many of her American possessions, but she still retained others in the East and West Indies, and in North America : probably the most important to her as an empire. THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER VII. CONDITION OF THE UNITED STATES AT THE PEACE OF 1783. WASHINGTON. CONSTITUTION AND LAWS. RESOURCES. AT the general peace of 1783, the condition of the United States of America, and the durability of the constitution which they adopted, formed a subject which gave rise to a multiplicity of speculative opinions, most of which experience has since proved erroneous. But the crisis of American revolt brought forward men, or rather brought their abilities into action, who may well rank in history above the celebrated heroes and statesmen of ancient, and, with the Hampdens, of modern times. Those colonial patriots gave life and strength to the war : directed the councils with firmness and wisdom ; organised armies and provided funds to maintain them, planned a just and economical system of finance, and, after solemnly declaring their independence, drew up and adopted a practical constitution, agreeable to the habits and dispositions of the people. It was contended, that when the colonies became independent, they would, from their comparative weakness, lose the respect of foreign nations ; that when left to themselves, and not controlled by the mother country, or awed by foreign powers, their energies would relax ; and that civil dissensions would divide them and subvert a constitution, which, according to its form and the experience of mankind in all ages, must inevitably fall. The condition of America was, however, very different from all the republics that had previously existed, either in ancient or modern times. The people were generally intelligent, their habits frugal and industrious, and unlike the Europeans of Spanish America, their ideas were free from the thraldom of religious into lerance. The great men who conducted their assemblies possessed abilities, solid rather than brilliant, practical rather than theoretical ; and they had the good sense and discrimination, notwithstanding their separation from the government of the mother country, to adopt the constitution and laws of the then most free government on earth, as the groundwork of theirs : making a royal and here ditary chief magistrate, a privileged legislative nobility, and an endowed national church, the exceptions of any consequence. Their immense territory, extending along a vast length of sea-coast, abounding with numerous harbours, rivers? woods, fisheries, minerals, rich soils, and almost every climate under heaven, placed all natural advantages in their immediate possession. They enjoyed also, the benefit of all the knowledge and literature of England, without the labour of translating the language, or paying for the copyright of books ; and they had the earliest advantage of our discoveries in the arts, without restrictions as to the VOL. I. 2 C 194 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. right of patents. They had, in short, the knowledge and experience of all ages and countries to guide them, without being shackled by hereditary rights or es tablished usage. With such extraordinary advantages, as no other people ever possessed, they were enabled to avoid most of the blunders committed by nations, the govern ment and laws of which, originating with the feudal ages, and acquiring their elements and power during centuries of bigotry, intolerance, and tyranny, down to periods of liberality and intelligence, were consequently confused, and generally incompatible with equal justice and personal liberty. The Anglo-Americans had, also, the peculiar good fortune, at that period, of being directed by honest men. Of these personages, the most distinguished was George Washington. He was appointed to the chief command of the army, solely on account of his personal merit and military abilities. He had served as an officer, in the former war against France, with much well-earned distinction. At the peace, he retired to his patri monial estate, where he lived as a respectable private gentleman, endeared to all who knew him, by his amiable character, and unostentatious hospitality, until chosen supreme commander of the American army. During the war, his whole heart and ability were honourably devoted to the great charge which he under took ; and, when he was afterwards elected President of the United States, his policy was disinterested, liberal, just, and moderate. Truth and utility were the great objects which he had always in view. The powers of his understanding were solid, but not brilliant : wise judgment was his forte ; although the judgment of Franklin was more profound. In his deliberations, neither pas sion, prejudice, party spirit, nor interest, had any weight ; and his decisions, influenced by a good heart and wise head, were, with one or two exceptions, always sound and judicious. On many great occasions, which involved the fate of the country and the army, his clear perception and power of judgment alone saved both. In private life he appeared as amiable and good, as he was great and sublime in the exercise of sovereign power or military command. He was, besides, a respectable gentleman of the old school, and retained the observances and dignity at his levees which he witnessed in early life under the British govern ment. This dignity was, however, characterised by courteous simplicity, and a demeanour which always impressed the observer., with a conviction, of the recti tude, and the feelings of justice which dwelt prominently in the heart of Wash ington. The high example of his own character, particularly in private life, gave a high moral tone to public manners. We must not, however, forget, that his contemporaries who became his suc cessors are considered to rank among great men; particularly Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Madison: but it must, at the same time, be admitted, that they com- THE UNITED STATES. mitted many egregious blunders in their commercial policy; anclthat the last war with England was not only rash, but impolitic, and scarcely provoked. Of the contemporaries of Washington, Benjamin Franklin, the writers of the Federalist. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, and other leaders, may well be ranked with the highest order of human intellect. In Jefferson, who drew up the Declaration of Independence, genius and splendid abilities were prominent characters; but his powers of judgment were far beneath those of Washington and Franklin, Jefferson was the very prince of democracy, but, the love of truth and justice was by no means so thoroughly ingrained in the philosopher of Monticello as in the patriot of Mount Vernon. Of the good men, the patriots of unsullied in tegrity, of less splendour of character, but of the first order of men of business, we must not forget John Hancock, the President of the Continental Congress. It has been popular, and even fashionable, in Europe, to think lightly of the Anglo-Americans. Both French and English travellers, influenced by early pre judices, associations, and customs, have seldom done justice either to the people or to the country. To form a just estimation of both, we must comprehend the great resources of that vast region, and examine the intellectual and physical energies of the people ; we must ask, what have the people done since they became an independent nation? and not measure their capabilities, or stamp their character, by frivolous peculiarities of language, or habits, that have differed from ours merely through the agency of local circumstances. These may afford materials, to a strolling comedian, for exciting vulgar merriment ; but it is cer tainly unworthy the attention, and beneath the dignity of a respectable traveller, to fill his journals with the cant language and provincialisms of individuals, whom he may accidentally meet with in a stage-coach or at an inn. Neither are we to overlook the fact that Europe and the British Islands are annually sending forth to the great American republic at the rate of nearly a million of emigrants every ten years; and, we are, in justice, bound to say that the inundation of human beings from Europe, consists, generally, of an accession which diminishes far more than it adds to the morals of America. There are, we admit, dark shades in the character of some of the states of the republic, and we are prepared to denounce especially one of her domestic institutions, SLAVERY an institution the most dangerous to the peace and safety of the Southern States. But as we never can justify any interference, on the part of one nation with the internal affairs of another, we consider it not only unwise, but unjust, either for England or any other country to meddle directly, or indi rectly, with the domestic institution of slavery in the United States of America. We assuredly consider it a most hideous and abominable institution ; England was cursed with its injustice and disgrace, until within a few years : we are no longei diseased with its rottenness ; but still, we must allow America to manage her own domestic concerns. No Englishman would ever consent to any foreign state rued- 196 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. dling with ours, however much we may be convinced of having many "beams in our own eyes," which ought to be removed. Nor are we blind to the difficulty attending, and consequent, upon emancipating the slaves of the republic, even if their proprie tors were both willing, and able, to grant them unconditional emancipation. We believe the philosophers, and statesmen, of Europe, would be thoroughly perplexed as to the policy which they would pursue towards three or four millions of human beings, without any education, and with no training in the habits, duties, and thoughts, necessary for a self-providing and self-maintaining society. In regard to the education of the young generation, and to literary and benevo lent institutions, America has done much that she may justly be proud of; and many of her scientific publications are of that high character, which the first nations in the world might well feel honoured in having produced. The democratic form of the American government arose, perhaps, as much from necessity as from any predilection which the leading men of the time che rished for it. There was no one who could assume a claim to sovereign right, and the wealth of the country was too equally divided, to give any one person an overwhelming share of power. Washington, Hancock, Franklin, Jefferson, Adams, Maddison, indeed all the distinguished men and heroes of the revolution, were well aware of this circumstance; and they were all too honest, and patriotic, to allow ambition, or the love of power, to interfere with the real interests of the na tion. The constitution and laws were, however, accommodated as nearly as possible to the former mode of administering the government. The different States retained their respective representative governments, much the same as before the revolution, with the power of passing laws for their in ternal administration ; but all the States were united under one general federal government.* (See the Constitution of the United States, and of each respec tive State in the Supplement to this Volume.) The federal head or supreme government was formed of three branches or estates : the President, the Senate, and the House of Representatives. All elected by the people. The constitution was not inconsiderately, or quickly adopted. On the 13th of September, 17&7* thirteen years after the meeting of the first continental con gress, nine after the declaration of independence, and four after the acknowledg ment of that independence by England, the constitution was agreed to and adopted. Twelve articles of amendment, or rather additions, were afterwards made in 1791, ]798, and 1804. The problem for experience to solve was, whether this form of * It is usually believed, that the first Congress which assembled in America, was on occasion of the troubles that brought on the war of independence. A Congress was, however, held half a century before, and occasionally afterwards, for the purpose chiefly of planning measures to de fend the frontiers against the Indians. In 1754, a Congress met, under the suggestions made by the Lords Commissioners for Trade and Plantations, in order to consider the best means of de fending the colonies against the French. THE UNITED STATES. government possessed within its attributes the power of carrying into practical execution, with due obedience from the citizens, the laws which are necessary fur the security of person and property, for the defence of the country, and for the orderly maintenance of civil and religious liberty. There is no national church in the United States: much is argued for and against this circumstance, and some may regret the want of a church, countenanced as a standard of faith by the constitution; but in all matters where the conscience of man should alone control his belief, we must admit that the framers of the constitution, and of the government, of that country, acted wisely in not interfering with religious matters. Baptists and Methodists are considered to be the most numerous denomina tion of Christians ; then follow the Congregationalists, who have the service of the Church of England, cleared of the repetitions and doctrines obnoxious to Puritans Unitarians, Quakers, Catholics, Independents, Presbyterians, &c.: indeed, all Christian sects that we know of, and that apparently mad sect, the Mormons, are met with in the United States. Government recognises none; nor are any liable to political disabilities on the score of religion. There is more general knowledge diffused among the people of the United States than in any kingdom in Europe. Yet there is not among them the same proportion of men celebrated in literature and science as in many other countries. The Americans are a young, active, and enterprising people. General know ledge and practical education are absolutely necessary, in order to follow their adventurous pursuits. The citizens of the United States are, excepting those who are incessantly engaged in pursuits of which gain is chiefly the object, a more reading people than those of England ; but they seldom have leisure to apply themselves to the tedious labours of literature and science. Of those distin guished men who have entered the avenues of literature, and the labyrinths of science and art, America may most justly boast. As historians, philosophers, jurists, and divines, in poetry and romance, painting, and even in sculpture, we find learning, profundity, and genius, as conspicuous as in Europe. The only remarkable difference is, that the number of those who devote their lives to learning, art, and science, is, from circumstances, inseparable from a new country, less in proportion to the whole people than in Europe: always excepting Russia, Turkey, Spain, and Portugal, The institutions of the United States are deserving of the utmost attention, on the part of those who would improve their own, and, in some respects, in avoiding blunders when establishing new ones. The colleges, and other seminaries of learning, in the United States, arc respectable and numerous, and the diffusion of knowledge extensive and liberal. This is especially remarkable in the States of New England and New York. (See Supplement to this Volume, and Statistics of the United States in the second volume.) 198 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. There are many hundreds of newspapers circulated daily throughout the United States, besides reviews, and a vast number of magazines. The quarterly reviews, and the journals of science, are productions of very great merit. Nearly all the popular works published in England, and some imported from France, Belgium, and Germany, are reprinted with astonishing- celerity, and dispersed all over the republic. Some of the most expensive scientific works have also been republished in the United States. Among others the celebrated Me- canique Celeste of La Place appeared first in America, in a form which does it full honour in the English language : translated and published at his own expense, by Nathaniel Bowditch, one of those self-taught indomitable intellects, who are superior to adversity. That which distinguishes the Anglo-Americans from most other people, is their sleepless spirit of enterprise ; which, grave people as they are, is often reckless, though calculating, in its undertaking. To every part of their own country, where any gain can be acquired, and, in their ships, to every part of the habitable globe, do they resort. This character of them as a nation has, how ever far it may be accompanied by some unamiable defections, been the great cause of their prosperity, both before and since the revolution ; and, according to all probability, and experience, it will continue until their gigantic territory has a superabundant population, or until great individual wealth, and consequent luxury, produce the usual effects caused by indolence, voluptuousness, and de generacy. This ultimate possibility is so very remote, as practically to preclude even the Ideal of finality. The Anglo-American will go forward in his pro gress.* The cool indifference, but calculating determination, with which he moves from the seaboard, or the old states, to the back countries, where he can secure plenty of land for his children to settle around him, is remarkable. No thing, however, is more common. A whole colony sometimes depart together ; and, on arriving at the spot in the wilderness that answers their views, imme diately commence the operations of cutting down the trees, and erecting houses ; and a town, with its streets, and all the component parts of an American embryo settlement, such as a meeting-house, blacksmith s forge, saw-mill, corn-mill, shops, and taverns, appear on the banks of a river or stream, where a forest occupied the ground a few months before. (See the Geographical and Statistical chapters, * It is not a little remarkable how thinking, educated statesmen, even those who are the apostles of legitimate absolute monarchy, entertain similar opinions as to the progress of mankind. Prince Metternich, in speaking confidentially to a German diplomatist, of the bleiben wir beim alien (hold fast to the old) class, on the subject of arresting the progress of enlightened ideas, said, " Le temps avance, au milieu des orages, vouloir arreter sonimpeluosite serait unvain effort."* The famous expression of the Abbe de Pradt, is equally true, " Le genre humain est en marche, rien ne le fera retrograder ;" literally, " Mankind is on the" advance or march, nothing can make this march retrograde." * " The Times advance in the midst of storms ; to attempt arresting its impetuosity would be a vain effort." By the Times Prince Metternich personified the HUMAN MIND in its intellectual progress. THE UNITED STATES. 199 vol. ii. of this work.) In this great fact, is involved the whole secret cause, the effect of which, will overwhelm the whole hemisphere, from Hudson Bay to Terra del Fuego, with the domination of the English language. This is no prophecy. It is a clear daylight forecast of that not to be arrested progress which is the inevitable destiny of America. CHAPTER VIII. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ANGLO-AMERICANS. IT is remarked by almost all travellers, that the Anglo-Americans are perpetually boasting of the excellence of their constitution. This is certainly the case, and pre judiced Englishmen may not like to hear it. Yet we boast of ours ; and why not let the citizens of the United States, if they find themselves happy and blessed under their republican form of government, enjoy its full benefit, whether real or imaginary ? At furthest, we can only make it a charge of very pardonable national vanity, which we ought to esteem rather than blame them for. As to the state of society and the manners of the people of the United States, we must not, although there are no titles, believe that there is no distinction of ranks, and that the people live on a perfect footing of equality. There is, in fact, tacitly formed, in American society, a greater discrimination of classes, than the lines of demarcation, marked out by the hereditary titles of our English aristocracy. Wealth and knowledge, which, together, form power in all countries, constitute what, in a moral point, may be termed the aristocratic ranks of Ame rica. Those who form the first rank consist of the respectable families of the talented men, who figured in the revolutionary war; the leading men of Congress, and of public departments; gentlemen of the learned professions; merchants of education and property ; and all others of wealth and respectable character and talents. These people, all over the United States, naturally associate with each other, and as naturally avoid mixing with the next class, which consists of small tradesmen, shopkeepers, tavern-keepers, and others of much the same standing. These, again, shun domestic or family intercourse with those in for tune and position beneath them. Exceptions to this general observation are, however, not unfrequent. As to the manners of the Anglo- Americans, no one can detail justly, by common remarks, their characteristics. The materials are as heterogeneous as can be well imagined, but, at the same time, greatly modified by circumstances. In general, but especially in the New England States, the men are graver, and, as respects language and carriage, more precise than in Europe. The Virginians have been compared to country squires in England. The United States, being peopled at first by persons who left these kingdoms 200 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. when public manners were very different from what they are now, and since that time, annually, by the adventurous of all classes from other parts of Europe, the inhabitants must retain much of the original habits and education of their ancestors. Time alone will amalgamate these materials, and create a standard which will eventually give a more marked tone to public and private society. But in this progress, and intercourse, the steam-engine, the press, steam naviga tion, the railroad, and general commerce, will be advancing the civilisation, and the assimilation, of all nations. The country people of America are blunt, but certainly civil, although often accused of rudeness. We feel safe in considering them not so rude, and certainly not so ignorant, as the peasantry of England, nor the bourgeoisie of France. They are never obsequious, it is true; and this arises from their being usually independent in their circumstances. They are, in short, neither polite nor rude, but always civil, un less we assume an authoritative tone : if we do, as some Englishmen are accus tomed to do, through habit, without meaning any assumption, the Anglo- Ameri cans will certainly neither comply with our requests, nor reply to us in any thing like gentleness of spirit. The impertinent curiosity with which the people of America are branded, must be considered only applicable to the remote settlements. European travellers form their opinion of society in America, not from a knowledge of the great mass of the people, but from the characteristics of the towns, and of steamboat and railway travellers, and of political adventurers and reckless speculators. No data can be more erroneous. The people of America must be judged in their dwellings ; and it will then be evident that of the so-termed genuine people of America, the majority especially in the northern states, and including New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New York, consists of the agricultural families, and the inhabitants of villages and small towns. We have with careful impartiality examined the condition and character of this great class of the population, as it exists chiefly in the non- slave- holding states, and in the British North American colonies ; and Mrs. Grant s de scription long ago of Albany will still apply to countless villages in America. Albany, it is true, is now the busy centre of enterprising commerce. Steamboats, canals, and railroads, bring thither all kinds of raw and manufactured commodities, all sorts of speculators, all varieties of travellers. It is, indeed, no longer Mrs- Grant s rural town, with a garden and trees surrounding each of its neat white houses, with its family group in summer evenings, or clear moonlight, seated beneath the shade of open portico, or spreading tree, with the family cow, fed in the common pasture, returning home at eve, with its tinkling bell, along the broad grassy street, to be milked at its owner s door, with inhabitants, not one of whom was very rich, very poor, very knowing, very ignorant, very wise, or very polished. But still all these real blessings, this rural happiness, abound in the United States. THE UNITED STATES. In the rural districts of the New England States, Vermont, New York Pennsylvania, and of the British provinces, we have found it not uncom m wherever good inns did not exist, to ride or drive up to some large farm-house in which the landlady, or landlord, almost invariably receives the traveller with the kindest hospitality. We can aver that far and wide as we have traversed the face of the earth we have not discovered, riot even in England, so much comfort, happiness, virtue, inde pendence, and useful intelligence joined together, as among the beautiful villages and farm-houses of the highly-cultivated agricultural districts of the northern states and of many parts of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Lower and Upper Canada. The condition of the Canadians of French race we have described in a previous chapter ; and the real moral and physical power of the American republic, is assuredly to be found in the healthy farming population of the non-slaveholdino- states. The farm-houses that we have visited and lodged in, abounded with every convenience and domestic comfort. Every thing appeared in its proper place, every thing to have been done in its proper time, every thing to have been applied to its proper use. Here the best parlour, in the substantial New England and New York farm house, exhibits "The whifewash d wall, the nicely fiirbish d floor, The vurnish d clock that tick d behind the door, The pictures placed for ornament and use, Poor Richard s rules to enjoy, not to abuse, The hearth, except when winter chill d the day, With cedar boughs, and flowers, both wild and gay." Plain useful furniture, a mahogany-framed looking-glass, a case of shelves, with theological, historical, and several other entertaining, but no profane books. A table, usually covered with green baize, on which is often placed the family Bible, illustrated, covered, for its protection, over the binding with baize, or tanned calf skin ; and a chimney-piece, also adorned with china or other ornaments. The sleeping rooms are uniformly clean, and the beds good. The large kitchen is often a cheerful resort of children young and grown up, and always presents the utmost cleanliness, with the utensils always appropiiate, and in order. In the porch, an important wing or projection, several implements are usually hung, in order, on its walls. The dairies are as clean and as sweet as if the mistress of the house, and her fair maiden daughters, attended to nothing else. We who have visited the dairies of North Holland, feel the impression that the old Dutch settlers must have transmitted the virtue of clean neat dairies to their descendants, and, by example, to all the farming wives of New York, and its neighbouring states. Attached to the farm-house there is frequently a work-room, or domestic manufactory, for carding and spinning, and weaving : in which the women employ themselves during the appropriated time, and which, with household manage ment, form their chief thrifty occupation ; for in America the wives and daughters of the rural class are never, or, as far as we have observed, scarcely ever, subjected, as the women in France, Belgium, and Germany are, to field 202 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. labour in all weathers except it be for a few days while gathering the hay and corn harvest. To this circumstance, as well as to race, is attributed the remark able beauty of the young women in the agricultural districts, especially of the northern states. The barn, the stables, the cattle-houses, the agricultural instruments and implements, are almost invariably in keeping with the system of order which prevails in the domestic household. The horses are generally very strong and useful, if not always, noble, sleek animals. The oxen and cows well reared, and the breed useful in every respect. The sheep are taken good care of; the breed not always the best for wool, although usually excellent for mutton. The swine are generally too large, and too fat, for tender pork ; but of that quality which finds the most ready market for the use of the fishermen and other seamen. The poultry is usually very fine, and the farm=yards often send forth a mag- nificent show of turkeys. On passing along the roads, or over the fields, the wheat, the Indian corn, the oats, the potato, the clover, and other grass crops, the apple, peach, and plum orchards, the growth of pumpkins, melons, and culinary vegetables of all sorts, the stone-fruits, &c., all proclaim the fertility of the soil and consider able skill in husbandry. The common-sense intelligence of the farming classes, and the usual excellent moral character of the landlords of the hotels, who are also often farmers, of the localities east of the Hudson, and west until the traveller approaches the border population towards the Canadian frontiers, constitute them, in truth, what the American may well term the "genuine people! We occasionally observe a lazy talking Rip Van Winkle, with an ill-ordered house and a family out of the usual decent and comfortable keeping ; but they are, indeed, rare. No village or any settlement is without its school, and although the institutions for the higher branches of education are numerous, and provided for in the northern states, and in all, except for slaves, or coloured people, yet the country school, and the learning of the country schoolmaster, resemble still more those pictured by Goldsmith " There, in his noisy mansion skilled to rule, The village master taught his little school, The village all declared how much he knew ; Twas certain he could write and cypher too ; Lands he could measure, terms and tides presage, And even the story ran that he could guage." As labour closes the week, the evening of Saturday is the commencement of the Sabbath, and we may generally find its observance in harmony with the spirit which lends simplicity ^and piety to the "Cotter s Saturday Night" of Burns, although the condition of the agricultural population of the country is far different to that which was once the lot of the poor, yet worthy, cotters, whom the Scottish bard has immortalised. THE UNITED STATES. On the afternoon of Saturday, there is always to be observed more than usua preparation about and within every well-managed farm-house. The business of the week is contrived to be finished at an early hour ; and, whatever is necessary to prevent any labour on the Sabbath is strictly attended to. After supper, the chapter is read from the family Bible, the psalm or hymn is sung by the whole household, and the father closes the devotion by prayer ; after which all retire to rest. ij. When the Sunday morning breaks forth, there is none of the busy week-day industry and thrift. Man and beast have ceased their labours, all is peaceful and calm. Not a sound is heard. Within the houses they rise a little later than usual; all wash, and dress in their neatest Sunday clothes. All the members of the household are assembled to hear a chapter read, and to sing a hymn or psalm : the father, or one of the family, prays aloud for all, immediately after which all breakfast together at the same table. Soon after the church, or meeting-house, invites all to public worship; and, simultaneously, the minister, his family, the squire, the doctor, and all the neighbouring farmers, and other inhabitants, proceed, decorously and indepen dently, all feeling equality of condition and purpose, and, in suppressed converse, to the house of prayer. Those who are at some distance come, with their decently clad wives, and blooming, virtuous daughters, during summer in a one or two- horse waggon, and in winter in a sledge or carriole, to the church or meeting house. Miss Sedgewick, an American writer, whose descriptions are always good, because true, describes very prettily the farmers in the rural districts repairing to church, and the close of the Sabbath. " The farm s ample waggon," says this excellent authoress, " and the little one-horse vehicle, bring in all who reside at an inconvenient walking distance : that is to say, in our riding community, half a mile from the church. It is a pleasing sight to those who love to note the happy peculiarities of their own lands, to see the farmers daughters, blooming, intelligent, well-bred, pouring out of these homely coaches, with their nice white gowns, prunel shoes, Leghorn hats, fans, and parasols, and the spruce young men, with their plaited ruffles, blue coats, and yellow buttons. The whole community meet as one religious family, to offer their devotions at the common altar. If there is an outlaw from the society a luckless wight, whose vagrant taste has never been subdued he may be seen stealing along the margin of some little brook, far away from the condemning observations and troublesome admonitions of his fellows. "Towards the close of the day, or (to borrow a phrase descriptive of his feelings who first used it) when the Sabbath begins to abate, the children cluster about the windows. Their eyes wander from their catechisms to the western sky ; and, though it seems to them as if the sun would never disappear, his broad disc 204 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. does slowly sink behind the mountain ; and, while his last ray still lingers on the eastern summits, merry voices break forth, and the ground resounds with bound ing footsteps. The village belle arrays herself for her twilight walk ; the boys gather on the green ; the lads and girls throng to the f singing school; while some coy maiden lingers at home, awaiting her expected suitor ; and all enter upon the pleasures of the evening with as keen a relish as if the day had been a preparatory penance." On the morning of Monday, the whole population resume their several avocations with order and good will. Nothing like the indolence and disinclina tion to labour, which prevail among the artisans and working-people of cities, on the morning of the day which succeeds the Sabbath, is to be observed in the agricultural districts of America; while, in the large cities, a great part of Monday is idled way, in the term sobering off, as is frequently the case in London and Paris, the effects of dissipation on the Sunday. We must not omit to remark that the farmers of the New England states, of New York, and Pennsylvania, are all tolerably well instructed ; that is, there is scarcely one of those born in the country, who cannot read, write, and under stand the several rules of arithmetic ; and most of them have also read the history of England and of the United States, newspapers, monthly periodicals, and agricultural books or tracts. Practically also, they are far more skilful, and in ventive in various matters, than the farmers of any other country; though as mere farmers they may not excel, or be, in general, equal to the best of Europe. Besides the usual routine of husbandry, they frequently, in workshops attached to most farm-houses, make their own ploughs, harrows, carts, waggons, and minor agricultural implements, and with the assistance of their families and hired servants, or helps, construct their dwellings as well as outhouses. In the western states, the agricultural settlements in Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, when they are so far subjected to improvement, and so extended as to be cultivated in the same manner as in the older states, we find similar characteristics among the rural population. We often discover this, though not generally, even in the slave-holding states of Virginia, Delaware, Maryland, Tennessee, and Kentucky. In the wild west, the pioneer, and the backwoodsman, the hunter, and trapper, are all characterised by the habits, manners, and morals, of a bold, daring, and hardy life, which is modelled by local circumstances and pursuits, amidst the vast wilderness of prairie, forests, and waters. The traveller who would sketch American manners, during a steamboat voyage down Mississippi to New Orleans, will draw a very different picture, of the Anglo- Americans) from that of the rural inhabitants, which we have endeavoured to de scribe. Multitudes of German, and Irish, emigrants are added annually to the citizens, and, even to an extraordinary degree, influence the elections, of the United States. Those, also, who navigate the canals, rivers, and lakes, are cha. raeterised by the habits of their occupations; and inherent and local circumstances, Hr f THE UNITED STATED , 205 cause a very marked difference between the citizens of Boston, New York Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, New Orleans, Pittsburg, Cincinnati!, LouiJ ville, St. Louis, Buffalo, and Detroit. In speaking of the rural population, we have alluded to their characteristics north only, until we approached the woodland frontiers of Canada, where they assume very strikingly different habits and morals. Not but that a great pro portion of the inhabitants, near and on each side of the boundaries of the United States, and British possessions, consist of honest, industrious, and praiseworthy families ; but there is in the general character of borderers, in all countries, less morality, less honesty, greater recklessness, and more cunning and plotting, than exist among the other population. This is remarkably the case in respect to the borderers, on each side the line, dividing British from republican America. The immoral and dishonest of all grades, and the most unprincipled schemers of the former, escape or resort to the latter, and those of the latter to the former. Smuggling is one great nursery of dishonesty and scheming. Failures in trade, or in timber or land speculations, and then cheating creditors, is another. The swindlers and political demagogues of Canada, evade the laws by passing over to the American side of the line, and cry out, " Here we have liberty in Canada you are in bondage ! Have an inde pendent government ! shake off British tyranny ! govern yourselves !" These men, who call themselves PATRIOTS, have agitated Canada, generally, from vanity, from recklessness, and for evil purposes. The American border demagogues echo and re-echo their catchwords this is called sympathy on the part of the American people. It is no such thing. It is mere speculation on the part of a few hundreds, of the most unprincipled and desperate characters on earth, who look forward, in the event of a successful rebellion, to the vacant lands and trade of Canada, as a field for adventure and plunder. Many of the Upper Canadians are disloyal and worthless men; made up,Jirsf, of men whose villany was too notorious to allow them shelter in the United States; second, of runaway debtors, and cheats of various shades, from the United Kingdom, and from the other British possessions ; and, third, of disorderly per sons, born and brought up in the province, who have, generally, passed their time as lumberers, raftsmen, and boatmen, in drinking, or in scheming to live without working ; and the fourth, that is, the mere political demagogues. These classes, the so-styled PATRIOTS of Upper Canada, with whom sympathised, during the late rebellion, not the United States citizens who form the many, but the unprincipled and reckless among the borderers, who constitute the few. In the Canadas the great majority consists of those who are loyal, from prin ciple and feeling to the British government, and who, though they may not be insensible to abuses, which the executive, especially the former council, man tained, have considered these official evils of only the most unimportant nature, when compared to the protection and many blessings which they enjoy. 206 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. most ardent and courageous of these loyalists are found among the emigrant families and their children of the clans of Glengary and Mac Nab, the emi grants extirpated from Sutherlandshire and Lord Reay s country, and others, who still breathe the spirit of the Highland clanship; who still make the woods* rocks, and mountains, resound to the pibroch s wild martial strains; and who still animate their firesides with the Gaelic tales, the airs, and songs, and reels? and Highland dances of yore. They are not, however, either the most industrious nor the most thriving ; and notwithstanding all the charms of Celtic song, legend, and story, Highland habits are unsuited to the age, and the Celtic tongues must vanish as a spoken language in the New World, as it must in Scotland, Ireland, and in Wales. However much we admire its antiquity, it is unsuited to civilisa tion, and to the skilful industry which a new state of things have created as necessary to escape the periodical evils of poverty and famine. We do not (very far from it) say that the late rebellion in Canada, was not provoked by despotic grievances, on the part, not of the British government of that time at home, but on the part of those who, especially in 1833 and 1844, were at the head of the Colonial office in Downing-street; and, who should have been taught wisdom, by the history of the causes which occasioned the American revo lution. We are too familiarly acquainted with the Colonial Office, not to form the opinion that, if the present Earl Grey had succeeded the Earl of Ripon, as secretary of state for the colonies, that the Canadian rebellion would never have taken place.* We have thus stated, briefly, our views of the Anglo-American, people after their becoming independent; and if ever the history of the world presented two nations in a condition to do each other the utmost possible good, or the greatest possible evil such are the position and actual condition of England and America. Therefore, as the course of doing each other reciprocally the utmost possible good, is that which all honest and wise men would desire, the government and the people of each country, should direct their most earnest, and honest efforts, to maintain and promote this honourable and humane course. CHAPTER IX. THE INTERCOURSE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS NEUTRAL TRADE NAPOLEON S DECREES CONFISCATION OF AMERICAN SHIPS AND CARGOES BRITISH ORDERS IN COUNCIL ENGLAND AND AMERICA. WE maintain as a doctrine, which no argument can disprove, that THE HISTORY OF COMMERCE IS THE HISTORY OF CIVILISATION : always admitting, that we must not confound civilisation with civil liberty and religious freedom. * We have endeavoured thoroughly, in a preceding work (BRITISH AMERICA) as far back as 1833, to place the "Condition of Canada Question" in a clear light before the public; and after fourteen years experience, we would not blot out a single expression that we then wrote. EUROPE AND AMERICA. 207 Under the Medici and during the reign of Louis the Fourteenth, civilisation was resplendent in Florence and in Paris, but there did not exist, in either, civil liberty or religious freedom. Both the latter can exist without much commerce ; but civilisation can make no progress without the intercourse, caused by selling and buying, which has had its origin, first, in the early state of mankind, between one family and another, then in its progress between one village and another, then between one city and another, and finally between all the nations of the earth, the one with the other, or, with all the others. On the independence of the old British colonies, it would have been wise, to have placed the commerce and navigation of the mother country, and that of her children, on their attaining their majority, or independence, upon the basis of a coasting trade. We have conclusive evidence,* that the latter then would have agreed to commence, and maintain, an intercourse which would have enabled England to enjoy every possible advantage, which could be derived from the United States, if they had remained as colonies, and all those ad vantages, without either the perplexity or expense of governing them. The advances made with respect to such wise policy by the United States was unhappily rejected by the British ministers, who were indeed foolish and igno rant of commercial principles, even in their generation. In this number, we do not include Mr. Pitt, who entertained a far different view of the principles, on which the commercial relations of England and America, should be re-established. America, on her advances being rejected by the British government, unhap pily adopted the absurd British navigation laws, and much of the previous system of British customs 5 duties. In other respects, and especially in following the judi cious advice of Washington, " to cultivate free commerce and honest friendship with all nations, and to make entangling alliances with none," the administration of America adopted, generally, a practical and wise policy in her intercourse and trade with foreign states. Still, it was beyond human prudence to avert all dis pute and difficulty with foreign nations. The war between Great Britain and France, subjected the American trade to great losses and interruptions, occasioned by French decrees and blockades, and by British orders in council and blockades. The great increase of the foreign trade of the United States of America, and particularly the carrying trade, has been very generally attributed to the neutral position of the United States during the last European war. It is true that the last war in Europe, opened all the colonies of France, Spain, and Holland, to neutral flags, and the products of those colonies, found their way to conti nental Europe; and they were supplied in return with merchandise, principally 11 American bottoms. This trade gave extensive employment to American s * See Commercial Legislation of England and America, vol. ii. of this work, page 1311 208 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. ping; but we must not overlook the remarks made by the Committee of Com merce and Navigation, to the house of representatives, in 1830. " It is a common impression/ observes the committee in the report, " that our early maritime prosperity was owing to the wars growing out of the French Revolution, which enabled the United States and Great Britain to monopolise the carrying trade. Those who think so take but a superficial view of the causes, which gave a strong impulse to our navigation at that early period. These were, the rich and increasing agricultural resources, the removal of all the countervailing laws of the states, our commercial enterprise, and a foreign commerce without restrictions. Our navigation grew more rapidly before the continental war, when we had nothing to carry but our own productions, than it did at any period afterwards. For three years, from 1789 to 1792 the increase was near 300,000 tons; from 1793 to 1796 it ought to have been increased to a greater amount, but it was not over 200,000, showing clearly a more rapid increase, both in ratio and amount^ before than after the war broke out." In fact, neither the one cause, nor the other, but both jointly, contributed, powerfully, to the increased trade and navigation of the United States. The first act of hostility against the navigation of the United States, after the commencement of the war between Great Britain and France, was under the French decree of May 9, 1?93, and others which followed, and also under the British order in council of the 8th of June, 1793, prohibiting flour and meal from being carried to France, or to any port occupied by the French armies. This was followed by other British orders in council in relation to the neutral trade with the French West Indies. The proceedings of the British government, under these orders, would, probably, have brought the United States into open war with Great Britain as early as 1794, had not Washington sent a peaceful mission to Eng land ; which ended in a treaty, concluded by Mr. Jay, on the 19th of November of that year; and under which, the merchants of the United States, received more than 10,000,000 dollars, as a compensation for property, taken under the British orders in council. France considered this treaty a violation of existing engagements on the part of America, and the ratification, in 1/96, of Mr. Jay s treaty, was immediately followed by a general seizure and condemnation of American vessels, under several decrees of the Executive Directory. This brought the United States into partial hostilities with France, and which ended by a treaty concluded with the First Consul in 1800. The short peace of Amiens followed in 1802. War was renewed in 1803. The laws of nations were disregarded, not only between the belligerents themselves, but with neutrals. The maritime power of Great Britain swept or drove most of the mer- * See Tables of Trade. Vol. ii. of this work. EUROPE AND AMERICA. 209 chant vessels of France, Holland, and Spain, from the ocean. These nations be- came dependant upon a neutral flag, for their colonial as well as other supplies, and the United States became their sole carriers. In 1805 Great Britain consi dered this neutral trade of supplying her enemies as a cover of enemy s property, and as " war in disguise." A pamphlet, published in Great Britain that year, des cribed the American people as i: anew power that had arisen on the western shore of the Atlantic, whose position and maritime spirit were calculated to give new and vast importance to every question of neutral rights, especially in the American seas." And the author also declared, " that not a single merchant ship, under a flag inimical to Great Britain, now crosses the equator, or traverses the Atlantic ocean." The British government and the admiralty courts revived the maxim of 1756 ; which assumed that neutrals, in time of war, could carry on no trade which they had not been accustomed to carry on in time of peace. Great Britain had not previously objected to the Americans bringing colonial and other produce into the ports of the United States : there levying the duties upon these products, and then reshipping them with a drawback of most of the duties to any foreign country; but, in 1805, England declared this was only a relaxation of the rule of 1756; and on the 22nd of May, 1805, an American vessel, called the Essex, was, with her cargo, condemned under that rule by a decision of the admiralty courts. In consequence, many American vessels were seized and brought into British ports. This was naturally complained of by the American merchants. The United States had no treaty of commerce with Great Britain ; the commercial part of that concluded by Mr. Jay having expired in 1804. The British government proposed a renewal of this treaty, to continue until two years after the close of the war ; but this was declined by the American executive, A new negotiation was opened by Mr. Munroe and Mr. Pinckney, to adjnst the claims of the American merchants, and to endeavour to settle the vexatious question of impressment, and also to regulate the colonial trade. On the last day of December, 1806, during the Fox administration, Messrs. Munroe and Pinckney, with much difficulty, concluded a treaty with Great Britain. With respect to the colonial and other trade, the eleventh article pro vided, that, during the then existing war, European products might be carried to the port of any colony belonging to the enemy of Great Britain, provided they had been entered and landed in the United States, and paid the ordinary duties ; and on re-exportation, should, after the drawback, have been subject to a duty equivalent to not less than one per cent ad valorem, and were bond fide the property of American citizens. And the produce of the colonies of the enemy might also be brought to the United States, there entered, landed, a having paid the duties, might be re-exported to any part of Europe, subject t< VOL. i. 2 B 210 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. duty, after the drawback, of not less than two per cent ad valorem. This treaty was rejected by Mr. Jefferson, without even consulting his constitutional ad visers ; principally he stated on the ground of its wanting an express stipulation against future impressments. It is true the American commissioners could not negotiate a treaty stipulation as to impressment. But the British commis sioners, in a written communication, gave assurances of security against the future abuse of the practice of impressment, which satisfied the American commissioners. Mr. Munroe, in his letter to the president, of the 28th of February, 1808, giving his reasons for assenting to the treaty, on this point says "We were, therefore, decidedly of opinion, that the paper of the British commissioners placed the interest of impressment on ground which it was both safe and ho nourable for the United States to admit; that, in short, it gave their government the command of the subject, for every necessary and useful purpose. Attached to the treaty, it was the basis or condition on which the treaty rested. 5 The con sequences of the failure of the negotiation are, by Mr. Munroe, described in the following language (i War, therefore, seemed to be the inevitable consequence of such a state of things. I was far from considering it an alternative which ought to be preferred to the arrangement which was offered to us. When I took into view the prosperous and happy condition of the United States, compared with that of other nations, that, as a neutral power, they were almost the exclusive carriers of the whole world ; and that, in commerce, they flourished beyond ex ample, notwithstanding the losses which they occasionally suffered, I was strong in the opinion that these blessings ought not to be hazarded on such a ques tion." The rejection of this treaty ultimately led, as Mr. Munroe had predicted, to a most unfortunate war with Great Britain. After the battle of Jena, in 1806, which placed the capital of Prussia in the hands of Napoleon, that conqueror issued, on the 21st of November follow ing, his famous " Berlin Decree. 5 This decree was the first great declaration of a war of material injuries a war against international trade a war against commodities a war intended to be as destructive to national prosperity, and as universal, as his wars of bloodshed and depopulation. There was grandeur, magnificently diabolical, in the idea. There could not have been a greater proof of the absence of wisdom, or forecast, in the mind from whence it emanated. It was a decree, which, by subjecting the kingdoms, and states of Europe, to a privation of their wonted supplies, whether of necessity, convenience, or luxury, increased the discontent and hatred of the German and other nations and people who never did nor could love him. This war against commodities, called the " Continental System 5 was, en grandiose, destined for the destruction of the British empire. It was the germ, out of which grew that powerful Germanic and European combination, which NAPOLEON S CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. L > j j afterwards strengthened, until it finally terminated in the downfall of Napoleon It declared the British islands in a state of blockade, and prohibited all commerce and intercourse with them, all letters or packets written in England, or to an Englishman, in the English language, were to be seized in the pott-offices, every British subject, of whatever rank or condition, found in countries occupied by French troops, or those of the allies of France, were to be made prisoners of war. Every warehouse, all merchandise or property whatever, belonging to an Englishman, was declared < good prize. No vessel coming directly from England or her colonies, or having been there, after the publication of the decree, w & as to be admitted into any port; and every vessel, by a false declaration, contravening the foregoing disposition, was to be seized, and the ship and cargo confiscated as English property." This decree was declared to be the fundamental law of the empire, until En<*- land should acknowledge that the rights of war should be the same on land as at sea ; that it should not be extended to any private property whatever, nor to persons who were not military; and, until the right of blockade be restrained to fortified places, actually invested by competent forces. This decree, even in its partial execution, was grievously injurious to most of the commercial cities of continental Europe. Hamburg, Bordeaux, and other ports, petitioned for some relaxation of it in their favour; but Napoleon declared that "Britain must be humbled, were it at the expense of throwing civilisation back for centuries, and returning to the original mode of trading by barter." He could not, however, at once induce all the continental powers to co-operate with him. Spain and Holland had long been subject to his despotism. The battle of Austerlitz, and the treaty of Presburg, placed Austria under his control. But Russia and Prussia, and some of the minor powers of Europe, were not for some time brought to the terms of humiliation which awaited them. The humiliating conditions which he demanded of the King of Prussia, re tarded the negotiation. Frederick William III., relying on the aid of England and of the Russian armies, continued the war until the battle of Friedland and the treaty of Tilsit, added Prussia and Russia to the nations which bowed t3 Napoleon. A secret article engaged them to carry into effect the continental system ; and Russia and Prussia, in the months of September and November following, joined France against British power. Napoleon returned to Paris in July, 1807, in order to induce all neutral powers to accede to his continental decree. The Danish and Portuguese ministers, at a general audience which he held with all the foreign ministers, on the second day of August, were apprised that all neutrals were required to unite with France against Great Britain.* * The American minister, General Armstrong, writes on the 3rd of August 1807. " I have had an audience with the emperor since his return. I stood near Baron Dyer, tl 212 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Portugal was soon called upon " to accede to the continental system. Not complying immediately, war was declared against her on the 21st of Oc tober, 1807, and in six days after. Napoleon and the Prince of Peace, by a secret treaty, partitioned Portugal between them ; and, the Portuguese American posses sions were also to be divided between France and Spain. On the 4th of December, Junot, with his army, occupied Lisbon ; and he issued a proclama tion declaring that the interests of the Portuguese engaged the emperor and king his master, and " that the destinies of Portugal were brightening, and her future happiness secured, because Napoleon the Great had taken her under his omnipotent protection." In the meantime, the Prince Regent of Portugal sailed for Brazil, under the protection of a British squadron. Napoleon would no doubt have extended the same " omnipotent protection" to Denmark, had not Great Britain anticipated him, by forcibly, we do not say justly, taking pos session of the whole Danish fleet. The north of Europe was thus kept open to British navigation and trade through the Baltic. Napoleon, therefore, did not immediately attempt to force the continental system against the vessels of the United States, and General Armstrong was informed by the French minister of marine, that the decree was not to affect American commerce, ie which would still be governed by the rifles of the treaty established between the two countries." But " the turn of the Americans came at last. 33 On the 18th of September, 1807? Regnier, the grand judge, referring to American vessels, informed the procureur-general of the council of prizes, "that, as the emperor had not thought proper to express any exception in his decree, there was no ground to make any, in the execution, in any thing whatever. 33 To a remonstrance pre sented by General Armstrong, the secretary of foreign relations replied, on the 7th of October, " that his majesty has considered every neutral vessel going from English ports, with cargoes of English merchandise, or of English origin, as lawfully seizable by French armed vessels." " The decree of blockade," he adds, ft has now been issued eleven months. The principal powers of Europe, far from protesting against its provisions, have adopted them. They have perceived that its execution must be complete, to render it effectual; and it has seemed easy to reconcile these measures with the observance of treaties, especially at a Danish minister. The emperor spoke to him and said, So, baron, the Baltic has been violated ; he did not hear the baron s answer, and the emperor said to him, in a voice more raised and peremp tory, So, baron, the Baltic has been violated. From the Danish minister he proceeded to myself and others, and went to the minister of Portugal, and it is said, read to him a severe lecture on the conduct of his court. These circumstances," the American minister adds, " go far to justify the whispers in circulation, that an army is raising in the south, to take possession of Portugal, and another in the north to go against Denmark ; and generally, that having settled the affairs of the belligerents (except England, to his liking, he intends to settle those of neutrals, in the same way. On this account, probably, Baron Dyer took me aside, and asked me, whether an application had been made to me to join in the projected union of all commercial states against Great Britain ? On my answering in the negative, he said, You are a favoured nation, but your turn must come, at last:* NAPOLEON S CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. 213 time when the infraction by England, of the rights of maritime powers, render their interests common, and tends to unite them, in support of the same cause." In consequence the cargo of an American vessel, the Horizon, was confis cated, under the 5th article of the Berlin decree, as being merchandise of English origin. The American minister remonstrated, and the reply of the French government was, " that England in violating the rights of all nations had united them all, by a common interest, and that it was for them to have recourse to force against her, and that on these conditions alone the Americans could expect redress, for the injuries of which they complained/ 5 " All the difficulties, sir," he continued, " which have given rise to your reclamations, would be removed with ease, if the government of the United States, after com plaining of the injustice and violation of England, took, with the whole continent, the part of guaranteeing itself therefrom." On the 20th of October, Louis, King of Holland, issued a decree, enforcing that of Berlin, and ordering that (t that all correspondence, journals, $c., which should come, in a neutral flag, should be seized and burnt 9 On the llth of November, 1807, the British orders in council were issued in opposition to the Berlin decree. By these orders, " all the ports and places of France and her allies, or of any other country, at war with his majesty, and all other ports or places in Europe, from which, although not at war, the British flag was excluded, and all other ports or places, in the colonies belonging to his majesty s enemies, were to be subject to the same restric tions, in point of trade and navigation (with certain exceptions) as if the same were actually blockaded by his majesty s naval forces, in the most strict and rigorous manner ; and all trade in articles, which are of the produce or manufacture of the said countries or colonies, should be deemed and considered unlawful ; and any vessel trading from or to said countries or colonies, with all the goods and merchandise on board, and all the articles of the produce or ma nufacture of such countries or colonies, might be captured and condemned as prizes to the captors." To the British orders of November llth, succeeded a decree, issued at Milan on the 17th of December, declaring, "that every ship, to whatever nation be longing, that shall have submitted to be searched by an English ship, oV to a voyage to England ; or that shall have paid any tax whatever to the English government, shall thereby, and for that alone, be denationalised, to have forfeited the protection of its king, and to have become English property and the ships so denationalised, on entering the ports of France, or those of her allies, or on falling into the hands of French ships of war, or privateers, were declared lawful prizes. And by the same decree, the British islands were again declared in a state of blockade, both by sea and land." In January, 1808, Napoleon directed his minister to inform General Arm- 214 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. strong, that, in consequence of the British orders of November llth, he could not doubt, but that the United States had declared war against Great Britain, " War then exists," says Champagny, " in fact, between England and the United States ; and his majesty considers it, as declared from the day on which England published her decrees. In that persuasion, his majesty, ready to consider the United States, as associated with the cause of all the powers who have to defend themselves against England, has not taken any definitive measure towards the American vessels, which may have been brought into our ports ; he has ordered, that they should remain sequestered, until a decision may be had thereon, accord ing to the dispositions which shall have been expressed by the government of the United States." Soon after, Napoleon declared in council, that the Americans should be com pelled to be his allies or his enemies ; and then ordered the condemnation of some American vessels, then under sequestration. This was communicated to the American executive, by General Armstrong, in a despatch dated the 22nd of February, 1808. " Nothing has occurred here," says Mr. Armstrong, " since the date of my public despatches (the 17th) to give to our business an aspect more favourable than it then had ; but, on the other hand, I have come to the knowledge of two facts, which I think sufficiently show the decided character of the emperor s policy with regard to us. These are, first, that, in a council of administration, held a few days past, when it was proposed to modify the operation of the decrees of November, 1806, and December, 1807 (though the propo sition was supported by the whole weight of the council), lie became highly indignant, and declared that these decrees should suffer no change and that the Americans should be com pelled to take the positive character of either allies or enemies secondly, that on the 27th of January last, twelve days after Mr. Champagny s written assurances that these decrees should work no change in the property sequestered until the discussions with England were brought to a close, and seven days before he reported to me verbally these very assurances, the emperor, by a special decision, confiscated two of our ships and their cargoes (the Julius Henry and Juniata) for want merely of a document, not required by any law or usage of the commerce, in which they were engaged. This act was taken, as I was informed, on a general report of sequestered cases, amounting to 160 ; and which, at present prices, will yield upwards of 100,000,000 francs, a sum, whose magnitude alone, renders hopeless all attempts at saving it. Danes, Portuguese, and Americans, will be the principal sufferers. u If I am right in supposing the emperor has definitively taken his ground, I cannot be wrong in concluding that you will immediately take yours." The American government had, previously to receiving this information, ordered the whole American shipping back into their own ports. The despatches reached Washington from the American minister at Paris, together with a newspaper, containing a proclamation of the King of Eng- land,"of the 16th of October, recalling his subjects from abroad, in foreign service, and giving directions as to the mode of searching for and taking them, when found on board commercial neutral vessels. These were submitted to Congress : but the letter of General Armstrong, dated August 3, 1807, disclosing the views and policy of Napoleon in relation to neutrals, was withheld. In communicating the papers to Congress, the president said they would NAPOLEON S CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. 215 show " the great and increasing dangers with which our vessels, our seamen, and merchandise, are threatened on the high seas and elsewhere, from the belligerent powers of Europe" and he recommended an embargo, which, in consequence, was laid on all American ships, on the 22nd of December, and without any limitation as to time. The secretary of state, in communicating to the American minister at London the embargo act, observes, " Among the considerations," he added, " which enforced it, was the probability of such decrees, as were issued by the British government, on the llth of November, the language of the British gazettes* with other indications, having left little doubt, that such were meditated." The British and American governments, were persuaded that Napoleon was determined that there should be no neutral nations, and that his policy was to compel all to enforce the Berlin decree against England. That Great Britain would adopt measures of resistance, was therefore considered by the American government as indispensable. But the American public, even the members of the national legislature, being ignorant of the facts, which actuated the executive in placing under an absolute embargo the whole navigation and trade of the country, great diversity of opinion prevailed as to the causes, as well as the policy of this apparently desperate measure. This policy of the American government was a most absolute invasion upon the trade of the people of the United States ; a policy which no circumstance would have justified, but the safety of the national shipping. Mr. Jefferson in a letter to one of his political friends (January 1, 1814,) sa y Sj The true line of policy for us, is, that Napoleon should be able to effect the complete exclusion of England from the whole continent of Europe, in order by this peaceable engine of restraint, to make her renounce her views of dominion on the ocean, of permitting no other nation to navigate it, but with her licence, and on tribute to her; and her aggressions on the persons of our citizens, who may choose to exercise their right of passing on that element and this would be effected by Napoleon s succeeding so far as to close the Baltic against her. I wished such limits only, to the successes of Napoleon, as should not prevent his completely closing Europe against British manufactures and com merce, and thereby reducing her to just terms of peace with us."f f the many unsound views of this extraordinary man, we do not find any more difficult to reconcile than this view of a grave and constitutional question; and subsequent events have proved his want of forecast. Mr. Jefferson termed the Berlin decree, a " peaceable engine of restraint ;" We have often had occasion to observe the credulity of the Amer ican P TO P ! * in 3 to passages in the British newspapers: which, with little examination, they take as 1 of the British government, or British people. f Jefferson s Memoirs, Vol. IV., p. 232. 216 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. which, in order to humble England, rendered it politic for America to retain her products and merchant fleets within her ports. Napoleon certainly did not consider the American embargo as against, but, as in support of, his continental system, in which the Americans had become allies, in his war of material injuries against Great Britain. The Bayonne decree, issued in April, 1808, was declared to be an enforce ment of this fallacious alliance. This decree directed the douaniers " to seize all American vessels then in French ports, or which might come into them here after" and the American minister was informed, that these seizures were per fectly legal, "because no vessel of the United States can now navigate the seas without infracting a law of the said states, and thus furnishing a presumption that they do so on British account, or in British connexion" Talleyrand, in a report to Napoleon, dated the 8th of September, 1808, says " The Americans, a peo ple who involve their fortunes, their prosperity, and almost their existence in com merce, have given the noble example of a great and courageous sacrifice. They have prohibited, by a general embargo, all commerce and navigation, rather than submit to that tribute which the English impose. 53 On the 5th of August, 1810, the Duke of Cadore, acquainted the American minister, that the emperor " had applauded the embargo laid by the United States/ Napoleon s expressions were communicated to the American executive by Mr. Livingston. Mr. Jefferson, in answer to Mr. Livingston s despatch, informing him that Na poleon considered the embargo es a wise measure," says (15th of October, 1808) : K The explanation of his principles, given you by the French emperor, in conversa tion, is correct, as far as it goes. He does not wish us to go to war with England, knowing we have no ships to carry on that war. To submit to pay England the tribute on our commerce, which she demands by her orders in council, would be to aid her in the war against him, and would give him just ground to declare war with us. He concludes, therefore, as every rational man must, that the embargo, the only remaining alternative, was a wise measure" Was this, now admitted unsound, view entertained from a principle, or feeling, of patriotism ; or was it grounded on that hatred towards England, which Mr. Jefferson s philosophy seems never to have been able to subdue ? No truly great statesman or wise philosopher, would hate any country or people. We may condemn the policy and the mal-admi- nistration of a government, and we may lament the ignorance, the barbarism, or the immorality of a people, but that mind must be vitiated by mean feelings, which can entertain a hatred to a whole people, however obnoxious he may be to the characters and acts of individuals. The embargo was, very naturally, repulsive and injurious, to the shipping and trading interests of America. Napoleon s decrees were riot more odious to the merchants of the Hanse Towns and of Holland, than the embargo, as well as the decrees, were to those of America. The American ships were rotting in their ports. NAPOLEON S CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. 217 The public, deprived of a market for their products, became impatient, but the long-continued popularity of Mr. Jefferson, enabled him for some time to perse- vere in his favourite scheme against England. His own political friends, however, compelled him to transform the embargo, into a non-intercourse with England and France. The law of non-intercourse was passed by Congress on the 1st of March, 1809, and to be in force on the 20th of May following. In April, the British minister gave assurances to Mr. Jefferson, that the British orders in council should be withdrawn on the 10th of June following. In consequence of which the presi dent issued a proclamation; and on the 10th of that month the American trade with Great Britain was re-opened. This arrangement was disavowed by the British government, on the ground that Mr. Erskine had exceeded his powers. The act of the 1st of March was, in consequence, revived, against Great Britain on the 9th of August. Napoleon, though enraged at the discontinuance of the embargo, as well as the non-intercourse of American ships with France, concealed his plans until the continental ports of Europe, within his power abounded with American ships ; which, with their valuable cargoes, were suddenly seized and confis cated. The American minister remonstrated against this flagrant outrage, and, on the 17th of February, 1810, General Armstrong was informed by the French minister, " that his majesty could place no reliance on the proceedings of the United States, who, having no ground of complaint against France, comprised her in their acts of exclusion ; and, since the month of May, have forbidden the entrance of their ports to French vessels, under the penalty of confiscation. As soon as his majesty was informed of this measure, he considered himself bound to order reprisals on American vessels, not only in his territory, but likewise in the countries which are under his influence. In the ports of Holland, of Spain, of Italy, and Naples, American vessels were seized, because the Americans have seized French vessels. " The Americans cannot hesitate as to the part which they are to take : they ought to tear in pieces the act of their independence, and to become again, as before the revolution, the subjects of England, or to take such measures, as that their commerce and industry should not be tarified (tarifies) by the English, which renders them more dependant than Jamaica, which, at least, has its as sembly of representatives and its privileges." " Men without just political views (sans politique~)," the French minister adds, " without honour, without energy, may allege that payment of tribute imposed by England, may be submitted to because it is light; but why will they not perceive, that the English will sooner have obtained the admission of the principle, than they will raise 1 tariff in such way that, the burden at first light becoming insupportable, fetti will be necessary to fight for interest after having refused to fight forhonoi VOL, i. 2 F 218 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. It is astonishing that this insult to their country, and people, should have been, as it was, tamely submitted to by the American executive, so far as not even to order the minister at Paris to repel such false charges against the honour and conduct of the nation. But General Armstrong, much to his honour, took upon himself to repel the foul accusation, "that the United States had nothing to complain of against France," and boldly demanded, " was the capture and condemnation of a ship, driven on the shores of France by stress of weather and the perils of the sea nothing ? Was the seizure and sequestration of many cargoes, brought to France in ships, violating no law, and admitted to regular entry at the imperial custom-houses nothing ? Was the violation of our mari time rights, consecrated, as they have been, by the solemn forms of a public treaty nothing ? In a word, was it nothing, that our ships were burnt on the high seas, without other offence than that of belonging to the United States; or other apology, than was to be found in the enhanced safety of the perpetrator? Surely, if it be the duty of the United States to resent the theoretical usurpations of the British orders of November, 1807, it cannot be less their duty, to complain of the daily and practical outrages on the part of France. 5 The merchants of Holland not having fully complied with the edict of Napoleon, he threatened, on the 24th of January, 1810, to " recall the prince of the bloody his brother Louis, whom he had placed on the throne of Holland to occupy all the mouths of the rivers in that country, and all its ports, by French troops ; 5 and, " to employ every means, without being stopped by any considera tions, to make Holland enter into the continental system." Louis was sent for to Paris, where, in March, 1810, he signed a treaty, by which he not only bound himself to enforce the continental system, with the utmost rigour, but that " all the merchandise imported by American vessels that have arrived in the ports of Holland, since the 1st of February, 1809, shall be put under sequestration, and made over to France, in order to her disposing thereof, according to circumstances, and the state of her political relations with the United States." By the Rambouillet decree, published on the 14th of May, 1810, Napoleon ordered that all vessels under the flag of the United States, which, from the 20th of May, 1809, had entered, or should enter, into the ports of his empire, of his colonies, or of the countries occupied by his arms, should be seized, and the products of the sale deposited in the surplus fund (caisse d arnortissement). This decree was soon after executed, and the property of American citizens, to the value of many millions of dollars, in the various continental ports, was sold. American ships, with their cargoes, entered the continental ports, without having notice that they did so irregularly ; on the contrary, those richly laden with cargoes of colonial produce, entered the port of Naples, at the express in vitation of Napoleon s agent. NAPOLEON S CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. 219 The government of the United States was at last induced to admit by the law of the 1st of May, 1810, the commercial ships of England and France into American ports, excluding ships of war. The French government was, at the same time, informed by the American government, that a satisfactory provision for the restoration of the property of the Americans, seized in the ports of the continent, must be combined with a repeal of the French edicts, with a view to a non-intercourse with Great Britain; such a provision being indispensable evidence of the just purpose of France towards the United States." This decision was communicated to the governments of France and England. The Duke de Cadore wrote on the 5th of August, 1810, to General Armstrong: " that Congress, by the act of May 1, 1810, having retraced its steps, and engaged to oppose the belligerents refusing to acknowledge the rights of neutrals; that in this new state of things, he was authorised to declare, that the decrees of Berlin and Milan were revoked, and that after the 1st of November, they would cease to have effect, it being understood ^ (bien entenda que) that, in consequence of this declaration, the English shall revoke their orders in council, and renounce the new principles of blockade which they have wished to establish, or that the United States shall cause their rights to be respected by the English. 3 The letter concludes with a declaration, that, "his majesty (Napoleon) loves the Americans their prosperity and their commerce are within the scope of his policy." The president of the United States published a proclamation of the 2nd of November, 1810, declaring, that the French edicts were, in fact, revoked on the 1st of November; and that, unless the British orders in council should be re voked on or before the 2nd of February, 1811, the non-intercourse law should be revived against Great Britain. Napoleon certainly did not intend that his continental system should cease until the United States should become a party in the war; and, consequently, American ships, with their cargoes, were, after the 1st of November, seized and held in sequestration, or as pledges, until Napoleon should ascertain what would be "the state of his political relations with the United States. 5 The Duke of Cadore, in a report to the emperor, says, " As long as England shall persist in her orders in council, your majesty will persist in your decrees." On the 31st of March, 1811, Napoleon, in an address to his council of commerce, declares that " the decrees of Berlin and Milan are the fundamental laws of my empire. For the neutral navigation, I consider the flag as an extension of territory. The power which suffers its flag to be violated, cannot be considered as neutral. The fate of American commerce will soon be decided. 1 will favour it if the United States conform themselves to these decreesin the contrary case, their vessels will be driven from my empire. 3 220 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. During the latter month of the year 1810, the American government urged on that of England a revocation of the orders in council, on the ground of the actual repeal of the French decrees. The British government insisted, that the decrees were still in force, and demanded an official act of the French govern ment, repealing those decrees, of as high an authority as that by which they were promulgated ; and that the letter of the Duke of Cadore was not a document of that character that it was a mere declaration that they would thereafter be repealed, on certain conditions a declaration that had never been carried into effect by any act of Napoleon. The American merchants expected payment of the immense value of their property plundered by Napoleon ; but on the arrival of a new French minister (Serrurier) at Washington, in 1811, he gave official notice of the determination of the emperor not to make any remuneration for the property confiscated by his orders. The policy of the President of the United States at this time appears incon sistent and unaccountable, unless it be attributed to a hatred towards England, or to extend his popularity, by exciting the passions of the citizens. Instead of obtaining explicit answers from the new ambassador from France, as to the revo cation of the Milan and Berlin decrees, he kept the Congress in utter ignorance of the real projects of Napoleon, and in consequence, on the 2nd of March, 1811, passed a non-intercourse act against Great Britain. It was well known to the president, that at the time of passing this act, Na poleon s decrees were not revoked. Mr. Smith, the Secretary of State, even declared, that, " from information which had been received by Mr. Madison, prior to the date of the non-intercourse law (that of March 2, 1811) it was, at the time of passing it, evident to my mind, that the Berlin and Milan decrees had not been revoked, as had been declared by the proclamation." While Napoleon was cajoling the government and people of the United States, with pretensions of " his love for them and for their prosperity and com merce," his measures were directed to undermine or curtail their commerce and power. He imposed a duty of eighty cents on Sea Island, and about sixty cents on all other American, cotton imported into France; and he only permitted the trade between the two countries under the authority of special imperial licences, specified articles only, viz.: cotton, fish, oil, hides and peltry, dye-woods and salt- fish, were allowed to be imported. The importations were permitted to be from none but the ports of New York and Charleston ; the cargoes of these articles were not to be admissible, unless accompanied by a certificate of origin from a French consul. As to return cargoes, the American ships were constrained to be laden with wines, brandy, silks, linens, cloth, jewellery, household furni ture, and other French manufactured articles. Mr. Barlow, the new American minister at Paris, received special instructions to negotiate a commercial treaty with France. NAPOLEON S CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. > - 1 He received flattering assurances of the emperor s readiness to conclude a commercial treaty of reciprocity, including indemnities for the confiscated property of citizens which had been seized and sold. The continental system was, however, maintained, and this formed an insur mountable obstacle to any satisfactory treaty. On the 10th of March, 1812, the Duke of Bassano, in a roport made to the emperor, declared that "as long as the British orders in council shall not be repealed, and the principles of the treaty of Utrecht, with respect to neutrals, put in vigour, the decrees of Berlin and Milan must remain in force, as to all those powers, who suffer their flag to be denationalised. The ports of the conti nent must not be opened, either to denationalised flags, or to English mer chandise." By the Milan decree, every ship that should have submitted to be searched by an English ship, or made a voyage to England, or that should have paid any duty to the British government, was denationalised, and liable to condemnation. Mr. Barlow writes to his government on the 2nd of April, 1812: "This is dull work, hard to begin and difficult to pursue. I urged it a long time, without the effect even of an oral answer. But lately they have consented to give it a discussion, and the minister assures me, that something shall be done, to silence the complaints, and on principles that, lie says, ought to be satisfactory." Great Britain was again urged to revoke her orders, on the ground of the actual repeal of the French decrees. This was not admitted by the British go vernment, which required some authentic act of the French ruler revoking these decrees; and, on the 21st of April, the prince regent, by a proclamation, declared, that " whenever the French decrees, by some authentic act of the French government, publicly promulgated, should be absolutely and unconditionally repealed, the orders in council should be revoked." Mr. Barlow, in consequence, urged the French government to furnish the evidence required by Great Britain. "It is much to be desired," he say?, in a note to the French minister, of May 1st, "that the French government would now make and publish an authentic act, declaring the Berlin and Milan decrees, as relative to the United States, to have ceased, in November, 1810, declaring that they have not been applied, in any instance since that time ; and that they shall not be so applied in future. The case is so simple, the demand is so just, and the necessity so urgent, that I cannot withhold my confidence, in the prompt and complete success of my proposition." The French government showed him, in consequence, on the 10th of May, a copy of a decree, purporting to have passed on the 28th of April of the pre ceding year; in which, after a preamble, Napoleon declares, that "the decrees of Berlin and Milan are definitively, and to date, from the first day of Novembe last, considered as not having existed (non avenus) in regard to American vessels." Mr. Barlow writes, on the 12th of May, to his government this transaction :- 222 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. " When, in the conversation above alluded to, the duke first produced to me the decree of the 28th of April, 1811, I made no comment on the strange manner in which it had been so long concealed from me, and probably from you. I only asked him if that decree had been published. He said no, but declared it had been communicated to my prede cessor here, and likewise sent to M. Serrurier, with orders to communicate it to you. I assured him it was not among the archives of the legation ; that I had never before heard of it; and since he had consented to answer my note, I desired him to send me, in that official manner, a copy of that decree, and of any other document that might prove to the incredulous of my country (not to me) that the decrees of Berlin and Milan were in good faith and unconditionally repealed, with regard to the IJnited States. He then promised me he would do it, and he has performed his promise." The declaration of tbe French minister, that the decree, though not published, had been communicated to the predecessor of Mr. Barlow (Mr. Russel), and also sent to M. Serrurier, to be communicated to the American government, is re markable ; and it is still more so when we consider, that neither the decree nor Mr. Barlow s letter of the 12th of May, although both were received at the office of the department of state, on the 13th of July, 1812, were laid before Congress until the 3rd day of March, 1813, and then only in consequence of a special demand of the House of Representatives. The president, in his message to Congress, at the opening of the session, on the 4th of November, 1812, referring to the subject of this decree, merely observed : " This proceeding, although made the ground of the repeal of the British orders in council, is rendered, by the time and manner of it, liable to many objections" The spirit of concealment appears to have been cherished, at the time, as much by the cabinet of Washington as by the court of Napoleon. We have referred to these particulars, merely on account of the unfortunate policy that was almost immediately after followed by the President of the United States. Although Napoleon can scarcely be said to have possessed a navy, he had small, fast sailing, armed vessels, which put to sea in squadrons, seizing and de stroying, as far as in their power, American vessels ; and one of these squadrons captured, between the 4th day of February and the 6th of May, 1812, on the high seas, twenty-seven American vessels, many of which were burnt. Among those thus captured and burnt was the ship Asia of Philadelphia, and the brig Gershon fo Boston, both bound to Lisbon, laden with corn and flour. The French com mander, on putting the crews of these ships on board of an American ship bound to the United States, gave them a certificate, in which he declared that they had been captured " d apres les instructions de son excellence Monseigneur le Ministre de la Marine et les Colonies." The papers of the Asia and the Gershon were burnt. Notwithstanding all the outrages that had been committed by Napoleon on American navigation and trade, the president, on the 1st of June, 1812, recom mended a declaration of war against Great Britain. This declaration was made by the House of Representatives on the 4th, but was not finally concurred in by the Senate until the l?th of the same month. NAPOLEON S CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. We are not about to exculpate England from having committed some severe and some unjust acts, towards American shipping, but we confidently attribute the acquiescence of the Congress to the declaration of war against Great Britain, to the dishonesty of the president, in not laying before that body the decree of Napoleon repealing his Berlin and Milan decrees, until such time as his treaties for the destruction of British power were acceded to by the legislature of the United States. An embargo for sixty days was recommende^by the president on the 1st of April, and almost immediately adopted by both houses. This was the herald of the war which followed. The British orders in council were revoked on the 22nd of June, and war was declared against Great Britain, before it was known that the British orders in council were revoked. Had the intelligence reached Washington, that war would not have taken place. The embargo and the war were exceedingly injurious to American, and to European commerce; and we consider that the statesmen, who, from the lust of arbitrary power, or from whatever cause or reason, bring the countries whose administration is entrusted to them, unnecessarily into the calamities of war, are the greatest of all traitors. This unnatural and unnecessary war was attended with no other effect than the destruction of life and property. Two acts of the British fleet on the American coast are to be especially denounced the burning of Washington, and the proclamation to induce American runaway slaves to come on board British ships as an asylum. The first was a barbarism worthy only of the early buccaneers. The latter was a mad, inconsiderate act on the part of Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane, when slavery, too, in its most severe form prevailed in every British West Indian possession. The government of the United States, most justly, obtained afterwards an in demnity for the losses sustained by the citizens, under Napoleon s continental system, and from England, for the slaves most injudiciously taken away by the British admiral on the coast during the war. Of the deplorable fate of these slaves, we have given a full account in another work.* Nor can we but condemn the employment of the Indians even as allies in the Canadian frontier war. It is true, that the Indians were not allowed to commit atrocities similar to those which they perpetrated during the war of the American revolution : yet, even under any circumstances, we denounce the employment of the aborigines, in a war between the European races in America. The last American war was rash on the part of the government of the United States. That it was so is evident from the date of the revocation of the orders in council in England, being previous to its being possibly known, in Great Britain, what course would be pursued by the President of the United * See Macgregor s British America, vol. i. 224 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. States.* That war, however, developed one great fact that was, the general unwillingness of the citizens to tax themselves to pay the inevitably great expense of maintaining an aggressive warj We are confident that the citizens of the United States would, on the other hand, tax themselves to the value of the last dollar and the last acre which they possessed, in a defensive war in a war defending against aggression their country, their property, and, above all, their civil and religious liberties. There was only one other great fact thoroughly established during this dis gracefully unnecessary war that was, the undoubted bravery of the Anglo- American race, both on sea and on land. They fought especially on the sea with the most extraordinary maritime skill, courage, and self-possession. CHAPTER X. REVIEW OF EVENTS IN THE UNITED STATES SINCE THE PEACE OF 1815. PRESI DENCIES OF MR. MUNROE AND JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. IN 1815, in consequence of the outrageous conduct of the Dey of Algiers in expelling the consul and American citizens from his territory, in violation of the treaty between both countries, and seizing American vessels and citizens, war was declared against that regency of pirates. An American squadron appeared * " During the war, though the results had been honourable to the American arms, a large portion of the inhabitants of the New England states were unceasingly opposed to the measures of the administration. To insure unity of views and concert in action, the legislatures of Massachussetts proposed a conference, by delegates from the legislatures of the New England states, and of any other states that might accede to the measure. " The proposition was readily assented to by several states, and the delegates appointed in pur suance of it met at Hartford, on the 15th of December following (1814). The convention re commended, 1. That the states they represent take measures to protect their citizens from ;for- cible draughts, conscriptions, or impressments, not authorised by the constitution of the United States. 2. That an earnest application be made to the government of the United States, re questing their consent to some arrangement, whereby the states separately, or in concert, may take upon themselves the defence of their territory against the enemy, and that a reasonable portion of the taxes collected within the states be appropriated to this object. 3. That the several governors be authorised by law to employ the military force under their command in assisting any state requesting it to repel the invasions of the public enemy. 4. That several amendments of the constitution of the United States, calculated in their view to prevent a re currence of the evils of which they complain, be proposed by the states they represent for adoption either by the states legislatures, or by a convention chosen by the people of each state. Lastly, That if the application of these states to the government of the United States should be unsuc cessful, and peace should not be concluded, and the defence of these states be still neglected, it would, in their opinion, be expedient for the legislatures of the several states to appoint delegates to another con vention, to meet at Boston, in June, with such powers and instructions as the exigency of a crisis so momentous may require. The effect of these proceedings upon the public mind in the aggrieved states was alike seasonable and salutary. The very proposal to call a convention, and the con fidence reposed in the men delegated to that trust, served greatly to allay the passions, and to in spire confidence and hope." Book of the United States. The arrival of the Treaty of Peace with England rendered unnecessary the act passed by the Congress in pursuance of these recommendations. But the spirit manifested by the Hartford convention must ever be considered remarkable. -j* The whole financial history and statistics of the United States, as developed in the second volume of this work, and drawn up altogether from American authorities, will fully establish the truth of this incontrovertible fact. (See Currency and Banking, p. 1068 ; et seq. and Finances of the United States, p. 1198, et seq. vol. ii. of this work.) HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. 2 25 in the Mediterranean, captured the Algerine admiral, and in consequence the Dey submitted to a peace, by which he relinquished all pretensions to tribui from the citizens of the United States. Mr. Munroe succeeded Mr. Madison in the presidency in 1817 The progress of settlement, west of the Aileghanies, now proceeded with extraor dmary rapidity. The territories of Indiana, Mississippi were admitted as fe deral states; the Choctas, Chikasaws, and Cherokee tribes ceded by treaty large territories, and placed themselves by treaties under the protection of the United States. The expulsion of the South American patriots from Florida, under the Venezuelan general, Gregor Macgregor, was followed by the purchase of Florida from Spain in 1819, the sale of which was ratified by the King of Spain in 1821. Pensacola, the capital, was delivered up to General Tucker on the 7th of July, that year; and on the 10th of the same month, the Spanish governor, gave possession of East Florida to the United States commander, Colonel Butler. The occupation of the FJoridas, the condition of the Spanish settlers, and the expensive, destructive and we cannot but say, most cruel war with the Indians of that territory, all require far too detailed an account in the annals of America to be introduced within the limits of the historical sketches of this work : the second volume of which we shall devote nearly alto gether to the progress and statistics of the United States of Anglo-America. In 1824, the treaty between England and America for the suppression of the slave trade was ratified. A convention with Russia was also concluded, bv which America renounced the establishment of any settlement on the north-west coast, north or 54 deg. 40 min. north latitude. On the following year, John Quincy Adams was inaugurated President of the United States.* It was a remarkable coincidence, that on the 4th day of July * In his speech to Congress, the president took a retrospective view back to the epoch of the confederation. " The year of Jubilee since the first formation of our union," observed iVJr. Adams, " has just elapsed ; that of the declaration of our independence is at hand. Since that period, a population of 4,000,000 has multiplied to 12,000,000. A territory bounded by the Mississippi has been extended from sea to sea. New states have been admitted to the Union, in numbers nearly equal to those of the first confederation. Treaties of peace, amity, and commerce, have been concluded with the principal dominions of the earth. The peopleof other nations, inhabi tants of regions acquired, not by conquest, but by compact, have been united with us in the par ticipation of our rights and duties, of our burdens and blessings." Having noticed the progress of agriculture and of settlements, of commerce and arts, of liberty and law, Mr. Adams thus sketches the features of the administration of the preceding president : " In his career of eight years, the internal taxes have been repealed ; 60,000,000 of public debt have been discharged; provision has been made for the comfort and relief of the aged and indigent among the surviving warriors of the revolution ; the regular armed force has been reduced, and the constitution re vised and perfected ; the accountability for the expenditure of public moneys has been made more effective ; the Floridas have been peaceably acquired, and our boundary has been extended to the Pacific Ocean ; the independence of the southern nations of this hemisphere has been recog nised, and recommended, by example and by counsel, to the potentates of Europe ; progress has been made in the defence of the country, by fortifications and the increase of the navy ; towards the effectual suppression of the African traffic in slaves; in alluring the aboriginal hunters or our land to the cultivation of the soil and of the mind ; in exploring the interior regions of the Union, and in preparing, by scientific researches and surveys, for the further application of our national VOL I. 2 G 226 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. 1826, exactly fifty years after the declaration of American independence, on the 4th of July, 1776, the ex-Presidents Jefferson and the elder Adams died. In February this year a treaty with the Creeks was concluded, as the pre liminary of removing all the Indians within the limits of any other state of the union to a territory, to be assigned to the Indian tribes, on the west of the Mississipi. All, except one tribe of the Creeks, assented, and ceded to the United States all their lands within the State of Georgia. The Kansas and Osages followed the example of the Creeks, and ceded their lands in Missouri. The administration of Mr. Quincy Adams was prolific in its multiplicity of political dissensions. Charges of corruption against the executive, were brought forward with virulence, as well as with gravity, and with such hardihood and semblance of truth, as to acquire that credence, very generally among the citizens, which led to the n on- re-election of Mr. Quincy Adams. He, however, is now believed to be utterly free from all the charges brought forward against him, and he certainly persevered in governing without the formation of, or adhering to, a party. This, no doubt, constituted his chief sin in the minds of his accusers. The Congress of 1826-7, was remarkable for the many questions which were submitted to it by the executive, and those brought forward by senators and repre sentatives. The federal republic was in a state of great commercial and fiscal prosperity. The post-office revenue yielded during the year a surplus of eighty thousand dollars above the expenditure of that department. The total net revenue of the United States was sufficient to spare 7^067,039 dollars for the reduction of the public debt, and 3,944,859 dollars for the payment of interest. The unsettled land claims in Florida and Louisiana ; the works of internal im provement, reported by the board of engineers ; the irregularities of the Bra zilian and Buenos- Ay rean squadrons towards neutral flags ; and the perma nent increase of the navy of the United States, were impressively committed to the attention of congress. It was considered that the treaty of the 22nd of April had terminated all disputes with the Creek Indians, but the provisions of this treaty were precipitated by governor Troup, who ordered the surveyors employed by him to enter the Creek territories and commence surveys, previous to the time prescribed by the treaty for their removal. The Indians resisted these encroachments, and the governor ordered out a force of militia. In this posture of affairs, the pre sident determined to support the laws of the Union by the authority which the constitution had placed in his hands, previously submitting the affair to congress, resources to the internal improvement of our country. In this brief outline of the promise and performance of my predecessor, the line of duty for his successor is clearly delineated. To pur sue to their consummation those purposes of improvement in our common condition instituted or recommended by him, will embrace the whole sphere of my obligations." HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES- to have it determined whether it were necessary to resort to any new measures On the 5th of February he transmitted to both houses of congress a message in which he gave a plain statement of facts, and declared his determination to enforce the laws, and fulfil the duties of the nation by all the force committed for that purpose to his charge. That the arm of military force will be resorted to only in the event of the failure of all other expedients provided by the laws, a pledge has been given by the forbearance to employ it at this time. It is sub mitted to the wisdom of congress to determine, whether any further acts of legis lation may be necessary or expedient to meet the emergency which these trans actions may produce/ On the receipt of this message, the committee of the representatives, to which it was referred, reported that it " is expedient to procure a cession of the Indian lands in the state of Georgia, and that until such a cession is procured, the law of the land, as set forth in the treaty at Washington, ought to be main- tained by all necessary, constitutional, and legal means. " The governor of Georgia, in consequence, addressed a letter to the delegation of that state at Washington, submitting, on the part of his state, to the decision of congress, and, in consequence, the Creek lands in Georgia were finally ceded. In Pennsylvania a state convention was nominated, to choose delegates to attend a general convention at Harrisburg on the 30th of July, 1827. Other states soon joined, and a crowded meeting of delegates was held at the appointed time. The reports of their committees on various subjects connected with domestic industry formed the basis of a Memorial to congress, drawn up in conformity with a demand for protection to manufacturing industry; and unanimously adopted. These proceedings were received in the southern states with justly merited dissatisfaction. The United States, during the whole of Mr. Adams administration enjoyed uninterrupted peace. The claims made on foreign governments by the United States government, on the part of the citizens for injuries, were persisted in with unexampled success. The author of the "Book of the United States," an eulogist of Mr. Adams, who considers him the most perfect of statesmen and of rulers, says, " A portion of these claims upon Sweden and Denmark was obtained, and the claims which arose against the Brazilian government, during the war between that power and Buenos Ayres, were speedily adjusted by the liquidation of the claims. The exorbitant pretensions of Great Britain respecting the West India trade were resisted, although at the expense of the direct trade between the United States and the British islands. " The difficulties which occurred in carrying into effect the treaty of Ghent^ relative to deported slaves, and other property taken away, having been found insurmountable, the sum of 1,204,960 dollars, which was amply sufficient, was 228 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. obtained from the British government in satisfaction of these claims. A con vention was also concluded with that government, and a mode provided for the peaceable settlement of the long pending and finally threatening dispute con cerning the north-east boundary of the United States. The treaty of commerce between the United States and Great Britain, and the convention effecting a tem porary compromise of their conflicting claims to the territory west of the Rocky Mountains, both of which expired by their own limitation, October 20th, 1828, were renewed for an indefinite period, with liberty to either party to terminate them, on giving one year s notice. Some commercial difficulties, which grew out of an adherence of the government of the Netherlands to the principles of dis criminating duties were adjusted to mutual satisfaction. New treaties of amity, navigation, and commerce, in which the liberal principles maintained by the United States, in her commercial and foreign policy, were generally recognised, were concluded with Colombia, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Guatemala, and the Hanseatic league. " It was, however, in the domestic policy of the government, that the cha racter of the administration was most strongly displayed. During its continu ance in office, new and increased activity was imparted to those powers vested in the federal government, for the development of the resources of the country; and the public revenue liberally expended in prosecuting those national measures to which the sanction of congress had been deliberately given, as the settled policy of the government. " In the condition which we have described, in peace with all the world, with an increasing revenue, and with a surplus of 5,125,638 dollars in the public treasury, the administration of the government of the United States was sur rendered by Mr. Adams, who became a private citizen, to General Jackson, his successor. "Thus ended the administration of Mr. Adams ; an administration marked by definite and consistent policy and energetic councils, governed by upright motives, but from the beginning devoted to the most violent opposition and a signal overthrow. The election which terminated in the defeat of Mr. Adams was marked with extreme bitterness, asperity, and profligacy. On both sides the press was virulent, libellous, and mean. No privacy was safe, no confidence was sacred ; even the tombs of the illustrious dead were violated, and their ashes defiled. The arts of party warfare were more insidious than the arts of savage treachery, and its arms more ruthless than the tomahawk or the scalping knife. Calumny and falsehood were the usual resources of the most violent partisans, and the only weapons that they never for a moment laid aside. The brave soldier was described as a malignant savage, and the experienced statesman as a man who had purchased by intrigue a position that he was determined to maintain by corruption. It must be most sincerely hoped that an era may never again HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UMJED &TATKS. arrive in our history to be stamped so indelibly with the brand of shame- tl-at public opinion will ever require of the public press a more decent regard to the chanties of life and the duties of truth."* There is much that is true, little that is positively false, but all appears exa-. gerated in this eulogium. CHAPTER XI. ADMINISTRATIONS OF GENERAL ANDREW JACKSON, GENERAL HARRISON PRESIDENT TYLER, AND PRESIDENT POLK. ON the 4th of March, 1829, Andrew Jackson took the oath of office as President of the United States. f In his first address he stated that " la administering the law I shall keep steadily in view the limitations as well as extent of the executive power, trusting thereby to discharge the functions of my office without transcending its authority." His recognition of the rights of the states, his view of the policy of standing armies, and of the power of a national militia, are all clearly and constitutionally presented. "It will be my sincere and constant desire/ he continued, " to observe toward the Indian tribes within our limits a just and liberal policy; and to give that humane and considerate attention to their rights and their wants, which are consistent with the habits of our government and the feelings of our people. " The recent demonstration of public sentiment inscribes, on the list of executive duties, in characters too legible to be overlooked, the task of reform; which will require, particularly, the correction of those abuses^that have brought the patronage of the federal government into conflict with the freedom of elections, and the counteraction of those causes which have disturbed the rightful course of appointment, and leave place or con tinued power in unfaithful or incompetent hands. * We were, during the period of this contested election in America, and though we do not consider the administration of Mr. Adams so faultless as the author of the " Book of the United States," we are free to subscribe to the truth of nearly all his statements regarding the election in which Mr. Adams was defeated arid General Jackson elected. j* The ceremony of his entering the senate is described as follows -by the author of the " Book of the United States :" * He entered the senate chamber attended by the marshal of the district, and the committee of arrangements. " The seats assigned them on the right of the president s chair, were occupied by the chief justice of the United States, and associate judges. " The foreign ministers and their suites, in their splendid official costume, filled seats on the left of the chair. " Tue seats in the rear of the senators, and the lobby under the eastern gallery were occupied by ladies ; while the western gallery was reserved for members of the House of Representatives. " At noon, from the eastern portico of the capitol, in the presence of an immense concourse of people filling every approach, his inaugural address was delivered by the president ; and t oath to support the constitution was administered to him by Chief Justice Marshall, announced by salutes from the capitol, repeated at the forts, and by detachments of art the plains. - " The president was then conducted to his mansion, where he received the congra the people." 230 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. * In the performance of a task thus generally delineated, I shall endeavour to select men whose diligence and talents will insure, in their respective stations, able and faithful co-operation, depending, for the advancement of the public service, more on the integrity and zeal of the public officers than on their numbers. "A diffidence, perhaps too just, in my own qualifications, will teach me to look with reverence to the examples of public virtue left by my illustrious predecessors, and with veneration to the lights that flow from the mind that founded, and the mind that reformed our system. The same diffidence induces me to hope for instruction and aid from the co-ordinate branches of the government, and for the indulgence and support of my fellow-citizens generally. And a firm reliance on the goodness of that Power whose providence mercifully protected our national infancy, and has since upheld our liberties in various vicissitudes, encourages me to offer up my ardent supplications that He will continue to make our beloved country the object of His divine care and gracious bene diction." A new cabinet was immediately nominated by him ; each nomination of secretary being ratified by the senate without opposition. Mr. Martin VanBuren, the most prominent person of the cabinet, was appointed secretary of state. The other members of the cabinet were little known to the public. Mr. Calhoun was vice-president. Mr. McLean, who had filled the office of postmaster-general, left his place deeply regretted. His patience, liberality, industry, reformation of abuses, and decision, had given much satisfaction to the country. Mr. Van Buren, at the time of his appointment, was governor of the state of New York. This office he immediately resigned, and retired from his duties with the complimentary address of the legislature. His nomination was gene, rally expected. He had been an ardent friend of General Jackson ; and though the latter was in a great degree uncommitted as to his policy, it could hardly be expected that he would fail to consider Mr. Van Buren one of his men of "superior tact and experience. ^ Mr. Barry, succeeded Mr. McLean as post master-general : the latter then took his place as one of the judges of the supreme court. President Jackson then commenced the " task of reform, 5 to which he had pledged himself, and which would demand, he observed, "the correction of abuses, which had brought the patronage of the federal government into conflict with the freedom of elections, and the counteraction of those causes, which had disturbed the rightful course of appointment, and had placed or continued power in unfaithful or incompetent hands." He soon removed, " by force of his con struction of the right of the executive to fill vacancies occurring in the recess, many officers in the treasury department, and ordered a great change in the diplomatic body ;" and he sent ministers plenipotentiary to Great Britain, France, Netherlands, and Spain. In the post-office his, almost total, changes were complained of as uncon stitutional, unprecedented, and dangerous. Many of the leading newspapers de- HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. nounced this policy. The report of the postmaster-general, in answer to a reso lution of the senate, declared the removal of 491 postmasters, between the 4th of March, 1829, and 22nd of March, 1830." The patronage of the president was severely condemned " as utterly at war with that doctrine of securing the independence and purity of the national legislation." His friends defended him as one who was solely in. vested with the right of removal; that it was a discretionary right, for the exercise of which he was responsible solely to the nation ; that that power was given to enable him, not only to remove incumbents for delinquency or incapacity, but with the view of reforming the administration of the government, and in troducing officers of greater efficiency, or sounder principles, into its various departments. Occasion was also taken, owing to the defalcation of a few of those removed, to assert the necessity of reform, and great efforts were made to create an impression on the public mind of the necessity of a general removal of the officers of the federal government."* The merchants of New York presented a memorial, drawn up with great ability, seeking the interference of government in their claims upon France for spoliations upon their property during Napoleon s rule. The shipping trade of the United States had, during the years previous to 1828, rapidly increased.f On the 7th of December the first session of the twenty-first congress com menced. The president observed, " that there were subjects of deep interest yet unsettled between the United States and foreign countries, but that foreign relations were considered, in a general view, as peaceful and promising. With England the ( disputed territory 5 question was still open. It was regarded, however, as in fair progress towards a final and satisfactory settlement. The controversy between the two governments respecting the trade between the United States and the West Indies was also still kept up. But certain concessions which we had made to the British government being satisfactory, measures were now in train for a renewal of the trade." In respect to the claims of American citizens on France, the president informed congress that he had " instructed our minister to press these demands on the French government, with the earnestness called for by their importance and irrefutable justice, and in a spirit that would evince the respect which is due to the feelings of those from whom the satisfaction is required." He recommended " such an amendment of the constitution as would remove all intermediate agency in the election of president and vice-president." " The mode," said he, " may be so regulated as to preserve to each state its present * Annual Register. t See Shipping of the United States, vol. ii. 232 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. relative weight in the election ; and a failure in the first attempt may be provided for, by confining the second to a choice between the two highest candidates. In connexion with such an amendment, it would seem advisable to limit the service of the chief magistrate to a single term, of either four or six years. " He expressed his belief that the " most safe, just, and federal disposition, which could be made of the surplus revenue, would be its apportionment among the several states according to their ratio of representation; and should this measure not be found warranted by the constitution, that it would be expedient to propose to the states an amendment authorising it/ In regard to the Indian tribes within the limits of the United States, he said, "Surrounded by the whites, with their arts of civilisation, which, by destroying the resources of the savage, doom him to weakness and decay ; the fate of the Mohegan, the Narragansett, and the Delaware, is fast overtaking the Choctaw, the Cherokee, and the Creek. That this fate surely awaits them, if they remain within the limits of the states, does not admit a doubt. Humanity and national honour demand that every effort should be made to avert so great a calamity. It is too late to inquire whether it was just in the United States to include them and their territory within the bounds of new states, whose limits they could control. That step cannot be retraced. A state cannot be dismembered by congress, or restricted in the exercise of her constitutional power. But the people of those states, and of every state, actuated by feelings of justice and regard for our national honour, submit to you the interesting question, whether something cannot be done, consistently with the rights of the states, to preserve this much injured race. "As a mear.s of effecting this end, I suggest, for your consideration, the propriety of setting apart an ample district, west of the Mississippi, and without the limits of any state or territory, now formed, to be guaranteed to the Indian tribes, as long as they shall occupy it; each tribe having a distinct control over the portion designated for its use. There they may be secured in the enjoyment of governments of their own choice, subject to no other control from the United States than such as may be necessary to preserve peace on the frontier and between the several tribes. There the benevolent may endea vour to teach them the arts of civilisation ; and by promoting union and harmony among them, to raise up an interesting commonwealth, destined to perpetuate the race, and to attest the humanity and justice of the government. * This emigration should be voluntary : for it would be as cruel as unjust to compel the aborigines to abandon the graves of their fathers, and seek a home in a distant land. But they should be distinctly informed that, if they remain within the limits of the states, they must be subject to their laws. In return for their obedience, as individuals, they will, without doubt, be protected in the enjoyment of those possessions which they have improved by their industry." On the great fiscal and currency question of the renewal of the charter of the bank of the United States, he observed, " Both the constitutionality and the expediency of the law creating this bank, are well-questioned by a large portion of our fellow-citizens ; and it muse be admitted by all, that it has failed in the great end of establishing a uniform and sound currency. " Under these circumstances, if such an institution is deemed essential to the fiscal operations of the government, I submit to the wisdom of the legislature, whether a national one, founded upon the credit of the government and its revenues, might not be devised, which would avoid all constitutional difficulties, and, at the same time, secure HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. 233 all the advantages to the government and country that were expected to result fron the present bank. The fate of the Indians within the then states and territories was considered as sealed. The alternative of removal or extermination seemed only to be left them.* * An intelligent writer observes of the Cherpkees, a powerful tribe within the limits of Georgia : " From the adoption of the federal constitution, treaties had, from time to time, been nTade with them. In 1785 they were, by the treaty of Hopewell, received into the favour and under the protection of die United States. In 1791, another treaty was made with them at Holston, acknowledging the territory which they inhabited to be theirs. Other treaties followed in sub sequent years. In 1827, the tribe adopted a written constitution, which, as it destroyed the hope indulged by Georgia of an early removal of it from her territory, excited the state to a great degree. That territory had been recognised as hers by the general government, which had agreed to extinguish the title so soon as it could be done in peace and reason. Georgia soon asserted her jurisdiction over the whole territory. 44 A change having taken place in the administration of the federal government, was followed by a change in its policy towards the Indians in the United States. Soon after the inauguration of General Jackson, he conceded to Georgia full power as a sovereign state to extend her civil and criminal jurisdiction over all the Indians within her limits : and that the treaties made with the United States, so far as they contravened this authority by guaranteeing the Indian title, were not binding upon the general government, inasmuch as it had riot a constitutional right to make such treaties. " These new views adopted by the executive in relation to the obligations of the United States towards these Indians, and the severe laws of Georgia of 1830, by which the Cherokee laws and customs were declared to be void, and their territory ordered to be divided, excited deep feeling in all parts of the United States. " In his message, the president had brought forward a formal proposal to set apart a territory beyond the Mississippi, to which they might remove. This subject was referred by both houses of congress to their respective committees upon Indian affairs, and on the 22nd of February, 1830, the committee of the senate made a long report to that body, approving the recommendation of the executive,, accompanied by a bill to carry it into effect. The president was also authorised to exchange these districts with any tribes thereof residing within the United States, for the land occupied by them, and to assure them that the United States will secure such land to them and their posterity for ever ; and a patent was to be granted to them to that effect. He was autho rised to pay for the Indian improvements on the exchanged lands, and upon the payment of the appraised value, the improvements were to belong to the United States. He was to cause the emigrants to be assisted in removing and settling in their new country, to provide for their suste nance for the first year after their removal, and to protect them in their new residence against all other tribes or persons. " It purported to be a law to aid the Indian in emigrating beyond the Mississippi, and did not contemplate any other than a voluntary removal. " The laws of Georgia now authorised an intrusion upon the Indian territory for the purpose of surveying it, and in extending the jurisdiction of the state over it, in effect rendered it subject to the intrusion of any person. " The laws of the states thus came directly in conflict with those of the United States ; and as the president had determined not to execute the law of congress, when it conflicted with state sovereignty, he in that manner adopted the state laws as part of the national policy, and tJ thus passed by congress, although not in terms yet in effect, came in aid of the local policy ot those three south-western states, sanctioned as that policy was by the new federal adnr The Cherokees refused to accede to these propositions, and determined to maintain, by all the means in their power, their rights as guaranteed by treaty. The government of Georgia, however, commenced the execution of what it threatened undei the preceding administration. Geor e Tassell, a Cherokee, was arrested for the murder of another Cherokee, tried, and condemned, this cause was carried to the superior court States. A citation was served upon Governor Gilmer, requiring the state of Georgia and show cause why the judgment should not be reversed. The governor transmitted tl :ita urn to the legislature, which body enjoined the governor to disregard the summons, am * Annual Register. VOL. I. 2 H 234 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Samuel Worcester and other missionaries in Georgia were arrested by order of the governor, and taken before the court of Gwinnet county, " for refusing to obtain a permit from the government of Georgia to reside within the territory, or to take an oath of allegiance to the state." Worcester and Thompson, although missionaries, were discharged by the court on " the alleged ground that they were agents of the government, having been employed to disburse among the Indians a portion of their annuities. 5 This decision gave great offence to the state authorities, and the general government disavowed that the missionaries were its agents. Worcester and Ezra Butler were warned to quit the nation, and not complying, they were arrested, tried, and sentenced to four years hard labour in the penitentiary of Georgia. Great indignation was manifested throughout the union at this violation of personal rights, and a complete disregard of the federal compact, and the faith of treaties. The president supported Georgia in the ground she had taken, and carrying out her policy towards the Cherokees. But the case of the missionaries was brought before the supreme court of the United States. The decision of that court in March, 1832, set aside the authority assumed by Georgia as unconstitutional ; and the laws, by which the Indians had been deprived of their rights, and the missionaries imprisoned, were pronounced null and void. Georgia resisted this decision x>f the supreme judicial tribunal of the United States, and the missionaries were still continued in prison. In January, 1833, the missionaries addressed a letter to the governor of Georgia, informing him that they had forwarded instructions to their counsel to prosecute the case no further, upon which they were discharged. The debate in the senate respecting the public lands, was introduced on the 29th of December, 1829.* This resolution was immediately and strongly opposed, as a part of a sys tematic policy for crippling the growth of the west. It was urged that it would serve to prevent emigration to those states within whose territory these lands lay. The debate to which this resolution gave rise continued for several weeks. In his message to congress the president had expressed an opinion against renewing the charter of the United States Bank, which would expire in 1836. The bank had not applied for such renewal, but being pressed on the attention sel to be executed, which was accordingly done on the 28th of December, 1830. In the mean while, a detachment of United States troops was ordered by the president to prevent any encroachment on the Indian territory. These were, however, soon after withdrawn, and their place supplied by Georgia militia to prevent disturbances." Book of the United States. This debate was grounded on the following resolution : " Resolved, that the committee on public lands be instructed to inquire into the expediency of limiting, for a certain period, the sales of the public lands, to such lands only as have heretofore been offered for sale, and are subject to entry at the minimum price, and also whether the office of surveyor-general may not be abolished without detriment to the public interest." HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. 235 of congress, it was referred to the committees on finance in both houses of con gress for examination. On the 30th of April, 1830, Mr. McDuffie, the chairman of the committee of ways and means in the house, made a report diametrically opposite to the re commendations of the president.* The impression now became general that the president adopted, as constitu tional, " the power to remove officers at pleasure, though appointed for certain periods, and that without rendering any special reason for so doing. This principle was for a long time and strenuously discussed in the secret sessions of the senate." Among the bills which were passed by congress at this time, was one autho rising the mounting and equipment of a part of the army of the United States to protect the trade with the interior provinces of Mexico. Nullification doctrines were held at this period, and paying off the national debt was another subject of discussion. The British government opened the intercourse between the United States and the British West India colonies, and the president, on the 5th of October issued his proclamation to that effect. The second session of the twenty-first congress commenced on the 6th of December. The message of the president was remarkable for its length. The policy of removing the Indians was insisted upon. The constitutionality of the protecting system was fully allowed ; but the ex pediency of retaining certain duties was made a reserved question. The public debt was declared to be in a course of rapid redemption ; while the opposition to the bank of the United States was manifested with fresh energy, and another plan suggested as a substitute. The proceedings of the judicial committee of the house were of great im port, and commanded the deepest attention. There was a report both from the majority and the minority. The division was four against them in the latter. The bill appended to the former : to repeal the twenty-fifth section of what was called the " judiciary act, * was rejected on its first reading by a vote of 137 to fifty-one. The country, on the whole, was to be congratulated on this issue. The idea of destroying the powers of the supreme court the only tribunal of ultimate appeal for the union, was regarded as too wild to be for a moment en couraged by a rational people. Political feeling was strongly manifested, especially at Washington, for eight or ten days before the close of the session. Early in the spring of 1831, there was a dissolution of the cabinet. * See Banking and Currency of the United States, Vol. ii. 236 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. James Munroe, ex-president of the United States, died on the 4th of July, 18 31 5 he was a statesman of very great acquirements.* The new cabinet, constituted during the summer, consisted of Edward Living ston, Secretary of State, Lewis M Lane, Secretary of the Treasury, Lewis Cass, Secretary of War, Levi Woodbury, Secretary of the Navy, Roger B. Taney, Attorney General. Popular sentiment was excited at the same time relative to the next election of president and nominations. General Jackson was withdrawn as a candidate by (( certain of his original supporters 3 in Philadelphia, who issued a public decla ration, that " the identity of his political character" was destroyed by " time, cir cumstances, and power/ and that their support was rendered him no longer. In consequence of an atrocious murder at Niagara, of a person who was said to reveal the pretended secrets of freemasonry, a national anti-masonic conven tion, in September of this year, nominated William Wirt, of Maryland, as Presi dent of the United States, and Amos Ellmaker of Pennsylvania, as vice-president- These nominations were accepted. Two events caused much attention about this same time throughout the country. The one was the disclosures made in the report of the directors on the condition of the bank of the United States (See Currency and Banking, Vol. ii.). The other was the formation of the "free trade convention;" the address and proceedings of which assumed an imperative tone, and they declared the tariff laws " uncon stitutional. 5 A "tariff convention" followed that of the "free trade convention," the address assumed to itself " the tearing the arguments of the free traders to tatters, and scattering them to the winds of heaven. 3 The treaty, settling the claims of American citizens on France for spoliations during Napoleon s government, was signed by Mr. Rives and Count Sebastiani, *"Mr. Munroe was born in Virginia, in 1759, and was educated in William and Mary College. He entered the revolutionary war, in 1776, as a cadet, was at the battles of Haerlem Heights and White Plains, and in the attack on Trenton, and rose through the rank of lieutenant to that of captain. He was present at the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Mon mouth, as aid to Lord Sterling. Resuming the study of the law, he entered the office of Mr. Jefferson, and after being a member of the assembly of Vir ginia and the council, he was elected, in 1783, a member of the old congress. In 1790, he was elected a member of the senate of the United States, in 1794, went as minister plenipotentiary to France, and in 1799, was appointed governor of Virginia. In 1803, he was appointed minister extraordinary to France, in the same year minister to London, and in the next, minister to Spain. In 1806, he was again appointed, in conjunction with Mr. William Pinckney, minister to London. He was subsequently governor of Vir ginia; in 1811, was appointed secretary of state, and continued to exercise the duties of this department, and for some time those of the department of war, till 1817. In that year he was chosen president of the union, and in 1821 was re-elected by a vote unanimous, with the single exception of one vote in New Hampshire. He died in New York on the 4th of July, 1831."- Book of the United States. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. 237 at Paris, on the 4th of July, 1831, and soon after ratified by the United States and France. France agreed to pay in full satisfaction of the claims of American citizens, 25,000,000 francs in six equal annual instalments an amount by no means ade quate to the value of property confiscated by Napoleon. On their part the United States consented to pay to the government of France 1,500,000 francs in satis faction of claims on Americans. The first session of the 22nd congress met on the 5th of December, 1832. The message dwelt chiefly on foreign affairs The treasury report produced a sensation from its bearing upon the bank of the United States, and created sus picion as well as excitement. The speeches upon the " American or protective system," and those on free trade, divided public opinion according to sentiment and personal interest, far more than on any sound principle. The debate on the nomination of Mr. Van Buren as minister to England, and his rejection by the casting vote of the vice-president, caused much party ex citement. The north-eastern boundary question was agitated at this time by the legisla ture of Maine. The "closed-door" manner of proceeding on that question, at Augusta, and the " hurried action? as it was called, of Maine, caused much and severe comment. " The sum and substance of the facts, as reported are, that the state authorities have been advised from Washington to acquiesce in the de cision of the King of the Netherlands, in expectation that congress will make compensation for the land in dispute, in money, or a grant of land elsewhere. The reserved papers, however, would show all the merits of the case. There appeared to be some difficulty in the way of the arrangement suggested, if the decision of the Dutch king is right, the United States cannot pay Maine for the land ; if wrong it ought not to be submitted to." Tariff and protective Jrills, reports on sales of public lands, and currency ques tions, occupied congress. A bill renewing the charter of the bank of the United States passed both houses ; vetoed by the president, and a financial crisis suc ceeded. (See Currency, Vol. ii.) During the spring of 1832, hostilities were commenced by the Sac and Fox Indians, on the western borders of the United States, under their celebrated chief Black Hawk. After a harassing warfare, prolonged by the nature of the country, the Indians were defeated, and Black Hawk and the Prophet were taken prisoners. The second session of the twenty-second congress commenced on the 3rd of December, 1832. The president represented the relations of the country with 238 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AM ERICA. foreign powers in a state of amity. The claims made on Portugal had been allowed. The treasury report represented the finances in a prosperous condition. A di minution of duties on imports, or a partial " relinquishment of the public lands as a source of revenue" was recommended, to effect a reduction of the national income. The message of the president was folio wed on the 10th of December, by proclama tion, addressed to the citizens of the United States, in relation to the hostile attitude of South Carolina to the union, in consequence of the tariff acts of congress of the 29th of May, 1828, and of the 14th of July, 1833, altering and amending the several acts imposing duties on imports, which acts had, in a convention of the above state, held at Columbia, November 24th, been pronounced to be unconsti tutional, and therefore void, and of no binding force within the limits of that state. For a considerable period the southern states, with the exception of South Carolina, had been considered opposed to the exercise of power by the federal government. This state, although voting with the adjacent states on all local, and on most national questions, had on some occasions, as in 1816, been foremost in asserting the right of congress to legislate on certain disputed points. Among these were the subjects of internal improvement, the United States bank, and the tariff. A change of opinion had now taken place in Carolina, and it began to go beyond any of the advocates of state rights, in its assertion of state sovereignty. A vehement opposition to the tariff, both in 1824, and on the subsequent modifi cation in 1828, had been led by the delegation from South Carolina in congress, and when they were defeated in Washington they renewed their efforts to over turn the system and to render it unpopular with the people. At first it was contemplated to resign their seats in congress ; and a meeting of the delegation was held at Washington with the view of deciding upon the steps which should be taken. The delegation, however, did not concur in adopting violent measures, and it was determined to endeavour, upon their return home, to rouse their constituents to a more effectual opposition to the protecting system. No exertions were spared to excite public feeling against the law. It was denounced as a measure local in its character, partial and oppressive in its operation, and unconstitutional in principle. Having convinced themselves of this, they began to question the right of the federal government to require obedience, and almost simultaneously with the legislature of Georgia, which December 24th, 1827, resolved to submit only to its own construction of the federal compact, the senate of South Carolina instituted HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. 239 a committee to inquire into the powers of the federal government, in reference to certain subjects then agitated. (See American Annual Register. tiee also Mr. Up- shur " On the Constitution of the United States" in the supplement to this volume; and Mr. Spencer s review of Mr. Upshur s Opinions, Vol. ii.) The report of this committee, which received the sanction of the state senate on the 12th, and of the house on the 19th of December, 1827, "it asserted that the federal constitution was a compact originally formed, not between the people of the United States at large, lut between the people of the different states ax distinct and in dependent sovereignties; and that when any violation of the letter or spirit of that compact took place, it is not only the right of the people, but of the state legislatures to remonstrate against it, that the federal government was responsible to the people when ever it abused, or injudicious I?/ exercised powers intrusted to it, and that it was re sponsible to the state legislatures, whenever it assumed powers not conferred!" Admitting that, under the constitution, a tribunal was appointed to decide controversies, where the United States was a party, it was contended in this re port, " that some questions must occur between the United States and the states, which it would be unsafe to submit to any judicial tribunal. The supreme court had already manifested an undue leaning in favour of the federal government; and when the constitution was violated in its spirit, and not literally, there was pecu liar propriety in a state legislature undertaking to decide for itself, inasmuch as the constitution had provided no remedy." The report declared " all legislation for the protection of domestic manufac tures to be unconstitutional, as being in favour of a local interest, and that con gress had no power to legislate except upon subjects of general interest." " The power to construct roads and canals, within the limits of a state, or to appro priate money for that purpose," was also denounced "as unconstitutional, as well as all legislation for the purpose of meliorating the condition of the free coloured or the slave population of the United States." The resolutions of the state legislature expressive of these principles, having passed both houses, they were transmitted, with the report, to the delegation from Carolina, in congress, to be laid before that body, then engaged in the con sideration of the protective tariff. That tariff bill having passed through congress, the legislature of South Caro lina, at its next session, protested against it " as unconstitutional, oppressive, and unjust," this protest was transmitted to their senators in congress to be entered upon the journals of the senate. The doctrine of the right of a state to nullify an act of congress, was not relinquished by Carolina. The legislature of Virginia," says a writer in the Annual Register, also declared its assent to the principle of nullification, and judging from the opinions expressed by tl public functionaries of those states, the time appeared to be near at hand when th was about to be dissolved by the determination of a large section not to submil :M0 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. laws of the federal government, nor to any common tribunal appointed to decide upon their constitutionality." In the latter end of November, a state convention assembled at Columbia, which passed an ordinance, declaring, " That the tariff acts are not authorised by the constitution of the United States, and violate the true meaning and inte rest thereof, and are null and void, and no law, 5 binding on the citizens of that state or its officers ; and by the same ordinance it is " further declared to be unlawful for any of the constituted authorities of the state, or the United States, to enforce the payment of the duties imposed by the said acts within the same state, and that it is the duty of the legislature to pass suoh laws as may be neces sary to give full effect to the said ordinance." An address was promulgated by the same convention, in which it is contended that "it does not belong to freemen to count the costs, and calculate the hazards of vindicating their rights and defending their liberties ; and even if we should stand alone in the worst possible emergency of this great controversy, without the co-operation or encouragement of a single state of the confederacy, we will niaivh forward with an untaltering step, until we have accomplished the object of this great enterprise." President Jackson immediately issued a proclamation, appealing to Carolina and to the other stales, which wore perhaps ready to join the standard of nullifi cation, to remember the toil and blood which American liberty cost, the sacred- ness of the constitution, and the importance of the preservation of the Union. "There is yet time to show," said the president, "that the descendants of the rinekneys,the Sumptcrs, theRutledges, and the thousand other names which adorn the pages of your revolutionary history, will not abandon that union to support which so many of them fought, and bled, and died. I adjure you, as you honour their memory as you love the cause of freedom to which they dedicated their lives as you prize the peace of your country, the lives of its best citizens, and your own fair fame, to retrace your steps. Snatch from the archives of your state the disorganising edict of its convention bid its members to re-assemble and promulgate the decided expressions of your will to remain in the path which alone can conduct you to safety, prosperity, and honour tell them that com pared to disunion, all other evils are light, because that brings with it an accumu lation of all declare that you will never take the field unless the star-spangled banner of your country shall float over you that you will not be stigmatised when dead, and dishonoured and scorned while you live, as the authors of the first attack on the constitution of your country ! Its destroyers you cannot be. You may disturb its peace you may interrupt the course of its prosperity you may cloud its reputation for stability but its tranquillity will be restored, its prosperity will return, and the stain upon its national character will be transferred, and remain an eternal blot on the memory of those who caused the disorder." OTEDSTA1 04 1 The legislature of South Carolina, being in session, authorised the governor to issue a counter-proclamation, which was published on the 20th of December He solemnly warned the citizens of South Carolina against all attempts to seduce them from their primary allegiance to the state. " I charge you," said he to be faithful to your duty, as citizens of South Carolina, and "earnestly exhort you to disregard those vain measures 1 of military force, which, if the president, in violation of all his constitutional obligations, and your most sacred rights, should be tempted to employ, it would become your solemn duty, at all hazards, to resist." General orders were issued, by authority of the legislature, to raise volunteer companies, troops, battalions, &c., for the purpose of repelling invasion, and in support of the rights of the state. The president, on the 16th of January, 1833, addressed a message to con gress, in which, after sketching a history of proceedings, both on the part of Carolina, and the general government, he " recommended the adoption of such measures as would clothe the executive with competent power to suppress the rising spirit of insubordination, sustain the public officers in the discharge of their duties, and give power to the courts to carry out their constitutional decisions. Meantime an appeal was made by the general assembly of Virginia to the " patriotism and magnanimity" of South Carolina.* The appeal from Virginia and the passing of a bill introduced by Mr. Clay, termed the compromise bill, by congress, was followed by a convention held in South Carolina, which recommended an ordinance, repealing the nullification ordinance.f * These resolutions were as follow : " 1. Resolved, therefore, by this general assembly, in the name, and on behalf of the people of Virginia, that the competent authorities of South Carolina he, and they are hereby earnestly and respectfully requested to rescind the ordinance of their late convention, or to suspend its opera tion until the close of the first session of the next congress. " 2. Resolved, That the congress of the United States be, and they are hereby earnestly and respectfully requested so to modify the tariff laws, as to effect a gradual but early reduction of the revenue of the general government to the necessary and proper expenditures thereof. "3. Resolved, that the people of Virginia expect, and in the opinion of this general assembly have a right to expect, that the general government, and the government of South Carolina, and all persons acting under the authority of either, will abstain from all acts calculated to disturb the tranquillity of the country, or endanger the existence of the union." i The ordinance was as follows: " Whereas, the congress of the United States, by an act recently passed, has made such a re duction and modification of the duties upon foreign imports, as amounts substantially loan ulti mate reduction of the duties to the revenue standard, and that no higher duties shall be made than may be necessary to defray the expenditures of the government : " It is therefore ordained and declared, that the ordinance entitled, an ordinance to nullify certain acts of the congress of the United States, purporting to be laws laying duties on the importation of foreign commodities, and all acts passed in pursuance thereof, be henceforth deemed and held to have no force or effect; provided that the act entitled an act further to alte and amend the militia laws of this state, passed on the 20th day of December, 1832, shall remair in force until it shall be repealed or modified by the legislature." In connexion with this subject, we quote the following remarks, as expressive of t of a large class of the people at this time. " It will be seen, by reference to Mr C and the speech of Governor Hayneand General Hamilton, that an exercise of the fication by the state of South Carolina, having caused the recent adjustment of after to be held as the rightful remedy in either of the twenty-four states, fo VOL. I. 2 I 242 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Congress adjourned on Friday morning, March the 1st, 1833, at one o clock. On the following Monday, General Jackson, who had been re-elected president, was inaugurated, and his address was received with the most popular applause. The president recognised the (t importance of state rights, but insisted upon the equal, if not superior value of the union, and the sacred duty of every state to contribute to its preservation by a liberal support of the general government." During the summer of 1833, President Jackson visited Philadelphia, New York, and New England, as far as Concord in Massachusetts. He was received, in every place through which he passed, with demonstrations of respect and attention. Whatever opinions were entertained by his political opponents, they united in every expression of honour to the person whom the majority had elevated to the highest office in the state. Mr. Louis M Lane at this time succeeded Mr. Edward Livingston, as secre tary of state. The latter was soon after appointed envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary of the United States to the court of France. Mr. Livingston was one of the ablest lawyers of the age. In September, 1834, a communication was read to the cabinet by the president, in which he declared that his own mind was determined upon the removal of the government deposits from the bank of the United States ; and he begged his cabinet " to consider the proposed measure as his own, in which he should require no one to sacrifice opinion or principle." The first session of the twenty- third congress commenced on the 2nd of December, 1836, and exciting movements immediately commenced with it. Two of the leading topics which occupied the message were the defalcation of France, in fulfilling the contract of the convention of the 4th of July, 1831, and the removal of the public money from the bank of the United States. (See details of the Finances of the United States, Vol. ii.) A few days before the close of the session, Andrew Stevenson was nomi nated minister plenipotentiary to the court of London, and Roger B. Taney secretary of the treasury. The latter had received his appointment from the president during the recess of the senate. It was urged that it had been the uniform practice for appointments of this kind to be laid before the senate at the commencement of the session ; but that General Jackson had withheld his name till near its close, and that for nearly seven months Mr. Taney had been permitted to discharge the duties of an office, which, according to the substantial meaning, if not the literal construction of the constitution, he had no right to hold. On the other hand, it was contended that had his name been sent in on the first day of the ses sion, and had he on that first day been rejected, he would still have had a right, under the constitution, to hold office till the close of the session. As a matter of delicacy it would not have been done. But the president, by the constitution, real or imaginary evil, arising out of the laws of the United States, or the decisions of the supreme court. And though nullification has not been formally acknowledged in congress, as the rightful remedy, it certainly has been respected as an efficient one." Mile s Register. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. 243 has power to give a commission continuing till the end of the next session of congress. This is the supreme law. Mr. Stevenson s appointment was rejected by the senate on a principle early attributed to General Jackson, " that the appointment of members of congress to important offices was calculated to introduce corruption into the government." Among other reasons for his rejection was the disclosure, imputed to have been made to the senate, of the assurance of the president some months previously, through the secretary of state, to Mr. Stevenson, that he should have the ap pointment. This promise was construed as having been made under the ex pectation that Mr. Stevenson would carry out the views and measures of the executive, and this construction of the appointment caused its rejection, as a nomination deemed highly improper. It is true that Mr. Stevenson was of the same party as President Jackson; and would of course carry out the views and measures of the executive. It would have been dishonourable, while in office, to prove false to his party and political friends. If he differed conscientiously from his colleagues, the usual alternative, that of resigning, was alone open to him. Mr. Stevenson had been the late speaker of the house. The appointment to London was alleged to have been reserved for him, and kept in abeyance for more than fifteen months. The accusations were, " That a more direct, daring, and dangerous influence, brought to bear in a critical period, by the president, upon the presiding officer of the house, could not well be imagined ; and if the senate had confirmed the nomination of Mr. Stevenson, all further resistance to the appointment of members of congress, under any circumstances, would be vain and useless." These accusations were, however, party charges. The second session of the twenty-third congress assembled December 1, 1834. The president stated in his message, that "all foreign relations were un impaired ; and with all countries, save France, the understanding was such as was desirable ; but that France was still inclined to continue her refusal of the settlement of the claims which she had conceded. This conduct awakened a general discontent throughout the United States. The country, he said, should insist on a prompt execution of the treaty ; and if an appropriation was not made at the next session of the chambers, decided measures would be not only honourable and just, but have the best effect on the national character. If the neglect con tinued, he recommended a law authorising reprisals on French property." We have examined this question with care, and the policy of the president was dignified and just. The hostility of the president to the bank of the United States was thus stated in his message : " It has," says he, become the scourge of the people. Its interference to pos the payment of a portion of the national debt, that it might retain the pul appropriated for that purpose, to strengthen it in a political contest-the extraoic extension and contraction of its accommodations to the community-its o partisan loans -its exclusion of the public directors from a knowledge of 244 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. portant proceedings the unlimited authority conferred on the president to expend its funds in hiring writers, and procuring the execution of printing, and the use made of that authority the retention of the pension money and books after the selection of new agents the groundless claim to heavy damages, in consequence of the protest of a bill drawn on the French government, have, through various channels, been laid before congress." The public and mercantile distress was charged by the president to the mis management of the bank, and a separation of this institution from the treasury was strongly urged. The attention of congress was earnestly invited to the regu lation of the deposits in the state banks. The subject of internal improvements was discussed, and the inexpediency and unconstitutionality of appropriations, therefore, without an amendment of the constitution, again maintained. This dis cussion arose from the president s refusal to sign an appropriation bill to im prove the Wabash river. At this time Richard Lawrence attempted to assassinate the president by firing at him. He was declared insane. In France the American indemnity bill passed the chambers by a very large and unexpected majority. John Marshall, chief-justice of the United States, one of the most learned and upright judges that ever adorned the bench, or honoured the age, died at Philadelphia on the sixth day of July, in the eightieth year of his life. The surplus revenue at the end of the current year, 1835, exceeded twenty-mil lions of dollars. The sale of the public lands had realised a greater amount than during any previous year the customs also yielded a much larger amount. The twenty-fourth congress assembled in its first 4 session on the 7th of De cember, 1835, and James K. Polk was elected speaker. The difficulties with France were managed through the implied mediation of England. In his message the president stated that the claims of France were settled by * honourable means," and a war was avoided which Mr. Clay de clared in the senate would have been the " scandal of an enlightened age/ According to Mr. E wing s report to the senate, the surplus revenue from sales of public lands alone, during that year, " would amount to twenty-seven millions of dollars. In the course of another year, at this rate, the surplus revenue would amount to fifty millions of dollars." Among the appointments by the president, at this period, were those of Roger B. Taney, as chief justice of the United States, and Andrew Stevenson minister to Great Britain. The last was strongly opposed in the senate. In March, 1836, Mr. Benton introduced into the senate his "expunging reso lution" the object of which was to erase from the record of that chamber the resolve of the 28th of March, 1834, charging the president with the assumption of unconstitutional power. This resolution was strongly opposed, but finally carried. Mr. Webster read a strong protest against the proceeding, in behalf of himself and his colleague, from Massachusetts. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. 245 The committee on naval affairs, in the senate, at this time reported a bill di recting an exploring expedition" to the Pacific Ocean and the South Seas, and authorising the president to send out a sloop of war for that purpose. In April an act passed congress "establishing the territory of Wiscon sin." In June, Arkansas was admitted into the union on an equal footing with the original states, together with Michigan. The act of admission settled the boundary dispute between Ohio and Michigan. On the 17th of June the deposit bill passed the senate. It was qualified in the house, in a manner which removed the constitutional objections of the presi dent, and it received his signature. Congress adjourned on the 4th of July, without deciding on any other ques tion of much importance. General Lewis Cass was appointed minister to France. On the llth of July a circular was issued, from the treasury department, in relation to moneys to be received in payment for public lands. By its directions receivers were, after the 15th day of next August, to take in payment for such lands, only gold and silver ; and, in certain places, the land scrip of Virginia. All receivers were prohibited from accepting for land sold, any certificate or draft, or other evidence of money, or deposit, though for specie, unless signed by the treasurer of the United States, agreeably to the law of April 24th, 1820. The last annual message of General Jackson to congress was delivered on the 6th of December, 1836. In regard to the disputes between America and Mexico, the president sent a message to the senate, and on the 18th of February, 1837, a report was presented by the senate concurring in opinion with the president, that another demand should be made for redress of grievances on the Mexican government, but no re prisals were recommended in case of a refusal to comply with this demand. The president s message stated, that the deposit or distribution act, passed by the preceding congress had received his " reluctant approval," and " the con sequences apprehended from it had been measurably realised." The president represented the "specie circular 5 of the llth of July, as producing "many salutary consequences/ The people of the United States were not generally of this opinion ; experience has made them think more justly. The administration of Andrew Jackson was now ended. He always retained the love and confidence of the people, but had no reliable majority in either branch of the legislature. Yet he had exercised, from the general confidence in the rectitude of his character, and in his love of justice, the power almost of a dictatorship for eight years : nearly about the same period as that of the supreme rule of Oliver Cromwell. But unlike the closing days of the Protector, Andrew Jackson did not depart from power and from life at the same hour. He did riot, by a nod, appoint his successor. He, as a simple citizen, rode away from the White House, and the political strife of the republic, for the retirement and silence of his solitary Hermitage, amidst the forests of the west. 246 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The retreat of the iron-minded ruler, but mild and gentle citizen, to a rustic habitation, surrounded by the vast wilderness beyond the Alleghany mountains : a region which the white man had scarcely ever trodden before the year 1780, is, in the reflection, accompanied, in spite of our philosophy, with a portion of that which is sorrowful in the feelings of the spectators, yet tranquillising to those whose minds are conscious of doing their duty to mankind, although they may have experienced the ingratitude of their generation. The person and existence of the former ruler and statesman, in his after soli tude, presents a transition and preparatory state a tranquillity foreboding the final departure, from the visible present, to the mysterious future. The example is not unknown among ourselves ; and although Howick and Althorp may be far less solitary than the Hermitage, Grey and Spenser retreated equally, in dignity and virtue, from the turbulence of political strife into that respectable, almost reverential, tranquillity, which enabled them, in the infirmity of age, to enjoy the calm retrospection of a good and conscientiously spent life, and to look forward, with equanimity and hope, to an unknown futurity. During the two presidentships of General Jackson, great activity prevailed in almost every state in the union. Temperance meetings, meetings of educational societies, and slavery abolition meetings, the pillage and burning of a Catholic con vent in New England states ; anti-slavery meetings and riots in New York, anti- tariff meetings, or nullification, in South Carolina; war almost of an exterminating character against the aborigines of Florida, the massacre of an American corps by the Mexicans, dreadful fires at New York, and in many other towns ; the destruction by fire of the United States post office, and of the patent office, the burning of the village of Roanoke by 300 or 400 Seminoles, the accidental burn ing of President Jackson s residence the Hermitage the suspension of cash pay ments by the banks the imprisonment of the missionaries who were in Georgia; treaties with the Indians ceding the territories of the latter east of the Missis sippi, the war in Texas, and the final discomfiture of the Mexicans in that territory;* steamboat explosions, and various disastrous losses, marked this period during which, however, the country in other respects advanced in po pulation and prosperity. The cultivation of cotton wool, especially, improve ments in agriculture, the progress of settlement on the great rivers of the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri, and on the banks of the latter and interior country, were all unprecedented. Naval construction, imp rovements in architecture, and many works of great utility were conspicuous. The boundary disputes with England had not, it is true, been adjusted; but treaties of commerce had been, in the * In April, 1836, General Houston, with a force of 783 Texans, defeated about 1500 Mexi cans, commanded by the President General Santa Anna, and took the latter prisoner. The Texan Americans lost two killed, twenty-three wounded, six of whom mortally. The Mexicans lost, 630 killed, 208 wounded, 730 prisoners, 600 muskets, 390 sabres, 260 pistols, 12,000 dollars, and several hundred horses were also taken by the Americans. Such is the account published by the latter. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. 247 meantime, concluded by the United States with Brazil, Turkey, Mexico, Mo rocco, and Russia. The King of the Netherlands gave an award in 1831, on the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick. It dissatisfied both panics and was rejected. In October, 1834, the Cherokees ceded their whole territory east of the Mississippi to the United States, and agreed to retire to Arkansas. About the same time the slaves in the British possessions were emancipated. James Smithson, of London, left at this time 100,000/. sterling for endowing an institution for the diffusion of knowledge in the United States* and Stephen Girard, a Frenchman by birth, left a large fortune to found a college at Phila delphia. The administration of General Jackson was vigorous, dignified, and with some allowance for human nature, just and virtuous. It will form a conspicuous part of the history of Anglo-America. There never existed a mind in which dwelt more conscientiously the earnest determination of doing, fearlessly, all that he considered equitable to the whole people. To few rulers will prosperity render more honourable justice. Mr. Van Buren succeeded to the presidency, and was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1837. A financial crisis, which created extraordinary excitement, occasioned an extra session of Congress to meet on the 2nd of September of the same year. (The measures adopted with reference to the Bank of the United States, the treasury, and the currency, will be found detailed in the second volume of this work.) The war in Florida still continued. The se nate, in the end of September, 1837, ceded, by treaty, 5,000,000 of acres of land, east of the Mississippi, to the United States, for 1,000,000 of dollars, and the Winnebagoes ceded their territory, east of the Mississippi, for 1,500,000 dollars. In January following, the Seminoles were defeated but not crushed in Florida. During the winter of 1838, a most unjustifiable, and most wretchedly organised rebellion broke out in both Upper and Lower Canada. We do not deny that there were many severe causes to provoke this rebellion, but there were ample constitutional means to obtain a redress of all grievances, without resorting to arms and bloodshed. We must in justice observe, that although many of the most worthless of the united citizens, entered into the spirit of this revolt, the government of the United States, acted in the highest degree, upon terms of good faith with his Majesty s government. The policy of Mr. Van Buren was en lightened, just, and pacific, and his commercial views were sound. In April, 1838, a convention of 180 delegates met at Augusta, Georgia, for the purpose of promoting a direct trade from the recognised territories of Georgia, Florida, and Alabama, to Europe : a trade which a high tariff of duties had pa ralysed. About the same time, 143 bank delegates from eighteen states, assemble* New York, to consider the resumption of specie payments. 248 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The progress of the temperance societies had now become so powerful, that a law was passed by the legislature of Massachusetts, prohibiting the retail of spirits, and its sale in any less quantity than fifteen gallons. Charlestown, South Carolina, was this year nearly destroyed by fire ; and Pennsylvania Hall was destroyed by a mob on account of the anti-slavery lectures delivered within it. The Mormon troubles in the west caused outrages and murders disgraceful to civilisation. On the meeting of the legislature of Pennsylvania, in consequence of a dispute about the choice of speaker, the people surrounded the Senate House, the sena tors retired, and the people entered and occupied it, until put down by the troops sent to Harrisburg by the governor ; but not until business was interrupted twenty-three days. It would appear that this disturbance arose also from real, or presumed irregularities in the election of members. In January, 1839, outrages were committed on both sides of the Maine and New Brunswick boundary, and prisoners were taken on both sides. In May, the Seminole deputies agreed, by treaty, to retire below Peace Creek, Florida but the treaty was disowned by the tribe, and hostilities were resumed, and they killed about eighteen United States citizens. There were also riots in Phila delphia, arising from coloured persons celebrating the anniversary of slave- emancipation in the West Indies. The whites were in this case the aggressors. It was quelled by the militia, but not until several houses were burnt. There were also riots at Cincinatti, between German volunteer soldiers and the citizens. In the midst of various matters, the president vetoed the tariff bill. In September, 1839, the Bank of the United States finally suspended all pay ments, and a great number of other banks followed the example ; congress met on the 2nd of December, but, on account of some irregularity, respecting the return of five members, business was not entered upon until the 26th. In January, 1840, the Sub-treasury bill passed. Its object was to enforce the payment of duties and taxes in cash, by a graduated scale, to commence with one-fourth, then by one- half, and then by three-fourths in cash, until the 30th of January, 1843 : after wards, all payments for duties and taxes, to be made in cash. The Whig Young Man s Convention was formed this year, and met on the 4th of May from every state in the union, to the number of 2000, at Baltimore : the object being to secure the return of General Harrison as president. On the following day, the National Democratic Convention met, with delegates from twenty-one states, to promote means for re-electing Mr. Van Buren. In the month of February, 1841, the Bank of the United States, or Pennsyl vania, declared its most disastrous bankruptcy. On the 4th of March, General Harrison was inaugurated as President of the United States. President Harrison called an extra session of congress to meet on the 31st of HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF THE UNITED STATES. 249 May, in consequence of the financial and currency state of the country ; but tin- president dies, much lamented, on the 4th of April, and is succeeded by the vice-president, Mr. Tyler, who meets the congress in conformity with General Harrison s proclamation. The Sub-treasury Bill was abolished, and a bill for establishing a fiscal bank vetoed by the president. A bill to distribute the proceeds of the sales of public lands, and a general bankruptcy law, were at the same session passed. The president also vetoed the Fiscal Corporations Bill. On the 4th of September, Cincinnati was reported to be in a state of anarchy, caused chiefly, as along the Rideau Canal, Canada, and many other places, by mobs of Irish labourers. Washington used the Veto Power twice, Madison four times, Munroe once, Jackson five times, Tyler twice. By all the Veto Power was exercised fourteen times. In October, 1841, an expedition from Texas, under General Mac Loud, against Santa Fe, surrendered at discretion to the Mexican forces, and were sent to Mexico as prisoners. On the following year, the Mexicans invaded Texas with no success. There were very serious riots, in 1842, at Cincinnati, and in conse quence of disturbances in Rhode Island, military law had been proclaimed. In 1842, the vexed question of the Maine boundary was adjusted by treaty. Neither the citizens of the United States, nor the subjects of England, were satis fied as to the mere settlement of the line of boundary ; but the arrangement of difficulties, that might have caused an interruption of peace, was considered a great good by all wise men. The Oregon boundary alone remained a question of dis pute, and notwithstanding the clamours of the newspapers, and the political use made of it by party, there appeared little doubt that the Oregon dispute would be arranged as amicably as the Maine boundary. During the following year, no great public event agitated the public mind. Fires, steamboat accidents, hurricanes in Florida, no little violence respecting the Oregon question, and discourses and reports on the tariff duties, were among the subjects that occurred. The winter of 1844 was distinguished by unusual severity. Steamboat acci dents of a terrific character occurred during the year : and especially the disas trous loss of life occasioned by the bursting of a tremendous cannon on board the steamship Princeton* In the end of March, the general assembly of Rhode Island protested against * Feb. 28. A terrible accident occurred on board the United States steamer Princeton, Captain Stockton, during an excursion on the Potomac, a large party of distinguished persons being on board. One of the very large guns, made of wrought iron, under the superintendence of Captain Stockton, on being fired the third time, burst, and the explosion instantly kil ed Mi Upshur, secretary of state ; Mr. Gilmer, secretary of the navy ; Com. Kennon, chief ot < naval bureaus ; Virgil Maxcy, Esq., recently charge d affaires to the Hague ; the Hon. U ti Uar- diner, of New York, and two or three domestics ; besides wounding ten or twelve of the ci President of the United Slates, the other members of the cabinet, and many ladu all of whom fortunately escaped without injury. . . March l.-The steamers De Solo and Buckeye ran against each other on the M.ss.ss.pp, , and the latter almost immediately sunk, by which accident more 1 drowned. VOL. I. 2 K 250 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. the right of congress to interfere with the internal affairs of that state. In April, the treaty annexing Texas was signed by President Tyler. Some very disgraceful quarrels occurred on the floor of congress, worthy only of the barbarous, and fatal conflicts which, at one period, occurred in the ecclesiastical councils of Europe: when prelates and princes fought with drawn swords. If ever a country should institute a law to suppress duels, and savage-like quarrels, in, or out, of congress, that country is the great Anglo-American Republic. The prevalent exercise of personal violence, such as firing a pistol with, the intent to kill, having seriously wounded one person on the floor of the house of representatives as well as the many fatal duels which have within the last few years taken place, show clearly that the life of the most learned and moral legislator has no protec tion from the barbarian feckless of life.* The riots which followed at Philadelphia in May, between those styling them selves the native Americans, and the Irish residents, prove conclusively the necessity of increasing the power of the civil authorities, so as to enable them to maintain the public peace. During these riots three Irish Catholic churches, a large seminary, and thirty dwelling-houses were destroyed by fire ; fourteen persons were killed, and forty wounded, by fire-arms, before the riot was finally suppressed by the military. These riots were renewed in July, an irregular battle was fought between the military and the rioters, with artillery and musketry. Forty to fifty men were killed. These disturbances were at last put down by the governor, at the head of about 5000 armed men. The year 1844 was prolific in these and other breaches of the public peace. That fanatic or impostor the Mormon prophet, Joe Smith, and his brother Hiram, who had been arrested and imprisoned by the governor of Illinois, were murdered by a mob of more than 100 men, who, disguised, broke into the gaol in which they were confined. Outrages broke out also in the county of Rensselaer, New York, on the part of the tenantcy who refused to pay any rent, and who treated with violence the officers of the law. Democratic meetings and meetings of the Whig party were also held. A Whig convention at Baltimore, at which 50,000 persons are said to have been present, nominated Mr. Henry Clay for President of the United States. At a Whig mass meeting at Boston, Mr. Mellish presided, and 25,000 persons are said to have assembled. A rule of the house of representatives prohibiting the reception of abolition petitions in that house, was, on the motion of John Quincy Adams, rescinded on the 3rd of December, 1844, by 108 for, to 88 against the motion. A circumstance occurred towards the close of the year which, at the time, appeared to have involved a question seriously affecting state sovereignty. The Honourable Samuel Hoar was sent from Massachusetts to South Carolina, in * Con-grass has since passed an effective law against duelling. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF THE UNITED STATES. 2-> I order to obtain the liberation of coloured citizens of Massachusetts who were imprisoned at Charlestown. On his arrival, the legislature passed resolutions under which the governor expelled Mr. Hoar the same day from the state .i South Carolina. This, presumed unconstitutional, insult to ,M.is>,.<-lmseUs appears to have been passed over without any grave consequence. Disturb ances of a serious nature occurred during the year in the state of New York The governor was under the necessity of proclaiming the state in a state of in surrection. Atrocious outrages were also committed in Illinois against the Mormons.* The new republic of Texas was, by a resolution of congress, in the month of January, and in terms of the treaty made by the president with the governor of Texas, annexed as a state to the Anglo-American confederation, A treaty with China was also ratified, and on the 4th of March, 1845, President Polk was inaugurated. A disturbance of the amicable relations between England and America appeared, almost, inevitable, from the unwise character of his message, and warlike speeches in congress. In the British parliament, the obnoxious parts of Mr. Folk s message were gravely, and sensibly, discussed by the leaders of both parties. It was well known that the whole British nation denounced war. It became well understood that the whole, or part, of Oregon, constituted a miserable cause, of little value, for which to wage a war, a war which must be attended with the most afflicting and barbarous consequences to the British em pire, and as certainly to America, a war that would have been disgraceful to, that would more than any other retard, civilisation. Y 7 et had President Polk proceeded, even indemnified by congress, to take forcible possession of Oregon, war would have been inevitable : not for Oregon, but by England on the great principle of national rights, on the principle of maintaining that dignity, which has never been abandoned, except in the melancholy degradation, and certain decline of nations. Happily for mankind, fortunately for the magnanimity of civilisation, the in telligent wisdom of the citizens of the United States; the temperate unanimity of the British people, and the cordiality of opinion with respect to the boundary question on the part of the late as well as of the present ministry, caused the adoption of those measures by which all disputes respecting Oregon have been adjusted. This vexed question being now settled, it appears to be the last, about which the Anglo-Saxon race, whether in Europe or in America could have had the least cause of difference. Let the mutual warfare of obnoxous tariffs and navi gation laws cease, and the reciprocal interests and happiness, of the United King dom and the United States, may become so thoroughly blended, as to make the people of each, almost, feel that they are one nation as, well as one people. * Hoar blundered. He should have had recourse to the United States Courts ; instead I ofjt he wrote to the governor. But the American constitution does not recognise the states. 252 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. NOTES TO BOOK II. NOTE A. THE AMERICAN SYSTEM, OR THE MISNOMER CALLED "PROTECTION." THE delusion created by alluring terms, or expressions, has, at all times, been remarkable; and especially so, when those terms of seduction do not apply to the true meaning of what they insinuate, and what superficial minds believe, on the faith of those who propagate those terms. For instance, the term protection, insinuating the encouragement and support of manufacturing industry, has been accepted by the superficial, as if such protection caused the growth of manufac tures, and enabled the whole people to obtain all the articles which they required independently of any foreign country, and that such independence was the most glorious and happy condition of a nation. The whole people, however, do not, until well instructed on the subject, as has been the case in England, by the report of the Import Duties Committee, in 1840, and by the speeches and publication of the Anti Corn Law League, and by speeches in parliament, enter gravely into a calculation as to the portion of their whole productive labour, that is taken away from them by this proud term PHOTECTION. In England, they have been generally so well instructed as to its meaning, as to understand that the true interpretation of protection means, that an Essex, or Kent, or any other farmer, should receive, from the bread- eating people, when wheat is ground into flour, and made into bread, as much in silver or halfpence, for two loaves, as the people would, without the thing called protection, buy three loaves for. It is true, that notwithstanding the thing protection, the farmer does not always succeed, and the man who manufactured the thing called protection, has also been disappointed ; that is, the members of the house of landlords (called the commons), or of the house of lords; that is, as one of those sages declared, they have not succeeded at all times by the agency of protection, to have the means of giving marriage portions to their daughters. In fact, they depended upon the misnomer protection, and not upon themselves, not upon thrift, industry, and making the soil yield three quarters of wheat, where, by protection, only one or two grow. In the United States of America, following the bad example, which is usually the case with children, who witness evil conduct at their parental fireside, the people have been not only allured into the adoption of the misnomer protection; but the orators have given it a still more SEDUCTIVE misnomer, they call it THE AMERICAN SYSTEM. That is a system that will make her produce everything, with out buying any thing from any other nation in the world. The orators only reveal half of what the AMERICAN SYSTEM would effect : they do not tell the wheat arid HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF THE UNITED STA I I 8, Indian corn, and cotton, and tobacco growers, of the western and southern states that " it is true, gentlemen, farmers, and planters of Virginia, Maryland, the Coro- linas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, and of alt ti,, fertile states from Lakes Erie and Michigan, west of the Allegliany, and south to Mexico, there is one condition, however, that you may as ivell comprehend, that is if we do not buy from the other nations, they cannot buy from us. But then we can buy and sell among ourselves. Massachusetts can buy raw cotton in the south, and the south can buy calico in Massachusetts." We believe, however that the agriculturists west of the Alleghanies, and south of the Potomac, will not consent to a sumptuary law, which will limit their markets to the manufacturing states. We have, with considerable care and industry, read the memorials of the ad vocates, real or pretended, of " THE AMERICAN SYSTEM," as well as the speeches of orators; and, notwithstanding the success of the alluring term AMERICAN SYSTEM we find the soundest principles advanced at different periods. Benjamin Franklin s maxim of international trade was " I would have the trade of nations as free as between one county in England and another; the counties do not injure one another, neither would the nations." The following resolutions, framed at Bos ton, are highly worthy at this time of being recorded. We have received them in January, 1847; and they contrast strangely with a late speech delivered by Mr. Webster at Philadelphia. Boston, Oct. 3, 1820. New Tariff. Yesterday an adjourned meeting 1 , on the subject of the proposed tariff, was held at Faneuil Hall ; Honourable William Gray, chairman, and William Foster, Esq., secretary. Resolved, That we have regarded with pleasure the establishment and success of manufactures among us, and consider their growth, when natural and spontaneous, and not the effect of a system of bounties and protection, as an evidence of general wealth and prosperity. Resolved, That relying on the ingenuity, enterprise, and skill of our fellow -citizens, we believe that all manufactures adapted to our character and circumstances will be in troduced and extended as soon, and as far, as will promote the public interests, without any further protection than they now receive. Resolved, That no objection ought ever to be made to any amount of taxes equally apportioned, and imposed for the purpose of raising revenue necessary for the support of government ; but that taxes imposed on the people for the sole benefit of any one class of men are equally inconsistent with the principles of our constitution and with sound policy. Resolved, That the supposition that, until the proposed tariff, or some similar mea sure, be adopted, we are, and shall be, dependent on foreigners for the means of subsist ence and defence, is, in our opinion, altogether fallacious and fanciful, and derogatory to the character of the nation. Resolved, That the high bounties on such domestic manufacturers as are principally benefited by that tariff, favour great capitalists rather than personal industry or tin- owners of small capital, and that therefore, we do not perceive its tendency to pro mod na tional industry. Resolved, That we are equally incapable of discovering its beneficial effects on a ? r culture, since the obvious consequence of its adoption would be, that the farmer must gti-c more than he now does for all he buys, and receives less for all he sells. 254 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Resolved, That the imposition of duties which are enormous, and deemed by a large portion of the people to be unequal and unjust, is dangerous, as it encourages the prac tice of smuggling. Resolved, That, in our opinion, the proposed tariff, and the principles upon which it is avowedly founded, would, if adopted, have a tendency, however different may be the motives of those who recommend them, to diminish the industry, impede the prosperity, and corrupt the morals of the people. James T. Austin, Esq., and the Hon. Daniel Webster addressed their fellow-citizens in favour of the report a nd the resolves, in speeches, which were distinguished for close ness of argument, variety of illustration, and abundance of fact. The report was then accepted, and the resolves recommended by the committee unanimously passed. A vote of thanks to the Hon. Mr. Otis, of the senate, and to those members from this state in the house of representatives of the United States who oppose the new tariff, was unanimously agreed to. The names of the committee were: William Gray; James Perkins; John Dorr; Nathaniel Goddard; Benjamin Rich; Israel Thorndike, jun.; William Shimmin ; Thomas W. Ward; William Harris; Georue Hallet; Joseph Knapp; Winslow Lewis; John Cotton; Daniel Webster; Nathan Appleton ; Abbott Lawrence; Jos. Sewall ; Jonathan Phillips; Lot Wheelwright; Caleb Loring ; Samuel A. Welles; George Bond; S. P. Gardner; Isaac Winslow ; Thomas Wigglesworth; John Parker ; William Sturges. The following are extracts from Mr- Webster s most able and fearless speech on this occasion, at Faneuille Hall : Mr. WEBSTER said, " He felt an unfeigned embarrassment in addressing the meeting on a subject which so many members of it understood much better than himself. " It was, in the first place, necessary that he should repel any suggestion of a feel ing unfriendly to American manufactures. He believed there was no ground for sup posing that such a feeling existed in any part of the community it certainly did not exist with him. He thought it, therefore, quite unjustifiable, that those who could not support the proposed tariff, should be charged with hostility to domestic industry. There was power in names, and those who pressed the tariff on congress and on the country, had represented it as immediately, and almost exclusively, connected with domestic in dustry and national independence. In his opinion, no measure could prove more injurious to the industry of the country, and nothing was more fanciful than the opinion that national independence rendered such a measure necessary. He certainly thought it might be doubted whether congress would not be acting somewhat against the spirit and intention of the constitution, in exercising a power to control essentially the pursuits and occupations of individuals in their private concerns a poioer to force great and sudden changes, both of occupation and property upon individuals, not as incidental to the exercise of any other power, but as a substantive and direct power. If such changes were wrought incidentally only, and were the necessary consequence of such imposts as congress, for the leading purpose of revenue, should enact, then they could not be com plained of. But he doubted whether congress fairly possessed the power of turning the incident into the principal. "But, admitting the right of congressional legislation over these subjects, and for these purposes, to be quite clear, the inquiry was, is it expedient to increase the duties on imposts to the extent proposed in this bill ? The principle of the measure he under stood to be, that we should encourage the manufactures proposed most to be benefited by the bill, principally those of woollen and cotton cloths, by prohibitory duties. That restrictions, such as we have never .before imposed, shall be laid on commerce by way of bounty on particular manufactures. For his own part, he had supposed that restrictions on trade and commerce, in order to benefit particular classes of manufactures were now very generally understood to be mischievous and inconsistent with just notions of political economy. They were of two sorts, such as arise from treaty stipulations between nations HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF THE UNITED STATES. 255 and such as each nation may create for itself by its duties on importations. The under standing between England and Portugal, relative to the importations of the wines of Portugal into England, was an instance of the first sort the piohibition of French silks into England an instance of the latter. "Both these and all other modes of giving great preferences to some occupations and some modes of investing capital over others, he believed had almost universally proved detrimental. They not only restrain private enterprise, but often exceedingly embarrass the operations of government. In the instance above-mentioned, the English govern ment at this moment experiences the bad policy of such measures. Notwithstanding the general peace of Europe, the commerce between England and France is understood to be almost a nullity* Why ? because England cannot agree to receive on fair terms, and in exchange for her commodities, such principal articles as France produces for exportation, viz., silks and wine. And why cannot she agree to receive these from France ? Because, as to ivine there is the old treaty with Portugal; and as to silks, the manufacture of that article has been unnaturally forced by high bounties at home, and if those bounties should now be withdrawn, some thousands of persons would be thrown out of employment. So that the particular agreement with Portugal, and a concern for the silk manufacturers of Coventry, completely tied up the hands of government on subjects supposed to be of the highest national importance. To individuals, this policy is as injurious as it is to government. A system of artificial government protection leads the people to too much reliance on government; if left to their own choice of pursuits, they depend on their own skill and their own industry. But if government essentially affects their occupations by its systems of bounties and preferences, it is natural, when in distress, that they should call on government for relief. Hence a perpetual contest carried on between the different interests of society. He could hardly conceive of any thing worse than a policy which should place the great interests of this country in hostility to one another a policy which should keep them in constant conflict, and bring them every rear to fight their battles in the committee rooms of the house of representatives at Washington. " To leave men to their own discretion to conduct their own concerns by their own skill and prudence, and to employ their capital and their labour in such occupations as they themselves found most expedient, has been found the wisest, as it is the simplest, course of political legislation. As there is an order in the natural world which holds all things in place as the air we breathe is wisely combined and compounded for our use by the course of nature so there is a principle of regulation, a sort of vis medicatrix natures, in the social world. Excess corrects itself. If there be too much commerce it will be diminished; if there be too few manufactures they will be increased, with but ordinary care and protection. For his part, he believed that, however derided, the prin ciple of leaving such things very much to their own course in a country like ours, was the only true policy and that we could no more improve the order, and habit, and com position of society by an artificial balancing of trades and occupations, than we could improve the natural atmosphere by means of the condensers and rarifiers of the chemists. " In truth, every man in the community, not immediately benefited by the new duties, would suffer a double loss. In the first place, by shutting out the former commodity, the price of the domestic manufacture would be raised. The consumer, therefore, must pay more for it. And, in so much as government will have lost the duty on the imported article, a tax equal to that duty must be paid to government. The real amount, then, of this bounty on a given article will be precisely the amount of the present^duty added to the amount of the proposed duty ; at least, so it appeared to him (Mr. W.), and, if any calculation could make it otherwise, he would be glad to see it. Again : it is proposed to raise the duties on salt and brown sugar ; these are articles of very general consump- * Except by smuggling, until we admitted French silks in 1828, and almost every other article produced by France at moderate revenue duties. The consequence has been, that the exports ot British manufactures to France arose from being a nullity in 1826, to about G00,000/. in 1829, and to more than 3,000,000/. in 1846. 256 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. tion, and the duty on them is raised probably with a view of supplying, in some degree the loss to the treasury arising from excluding other articles. This is the tax, then, im posed to enable the treasury, in some measure, to bear its other losses. In other words, sugar and salt are taxed, because cotton and woollen cloths are to be taxed so high as to prevent their importation ; there is a tax on food in order that there may be a tax on clothing. " And, after all, how few of all the members of society are to be benefited by this system, so artificially and elaborately constructed. Certainly not all manufacturers nor mechanics, but a particular class only. " All those manufacturers who have now the home market in their possession, and export more or less of their wares the manufacturers, for instance, of shoes, nails, cabinet furniture, carriages. &c. all these are injured, not benefited. They feel the burden without partaking the profit. We might add to these at once, all the numerous classes whose occupations are connected, directly or indirectly, with navigation and com merce. It is said, to lull the alarms in the treasury, that the deficit of five millions in the revenue may be made up by an excise on domestic manufactures, when the foreign article should be excluded. But on what manufactures ? On cotton and woollen alone, and principally ? Certainly not. On others, as much or more, than on them. On car riages, for example, among the Jirst. This is a tax which, like many others, always diminishes the demand for the article. It takes away, then, at once, the employment of the artist who works in this line. He is a manufacturer, therefore, not benefited, but likely in the end to be ruined. " And yet he (Mr. W.) had understood that, in making out the new census, coach- makers, and all other handicraftsmen or tradesmen, were denominated manufacturers, and this would show a great number of manufacturers in the census, appearing to be benefited by protecting manufacturers. The case he had alluded to might suffice for an instance and example of many ; and, when the whole should be investigated, it would be found that the sorts of manufacturers to be benefited by the proposed measures were very few. An appeal had been made to the patriotic feelings of the nation. " It had been said, we are not independent so long as we receive these commodities from other nations. He could not see the force of this appeal. He did not perceive how the exchange of commodities between nations, when mutually and equally advan^ tageous, rendered one dependent on the other in any manner derogatory to its interest or dignity. A dependence of this sort exists everywhere among individuals as well as nations. Indeed, the whole fabric of civilisation, all the improvements which distin guished cultivated society from savage life, rest on a dependence of this hind. The reasoning assumes that, in war, no means of defence or annoyance can be probably obtained, or not without great difficulty, except from our own materials or manufac tures. He doubted whether there was much ground for that assumption. Nations had hitherto obtained military means in the midst of war from commerce. But, at any rate, as it was acknowledged on all hands that the country possessed the capacity of supply ing itself whenever it saw fit to make the sacrifice and he did not see why the neces sity of making it should be anticipated why should we now change our daily habits and occupations with great loss and inconvenience, merely because it is possible some change may hereafter become necessary ? We should act equally wisely, he thought, if we were to decide that, although we are quite well, and with very good appetites, yet, as it was possible we might one day be sick, we would, therefore now sell all our food and lay up physic. t( There was, however, (Mr. W. observed,) one part of our national defence, which the advocates of the new measures appeared to have quite overlooked or forgotten. He meant the navy. If the commerce of the country should cease, the navy must cease with it. This he thought too plain to be questioned. A country with a powerful navy, and little or no commerce, would be an anomaly in history. The great object aimed at seemed to be, either to annihilate or greatly diminish our foreign trade. Where, then, are our seamen to come from for the navy? By reference to the amount of American tonnage in 1810, the year when its amount was greatest, it will be seen that there were MR. WEBSTER S ADVOCACY OF FREE TRADE. 257 employed in the foreign trade, 984,000 tons, in the coasting trade, 371,000 tons The portion of seamen to tonnage is of course, greater in the larger vessels, so thai probably three-fourth* of the seamen of the United States were employed in the foreign trade The coastmg trade itselt would be immediately diminished by the curtailment of the foreign trade, and if it should afterward revive, and be even increased and extended there was no reason to suppose that it would supply seamen in sufficient numbers for the " Let those, then, who would abridge commerce, on the ground of a more independent provision for national defence, declare whether they esteem a navy to be amoW our means of defence. If they do not, their argument may be consistent ; if they do ft is a fallacy." Mr. W. said he would add a few observations upon a more general view of the subject. "We must regard the proposed measures either as intended to be temporary or as intended to be permanent. If they were to be but temporary the manufacturers would be ruined by their repeal. We must look upon the proposed duties, therefore, as intended to be permanent ; if not permanent at the same rates, yet permanent at such rates as shall preserve the system of manufacturing for ourselves. We are bound, therefore, to regard future consequences and the state of things which may ultimately arise, if this system should be adopted and established. It was the part of true wisdom to look to the end. " For his part he did not consider a great manufacturing population a benefit to be purchased with so much cost. He thought there were great evils in it. When it shall come, naturally, and in the progress of things, we must meet it. But, why hasten it ? What we see of it elsewhere did not recommend it to us. The great object of good governments was individual happiness, and this, to be general, required something like an equality in condition. "And how would it be in commerce ? suppose it were in the freighting business? A commercial friend had furnished him with a statement which would show the result : a ship fit for that service may cost 15,000 dollars. She will require, in her immediate service on board, fifteen hands. Then full occupation for one man is found here on a capital of 1000 dollars. But in the manufacturing establishment, 2000 dollars are required. In the first case, however, it is not the immediate employment of the navi gators that is demanded and paid. He who furnished the timber, he who built the ship, all the classes connected with commerce and navigation, are employed and paid. Or suppose we look to the West India trade, as we have sometimes enjoyed it. That is a trade favourable to small capitals and to personal labour. It is a trade of short voyage and quick return ; a trade which transports gross commodities both ways, and requires, therefore, many vessels, and those small. " Hence, we have seen respectable towns growing up and kept in activity, and pro ceeding to wealth, almost by that trade alone. " He believed, upon the whole, that all reasonable encouragement had been already given to manufactures, and especially to the manufactures of cloth. He had the pleasure of seeing gentlemen present, not from one only, but from several of the factories in this neighbourhood. If their business were ruinous, as some of the manufacturers had else where pretended, he hoped they would state it. He would be quite willing to leave it to those gentlemen themselves to say whether with the present protection the best con ducted manufacturing establishments did not yield as fair profits on capital as other branches of business ! He exceedingly doubted whether they would be willing to come into an average, and to divide their present profits with the agriculturists and the mer chants. He believed, indeed, that the persons connected with the establishments to which he had alluded had not petitioned congress for new duties. He believed that others would have been wise to have followed the same course. That which is most to be desired on these subjects is steadiness and permanency. He hoped the present duties would stand without increase or diminution ; that congress would adhere to what it had already established, and that both the government and the country would resist all attempts to make new, frequent, and great changes in the value of property, in the occu pations and pursuits of men, and in the means of living." VOL. I. 2 L 258 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The foregoing opinions are so thoroughly sound and true, that we have too high an opinion of the judgment of Mr. Webster, to believe they will be found among the number of those "WHICH, WHEN DYING, HE WOULD WISH TO BLOT." NOTE B. POLITICAL INTERCOURSE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS. THE wisdom and judgment of General Washington is beautifully exemplified in the following extracts from his last affectionate parental address to the nation. " Observe good faith and justice towards all nations; cultivate peace and harmony with all. Religion and morality enjoin this conduct ; and can it be that good policy does not equally enjoin it? It will be ivorthy of a free, enlightened, and (at no distant period) a great nation, to give to mankind the magnanimous and novel example of a people always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence. * In the execution of such apian, nothing is more essential than that permanent, in veterate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attachments for others, should be excluded,, and that, in place of them, just and amicable feelings towards all should be cultivated. " The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations, is extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connexion as possible. So far as we have already formed engagements, let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith. Here let us stop. " Europe has a set of primary interests, which to us have none, or a very remote re lation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us to im plicate ourselves, by artificial ties in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities. " Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different course. If we remain one people, under an efficient government, the period is not far off, when we may defy material injury from external annoyance; when we may take such an attitude as will cause the neutrality, we may at the time resolve upon, to be scrupulously respected ; when belligerent nations, under the impossibility of making acquisitions upon us, will not lightly hazard the giving us provocation ; when we may choose peace or war, as our interest, guided by justice shall counsel. "Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation? Why quit our own, to stand upon foreign ground ? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any other part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in the toils of European ambition, rivalship, interest, humour, or caprice? " It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world; so far, I mean, as we are now at liberty to do it ; for let me not be under stood as capable of patronising infidelity to existing engagements. I hold the maxim no less applicable to public than to private affairs, that honesty is the best policy. I repeat it, therefore, let those engagements be observed in their genuine sense. But, in my opinion, it is unnecessary, and would be unwise to extend them. " Taking care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, in a respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary alliances for extraordinary emer gencies. " Harmony, and a liberal intercourse with all nations, are recommended by policy, humanity, and interest. But even our commercial policy should hold an equal and im partial hand ; neither seeking nor granting exclusive favours or preferences; consulting the natural course of things ; diffusing and diversifying, by gentle means, the streams of commerce, but forcing nothing; establishing with the powers so disposed, in order to give trade a stable course, to define the rights of merchants, and to enable the government to support them, conventional rules of intercourse, the best that present circumstances INTERCOURSE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH FOREIGN NA IIONS. 25 J and mutual opinion will permit; but temporary, and liable to be, from time to time abandoned, or varied, as experience and circumstances shall dictate ; con sin nil, t /,,/,! in view, that it is folly in one nation to look for disinterested favours f rn /// dunlin r tlmt it must pay with a portion of its independence for whatever it may accept nn<l< r t/mt character ; that by such acceptance, it may place itself in tltc romllt ,,,,, of //////,/ ,/;,-,// equivalents for nominal favours, and yet of being reproached with ingratitude / // /// giving more. There can be no greater error than to expect or calculate ii/ion real favours from nation to nation. It is an illusion which experience must cure, which a just pride ought to discard" (See the whole of this address in the supplement to this volume.) From the day George Washington gave the instruction contained in this celebrated address to his fellow-citizens, all but demagogues and unprincipled disturbers of the laws, have religiously and politically regarded it as a testament, which hath bequeathed to them rules of conduct, to carry them through peace and strife, through adversity and prosperity. During the long war in which England was so expensively engaged against France, and for some time against all Europe, America remained, according to her constitutional principles, neutral, but always insisting on indemnity for losses suffered by her citizens, from the belligerent powers. BOOK III. EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL SKETCH UNTIL THE FORMATION OF THE DUTCH SETTLEMENTS. WE have in the first book of this volume, briefly sketched the discovery, settlement, and history of Brazil until its evacuation by the Dutch in 1661. There are, however, circumstances bearing upon the colonisation by, and colo nial policy of, Portugal, differing so far from the system of both as persevered in by Spain, which deserve some observations. Brazil was at an early period made a penal colony. In order to turn to some account those tried, for crimes or heresy, by the civil tribunals, and by the Inquisition, they were, as a com mutation of the punishment of death, sentenced to transportation and hard labour in Brazil. This system of colonisation could not be favourable to the moral character of new settlements. The aborigines soon lost all awe and respect for them. The convict settlers were not only rendered desperate by their situation, but from having been greatly hardened by crime, they led the most turbulent, dissolute lives. They soon exasperated the natives; who were at first kindly dis posed towards the convicts and other Portuguese ; but the unjust acts of the latter were soon resisted by the aborigines, who killed several of the convicts. The Portuguese then commenced a series of atrocities not surpassed in cruelty by the outrages of the Spaniards in America ; and they almost invariably mas sacred the old men and children in the villages, and reduced the strong adults to slaves.* * The first settler in Bahia was Diogo Alvarez, whose history, as detailed by Mr. Southey, is romantically interesting. " He was a native of Viana, young, and of noble family, who, with that spirit of enterprise which was then common among his countrymen, embarked to seek his fortune in strange countries. He was wrecked upon the shoals on the north of the bar of Bahia. Part of the crew were lost, others escaped that mode of death to suffer one more dreadful ; the natives seized and ate them. Diogo saw that there was no other possible chance of saving his life, than by making him self as useful as possible to these cannibals. He therefore exerted himself in recovering thincs from the wreck, and by such exertions succeeded in conciliating their favour. Among other things, he was fortunate enough to get on shore some barrels of powder and a musket, which he put in order at his first leisure, after his masters were returned to their village : and one day, when the opportunity was favourable, brought down a bird before them. The women and children shouted HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 261 Brazil was afterwards divided into hereditary captaincies (capitania*) granted by King John to grandees who had rendered services to the crown. They were bound either to go to Brazil in person, or to send colonists out to people tint country. They were invested with uncontrolled authority and jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, over their respective captaincies. Martin Affonso de Sousa received, in 1531, a grant of the region contiguous to St. Vincente,* extending about fifty leagues along the coast. Pedro Lopez de Sousa, his brother, had also fifty leagues of land granted him in two allotments : one part, St. Amaro, to the north of St. Vincente ; the other, Itamarica, was situated near Pernambuco. Joam de Barros, the historian, obtained the captaincy of Maranham. Pernam buco became the captaincy of Duarte Coelho Pereira. The region near the southern Paraiba was granted to Pedro de Goes. The territory between the River St. Francisco and Bahia was bestowed on Francisco Pereira Coutinho. The capitania dos Ilheos, running north and south from the Rio dos Ilheos, was granted to Jeorge Figueiredo Correa. Porto Seguro, with its region of sea- coast, formed a capitania of the same name, and was granted to Pedro Campo Tourinha. Espiritu Santo was formed into a captaincy, and given to Vasco Fer nandez Coutinho. Brazil was, therefore, colonised under a kind of feudal system. Few settle ments were founded by the crown ; the governors or proprietors made war or peace with the Brazilian tribes, issued laws, and imposed taxes. But an autho rity so absolute was despotically exercised, and finally occasioned the withdrawal by the crown of the powers invested in these feudal lords : leaving them, how ever, in possession of their grants of lands. A governor-general was ap pointed. Thome de Souza, a fidalgo, was the first governor-general. He arrived in the Bahia de todos os Santos (Bay of All Saints), in April, 1549, accompanied by the first Jesuits who had ever landed in America. Father Manoel de No- brega, the principal Jesuit, was a man of deservedly high character.! Caramuru! Caramuru! which signified a man of fire, and they cried out that he would destroy them ; but he told the men, whose astonishment had less of fear mingled with it, that he would go with them to war, and kill their enemies. Caramuru was the name which from thenceforward he was known by. They marched against the Tapuyas ; the fame of this dreadful engine went before them, and the Tapuyas fled. From a slave Caramuru became a sovereign ; the chiefs of the savages thought themselves happy, if he would accept their daughters to be his wives. He fixed his abode upon the spot where Villa Velha was afterwards erected, and soon saw as numerous a progeny as an old patriarch s rising round him. The best families in Bahia trace their origin to him. " At length a French vessel came into this bay, and Diogo resolved to take that opportunity of once more seeing his native country. He loaded her with Brazil-wood, and sailed for France, where he was received with honours, but not allowed to proceed to Portugal. He returned to Bahia, which he fortified." * " Martin Affonso de Sousa and his brother fitted out a considerable armament, and went to form their settlement in person. He began to survey the coast somewhere about Rio de Janeiro, to which he gave that name, because he discovered it on the 1st of January ; and he proceeded south as far as the Plata, naming the places which he surveyed upon the way, according to the days on which the several discoveries were made." Southey s History of Brazil, vol. i. p. 41. f Nobregawas the contemporary of St. Francis Xavier and his rival in disinterested exertions for the good of his fellow-creatures. He has been termed the Apostle of Brazil. He was noble Portuguese family, but, disappointed of some collegiate honour, to which he thoiu 262 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. In 1548, the Inquisition robbed the rich Jews of their property in Portugal, and banished them to Brazil. Being known, as honourable in their dealings, these Jews obtained, in Brazil and in Portugal, advances of money from the merchants with whom they had formerly transacted business. They imported sugar-canes from the island of Madeira, and formed sugar plantations in Brazil. Sugar had been used only in medicine before that time, but it soon became an article of luxury ; and, the demand increasing rapidly for it, the colonists were enabled to extend plantations. De Souza, on arriving at Bahia, found old Caramuru peaceably established in that place. He was of great service to De Souza in maintaining a friendly understanding between the Portuguese and the Indians. Within four or five months after the arrival of the governor-general, about one hundred houses were built, and the erection of a cathedral was begun, batteries were formed, and a mud wall was raised around the town. All necessary supplies were imported during the following two years from Portugal. Several young women, orphans of noble families, were also sent out by the queen to be given in marriage to the military and civil officers, with doweries in cattle, brood-mares, and negroes, from the crown es tates. This was the first royal settlement. De Souza, by building St. Salvador, gave a central capital to Brazil, but the honour of extending its settlements is nearly altogether due to the Jesuits. They dispersed themselves among the Indians, and guided by peace and charity, conciliated their confidence and attachment. The obstacles which they had to encounter were formidable, and, to any other class of missionaries, probably insurmountable. They began by instructing the chil_ dren of the aborigines, taught them the Portuguese language, and at the same time the Jesuits acquired the language of those, to whom they conveyed the ru diments of morality and civilisation.* The task of eradicating the cannibal pro pensities of the natives is affirmed to have been the chief difficulty of the Jesuits. They succeeded in making them sober, in making each man content with one wife, and in healing feuds; but feasting on the flesh of their enemies was for a long period not overcome. The Jesuits, in these praiseworthy efforts, were had a better claim than the successful candidate, he had renounced the world in a fit of disgust, little aware that that step would lead to his acting a more prominent and important part than, witlv all his talents and fair prospects, would otherwise have been within his reach. * Nobrega had a school near the city, where he instructed the native children, the orphans from Portugal, and the mestizos or mixed breed, here called Mamalucos. Reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught them ; they were trained to assist at mass, and to sing the church service, and were frequently led in procession through the town. This had a great effect, for the natives were passionately fond of music so passionately, that Nobrega began to hope the fable of Orpheus was a type of his mission, and that by songs he was to convert the pagans f of Brazil. He usually took with him four or five of these little choristers on his preaching expeditions. When they approached an inhabited place, one carried the crucifix before them, and they entered singing the litany. The savages, like snakes, were won by the voice of the charmer ; they received him joy fully, and when he departed with the same ceremony, the children followed the music. He set the catechism, creed, and ordinary prayers to sol, fa : and the pleasure of learning to sing was such a temptation, that the little Tupis sometimes ran away from their parents to put themselves under the care of the Jesuits." Southey s History of Brazil, vol. i. p. 267. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. opposed by the low priests, who had previously settled in the country. The priests exacted fees for every clerical act: the Jesuit missionaries performed all the ceremonies of religion gratuitously. The priests had maintained that it was lawful to enslave the Indians as beasts. They trafficked in human beings. Tl.py hated the Jesuits, whose mission was incessantly and laboriously exercised m the good work of instructing and humanising the aborigines. The first Brazilian bishop was appointed in 1552. In 1557, Thome de Souza, having been governor-general for four years, was recalled at his own request. D. Duarte da Costa, his successor, was accompanied by the celebrated Anchieta and six other Jesuits, who soon afterwards established a college in the plains of Piratininga, or St. Paul s, a delectable situation about ten leagues from the sea. Disputes arose between the bishop and Da Costa. The former embarked for Portugal in order to state his grievances to the king, but was shipwrecked on the coast, and, with about a hundred Europeans, murdered by the Cahetes. The Portuguese avenged these murders with atrocious severity. The Cahetes and their posterity were condemned to perpetual slavery ; they were hunted and slaughtered until nearly exterminated. Da Costa was succeeded, in 1558, by the celebrated Mem da Sa. He endea voured to reclaim the Indians from their barbarous propensities, and ordered that all who had been wrongfully enslaved should be set free. One rich colonist refused to comply with this order ; his house was levelled to the ground by the governor s command. Mem da Sa resolved, also, that the edict prohibiting the cannibal feasts of the natives would be summarily enforced. " Three friendly Indians were seized, when fishing, by their enemies, carried off, and devoured. The governor sent to the offending tribe, commanding them to give up the criminals that they might be put to death. The chiefs would have consented, but the persons implicated were powerful; the adjoining clans made a common cause with them ; two hundred hordes who dwelt upon the banks of the Paraguazu, united in defence of their favourite custom; and the answer returned was, that if the governor wanted the offenders, he must come and take them. This, in despite of the opposition made by the settlers, he resolved to do. The allied natives took the field with them, with a Jesuit at their head, and a cross for their standard. They found the enemy well posted, and in consider able strength, but they put them to flight. After the battle, it was discovered that an arm had been cut off from one of the dead : as this was evidently taken by one of the allies to eat in secret, proclamation was made that the arm must be laid by the body before the army took food or rested after the battle, The next morning the enemy were pursued, and suffered a second and more sever defeat, after which they delivered up the criminals, and petitioned to be received as allies upon the same terms as the other tribes/ 1 * * " Southey s Brazil." 26 i HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. It was during the government of Mem da Sa that the expedition was made to Brazil under Villegagnon, related in the first book. Mem da Sa, soon after the expulsion of the French, was alarmed by a new foe. The Aymores, or Botucodoes, the most cowardly, yet most dangerous/* of all the Brazilian tribes, invaded Ilheos and Porto Seguro, and threatened San Salvador. With the assistance of his Indian allies Mem da Sa repulsed them. Other tribes molested the settlers ; and, were it not for the influence of the Jesuits over the aborigines, the Portuguese colonists would have been exterminated. Mem da Sa ruled in Brazil for a much longer period than his predecessor. D. Luiz de Vasconcellos was appointed to succeed him, accompanied by a number of Jesuits, under F. Ignacio de Azevedo. The fleet in which they sailed, having separated, was attacked by several French and English ships. Luiz de Vascon cellos fell in an action with the latter off Terceira ; the Jesuits were all massacred by a French pirate, excepting one, who escaped in a lay habit. Nobrega, pre maturely reduced to old age by incessant fatigue, closed a life of self-denial and heroic virtue at the age of fifty-three. Mem da Sa lived to receive the new governor, Luiz de Almeida, and died almost immediately afterwards, after a vigilant and prosperous administration of fourteen years. The colonisation of Brazil had been so rapid, that Luiz de Brito divided the country into two governments. All the districts south of Porto Seguro were included in the department, of which Rio de Janeiro was created the capital. The separate governments were, however, found extremely inconvenient, and were re-united in 1578, under the administration of D. Diogo Lourenzo da Veiga. the fatal year in which Sebastian, King of Portugal, was cut off, with the chief of his nobility, by the Moors. Brazil, in consequence, came with Portugal under the dominion of Spain for about sixty years. The offer of Philip II. of all the Brazilian colonies, with absolute sovereignty, with the title of king, to the Duke of Braganza, on condition of his relinquishing his claim to the Portuguese crown, was declined. * " The mode of warfare among them was as savage as their habits of life ; they had no chief or leader; they never went in large companies ; they never stood up against an enemy face to face, but lay in wait like wild beasts, and took their deadly aim from the thickets. In one point they were greatly inferior to the other tribes ; for, being an inland people, they could not swim, and such was their ignorance, or dread of the water, that any stream which they could not ford was considered a sufficient defence against them. It may well be supposed that such men would be impatient of slavery ; some who were taken by the Portuguese refused to eat, and died by that slowest and most resolute mode of suicide." Southeys History of Brazil, vol. i. p. 295. Mr. Southey observes, " That the English were at this time endeavouring to establish them selves in Brazil ; and choosing their position better than the French, though riot with better fortune, they fixed themselves in considerable numbers at Paraiba do Sul. There they connected themselves with the native women ; and in another generation the Anglo-Tupi Mamalucos might have been found dangerous neighbours, if the governor of St. Sebastian s, steadily pursuing the system of his court, had not, in the fifth year of their abode, attacked and exterminated them. They who escaped from the merciless war which the Portuguese waged against all interlopers, fled into the interior, and either they were eaten by the savages as was believed, or lived and died among them, becoming savages themselves." HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 265 Spain took little interest in a country so inferior, as was then believed, in mineral wealth to her own colonies. By the subjection of Portugal to Spain, the colonies of the former were involved in hostilities with England, whose mer chants had commenced trading to Brazil.* In 1588 three English vessels com manded by Fan ton, were attacked, in the harbour of San Vincente, by a Spanish squadron. The action began in the evening, and continued as long as the moon gave them light, by which time one of the Spanish vessels was sunk,f and on the following morning the British captain put to sea. This was the first act of hostility committed by the English in Brazil, and they were not the aggressors. A fleet subsequently fitted out by the Earl of Cumberland, and commanded by Witherington, entered the Reconcave of Bahia, and plundered it; the city was preserved by the Indian archers. The infamous Cavendish infested the Brazilian coast as a freebooter in 1591. A. remarkable expedition was made, in 1593, by Sir James Lancaster to Pernambuco. He had by his own account, "been brought up among the Portuguese, had lived among them as a gentleman, served with them as a soldier, and dwelt among them as a mer chant; 5 there was te a kind of moral treason," Mr. Southey very justly remarks, " in his bearing arms against a people with whom he had so long domesticated. But he appears to have conducted himself with so much moderation and hu manity as almost to deserve forgiveness for his treachery." Pernambuco was taken. "Lancaster led the way," continues Mr. Southey ; "the fort began to play upon them, and struck away great part of the ensign of the galley. They run her aground right under the battery, within a coit s cast of it ; her back was broken with the shock, the sea made a breach over her, and she sunk instantly ; the other boats did the like. There were seven brass guns in the fort, which the Portuguese pointed so steep down wards, that their shot were spent in the sand, only one man being wounded. Lancaster exulting at this, for a well-aimed discharge must have been murderous, exclaimed, Upon them, upon them ! all, by God s help, is ours ! They ran forward to storm the place; the Portuguese lost heart, retired into some near bushes, and being pursued, fled by a way which was still dry, the tide not having reached it. Lancaster then made signal * The first Englishman who is mentioned as having traded to this country, is Master Win. Hawkins, of Plymouth, father of Sir John Hawkins, " a man much esteemed by Henry V a principal sea-captain. He armed a ship of his owu, of 250 tons, called the Paul of Plymouth wherewith he made two voyages to Brazil, one in 1530, and the other in 1532 ; in the first of which he brought a Brazilian king, as they termed him, to present him in his wild accoutrement to King Henry at the sight of whom the king and all the nobility did not a little marvail, ai not without cause. One Martin Cockeram, of Plymouth, was left behind in pledge lor h The Brazilian remained nearly twelve months in England, and died on Ins passage 1: was feared would turn to the loss of the life of Martin Cockeram, his pledge. Nevertheless tl. savages being fully persuaded of the honest dealing of our men towards their prince, re without anv harm." + "By "reason," says Lopez Vaz, "that these ships were weakened with former tempests, ai were manned with the refuse of all the Spanish fleet, (the sicke men and women being embarked therein,) the Englishmen easily put them to the worst, and sank one of them, anc have sunk another, if they had been so minded ; but they desired not the destruction of any i and doubtless it is the greatest valour that any man can show, that when he ma, not." VOL. I. 2 M 266 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. for the ships to enter: he left a garrison in the fort, planted its guns against Olinda, from which quarter he apprehended most danger, and marched to the base-town, as he calls Recife, which contained at that time rather more than a hundred houses. The people, at his approach, embarked in caravels and boats, and abandoned the place, leaving the rich lading of the carrack and great store of country produce to the con querors."* The sole purpose of this piratical voyage being plunder, the vessels were laden with every thing that was really valuable, and they sailed from " the city of gold" and reached England in safety. The success of Lancaster s enterprise would no doubt have encouraged other freebooters to undertake fresh adven tures to Brazil, had not a more tempting lure been held out in the fabulous El Dorado. We have in a former book given briefly an account of the settlements of the Dutch and their expulsion from Brazil ; and from that period until its indepen dence, this magnificent region remained a colony of Portugal. The contests for the dominion over Brazil caused so high a reputation of its vast territory and natural riches, that after the departure of the Dutch, John IV. of Portugal conferred the title of Prince of Brazil on his eldest son, Theodosius ; a dignity which continued to be afterwards enjoyed by the heir-apparent to the crown. The Jesuits, who had previously founded their establishments on the Parana, exerted wonderful and meritorious efforts to prevent the enslavement of the abori ginal nations of Brazil, and of the territories through which the rivers Paraguay and Parana flowed. Their zeal, in this mission of humanity, rendered them exceedingly hateful to princes, and to certain ecclesiastical orders. The Franciscans, especially, actually derived a profit from the internal slave-trade ; and they insinuated art fully, and then proclaimed openly, every calumny which could prejudice the world against the most humane and useful missionaries that ever endured the fatigues, privations, and sufferings, inseparable from traversing the vast wilderness regions of both the Americas. Through the malignity of the Franciscans, a report was generally circulated, and believed, that the Jesuits on the Parana and Para guay, worked for the general benefit of their order, the richest gold and silver mines in the world. This false charge extended its malicious purpose to the Jesuits in Brazil. Laws had been passed to protect the natives, but the speculators in the lands in Brazil continued to enslave, and subject, them to the most abject and severe labour. Great cruelties were, in consequence of the system of slavery, inflicted on the poor natives in the older captaincies, and the example was followed with addi tional oppression in Para and Maranham. These atrocious iniquities f had nearly exterminated the natives of the maritime * " Southey s History of Brazil," vol. i., p. 387. f The Portuguese laws allowed, that aborigines captured in just war were slaves ; also those made prisoners in war with each other when purchased by the Portuguese : the pretence of justi- HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 267 captaincies, when the Jesuit Vieyra arrived in Maranham, and partially succeeded in suppressing the slave-trade. The Paulistas, a mixed breed of Portuguese and aborigines, and called vul garly Mamalukes, were the most intrepid slave-hunters. They were also the most determined enemies of the Jesuits, and nearly deposed the governor who had coun tenanced that very remarkable man, Vieyra. Some time after, in 1673, an attempt at revolution broke out in the province of Maranham, headed by Manuel Beckman, an old German or Dutch Paulese, but born at Lisbon. His insurrection cry was, " Expel the Jesuits ! Abolish all monopolies !" They surprised the city, captured it, possessed themselves of the arsenal and fort, and imprisoned the governor in his own house. The revolters continued in occupation until the arrival of Gomes Freire with a force from Lisbon ; which soon vanquished the insurgents, and Beckman was banished. This restored tranquillity to the most lawless province of Brazil. In 1694, a revolt much more serious broke forth in the province of Pernambuco. The origin of this insurrection was the giving of arms to the negroes during the contests with the Dutch. Of these negroes, when armed at the capture of Olinda, several escaped, and established themselves in a strong forest position west of Porto do Calvo. Nearly all the runaway negroes afterwards found their way to this celebrated rendezvous. Their numbers soon became formidable. Like the first Romans, they were without women ; but they supplied this want by descending suddenly upon the plantations, and carrying off violently every woman of colour. They established equal laws among themselves ; they occu pied a fertile boundary ; their numbers increased with astonishing rapidity ; they made no scruple in plundering the Portuguese settlements; and they finally con stituted a nation under the name of the Palmarese (from the great palm forests of their region). They formed a government under an elector, or monarch, named Zombi. They surrounded their chief town and villages with stockades, and managed to procure, even from the Portuguese planters, abundance of fire and other arms and ammunition. During a period of forty years they remained un- attacked, and unmolested ; but having increased to the number of more than 20,000, the Portuguese government became so thoroughly impressed with the formidable power of this new nation, that in 1696, it was determined to extirpate the Palmarese, at whatever expense of money or of men. John de Lancastro, with an army of 6000 troops, well provided and armed, marched against the city of the Palmarese. The latter, unable to meet the former fication for which was, that the latter would otherwise have been eaten at the mussarama, and were called natives of the cord, all the evils of a regular slave-trade necessarily arose under these bar barous laws. Every captain of a fort made reckless war against the nearest tribes, for the r purpose of capturing slaves. The slave-traders on obtaining all they could seize by fraud o brought them forward for the mere form for examination, as Cord-Indians, answers were o which were readily accepted by judges implicated in the atrocious violence. " One captain having got the chief of an Indian village in his power, fastened lighted fusees to " One captain having got the chief ot an Indian village in ins power, IHMCIK each of his fingers, which were to burn there till he delivered himself from the torture, b a certain number of slaves." Southeys History of Brazil. 268 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. in the field, retired, to the number altogether of about 10,000, within the defences of the town. The Portuguese army advanced and laid siege to the place ; but they were greatly disheartened on beholding the formidable condition of the defences, and being without artillery, they were unprepared to besiege the town in regular form. They were soon greatly harassed by murderous sallies from the town. Whenever the Portuguese approached they were dismayed by a furious resistance on the part of the negroes ; who not only with fire-arms and bows and arrows, but with spouting scalding water, galled and frequently repulsed their assailants. This was an apparently hopeless siege on the part of the Portuguese, until the ammunition of the besieged was exhausted, and their supplies of provisions were cut off . Scarcity was assuming the aspect of famine within the town, and a strong reinforcement having arrived in aid of de Lancastro, the place was stormed and taken. The king, Zombi, and his chief adherents, resolving not to be cap tured alive, leaped over the high rocky precipices of the fort, and were instantly dashed to death. The captured inhabitants were all sold as slaves ; and this terminated the first negro kingdom in America. In 1699, gold was discovered, and in 1729-30, the diamond wealth of the country was also developed. But if Portugal was enriched by gold and precious stones, which we much doubt, we believe that the discovering and working of these mines amounted to the infliction of a curse and of moral degradation on Brazil. The town of Rio Janeiro, or St. Sebastian, and the surrounding country, enjoyed from the foundation, and settlement of both, by the Portuguese, the advan tage and happiness of not being attacked by any European power.* Unlike the condition of the northern provinces, domestic tranquillity and comparative prosperity prevailed in the province of Rio Janeiro. To the region of the gold mines, discovered in the first year of the eighteenth century by the Puulistas, was given the name of Minas Geraes. This inland province became a dependency to the city of Rio de Janeiro. Agriculture was soon nearly abandoned for gold digging ; the price of slaves became enormous ; the general prosperity of the country retrograded ; all resorted to the gold mines to accumulate wealth with rapidity. The fame of these golden resources went forth to Europe. France determined that these riches should not be monopolised by Portugal. A squadron, under the command of M. Du Clerc, sailed from France, and appeared off the shores of Brazil in 17 10. In a few days about 1000 armed men were landed at Guaratiba, about forty miles from Rio Janeiro. Guided by two captured negroes, this force marched to the capital ; then garrisoned by 8000 regular troops, exclusive of 600 Indian archers, and * The Portuguese having imported diamonds for some time before from Goa, at first dis couraged the search for diamonds in Brazil, but, finding the mines prolific, they soon considered them as inexhaustible sources of wealth. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 209 numerous bands of armed negroes. Francisco de Castro, the Portuguese gover nor, is accused of culpable neglect, in allowing the French to approach the city and not even attempting to molest them when encamped in an old Jesuit sugar plantation, called Engenho Velio, now one of the principal suburbs of the city. We doubt the justice of the charge made generally by historians against the governor. It is more probable that he acted on a designed plan of entrappin the French. He intrenched himself with his forces in the square of the old town, with the right wing of his forces extending up the hill of the Con- cepcion, the left up that of St. Antony. The French passed round the latter hill by the road of the Ajuda, entered the city unrepelled; and, in two divisions, marched, the one towards the palace, the other to the convent of St. Benedict. The gover nor, called by all historians imbecile, now headed his troops, fell on the French, of whom many were cut down and killed in the streets, and no less than 250 wounded. The remainder with their commander, were captured and imprisoned. Le Clerc was assassinated at night, and most of the captains were secretly murdered. The barbarity of the Portuguese was severely avenged. On the intelligence reaching France of the discomfiture of the expedition under Le Clerc, and of the atrocious sacrifice of men who had surrendered as prisoners of war, it was resolved by individual enterprise, that a powerful armament should be expedited against the Portuguese settlements in Brazil. Among those who resolved to avenge the barbarous assassination of Le Clerc and the French prisoners at Rio de Janeiro, there appeared Duguay de Trouin, one of the most gallant naval officers of the age. The government ap proved of the heroism and liberality of those persons who undertook the expense and the responsibility of the chivalrous undertaking, and De Trouin was invested with the command of a powerful naval armament. This fleet arrived before Rio de Janeiro on the 12th of September, 1711, and having previously ascertained the bearings of the entrance, De Trouin sailed into the harbour, but not without a loss of nearly 300 men from the fire of the forts on passing the Narrows. With his bomb-ships, he advanced on the following night, and next morning possessed himself of Ihla das Cobras, divided only by a nar row channel from the city. He landed his troops and erected batteries. The go vernor, as on the previous year, merely intrenched himself in the same position within the city. His force was in number double that of the enemy. The French, meantime, pillaged houses, and carried off the cattle within a few hundred yards of the town. De Trouin, with his inferior force, presuming it impracticable, either to pre vent the citizens removing their effects to the neighbouring mountains, or to en gage, as Le Clerc had most rashly done, in a street warfare, demanded an uncon ditional surrender of the city. The governor returned a spirited refusal. Trouin then prepared for a general attack. He decided on possessing five Portu- 270 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. guese merchant-ships which lay at anchor near the shore, and close to the Bene dictine Convent, in order that they might serve for the reception of troops, to land afterwards, and attack the town. During night, boats with French troops attempted to board these ships; a thunder-storm came on; the boats were dis covered by the lightning, and the Portuguese musketry fired on them, and caused some confusion ; the plan of boarding the ships was abandoned. De Trouin at once brought up his troops ; and the cannonade opened furiously on the city, and was continued during the whole night, simultaneously with the thunder and light ning. Many houses were set on fire by the shells, and the thick stonewalls of the Benedictine convent are Laid to retain to this day marks of the destructive effect of the French cannon balls. A contemporary French writer observes " The simultaneous roar of the cannon and the thunder, rendered more terrible by the repeated echoes of the surrounding mountains; the mingled glare of the batteries and the lightning, filled the inhabitants with terror, as though heaven, earth, and hell had broken loose upon them at once/ The citizens, men, women, and children, during this most tempestuous war of physical and artificial elements, and in the most terrific night, ever experienced, fled to the wild heights of the adjacent mountains of Teguca. The troops within the entrenchments were dismayed. At daybreak they prepared to take the city by storm, when an aide-de-camp of the late Du Clerc, who had managed to save his life, came forth and informed the French commander that the city was aban doned. De Castro intended to blow up the forts of the Jesuits and Benedictines but was prevented, and the city was soon after occupied by the forces of De Trouin. liie captives of the expedition under Du Clerc, who had escaped the massacre, broke out of prison during the night, and on the entrance of De Trouin, were actively engaged in plundering the deserted houses. A general sacking of the city followed. The houses of some citizens who had extended charity and kindness to the French prisoners, were spared from pillage ; but the excesses of the French sailors and troops were abominable. More than three-fourths of the dwellings and warehouses had been broken into, and the wine, provisions, stores, and goods of every kind, were thrown into the streets. A scene of riot ensued, and it was said that the Portuguese governor might at that time have crushed the invaders. De Trouin, shot some of his men, but a few summary punishments were not sufficient to resist temptations of plunder, rapine, and drunkenness. He, however, allured many to work, and bring off the most valuable merchandises. De Castro had encamped about three miles from the city, expecting a reinforcement from the mines. De Trouin, confident that if he continued too long where he found no certainty of provisions, without difficulty and danger, informed the governor, that unless the city were immediately ransomed, he would burn to the ground every HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 271 building within its precincts. Six hundred thousand cruzados, about eighty-four thousand piastres, were offered and accepted as the ransom of the town t the citi zens having the pre-emption of redeeming their merchandise. Among the arti cles of plunder were a great number of boxes of sugar. The loss caused by the expedition of De Trouin was enormous. Besides the ransom money a prodigious amount of property was either plundered or devoured by fire. Three line-of- battle ships, two frigates, and more than thirty merchant vessels, were either taken or burnt. De Trouin shot every Frenchman detected in plundering churches. He, how ever, collected together all the church-plate that was found, and intrusted its preservation to the Jesuits, who were "the only ecclesiastics" he said, "in that city that had appeared worthy of his confidence." He sailed from Rio Janeiro on the 4th of November, determined to attack Bahia, but after having struggled with adverse winds, for nearlysix weeks, he bore away for France. Two ships of his squadron, during the tempest encountered on their way homewards, foundered, with 1200 men on board. One of them, was the best ship, and carried the most valuable plunder, including gold and silver to the value of 600,000 livres. A third vessel, driven into Cayenne, sunk at anchor. But, exclusive of the loss of these ships, the individuals who risked the expense of equipment are said to have made a profit of ninety-two per cent upon the capital they had invested. This expedition, like those of Drake and Hawkins, cannot rank above piratical expeditions. Francisco de Tivora was sent out as governor to supersede De Castro, who was tried for cowardice, &c., at the court of Lisbon, and sentenced to degradation, and perpetual imprisonment, in one of the forts of India, though he pursued the same course as on the former year, when having been successful, his faults were overlooked. Since the day on which Duguay de Trouin s squadron sailed away, no ene my s fleet has ever entered the harbour of Rio de Janeiro. In 1763 the seat of government was removed to it from Bahia, and from that time it became the residence of the viceroys. Although the province of Rio Janeiro, and its dependent region of Minas Geraes, enjoyed tranquillity, incessant disputes were continued between Por tugal and Spain, relative to their respective settlements on the banks of the Rio de la Plata and its tributaries. In 1750 a convention was entered into by which their limits were established, and Portugal resigned the settlement of Santo Sacramento to Spain, in exchange for seven of the Jesuit missionary settlements on the banks of the Uruguay. About 30,000 baptised aborigines, of the Gua- rany tribe, with their wives and children, were, by this reckless act forced to remove from the land of their fathers to an unknown territory. The Jesuits had long resided among them. They appealed against the arbitrary removal of a 272 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. people among whom they had been eminently successful in civilising. But the efforts of the Jesuits were disregarded, and the period was now approaching when this celebrated order excited the suspicions of nearly all European govern ments.* The Guarany nation at first resisted the order to abandon their lands : they were forced, after great slaughter, to submit to the tyranny of their diabolical oppressors; and it was deemed a misfortune with respect to them that the Jesuits were their friends. When Charles III. ascended the throne of Spain, in 1761, the treaty of limits was annulled ; and the Guaranies were invited back to their ruined country. The Jesuits endeavoured to repair the wrongs which the remnants of the ex pelled tribes had endured. The efforts of the Jesuits were great and praise worthy ; yet their very humanity, and success, increased the jealousy and sus picion previously entertained against them. The great enemy of the order was a personage, as honest, yet, as mistaken in his views, as unsound in his commercial and colonial policy, as was any statesman who has ever appeared prominently among the nations of Europe. Sebastian Joseph de Carvelho e Mello, afterwards best known by his title as the Marquis de Pombal, became the prime minister of Charles III. of Portugal. With very laudable ambition, he considered himself born to regenerate the kingdom, and to raise the colonial empire of Portugal, in America, in Africa, and in the Eastern Indies, to a condition of prosperity, wealth, and power, which would eclipse the vast colonial empire of Spain, and cast into a shade, of comparative insignificance, the navigation, commerce, and colonies of other European powers. He considered the mineral, agricultural, and commercial resources of Brazil so great, and inex haustible, that he even contemplated founding a new capital, for the Portuguese empire, in the province of Minas Geraes. We do not assert that some of his ideas would not have been beneficial if rightly directed ; but certainly no statesman ever conceived greater fallacies. Yet they all teemed with designs, characterised by the grandeur of their illusions. We must allow him that justice, which is eminently due to this very extraordinary man, though not wise statesman. In a country where ignorance, superstition, and intolerance prevailed more generally, at the time, than in any other country in Europe, he came boldly forward to rescue, according to his views, Portugal and her colonies from social, political, and com mercial degradation. He had the moral courage, in despite of the Inquisition, and the opposition of the regular and secular ecclesiastics, and of a prevalent bigoted and religious superstition, averse to all change and reform, to bring forward his plans regardless of all obstacles. The regular and secular orders were at the time jealous of each other. They agreed in nothing but mutual hatred to the Jesuits. Carvelho, not wisely, held all the ecclesiastics, except the Jesuits, nearly in con tempt. As for the friars, he considered that it would be advantageous to the * See chapters hereafter on Paraguay, Parana, &c. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 273 country, and not difficult, to abolish their clerical existence nay, even the ex tinction of their lives would not have been repugnant to his views of national utility. It must at the same time be admitted that the higher ranks of priests as well as all other, required reformation in their morals, and great amendment in their education. By annihilating the friars and reforming the priesthood, he believed that the authority of the pope would be greatly diminished in Portugal and in Brazil. But, the intelligent, and able Jesuits were too powerful, not to be feared by the prime minister; and he unfortunately considered that they would prove the chief obstacle to his reforms, and that if their order were completely suppressed, he might then proceed unobstructed by any difficult impediment with his plans. He was most egregiously wanting in judgment and forecast. We are far from being the advocates of the institute of the Jesuits ; but, considering the ignorance of Portugal, and the condition of Brazil, they were the men of all others, who could have the most effectually aided the minister. They would not certainly have given him faithful support in order finally to establish either civil liberty and per fect religious freedom. Pombal had not such enlarged views. His ambition was to elevate Portugal, and her colonial and maritime power, to the rank of absolute grandeur. Therefore, before proceeding in the measures which are mis called his reforms, he decided on crushing the only intelligent order then to be found within the whole ecclesiastical institutions of the Portuguese empire. In fact, when Carvello, at the age of more than fifty, became the prime minister of his country, he possessed those abilities and manners, which enabled him to acquire a thorough domination over the mind of his sovereign. He was, therefore, invested by the latter with absolute power. In proceeding to carry into effect measures, which we believe were honestly conceived by him, and which he considered, with integrity, to be necessary for regulating and aggrandising the empire, he utterly disregarded the severity of the means which were to be adopted. His enemies are not even accused of exaggeration, when they characterised him as destitute of both the virtues of humanity, and the scruples of conscience. He, therefore, with extraordinary confidence in his own wisdom and abilities, commenced fearlessly, bold and violent measures, and persevered in their execution with reckless perseverance. He employed his brother, Francesco Xavier de Mendoza Fiutado, as captain-general of Maranham and Para, to suppress the Jesuits in Brazil. Fiutado treated the Jesuits, in the same spirit that actuated Carvelho in his general policy. The Jesuits had their advocates in Por tugal, but Carvelho, now created Marquis of Pombal, was absolute, then truly repeat what Louis XIV. said of the state. In fact, the state was Pom In 1760 the final expulsion of the Jesuits from Brazil was carried ignominiously and with extraordinary hastiness. Fiutado informed them tl they might, after their departure, serve the Deity with less patience and than they had practised. VOL. I. 2 N 274 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The churches, colleges, houses, lands, and other property of the Jesuits, were seized and confiscated by the crown. Their books arid papers were also taken from them. Their hospitals were invaded, and the patients compelled to leave their beds, some of whom died on being removed. At St. Paul s, only, were they treated with some humanity in their disgrace; the bishop of which, Fr. Antonio da Madre de Deos, said publicly, " that the expulsion of the Jesuits would draw after it the ruin of religion first, and the overthrow of the government afterwards." At Rio de Janeiro, the place of embarkation from the south, 145 were stowed below decks in one ship, like African negroes; for these the surgeon obtained some alleviation, by assuring the captain, that if he persisted in confining them below, not one of them would live until they should reach Lisbon. On arriving at Lisbon, as prisoners, they were cast into prison, and never heard of until the king s death and the disgrace of Pombal. After a confinement of eighteen years, those who survived were liberated. Others, who arrived in the Tagus, were not permitted to land, nor to communicate with friend or kinsman ; but were then placed on board other vessels, sent to the Mediterranean, and landed without means, on the Roman States. The Jesuits transported from Pernambuco, especially in a missionary ship those which had belonged to the order, were treated with extraordinary harshness on the voyage. The expulsion of the Jesuits tended rapidly to barbarise the Portuguese settle ments, and to prevent the civilisation of the aborigines. The intercourse of foreigners was now strictly interdicted, and Pombal inflicted on that empire, a non-commercial intercourse system which began to be exploded in other countries, He introduced the system of exclusive trading companies. He limited the very trade of port wine to a monopolist association. He inflicted on the northern provinces of Maranham, Pernambuco, and Para, the limitation of their whole trade to an exclusive company. He fixed a special price on the shares of this company, and passed a law that these shares should, at the price fixed, by him, be a legal tender for all payments whatever. This fallacious, unjust, and unwise measure, turned out a miserable failure. No one had any confidence in the credit of a company established on so rotten a basis. Fourteen ships were at first employed in the trade of the company ; the number soon declined to four, and after the disgrace of Pombal, this pernicious company was suppressed. It is not within the purpose of this work to enter further into the administra tion of this unfortunate minister. Having fully examined his plans, which were chiefly fallacious, and analysed, with care, his manners and his character, we may conclude with observing, that a prime minister, at that period, with the power, energy, boldness, and perseverance of a Pombal, and the judgment and forecast of a Franklin, would have rendered Portugal one of the richest, most improved countries in Europe, and Brazil by far the most advanced empire in America ; the United States of the north excepted. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 275 In 1762, when the war between England, France, and Spain broke out, the latter power seized on Colonia, a Portuguese settlement in the south. Frevrei the governor of Brazil, despatched a squadron, chiefly English privateers, com manded by an Irishman, Captain Macnamara. He reached the place too late to prevent its capture, but was on the point of silencing the batteries and retaking it, when his ship caught fire, and three-fourths of his crew, including the captain, were drowned. The other ships returned to Rio de Janeiro. This was the first time that the English assisted the Portuguese against their enemies. In the year 1763,* when peace was concluded, Colonia reverted to Brazil, and the seat of government, under the viceroyalty of the Conde d Acunha, was trans ferred the same year from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro, chiefly on account of the proximity of the latter to the gold mines, and to guard Brazil more effectually against the Spanish settlements on the Plata. Some attempts were also made, afterwards, to extend the boundaries south and south-westward, and in a few years the mining settlements were extended, especially those of Matto Grosso. Meantime the Jesuits 5 estates were grossly mismanaged, and the proceeds wasted ; and the missions, which were transferred to other orders, gradually decayed- Tranquillity, however, was preserved during the period which followed to the end of the eighteenth century, with little interruption, excepting some disputes with the French on the frontiers of Cayenne ; expeditions made to subdue the inde pendent aboriginal tribes; and the attempt made at revolution in Minas Geraes, led on by a cavalry officer, nicknamed Tiradentes, the tooth-drawer. The revolters gave as their grievance, the too large a share, exacted by the crown, of the pro duce of the mines. The object was to form the province of Minas Geraes into an independent state. Before they matured their plans for action, the leading con spirators were all arrested, and all banished, with the exception of O Tiradtntes, who was hanged. During the first year of the present century, the Brazilian Portuguese at tacked the Spaniards in the reductions which formerly were the battle-grounds hi the expulsion-war against the Guaranies.f The latter nation was formerly the in veterate enemies of the Portuguese ; but the injustice and cruelties of the Spaniards reconciled them to the advances of the Brazilians, whom they received as libera tors. The Portuguese in consequence repossessed themselves of the reductions which formed part of the territories of Brazil. * Forty-four governor-generals and viceroys had, before this date, ruled or reigned over Brazil, 1 f Portugal obtained the cession of these settlements on the expulsion of the Guaranies in 1733, it ceded them to the Spaniards in 1777, in exchange for their former provin. which had been taken from them during the war. 276 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. CHAPTER II. EFFECTS OF THE INVASION OF PORTUGAL BY FRANCE ARRIVAL OF THE ROYAL FAMILY IN BRAZIL CONSEQUENT CHANGES OPENING OF THE PORTS. IN 1807, the French army having invaded Portugal it became evident that Napoleon had resolved to subjugate the whole peninsula. On the 29th of No vember, the vanguard of the French army appeared on the heights above Lisbon, and the prince-regent determined upon emigration to Brazil. Every thing of value which could be carried off was hastily put on board the British squadron then commanded by Sir Sydney Smith at the mouth of the Tagus, and of eight Portuguese ships of the line, four frigates, twelve brigs, and several merchant- vessels. This fleet, with the British commander, immediately sailed for and arrived safely at Bahia. The citizens of Bahia offered to construct a superb palace if he would remain and re-establish the city as the metropolis but the broad entrance of the bay, and the impossibility of rendering the port impregnable by fortifications, consti tuted objections which did not apply to the magnificent bay of Rio de Janeiro. The prince landed at Bahia on the 25th of January, 1808, where he was re ceived with enthusiastic joy. Spending a month in that city, he sailed and arrived, on the 7th of March, at Rio de Janeiro ; but, before he departed, he granted the celebrated CARTA REGIA, by which the ports of Brazil were opened to foreign navigation and trade. The Viscount del Cayru, a Brazilian author and senator, who had been officially appointed to write a history of Brazil, which he unfortunately did not live to accomplish, says in his " Memorias dos beneficios politicos do governo do Rei D. Joao. VI.," that the Carta Regia was much superior to the English Magna Charta in its purposes, and that the Regent, " by that immortal diploma conferred an inestimable inheritance upon this terres trial paradise, where flourish the crowned heads of the vegetable world ; trees that blossom from the trunk to the vertex ; health-giving plants, that banish death to a remote old age ; and, besides, a thousand other equivalents for the riches of the globe; those princely fruits, which the poets and enthusiasts of natural history have named ambrosia food for the gods. Opening the ports, without reserve, to foreign commerce, he established a direct correspondence between this and foreign nations, by which the people enjoy, through the wealth that nature has given them, what art has secured to other states, besides an exuberant supply of population, and a perpetual stimulus to industry." Until the promulgation of this royal charter, all navigation and commerce with every foreign country and Brazil was rigidly prohibited. If vessels were driven by stress of weather into any Brazilian port they were confiscated if they belonged to an unfriendly power; if they were those of a country in alliance with HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 277 Portugal, neither passengers nor crew were allowed to land, except under strong military guard. The treatment experienced by Lord Anson s ships, at Rio Janeiro, was a case illustrative of the miserable colonial policy of Portugal. To prevent all possi bility of trade, whether ships had put in to repair damages or to procure provisions and water, a custom-house guard, was placed on board, and the time for their remaining was fixed, by the authorities. From these oppressive regulations a people, who were rich in gold and diamonds, were unable to procure the common implements of agriculture and of domestic convenience. A senhor de engenho who could display the most rich and massive plate at a festival, might not be able to furnish each of his guests with a table-knife. A single tumbler, at the same time, might be under the necessity of going the round of a whole company. There was no printing-press.* Books were scarcely ever seen. Industry and enterprize were paralysed by ignorance, bigotry, and despotism. Naturally, there was no country in the world richer than Brazil; none, in which Europeans had done less good. When the royal family arrived, the several provinces were disunited and jealous of each other. They had little in common, excepting that the Portuguese race spoke the same language, and had relapsed into equal indolence; and that they received each every third year a new governor from Portugal. During the year in which the ports of Brazil were declared open to foreign trade, more than ninety foreign ships, chiefly British, entered the port of Rio Janeiro. Two years afterwards, a most advantageous treaty of commerce was concluded with England, under which a most profitable trade was carried on, until that treaty was terminated in 1844, on the grounds of an imbecile, or dis honest hypocrisy, which excluded the sugars of Brazil from British markets.f St. Catherine s was declared a free port. Books were imported ; schools were established; the fashions and manners of Europe were introduced; and, con sidering the then ignorant and degraded condition of Brazil, it will appear that very great progress in civilisation had been made in that magnificent empire. In 1815, Brazil was declared a kingdom. The queen-mother, who had long been in a state of imbecility, dying immediately after, Dom John VI. delayed the proclamation of his accession until the following year, when he was crowned King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Algarves, and Brazil, on the oth of February, 1818. This was considered an auspicious event in the history of Brazil. But it * A printing-press was established at Bahia in 1811, and a gazette, called " The Golden Age" was commenced, but with a censorship as its adjunct a public library was also established by pri vate individuals. f The import duties on British products under this treaty were never to exceed fifteen per cent. They were at its termination far more than doubled (see Brazilian Tariff at the end of this volume). We hope the recent sound policy, with respect to Brazilian sugars, will induce the government to adopt wiser fiscal and commercial regulations. 278 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. must not be overlooked, that there were elements of dissatisfaction attendant upon the arrival and residence of the royal family in the newly-created kingdom. Many corrupt, idle, and needy adventurers accompanied the prince-regent from Portugal. They claimed, for their loyalty, places from the government ; on being invested with office they took little interest in the welfare of the country ; they enriched themselves, but were regardless of administering justice or ruling for the public good. A rivalry had always prevailed between the native Brazilians and the Portuguese. On the conduct of the latter Mr. Armitage remarks, that " Don John, from his naturally obliging disposition, delighted in rewarding every service rendered to him or to the state ; but being straitened for funds, he adopted the cheaper custom of bestowing titulary honours upon those who had merited his favour. To such an extent did he carry this species of liberality, that, during the period of his administration, he distributed more honorary insignia than had been conferred by all the preceding monarchs of the house of Braganza." Landed proprietors, merchants, and others, on the arrival of the royal cortege, readily opened and often gave, their houses, and advanced their money, to those who accompanied the royal family. They were rewarded with decora tions of various honorary orders. In most cases these honours were absurd. They were also unfortunate penalties upon those on whom they were conferred. Being ennobled, to remain in commercial life was considered as derogatory ; they were, therefore, compelled to live either on the means which they had, or to solicit employment from the government. Competition for office was, at the same time, increased by the numerous emigrants from Portugal. The emoluments of public offices were also limited to small salaries from want of funds. "The venality," says Mr. Armitage, "of the Brazilians in office, became ere long equal to that of their Portuguese colleagues. These things, together with the wretched state of morals that prevailed at court, were calculated to foment those jealousies of foreign dominion which could hardly fail to arise in view of the independence recently achieved by the English colonies of North America, and of the revolutionary struggle in which the neighbouring colonies of Spain were already engaged. " Quietness prevailed for several years ; but discontent became gradually dis seminated, and was often promoted by the very means used for its suppression. Mur murs, too, were excited, but as yet they found no echo ; the only printing press in the country being under the immediate direction of the royal authorities. Through its medium the public was duly and faithfully informed concerning the health of all the princes in Europe. Official edicts, birth-day odes, and panegyrics on the reigning family, from time to time illumined its pages, which were unsullied either by the ebullitions of democracy, or the exposure of grievances. To have judged of the country by the tone of its only journal, it must have been pronounced a terrestrial paradise, where no word of complaint have ever yet found utterance."* The warfare carried on in the south of Brazil against Artigas, and for the re duction to complete obedience of the province of Rio Grande do Sul, was very expensive, and for some years far from successful. The war on the part of * " Vide A rmitage s Continuation of Southey s History of Brazil ;" "Kidder s Sketches of Brazil, New York, 1844 HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 279 Brazil against the republicans of La Plata was also carried on as a destructive warfare against the agricultural settlements. In 1809, an event of some importance occurred. The court of Rio now re solved on recovering Portuguese Guiana, which had been ceded to France by the treaty of Amiens in 1802, and a force under Colonel Manoel Marquez, sup. ported by the English man-of-war Confirmee, Captain Yeo, forced the French to surrender that colony on the 12th of January. In 1817, an insurrection had broken out in Pernambuco. Its object was to overthrow royalty and to establish a republic. That port, however, was soon blockaded, and the troops from the other provinces subdued the insurgents, and the ringleaders were hanged.* Serious disorders broke out some time after at Bahia. where the Portuguese troops committed many outrageous excesses ; and, at last, the city became a scene of bloodshed between the Portuguese and native Brazilian troops. The whole country seemed on the point of a revo lution; and, on the 18th of February, 1821, the king nominated the Marquis de Alegrete and others, to take into consideration the constitution which had been promulgated in Portugal, as far as it could be made applicable to Brazil. The prince, Dom Pedro, soon after, read to the people of Rio a royal proclama tion, granting such a constitution as should be framed by the cortes at Lisbon ; and he took the oath to observe the constitution. The governors of Per nambuco, Bahia, and the other captaincies followed his example ; all of which was confirmed by the king.f In 1821, the state of affairs in the mother country compelled King John VI. to return to Europe, as the only chance of preserving the integrity of the monarchy. The cortes of Lisbon invited their sovereign to revisit his ancient capital, and deputies from Brazil were summoned to attend the sittings of the national assembly. The Cortes in Portugal, and the Portuguese generally, had become impatient of an absence of the sovereign, which reduced them to a con dition scarcely superior to a colony of Brazil. Before the colonial deputies could arrive, the cortes had resolved that Brazil, should be brought back into an absolute dependence on Portugal. That they should revive all the restrictions * On receiving tidings at Rio of this insurrection, the king is said to have exclaimed : " How is it that my subjects revolt ? I have always tried to do them good ; I do not know that injured any one. What do they wish for ? n Luccock s Notes. J f < The situation of the king," says M. la Beaumelle, was critical He was surrounded wrth numbers of Portuguese trooos who were devoted to the system adopted by their com rack*. recent insurrection of Pernambuco showed that there was ; a ^republican leaven 11 co ntrj He consulted his love for his people ; and on the 26th of February before news could the installation of the cortes, he swore, at all hazards, to observe form, if one should be formed. The same oath was taken good faith, by the royal family. It would have cost h constitutional monarch : he had never loved or e employed his absolute authority, it was only to do good. - 280 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. and monopolies of the exploded colonial system ; and that England was to be deprived of her free trade to Brazil.* On the 22nd of April, the king appointed his eldest son, Dom Pedro, regent of the new kingdom, with full powers to exercise all the functions of royalty. On the 24th, the royal family embarked, accompanied by many of the emigrant nobles. Dom Pedro was, at this time, twenty-three years old. He was married four years before to the Archduchess Leopoldina, sister of the present Emperor of Austria. He assumed the reins of government under the difficult and per plexing circumstances of an empty treasury, a heavy public debt, and the pro vinces almost in revolt. Bahia disavowed his authority, and the cortes withheld their support from him. The regent reduced his expenditure to the monthly sum allowed his princess for pin-money; he retired to a country-house, observed the most rigid economy ; and of 600 horses, which composed his stud, he retained only about fifty.f By great exertions he reduced the public expenditure from 50,000,000 francs to 15,000,000 francs. But the northern and internal provinces withheld their taxes, and Dom Pedro was reduced to a condition of little more power than that of governor of Rio Janeiro. The ministers of the king, his father, being Portuguese, were obnoxious, and suspected of being attached to the old order of goverment. To these difficulties were to be added the insubordina tion of the army, and the intrigues of the junta which were imposed upon him by the cortes. Dom Pedro, in consequence, requested to be recalled to Europe. " At length," says M. de Beauchamp, " the Brazilians were disarmed by this noble conduct: they recognised his activity, his beneficence, his assiduity in the affairs of government; and the habitual feelings of affection and respect for the house of Bra- ganza, which had been for a moment laid asleep by distrust, were rewakened with increased strength. To these was joined an almost idolatrous sentiment of attachment for the virtues and splendid as well as amiable qualities of the young Archduchess Leo poldina, the daughter of the Emperor of Austria, and the beloved wife of the regent." The king, after his arrival in Lisbon, found himself under the necessity of lending his authority to a constitution, which treated his Brazilian subjects as mere colonists. By this act a rupture between the two countries became inevitable. On the 4th of October, 1821, an attempt was made at Rio to pro claim the regent emperor. It was immediately suppressed, as the provinces were not then prepared for so great a revolution. The mere demonstration, however, increased the influence of the regent. At the same time that Dom Pedro was refusing the imperial crown, the cortes * Extracted from a manifesto of the Portuguese nation in J821 : "Commerce and industry, which can never prosper but under the benignant shadow of peace, had not only been despised and relinquished, but seemed even entirely destroyed by the unlimited licence granted to foreign vessels in all the ports of Brazil ; by the fatal treaty of commerce with England in 1810 ; by the consequent decay of trade and national manufactures," &c. &c. See De 1 Empire du Bresil, considere sous ses Rapports Politiques et Commerciaux. Par M. Angliviel la Beaumelle. Paris, 1823. f So says M. la Beaumelle. M. de Beauchamp says, " Reformant les 600 chevaux de son e curie, n en gardant pas me me cinquante." HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 281 of Lisbon, hurried on by passion, passed the decrees of the 29th of September. By one of these decrees Brazil was distributed into provincial governments, with their administrations centralised in the bureau of the minister for the colonies at Lisbon ; by the same decree the superior tribunals in Brazil were suppressed. By another decree the prince regent was recalled to Portugal, and on his return he was to travel, incognito, through Spain, France, and England, accompanied by a retinue (or spies) nominated by the cortes. M. la Beaumelle remarks " That it was impossible to conceive of any legislative enactments more exquisitely adapted to defeat the intentions of their, framers. At the same time that they deeply irritated the natives by the parcelling out of the kingdom, they gave umbrage to all persons in office, a great proportion of whom were Europeans, by the suppression of the court and the tribunals ; and what was still more offensive, they treated with gross disrespect the heir to the throne, in imposing upon him as a duty a tour, which, if advisable, ought to have been voluntary, and in assigning him an escort whom he could look upon only as so many spies. A centre was given to the emancipation, by the offer thus made to a prince of high spirit and resolution, of a country entirely ready to defend him." These decrees arrived at Rio Janeiro on the 10th of December. Orders were issued for the election of a junta, to be installed on the 10th of February/ in order that the prince might transfer the government to this body. The decrees were not to be submitted to, they were as obnoxious as the Stamp Act was in the old British American colonies. The provinces of Saint Paulo, Rio Janeiro, Minas Geraes, and Rio Grande do Sul, presented bold addresses to the prince. The president of the municipal deputation of Rio Janeiro expressed himself in almost menacing terms : u The departure of your royal highness from the states of Brazil, will be the decree that will seal for ever the independence of this kingdom " an independence which would have caused its distribution into federal republics. Dom Pedro understood this, and he resolved to disobey the decrees of the cortes, and declared to the municipal senate of Rio Janeiro that* * Mr. Kidder observes, " In the office of prince regent, Dom Pedro certainly found scope for his most ardent ambition ; but he also discovered himself to be surrounded with numerous diffi culties, political and financial. The cortes of Portugal, about this time, becoming jealous of the position of the prince in Brazil, passed a decree ordering him to return to Europe, and at the same time abolishing the royal tribunals at Rio. This decree was received with indignation by the Brazilians, who immediately rallied around Don Pedro, and persuaded him to remain among them. His consent to do so gave rise to the most enthusiastic demonstrations of joy amongst both patriots and loyalists. " The measures of the cortes of Portugal, which continued to be arbitrary in the extreme towards Brazil, finally had the effect to hasten, in the latter country, a declaration of absolute independence. This measure had long been ardently desired by the more enlightened some of whom had already urged Dom Pedro to assume the title of emperor, refused, and reiterated his allegiance to Portugal. But heat length, while on a journey to the province of S. Paulo, received despatches from the mother country, which had I duce him instantly to resolve on independence. VOL. I. 2 O 282 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. " Since it is for the good of all, and for the general happiness of the nation, I have decided tell the people that I remain/ This notification was made public on the 9th of January, 1822. It was received with enthusiastic acclamations. A report was spread that the Portuguese troops were about to force the decrees of the cortes into execution, and to carry off the prince. This report further roused the popular indignation ; and in consequence the Portuguese general, Avilez, resigned the command of his regiment, and demanded to be allowed to return to Europe. On the night of the llth, the troops took up arms, either to choose a new commander or to detain their old one. The Brazilians rose also immediately in arms. In a few hours the field of Saint Anne was covered with native troops and a multitude of armed citizens. Both sides were provided with artillery, and a battle was decided upon, when suddenly the European troops con sented, to admit that, without fighting they were conquered, and then crossed over to Praja Grande, on the opposite side of the bay. There, however, they assumed a menacing attitude, declaring that they would remain at Praja Grande till the arrival of an expedition then expected from Portugal. The prince equipped some armed vessels, and summoned reinforcements from Saint Paulo and Minas Geraes. He blockaded the Portuguese force by sea, and surrounded them by land. He embarked on board his commander s vessel, seized the match of a gun directed against the Portuguese forces, and exclaimed, as he showed himself to their general, "This gun is mine, and you will take notice of the first shot, for it will be of my firing." The Portuguese troops,-on the 12th and 13th, embarked and set sail from Brazil, never to re-appear on the shores of that empire. They were scarcely out of sight, when a signal was made of the appearance of another fleet, with 1800 troops. This armament consisted of several men-of-war, on board of one of which was commander Maximilian, with orders to convey Dom Pedro back to Lisbon. His instructions were to place himself, on his arrival at Rio, under the orders of the prince. " The only order I have to give you," said the prince? is to go back;" the troops were not suffered to land, and the whole of the expedition, with the exception of a frigate which the prince detained, set sail, in consequence, for Europe.* The inhabitants of Pernambuco had, before " His exclamation, independence or death, -]- was enthusiastically reiterated hy those who sur rounded him, and thenceforward became the watchword of the Brazilian revolution. This de claration was made on the 7th of September, and was repeated at Rio as soon as the prince could hasten thereby a rapid journey. " Joze Bonifacio de Andrada, prime minister of the government, had, in the meantime, pro mulgated a decree, requiring all the Portuguese who were disposed to embrace the popular cause, to manifest their sentiment by wearing the emperor s motto, independencia ou morte, upon their arm ordering also, that all dissentients should leave the country within a given period, and threatening the penalties imposed upon high treason against any one who should thenceforward attack, by word or deed, the sacred cause of Brazil. " The Brazilian revolution was comparatively a bloodless one, and Portugal has never been able to make an effort to recover her authority over that empire." * On his return to Lisbon, the commander was brought to trial for having literally followed his instructions, and degraded. f " Independencia ou Morte." HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 283 they knew of what had transpired in Rio Janeiro, expelled all the Portuguese troops from that province. The cortes, alarmed by the news of these proceedings, decided on withdrawing the obnoxious decrees. Eight days only before the receipt of the prince s despatches they had ordered the suppression of the last central institution which remained in Brazil the Marine Academy of Rio Janeiro. On the 6th of March they resolved, that further discussions respecting the constitution, with regard to Brazil, should be suspended until the deputies from that country had been heard. Four days after, it was determined that the academy at Rio Janeiro should remain unmolested. A commission of the cortes then proposed to suspend the departure of the prince and the abrogation of the junta; and also to supersede the disorganising of the central governments. Brazil was also to be offered one or two delegations of the executive power. These proposals were merely intended to allure the Brazilians, and while these discussions were occurring at Lisbon, Minas Geraes and the captaincy of Espiritu Santo adhered openly to the new Brazilian policy, and the citizens of Pernambuco had committed themselves too far to recede. All the southern provinces, the population of which formed the majority of that of the whole empire, styled themselves the Allied Provinces. The prince, in consequence, gave orders that each province should choose one or more attorneys-general, who should collectively form a council of state, of which he was to be the president. The cortes at Lisbon soon after decided, that there should be appointed to Brazil as many governors as the provinces should wish for. The Brazilian deputies to the cortes had defended every interest of their country, but a majority of the cortes had passed this impracticable resolution in opposition to their remonstrances. The deputies unanimously refused to subscribe to the Portuguese constitution, and quitted Lisbon ; " thus," remarks M. la Beaumelle, "breaking in the hands of the rulers of Portugal, the fetters they had forged for Brazil" The province of Bahia declared in favour of the Brazilian government ; the next day after this decla ration arrived in Lisbon, all the inhabitants of Bahia, resident at Lisbon, sent in their adherence to the appeal of their countrymen. At Rio Janeiro, on the 13th of May, the people proclaimed the prince per petual protector of Brazil, the title to be hereditary. The Brazilians, at first, confined their demands on the cortes to an equality of co-operation in the legis lative power, a local delegation of the executive power, central magistracies, and a free trade. Now they insisted on a separate legislature, with only an alliance between the two nations, under the protection and direction of the same monarch. All parties, however far they differed on other points, were unanimou in opposing a re-union with Portugal. Before the provincial delegates, who sve to form the council of state, had assembled, the local authorities demanc constituent and legislative assembly. The council of state, at its first 284 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. declared its incompetency, and the prince, by his decree of the 3rd of June, declared that a Brazilian union of estates should be convoked, and represented by an elective assembly.* The deputies to the cortes had been instructed to stipulate, I. That Brazil should have an independent national representation ; 2. That the country should always be governed by the next heir to the crows, being of age, when the king should be in Europe; and 3. That the seat of go vernment should be alternately in each of the two kingdoms. These demands were peremptorily rejected, and a mandate was passed for the return of the piince to Portugal. The cortes of Portugal, on the 19th of September, 1821, resolved "that the convocation of the Brazilian assembly was null and void ; that the govern ment of Rio Janeiro was illegal ; that the powers of the prince should cease ; that he should be compelled to return to Europe within four months on pain of forfeiting his hereditary rights ; and finally, that the ministry, and all com manders, naval and military, should be responsible for their obedience to the intrusive government." This impotent edict only precipitated the eternal separation of Brazil from Portugal. The assembly of Brazil was installed on the following year. The administration of the prince regent was transformed into an imperial government; his ministers implicitly executed his orders, and each commander submitted to his authority. The Brazilians did not at first seriously intend a separation. The rash folly of the cortes, however, consummated the independence of the Portuguese empire in America. All the provinces united: Bahia joined ; and even Monte Video, an independent state, solicited a re-union with Brazil. A squadron sent from Portugal with all the troops which that feeble government had the means of transporting arrived at Bahia, and occupied that city. General Madeira, the Portuguese commander, was unable to extend his power beyond the walls ; the whole province, even the islands in the bay, remained faithful to the union. The provinces of Para and Maranham, beyond the walls of their capitals, also main tained independence of the rule of Portugal. At length, the cortes, in their imbecility and utter weakness, affected to thunder forth power, by curtailing the period which they had in a former decree allowed the regent for his return; and in case of disobedience, declared his exclusion from the throne of Portugal. They prohibited the exportation to Brazil of all arms and ammunition, subject ing all foreign vessels that should be taken with such on board to confiscation ; and proclaimed in blockade the more than 4000 miles of Brazilian coast. The Brazilians had hitherto recognised the authority of the king, but resisted firmly the decrees of the cortes, and denied the competency of their authority. * The word assembly was adopted from the French, to avoid using the word cortes, which had become odious to the Brazilians. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 28") A manifesto dated August 1, 1822, was proclaimed by the prince regent, in which he appealed to the Brazilians and accused the cortes of Portugal with having destroyed all the established laws and institutions of the monarchy. " Brazilians, the time for deceiving; mankind is past. The governments which would found their power on the pretended ignorance of the people, or on old errors and obso lete abuses, will see the colossus of their greatness fall from the fragile basis on which it was once erected. It has been owing to their not recognising this truth that the cortes of Lisbon have compelled the southern provinces of Brazil to shake off their yoke. It is because I have respected it, that I now see all Brazil united round me, asking for the defence of their rights, and the maintenance of their liberty and indeoendence. Under these circumstances, I owe it to you to speak the truth. Hear me." " Portugal," he proclaimed," cannot compel us to follow her in this system of shame and degradation, without violating the very principles on which she founds her own re volution and her right of changing her political institutions without destroying the bases on which are built her new rights, the inalienable rights of the people." He complimented the southern provinces of Brazil for having withstood alike the republican desires and dispositions which had manifested themselves in some quarters, and the seductive examples of some neighbouring nations. " It is they," he said, " who have preserved the monarchy in the great American continent, and maintained inviolate the acknowledged rights of the august house of Braganza." A manifesto addressed to foreign nations, dated the 6th of August, contained the formal declaration of the independence of Brazil.* The prince regent in this manifesto detailed the tyrannical measures of the cortes, and the durance and bondage under which his august father was held by the dominant faction ; and he solemnly protested that he still looked forward to the reunion of all the parts of the monarchy under one sole sovereign ; with which reserve only he swore to defend the legitimate rights, and the constitution to be adopted for Brazil. The municipal senate of Rio Janeiro, at an extraordinary sitting, held the 7th of September, came to the resolution of issuing a circular address to all the municipal senates of Brazil, urging the necessity of investing his royal highness the prince regent and perpetual protector of Brazil, as soon as possible, with the official exercise of all the attributes of the executive. This circular was privately issued, and favourable answers to it were received from the provinces of Minas Geraes and Saint Paulo, and from the captaincy of Espiritu Santo. Fresh despatches reiterating folly and threats arrived from Lisbon. The senate at Rio, to calm the public impatience, announced by an edict on the 21st of September, that the proclamation of the prince as constitutional emperor, should be made with due solemnity on the 12th of the ensuing month. This pro mise was fulfilled on that day, in the provinces of Rio Janeiro, Minas, Saint * In this manifesto it was distinctly stated, that Portugal had offered to cede to France a part of the province of Para, on condition that that power should furnish troops and the reduction of Brazil ; and that proposals had been made to England, with the same give perpetuity to the commercial treaty of 1810, and even to extend it by addi tages. 286 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Paulo, and Espiritu Santo: and, at Villa Rica and Queluz on the 30th of Septem ber. On the 1st of December, tht coronation of Pedro I., Emperor of Brazil, was solemnised, and he took the oath to defend with his sword the country, the people, and the constitution, if it should be worthy of Brazil and of its sove reign. On taking the imperial dignity he did not demand, nor obtain, any in crease either of revenue or of power. In his speech on opening the constituent assembly on the 3rd of May, 1823, he declared that the title conferred on him on the 13th of May preceding, of perpetual protector of Brazil, was still more flattering to his heart than that of emperor. His first act was to summon a constituent and legislative assembly, which was to meet first at Rio Janeiro, on the 26th of February; but postponed to the 3rd of May, the anniversary of the discovery of Brazil by Cabral. The citizens of Rio Janeiro, in manifestation of their loyalty, spontaneously voted the annual sum of 400,000 francs towards the increase and support of the Brazilian navy. Bahia, meantime, was surrounded by 20,000 Brazilian troops, chiefly volunteers, under the command of Jose Joaquim da Silva Lima. In the end of June, at a council of war, it was decided by the officers of the Portuguese army to abandon the city, and escape, if possible, by sea. Accordingly the gold and silver of the churches, and the chest with public money, were carried off; and Bahia was, in fact, pillaged by the Portuguese troops, which then embarked, and the squadron, together with all the other Portuguese vessels in the harbour, which were laden with troops and passengers, prepared to sail on the night of the 2nd of July. The bar of Bahia was blockaded, however, by the squadron of Rio Janeiro, consisting of sixty sail, under the com mand of Lord Cochrane. The Portuguese fleet consisted of eighty sail, in cluding twenty men-of-war. General Madeira embarked on board the Don Joam VI. with the gold, silver, and other precious valuables. A favourable wind and the extreme width of the bay, enabled the Portuguese to escape; but Lord Cochrane sailed in pursuit, overtook part of the armament between Bahia and Pernambuco, and captured several vessels. General Sylva da Lima entered Bahia on the 2nd of July, and proclaimed the imperial government. Para, and St. Louis in Maranham, surrendered to Lord Cochrane on the 28th of August, for which he was created by the emperor, Marquis of Maranham. The conduct of Lord Cochrane on his second voyage to Maranham is not to be throughout justified ; but we must admit that his services were great, and the ingratitude and injustice of the Brazilian government cannot be defended.* * Mr. Kidder, speaking of Lord Cochrane s last expedition, observes, " Having, then, re established order throughout the province, and appointed to the presidency Manoel Telles da Silva Lobo, an individual entirely in his own interests, Lord Cochrane proceeded to carry into execution a plan which he seems to have formed long before. Notwithstanding the services which he had already rendered to Brazil, and the acknowledgment of them in the title of Marquis of Maranham, conferred upon him by the emperor, he had hitherto received neither payment for HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 287 On the 30th of June, the emperor fell from his horse, which broke some of his ribs. The democratic party had now become factious during Don Pedro s in disposition from the above accident. They sent both to him and to the Prime Minister threatening letters, purporting that if the latter did not resign, his life, and even that of the emperor, would not be safe. This attempt to succeed at intimidation utterly failed ; but the democrats had gained strength in the as sembly,, and on the 29th of July, when the question of the absolute veto was discussed, without which the royal prerogative would have been a nullity, the democrats obtained a majority. The emperor, in consequence, declared, " that he would never put in execution any acts which had not obtained his express sanction." The assembly still determined to carry their point. On the 9th of his services nor reimbursement for his expenses. He therefore looked upon the admission of his claims on the imperial government as hopeless, and determined to seize the present opportunity of indemnifying himself whilst it was yet in his power. In doing this he had nothing to appre hend from the president. Under the plea, therefore, that the ordnance, military stores, ammu nition, and all the various fixtures formerly appertaining to the Portuguese government, were in reality the lawful prize of their captors, he proceeded to make an estimate of their value, which was found to amount to nearly 400 contos of reis. This amount, however, arid also the sixty contos formerly furnished to the army of Piauhy, his lordship, in consideration of the impoverished state of the province, agreed to commute for about the fourth part, or 106 contos, provided the latter sum were paid immediately. His lordship appeared in person at a meeting held by this body (the treasury board), and after adducing his estimates, proceeded to urge the claims of the squadron with great firmness. A unanimous vote was finally passed, that as the treasury was nearly empty, the custom-house should furnish the stipulated sum, and an order was given on the latter estab lishment for the amount. " This order was to be discharged by successive instalments. The money came round but slowly, and the designs of his lordship were again subjected to a far more serious olastacle, in the arrival of another president (Barros) from Rio de Janeiro. The newly-appointed functionary arrived at his destination early in February, when he was received with all due honours by the actual president as well as by Lord Cochrane. Finding the province in a state of peace, lit- was anxious to ascertain the particulars of the late convulsions, and the actual state of political parties before he entered upon his official duties. No sooner, however, had he been made aware of the late proceedings of Lord Cochrane, than he intimated to his lordship his intention to assume office in the course of a few days. To this sudden resolution his lordship as suddenly refused to accede. It had become evident that Barros was an individual of a much less complying disposition than the Lobo, the actual president, and as the payment of the stipulated 106 contos was still incomplete, his lordship took occasion to postpone the fulfilment of Barros intention, under the plea that he had already written to Rio de Janeiro regarding political affairs, and that as he ex pected an answer within ten days, he deemed it most advisable to retain Lobo in office until the expiration of that time. Barros immediately threw off the mask, and telling Lord Cochrane that he fully comprehended the motives of this treatment, threatened to make his lordship re sponsible for it to the emperor. " Barros had, however, in connexion with a number of partisans, determined on a forcible attempt to invest himself with the presidency, to be executed on the 10th of March, 18-J.3. Of this Lord Cochrane received intelligence in an anonymous communication, and after disembarking a force from his line-of-battle ship, he proceeded to arrest Barros as a conspirator, and on the 1-Jth sent him off a prisoner in the brig of war Cacique to Para, there to await the determination of the emperor. " Having at length received the stipulated sum from the custom-house, as well as fifteen cor in ransom fora slave vessel claimed as a prize on the first surrender of Maranham, and still retainnl there, his lordship finally sailed for England in the Piranga, on the -20th of May. He had already placed Commodore Jewettin the Pedro Primeiro, and despatched that vessel to Balna, w gave it out to be his intention to follow her. lie, nevertheless, proceeded directly to P< where he arrived after a passage of thirty-seven days. His engagement had been to serve until the recognition of her independence by Portugal, and till this event took place I flag flying on board the Piranga, though there was but little probability that his services woi ever again be desired by Brazil after the course he had taken." 1 5 > HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AM1K August, &e emperor issued a proclamation, declaring his abhorrence of all des potism, whether that of one or of many.* The royalists certainly found a ma jority in the empire, and Dom Pedro was supported by the army, the fleet, the marine regiments, and a large majority of Brazilians. 7:.r n. -..-. *: -v - :.f ::-. N: v r~ ":-: :::.v/-;i. Sjinf :"f:v.:r:5 ;: :".:; ^5f::.:.v brought forward several charges against the new ministers. The sitting of the llth of November was tumultuous. The emperor, in order to give confidence in the freedom of discussion to the assembly, withdrew the troops from the i Anarchy, however, was declared to have attained so dangerous an ascendency, that the government ordered 400 cavalry and infantry, with four pieces of ar tillery, to surround the assembly, and dissolve its sitting by force Six or eight deputies were arrested. Dom Pedro rode through the city, and was received with general acfliuiitioui AH the nooses were illuminated, and tranquillity was re-established. A proclamation was immediately published, by which the to give the nation "a constitution that should be worthy of the people uf Brazil." A legislative assembly (not constituent) mm Buwmonrd by a decree of the 17th of November- In the meantime, the draft of a constitution, framed by a special rommiT riim, and approved by the emperor, was circulated throughout the empire, In the north of Brazil fresh troubles broke out. The inhabitants of the fHiiuuu of Pernambuco, always the bravest since the time their ancestors ex- peOed tie Dutch, became diacontentid widi die government of Dom Pe^bo. It was seriously piwimd by many of them to erect a separate republican government, with a spirited and mteUigent yoan^ man, Manoel Carvalho Pus, as president. The port, howerer, was blockaded by die emperor s vessels on the 20th of March, 1821, and Carvalho mm arrested and imprisoned in Fort Bmm* The garrison of that fort, however, wiftfc tfce other troops, rerohed, and released him. In a few hours Carvalho was reinstated in the presidency, and the president appointed by die CJBJMJUM was not allowed to assume his functions. Carvalho s administration lor some time assumed the semblance of an integral part of the imperial government. But having equipped a small naval force, it in reality only deferred to a better opportunity die execution of its plan. An imperial manifesto was received, stating that as a now fitting out in the Tagus for die invasion of Brazil, that the to be usurped which IT: i 1-L : -.--i :;-.- p^andbopedBtrtnaTbewortiiTof re. Mar the sopcone Arbiter of the - :- - - :-!-:.- .-; jv-r.-- -.- - -------- -: _--.:-:.:.: HBTOBICAL SKETCHES Of BRAZIL. emperor was unable to guard the whole coast, and that it was expected li the Pernambucans would be able to defend themsdres. Carvalho and his partisans seized on this opportunity for carrying hrto efreet their plan of mdrpciidrnn. Proclamations were, therefore, iiaMishid. nouncing Dom Pedro as a traitor, whose intention it was to abandon Brazil to the Portuguese, and the provinces of dbe aordi were requested to withdrawn*. the authority of the imperial yiiumauii, and to combine ander a rrpubie, to be called the "Confederation of the Eqaator/ A great number of die inha bitants of Paraliiba, Rio Grande do Xorte, and O^ rebellion, but the movement was not Cf*r"f, Barretto, an i rfciaim landed fMtiyiictur, aOciaaids rmacd Jfarqais de Recife, took up arms in the cause of the emperor; aad he was joined by tone imperial troops and partisans. Carralho besieged the imperiaKsts by be at the same time, with a small iiaral force blockaded diem by sea, but any decisive iiirrrii Intelligence of this rerolt reached Bio de Janeiro. The ^habeas bV was suspended throughout Pernanibuco. A squadron was fitted oat Lord Cochrane , ejuiyiug a d i vision of 1200 men, commanded br fi^**-ti Fran cisco de Lima. The sokfien woe leaded at MaeeaS, m order to co-operate vith those of Barretto, white Cochrane sailed to b^ Tfi iaaadfiniili initinaiffj ** slating his pgrrratiflii that die aaacaaioaa now agitating Pernamboco had their origin in erroneous impressions igyiJiMgr the events which had taken place at Rio de Janeiro, and he Tolunteered to act aa a mediator beta ecu the insurgents aad the f^t|rt"irr TT<f> recalled to their attention die ^ ^ ^ fl slate of the Spanish repablics throoghoat Sooth America, and he niislly threatened to increase the rigour of the blockade ; to destroy their shipping, and, by sinking V^-T^ ::. tj-.-r r.i : -V. :: ::.c ..i ". :: :: - : " -" ^ . r-.r :^ . : ; - - unless the integrity of das empire were again aJkaunMBrd from the date of his first proclamatkHL.*** Laid Cochrane then jacnaied to boaihani die city, and the began to withdraw to the interior, widi their shores aad morcable property, schooner commenced M |>| wf" B> g J^B into the Recife aboot of August, but with so little caret that she was aooatvidal * " This threat fa-lin? entirely of it* object, Lotd ainkii nf Mi i Ti ihiai, Iranwa n thr im" g "- 4 who haparard to arriTe opportnnely as a passenger m theE^RA packet 1 moath. This lady jLieytcd the oflfee of eBdeavesflae; i wnaer ar OHrhianeandCarVaB^oaboaidaFicKhhr%orar. CarraJbo tares by ofle^g the atbual 400,000 swan, he wod atad cause, and come over to the repaWicaiis. It w ow tine far all farther negodaliDs were hrofceaoC" WiOrr- VOL. I. 2 P 290 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. could not approach near the shore. At the same time, the rocky bottom of the Lameirao cut the cables, and all the anchors but one, of the admiral s ship, were lost ; and he was consequently forced to abandon the blockade. The troops of General Lima, meantime, joined those of Barretto ; and the more numerous, but undisciplined, forces of the republicans were finally van quished, on the llth of September. Carvalho fled for refuge on board the British corvette Tweed, and absented himself until after the departure of Dom Pedro from Brazil. He is now, or was lately, a senator of the empire. On the 24th of March, 1824, the suffrages of the provinces having been collected, the emperor took the oath before the people, to observe the charter which he had just granted, and which is now to be considered as the fundamental and definitive law of the new empire. This constitution was sworn to throughout the empire. Two years afterwards 2400 Irish, and a great number of Germans, were in veigled into Brazil, and treated as barbarously as if they were slaves, until the British Charge d Affaires, Mr. Aston, had them all, but about 400, sent out of the country. The imperial rule of Dom Pedro I. lasted for about ten years ; and, during this period, Brazil advanced far more in intelligence, than it had done during the three centuries, which had passed away from its first discovery, to the proclamation of the Portuguese constitution in 1820. His administration was not, however, free from imperfections. Mr. Kidder says of him " Dom Pedro, although not tyrannical, was imprudent He was energetic, but in constant an admirer of the representative form of government, but hesitating in its practical enforcement. " Elevated into a hero during the struggle for independence, he appears to have been guided rather by the example of other potentates than by any mature consideration of the existing state and exigencies of Brazil ; and hence, perhaps, the eagerness with which he embarked in the war against Montevideo, which certainly had its origin in ag gression, and which, after crippling the commerce, checking the prosperity, and ex hausting the finances of the empire, ended only in the full and unrestrained cession of the province in dispute." The habits of the emperor are also considered to have been extravagant, and his morals defective ; and the chief cause of his personal unpopularity is said to have been, his never having considered, or comported, himself truly a Bra zilian. He often said, " that the only true strength of a government lay in public opinion ;" yet he seems not to have understood how to conciliate the good opinion of the people over whom he reigned. " The native Brazilians believed that they were beheld with suspicion, and hence be came restive under a government which they regarded as nurturing foreign interests and a foreign party. At length, after fruitless efforts to suppress the rising spirit of rebel lion in different parts of the empire, Dom Pedro found himself in circumstances as pain ful and as humiliating as those which forced his father, Don John VI., to retire to Por- HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. tugal. Opposition, which had long been covert, became undisguised and roW Themort indifferent acts of the emperor were distorted to his "prejudice and al l irregularities of his private life were brought before the public. Indiv du-ik t^ V had been a benefactor deserted him, and perceiving A his star was on * c ^ Th d the baseness to contribute to his overthrow. The very army which he had raise 1 , immense sacrifice which he had maintained to the great prejudice of his popular! v \ Unf rtUnatel r placed more reliance than U P" the people, lS After various popular agitations, which increased the jealousies and differences between the imperial party, and that, which called its members, the patriots, the populace of Rio de Janeiro assembled in the Campo de Santa Anna on the 6th of April, 1831, and demanded the dismissal of the new ministry, and the reinstatement of some individuals who had that very morning been dismissed. Dom Pedro issued a proclamation, signed by himself and the existing ministry, assuring the people that the administration was perfectly con stitutional, and that its members would be governed by constitutional principles. A magistrate was sent to read this document to the people ; which he had scarcely finished, before it was torn from him and trampled under foot. The demand for the reinstatement of the cabinet became uproarious ; the multi tude rapidly increased its numbers ; and, about six o clock in the afternoon, three justices of peace were dispatched to the imperial residence to demand that the "ministry who had the confidence of the people" should be called to office. The emperor refused. " I will do every thing for the people," he said, " but nothing by the people." This answer being transmitted to the Campo, seditious cries were raised, and the troops began to make common cause with the multitude. The emperor declared he would rather suffer death than agree to this popular dictation. His power was, however, now at an end. The battalion styled the emperor s, quartered at Boa Vista, went to join the people in the Campo. The imperial guard of honour, which had been summoned to the palace, followed; and the populace sup plied themselves with arms from the adjoining barracks. " The emperor," says Mr. Kidder, " in these trying moments, is said to have evinced a dignity and a magnanimity unknown in the days of his prosperity. On the one hand, the empress was weeping bitterly, and apprehending the most fatal consequences; on the other, an envoy from the combined assemblage of the troops and populace was urg ing him to a final answer. Deserted, harassed, irritated, and fatigued beyond mea sure, he at length found it necessary to yield to circumstances." He, without even informing the ministry of his resolution, at two o clock in the morning, wrote his abdication in the following words : "Availing myself of the right which the constitution concedes to me, I declare that I have voluntarily abdicated in favour of my dearly beloved and esteemed son, Dom Pedro de Alcantara. "Boa Vista, 1th of April, 1831, tenth Year of the Independence of the Empire. He then rose, and addressing himself to the messenger from the Campo, said- "Here is my abdication; may you be happy ! I shall retire to Europe, 292 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. and leave the country that I have loved dearly and that I still love/ In tears he retired to an adjoining room, in which were the empress and the English and French ministers. He afterwards dismissed all his ministers but one, and by a decree dated the 6th of April, nominated Joze Bonifacio de Andrada guardian to his children. Mr. Kidder remarks on this filial act : " It was a striking illustration of the ingratitude with which he was treated in the hour of misfortune, that from all those upon whom he had conferred titles and riches; he was obliged to turn away to the infirm old man whom, at a former period, he had rejected and cruelly wronged." After arranging his household affairs, he embarked in one of the boats of the English line-of-battle ship the Warspite, accompanied by the empress, and his eldest daughter, the present Queen of Portugal. The instrument of abdication was received in the Campo de Santa Anna with demonstrations of joy, and with vivas to Dom Pedro IT. Early in the morning, all the deputies and senators in the capital, together with the ex-ministers of state, met in the senate house and appointed a provi sional regency, consisting of Vergueiro, Francisco de Lima, and the Marquis de Caravellas, to administer the government until the appointment of a permanent regency provided for by the constitution. The son of Dom Pedro, in favour of whom the emperor abdicated, was not six years old : he was, however, borne in triumph to the city, and the ceremony of his acclamation as em peror was performed with great enthusiasm. Meantime the corps diplomatique assembled at the residence of the pope s nuncio. The American charge d affaires declined being present at this meeting, apprehending that its object was to pro tect the common interests of royalty. The other foreign members agreed to present an address to the existing authorities, in which they stated that the safety of their several countrymen was endangered in the popular movements, and demanded for them the most explicit enjoyment of the rights and immunities conceded by the laws and treaties of civilised nations. The 9th of April was appointed as the first court day of Dom Pedro II., while the ex-emperor still remained in the harbour. A Te Deum was chanted in the imperial chapel. The troops were reviewed, and an immense concourse of people, distinguished by the " avore national," as a badge of loyalty, crowded the squares and other public places. They detached the horses from the imperial carriage, and drew the infant sovereign to the palace ; where he was exhibited at the window, and the multitude passed before him. He there received the personal compli ments of the corps diplomatique, none of whom were absent. The provisional government offered Dom Pedro a national ship. He de clined the offer on account of the delay that would be necessary in the outfit. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 293 On the 13th, the English corvette Volage, and the French corvette La .s^/,, , put to sea, the former bearing the ex-emperor and empress, and the latter his sister and her husband. The return of Dom Pedro to Portugal, and his subsequent fortunes, do not belong to Brazil. On the 17th of June, the Assemllia Geral proceeded to the election of the permanent regency. The persons elected were Lima, Costa Carvalho, and Jouo Braulio Muniz. Senhor Antonio Carlos de Andrada presided in the Chamber of Deputies. Joze Bonifacio, who had been appointed by the ex-emperor as tutor to his children was confirmed, or rather re-appointed, by the " Assemblea ;" as that body decided that the former appointment was invalid. On accepting his charge that distinguished Brazilian declared that he should receive no compensation for the services he might render in that important capacity, which declaration he main tained in the spirit of a true patriot. The public tranquillity was scarcely at all disturbed. Some disorders were committed by the troops on two different occasions, but with no political object. On the 7th of October official despatches arrived, bringing congratulations, to Brazil from the government of the United States, upon the changes effected by a bloodless revolution. On the 3rd of April, 1832, there was a revolt of the troops in the forts of Santa Cruz and Villegagnon. One hundred of those landed at Bota Fogo and inarched to the Campo da Honra, but they were soon dispersed. A few days after about 300 persons disturbed the public peace at St. Christopher s, but were also routed by the national guards, thirteen of the insurgents were killed. In July following, the minister of justice in his relatorio (report), denounced the aged Joze Bonifacio, suspecting him of having connived at the riots. The committee of the " Camara dos Deputados" demanded his dismission without allowing him to make any defence. The Camara, by a bare majority, acceded to this iniquitous demand, but the senate dissented, and this plot failed. The regents then sent in their resignation to the general assembly. A deputation from the chamber of deputies was sent to request them to retain office. They con sented, but they immediately organised a new ministry. In 1833, it was communicated by the minister of state to the general assembly that there was an apprehension that Dom Pedro I. was desirous of his restoration, in Brazil. The ex-emperor never attempted any design for his restoration but he sent to Brazil for his carriages, which had been left behind for the v his children, and also for the jewels that had formerly belonged to his c daughter Paula. $94 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The Marquis de Itanhaen replaced Joze Bonifacio as tutor to the imperial children. During the year 1834, important changes were made in the constitution of the empire. Annual assemblies in the provinces instead of the general councils before held were established. The members of the provincial assemblies were to be elected once in two years. Another law abolished the triple regency, and con. ferred that office upon a single person, to be elected once in four years. The former arrangement originated in a jealousy of one personal executive power; but the triumvirate had actually settled in one man, by the sickness, imbecility, and at last the death of Braulio, one of the regents, and the absence of Carvalho, the other. Francisco de Lima exercised in person the imperial power. After the election for sole regent took place, the senate delayed for a long time the apuracao, or scrutiny of votes, under pretence that all the votes had not yet been had. They even proposed that the " Camara dos Deputados" should unite with the senate for the election of a regent, on the old system, in place of the deceased Braulio. This proposal was acceded to, " on condition that the senate should decide that the counting of the votes was impracticable^ The senate declined this responsibility, and agreed to form a convention for the scrutiny. It then appeared that Diogo Antonio Feijo, of San Paulo, was chosen by a majority of 5?5 electoral votes over Hollanda Cavalcanti of Pernam- buco. Feijo was a priest : previous to the scrutiny he had been for many years engaged in political life, and two years had been elected a senator. One of the last acts of the preceding administration had been to elect him Bishop of Ma riana, a diocese which included the rich province of Minas Geraes. Feijo was in stalled sole regent on the 12th of October, 1835. On the 24th he issued a pro clamation to the Brazilians, declaring the principles upon which he resolved to govern. During the year an insurrection was suppressed at Pernambuco. In 1836 the government proposed to employ Moravian missionaries to cate chise the Indians. This, together with every other measure originated by the administration, was opposed by Vasconcellos, an old politician of much ability,, but of unscrupulous principles. The leading measure of the administration was however, carried. This was a loan of 2000 contos of reis. Numerous active rebellions broke out in Rio Grande do Sul, and also in Para.* At the latter the * Para had often been a scene of revolt, and some atrocious scenes were executed there after it had ceded on a deception practised by Captain Grenfell, one of Lord Cochrane s officers, Mr. Kidder says, after putting down the revolt, and returning on board, " he received, the same evening, an order from the president of the junta, to prepare a vessel large enough to hold 200 prisoners. A ship of 600 tons burden was accordingly selected. It afterwards appeared, that the number of prisoners actually sent on board by the president was 253. These men, in the absence of Captain Grenfell, were forced into the hold of the prison-ship, and placed under a guard of fifteen Brazilian soldiers. " Crowded until almost unable to breathe, and suffering alike from heat and thirst, the poor wretches attempted to force their way on deck, but were repulsed by the guard, who, after firing upon them and fastening down the hatchway, threw a piece of ordnance across it, and effectually DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 295 president was assassinated, and the Portuguese were indiscriminately murdered. Their most atrocious and desolating effects, were, however, scarcely apparent at the capital, where every thing seemed quiet and prosperous. The general as. sembly was slow in making provision to suppress these revolts, and when they were about to adjourn, Feijo prolonged the session a month, "that the mem bers might do their duty." Feijo s administration was not popular. His character partook of the Roman sternness. Whatever course he planned, he pursued it without fearing oppo sition. He sometimes changed his ministers, seldom his advisers. At length the rebellion of Rio Grande, and the factious opposition that checked his plans for suppressing the revolters, induced him on the 17th of September, 1837, to ab dicate the regency. The opposition party then came into power. Vasconcellos was the prime mover, but Pedro Araujo Lima, then minister of the empire, assumed the regency by virtue of a provision of the constitution. "A new policy," says Mr. Kidder, " was adopted towards the boy emperor. Feijo had been reserved and unceremonious ; the new administration became over-attentive. More display was made on public occasions, and the inclinations of a people, passionately fond of the pomp and circumstance of royalty, began to be fully gratified." In October, 1838, the new electoral votes were sanctioned, and Lima was in stalled regent for a period extending to the majority of the young emperor. Soon after, the latter, and not the regent, received all courtly flatteries. The regency had throughout to struggle with difficulties, but many improve ments were made under its administration. CHAPTER III. DOM PEDRO II. THE contending parties became wearied of the regency, and dissensions arose as to the period of declaring the emperor of age, and for the purpose of overthrowing the regent. In the debate upon the motion, a proposition was in- debarred all egress. Suffocation, with all its agonies, succeeded. The aged and the young, the strong and feeble, the assailant and his antagonist, all sank down exhausted and in the agonies of death. Of all the 253, four only were found alive, who had escaped destruction by concealing themselves behind a water-butt." Armitage, vol. ii. p. 108. " This dreadful scene is, perhaps, unparalleled in history. It has but too much affinity wit! the treatment of the prisoners taken and confined at the same place, in the subsequent civil revo lutions. Vast numbers of these unhappy men were crowded into the prison of the city and of the fort, where they were kept, without hope of release, until death set them free. Besides, a prison-ship, still moored in front of the town, called the Xin Xin, was filled to its utmost capa city. I heard it estimated that not less than 300 had died on board this one vessel in the con of the last five or six years." Kidder. 296 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. traduced early in July, in the house of deputies^ to declare the emperor of age, Objections were at first advanced, by those who contended that the legislature had no power to amend or overstep the constitution. Mr. Kidder affords the only report we have on this crisis. He says ; " But the plan was arranged, minds were heated, and the passions of the people be gan to be enlisted. Violence of language prevailed, and personal violence began to be threatened. Antonio Carlos de Andrada, already described as a man of great learning and eloquence, but at the same time fiery and uncontrolable, stood forth as the cham pion of the assailing party, accusing the regent and his ministry of usurpation, especially since the llth of March, when the imperial princess, Donna Januaria, became of age. His efforts were powerfully resisted, but his cause rapidly gained favour both in the assembly and among the people. " Galvao, until recently attached to the other party, made an impressive speech on the side of immediate acclamation as inevitable. " Alvares Machado demanded that party trammels should now be abandoned. The cause of the emperor was the cause of the nation, and ought to receive the approbation of every lover of the country. " Navarro, a young but powerful member from Matto Grosso, followed in a violent and denunciatory speech, in which he stigmatised the regent, and all his acts, in the most opprobrious language. While in the heat of his harangue, he suddenly exclaimed, Viva amaioridade de sua majestade imperial! The crowded galleries had hitherto ob served the most religious silence, but this exclamation drew forth a burst of enthusiastic arid prolonged applause. Navarro, no longer able to make himself heard, drew his handkerchief from his bosom to respond to the vivas from the gallery. Members of the other party sitting near him, imagined they saw a dagger gleaming in his hand, and not knowing whose turn might come first, began to flee for their lives. One seized Navarro to keep him quiet; but he, not perceiving the reason of the assault, furiously repelled it. For a few moments the most intense and uncontrolable excitement prevailed, but order was soon restored. " Crowds of people now assembled out of doors, demanding the elevation of the young emperor. Some went so far as to proclaim his majority in the public squares of the city. After much opposition to the measure, the committee was appointed, and a mo mentary calm ensued. During the night both parties reviewed their positions. The clubs and lodges held their sessions, and the opposition met in caucus. The regent and his ministry were also in conclave. Vasconcellos, who had long been obnoxious on account of great moral delinquencies, was called in as their counsellor. " The session of the chamber of deputies next day was opened in the midst of the deepest anxiety. Navarro accused the majority of the committee of treacherously intending delay. He urged the immediate and unceremonious declaration of the emperor s majority. He appealed to the galleries, and received a deafening response of vivas to Dom Pedro II. Indescribable confusion ensued. The president of the chamber attempted to call up the order of the day, but it was impossible. The more moderate of the opposition wished the young emperor s elevation deferred till his birthday, the 2nd of December. The more violent exclaimed vehemently against any delay whatever.- The debate was protracted to an unusual length. In the midst of it, a messenger entered bearing documents from the regent. They were read by the secretary. The first was a nomination of Bernardo Pereirade Vasconcellos as minister of the empire. At the mention of the name of Vas concellos irrepressible sensations of indignation were apparent throughout the house. The secretary proceeded to read the second document, which proved to be an act of pro rogation, adjourning the general assembly over from that moment to the 20th of Novem ber following. " Confusion and indignation were now at their height. The people in the galleries HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 297 could not be restrained. They poured down a torrent of imprecations upon the admi n.stration, mingled with vivas to the majority of Dom Pedro II. Antonio Carlos Mai Francisco, L.mpo de Abreo, sprang to their feet, and one after the other entered t vehement protests against this act of madness on the part of the government "The president of the house attempted to enforce the act of prorogation but was prevented. Antonio Carlos now started forth, and called upon every Brazilian patric to follow him to the halls of the senate. His friends in the house, and the people en masse, accompanied him. The multitude increased at every step. On the arrival of the deputies at the senate, the two houses instantly resolved themselves into joint session and appointed a deputation, with Antonio Carlos at its head, to wait upon the emperor and obtain his consent to the acclamation. The multitude without had increased to the number of several thousand. No soldiers appeared, but the cadets of the military academy, in the heat of their juvenile enthusiasm, rushed to arms, and prepared to defend their sovereign. "Presently the deputation returned, and announced that his majesty had consented to assume the reins of government, arid had ordered the regent to revoke his obnoxious decrees, and to pronounce the chambers again in session. Thunders of applause followed this announcement. The enthusiasm of the people knew no bounds. The country was saved, and no blood was shed ! The Marquis of Paranagua, president of the senate, declared that neither house was now in session, but that the members of both composed an august popular assemblage, personifying the nation, demanding that their emperor be considered no longer a minor! It was finally resolved to remain in permanent session until his majesty should appear and receive the oath prescribed by the constitution in their presence. The assembly consequently remained in the senate-house all night. A body of the national guards, the alumni of the military academy, and numerous citizens, also remained to guard them." At daylight the people began to meet. By ten o clock, eight or ten thousand of the most respectable citizens surrounded the palace of the senate. The presi dent of the assembly then made a formal declaration of the objects of the con vocation. In both houses the legal number, both of senators and of deputies, being present, the president arose and proclaimed " I, as the organ of the representatives of this nation in general assembly convened, declare that his majesty, Dom Pedro II., is from this moment in his majority, and in the full exercise of his constitutional prerogatives. The majority of his majesty Senhor Dom Pedro II.! Viva Senhor Dom Pedro II., constitutional Emperor and per petual defender of Brazil ! ! Viva Senhor Dom Pedro II ! ! !" General vivas from the members of the assembly, from the spectators in the gallery, and from the multitude in the campo, rent the air. Deputations were appointed to wait upon the emperor, and to prepare a proclamation to all the peo ple of Brazil. At half-past three o clock the imperial escort appeared. His ma jesty preceded by the dignitaries of the palace, and followed by his sisters. His tutor occupied a place in the same carriage with himself. On the approach of the emperor the enthusiasm of the populace was uproarious. Vivas were roared forth from the campo during the whole ceremony. His majesty was received with courtly ceremonies and conducted to the throne, near which, the members of the diplomatic corps were seated in the uniform of their courts. The emperor knelt VOL. i. 2 Q 298 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. down and received the oath prescribed by the constitution, whereupon was read aloud and solemnly signed, the following act, viz. : "Know all men to whom tin s public instrument shall come, that on the 23rd day of July, in the year of our Lord 1840, and in the twenty -ninth year of the independence of the empire of Brazil, in this most loyal and heroic city of Rio de Janeiro, in the pa lace of the senate, and in the presence of both houses of the imperial legislature, to wit thirty-three members of the senate, and eighty-four deputies, under the presidency of his Excellency the Marquis of Paranagud, assembled in order to witness the fulfilment of the 103rd article of the constitution : being also present, his Imperial Majesty Sen- hor Don Pedro-de-Alcantara-Joao-Carlos-Leopoldo-Salvador-Bibiano-Francisco-Xa- vier-de-Paula-Leucadio-Miguel-Gabriel-Raphael Gonzaga, second emperor and perpetual defender of Brazil, the legitimate son and first heir of the late emperor, Dom Pedro I., and of the late empress, Donna Maria- Leopoldina-Josefa-Carolina, Archduchess of Austria. The most excellent president of this assembly having offered the emperor a missal, the latter laid his hand upon it, and recited in an audible voice the following con stitutional oath : I swear to maintain the Roman Catholic Apostolic religion, and the integrity and indivisibility of the empire ; to observe, and to cause to be observed, the constitution and the laws of the Brazilian nation, and to promote the general well being of Brazil by every means in my power. Wherefore, in perpetual memory of this event, duplicates of this document are signed and witnessed," &c. &c. The following proclamation, was then approved by the assembly : BRAZILIANS; The General Legislative Assembly of Brazil, recognising that happy intellectual development with which it has pleased Divine Providence to endow his Imperial Majesty Dom Pedro II., recognising also, the inherent evils which attach themselves to an unsettled government ; witnessing, moreover, the unanimous desire of the people of this capital, which it believes to be in perfect accordance with the desire of the whole empire, viz., to confer upon our august monarch the powers which the constitution secures to him ; therefore, in view of such important considerations, this body has, for the well-being of the country, seen fit to declare the majority of Dom Pedro II., so that he may enter at once upon the full exercise of his powers as constitutional emperor and perpetual defender of Brazil. Our august monarch has just taken in our presence the solemn oath required by the constitution. "Brazilians! The hopes of the nation are converted into reality. A new era has dawned upon us. May it be one of uninterrupted union and prosperity. May we prove worthy of so great a blessing !" After these ceremonies his majesty proceeded to the city palace, accompanied by the national guards, and the people in vast crowds. In the evening a bril liant cortejo took place, and the city was generally illuminated. Such were the events of this remarkable and sudden revolution. The regency was abolished, tranquillity prevailed, and Dom Pedro II,, at the age of fourteen and a half years, was invested with all the prerogatives of the imperial throne of one of the largest territorial and least populous empires of the earth. On the 24th day of July, the following new ministry was organised : Department of the Empire Antonio Carlos Ribeiro d Andrada Machado; of Finance Martin Francisco Ribeiro d Andrada ; of Foreign Affairs Aure- liano de Souza Oliveira Coutinho; of Justice Antonio Paulino Limpo d Abreo; of Marine Antonio Francisco de Paula Hollanda Cavalcanti ; of War Fran cisco de Paula Cavalcanti d Albuquerque. On the 26th a Te Deum was celebrated in the imperial chapel, in commemo- HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 200 ration of the late events. It was followed by a levee at the palace, where the diplomatic corps complimented the emperor in the following address, delivered by the Baron de Rouen, minister of France, and senior member of that body. " SENHOR : The members of the diplomatic corps, accredited at this court, have UK- honour to present you the homage of their profound respect. " It is with the deepest solicitude that they come, on this memorable day, to mi. their congratulations with those of your own subjects that have already been pro before your throne, and to express, in behalf of the sovereigns and the govern 1 : which they have the honour respectively to represent, those desires which they will never cease to cherish for the glory of your reign, for the happiness of your august family, and for the prosperity of Brazil." Congratulations in similar terms became the order of the day. Every society, each institution, every province, and nearly each town from the capital to the bounds of the empire, hastened to celebrate the event with extravagant rejoicing, and to send a deputation to the emperor, with "their most profound sentiments of joy at his elevation to the sovereignty, and their cherished hopes of his pros perity and happiness. * * As specimens of the style and sentiments used on these occasions, and as characteristic of the formalities and education of the Brazilians, the reader is presented with two translations. The first is the official address of the senate, presented to his majesty by a special deputation on the 28th of July, " SENHOR : The senate, impelled by the most elevated patriotism, transported with the most sincere pleasure, in view of the favour which your imperial majesty has just condescended to con fer upon the empire, by entering at once upon the full exercise of your inalienable rights, has sent us in solemn deputation to congratulate your imperial majesty upon the memorable event which fills your majesty s subjects with confidence and delight. " If Brazil has received from your renowned ancestors, since the days of King Dom Manoel, benefits, which, progressively increasing up to the time when the cry of independence was first uttered at Ypiranga by the hero of both the Old and the New Worlds, enabled her at length to become a free nation, much stronger hopes of future glory do the Brazilians discover, in i triotism of your imperial majesty. " Divine Providence has endowed you with a great and magnanimous heart ; and in his eternal wisdom has destined you to rule over the empire of Santa Cruz. He, for our greater good, has in a wonderful manner overruled the late unlooked-for events, so as to bring your majesty be fore your subjects like a brilliant sun emerging from portentous clouds, and causing unmingled happiness. " May the government of your imperial majesty serve as a polar star, to illumine all America, and to guide the inhabitants of this great continent in the path of order and of true glory ! Deign, therefore, to receive kindly the sincere well-wishes of the senate they are those of the nation itself. Heaven grant, that the precious days of your imperial majesty may run on through many and happy years, so that national liberty may be maintained, and the true prosperity of the empire may be e. tablished." To this panegyric, his majesty replied : " I am very grateful for the sentiments which the senate expresses in view of my haviiij sumed the exercise of my constitutional prerogatives. " Gentlemen, you may assure the senate, that I shall endeavour to satisfy the i nation, by maintaining a harmony between ourselves and foreign powers, by sustain! stitution and laws of the empire, and by promoting the happiness of the nation. In the course of a month a steam-vessel carried to Para the news of tins revolution, a accession of the emperor. The provincial assembly was then in session. A le Denm brated immediately, and an orator appointed, who recited a pompous discourse. aS " Il?u 1 stiTourdeputies!--The imperial court has just been the theatre of an event of the most interesting and promising character for Brazil. The people, and the.r "$""*"** to the empire and to the world the most decisive testimony of their adh f on ^f J^ throne of his Majesty Dom Pedro IL, as well as an extraordinary perception of virtues which eminently distinguish him. The elevation of his imperial majesty to the throne, "f^^ tion of the people and their most worthy representatives. The fame o 300 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Party feelings did not cease with the minority of the emperor. For a time it slumbered. A popular revolution after wards, in 1842, almost destroyed the constitution but the monarchical principle prevailed ; and yet its success is attributed altogether to the passive obedience or indifference of the uneducated populace. On the 29th of July, 1840, Senhor Antonio Carlos made a declaration of the policy and principles of the new administration. His speech on the subject was eulogised as one of the most able parliamentary efforts ever pronounced in Brazil. It summed up the leading principles upon which ministerial action would be based under the new order of things : " 1. Simplicity in the plan of collecting, and economy in the disbursement, of the public revenues. " 2. Scrupulous respect to law literally constructed, and a total disregard of fanciful interpretations. * 3. Adhesion to existing institutions, and a cautious use of executive power. " 4. Energetic opposition to the rebellion of Rio Grande, but a disposition to listen to any overtures from the insurgents, that may be entertained with due respect to the national honour. " 5. Conciliation of opposing parties, without any wavering to accommodate either. " 6. Harmony of views and actions between the. government and all its agents. * c 7. All proper means to induce harmonious action in the two legislative bodies, but no resort to corruption or intrigue. " 8. Unanimity in the cabinet upon all questions of moment." "The nation/ says Mr. Kidder, " at large was perfectly exhilarated with the idea of the glorious revolution that had transpired ; but the legislature, tired by its recent pa roxysms, soon fell back into its old method of doing business. The first leading measure of the opposition was the appointment of a council of state, to hold the office of special advisers to the emperor. It became an immediate and protracted subject of discussion, but did not succeed till late in the following year. Things throughout the empire moved on in their ordinary course, save that, when the subject of the emperor s elevation lost its novelty, that of his approaching coronation became the theme of universal interest and of unbounded anticipation. " The early part of the year 1841 was fixed upon for the coronation. Preparations for that event were set on foot long in advance of the time. Expectants of honours and emo luments attempted to rival each other in parade and display. Extraordinary embassies \vere sent out from the different courts of Europe, in compliment to Brazil." Before the next session of the General Assembly, several of the provinces had resisted the new appointments of presidents, and in so doing had manifested tendencies to revolution. But the most serious difficulty was the long-existing rebellion in Rio Grande do Sul. To bring this internal war to a close, Alvares Machado was appointed an agent of the government to treat with the rebels. Great confidence had been reposed in his personal influence with Bento Gon- salvez and others. But with all the facilities offered them, the insurgents re fused to compromise. Machado was then appointed president of the province. " In this office," says Kidder, " instead of wielding a rod of iron, as his predecessors resounded throughout the provinces of the empire, and we can now perceive the star of hope beaming brightly over us. " Gentlemen, a most important era has occurred in the history of our nation ; and as the proper organ of the people of Para, let us employ our efforts to aid the emperor in the grand task of placing Brazil upon a level with the most enlightened nations of the world," HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 301 had done, or had attempted to do, he adopted conciliatory measures, and rather er a negotiation. This attitude was stigmatised as dishonourable to the empire an outcry was made about it, as to excite general alarm lest the interests of the thrr should be betrayed. This outcry was aimed at the ministry. A change was den and was at length obtained. On the 23rd of March the Andradas and their friends the single exception of Aureliano, were dismissed." Araujo Vianna, a former tutor of the emperor, was now appointed the chief of the new cabinet, and the men who had brought about the new order of things were supplanted " just in time for their opponents to secure the decorations and the emoluments that were soon to be distributed." "Mortifying as this circumstance may have been in some of its bearings it caused no grief to the Andradas in view of their personal wishes. They could point to the early days of their political prosperity, in proof of their disinterested devotion to their country They could now, as then, retire in honourable poverty, preserving the boast of pure pa triotism as a more precious treasure than wealth or titles. Theirs was the distinction that would cause posterity to inquire why they did not receive the honours they had deserved. Other men were welcome to the ignominy of wearing titles they had never merited." Offices, orders, and honours, were sought for with servile and disgraceful meanness. " It was thought politic," says Mr. Kidder, " to keep the applicants in suspense, especially those who were in the legislature. In the meantime, their votes mi^ht all be secured. * The government could make sure of its loans and votes of credit. It could secure a pardon for past extravagances, and an amnesty for any it might choose to com mit in future. Besides these controlling motives, there were others of quite a frivolous nature, that nevertheless had their weight. The imperial crown had been sent to Eng land for alteration, and had not returned. One of the envoys-extraordinary that was expected had not arrived; and moreover, the harnesses for seven state carriages were as yet unprovided." For two months longer than the time first mentioned, the coronation formed the all-engrossing topic of conversation and of preparation in every circle, from the emperor and princesses, down to the barefooted slaves. That event was at length celebrated on the 18th of July, 1841 * There were circumstances connected with the pomp and expenditures of this coronation, which embarrassed those who had to manage the finances of the empire, then in a diminishing and almost bankrupt state, The money expended in the ceremony, including an expense of 100 5 000 dollars for an imperial crown, was borrowed, and added to an immense public debt.f The government was far from being stable. Its councils were divided its policy vacillating. * " It was magnificent beyond the expectations of the most sanguine. The splendour of the day itself the unnumbered thousands of citizens and strangers that thronged the streets the tasteful and costly decorations displayed in the public squares, and in front of private houses the triumphal arches the pealing salutes of music and of cannon the perfect order and tran quillity that prevailed in the public processions and ceremonies of the day, together with nearly every thing else that could be imagined or wished, seemed to combine and make the occasion one of the most imposing that ever transpired in the New World. The act of consecration was per formed in the imperial chapel, and was followed by a levee in the palace of the city, nations at evening were of the most brilliant kind, and the festivities of the occasn longed nine successive days." Kidder. f " It deserves mention here, that the honourable insignia of the coronation of Dorr, were not all confined to Brazilians. A general concession of orders and stars was made 302 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. After the coronation, the General Assembly resumed its sittings, On the 23rd of November, a law was passed, establishing the Conselho de Estado. " This body was modelled upon the double basis of the ordinary and extraordinary privy council of Great Britain. Lima, Calraon, Carnefro Leao, and Vasconcellos, the very individuals who opposed the Andradas at the period cf the young emperor s eleva tion, and who were then put down by acclamation, had, in the short space of a year, not only managed to get back into public favour, but also to secure life appointments of the most influential kind. " Vasconcellos, it is true, sought for no titles. They were playthings which he could easily dispense with for the gratification of his fellow partisans. But he loved power, and neither mortifications nor defeat deterred him an instant from its pursuit. He finally gained a position which probably suited his inclinations better than any other, and in which, as the master spirit of the body, his influence must be widely felt." The year 1842 was marked by disturbances in different parts of the empire. They commenced with the elections. " Various frauds had been enacted, by suddenly changing the day, hour, and places of elections. What was worse, bodies of armed men were introduced to influence vote?, while crowds of voters were brought in from other districts. In short, bribery, corrup tion, and force, triumphed over the free exercise of public opinion. It is not to be pre sumed that one party was guilty of these measures alone ; but it appeared in the issue, that the opposition had succeeded, and that the ministerial party was in the minority. A change of administration would have been an immediate consequence of the regular opening of the session on the 3rd of May. This the ministry resolved to resist. They accordingly drew up solemn papers, advising the emperor to dissolve the chamber of deputies, urging, that on account of the illegality of the elections, it could not be a constitutional body. The preparatory session was held as usual, and proceeded in the reception of credentials, with no great scruple as to the manner in which they had been obtained." His majesty was not allowed to open the regular session of the assembly. A decree was issued for a new election, and an extraordinary session, to com mence on the 1st of January following. The members separated peaceably ; but in May following rebellions appeared in parts of the empire, where they had scarcely ever been dreaded. The causes or pretences for these revolts were the organisation of a council of state, and the changes which had been made adopted in the criminal code of the empire. The first outbreak of actual rebellion was in the province of San Paulo. About the middle of May a movement was made at Sorocaba, in which Senhcr Raphael Tobias was acclaimed president, in opposition to the Baron of Monte Alegre, his legitimate successor in office. Soon afterwards the rebellion was manifested in the province, north, south, and west of San Paulo. The general government at once endeavoured to repress these revolts. In the province of Minas Geraes the rebellion became formidable, first along the borders of the province of Rio de Janeiro, and then throughout the most populous settlements. member of the diplomatic corps who took part in the ceremonies, and whose government allowed the acceptance of such distinctions. The individuals prohibited sharing in these honours by regulations of their own governments, were the British minister, and the representatives of the several American republics." Kiddcr. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 3Q3 It was reported that within the city of Rio Janeiro, plans were concerted for a revolutionary movement. On the I7tli of June a proclamation was posted up at the corners of the streets, " calling upon the people to free the emperor from the domination which had been imposed upon him, and to rescue both the throne and the constitution from threatened annihilation." The militia was ordered out in arms, and martial law was proclaimed in the disturbed provinces. A proclamation signed by the emperor, declared that the supremacy of the laws must be maintained at all hazards, and calling upon the disaffected to lay down their arms. Several persons in the capital were arrested on suspicion, and many of them were banished without trial. About the same time revolutionary movements took place at Pernambuco and Ceara. Order was at last restored without the loss of many lives. Public confidence was, however, enfeebled, and the imperial revenue underwent serious deterioration. On the 1st of January, 1843, the emperor opened the general assembly in person, and the usual levee of New Year s Day,was made an occasion of uncom mon splendour. Parties had also to a considerable degree assimilated. It has been remarked, that " parties in Brazil are not true parties they are factions, without definite system or object. Personal antipathies and predilec tions spoil all sound political concert on either side." The administration had now, to a great extent, accomplished its purposes ; but, notwithstanding, a new ministry was formed on the 20th of January. Aure- liano, who had directed the department of foreign affairs, since the abolition of the regency, was displaced by Scares de Souza, the late minister of justice. During the year 1843, the imperial marriages were celebrated with rejoicings and magnificence. In July, 1842, Dom Pedro IT. had ratified a contract of marriage with the Princess Senhora Donna Theresa Christina Maria, sister of the King of the Two Sicilies. The marriage was solemnised at Naples, and on the 5th of March a Brazilian frigate and two corvettes sailed from Rio de Janeiro to the Mediter ranean, to bring the young empress to Brazil. On the 27th of March, a French squadron arrived, under the command of Prince de Joinville of France. This prince had previously visited Brazil ; and, soon after this second visit he made a proposal of marriage through the special man date of the King of the French, to her Imperial Highness Donna Francisca. On the 1st of May the marriage was solemnised at Boa Vista. On the 13th of May the prince with his imperial bride sailed for Europe. The empress, Donna Theresa, arrived at Rio Janeiro on the 3rd of September, after a pleasant voyage from Naples, and was received with splendid ceremonies and all expressions of cordiality on the part of the Brazilians. On the 28th of April, 1844, her Imperial Highness Donna Januaria, was married to the Count of Aquilla, brother of the Empress of Brazil, and of the 304 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. King of the two Sicilies. Thus within a period of less than a year the imperial family of Brazil formed three alliances with the royal families of Europe. A ministerial change occurred in the early part of 1844. The regular session of the legislative assembly commenced on the 3rd of May, and ended without any very remarkable circumstance. The same body was ordered to convene on the 1st of January, 1845. The elections, which took place preparatory to this extra session, were attended with serious disturbances in several of the provinces, par ticularly in Alagoas. The president of that province/ Senhor Franco, who had pre sided formerly in Para, was driven from the city of Maceio by the insurgents, and forced to embark on board a vessel of war that happened to be lying in the port. There is no part of the habitable globe, which possesses a greater variety of, or more splendidly munificent resources than the empire of Brazil. An empire in its area as large as seventy-seven kingdoms of the same area as Portugal, and nearly as extensive as all Europe. If we estimate its soil, climate, and water courses, Brazil appears capable of being rendered, probably threefold, more pro ductive than all the regions from the Atlantic to the Oural Mountains, from the Mediterranean to the Arctic Sea. This empire, however, does not possess in its population which is little, if more in number than the inhabitants of Belgium, the power of becoming great, wealthy, and powerful, for a long period to come ; unless every facility and security be afforded to the immigration of industrious Europeans, or of the citizens of the United States of North America; unless the utmost security is guaranteed to person and property ; unless the prejudices against the persons and the religion of foreigners be forgotten ; unless the bigotted attachment of the Brazilians for hereditary customs, arid for a make-shift system of agriculture, and handicraft trades, be supplanted by intel ligence, industry, and enterprise; and, unless the trade and navigation of every part, and port, of Brazil is relieved from restrictive commercial laws, and from high duties on commodities. Then, and not till then, can they advance in that progress of wealth, greatness, and power, of which they have so marvellous an example in Anglo-Saxon North America. In the last book of this volume will be found more detailed descriptive sketches, and several statistic tables of this empire. BOOK IV. SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER I. SPANISH COLONIAL POLICY. THE Republics of Mexico and of Central and of South America, exhibit in their political, moral, social, productive, and commercial condition, an extra ordinary contrast to thg progress and present state of the great Anglo-American Republic. It was the misfortune of the former, to have been, previously to their inde pendence, ruled, or rather awed into passive obedience, by the most darkening, monarchical and ecclesiastical, government : a government, and hierarchy that grew up, and acquired strength, during centuries of ignorance, tyranny, bigotry, and intolerance : under a government, and a church, that profited not by the march of modern civilisation, and religious liberty ; but that enchained the freedom of written, and spoken language, and the expansion of the intellectual faculties. The history of the Spanish colonies, is not celebrated by examples of that persevering, laborious, and enduring character, animated, and cherished, and supported by the spirit, and the love, of civil and religious liberty, which so eminently distinguished the Pilgrim Fathers, the Quakers, and even the British Roman Catholics, who first encountered and overcame all the privations, diffi culties, and dangers of the American wilderness. The character and conduct of the conquerors and colonists of Spanish America, and of their civil and ecclesiastical government ever afterwards, present a contrast, which, on becoming independent of Spanish authority, rendered the moral, intellectual, and even physical character of the people, and of those who were called upon to rule, incompatible with intelligent, tolerant government, with impartial justice, and with civil and religious liberty. The colonial policy of Spain was selfish, intolerant, restrictive, and fallacious, from the foundation of the first settlement, in Hayti, until the expulsion of Spanish power from the continent of America. This policy excluded all but Spaniards from those regions, and confined the trade to a direct intercourse with Spain. Agriculture was discouraged, in order VOL. I. 2 R 306 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. that Spain might possess the monopoly of supplying with food all the people of the vast territory conquered, by her adventurers, in the West. Spain proved haughty and intolerant ; based her commercial and colonial system, on possessing and securing within herself all articles of necessity all kinds of luxury all the materials of wealth all the elements of power. First, by prohibiting the entrance for home consumption of the products of any country, except those of her colonial empire ; and secondly, by forcing the latter to consume no manu factured article, and none of food, except those exported from certain ports in Spain. This pernicious legislation was grounded on the specious policy, that, as all the precious metals would necessarily be transported to the mother country, they would remain in Spain, if they were not required to pay for foreign commodities ; that the precious metals constituted riches ; and that wealth constituted power. But in defiance of this fallacious policy, the gold, silver, and precious stones flowed off to foreign countries, both from the colonies and from Spain, nearly as rapidly as they were robbed from the natives of Hayti, Mexico, and Peru, or drawn from the mines, by the millions of American and African slaves, who have been exterminated, under the cruel toils to which they were, by avarice and tyranny, doomed. The effects which resulted from the Spanish conquests, in the islands, and on the continent of America^ arc remarkable. Into no country did such immense treasures flow as into Spain. In no country was there so little money to be found, either in circulation, or in the royal treasury. There was neither order nor economy in the finances of the government, nor in the expenditure of indi viduals. Money was borrowed at usury. Gold and silver, which the galleons brought annually to Cadiz from the New World, did not suffice to pay the debts which Spain owed in the Old. Agriculture, at home and in the colonies, was despised and neglected. Other branches of industry decayed, and several dis. appeared altogether. The Indies, instead of strengthening the power of Spain? rendered that monarchy gradually impotent in Europe. This poverty and weakness was chiefly caused by the genius of the Spanish policy. In order to retain conquests, the natives were exterminated. The spirit of government was tyranny, the doctrine of the church was persecution, the maxim of trade was monopoly. The long duration of those fallacies, rendered them, in Spanish wisdom, venerable. The Spaniards, believed the precious treasures of the New World exhaustless. They imagined their power invincible. Their ambition and pride measured no limits. The consequent wars in Europe, and the retention of the Indies, diminished the number of inhabitants, and demoralised the remaining population. The country became exhausted, by its decreased powers of production at home, and by the plunder of its fleets by the enemy. The Spanish troops were ever brave, yet they SPANISH COLONIAL POLICY. 307 were ill paid, badly fed, and wretchedly clothed. They were skilfully disciplined, and gallantly commanded, but they were generally defeated. The people of the united provinces a mere fragment of Spanish dominion, a marsh, a debris of river deposits, and sea sand, assumed and effected independence, and con structed fleets, which swept those of their former tyrants from off the ocean. Spain, by insulting, roused and organised the power of other nations. Of England and France, Spain was especially jealous. England, and afterwards Holland, became her most formidable naval rivals. The precious metals of America enervated the Spaniards. The spirit of industry, trade, and navigation rendered the English and Dutch active, hardy, bold, and victorious. The enterprising Anglo-Saxon colonists, who planted the New England and middle provinces of North America, were not slow in discovering profitable channels of commerce ; and they soon commenced a very lucrative contraband trade with the Spanish settlements in Cuba, Mexico, and South America. It rapidly increased to a prodigious value and certain gain, by the interchange of all sorts of British manufactures for the precious metals and gems. These were nearly all remitted to England. A small part only was retained for a currency in the British plantations. The Spanish colonists gave all possible, illicit, encourage ment to a commerce, which supplied them with the best articles, at half the price that were paid for those of the parent country. The Spanish colonial authorities contrived to share in the profits, and connived at a trade, which was undermining the whole commercial and colonial policy of Spain. The Spanish monarchy, at length, to suppress this commerce, stationed a fleet of guarda-costas along the shores of Cuba, Porto-Rico, and the Gulf of Mexico. The indiscriminate seizure of all British vessels, met with near those coasts, was the chief cause of the war of 1734 between Great Britain and Spain. After the War, the contraband trade with the Spanish settlements was resumed with activity by the Anglo-American colonists, until the English government agreed to assist Spain in effectually suppressing it. British war- cruisers were directed to seize, in order to be confiscated, all British merchant vessels found near the shores of the Spanish colonies. The avidity and severity of the commanders of these cruisers nearly destroyed the trade, and formed one of the great causes of discontent which led to the American revolution. After the independence of the United States, the contraband trade with the Spanish colonies was resumed, and continued with extraordinary activity and success, both from the continental ports of Anglo- America, and from the Ber mudas, Bahamas, and other places, until the year 1809, when the Spanisl Indian and American ports were, by necessity, in consequence of the penm war, opened to foreign trade. But, while we are compelled to expose nicious effects of the colonial system acted upon by Spain, the unwise coi cial policy, and the previous legislative acts, of England, before the i 308 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. dence of the British Provinces, and afterwards, until the opening the ports of the Spanish colonies, will not admit of justification. By the treaty between Great Britain and Spain, signed at Madrid, 13th (23d) May, 1667, it was provided that, perfect reciprocity of navigation and trade should be established between the King of Great Britain and the King of Spain, and their respective people, subjects and inhabitants. These privileges are stipulated for, in the fullest manner, both as to subjects, merchandise, and the duties to be paid.* These privileges extend to all dominions, including colonies and islands ; but, as Great Britain and Spain both restricted the trade of their colonies to the mother country of each, it was stipulated, that the immunities and privileges, provided for in ~the treaty of 1667, were not to extend to the colonies, unless such intercourse should be at any future time allowed to the ships and subjects of any other foreign state. The treaties of peace and of friendship signed at Utrecht, bet ween Great Britain and Spain, 2d (13th) of July, 1?13, pro vided, that all privileges of trade and navigation, which should be enjoyed or granted, by either contracting power to the subjects of any other foreign state, should also be enjoyed in all the ports and dominions of the Kings of England and Spain, by their respective subjects. All the foregoing treaties were renewed by the treaty of Versailles, 1783, and by the treaty of 5th of July, 1814. Both England and Spain have generally observed the faith of these treaties, and the wines of Spain, and of the Two Sicilies under Spain, have been treated upon their importation into England upon the same terms, as to duty, as those of Portugal under the Methuen treaty ; while those of France and Germany continued to be subjected to a high differential duty. Any breach of faith, in regard to these treaties, will be found attribut able to the frequent wars between the two countries, to misinterpretations put on their provisions by the custom-house authorities in Great Britain and Spain, and to the suddenly disturbed administrations of the latter, which resulted, gene rally, in power being held by those who were ignorant both of commerce and of commercial treaties; and of whose neglect it would be not only unworthy, but dishonourable in a great nation to take advantage. Although the ports of Spain, in the West Indies, and America, were opened to foreign trade in 1809, the old system of monopoly would have probably been renewed, at the peace, had not Spanish trade and industry been thoroughly paralysed before the year 1814. When the Spanish American republics achieved their independence of Spanish monarchical rule, the leading men, and the whole people, were not only ignorant of the true principles of trade and industry, but they retained, by tradition, and by habit, an hereditary attachment to all that * See Articles 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, and 11 ; and 38th of the Treaty of 1667. f See Article of Treaty of 1670. See Treaty of Utrecht, 1713. DIVISIONS UNDER THE MONARCHY. 309 was unsound in the old Spanish colonial policy, and to all that was bigoted in the church. This was especially true in regard to Mexico : and to this igno rance, and to this intolerance, may we assuredly ascribe the impotent condition of that naturally rich, and still extensive, republic. If we compare the natural fertility, and numerous advantages of the countries in America, discovered, conquered, and planted, by Spain and Portugal, and compare their present population, condition, and power, with those discovered, conquered, and colonised by the Anglo-Americans, we may form something like a conception of what would have been, at this day, the productive riches, and the internal, and external commerce, and navigation of Mexico, of Guate mala, of Brazil, and of the several republics of Spanish America, had they been colonised by a race animated and conducted by the same spirit, habits, industry, intelligence, and invention, which in agriculture, in the arts, in navigation, and in commerce, have distinguished the Anglo-Saxon race. We have collected and condensed, with great labour, care, and expense materials in order to enable us to present to the public, the commercial and industrial statistics of the Spanish and Portuguese settlements in America. Our manuscripts, statements, and tables, would form many volumes in print. But such has been the vacillating legislation of those governments, that we are compelled to make but scanty use of those statements, and tables, and we shall confine our statistical accounts of these countries to such information only as we consider the most accurate, and most useful to manufacturers, merchants, and ship-owners. CHAPTER II. DIVISIONS OF SPANISH AMERICA UNDER THE MONARCHY. PREVIOUSLY to the independence of the countries, in North and South America, comprised under the regal government of Spain, the Spanish colonies were administered in the following arrangement : viz, 1. In NORTH AMERICA The Viceroyalty of New Spain, and the Cap tain-generalship of Guatemala. 2. In SOUTH AMERICA, the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the Captain- generalship of Caraccas, the Viceroyalty of Pern, the Viceroyalty of La Plata, or Buenos Ayres, and the Captain- general ship of Chili. The population of these vast regions, we believe never to have been, even as an approximate statement, ascertained. The following table is compiled on the 310 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. authority of Humboldt, Alcedo, and others ; and is estimated to include the natives and slaves : COUNTRIES. Inhabitants. Acres. CAPITALS. Inhabitants. number. 6,500,000 1,200,000 600,000 136,000 1,800,000 "1 900,000 | 1,300,000 V 800,000 l,100,000j number. 1,690,000 186,000 43,350 3,865 3,350,000 number. 137,000 19,000 35,000 very populous, 30,000 20,000 54,000 36,000 60,000 Chili Buenos Ayres or La Plata.. Making 14,336,000 5,273,215 The above is exclusive of the unnumbered Indians of the Viceroyalty of La Plata. The Portuguese subjects in Brazil were estimated at the same time, to amount to 3,000,000: of whom one million and a half were slaves, one million Indians, and the remainder of European race. Of the above total of 14,336,000 souls, there were 3,000,000 whites born in the country, 200,000 Europeans, and the remaining 11,136,000 were Indians, negroes, and mixed races, or castes, of which the Indians amounted to by far the greater proportion. The negroes in Caraccas amounted to 54,000, in Cuba to 212,000 ; the other states having comparatively very few slaves. I. VICEROYALTY OF NEW SPAIN. Under the Viceroy, and the Supreme Councils (Audienzas Reales\ New Spain was sub-divided into the three Provinces of New Mexico, and Old and New California, and the twelve intendencies of Durango, or New Biscay, Sonora, St. Louis Potosi, Zacatecas, Guadalaxara, Valadolid, or Mechoacan, Mexico, Pueblu, or Tlascala, Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, or Guaxaca, and Merida, or Yucatan. The whole administration may be said to have been under the absolute despotism of the viceroy, the archbishop, and bishops, and the Audienzas Reales. II. CAPTAIN-GENERALSHIP OF GUATEMALA. The account which, in its spirit, and in the simplicity of its description and statements, conveys the best proof of authenticity relative to this captain- generalship, under the Spanish sovereignty, is the work of Don Domingo Quarras, a native of the country. According to his authority, the government of this kingdom, as it was then named, was administered by the royal audiencia of Guatemala, the president of which was governor and captain-general of the kingdom, having a great number of inferior officers for the better regulation of the provinces. The spiritual affairs were directed by the Archbishop of Gua temala and three suffragans, except in the small district of Feten, which was under the charge of the Bishop of Yucatan. The ecclesiastical division of the DIVISIONS UNDER THE MONARCHY. 31 1 kingdom consisted of four bishoprics, viz., Guatemala, which as metropo litan, extended over the whole kingdom ; but the peculiar territory of the arch bishopric of Guatemala extended 214 Spanish leagues from the plains of Moto- cinta, the most westerly village of the diocese, to the boundaries of the curacy of Conchagua, the most easterly; and 116 leagues from the Gulf on the northward, to the shores of the Pacific southward. In this district there were 108 curacies, twenty- three collated curacies of regulars, sixteen under charge of the Dominicans, four of the Franciscans, and three of our Lady of Mercy ; 424 parochial churches, and 539,765 inhabitants. This bishopric was erected by Pope Paul III., under a bull bearing date December 18, 1534; from that period to 1809 the chair has been occupied by seven archbishops and sixteen bishops. The second bishopric is Leon, having jurisdiction over the intendancy of Nicaragua, and the government of Costa Rica : in it there were thirty-nine curacies, three establishments for the conversion of infidels, eighty-eight parochial churches, and 131,932 inhabitants. From its erection to the year 1809, this diocese has had thirty-seven bishops. The third was Ciudad Real, its jurisdic tion comprehended the three divisions of the intendancy of Chiapa ; it contained thirty-eight curacies, 102 parish churches, and 69,253 inhabitants. The fourth is Comayagua, the jurisdiction of which was confined to the intendancy of Hon duras : within its territory there were thirty-five curacies, one establishment for the conversion of infidels, 145 parish churches, and 88,143 inhabitants.* The civil government of the kingdom was divided into fifteen provinces, of these eight were superior alcaldias, viz., Totonicapan, Solola, Chimaltenango, Saca- tepeques, Zonzonate, Verapaz, Escuintla, and Suchiltepeques ; two were corregi- dorships, viz., Quezaltenango, and Chiquimula; one a government, Costa Rica; and four were intendancies, Leon, Ciudad Real, Comayagua, and St. Salvador. Five of these provinces were situated on the shores of the Pacific ; five on the Atlantic, and five interior. In Guatemala, as well as in all other parts of Spanish America, the real power exercised by the bishops and other ecclesiastics, was much greater than that exercised by the civil government. * In computing the number of inhabitants of the kingdom : parishioners of the dioceses, and inhabitants of the provinces, recourse has been had to the census taken by order of the I Spain in 1788, as being the most recent and complete that could readily be consuli gives the numbers in the separate provinces and districts. It may, however, be considere for, by comparing it with the enumerations made by order of the bishops, there has beei da material discrepancy; if we add together the numbers of the different dis tricts of the b.sh, op ric o Comayagua in the royal census of 1778, the amount will be no more than 8 l 1 f ^""^r taken by order of the bishop in 1791, makes the number 93,501. In Ch.apa in 17/8 , th given was 62,253, but, by a census in 1796, it was 99,001 : similar increase has b the other two dioceses. Alcedo. 312 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. III. VICEROYALTY OF NEW GRANADA. New Granada was bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, and the pro vince of Costa Rica in the kingdom of Guatemala ; on the east by the govern ment of Caraccas, Spanish Guiana, and Portuguese Guiana; on the west by the Pacific Ocean ; and on the south by the river Maranon, and the viceroyalty of Peru : it extended from 3 deg. 30 min. south latitude, to 12 deg. north latitude. This extensive viceroyalty was divided into numerous provinces, governed by intendants and governors under the orders of the viceroy. These provinces were named Jaen de Bracamoros, Quixos, Maynas, Quito, Tacamees, Popayan, Antioquia, Santa Fe, San Juan de los Llanos, Merida, Santa Marta, Carthagena, Choco, Darien, Panama, and Veragua; the three last of which were known by the distinctive appellation of Tierra Firme. IV. CAPTAIN-GENERALSHIP OF CARACCAS. Caraccas is named after a tribe of Indians, and given to the country which included New Andalusia, or Cumana, with Margarita, Barcelona, Venezuela or Caraccas Proper, Maracaybo and Coro, on the coast of the Caribbean Sea, Varinas and Spanish Guiana, in the interior. It was bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, east by the Atlantic, south by Peru and Dutch Guiana, and west by the kingdom of Santa Fe or New Granada. Caraccas was subdivided into seven provinces : viz., New Andalusia or Cumana, Barcelona, Venezuela or Caraccas Proper, containing Venezuela and Coro, Maracaybo, Varinas, and Guiana, with the detached government of the island of Margarita ; the whole of these were under the superintendence of a personage of the highest rank, who was styled captain-general of the provinces of Venezuela, and the city of Caraccas. V. VICEROYALTY OF PERU. Peru, as a viceroyalty, was bounded on the north by the southern provinces of Quito, Maynas, Jaen de Bracomaros, and Guyaquil ; on the west by the Pacific Ocean ; on the east, by the Portuguese possessions, and the provinces of Buenos Ayres ; and on the south, by the government of Chili and the viceroyalty of La Plata. It was formerly the most extensive kingdom of South America, but in the year 1718 the provinces of Quito in the north, as far as the river Tum- bez, were annexed to the government of New Granada, and in 1778, Potosi, and several other of its richest districts, on the east, were annexed to the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. It extended, therefore, from the Rio Tumbez, in 3 degrees 30 minutes, south latitude, to the chain of Vilcanota, in 15 degrees south latitude. DIVISIONS UNDER THE MONARCHY. Its eastern settlements bounded on Colonna, or the land of the mission Pampas del Sacramento, and the region of the savage nations of the Pan a vast steppe covered with long grass. Peru was, as a viceroyalty, divided into seven intendancies, viz. Truxillo Tarma, Huancavelica, Lima, Huamanga, Arequipa and Cuzco, each of which was governed by an intendant, nominated by the viceroy, a nobleman of the highest rank, who was sent from Spain, and whose appointment was one of the* first consequence in Spanish America. The salary of the viceroy was only 12,600/., but enormously augmented by the monopoly of certain manufactures, by grants, and by the colonial situations and titles he could confer. Peru was the seat of two royal audienzas, that of Lima and that of Cuzco. The audience of Lima was established in 1543, and was composed of a regent, eight oidores or judges, four alcaldes, and two fiscals, the viceroy being president It was divided into three chambers, and was the superior court of appeal for the whole government. The royal treasury was the next great office of state, com posed of the viceroy, the regent of the council, the dean of the tribunal of accounts, and other officers, and the revenue appeals were determined by the tribunal of accounts. VI. VICEROYALTY OF BUENOS AYRES, OR LA PLATA. This viceroyalty was bounded on the north by the vast steppe of the Ama zons, or, according to some authorities, by that great river itself; on the east the territories of the Portuguese and the Atlantic ocean were its limits ; on the west it was divided by the Andes from Peru and Chili, having also a province bordering on the South Sea ; and on the south its boundary was the Pampas and Patagonia. From Cape Lobos on the Atlantic to the most northerly settlements on the Paraguay, its extent was estimated at 1600 miles; and from Cape St. Antony, at the mouth of the Plata, to the Andes of Chili, its breadth was about 1000 miles. This extensive region was erected into a viceroyalty in 1778 5 and at that time several provinces were added to it from Peru and Chili. It was divided into five governments, Los Charcas, Paraguay, Tucuman, Cuyo, and Buenos Ayres, which were again subdivided into departments and districts. The whole was governed by a viceroy, and the ecclesiastical affairs of the country were under the guidance of the archbishop of La Plata, in Charcas, who had six suffragans. VOL. i. 2s 314 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. VII. CAPTAIN-GENERALSHIP OF CHILI. The kingdom of Chili or Chile was the most southerly of the governments . which composed the Spanish American empire. It extended from the 24th degree to the 45th degree of south latitude, and comprised the continent bounded by the ocean on the west, and the Andes on the east; with the islands on its coasts. Its greatest length was about 1260 miles, and its greatest breadth 300. It was bounded on the north by La Plata, and from Peru it was separated by the desert and province of Atacama ; on the east it was bounded by the Buenos Ayrean provinces of Tucuman and Cuyo, and by Terra Magellanica, or Pata gonia ; on the west, the Southern Pacific washed its shores ; and on the south, the unconquered and desert countries of Terra Magellanica, completed its limits. Chili was governed by a personage of high rank, appointed by the court of Madrid, and who held the title of Captain-General of the kingdom of Chili, having under his orders all the inferior governors of departments and military posts. He was likewise commander-in-chief of the Chilian forces, and president of the court of the royal audienza of Santiago. Chili was divided into continental and insular partidos, or departments, over which intendants, or lieutenants, presided. The continental part, or Chili Proper, was divided into thirteen partidos, which extend from the twenty-fourth degree to the thirty- seventh degree of south latitude, and were named Copiapo, Coquimbo, Quillota, Aconcagua, Meli- pilla, Santiago, Rancagua, Colchagua, Maule, Itata, Chilian, Puchucay, and Huilquilemu. From the thirty-seventh degree to the islands of Chiloe, the country was chiefly under the power of three native tribes, the Araucanians, the Cunches, and the Huilliches. Insular Chili, comprehending the archipelago of Chiloe, and Chonos or Guaytecas, and the Andean parts of Chili were inhabited by independent tribes. CHAPTER HI. SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. ALL the power of Spain has disappeared in continental America and we have now to refer to its subdivisions as republican governments. MEXICO. 315 POPULATION of each, as stated in the American Almanac for 1845. COUNTRIES. Popula tion. CAPITALS. COUNTRIES. Popula tion. CAPITALS. SPANISH REPUBLICS OF NORTH AMERICA. number. *7,044,140 2,000,000 580,948 933,000 250,000 Mexico. San Salvador. Merida. Cape Haytien. Austin. Buenos Ayres. Lima. Bogota. Spanish Republics of S. America (cont.) Bolivia Chili number. 1,500,000 1,500,000 900,000 600,000 300,000 150,000 Chuquwaca. Santiago. Caracca*. guito. anama. Assumption. Monte Video. Rio Janeiro. Hayti Texas SPANISH REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA. Argentine Republic. . . . Peru Equator Isthmus of Panama 2,000,000 1,700,000 1,931,684 Uruguay EMPIRE. Brazil 5,130,418 * According to the census prepared in 1841, bv the Mexican "National Inatit .<> en But this number includes Yucatan and Texas.-^e Statistics hereafter * f Ge 6 ra P h y * Statistic*. The above must be considered as little more than approximate estimates. CHAPTER IV. MEXICO. DESCRIPTION AND NATURAL RESOURCES. IF the population, and productive industry, and the commerce of Mexico were commensurate with its natural fertility, and with the extent of the earth s surface which it comprises, it would have been before the present time one of the wealthiest and most powerful states of the world. The united states, or federal republic of Mexico lies between 15 deg. and 42 deg. north latitude ; the most southern limit being near Port Angelos (15 deg. 10 min. north latitude) and the most northern near Cape St. Sebastian. The most eastern point is on the shore of the peninsula of Yucatan, near the island of Cancun, which extends to near 86 deg. 48 min. west longitude; and the most western point is Cape Mendocino, in 124 deg. 40 min. west longitude. Yucatan, however, although nominally one of the federal states, is, de facto, an independent government. On the west and south, Mexico is bounded by the Pacific Ocean ; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Its south-eastern angle borders on central America, and the British settlement of Belize. Between Mexico and Central America, the boundary-line is not exactly known, further than that it com mences somewhere near the Barra de Tonato, thence north to the volcanic re gion of Soconusco, and thence irregularly over the slopes of the table-land of Guatemala to the Rio Usumasinta ; it then follows the western side of the ele vated country of Yucatan, somewhat south of 18 deg. north latitude to the Rio 316 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Hondo, which as far as the sea, is considered the boundary between Yucatan and Belize. On the north, and partly on the east, Mexico borders on the United States of North America. The northern boundary-line commences on the Pacific in 42 deg. north latitude and runs along that parallel to the Rocky Mountains ; on the east of which range, before the independence of Texas, it followed the course of the Arkansas river to the 100th meridian, thence due south to the Red River, which it followed as a boundary as far as 94 deg. west longitude, and then the line ran due south to the River Sabina, and along that river to the Gulf. From the boundary of Guatemala to 42 deg. north latitude, Mexico is about 2400 miles in length. Its breadth varies greatly. At the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where it is narrowest, the distance is little more than 130 miles across. Its greatest width, when it included Texas, was near 32 deg. north latitude, whence it extended about 1230 miles from the Rio Sabina to Upper California. By the annexation of Texas to the United States of North America, this breadth is reduced to the distance between the Rocky Mountains bound ing New Mexico, and the United States, in latitude 42 deg. north, and longitude 109 deg. 45 min. west, and Cape Mendocino, in latitude 40 deg. 30 min. north, and longitude 124 deg. 10 min. west, or about 700 miles. Our accounts of Mexico are far from being complete. The country has been so imperfectly explored, that it is even asserted that there are within it inde pendent nations, living in large towns, which are only known by report. Our brief descriptions are necessarily confined to the dirtricts which have been settled or travelled over : but we have adhered to what appeared to us the best Spanish, English, and American accounts; not only of Mexico but of the other Spanish American republics. Our most authentic recent accounts, excepting the work of M. Chevalier, are all written by citizens of the United States. We have but little information that can be relied on, by British travellers in Mexico, with the exception of the valuable and com prehensive work of Mr. Ward, who resided in the country as minister, after its independence of Spain, in 1826. The citizens of the United States have exclusively, since 1840, acquired a more accurate knowledge of the Mexican territories, especially of the northern parts, than ever was known before, unless it were formerly by the Jesuits, and the ecclesiastics of the Indian missions. The works of Clavigero, Alcedo, Humboldt, and Ward, are the usual authorities in describing Mexico. The work of Latrobe, and the notes of Poinsett, are also referred to. The most renent accounts upon which we can rely as to the present state of Mexico, and the best local descriptions, are found in the work of Mr. Brantz Mayer, who was Secretary to the United States Legation at Mexico, in 1841 and 1842; of New Spain or Northern Mexico, in Mr. Gregg s work on the " Commerce of the Prairies and Santa Fe ; and of California, in that admirable work, " The Account of the United States Exploring TERRITORY POPULATION AND DEPARTMENTS. 317 Expedition, under the Command of Captain Wilkes ;" and of California, in the " Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, in the Years 1842, 1843, and 1844, under Captain Fremont, of the Topographical Engineers, to the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, and North California ;" from each of these works, we have extracted and condensed the most instructive information, relative to a country to which great interest must in future be directed. Of many parts there is certainly little known; but we have more certain accounts, through the indefatigable per severance of Anglo-American travellers, of the towns and districts through which the old Spanish roads and routes passed, and of California and Northern Mexico, than we possess of other parts of Spanish or Portuguese America.* CHAPTER V. TERRITORY. POPULATION AND DEPARTMENTS. ACCORDING to the best authorities, the territory of the Mexican republic contains an area of 1,650,000 square miles, exclusive of Texas : and the area of the United States of Anglo-America may, exclusive of Texas, be estimated at 2,300,000. " If we allow," says Mr. Mayer,f " that the square mile will main tain, under ordinary careful cultivation, a population of 200 persons, we shall have the sum of 330,000,000 for the total ultimate capability of the Mexican soil, and 460,000,000 for the United States. or, 130,000,000 less in Mexico than in our union." In 1792, according to a report made to the King of Spain by Conde de Revellagigedo, the population of New Spain, exclusive of the Intendencies of "Vera Cruz and Guadalaxara, was as follows : CASTES AND CLASSES. Population. CASTES AND CLASSES. Population. Indians number. 2,319,741 Total brought forward number. 4,483,529 White Creoles 7,004 677 458 To which may be added the population of 1 478 426 786,500 Total 4,483,529 Total population, in 1793 5,270,029 The Baron Humboldt estimates the population to have been, in the year 1803, 5,837,100; and Mr. Poinsett, in 1824 (from the best data of the period), 6,500,000. * We have just received a recently-published Journal of Travels in Mexico, by Mr. Gilliam, who had been appointed United States consul in California, to which he does not appear to have proceeded further than to the neighbourhood of the Gulf. This book appears, when confined mere detail, to contain truthful accounts of the places and people he met with. But the style ludicrous, inflated, and abounds in, not Yankceisms, but in painful attempts to write scntin composed of superla ive adjectives. t Mexico. By Brantz Mayer, Secretary of the United States Legation to that country in 1841 and 1842. 318 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. In 1830, Mr. Burkhardt, a German traveller, rates the several classes of Mexicans thus : CASTES AND CLASSES. Population. CASTES AND CLASSES. Population. number. 4 500 000 number. 5 506 000 Whites 1 000 000 2 490 000 6000 e i os, an o c s es Total 7 996 000 Carried forward 5,506,000 The most accurate of the recent calculations, is said to be the one which was made by the government without special enumeration, as a basis for assembling a Congress to form a new constitution, similar to the plan of that adopted in Tacubaya in 1842 : DEPARTMENTS. Population. DEPARTMENTS. Population. number. 1 380 520 number. 5 <*73 484 G70311 147,000 661 902 141 206 580 948 124 000 512606 129 560 500 278 101 108 497 906 100 068 321 840 ban ^" 1S rotow 273 575 69 698 254 380 Tabasco 63580 162 618 57 026 147,600 33439 Carried forward 5,973,484 Total, in 1842 7,015,509 Mr. Mayer states that "since the year 1830, the population of the republic has been dreadfully ravaged by smallpox, measles, and cholera. In the capital alone, it is esti mated that about 5000 died of the first-named of these diseases, 2000 of the second, and from 15,000 to 20,000 of the third. The mortality must have been in a corres ponding ratio throughout the territory. "I am, however, by no means satisfied that the estimates of both Poinsett and Burk- hardt are not too high ; yet, assuming the statements of 1842 and of 1793 to be nearly accurate, we find in forty-nine years an increase of only 1,774,111 in the entire popula tion. Again, if we assume the population to have been 6,000,000 in 1824, (the year, in fact, of the establishment of the republic,) we find that, in the course of eighteen years of liberty and independence, the increase has not been greater than 1,044,140. * In the United States of America, with only 650,000 more of square miles of terri tory now, and not so large a space at the achievement of our independence, the increase of our population during the first twenty years of freedom cannot have been less than two millions and a half; while, in the course of the last thirty years, it has averaged an increase of rather more than thirty-three per cent, every ten. "The several castes and classes of Mexicans may be rated in the following manner: CASTES AND CLASSES. Population. CASTES AND CLASSES. Population. number. 4 000 000 number. 5 006 000 1 000 000 6 000 Carried forward 5,006,000 Total 7,015,509 "It appears, therefore, that the Indians and negroes amount to 4,006,000, and the whites, and all other castes, to 3,009,509. A very respectable and aged resident of Mexico, who is remarkable for the extent and accuracy of his observations, estimates CONFIGURATION, SOIL, AND CLIMATE OF MEXICO. 319 that of the former, (or negroes and Indians,) but two percent can read and wri while of the latter, at a liberal estimate, but about twenty per cent If we take this computation to be correct, as I believe from my own observation shaTl ^ eStim&te ^ ^^ f 1842 f r the basis f the CASTES AND CLASSES. Population. Of Indians and negroes who can read number. 80,120 Total able to read and write out of a population of 7,000,000 687,748 "This would appear to be a startling fact in a republic the basis of whose safetv is the capacity of the people for an intellectual self-government. Let us, however carry this calculation a little further. If we suppose that out of the 1,000,000 of whites 500,000, or the half only, are males, and of that 500,000, but twenty per cent., or but 100,000 can read and write, we will no longer be surprised that a population of more than 7,000,000 has been hitherto controlled by a handful of men; or that, with the small means of improvement afforded to the few who can read, the selfish natures of the superior classes, who wield the physical and intellectual forces of the nation, have forced the masses to become little more than the slaves of those whose wit gives them the talent of control." Mayer s Mexico. CHAPTER VI. CONFIGURATION, SOIL, AND CLIMATE. THE configuration, soil, surface, and climate of Mexico, comprehend every variation of character. Low and unhealthy lands, along many parts of the sea- coast, especially the low plain of Cuetlachtlan, facing the Gulf, along the shores of which sandhills frequently rise. Low lands form only exceptions along the Pacific ; and occur at the Bay of Tehuantepec, and at Acapulco ; but generally the mountain or table-land approaches the shores of the Pacific and of the southern part of the Gulf of California. The peninsula of YUCATAN, is one of the provinces or states of Mexico, but politically, as well as physically, almost independent of the Mexican republican government. This state is surrounded on three sides by the sea, the Gulf of Guanajos, or of Honduras, and the Gulf of Mexico. It is bounded on the south by the former province and alcaldia mayor of Vera Paz, and on the south-west by Chiapa, and by about 250 miles of Tabasco. It lies between the latitudes 18 deg. and 21 deg. north, and longitudes 87 deg. and 91 deg. west. Its length is about 250 miles from south-west to north-east, and its breadth is about 200 miles from east to west at the widest part. Alcedo describes its climate as "A very hot and moist temperature. Its territory is for the most part stony but fertile. It has no other river throughout the whole of it than that of Lagartos whicl is, however, very abundant. (This is not true, several small rivers flow through par 320 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the state.) It is argued that it has many subterraneous waters, and this is pretty well proved, through certain deep chasms of stone, which they call zenotes, and in which water has been seen to run. " The land is plain, covered with shady trees, and abounding in honey, wax, and cotton, and of the latter they make spun and woven stuffs, which they die of various colours, and which are highly esteemed in all Nueva Espana. It also produces some cochineal, and from the above productions, as well as from some Campeche-wood, and some rigging, which they manufacture, do they maintain a commerce. In its forests are excellent sorts of woods, of which some ships have been built ; and one sort of these woods, called habin, is so hard that it is impossible to drive a nail into it without first boring a hole. Here are many wild beasts, such as tigers and leopards ; also snakes and venomous insects, and a species of spider, which the Indians call ham, since, whenever a person is bitten by it, the excruciating pain he suffers causes him to cry out this word, and this he continues doing till he dies, no remedy ever having been found against its fatal influence. Both sheep and neat cattle are scarce in this province, through want of water and pastures ; but here are abundance of swine, as well as of all kinds of fruit of a warm climate. On the sea coasts is found much amber." The recently explored ancient ruins are remarkable. (See Mr. Steven s work.) Mr. Ward considers Yucatan the most sterile and poor state in the confederation. We have no recent account upon which we can place much reliance, and our consular returns (See trade of Mexico hereafter) convey little information relative to Yucatan, a country which may, to a great extent, be con sidered a wilderness. We believe that portions of this state are susceptible of the most productive tropical cultivation. TABASCO, which has been politically united to the Mexican republic, but which is but little more than nominally annexed, adjoins on the east Yucatan, and on the south Chiapa, and the kingdom of Guatemala, from whence it is sepa rated by a cordillera, or serrania of mountains : on the west it is bounded by the province of Oaxaca, in Nueva Espana, and it fronts the Gulf on the north. It is about 180 miles long, and about 60 broad. Alcedo describes it as " Of a hot and moist temperature, and the territory is low and plain, but very full of woods in which there are abundance of cedars, brazil, and many other sorts of woods. The country is unhealthy from the abundance of rain, and the prevalence of strong Avinds, which last for nine months together; but it is very fertile in fruits of the country, such as mameyes, zapotes, aquacates, quaybas, and man TT others of a delicate taste, as also in European productions. " It produces much maize, of which there are three or four crops annually; rice and cocos, which are sent for sale to Vera Cruz ; pulse, garden and many medicinal herbs, tobacco, and, above all, cacao, this being the most abundant production of any, and that which is the greatest source of commerce ; it being also in this that the natives used to pay their tribute to the Emperors of Mexico. It is not less abundant in pepper, which is much esteemed, and of which great quantities are carried to all parts, although of inferior quality to the pepper of the east. The breed of cattle, of all species, has increased greatly in this country; and in the woods there are leopards, dantas, small boars, rabbits, deer, monkeys, squirrels, tapeyes, quintes, similar to stags but smaller ; and very many birds, such as pheasants, parrots, quails, hens, pigeons, doves, and an infinite number of others, large and small. Although the cotton-tree be here in abundance, the fruit is made no use of, since it is eaten by the monkeys before it ripens, as also by the squirrels, and other small animals, with which the country is overrun. But all these plagues are less obnoxious than the musquitoes, of different kinds, which will scarce suffer men to exist ; for no one can sleep except covered by a canopy, the heat caused by which is intense. CONFIGURATION, SOIL, AND CLIMATE OF MEXICO. 321 "This province is watered by different rivers, which fertilise it ; but the most consider- is tbe settiement f " TABASCO ISLAND, or rather a neck of land, lies in the south-west part of the Gulf of Mexico, and at the bottom of the Gulf of Campeachy : on it is built the town of Tabasco, in latitude 18 deg. 34 min. north, and longitude 93 deg. 36 min. west. Alcedo says : " It is the capital of a province of the same name, and is situate at the mouth of the river Grijalva, seventy-six miles east of Santa Ana, and 127 miles east-south-east of Vera Cruz. It was considerably enriched by a constant resort of merchants and tradesmen at Christmas. The river Grijalva divides itself near the sea into two branches, of which the western falls into the river Tabasco, which rises in the mountains of Chiapa, and the other continues its course till within four leagues of the sea, where it subdivides and separates the island from the continent. Near it are plains, which abound with cattle and other animals, particularly the mountain cow, so called from its resembling that creature, and feeding on a sort of moss found on the trees near great rivers." The state of Tabasco, naturally fertile, may be considered as chiefly in a wil derness state. CHIAPA was formerly a province and alcaldia mayor of the kingdom of Gua temala ; bounded on the north by Tabasco, east by Vera Paz, west by Nueva Espafia, and south-west by Soconusco. It extended, as a Spanish province, eighty-five leagues from east to west, and is nearly thirty across at its widest part. It was under Spain divided into districts, or alcaldias mayores, viz., those of Zoques, Chontales, Los Llanos, and Xiquipila. Its climate is of a warm and moist temperature, although in some high parts cold predominates. " Its woods," says Alcedo, " abound with large trees of pine, cypress, cedar, and walnut; and of others of a resinous kind, from which are extracted aromatic gums, bal sams, and liquid amber, tacamaca, copal, &c. It produces also, in abundance, swine, maize, honey, cotton, cochineal, which is only made use of for the purpose of dyeing the cotton ; also cacao, and much pepper and achote, or the heart-leaved bixa; also various kinds of domestic and wild birds, especially parrots, which are very beautiful and highly esteemed; a small bird, called toto, less than a young pigeon, with green wings; this is caught by the Indians, who pluck from its tail some feathers, which they prize highly, and then restore it to liberty; it being a capital offence, according to their laws, to destroy it. The sheep, goats, and pigs, which have been brought from Europe, have multiplied in this province in a most extraordinary manner; so also have horses, which are of such an esteemed breed, that the colts are taken from hence to Mexico, a distance of 500 miles. In the woods breed many lions (?) leopards, tigers, and wild boars, a great number of snakes, some being twenty feet in length, and others of a beautiful crimson colour, streaked with black and white. The territory is, for the most part, rugged and moun tainous, and watered by different rivers : none of these, however, are of any particular consideration, although that which bears the name of this province is the medium by which the aforesaid productions are carried to the other provinces; and although thi province may be accounted comparatively poor, from being without mines of gold silver, it is, nevertheless, of the greatest importance, as being the outwork or barrier to New Spain, from the facility with which this kingdom might be entered by the river la- basco. The capital is the royal city of Chiapa, situated on a delightful plain. It is th head of a bishopric, erected in 1538; and has for arms a shield, upon which are sierras, with a river passing between them: above the one is a golden castle, with rampant upon it; and above the other a green palm, bearing fruit, and an< VOL. I. 2 T 322 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. whole being upon a red field. These arms were granted by the Emperor Charles V. in 1535. The cathedral is very beautiful. It contains three convents of the order of St, Francis, La Merceda, and St. Domingo; a monastery of nuns, and five hermitages. Its population is scanty and poor, and the principal commerce consists in cocoa-nuts, cot ton, wool, sugar, cochineal, and other articles. Its nobility, although poor, are very proud, as having descended from some ancient families of the first nobility of Spain ; such as those of Mendoza, Velasco, Cortes, &c. The women suffer great debility at the sto mach on account of the excessive heat, and they can never fast long." This state has not improved since its independence of Spain. VERA-PAZ was formerly a province and alcaldia mayor of the kingdom of Guatemala; bounded north by Yucatan, south-south-west and south-east by Guatemala, west by the province of Chiapa, and east by the Gulf of Honduras. It was, under the Spanish rule, in extent forty-eight leagues from north to south, its widest part. The Missionaries of St. Domingo gave it this name, by order of the Emperor Charles V., who commanded it to be so called, inasmuch as its natives were conquered merely by preaching, and without bloodshed. " The country," as described by Alcedo, " is rough and broken, full of deep ravines, with a llanura which is half a league in extent, and covered with thick and impenetrable woods. Half of this province is of a mild and benign temperature, and the other half is hot and abounding in mosquitoes of various kinds. The rains here continue nine months in the year, and the province abounds in vegetable productions and cattle, and has many mountains covered with trees, and vast caverns, in which many rivers laving the pro vince, lose themselves. Between two lofty sierras is found a cave of very great extent, entirely of stone, within which are formed, by the dripping of water*, several pillars resembling alabaster. In this cave the cold is extraordinary, and the noise of the waters is very great, which, bursting forth at various mouths, forms a lake, which from its depth is seen to have waves like a sea, and from it rises a river, which, in the small distance that it runs, is not fordable. Besides the several rivers which water this province, great tor rents of water are seen rushing down from the most lofty rocks, forming a delightful spectacle; and thus the soil is constantly so moist that the maize rots in the ground. "This province is very subject to great tempests of thunder and lightning, strong winds, and earthquakes ; and in its mountains and forests are large trees of excellent kinds of wood, imparting a balmy fragrance to the surrounding air ; and amongst these we must note in particular the liquid amber of a thick and rough wood, and various kinds of balsams copales, xuchicopales almacigos, and dragon plants, from which is extracted the gum, called dragon s blood. Here are canes of 100 feet long, and of such thickness and size as to have at each of their knots a cavity able to contain an arroba of water These canes serve as timber in building. Moreover, here are Guaya-canes, which are in corruptible, and another sort of wood, which, sawed asunder, represents on its plane pretty vary-coloured figures. " This province is extremely fertile in all European fruits and flowers; these yielding their sweets to the labours of an infinite variety and innumerable swarms of bees ; some without sting, and noted for making the clearest honey, others, like those of Spain, and others only as large as flies, others, again, whose honey causes giddiness ; with this pecu liarity, however, equally attached to all, that they make no honeycomb, but work under ground, forming their nests in the roots of trees. Their honey has an acid flavour, which is got rid of in a great measure by boiling; and it is not unfrequently kept and used after the same manner as the vinegar from oranges, for several domestic purposes. The woods of this province are thronged with animals and wild beasts; the largest of these is the danta, as big as a calf, though somewhat short and thicker set in all its joints, which on the whole resemble those of the elephant; it has on its claws, three joints on the fore feet and four on the hind feet; the head is large, the forehead is sunk in, the eyes small, and the lower jaw hangs down five or six inches, and is raised when the animal MEXICO PROPER. is angry, thereby discovering its teeth and tusks, which are like those of a pig- its . are peaked the neck ,s sunk in the shoulders, and the tail short, with little bristles T I * hide is six fingers thick, double at the loins, and, when dried, resists every kind of arms This animal is ferocious and terrible when irritated, and with its tusks destroys eve thing it meets in its course, not excepting trees of considerable strength Here are like wise lions, tigers, bears of an enormous size, cats, and mountain goats, monkeys of vario kinds, wild boars, porcupines, squirrels, and a variety of other animals. Also amon-st the birds are eagles, small eagles, buairones, sea-crows, alcatraces, bitterns, stork- parroti and others esteemed for their plumage and their song. This province is also filled with vipers and snakes of various kinds. The fountains and small rivers are numerous and run into the Gulf of Mexico." CHAPTER VII. MEXICO PROPER. THE high mountains, called the Andes, which converge in Central America diverge north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and approaching the shores of the Pacific on the west, and towards the Gulf of Mexico on the east, spread into the most extensive plateaux in the world. The great central plateau, or table-land^ of Anahuac, extends north to about 24 deg. north latitude ; and the plain, or great broad fertile valley, of Chihuahua, and even the great Prairies, may be considered as a further extension of the Mexican plateau. Along the Pacific, the low lands of Cinaloa, Acapulco, and Tehuantepec, are the widest districts between the sea and the mountains. In other places numerous low hills inter vene, while frequently the mountains rise almost abruptly from the ocean. On the eastern coast, the low districts, of the provinces of Vera Cruz and New Santander, extend northerly along the gulf to the Rio del Norte, the assumed boundary of Texas. This coast has no good harbours : Vera Cruz being the best; and, at the mouth of the Lake Panuco, Tampico the next port of any consequence. The mouth of the Rio Santillana, or Barra de Santander, also admits small vessels ; and to the south of the highlands, called the Sierra de St. Martin, which intervene between the Plain of Cuetlachtlan and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, several small rivers flow into the gulf, the principal entrance of which, the Coalzacoalcos, was recently surveyed with a view of digging a canal across the Isthmus. The shallowest water over the bar is in that survey given as 6.2 metres^ nearly twenty feet : we doubt the fact. The low coast of the Gulf of Mexico, north of 21 deg. north, is lined with sand-hills, and within which are large and small lagoons; the principal of which are the lagoons of Tamiagua, Tampico, Morales, and Madre. The breadth o plains, or low country, from the gulf to the high or undulating lands, is stated vary from about eight miles south of Vera Cruz, to from twenty, fifty, and sixty 324 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. miles further north. On the western coast, north of about the twenty-fourth degree, the shores of the Gulf of California present a diversity of surface, in some few parts low, and, generally, undulating at no great height above the sea; the soil tolerably fertile, with little wood except in the river valleys. The climate is described as healthy : the rainy days during the year being on an average about ninety. Towards the northern parts, or the head of the Gulf of California, the lands are often low, and faced with sand-hills, but the soil behind, except in the undulated country, is not considered fertile. The great table lands of Mexico, and those extending north to the American prairies, are the most important, both with respect to soil and climate ; and, although Mexico has the disadvantges of few good harbours, along the sea or gulf coast, and a climate the most fatal to human life, along the latter, yet, the soil and mines of the extensive regions of elevated plains, are adapted, under a secure, liberal, and permanent government, to maintain a population of more than 100,000,000 inhabitants, and to render Mexico a state of great power and wealth. The ascent from the Plain of Vera Cruz to the table-land of Anahuac is rather abrupt, and the road from Vera Cruz, which was kept in good repair, is now, in many parts, described as in the most wretched and broken condition. It leads over a number of ascents, with intervening plains. On these plains isolated mountains rise. Near the eastern boundary of the table-land, and bordering the Plain of Cuetlachtlan, the Pic de Orizaba, rises 17,373 feet above the sea, and the Nauhcampatepetl, or Coffre de Perote, to 13,415 feet in height. These mountains are, north to south, about thirty miles distant from each other. In about 19 deg. north longitude, and 98 deg. 10 min. west longitude, the Popocatepetl rises to 17,884 feet, and is supposed to be the highest mountain in North America ; north of which the Iztaccihuatl, is 15,704 feet high. Further west is the Nevado de Toluca, 15,271 feet high. The Pic de Tancitaro, near the Pacific, 10,509 feet high ; not far from which the volcano of Colima rises 9193 feet above the sea. Four of these mountains only rise above the region of perpetual frost, or, in Mexico, about 15,000 feet above the sea. Nearly all these mountains are evidently of volcanic origin ; three are said to be in a state of activity the Orizaba, the Popocatepetl, and the volcano of Colima. In 1759, a volcano burst forth on one of the lower plains near the Pacific, which was called the volcano of Jorullo, it rose about 1700 feet above the plain. We are not certain if it be still in activity. The highest elevation of the plateaux of Anahuac adjoins, or extends be tween, the foregoing named mountains and the isolated peaks above-mentioned. From the western base of the Orizaba and Nauhcampatepetl, the table-land of Tlascala extends in breadth about seventy miles, and in length about 100 miles. Its plateaux rises about 7200 feet above the sea. On the west of this table-land is the Plain of Mexico, or Tenochtitlan, which rises still higher, or about 7500 CONFIGURATION OF MLXLCO PROPER. 325 feet above the sea. It is about fifty miles long, and about twenty-five miles broad. Beyond the latter plain lies the most elevated of the Mexican plateaux, the Plain of Toluca, the average height of which is nearly 9000 feet. The table-land of Michoacari, west of Toluca, varies in height from 6000 feet to 6500 feet. It is interspersed with high hills and detached ridges. It is about ninety-six miles broad, and 100 miles in length. A lower country lies between Michoacan, and the Pacific. This lower district is occasionally hilly and undulating. That section of table-land which extends south-easterly from the Plains of Tlascala and Mexico, to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, is called the plateaux of Mixtecapan ; the average height is stated to be about, 5000 feet above the sea. It is traversed towards the Pacific, however, by broad valleys. The town of Oaxaca, situated in the largest valley, is about 4800 feet above the sea ; the adjoining high ground, on which are the ruins of the palace of Mitla, is 5300 feet high. Along the sea-coast to the north-west, and sloping down to Acapulco, the table-land is traversed by deep valleys, extending in an east and west direction. The road from Mexico to Acapulco passes across four of them. They decline towards the sea. It is rather presumptuous to speak positively of a country so ill explored as Mexico, but all authorities agree in stating that no continuous range of moun tains traverses the southern section of table-land, except the hilly ridges which separate the plains from each other. These rise 500 feet or 600 feet- some peaks above 1000 feet, above the plains. In about 20 deg. north latitude, the heights, which bound the limit of the plain west of the city of Mexico, rise in a continuous range, called the Sierra Madre. This range follows in a west-north-west direction near the town of St. Felipe, and thence north-westerly to the south of the town of Durango. This northern Andean chain extends in greater breadth north-north-westerly, along the eastern boundary of the Plain of Chihuahua, separating that plain from the low region of Cinaloa, and the moun tainous district of Sonara. Near the Presidio de S. Bernardino, about 32 deg. north, rises the mountain de las Esquelas. The elevation of this great rang* is not well ascertained, but it rises to a considerable height east of the town of Durango, where the mines, in valleys, are from 8000 to 9000 feet above the level of the ocean. The region between 20 deg. and 24 deg. north latitude comprises the elevated plains (about 6500 feet above the sea) of Queretaro, S. Luis de Potosi, and Gua- dalaxara. The two first border on the Sierra Madre : Queretaro extending along the south, S. Luis de Potosi to the north. The fertile district of Baxio in Que retaro extends along the banks of the Rio de Santiago. East of the plateau of S. Luis de Potosi, and above the low lands which extend back from the Gulf of Mexico, a range of mountains, the Catorce, rises about 2000 feet above the pla and to about 8000 feet above the sea. 326 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. The plain of Queretaro extends westward to about 101 deg. 40 min. west longitude, where it is traversed by a hilly region, between which the country descends, and the table-land of Guadalaxara, which extends westward to the shores of the Pacific, is considered not higher than from 3000 feet to 4000 feet above the sea, and the surface is diversified by hills, depressions, and valleys. The great plateau of Anahuac is of varied fertility. In some places the surface exhibits bare rocks, in others tough moving clay. The vegetable mould is usually dry. The aridity of the soil is accounted for by the great elevation of the table-land, the rapid evaporation, and the volcanic structure of the rocks of the mountains. The plains are, in general, destitute of wood, which occurs but seldom, except in the valleys. There are numerous lakes, usually shallow, and their water brackish ; running streams and springs are rare. RIVERS OF ANAEIUAC. From the dryness of the atmosphere and the nature of the soil, Anahuac has few rivers. The streams which flow from it are only navigable for a short distance from the sea ; they are rapid and shallow. The Rio Santiago, called also Rio Grande, and by the aborigines Tololotlan, rises in the small lake of Lerma, to the east of the volcano of Toluca, and winds for a distance of about 405 miles to the sea. It traverses the plains of Toluca and Queretaro, in a north-west direction. It is generally deep and not rapid, but it does not appear that it is navigated in these parts. It gradually turns to the west, and flows by a rapid course to the Plain of Xalisco, and through the large lake of Chapala. Rushing from that lake, it descends at the Puente del Rio Grande, in a distance of about one league over fifty to sixty falls of various heights, and flows with impetuous rapidity to near its estuary, in which rise several islands. On its southern bank is the port of San Bias. The Rio Panuco rises in the plateau of Tenochtitlan ; for the water con veyed by the canal of Huehuetoca from the lake of Zumpango forms its most extreme source. It is for a great distance rapid, and becomes only navi gable for boats at Tanquichi, about 170 miles from its mouth. Ten miles lower down it is joined by the Rio Tamoin, which flows from the west; above which its name is the Moctezuma, and between which it is called the Panuco. It passes the town of Panuco eighty miles from its mouth. Vessels drawing not more than twelve feet water ascend to this town. It falls into the Gulf of Mexico, at the port of Tampico, about 400 miles from its source. The lakes of Mexico are numerous, and occasionally occupy a considerable portion of the plains. One-tenth of the plain of Tenochtitlan is covered by the lakes of Zumpango, Christovol, Tezcuco, and Chalco. The largest lake is that of Chapala, on the plain of Xalisco, and is traversed by the Rio Santiago. It is about ninety miles long, and from twelve to eighteen miles wide. That portion of the Mexican isthmus which lies between 24 deg. and CONFIGURATION OF MEXICO PROPER. 397 32 deg. north lat, contains four different regions : the western coast, the Sier Madre, the elevated plain of Chihuahua, and the eastern Lowlands. The western coast of Mexico north of latitude 24 deg. north, occupies the shores of the Gulf of California. The district south of the Rio Yagui, in 28 de* north latitude, is a level with undulations. The soil, consisting chiefly of sandy clay, with little wood. The beds of the rivers are many feet below the surface of the plain, and are bordered with rich alluvial soils. The climate is temperate, although the rainy season lasts, generally, from the end of June to the end of September. The country between the Rio Yagui and 32 deg. north latitude com prises ranges of high hills, often approaching the sea, and intersected by deep, narrow ravines. In some places this hilly country extends nearly to the shore! In other parts these extensive plains between the shore and the hill country, towards the north head of the Gulf of California, are low, and covered with brushwood, and separated from the sea by sand-hills, about twenty feet in height, and about fifty yards from the shore. These plains are arid, and with few or no inhabitants. Several streams rising in the mountains flow down to the Gulf : the soil is either sandy, or a hard clay. The Yagui, or Rio de Sonora, rises to the north of the parallel of 32 deg. in the Sierra Madre. Its whole course is, probably, not less than 400 miles. It does not appear that it is navigated. Its waters are used for irrigating the adjoining lands where cultivated. . The plateau of Chihuahua, extending along the eastern base of the Sierra Madre, is a continuation of the table-land of S. Luis de Potosi. It extends from south-south-east to north-north-west, about 600 miles, and is terminated on the north by a line drawn from the Presidio de S. Bernardino to the Paso del Norte, near the parallel of 32 deg. It varies from 150 to 200 miles in width. Its southern extremity, contiguous to the table-land of S. Luis de Potosi, is considered to be nearly 6000 feet above the sea. It declines towards the north. This region has been compared to the steppes of Asia. The surface of this table-land is generally level. The soil is impregnated with nitre, muriate of soda, and carbonate of potash; is entirely destitute of wood, except along the streams, which are bordered with poplars and some other trees. Its pastures feed sheep during the winter months. In dry weather the verdure disappears, except along the rivers. In some districts, distant from the rivers, there are dry salt-lakes, from which salt is collected. These salt-lakes render the country excessively unhealthy ; for whenever there is any wind, the air is filled with saline particles and dust, which oppress respiration and cause numerous diseases^ The rivers, along which alone the cultivated tracts occur, flow generally in ravines several feet below the surface of the plain, and terminate (with the exception of the Rio Conchos) in lakes without outlets. The principal rivers are the Rio de las Casas Grandes, the Conchos, and the Rio Grande. 326 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. The plain of Queretaro extends westward to about 101 deg. 40 min. west longitude, where it is traversed by a hilly region, between which the country descends, and the table-land of Guadalaxara, which extends westward to the shores of the Pacific, is considered not higher than from 3000 feet to 4000 feet above the sea, and the surface is diversified by hills, depressions, and valleys. The great plateau of Anahuac is of varied fertility. In some places the surface exhibits bare rocks, in others tough moving clay. The vegetable mould is usually dry. The aridity of the soil is accounted for by the great elevation of the table-land, the rapid evaporation, and the volcanic structure of the rocks of the mountains. The plains are, in general, destitute of wood, which occurs but seldom, except in the valleys. There are numerous lakes, usually shallow, and their water brackish ; running streams and springs are rare. RIVERS OF ANAEIUAC. From the dryness of the atmosphere and the nature of the soil, Anahuac has few rivers. The streams which flow from it are only navigable for a short distance from the sea ; they are rapid and shallow. The Rio Santiago, called also Rio Grande, and by the aborigines Tololotlan, rises in the small lake of Lerma, to the east of the volcano of Toluca, and winds for a distance of about 405 miles to the sea. It traverses the plains of Toluca and Queretaro, in a north-west direction. It is generally deep and not rapid, but it does not appear that it is navigated in these parts. It gradually turns to the west, and flows by a rapid course to the Plain of Xalisco, and through the large lake of Chapala. Rushing from that lake, it descends at the Puente del Rio Grande, in a distance of about one league over fifty to sixty falls of various heights, and flows with impetuous rapidity to near its estuary, in which rise several islands. On its southern bank is the port of San Bias. The Rio Panuco rises in the plateau of Tenochtitlan ; for the water con veyed by the canal of Huehuetoca from the lake of Zumpango forms its most extreme source. It is for a great distance rapid, and becomes only navi gable for boats at Tanquichi, about 1?0 miles from its mouth. Ten miles lower down it is joined by the Rio Tamoin, which flows from the west; above which its name is the Moctezuma, and between which it is called the Panuco. It passes the town of Panuco eighty miles from its mouth. Vessels drawing not more than twelve feet water ascend to this town. It falls into the Gulf of Mexico, at the port of Tampico, about 400 miles from its source. The lakes of Mexico are numerous, and occasionally occupy a considerable portion of the plains. One-tenth of the plain of Tenochtitlan is covered by the lakes of Zumpango, Christovol, Tezcuco, and Chalco. The largest lake is that of Chapala, on the plain of Xalisco, and is traversed by the Rio Santiago. It is about ninety miles long, and from twelve to eighteen miles wide. That portion of the Mexican isthmus which lies between 24 deg. and CONFIGURATION OF MEXICO PROPER. 32 deg. north lat., contains four different regions: the western eoast, the Sier Madre, the elevated plain of Chihuahua, and the eastern Lowlands. The western coast of Mexico north of latitude 24 deg. north, occupies the shores of the Gulf of California. The district south of the Rio Yagui, in 28 de- north latitude, is a level with undulations. The soil, consisting chiefly of sanely clay, with little wood. The beds of the rivers are many feet below the surface of the plain, and are bordered with rich alluvial soils. The climate is temperate, although the rainy season lasts, generally, from the end of June to the end of September. The country between the Rio Yagui and 32 deg. north latitude com prises ranges of high hills, often approaching the sea, and intersected by deep, narrow ravines. In some places this hilly country extends nearly to the shore! In other parts these extensive plains between the shore and the hill country, towards the north head of the Gulf of California, are low, and covered with brushwood, and separated from the sea by sand-hills, about twenty feet in height, and about fifty yards from the shore. These plains are arid, and with few or no inhabitants. Several streams rising in the mountains flow down to the Gulf: the soil is either sandy, or a hard clay. The Yagui, or Rio de Sonora, rises to the north of the parallel of 32 deg. in the Sierra Madre. Its whole course is, probably, not less than 400 miles. It does not appear that it is navigated. Its waters are used for irrigating the adjoining lands where cultivated. . The plateau of Chihuahua, extending along the eastern base of the Sierra Madre, is a continuation of the table-land of S. Luis de Potosi. It extends from south-south-east to north-north-west, about 600 miles, and is terminated on the north by a line drawn from the Presidio de S. Bernardino to the Paso del Norte, near the parallel of 32 deg. It varies from 150 to 200 miles in width. Its southern extremity, contiguous to the table-land of S. Luis de Potosi, is considered to be nearly 6000 feet above the sea. It declines towards the north. This region has been compared to the steppes of Asia. The surface of this table-land is generally level. The soil is impregnated with nitre, muriate of soda, and carbonate of potash; is entirely destitute of wood, except along the streams, which are bordered with poplars and some other trees. Its pastures feed sheep during the winter months. In dry weather the verdure disappears, except along the rivers. In some districts, distant from the rivers, there are dry salt-lakes, from which salt is collected. These salt-lakes render the country excessively unhealthy ; for whenever there is any wind, the air is filled with saline particles and dust, which oppress respiration and cause numerous diseases^ The rivers, along which alone the cultivated tracts occur, flow generally in ravines several feet below the surface of the plain, and terminate (with the exception of the Rio Conchos) in lakes without outlets. The principal rivers are the Rio de las Casas Grandes, the Conchos, and the Rio Grande. 328 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. The Rio de las Casas Grandes, which rises in the Sierra Madre, runs northerly, about 100 miles, into the Lake of Guzman. The Rio Conchos rises in the Sierra Madre, bends to the south, and then flows north, being increased in its course by numerous tributaries from the west, for about 300 miles, into the Rio Grande del Norte, nearly opposite the Presidio del Norte. The valley of this river is the most populous and best cultivated part of the plain of Chihuahua. The Rio Grande of the plain (a different river from the Rio Grande del Norte), rises in the Sierra Madre, west of the town of Zacatecas, and runs at first north-east, as far as the place where it descends into the plain, through which it winds in a north direction, terminating in the lake of Parrus, about 27 deg. north lat. Its valley is tolerably well cultivated, and is said to be embellished with orchards. The north-eastern part of the plain of Chihuahua is occupied by a mountain region, at least towards its northern extremity, called the Colson de Mapimi. Very little is known of this region. It extends northerly to the banks of the Rio del Norte. The mountains of Salinas and Pesquoria attain an elevation of more than 10,000 feet above the sea, but from 27 deg. to 28 deg. north latitude, the mountain range scarcely rises above the level of the plain of Chihuahua. A low country, which may be considered an extension of the low plain of New Santander, intervenes between the Bolson de Mapimi and the Gulf of Mexico. Its width, as far as we know, varies between sixty and 120 miles. It is covered with wood only in part, and comprises extensive prairies covered with grass. Along the coast the land is low, and the soil either sandy or swampy, and skirted in many parts by sand-hills. Further back the soil is fertile ; but the want of good harbours has, with other causes, retarded the settlement and cultiva tion of this region. A vast plain extends from the head of the Gulf of California eastward, and on both sides of the Rio Gila, over the continent to the banks of the Rio del Norte, north of the Paso del Norte, between 32 deg. and 34 deg. north latitude This plateau is very little known, but it has been described as a sandy, sterile, and nearly uninhabitable country. CLIMATE. No country has greater extremes and varieties of climate than Mexico. Great difference of temperature would naturally be found in regions extending from the latitudes of 16 deg. and 42 degrees 30 min. north, even if the whole were of about an equal altitude above the sea ; but the great inequality of surface, from districts scarcely more than a few feet above the sea, to the table lands, which rise to 8000, and even 9000 feet above that level, and to the mountain summits, accounts sufficiently for the extremes of temperature and variety of climate. The rains, which fall abundantly south of the tropic, occur from about the MEXICO PROPER. middle of the month of June, to the middle or end of September; these rains are greater on the low sea-coast than on the plateau of Anahuac. The tropical rains extend north of the tropic, but are less abundant, and fall later. On the plain of Chihuahua, and the mountain-region of Sonorathe rainy season begins early in September, and lasts to the end of October, and sometimes to the middle of November. About 30 deg. north latitude the rainy season con tinues a month or six weeks, and the quantity that falls is less than more southerly. In the arid plain of the Rio Gila, about 32 deg. north, little or no rain falls. With respect to climate, Mexico is divided into tierras calientes, hot coun tries ; tierras templadas, temperate countries ; and tierras frias, or cold countries. The first term is applied to the low coasts, the second to the districts from 4500 to 6000 feet above the sea, and the last to those which exceed in elevation 6000 feet above the sea. The tierras frias comprehend more than two-thirds of the surface south of the tropic ; the tierras calientes, perhaps one-sixth ; and the tierras templadas, still less. At Vera Cruz, the mean annual temperature is about 77 deg. ; the greatest heat prevails during, and shortly before, the rains ; the thermometer usually rising to 81 deg. and 82 deg. ; in December and January it falls to about 70 deg. to 73 deg., which it seldom exceeds during those months. During the prevalence of the northerly winds, which often blow strongly from October to March, the thermometer sometimes sinks to 60 deg. On the tierras frias the temperature of heat and cold varies less than on the sea coast. The climate is described as that of a perpetual spring; the thermo meter varying only from 10 deg. or 12 deg. The mean annual temperature in the city of Mexico being about 62 deg. The greatest heat occurs during the weeks preceding the rains, in April and May; the thermometer then rises to from 64 deg. or 68 deg. The evaporation during the rainy season diminishes the heat from 2 deg. to 5 deg. The mean temperature of the winter is about 56 deg. ; and sometimes the thermometer, occasionally, but not often, descends to the freezing point, and a small quantity of snow falls. The climate of all the table and uplands is salubri ous. The climate of the sea coast within the tropics may be considered generally unhealthy. The climate of Vera Cruz and Tampico, the chief and the only ports worthy of any notice within the Gulf of Mexico, and of Acapulco on the Pacific, is remarkably fatal to human life. Alcedo, in describing the climate, soil, and productions of the province of Vera Cruz, observes : " It is situated under the burning sun of the tropics, and extends along the Mexican ?ulf, from the Rio Baraderas (or De los Lagartos) to the great river of Panuco, whi ises in the metalliferous mountains of San Luis Potosi. " There are few regions in the new continent where the traveller is more struck with he assemblage of the most opposite climates. All the west part of the mtendancy o /era Cruz forms the declivity of the cordilleras of Anahuac. In the space day he inhabitants descend from the regions of eternal snow to the plains m the vici VOL. I. 2 U 332 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Mr. Mayer, on leaving Vera Cruz, in 1841, observes: " It was entirely too warm, even in this middle of November, to stir out of the house with satisfaction. We, therefore, dressed ourselves in summer apparel, and took an ex cellent dinner very quietly, resolved not to expose our persons unnecessarily, as we understood there had been recent cases of vomito. They say that the country has been lately scoured by troops of dragoons, but that it is still infested with robbers; and, al though we are to have a military escort, our friends appear to intimate that Colt s revolv ing pistols, double-barrelled guns, and a stock of resolution will be our best safe guards. " At sunset, a countryman was so good as to call for us to walk with him to the Alameda. We sallied from the south gate, and took our way into a desolate and melan choly country. On every side were marks of solitude and misery. The ruins of houses and churches, filled with weeds and creepers; neglected fields, overgrown with aloes, and made still more sad by the long pensile branches of the solitary palm ; and, over all lay the dark shadows of evening, as the last rays of the sun fell aslant on the stagnant pools. A sergeant was drilling a few recruits to the tap of the drum. The music seemed to be a dead march, and the step of the soldiers was slow and solemn. Nothing could be more dreary more heart-sickening. We loitered on, like the rest of folks, but there was no liveliness no spirit. The people were not cheerful and joyous, but strolled along in silent pairs, as if oppressed by the sadness of the melancholy wastes on the one side, and the cold, dreary, illimitable sea on the other. " The appropriate termination of this walk through the ruined Alameda, was the burying-ground. As we reached it, a funeral had just entered, and in the chapel they were saying some annual service for the dead ! It may be wrong to indulge in such emo tions, but here there really seems to be an utter hopelessness in death. We love to think, that when it falls to our lot to share the common fate of humanity, we shall, at least, repose near our kindred and friends, in some beautiful spot, where those we have loved shall moulder beside us, until the dust we cherished in life shall be as blent as were the spirits that animated it. We love to think that our graves will not be solitary or unvisited. But, on this dismal shore, where the Shadow of Death for ever hangs over the prospect, the grave is not a resting-place, even for tired spirits, and the soul seems to perish as well as the body ! There was a continual hubbub in the square under our windows all night long. First of all, the guard was to be set, and that produced drumming, fifing, braying of trumpets, and bustle of troops; next, my bed was too short for me; then, just as I was coaxing my self into a doze, I discovered that the servant had neglected to put down the net, and con sequently, came the onset of a colony of mosquitoes, ravenous for the fresh blood of a foreigner; next, the clock on the opposite tower struck every quarter, and that, was backed, by the watchman under the portalis, who prefaced his song with an Ave Maria Purissima that would have waked the dead. And thus, from hour to hour, I tossed and tumbled, while the clock struck, the watchmen howled, and the mosquitoes sucked. " One of my fellow-travellers who was anxious to avoid the risk of waiting in Vera Cruz for the diligence, informed me about ten o clock, that he had made arrangements for a litera to carry him to Xalapa, there to await the stage and rejoin our party. He was so good as to offer me a part of his couch, which I eagerly accepted, and immediately set to work packing my extra baggage for the Arrieros, as the diligence, and the muleteers who accompany literas, will carry but a limited burden. At four the litera arrived, but the muleteers would allow but one passenger. There was nothing but submission. Pancho had his bundles strapped on, stepped into his vehicle, or rather stretched out on its bed, lighted his cigar, tied on a Guayaquil sombrero, and waved us farewell. " During the last two days of our stay at Vera Cruz, it blew a norther. The wind was high, and made it impossible for ships to enter the port. We spent the last after noon at the water-gate of the city, watching the waves as they spent their fury on the Mole, and the ships, anchored under the lee of the castle, tugging at their cables like impatient coursers struggling to get loose. " After supper we made our final preparations for departure. Trunks were strapped MEXICO PROPER. 333 on the diligence, old and warmer clothing put on, and, at midnight, nine of us got into the coach for our journey to the capital. " The stories of numerous robberies, and the general insecurity of the road, had been dinned into our ears ever since we arrived. Scarcely a diligence came in that did not bring accounts of the levying of contributions. " It was very dark when we issued from the gates of the city, where our passports were demanded. Accustomed, of late years, to the unmolested travelling of our Union, I had put mine at the bottom of the trunk, and forgot all about the necessity of having it in my pocket. The drowsy guard, however, took my word for the fact that I had one, and permitted us to pass on. " A warm, drizzling rain was pattering down, driven in by the norther, which was still raging and dashing the sea in long surges on the sandy beach along which our road lay for several miles. We could see nothing; the way soon became almost impassable through the deep sand, though our heavy coach was drawn by eight horses; and pro posing that the curtains should be let down, at least on my side, I was soon in a pro found sleep, nor did I awake until near sunrise, as we were passing the estate of Santa Anna, at Manga de Clavo. His hacienda was in the distance, to the right of the road, and appeared to be a long, low edifice, buried among forests, but without those signs of improvement and cultivation which make the property of our great landlords so picturesque. He owns an immense body of land in this neighbourhood, lying for leagues along the road, but all seemed as barren and unattractive as the wildernesses of our far west. " During the night, an escort of three troopers had joined us at Boccherone. At daylight I caught sight of them, for the first time, in their long yellow cloaks, trotting along behind us on their small, but tough and trusty horses. They were three as poor- looking wretches as I ever saw: one of them appeared to be just out of a tit of fever; the other a little the worse for an extra cup of aguardiente; and the third, as though he had just recovered from a month s chattering of the ague. " The road thus far had been tolerably good, although much cut up by the recent passage of baggage- waggons and trains of artillery. About seven o clock we halted at the village of Manantial for breakfast. It is the usual stopping-place for the diligence, and we were of course immediately supplied with chocolate and biscuit. "The houses in this part of Mexico are mostly built of split bamboos, set upright in the ground, with a steep roof, thatched with palm-leaves, and prepared, of course, to admit freely the sun, wind, and rain, which, during the season, is sufficiently abundant. Upon the whole, they are very respectable and picturesque chicken- coops. " Here our guard quitted us. It seems, notwithstanding the written orders and promise I had from the commandant at Vera Cruz for an escort, that these fellows had received no directions to accompany us, and had only ridden thus far, because they thought the new Minister of Finance, Senor Trigueros, was in the stage. But I can hardly think they were a loss. " We were soon called to coach, and mounting our vehicle with better spirits for tl refreshment and morning air, we shortly entered a rolling country, with an occasiona ruinous hamlet and plantation. Although the scenery was in spots exceedingly r< interspersed with upland and valley, and covered with a profusion of tropical tr flowers, there was over the whole that air of abandonment which could not fail one painfully. In a new country, as a traveller passes, by a solitary bridle-path, over the plains and hills, hidden by the primeval forests fresh as they came from natu hand, there is matter for agreeable reflection, in fancying what the virgin soil will ro- duce in a few years when visited by industry and taste. But here, nature, inst( being pruned of her luxuriance with judicious care, has been literally sapped hausted, and made old even in her youth, until she again begins to renew her empire among ruins. It is true, that traces of old cultivation are yet to be found, and so the remains of a former dense population. The sides of the hills, in many places, as in C and Pern, are cut into terraces; but over those plains and terraces is spread growth of mimosas, cactus, and acacias, while a thousand flowering parasite P la 334 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. their gaudy blossoms among the aloes and shrubbery which fill up the rents of time and neglect in the dilapidated buildings. It is the picture of a beauty, prematurely old, tricked out in the fanciful finery of youth ! " We wound along among these silent hills until about ten o clock, when a rapid descent brought us to the National Bridge, built by the old Spanish government, and enjoying then the sounding title of Puente del Rey. Changed in name, it has not, however, changed in massive strength, or beauty of surrounding scenery. Indeed, the neglect of cultivation, has permitted nature to regain her power ; and the features of the scenery are therefore more like those of some of the romantic ravines of Italy, where the remains of architecture and the luxuriant products of the soil are blent in wild and romantic beauty. " The Puente Nacional spans the river Antigua, which passes over a rocky bed in a deep dell of high and perpendicular rocks. The adjacent heights of this mountain pass have been strongly fortified during the wars; among their fastnesses and defiles the revolutionary generals lay concealed in Iturbide s time, and finally descended from them to conclude the fight in favour of independence. " At Puente, there is a village containing the usual number of comfortable cane huts, before which the neighbouring Indians had spread out for sale their fruits and wares ; while the Mexicans (as it was Sunday) were amusing themselves by gambling at monte for clacos. At the inn a breakfast of eggs and frijoles was prepared for us. The eggs, the beans, the bread, and a bottle of tolerable claret went down famously, with the seasoning of our mountain appetites ; but I cannot say as much for the stew of mutton and fish fresh from the river. What with onions, and lard, and garlic, and chile pep pers, I never tasted such a mess. " Our route westward to Plan del Rio was through a mountainous country of short and gradual ascents, in most of its characteristics resembling the one we had passed over during our morning ride. At length, a steep descent over a road as smooth as a bowling- green brought us to the village of Plan. The guard trotted after us leisurely ; the day had become cloudy and the scenery dreary, and the fear of robbers among these solitary wildernesses again came over us. " The host at Plan del Rio received us warmly, though his house was as cold and un inviting as the day. He speedily produced a smoking dinner of fowls and rice, to which I found myself able to do but little justice. But the dinner had been served we had tasted it a bottle of claret had been drunk, and though our appetites had been frugal, themrceofus were obliged to pay two dollars each for the service ! The two fowls which made the stew, cost, at the most, a real each; the rice as much, the salad grew for the planting, and the claret stood our host about seventy-five cents the bottle ; so, for what, with service and cooking and original cost, taxed our Padrone not more than three dollars at the extreme, he had the modest assurance to charge our coach-load eighteen ! " What with sour wine, sour spirits, and imposition, I doubt much if there was ever an angrier coach-load on any highway. We were effectually ill-tempered, and we looked to our primings with the full disposition to defend ourselves nobly. It would have fared ill with any one who had ventured to attack us during our first hour s ride. In addition to this, our road, as soon as it left the river, ascended rapidly and passed over a track which would in any other country be called the bed of a mountain stream, so rough and jagged was its surface. Although it is the duty of the government to keep this highway in order, yet as the chief travelling is on horseback, and the principal part of merchandise is transported on mules, no one cares how these animals get along. Sure-footed and slow, they toil patiently among the rents and rocks, and their drivers are too well used to the inconveniences to complain. Besides this, in case of insurrections, it is better for the roads to be in bad condition, as it prevents easy communication between the several parts of Mexico, and the disjointed stones serve to form, as they have often done, breastworks and forts for the insurgents. " But over this mass of ruin we were obliged to jolt in the ascent of the mountain, during the whole afternoon, meeting in the course of it fifty waggons laden with heavy machinery for factories near Mexico. MEXICO PROPER. 335 << I must not forget to mention one redeeming spot in the gloomy evening On look ing back over the province of Vera Cruz, as we were near the summit of the* mounuin I caught a glimpse of the plains and hiils over which we had been all day tc The view was uninterrupted. Before us lay valley upon valley, in one long graceful descending sweep of woodland and meadow, until they dwindled away in the sands the east, and the whole was blent, near the horizon, with the blue waves of the Gulf oi Mexico. Just then the sun broke out from the region of clouds which we were rapidlv approaching in our ascent, and gilding, for a moment, the whole lowland prospect I could almost fancy I saw the sparkle of the wave crests as they broke on the distant and barren shore. very two "At the village on the mountain we could get no guard. This is said to be dangerous pass ; but the commanding officer told us he had been stationed here for .. weeks, during which he had scoured the mountains in every direction, and believed "his district to be free from robbers. Cigars would not avail us this time ! His men were tired and he could give no escort. " Night soon fell dark and coldly around us. In these elevated regions the air is cold and nipping ; but we dared not put down our coach curtains for fear of an attack. We therefore donned our cloaks and over-coats, and laid our guns and pistols on the window- frames. John, the old gray hero, was on the look-out, with his blunderbuss, from the box, and the driver promised to have an eye to windward. " Thus we jolted on again, at times almost stalled, and, in sudden smooth descents, swinging along with a rapidity in the dark and moonless night, that seemed to threaten our destruction among the rocks. Six, seven, eight, and half-past eight o clock passed, and no robbers appeared, though there had been several false alarms. The road became worse and worse, the coach heaving over the stones like a ship in a head sea, and the driver being obliged to descend from his seat and feel for the track. We saw lights passing over the heath in many places, and it was surmised they might be the signal lights of robbers. After due consultation, it was determined that they were! As we approached them they proved to be fire-flies ! We felt for our percussion- caps and found them all right, and, at that moment, the coach was brought to a dead halt in the blackest looking ravine imaginable. "At half-past nine we rolled into the court-yard of an excellent inn at Xalapa, where a good meal served both for dinner and supper. XALAPA AND PEROTE. " When the Neapolitans speak to you of their beautiful city, they call it, a piece of heaven fallen to earth ; * and tell you to see Naples and die ! " It is only because so few travellers extend their journey to Xalapa and describe its scenery, that it has not received something of the same extravagant eulogium. " The town has about ten thousand inhabitants, and is, in every respect, the reverse of Vera Cruz; high, healthy, and built on almost precipitous streets, winding, with curious crookedness, up the steep hill-sides. This perching and bird-like architecture makes a city picturesque although its highways may be toilsome to those who are not always in search of the romantic. " The houses of Xalapa are not so lofty as those of Vera Cruz, and their exteriors are much plainer ; but the inside of the dwellings, I am told, is furnished and decorated in the most tasteful manner. The hotel in which we lodged was an evidence of this ; its walls and ceilings were papered and painted in a style of splendour rarely seen out of Paris. " The vapour rising from the sea, driven inland by the northern winds, here first strikes the mountains ; and, lodging in rain and mist and dew among the cliffs, preserves that perennial green which covers this teeming region with constant freshness and luxu riance. Xalapa is consequently a damp town, yet it enjoys a great reputation for its salubrity. It is now the best season of the year ; but scarcely a day passes without ram, while the thermometer ranges from 52 deg. to 76 deg., according to the state of the * " Un pezzo de cielo caduto in terra." 336 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. clouds and winds. As soon as the mountains have discharged their vapours, the sun blazes forth with a fierceness and intensity, increased by the reflection from every hill, into the town; as to a focus. " Yet I saw enough to justify all the praises even of extravagant admirers. Its society is said to be excellent, and its women are the theme of the poets throughout the republic. "After despatching our breakfast, for which we paid (together with our night s lodging and dinner) the sum of four dollars, we mounted the diligence at ten o clock, prepared as usual for the robbers, and set out for Perote. " In driving from the town we passed through the public square ; and in the market which is held there I first saw in perfection the profuse quantity of tropical fruits (and especially the chirimoya, and granadita,) for which Xalapa is renowned. The market is supplied by the numerous small cultivators from the neighbourhood, the females of whom bear a resemblance to our Northern Indians, which is perhaps even stranger and more remarkable than that of the men. " Maize, the great staff of life for biped and quadruped in our western world, is chiefly used in the tortillia cakes, of which we hear so much from Mexican travellers. " The sellers of these tough, buckskin victuals, sit in lines along the curb of the side walks with their fresh cakes in baskets covered with clean napkins to preserve their warmth. There they wait patiently for purchasers ; and as tortillias, with a little chile, or red pepper boiled in lard, are indispensable at least twice a day for the mass of the people, they are quite sure of a ready sale. " With the great mass of Mexicans there is no such thing as domestic cookery. The labourer sallies forth with his clacos in his pocket, and two or three of them will pur chase his cakes from an Indian woman. A few steps further on, another Indian woman has a pan boiling over a portable furnace, and containing the required beans or chile. The hungry man squats down beside the seller makes a breakfast or dinner-table of his knees holds out his tortillia spread flat on his hand, for a ladle of chile and a lump of meat then doubles up the edges of the cake sandwich fashion, and so on until his appe tite is satisfied. He who is better off in the world, or indulges occasionally in a little extravagance, owns a clay platter. Into this he causes his frijoles, or chile and meat, to be thrown, and making a spoon of his tortillia, gradually gets possession of his food, and terminates his repast by eating the spoon itself ! There is great economy in this mode of housekeeping, which recommends itself, especially, to the tastes of old bachelors. There are no dishes to be washed no silver to be cleaned, or cared for. Your Indian flings down his clacos stretches himself to his full height gives a vale dictory grunt of satisfaction over a filled stomach and is off to his labour. Whether this frugality is a virtue, or the result of indolence, it is not necessary for me to stop to inquire. The reader may draw his own conclusions. But all classes are content with less physical comfort than the inhabitants of other countries. Their diet is poor, their lodging miserable, their clothing coarse, inelegant and inadequate for the climate; and yet, when the energies and intelligence of the very people who seem so supine are called into action, few men manifest those qualities in a higher degree. Let me, as an illustration, notice the arrieros, or common carriers of the country, by whom almost all the transportation of the most valuable merchandise and precious metals is conducted. They form a very large proportion of the population, yet, by no similar class elsewhere are they exceeded in devoted honesty, punctuality, patient endurance, and skilful execution of duty. Nor is this the less remarkable when we recollect the country through which they travel its disturbed state and the opportunities consequently afforded for transgression. I have never been more struck with the folly of judging of men by mere dress and physiog nomy, than in looking at the arrieros. A man with wild and fierce eyes, tangled hair, slashed trousers, and well-greased jerkin that has breasted many a storm a person, in fact, to whom you would scarcely trust an old coat when sending it to your tailor for repairs is frequently in Mexico the guardian of the fortunes of the wealthiest men for months, on toilsome journeys among the mountains and defiles of the inner land. He has a multitude of dangers and difficulties to contend with. He overcomes them all is never robbed and never robs and, at the appointed day, comes to your door with a INTERIOR OF MEXICO PROPER. 337 respectful salutation, and tells you that your wares or moneys have passed the city gates Yet this person is often poor, bondless, and unsecured with nothing but his fair name and unbroken word. " I regret that I have been able to give only the faintest pencilling outline of Xalapa, which, with all its beauty, has doubtless hitherto been associated most nauseously in your mind with the drug growing in the neighbourhood to which it has given its name.* " A beautiful scene, embracing nearly the whole of this little Eden, broke on me as we gained the summit of the last hill above the town. A dell, deep, precipitous, and green as if mossed from the margin of a woodland spring lay below me, hung on every side with orange trees in bloom and bearing, nodding palms and roses and acacias, scent ing the air with their fragrance, and peering out among- the white walls of dwellings, con vents, and steeples. In the next quarter of an hour, the mists that had been gathering around the mountains, whirled down on the peaks along which we were travelling, and as the wind occasionally drifted the vapour away, we could see around us nothing but wild plains and mountain spurs covered with volcanic debris, flung into a thousand fan tastic forms, among which grew a hardy race of melancholy-looking pines, interspersed with fallen trunks, aloes, and agaves. Thus the road gradually ascended among desola tion, until we reached a height where the clouds were lodged on the mountain tops, and a cold drizzling rain filled the air. fn this disagreeable manner, travelling among the clouds, we reached the village of St. Michel, and afterward La Hoya, over a road paved with basalt. From the latter place the scenery is described as magnificent when the day is clear, and the sun is out in its brilliancy. The vapour is said to be then spread out below you like a sea, and the mountain tops and little eminences peer above it like so many islands. "We passed through the village of Las Vigas/ described by Humboldt, as the highest point on the road to Mexico. The houses in this neighbourhood are of different construction from those below the mountains, and are built of pine logs, each tree furnishing but one piece of timber of four inches thickness, and the whole width of its diameter ; these are hewn with the axe, and closely fitted. The floors of the dwellings are laid with the same material, and the roofs are shingled. As the houses indicate a colder climate than the one through which we have recently travelled, so does also the appearance of the people, who are hardier and more robust than the inhabitants of the plains skirting the sea. " After winding along the edge of the mountain for some hours, we obtained an occasional view of the plain of Perote, level as the ocean, and bounded by the distant mountains. The Peak of Orizaba again appeared in the south-east, while the Coffre of Perote towered immediately on our left, and, seemingly in the midst of the plain, rose the Peak of Tepiacualca. Beyond it, on the remotest horizon, was sketched the outline of the snow-capped mountains. All these plains have doubtless been the basins of former lakes ; but they now appear dry and arid, and it is not easy to distinguish how far they are cultivated at the suitable season. During the summer, they present a verj different prospect, and, losing the guise of a waste moor, only fit for the sportsman, pui on a lively livery of cultivation and improvement, far more agreeable than the dark a thorney maguey and the wilted foliage of dwarfish trees, with which they are now ir covered. We occasionally see the stubble of last year, but the chief agriculture evidently carried on upon the slopes and rising ground, where the irrigation is mor easy from the adjacent mountains, and is not so rapidly absorbed as in the mars "We had not travelled this road without our usual dread of thieves, were constantly prepared for attack, and we kept a wary watch although durin nearly the whole day we were accompanied by a party of lancers, who * To give you an idea of the profusion of fruit in Xalapa, I will state a fact. I gave a French servant a real (twelve and a half cents) to purchase me a few oranges; and in a _ snore time he returned with a handkerchief bursting under the load-he had received forty to told the story to a Xalapenian with surprise : They cheated him," sard he ; " they should have given him nearly double the number." VOL. I. 2 X 338 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. after us on nimble horses. Some leagues from Perote we approached the * Barranca Secca, a noted haunt of the ladrones ; and, as we came within gunshot of the place, a band of horsemen dashed out from the ruins of an old hacienda on our right and gal loped directly to the carriage. The mist had again come down in heavy wreaths around us, obscuring the prospect at a dozen yards distance ; and the guard of troopers had fallen considerably in the rear. What with the fog and the dread of our foes, we were somewhat startled cocked our weapons ordered the coach to stop and were half out of it, when the lancers reined up at full tilt, and after a parley with the new comers, assured us that they were only an additional troop kept here for security. I questioned, and still doubt the truth of this story, as I never saw a more uncouth, or better mounted, armed, and equipped set of men. Their pistols, sabres, and carbines were in the best order, and their horses staunch and fleet; but they may have composed a band of old well-known robbers, pensioned off by the government as a guard; and willing to take regular pay from the authorities, and gratuities from travellers, as less dangerous than uncertain booty with constant risk of life. " Accompanied by these six suspicious rascals and the four lancers, we quickly passed the wild mist-covered moor, and entered the Barranca, a deep fissure worn by time and water into the plain, and overhung, on all sides, by lofty trees, while the adjacent parts of the flat country are cut up into similar ravines, embowered with foliage. With all the aids of art, the thieves could not have constructed a more suitable covert ; and, to add to our dismay, soon after entering the Barranca, our coach broke down ! " We tramped about in the mud while the accident was repairing, and the guard and its auxiliaries scoured the pass. The quarter of a mile through which the ravine ex tended was literally lined with crosses, marking the spot of some murder or violent death. These four or five hundred mementos mori, seemed to convert it into a grave-yard ; while the broken coach, the dreary day, shrouding mist, approaching night, and savage figures in the scene, made a picture more fit for a Trappist than a quiet traveller fonder of his ease than adventure. "We were, however, soon again in our vehicle, and for an hour afterward the country gradually ascended, until, at sunset, the sky cleared off, and we entered Perote by a brilliant starlight. PEROTE, a small town, containing not more than 2500 people, is irregularly built; the houses are of one low and dark story, built with strong walls around large court yards. In the middle of the town there is a large square, abundantly supplied by foun tains with pure water from the neighbouring hills. "The Meson is at the further end of the town, and encloses a spacious court-yard, around which on the ground-floor (which is the only floor) are a number of brick-paved, windowless stalls, furnished with a bed, a couple of chairs, and a table. No landlord made his appearance to welcome us. We waited a considerable time in the court-yard for his attendance ; but as we received no invitation, S and myself got possession of a consumptive-looking candle, and sallied out to hunt for lodgings. We took pos session of one of the dens I have described, and sent in our luggage ; and carefully locking the door afterwards (as Perote is the head-quarters of villany, and the court-yard was full of unshaved, ill-looking devils wrapped up in blankets). * On one side of the gateway is thefonda, or eating part of the establishment, where two or three women were employed cooking sundry strange-looking messes. We signi fied our hunger, and were soon called to table. Several officers of the garrison, as well as the stage-load coming from Mexico, were then before us. The cooking had been done with charcoal, over furnaces, and the colour of the cooks, their clothes, the food, and the hearth, was identical ; a warning, as in France, never to enter the kitchen before meals. The meats had been good, but were perfectly bedevilled by the culinary imps. Garlic, onions, grease, chile, and other nasty compounds, had flavoured the food like nothing else in the world but Perote cookery. We tasted, however, of every dish, and that taste answered to allay appetite if not to assuage hunger; especially as the table cloth had served many a wayfarer since its last washing (if it had ever been washed), and had, besides, doubtless been used for duster (if they ever dust). The waiter, too, was a INTERIOR OF MEXICO PROPER. knew the * d put my face for a moment outside of the gate, to take a walk, as the night was beautiful- but S - pulled me back again, with a hint at the notorious reputation of Perote It was not eight o clock, but the town was already still as death. Its population had slunk home to their cheerless dwellings, and the streets were as deserted as those of Pompeii save where a ragged rascal now and then skulked along in the shadow of the houses buried up in his broad-brimmed sombrero and dirty blanket. " We, therefore, at once retired to our cells; I threw myself on the bed wrapped in my cloak, in dread of a vigorous attack from the fleas, and slept without movin- until the driver called us at midnight to start for Puebla. " In half-an-hour, we were once more in the coach galloping out of the town, fol lowed by three dragoons furnished by the officer we had met at supper, who seemed to entertain as poor an opinion as we did of this citadel of vagabondism. " Although the sky had been clear, and the stars were shining brightly when we re tired to bed, a mist was now hanging in low clouds over the plain. The road was, how ever, smooth and level ; and we scampered along nimbly, fear adding stings to our coach man s lash, inasmuch as he was the driver of a diligence that had been robbed last spring, and had received a ball between his shoulders, from the effects of which he had just suffi ciently recovered to drive on his first trip since the conflict. We galloped during the whole night, stopping only for a moment to change horses; nor did we meet a livino- thing except a pack of jackals, that came bounding beside the coach along the level and almost trackless plain. I never saw half so frightened a man as our coachman, especially when we passed the spot where he had been wounded. Every shrub was a robber and a maguey of decent size was a whole troop ! " The early morning, from the rain which had fallen during the night on this portion of the plain, was as cold and raw as November at home; nor was it until an hour after sunrise that the mists peeled off from the lowlands, and, folding themselves around the distant hills, revealed a prospect as bare and dreary as the Campagna of Rome. CITY OF PUEBLA. " From Perote to Puebla, the road led among deep gulleys, and was exceedingly dusty on the plains. The towns were usually built of the common adobes^ or sun-dried bricks of the country, and neither in their architectural appearance, nor in the character of their inhabitants, offered any attractions for the attention of a tra veller. It was, indeed, a tedious and uninteresting drive over the solitary moors, and I have seldom been more gratified at the termination of a day s fatigue than I was when we entered the gateway of our spacious and comfortable inn at Puebla. In addition to the usual discomforts of the road, we had suffered greatly from the heat during the two or three last hours of our ride, and were annoyed by a fine dust, which, heated by a blazing sun, rolled into our coach from every side, and fell like a parching powder on our skins. A bath was, therefore, indispensable before the dinner, which we found excellent after our fare of the previous night at Perote. In the afternoon I paid a visit to the governor, who promised an escort of dragoons for the rest of the journey to the capital; and I then sallied forth, to see as much as possible of this really beautiful city. " My recollections of Puebla (comparing it now with Mexico) are far more agreeable than those of the capital. There is an air of neatness and tidiness observable everywhere. The streets are broad, well-paved with flat stones, and have a washed and cleanly look. The crowd of people is far less than in the capital, and they are not so ragged and misera ble. House rents are one-half or one-third those of Mexico, and the dwellings are usually inhabited by one family; but, churches and convents seem rather more plentiful in proportion to the inhabitants. The friars are less numerous, and the secular clergy greater. "A small stream skirts the eastern side of Puebla, affording a large water-power for manufacturing purposes. On its banks a public walk has been planted with rows < among which the paths meander, while a neat fountain throws up its waters in the mid: 340 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. of them. The views from this retreat, in the evening, are charmingly picturesque over the eastern plain. " On the western side of Puebla lie the extensive piles of buildings belonging to the Convent of St. Francis, situated opposite the entrance of the Alameda a quiet and retired garden walk to which the cavaliers and donzellas repair before sunset, for a drive in view of the volcanos of Istazihuatl and Popocatepetl, which bound the westward prospect with their tops of eternal snow. Near the centre of the city is the great square. It is sur rounded on two sides by edifices erected on arches through which the population circu lates as at Bologna. On the northern side is the palace of the governor, now filled with troops; and directly in front of this is the cathedral, equal, perhaps, in size to that of Mexico, but, being elevated upon a platform about ten feet above the level of the square, it is better relieved and stands out from the surrounding buildings with more boldness and grandeur. " To the right of the altar is the gem of the building. It is a figure of the Virgin Mary, nearly the size of life. Dressed in the richest embroidered satin, she displays strings of the largest pearls hanging from her neck below her knees. Around her brow is clasped a crown of gold, inlaid with emeralds of a size I had never seen before; and her waist is bound with a zone of diamonds, from the centre of which blaze numbers of enor mous brilliants! " But this is not all. The candelabras surrounding the platform before the altar, are of silver and gold, and so ponderous that a strong man could neither move nor lift them. Immediately above the altar, and within the columns of the large temple erected there, is a smaller one, the interior of which is displayed or concealed by secret machinery. From this the Host, amid a blaze of priceless and innumerable jewels, is exhibited to the kneel ing multitude. " As 1 went out of the door in the dim twilight, and found a miserable and ragged woman kneeling before the image of a saint, and heard the hollow sounding of her breast as she beat it with penitential fervour, I could not help asking myself, if the church that subsisted upon alms, in order to be the greatest almoner of the nation, had fulfilled its sacred charge while there was one diamond in the zone of the Virgin, or one homeless and foodless wretch in the whole republic. PUEBLA TO MEXICO. " Soon after our departure from Puebla,* we crossed a small stream spanned by a fine bridge, and commenced ascending by a very gradually inclined plain toward the Sierra Nevada. The mountains on our left are a stupendous range, standing out sharply against the bright blue sky, in the clear early light and pure atmos phere, their lower portions covered with dark pine forests, from which the conic peak of Popocatepetl, with its eternal snow, emerges majestically; while, further north, towers its gigantic rival, Iztaccihuatl. Between us and the mountains is the Pyramid of Cholula. As we approach this elevated region, the country becomes well watered, and the plain is just sufficiently inclined for irrigation; the soil rich, the estates extensive, and cultivated with the greatest care. Immense herds of cattle are spread over the fields, and the land, now preparing for the winter crops, is divided into extensive tracts of a thousand acres, * It is not over two or three hundred yards from the gates of Puebla, where most of the rob beries of which I afterwards heard during my residence in Mexico, occurred. A band of some five, ten, or a dozen men, armed, with their faces covered with crape, usually stood waiting in the early dawn, for the diligence. If there were armed foreigners in the coach, they would look in, consult a moment, and then ride off. If the passengers were unarmed, and the boot of the vehicle looked heavy and tempting, the result was the perfect sacking of the whole company. Their persons were first robbed and partially stripped as they descended from the door ; they were then made to lie down with their mouths on the ground and their trunks were rifled. One lady, the present prima donna of the Opera in Mexico, lost 600 dollars in doubloons and jewels, at this very spot notwithstanding a guard had been promised by the authorities, and paid for. The instances, how ever, were innumerable and unpardonable, while regiments of cavalry dozed, within a quarter of a mile, in a city almost under martial law. While I resided in the capital, during Santa Anna s vigorous administration, he had some sixty five or seventy garrotted. Two or three every week. This for a time struck terror into the band, but I learn that lately they have again taken to the road with renewed vigour. INTERIOR OF MEXICO PROPER. 34 J[ along which the furrows are drawn with mathematical accuracy. Amon ff thes farms a multitude of habitations are scattered, which, enclosing the numerous populatio, necessary for labour, with the requisite chapels, churches, and surroundm- offices gleam out brightly with their white walls from among the dark foliage of the proves and impress one as favourably as the multitude of tasteful villages that dot the windings o our beautiful Connecticut. "We breakfasted hastily at San Martin, and for the next league our ascent was almost imperceptible. At length, we crossed several 6ne streams, and the road, rising rapidly, struck more into the mountain. There was no longer any sign of cultivation even in the dells, but the dense forest spread out on every side its sea of foliage. The road was as smooth as a bowling-green, and we swung along over the levels, up bill and down, until we passed the Puente de Tesmeluca, over a stream dashing from a mountain ravine like a shower of silver from among the venjure. After again ascending another mountain, and following its descent on the other side, we reached the village of RioFrio, a collection of the miserable huts of coal-burners, and the nest and nursery of as fierce a brood of robbers as haunt the forests. In proof of this, and, moreover, that the cross, in this land, is no sign of redemption, the sacred emblem was again spread out on every side, as yesterday in the Barranca Secca, marking the grave of some murdered traveller. We were once more in the fields of romance and robbery ; yet, well guarded to-day by a vigilant troop, and in good spirits at the near termination of our trials, we again launched forth for our final ride. Leaving this narrow and desolate ravine among the hills, the road once more ascends by a series of short windings through the pine woods, among which the wind whistled cold and shrill as over our winter plains ; and, thus gra dually scaling the last mountain on our route, while the increased guard scoured the re cesses of the forest, we reached the lofty summit in about an hour, and rolled for some distance along a level table-land, catching glimpses, occasionally, of a distant horizon to the west, apparently as illimitable as the sea. The edge of the mountain was soon turned, and as the coach dipped forward on the descent of the western slope, a sudden clearing in the forest disclosed the magnificent Valley of Mexico. VALLEY OF MEXICO. " I am really afraid to describe this valley to you. I I have seen the Simplon the Spleugen the view from Rhigi the wide and winding Rhine and the prospect from Vesuvius over the lovely bay of Naples, its indolent waves sleeping in the warm sunshine on their purple bed but none of these scenes compare with the Valley of Mexico. They want some one of the elements of grandeur, all of which are gathered here. Although the highest triumphs of human genius and art may disappoint you, Nature never does. The conceptions of Him who laid the foundations of the mountains, and poured the waters of the seas from His open palm, can never be reached by the fancies of men. And if, after all, the exaggerated descriptions of St. Peter s and the Pyramids, we feel sick with disappointment when we stand before them, it is never so with the sublime creations of the Almighty. " Conceive yourself placed on a mountain, nearly 2000 feet above the valley, and 9000 above the level of the sea. A sky above you of the most perfect azure, without a cloud, and an atmosphere so transparently pure, that the remotest objects at the distance of many leagues are as distinctly visible as if at hand. The gigantic scale of every thing first strikes you you seem to be looking down upon a world. No other mountain and valley view has such an assemblage of features, because nowhere else are the mountains at the same time so high, the valley so wide, or filled with such variety of land and water. The plain beneath is exceedingly level, and for 200 miles around it extends a barrier of stupendous mountains, most of which have been active volcanoes, and are now covered, some with snow, and some with forests. It is laced with large bodies of water, looking more like seas than lakes; it is dotted with innumerable villages, and estates, and plantations ; eminences rise from it, which, elsewhere, would be called mountains, yet there, at your feet, they seem but ant-hills on the plain ; and now, letting your eve follow the rise of the mountains to the west (near fifty miles distant), you 1< immediate summits that wall the valley, to another and more distant range- range beyond range, with valleys between each, until the whole melts into a vapoury distance, blue as the cloudless sky above you. 342 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " Yet, one thing was wanting-. Over the immense expanse there seemed scarce an evidence of life. There were no figures in the picture. It lay torpid in the sunlight, like some deserted region where Nature was again beginning to assert her empire vast, solitary, and melancholy. There were no sails no steamers on the lakes, no smoke over the villages, no people at labour in the fields, no horsemen, coaches, or travellers but ourselves. The silence was almost supernatural ; one expects to hear the echo of the national strife that filled these plains with discord, yet lingering among the hills. It was a picture of e still life/ inanimate in every feature, save where, on the distant mountain sides, the fire of some poor coal-burner, mingled its blue wreath with the bluer sky, or the tinkle of the bell of a solitary muleteer was heard from among the dark and solemn pines. " What a theatre for the great drama that has been performed within the limits of this valley ! When Cortez first stood upon these mountains, and looked down on the lovely scene, peaceful then and rich under the cultivation of its Indian children; and hills and plains covered with forests, and much of what is now dry land hidden by the extensive lake, in the midst of which rose the proud city of the Aztec kings, filled with palaces and temples; in site, another Venice on its inland sea; in art, the Indian Attica: when he beheld, I say, this tranquil scene at his feet, what must have been the avarice and the relentlessness of an unknightly heart that urged him onward to the destruction and enslavement of a civilised and unoffending people, whose only crime was, the pos session of a country rich enough to be plundered to minister to the luxury of a bigoted race beyond the sea ! " Our descent commenced from the eminence where we had halted awhile to survey the valley. Our coachman was an honest Yankee, fearless as the wild horses he drove, and they scoured along under his lash as if we had the level roads of New England beneath us. But, alas! we had not. I question whether there are any such roads elsewhere, in the world ; nor can you conceive them, because your experience among the wilds of the Aroostook or the marshes of the Mississippi, can furnish no symptoms of such highways. They were gulleys, washed into the mountain side by the rains ; filled, here and there, with stones and branches ; dammed up, to turn the water, by mounds a couple of feet high; and thus, gradually serpentining to the foot of the declivity. You may readily imagine that there was no such thing as rolling down with our rapid motion over such a ravine. We literally jumped from clam to dam, and rock to rock, and in many places where the steep is certainly at an angle of 45 deg., I must confess that I quailed at the impending danger, while the horses bounded along as fiercely as if they bore Mazeppa. But the driver knew what he was about, and in an hour drew up at the Venta de Cordova, .where, when I alighted, I found myself deaf and giddy from the heat, dust, and irregular "motion. In a few moments, however, the blood poured from my head, and 1 was relieved, though I felt ill and uncomfortable the rest of the day. Two of the other passengers suffered in the same manner.* "The succeeding distance of about thirty miles lies along the level, and skirts a detached range of volcanic hills between the lakes of Tezcuco and Chalco, the same which I described, some time ago, as rising like ant-heaps from the plain. We passed the village of Ayotla, and through a number of collections of mud-walled huts and desolate hovels, buried up among palm-trees and fields of barley and maguey (re sembling the streets of ruined tombs near Rome) ; but nowhere did I see any evidence of neat or careful cultivation, or of comfort and thriftiness. In this the valley of Mexico is, markedly, different from that of Puebla. Misery and neglect reigned absolute, Squalid Indians in rags, exhibiting almost entirely their dirty bodies, thronged the road; miserable devils coming from market; children, half-starved and naked, and women whose wiry and uncombed hair gave them the mien of porcupines. " At length, as we gained the top of a little eminence, our driver pointed out the * Almost all travellers suffer from giddiness and flow of blood to the head on their arrival on the Valley of Mexico. This arises from the great rarefaction of the atmosphere, 7500 feet above the level of the sea. INTERIOR OF MEXICO PROPER. 343 City of Mexico : a long line of turrets, and domes, and spires, lying in the lap of beautiful meadows, and screened, partially, by intervening trees, planted alone the numerous avenues leading to the capital. About two leagues from the city we came to the ancient border of the Lake of Tezcoco, now a marshy flat from which the waters have receded. Here we mounted the calzada, or causeway, raised above six feet above the surrounding waters. " This road is not one of the ancient avenues by which the city was approached, across the lake, during the reign of the Indians, but was constructed at great expense by the old Spanish government. Although the land to the north of it is covered with saline particles that are perfectly visible as you ride along, yet the southern flats, being watered by the fresher stream from Chalco, which flows through several apertures of the dike, are in no manner discoloured. The northern marsh was covered with myriads of ducks , and looked as if it had been literally peppered with wild fowl. The birds are murdered in immense quantities with a sort of infernal machine, formed by the union of a great number of gun-barrels, and they furnish the chief food of the poor of Mexico. "Thus, about four o clock, we passed this unprepossessing approach to the capital, driving by the body of a man who had just been murdered, lying on the road-side, with the blood flowing from his recent wound. Hundreds passed, but no one noticed him. At the gates we were detained only a moment for examination, and we entered the city by the Puerto de San Lazaro. A saint who suffered from impure blood, and presides over sores, may well be the patron of that portal and portion of the suburbs through which we jolted over disjointed pavements, while the water lay green and putrid in the stagnant gutter, festering in the middle of close streets, swarmed with ragged thousands. As I looked at them from our window, they seemed more like a population of witches, freshly dismounted from their broomsticks, than any thing else to which, in fancy, I can readily compare them. " But the journey ended as we drove to the hotel Vergara, where a dirty court-yard, filled with sheep, chickens, horses, bath-houses, and a blacksmith s shop, received our jaded crew. I found that a kind friend had already prepared rooms for me, where, after a bath and dinner, I was made as comfortable as possible, by the attentions of a hospitable landlady." Mr. Gilliam, who travelled from Vera Cruz in a clumsy- wheeled carriage called a diligencia, but who says he neither understood Spanish nor French, confirms the truth of Mr. Mayer s "Descriptive Sketches," and he dwells on the attacks of robbers, the extravagant charges, and bad accommodation on the road ten dollars being the charge for conveying a trunk from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. The journey by the diligencia, dragged by eight horses, was agreed to be performed in eighteen days ; fifty dollars for each person was the fee charged ; they were escorted by a troop which Mr. Gilliam considered as suspicious as the Ladrones. He admits that parts of the old road were in good condition, and " looked to him like a well-improved street," and expresses his impatience to escape from the Tierra caliente and the malaria vomito. He complains of the " half-done frijoles" (black beans) and " half-done fowls," as food which no human being could eat ; and says, an old Belgian doctor was so dis gusted with half-cooked chickens, "that, in self-defence, he lived on little mon keys." He speaks of the temperate region, tierra templada, in contrast " with the gay sultry region of many-blossoming flowers, that border the sea," as abounding in a more stately growth of forest, "for with the varieties of the musquite and the liquid amber, I now beheld the tall cypress ; and as the dili gencia would now and then wind down some craggy steep into a deep glen, 344 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. where my ears would be stunned by the wild screams of the parrots, and all the other beautifully-plumed feathered tribes, it was only necessary to ascend the opposite height to be transported again to the tierra templada, there to perceive the forest a perfect medley, from its being indiscriminately mixed, and the whole wood so thickly matted and entwined, being apparently impervious to the foot steps of animals, with a scrubby bushy growth of deepest green colour, which universally makes the eye delight to dwell upon it. 3 He describes the region he travelled over as volcanic, and all visible rocks as lava. At XALAPA, said to be the most beautiful and agreeable town in Mexico the place to which the Vera Cruzians retreat from the vomito " perpetual spring," he says, "has her reign there, and vegetation, therefore, is ever verdant and blooming." Mr. Gilliam in describing this town, says, "that which I chiefly delighted in while at Xalapa was, the pleasing sight of the ladies, whose beauty seemed to partake of the eternal blossoming of their native region ; for smiling loveliness appeared to have positively delighted to dwell on their symmetrically angelic countenances, and while they could often be seen peering from behind the grated windows, adorned with flowers, yet no blossom was half so lovely as the sweet rose that bloomed under the delicate brunette hue of their cheeks." On ascending to the Plain of Perote, which at the conquest was covered with a forest, Mr. Gilliam says, u to my view it presented not a single tree or sponta neous shrub ; all appeared a cold, dry, barren waste, in the midst of which, at an elevation of between seven and eight thousand feet above the sea, sat the dark and dreary-looking Castle of Perote a state prison." He passed, in his route, numerous " ranchos, the miserable open huts inhabited by Indians, the indolent, and the poor." Now and then a hacienda, or " a farm of vast extent, covered with green verdure, having multitudes of flocks feeding upon it, and attended by herdsmen and shepherds, which would forcibly recall to the mind of any individual the days of the Latins so poetically described by Virgil in his Georgics ! I " "Generally of near proximity to the hacienda would be a pueblo (village), built of sun-burnt bricks, and having also its costly church of lofty towers." " In one or more of the deep valleys of Perote, I saw that the improved American ploughs were used for tillage, and a wealthy Mexican, a noble benefactor of his people, had at one time made a large importation of these ploughs. But one of the glorious revolutions of Mexico was coeval with the beneficence of the good citizen, and his ploughs shared a scattered and ruinous fate/ "The plough universally used in Mexico is the instrument handed by the Romans to their posterity." " Pueblo de los Angelos," he ob serves, " is said to contain above 100,000 inhabitants." " In passing the ranges of the Popocateptl and Iztaccihuatl, I was pleased to see that the mountains were covered with a grove of timber of good size, for I there saw INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO. 345 oaks and pines of the same dimensions that I had beheld in Old Virginia " He everywhere passed "crosses of melancholy bearing, being memorials erected over the bones of murdered human beings, and thus consecrated." The meson or Mexican road tavern, afforded a "cup of chocolate which had been boiled and frothed by the hands of a beautiful Mexican girl." He met crowds of arrieros, with their cargoes on packed mules, loaded with the second indemnity from the Mexican to the United States government. But Mr. Gilliam does not experience the "realisation of the sublimity of the scene as the climax of the mountain had been attained," from whence "the far-famed valley of Mexico was then opened out before our view, like a map ; and, indeed, it was a lovely and magnificent sight to behold." He says of the plain or valley of Mexico " I could only admire the extensive fields spread out before me, for the Valley of Mexico is justly renowned for its fertility , all the lands are said to be capable of cultiva tion by irrigation, from the abundance of water afforded from streams and lakes. Thus, whilst I might, upon the right hand, be pained to see the sterileness of a tract of country made so perhaps by the neglect of its opulent owner, and appropriated as a common for grazing, on the left I would be greeted with the pleasing prospect of miles of extent, and as far as the eye could reach, of lands cultivated alone in maize, or Indian corn ; and while now I would arrive at verdant nooks, with acres of land cultivated in chile or Indian pepper, of which the inhabitants make considerable use, and I was informed that a single indivdual, from one crop of chile" alone realised the immense sum of fifty thousand dollars and then I would come upon the green and flowery fields, cultivated to feed the cochineal insect. But what the more attracted my attention was the deep green, wide-spreading aloe, called by the Mexicans, maguey. This plant has, in its perfection, a stem shooting up to ten or fifteen feet in height, with an appearance of clustered flowers at its top ; when ripe, the stem or stalk, of a liquid pithy substance, is consumed in a raw state by the natives. But such being the variety of the uses to which this spon taneous plant is appropriated by the Mexicans, I shall speak of its multifarious proper ties and consumption when my longer travels and residence in the country will better enable me to describe them. " The view of the Valley of Mexico is certainly beautiful and grand, and but for the painful absence of timber, and the vast sterility of much of its territory, might perhaps be the most magnificent sight any where to behold upon the face of the globe. There is no country in the world, from the best information I could obtain, where individual citizens hold as large bodies of land as in Mexico, and it is estimated that from seven millions of inhabitants in all probability less than five hundred thousand are the owners of all the terra firma of that rich country." Mr. Gilliam departed from the city of Mexico on the 8th of January, 1844, on his route northward for St. Francisco, as consul there from the United States, by the diligence for Lagos ; he dined the first day at Tula, on Mexican cookery, scorched his throat with chile, slept in the castle of a hacienda, and traversed the Plain of Gueretaro a hot country with orange and other fruit-trees in bearing. Gueretaro situated in a ravine, with 10,000 inhabitants, is " a cotton- mamifacturing city, and one of the most improved towns in the republic. One cotton factory is owned by an enterprising American gentleman. Guere taro is famed also for its revolutionary efforts." Mr. Gilliam, from the reports of robberies and Ladrones, travelled with, " in each of his breeches pockets, a six-barrelled pistol, and on his side a good bowie knife." VOL. I. 2 Y 346 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS towns and haciendas he found garrisoned by Santa Anna. In the streets of Gueretaro, at night, soldiers and priests abounded ; the Plaza, with its fountains were lighted up by blazing torches ; and groups of people were selling fruits. He passed through Salamanca, another cotton-manufacturing town, where the machinery was moved by animal power, and cotton cloth which cost 3J cents to produce, could be made in the United States for 12 cents. He notices everywhere the supreme authority of the priests, and the universal superstitious observances. He complains of the scrutiny at the internal customs barriers. He passed through the town of Gunajuato, celebrated for its productive silver mines, with much gold in the silver, but not now so extensively worked as formerly. From Gunajuato the road was good. He passed several good-looking towns, especially Silao, with 4000 inhabitants ; Leon, with several handsome churches ; Lago, situated on the largest river he had seen in Mexico, about 400 miles from the capital. ; Here he met a party of Americans on their way to San Bias, to establish a cotton manufactory, they were accompa nied by their ladies. Each man was mounted on a good spirited horse and saddle, with four pistols in the holsters, a double-barrelled gun, &c. At Lagos, which is conveniently situated, there were " two mills for grind ing wheat the only ones he saw in any town in Mexico/ 5 Vegetables were abundant. The houses were painted outside and inside with representa tions of vineyards, gardens, landscapes, &c. From this place he travelled in a carretella, a kind of waggon or coach, hired from a priest. Crossed the plain of La Villota. North of Lagos, the old Spanish road, though not repaired, was still good. The hacienda of Pennuelles, north of Villota, where he was refreshed with chocolate, had a commodious house and outhouses. The proprietor was a great wheat grower. Inspected his fields, which were of great extent. At the town of Arqua, containing 4000 inhabitants and formerly prosperous, he met an Italian opera company from Mexico. The town was well-built, and contained numerous squares and churches. He also met waggons belonging to a French merchant residing at Chihuahua, driven by Americans. The waggons had been built in the United States, and made journeys from Chihuahua (1000 miles) to the city of Mexico ; also from Santa Fe (2000 miles). The American waggon is admirably adapted for such journeys ; the Mexican waggon, on the contrary, is the most rude, clumsy-wheeled carriage possible, and is drawn by from eight to twelve oxen. Mr. Gilliam considers the Mexicans degenerating in all that regards carriages, implements, harness, &c. Before reaching Zacatecas, he passed the hacienda of San Jancinto, placed in the centre of Indian corn-fields several miles in length and breadth with wheat and other crops. Further onward, at the hacienda SILVER MINES OF ZACATECAS. 347 of Del Refugio, he observed herds of sheep, numbering several thousands: and on advancing north, herds of all kinds were seen. At Zacatecas, religious processions were numerous, and the bells of the churches were perpetually ringing. The streets were crooked and narrow. On leaving that town, Mr. Gilliam considered he would be fortunate, if he escaped being murdered by " the lawless Mexicans who infest the highways, or by the merciless Cumanches." He accuses other nations of egotism, and he tells the Mexicans that " in the timely moment, the angry war-spirited eye of the United States is more to be feared than disregarded. " , He describes the Alemadaof Zacatecas as a lovely, romantic place. Misde meanours are punished by subjecting the offenders to hard labour on the streets and highways. They are manacled two and two; and he calls them " the united brethren." In the Mesons (inns) the boarders do not dine together: each sends or goes for his meals to the fonda at any hour. The poor, when they die, are buried without coffins, and naked. The price of iron, on account of the pro tective system, is more than one shilling the pound weight. On travelling north from Zacatecas, he engages an United States citizen as interpreter, who cheats him, and would have betrayed and murdered him. The ascent from Zacatecas over the Malanoche is by a road constructed under an English engineer, and the labour was performed by criminals. He says the Mexicans never wash when travelling. He had numerous encounters with the Indians on the Madre Monte, and had various escapes and adventures before arriving at Canales. The following abstracts are descriptive of the country, and especially the silver-mining districts between Zacatecas and the north-western termination of Mr. Gilliam s journey to near the Gulf of California : " The hacienda Paras, signifying a vine, was the only estate in Mexico where the grape was permitted to be cultivated by the King of Spain. It was, previous to the revolution, the property of a Spanish nobleman, but after the independence of Mexico, he sold it to a Spanish house in the city of Mexico, and then it was resold to the house of Staples and Co., of the same city. The Barings of London, afterwards became the purchasers, but were prevented from holding the property by the Deputies of Mexico passing a law preventing foreigners from buying or selling lands in that country ; and it is said that the speculations of the hacienda Paras gave origin to the passage of that act. This estate, I was credibly informed, besides the extensive vineyards, producing many thousand gallons of wine and alcoholic liquors, possessed, when the Barings purchased it, upwards of three hundred thousand head of sheep, with a corresponding proportion of other stock. "SILVER MINES OF ZACATECAS. As we gradually ascended the plain to the mountains of Zacatecas, we were exposed to a heavy cold wind, that swept over the face of the earth, unimpeded by forest. I was sometimes diverted by the Mexicans in the fields, whose loose serapis would, by the violence of the winds, float from their shoulders like the wings of so many zopilotes, buzzards, as if the natives would be flown away with. 348 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. "At about three o clock in the evening, my American companion pointed out to me the rich mountains of Zacatecas, in a deep gorge of which was built the city of the same name. The American had, during his residence in Mexico, been engaged in mining at that place, and could, therefore, from his perfect acquaintance with it, minutely trace out, for my understanding, a vein of silver ore, the only instance of the kind known in the world, which rose to the surface of the plain, and with precision follow its ascent up the mountain, and describe the visible walls and buildings, where shafts had been sunk upon the vein and its branches. I was much surprised when I perceived that the veins of silver ore were perceptible upon the surface. " The laws of Mexico bountifully provide for the miners, as it is the privilege of any one to search for ores, and to work the veins when found, as his exclusive prerogative. When an individual has made a discovery of rich ore, it is his duty to survey a given number of acres of land, for the use and benefit of the mine, and have the same re corded in the office of the alcalde. He must then commence to work it in ten days* time, with a particular number of hands, and, at stated periods, increase his expenditures to an amount limited by law. The discoverer, failing to comply with the requisitions, forfeits all claim and title to the property, and may be ousted by the will of any other occupant who can punctiliously perform the demands of government. The proprietor of the land upon which the discovery has been made, is always pleased at the location of mining-operations upon his territories, for it brings to his doors a ready market for all the surplus of his hacienda campus. Being contented with the profits of his grain and stock sold to the operators of the mine, he has hazarded nothing in the uncertain results of opening and proving it : and besides, wherever a shaft is sunk, there is also a town erected, which likewise affords a speculation in lots, to the original proprietor of the soil. "The principal vein of silver ore at Zacatecas, which first shows itself in the plain, ascends the nearest mountain, and is discovered about midway, where a shaft has been sunk to a great depth, but is not now worked. The vein then descends over the side of the mountain, and, after crossing the next ravine, suddenly ascends to the top of the next cone-shaped peak, and so on, ascending and descending, until it dips under the city, and again rises to the top of a high peak, immediately to the north, overlooking Zacatecas. " The appearances of the range of mountains, upon which are the veins of ore, are like all others in the interior of Mexico. They are almost deserted by vegetable growth of any kind ; for the small amount of soil on these heights, generally, only pro duces a thorny, scrubby growth, that makes but a thin appearance in places. The silver mountains of Zacatecas, to my view, had something of a peculiar appearance, for they seemed to have been thrown up more abruptly, with a greater number of cones, having nipples crowning their summits. They seemed to have contained more of the native red rock of the country than any other mountain that I had beheld. I was in formed that in mountains where silver was most prolific the rock chiefly abounded in porphyry, green, and red-stone. " But to return as I approached the mountain a large convent was exposed to my view, which was a present to the order of Gray Friars by the owner of one of the mines. It was surrounded by the village of Guadaloupe, which had a romantic aspect, situated just at the foot of the mountain, commanding the pass, where I was directed the road to Zacatecas. Every town, of any consequence in Mexico, has its pueblo of Guadaloupe, erected in honour of the patron saint of the country. "A GRANARY. Between the road and the village I perceived a high wall enclosing a large plot of ground, which I supposed to be a fortification ; but my friend informed me it was a granary belonging to Senor Don Garcias. Such granaries were not common, but had been invented and built by him, to prevent insects from injuring his grain ; his speculations in that article having been extensive ; in one of which he is said to have made above a hundred thousand dollars by one purchase. " The plan he adopted to preserve grain for any given time, was to build houses SILVER MINES OF ZACATECAS. 349 within the enclosure of a cone-like form, about twenty feet at the base. Thev a stuccoed, and when filled with gram, the port or door is also plastered over Ifebt arid moisture are all excluded, and the grain never becomes damaged WORKING A SILVER MINE.-- I was conducted by the polite Mr. Kimble over his hacienda beneficio mineral, the largest one in the world, and where more silver was manufactured than at any other hacienda known. This mine is the only one worked to any profitable extent in the whole country that entirely belongs to a Mexican com pany. To give my readers an understanding of its magnitude, and the consequent ex penditures of raising the ores, and reducing them to silver, Mr. K. assured me that it required an outlay of 50,000 dollars per week to conduct its operation. The mine is worked by steam-power, the fuel costing fourteen dollars per cord. 11 The administrador conducted me first to the crushing apartment. In this exten sive room were many tons of ore, deposited in the condition in which it was brought from the mine. The ore resembled fragments of stone, fresh hammered for a macada m- ised road, each piece large enough to pass through an inch ring. In this form it is thrown under the crushing-mill to be pulverised. This machine is similar to a powder mill, with the exception that the beams are heavier and closer together. Having gone through the process of crushing, the ore is removed to the grinding mills, and in this ha cienda there are many. "The grinding mills are circular, and from ten to fifteen feet in diameter. They can be propelled by any kind of power, but in Mexico that of mules is most generally used. The bottoms are of porphyritic rock of the greatest solidity that can be obtained. Over this solid disk are suspended three long heavy stones, also of porphyry. These are held to their places by chains, which connect them to three horizontal beams, extending from the shaft pivot that rests upon the centre of the disk. The stones have their front edges a little elevated, so as to receive the ore, when in motion, while the rear portion performs its duty by grinding it to an impalpable powder. "When the ore is put into the grinder, water is from time to time added to it, until, in the process of pulverisation, it acquires a thick and paste-like appearance and con sistency, which requires much time. The process of grinding completed, the ore is removed to the great square of the hacienda, which I should judge contains about two acres of land, where it is deposited in circular beds of about ten feet in diameter, upon the pavenent of the square, in the same manner as a brick-yard. Salt, or salt earth is, in suitable quantities, sprinkled over the pile, as also a little proportion of pulverised pine bark, and if this cannot be secured, dried manure is used as a substitute. The whole is then trodden by horses for some hours, until all the parts have completely acquired an admixture. It is then left for three or four days, when a substance, pre pared from copper ore, called micastral, is added. The whole mass is then sprinkled with quicksilver in considerable quantities. It is then worked with horses for five or six hours, after which it is left until the next day, when a little water is added, being worked repeatedly from day to day until the whole has effectually amalgamated. When this is consummated, a suitable portion is deposited in an elevated stone vat, so that the water may escape. A large amount of water is again added to the ore, when the whole is rapidly mixed, by a fly-wheel in the vat, propelled by mules, just like the pool of a paper-mill. " In this process the amalgam of the mineral settles to the bottom, and when the whole mass has been thoroughly washed, the water is discharged, and the offal escapes. The deposited amalgam is cleansed by being filtered through a canvas , until it assumes a plastic state, when it is made into forms of triangular bricks, by means of moulds. These are set up into a circular mass, with interstices between each. A copper bell is then placed over the whole, in the presence of all the officers of the hacienda, which is then covered over with charcoal, and this is kept ignited for about twelve hours, by which time the mercury is all sublimated. Being allowed to cool, the silver is taken o in a pure state, ready to cast into bars. " It requires six pounds of quicksilver to obtain one mark of silver, mcli corporation and the bath, which is the amalgamation, and in the separation there is a 350 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. loss of the same weight of silver, as of mercury, which is a fraction, besides au additional consumption of mercury, that has never been accounted for. " During the whole of the above process of extracting the silver, that is to say from the commencement of the washing, until the fire is lighted around the bell containing the amalgam, the administrador has his officers summoned to attend, to prevent the secret ing of the metal, but after the charcoal is ignited all is safe, for if those left to watch the fire should raise the bell, the inhaling of the sublimed mercury, a certain result of the imprudence, would destroy life. " The appearance of the amalgam, when the copper bell is lifted from it, is porous, like a honey-comb, which is caused by the quicksilver leaving the silver in sublima tion. Thus, it is perceived, that to make pure silver is no easy task, but requires days of labour from man, beast, and machinery, as well as the watchfulness necessary to be bestowed on it. " After the silver is cast into solid lumps, about the size and shape of pigs of lead, as seen in the United States, it is carried to the mint, when, agreeable to its weight, being previously assayed, its value in coin is received. "From the office of the administrador it is next carried into the furnace room, where the pigs are melted, for the purpose of casting them into bars, eighteen inches in length, one and a half broad, and a quarter of an inch in thickness. They are then weighed to discover if they correspond with the original weight of the pigs. The bars are then put under the rolling mill, where they are reduced to a flatness consistent with the dimen sions of the coin to be manufactured. The thin slips of silver are then taken to machinery, where they are cut to the different sizes of money, and from thence to the edging mill, which prepares it to receive the impression of the Mexican eagle, prickly pear, bee-hive, sun, &c. From thence it has to pass through the pickling, or washing apartment, where the coin is cleansed, and receives its perfect brightness, and is ren dered fit for use. " The silver, from the time of its being first melted into pigs, until it is washed, never passes from the hands of one workman into those of another, without the scrutiny of weight and counting. And thus it is, the invaluable metal, when scattered to the world, in its fluctuating passage, ever creates the greatest solicitude to its possessor, until it returns to nature by invisible atoms. " The mines of Zacatecas and Frisnillo are said to be about the oldest known in Mex ico, and from their richness, and the length of time they have been worked, have produced an amount of bullion that would almost seem incredible. A gentleman, of high standing as a miner, informed me that it had been estimated that Zacatecas and Frisnillo had yielded two hundred millions of the precious metals. There are two kinds of silver mines, designated by the letters A and U, owing to the two different ways that veins of silver make their appearance generally. CHANGE or CLIMATE. "After we had mounted, and were leaving San Alto, I perceived that my previous day s journey had brought me to a warm country, for many of the houses of that place were fenced in by the tall organo. This is a species of the prickly pear, and is not only beautiful to look at, but a curiosity in the vegetable kingdom. It is of a perfect deep green colour, and rises from the ground in a solid column, of an equal size, often reaching a height of twenty feet. It is regularly fluted from the bottom to the top, as if done by the exactness of an artist s line. " The maguey also flourished here. It is this plant which, I believe, is said to blos som once in a hundred years. It is true, that the colder the latitude, the later it will flower; but, in the climate of Mexico, it generally blossoms once in seven years. " My journey, on this day (after leaving the mining town of Sombrereto), was uninter rupted, save by fatigue, hunger, and intolerable thirst; for we found neither pool nor stream of water. The country through which we travelled was uneven and rolling; but, during the latter part of the day, the plain became a dead level, and, from first, having to travel through the low mosquito-growth, we came to a cove of broad shady trees, small, and thinly scattered over the land, which might be denominated a forest. " Just before the set of sun we hove in view of the castle of the Hacienda campus de los Muleros (a place of mules), yet every other kind of stock and vegetation was raised INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO. 351 and cultivated there, for it was one of the finest estates that I had ever beheld Tl sight of the premises was most congenial, for it was the first house that I had seen the .K^ir-v l*hM r\ 1 li /-Mi ,-vK if H oc? Tllll *-ii*" ititlxif* X.,^ "* * whole day ; although it was full five miles from me, it promised repose from n no very distant period, and I felt cheered with the hope. Presently we came upon a nor of small red wolves, common in Mexico, and then we approached" a herd of innnv thou sand sheep: at length we passed the ranches of the place, and arrived immediately front of the great house. " One of my servants, who had been sent before me to the castle, informed me that the administrador had said, that there was no spare room for strangers ; for the house was filled with corn, saving one apartment for himself and wife; and that I would luve to seek lodgings in one of the ranches. The servant also stated, that there was much ex citement with the people, resulting from the fact of two murders, that had been committed that day, near Muleros. I felt perplexed and disappointed in not being decently housed, for J had never yet lodged in a filthy rancho. " However, there was one other good building in the place, from which a well- dressed young Mexican came out, and invited me to accept a room in his dwelling. I thanked him for the offer, which I accepted. Mine host was a gay and conversant gen tleman, who had but a few weeks been wedded to a bouncing black-eyed Mexican girl. He informed my interpreter that the proprietor of Muleros was a very inhospitable man, and that he believed that he had a part in all the many robberies "and murders which happened in that quarter. " During that day several things occurred of a diverting nature. First, in passing by an extensive corn-field, I perceived up a distant tree, in the midst of the corn, a nest, and, as I really imagined, a bird in it, and observed to my interpreter that there was the largest zopilote that I ever beheld. He laughed heartily, and informed me that it was nothing more nor less than a Mexican wrapped in his serapi, guarding his crop. Crops in Mexico are watched both day and night, to prevent the stock, and two-legged thieves, from molesting it." Speaking of some Ladrones whom he passed, he observes " It is the rule in Mexico, for the weaker party always to give the way. Our com panies were equal; but, as I had extra animals, I certainly was entitled to the road. And if armed men, who are not travellers, do not give the road, it is conclusive evidence, as I had been advised, of their hostile intent. We arrived in safety at San Causin, a hacienda campus. The water was good ; the tortillas, the frijoles, the chili, and the stewed mutton, were all, to hungry man, delightful ; and sleep, on that night, was never more refreshing. " On the following morning, all of my men being in readiness to recommence the jour ney, which was that day to put me in the city of DurangO, I gave orders that all of our guns and pistols should be discharged and reloaded, which had not been done since we left Zacatecas, as I felt desirous of witnessing the performances of our weapons. The volley we fired was equal to a commandant s salute, as we numbered about forty rounds, eighteen of which were from my own person and saddle. " At every place we stopped, accounts of murders and robberies were detailed. We had not travelled more than five leagues before we came upon the corpses of two men, who had been murdered the day previous; one of them appeared to have come to hit end by a bullet the other had several shocking sabre wounds. " On this day I had to cross the same river twice. The last time I was ferried over in a dug-out, which cost me one dollar and a half, though my animals had to swim across with the Mexican who drove them. I had then travelled about 1400 miles in Mexico, and of the few rivers that I had seen, none of them was above a moderate stone s-throw across. " The country over which I had passed was thinly covered with musquile growth, and some cotton-wood ; but, upon being landed over the ferry, I was upon the plain of Durango, a beautiful level country. Although the table-land was totally dlTMtM of timber, yet the mountains of Durango towered with the pine, the cypress, and other |>e- 352 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. cies of trees ; and, near to the city, Mr. Lakeman, an American, is the proprietor of an iron furnace." DURANGO. On the 9th instant, at nine o clock at night, he entered the city of Du rango, and put up at the De la Santa Paula meson. The meson joined a large religious edifice, in which the Inquisition was formerly located. It is called De Cadena Casa, the chain-house. From that building, for some few days in the year, a chain was ex tended across the street, during which time, if any individual committed any offence or crime against the law, and he could lay hands upon that chain, before arrested by the legal authorities, he escaped all future molestation or prosecution. Thus crime was encouraged through the instrumentality of religion. " In the De Commercio Plaza, all kinds of fruits, provisions, and merchandise were offered for sale promiscuously spread upon the pavement ; and in such places my interpreter informed me the ladrone vended such earnings as he desired to part with. * The Alemada of the city of Durango was as lovely and delightful a retreat as I had ever in my life enjoyed. A grove of trees shaded its clean walks and seats, whilst a foun tain of water refreshed and cooled the atmosphere. It is located between the Plaza de losTorros, and the town, and commanded a view of the plain, the city, and the extended mountains around, and a more picturesque scene I never beheld. The convento of the patron saint of the town was situated upon a romantic mound of earth and stone. The view from this edifice excels the imagination of poet and artist, and exceeds any other scene of the kind ever before exhibited to my view. The city of Durango appeared to cover about the same amount of space as the city of Mexico. The buildings are not so high, but are, otherwise, not less in dimensions. Durango is a bishopric, and the two high steeples of the cathedral towered far above those of the many other churches and convents of the place. " In this town has long been established one of the nine mints belonging to the go vernment. It was not a little amusing to see my Zacatecas servants comparing the coins of their own city with those of Durango; while one of them said, satirically, that the bird on the Durango coin looked more like a zopilote (buzzard) than the Mexican eagle. Another responded that he would be rejoiced if either of the fowls would build a nest in his pocket, and hatch young ones there. The inhabitants of Durango were fewer than I had supposed, judging from the extent of the city. I was informed that the population did not exceed 30,000. (See Mr. Gregg s account hereafter.) " The great silence that prevails in Mexican towns is remarkable, when the church bells are not ringing, and from the garrison the clang of the trumpet-horn is no longer blown. From twelve to three o clock in the afternoon, all is still, and from a distance no sound is heard ; and, in fact, in the hot valleys, and on the coasts, the doors of the houses are all locked, and the inhabitants so wrapped in sleep, that a traveller might ride through the streets of a town without seeing a human being. " The city of Durango had, in the month previous to my arrival, suffered a heavy calamity, which resulted in the serious damage, more or less, and the ruin of 400 houses. The cause of this destruction of property had its origin from the heavy rains that had fallen, which had so saturated the sun-burnt bricks, that the crumbling walls were not able to support the roofs, and of course they tumbled in. It was not in the knowledge of any one that, in the month of January, it should rain, and none of the inhabitants had ever experienced, in the wet season, so great and continued a fall of water as came so unexpectedly upon them. The sudden rise of the streams and small rivers was so rapid as to do much damage to the haciendas, to drown stock, and wash down houses. "On the 12th instant, I had the honour of being presented to Cesmo Sir Gobernador y Commandant General D. Jose Antonio Heridia. I did myself, on this occasion, the distinction of showing the general an American uniform. After some conversation, I retired, leaving him uninterrupted in his multifarious public duties. From the government-house I went to that of Mr. John Belden, an American, of the city of New York, who had invited me to dine with him that day. Mr. Belden had been successful in business, and had accumulated a large fortune ; and whether or not to please himself INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO. 353 or the Mexicans, I cannot say, he often wore costly diamond jewels, and hence he was called the Prince of Diamonds. " The people of the city of Durango, both foreign and native, seemed to be of a better order than any others I had seen in all Mexico. This possibly might result from the cir cumstance of having such men as Ramires residing amongst them. The Bishop of Du rango, also, was the only pious man that I heard of during all my travels in that country. " This celebrated and beloved bishop is said to be truly religious. I was informed by a distinguished citizen that, sacred to his vow, he never had a female to enter his house, and that all of his servants were men ; a fact unknown in relation to any other clergyman in the country. His father- confessor accompanied him on every occasion, and regularly, three times a day, he made confession. " Much to my regret, I had to exchange my American dress for the Mexican jaceti, a roundabout jacket. Long-tailed or frock-coats are never worn, excepting at the capi tal, or by foreigners ; and, as a gentleman informed me, if a man should be seen riding in any other apparel than that of a jaceti and leather pants, he would be looked upon as a monster, and accordingly almost stoned to death. It is very important to conform to Mexican costume, both to gratify Mexican vanity, as also to disguise yourself as a native, for the traveller cannot know when he may hear the exclamation, Death to all foreigners . The handy and comfortable little jacket I did not at all regard, but it was the heavy weight of iron and steel with which I was obliged to encumber myself and saddle ; for to my belt was a powder-flask, a bag of bullets, two six and one single-barrelled pistols, a bowie-knife, and a sword ; while looped to the horn of my saddle was a double-barrelled gun, holsters with two pistols, and my nine-inch barrel rifle pistol, hanging to my right, on the skirt of my saddle. " As in the journey before me I should be often obliged to bivouac in the open air, I had provided myself with a tent, as also an additional supply of London pickled-salmon, and ham, crackers, and jerked beef. At Durango, I was advised to employ a guide, as no one could find the way to Canales, excepting those who had travelled the mountains. I did not discharge my interpreter here, for the reason that I found no serious complaint to lodge against him, and for fear that in an exchange I might not obtain a better one. " The Governor of Durango furnished me with letters to the Alcalde of Canales, and the Prefect of Tamazula ; Mr. Stalknit had at that time despatched ten loads of silver for Mazatlan. * While at Durango, the two brothers, Stalknits, invited me to a ride of two miles in the country, to visit their cotton factory. The buildings of their establishment were as commodious as any others I had seen of the kind in the Union, working 20,000 spindles, and their complement of looms. The yarns of the factory were all wove into fabrics, with the exception of thread for sewing purposes. The conductors of the manufacturing de partment were all New Englanders." Mr. Gregg, in his interesting work on the American and Santa Fe trade, gives descriptive sketches of the trade south of that town, and of the mining districts and towns of Durango and Zacatecas, from which the following extracts are taken : " The officers of the custom-house were already compromised by certain cogent argu ments (bribes) to receive the proprietors of this caravan with striking marks of favour, and the Senor Administrador de Rentas, Zuloaga himself was expecting an ancheta ot goods. Therefore, had they treated us with their wonted severity, the contrast wou been altogether too glaring. We arrived at Chihuahua on the first of October, after a trip of forty clays, with waggons much more heavily laden than when we started from the United States. 1 iv whole distance from Santa Ft to Chihuahua is about 550 miles, being reckoned 320 to Paso del Norte, and 230 from thence to Chihuahua. The road (natural) from h Paso south is mostly firm and beautiful, with the exception of the sand- spoken of ; and it is only rendered disagreeable by the scarcity and occasion savour of the water. The route winds over an elevated plain among numerous detach ridges of low mountain-spurs, as it were, of the main Cordilleras, which lie at VOL. I. 2 Z 354 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. derable distance to the westward. Most of these extensive intermediate plains, though in many places of fertile-looking soil, must remain wholly unavailable for agricultural purposes, on account of their natural aridity, and a total lack of water for irrigation. " The trade to the south constitutes a very important branch of the commerce of the country, in which foreigners, as well as natives, are constantly embarking. It is customary for most of those who maintain mercantile establishments in Chihuahua, to procure assortments of Mexican fabrics from the manufactories of Leon, Aguascalientes, and other places of the same character in the more southern districts of the republic. FAIRS. " At certain seasons of the year, there are held regularym as, at which the people assemble in great numbers, as well of sellers as of purchasers. There are some eight or ten of these annual fairs held in the republic, each of which usually lasts a week or more." The only description of these fairs that we have is by Mr. Gregg, who says : " I set out from Chihuahua with a party consisting of four men (including myself) and two empty waggons not a very formidable escort to protect our persons as well as specie and bullion (the only transmissible currency of the country) against the bands of robbers which at all times infest that portion of our route that lay south of Durango. From Chihuahua to that city the road was rendered still more perilous by the constant hostilities of the Indians. On the 7th of March we arrived without accident at the town of Corro Gordo, the northernmost settlement in the department of Durango, and the fol lowing day we reached LaZarca, which is the principal village of one of the most exten sive haciendas in the north. So immense is the amount of cattle on this estate, that, as it was rumoured, the proprietor once offered to sell the whole hacienda, stock, &c., for the consideration alone of fifty cents for each head of cattle found on the estate ; but that no person has ever yet been able or willing to muster sufficient capital to take up the offer. This estate covers a territory of perhaps a hundred miles in length, which com prises several flourishing villages. " In two days more we reached Rio Nazas, a beautiful little river that empties itself into Lake Cayman.* Rio Nazas has been celebrated for the growth of cotton, which, owing to the mildness of the climate is sometimes planted fresh only every three or four years. The light frosts of winter seldom destroy more than the upper portion of the stalk, so that the root is almost perennial. About twenty-five miles further we stopped at the mining village of La Noria, where we were obliged to purchase water for our mules. It is not unusual, also, for the proprietors of haciendas to demand remunera tion for the pasturage on the open plains consumed by the animals of travellers a species of exaction which one never hears of in the north of Mexico. " Our next stopping-place was Cuencame, which may well be called the Village of Churches, for, although possessing a very small population, there are five or six edifices of this description. As I had business to transact at Durango, which is situated forty or fifty miles westward of the main southern road, I now pursued a direct route for that city, where I arrived on the 16th of March. DURANGO "is one of the handsomest cities in the north, with a population of about 20,000. It is situated in a level plain, surrounded in every direction by low mountains. It presents two or three handsome squares, with many fine edifices and really splendid churches. The town is supplied with water for irrigating the gardens, and for many other ordinary purposes, by several open aqueducts, which lead through the streets, from a large spring, a mile or two distant ; but as these are kept filthy by the offal that is thrown into them, the inhabitants who are able to buy it, procure most of their water for drinking and culinary purposes from the aguadores, who pack it, on asses, usually in large jars, from the spring. " This is the first northern city in which there is to be found any evidence of that * The numerous little lakes throughout the interior of Mexico, without outlet, yet into which rivers are continually flowing, present a phenomenon which seems quite singular to the inhabitants of our humid climates. But the wastage in the sand, and still greater by evaporation in those elevated dry regions, is such that there are no important rises in the lakes except during unusual freshets. Gregg. INTERIOR OF NORTHERN MEXICO. 355 variety of tropical fruits for which Southern Mexico is so justly famed. Although it was rather out of season, yet the market actually teemed with all that is most richand ex quisite in this kind of produce. The maguey, from which is extracted the popular beve rage called pulque,* is not only cultivated extensively in the fields, but grows wild every where upon the plains. This being the height of the pulque season, a hundred shanties might be seen loaded with jugs and goblets filled with this favourite liquor. SCORPIONS. " Durango is also celebrated as being the head-quarters, as it were, of the whole scorpion family. During the spring, especially, so much are the houses infested by these poisonous insects, that many people are obliged to have resort to a kind of mos quito-bar, in order to keep them out of their beds at night. As an expedient to deliver the city from this terrible pest a society has actually been formed, which pays a reward of a cuartilla (three cents) for every alacran (or scorpion) that is brought to them. Stimu lated by the desire of gain, the idle boys of the city are always on the look out ; so that, in the course of a year immense numbers of this public enemy are captured and slaugh tered. The body of this insect is of the bulk of a medium spider, with a jointed tail one to two inches long, at the end of which is a sting whose wounds are so poisonous as often to prove fatal to children, and are very painful to adults. "Although we were exceedingly well armed, yet so many fearful stories of robberies said to be committed almost daily on the southern roads reached our ears that, before leaving Durango I resolved to add to my weapons of defence one of those peculiarly terrible dogs which are sometimes to be found in this country, and which are very service able to travellers situated as I was. " On the 22nd of March we left Durango, and, after a few days march found ourselves once more in the camino real that led from Chihuahua to Zacatecas. As all travellers go armed, it is impossible to distinguish them from banditti ;f so that the unsuspecting trader is very frequently set upon by the very man he had been consorting with in appa rent good fellowship, and either murdered on the spot, or dragged from his horse with the lazo, and plundered of all that is valuable about him. AGUASCALIENTES, in 22 deg. N. latitude and 102 deg. 15 min. W. longitude, " is beautifully situated in a level plain, and would appear to contain about twenty thousand inhabitants, who are principality engaged in the manufacture of rebozos and other tex tures mostly of cotton. As soon as I found myself sufficiently at leisure I visited the famous warm spring (ojo caliente) in the suburbs from which the city derives its euphonious name. "It had been originally my intention to continue on to Leon, another manufacturing town some seventy or eighty miles from Aguascalientes ; but, hearing that Santa Anna had just arrived there with a large army, on his way to Zacatecas to quell an insurrec tion, I felt very little curiosity to extend my rambles further. Having, therefore, made all my purchases in the shortest possible time, in a few days I was again in readiness to start for the north. " That my mules might be in condition for the hard travel before me, it was necessary to have them shod : a precaution, however, which is seldom used in the north of Mexico, either with mules or horses. Owing a little to the peculiar breed, but more still, no doubt, to the dryness of the climate, Mexican animals have unusually hard hoofs. Many will * Also, from the Pulque is distilled a spirituous liquor called mezcal. The maguey (Agave Americana) is besides much used for hedging. It here performs the double purpose of and substantial fence, and of being equally valuable for pulque. When no longer serviceable m these capacities, the pulpy stalk is converted, by roasting, into a pleasant item ot food, w fibrous blades, being suitably dressed, are still more useful. They are manufactured ir o ropes, bags, &c., which resemble those made of the common sea-grass, though the fibres are 1 is one species (which does not produce pulque, however), whose fibres, known HI that cour pita, are nearly as fine as dressed hemp, and are generally used for sewm: f fTmveSterf on the^public high ways not only go "armed to the teeth," but always carry their weapons exposed. Even my waggoners carried their guns and piitolsswung upoi mels of their saddles. At night, as we generally camped out, they were laid unde close by our sides. Gregg. 356 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. travel for weeks, and even months, over the firm* and often rocky roads of the interior, the pack-mules carrying their huge loads without any protection whatever to the feet, save that which nature has provided. MINING DISTRICT OF JESUS MARIA IN NORTHERN MEXICO. This mining district was visited by Mr. Gregg, who says, "I set out from Chihuahua on the 15th of October. My (party consisted of but one American comrade with a Mexican mule teer, and three or rour mules freighted with specie to be employed in the silver trade ; a rather scanty convoy for a route subject to the inroads of both savages and robbers. For transportation, we generally pack our specie in sacks made of raw beef-hide, which shrinks upon drying, and thus presses the contents so closely as to prevent friction. A pair of these packages, usually containing between one and two thousand dollars each, constitutes an ordinary mule load on the mountain routes. "The road in this direction leads through the roughest mountain passes; and, in some places, it winds so close along the borders of precipices, that by a single misstep an animal might be precipitated several hundred feet. Mules, however, are very sure footed ; and will often clamber amongst the most craggy cliffs with nearly as much secu rity as the goat. I was shown the projecting edge of a rock over which the road had formerly passed. This shelf was perhaps thirty feet in length by only two or three in width. The road which leads into the town of Jesus-Maria from the west side of the mountain is also extremely perilous and steep, and seems almost to overhang the houses below. Heavily laden mules have sometimes slipped off the track, and tumbled headlong into the town. This place is even more pent up between ridges than Zacatecas: the valley is narrower and the mountains much higher ; while, as is the case with that remark able city, the houses are sometimes built in successive tiers, one above another; the azoteas of the lower ones forming the yard of those above. " The first mine I visited consisted of an immense horizontal shaft cut several hundred feet into a hill-side, a short distance below the town of Jesus-Maria, in the Sierra Madre, (latitude 28 deg. N., longitude 107 deg. 10 min. W.,) upon which the proprietors had already sunk, in the brief space of one year, the enormous sum of one hundred and twenty thousand dollars ! Such is often the fate of the speculative miner, whose vocation is closely allied to gaming, and equally precarious. " The most important mine of Jesus-Maria at this time was one called Santa Juliana, which had been the means of alternately making and sinking several splendid fortunes. This mine had then reached a depth of between eight and nine hundred feet, and the operations were still tending downwards. The materials were drawn up by mule-power applied to a windlass : but as the rope attached to it only extended half-way down, another windlass had been erected at the distance of about four hundred feet from the mouth of the cavern, which was also worked by mules, and drew the ores, &c., from the bottom. On one occasion, as I was standing near the aperture of this great pit, watch ing the ascent of the windlass rope, expecting every moment the appearance of the large leathern bucket which they employ for drawing up the minerals as well as the rubbish and water,j" from the bottom, what should greet my vision but a rnule, puffing and writhing, firmly bound to a huge board constructed for the purpose, and looking about as demure upon the whole as a sheep under the shears. " The ore which is obtained from these mines, if sufficiently rich to justify the opera tion, is transferred to the smelting-furnaces, where the pure metal is melted down and extracted from the virgin fossil. If, on the contrary, the ore is deemed of inferior qua lity, it is then submitted to the process of amalgamation. The moliendas, or crushing- mills (arrastres, as called at some mines), employed for the purpose of grinding the ores, are somewhat singular machines. A circular (or rather annular) cistern of some twenty or thirty feet in diameter is dug in the earth, and the sides as well as the bottom are lined * Some of these table-plain highways, though of but a dry sandy and clayey soil, are as firm as a brick pavement. In some places, for miles, I have remarked that the nail-heads of my shod animals would hardly leave any visible impression. f Water has sometimes accumulated so rapidly in this mine as to stop operations for weeks together. MINING DISTRICT OF JESUS MARIA. 357 \vhh hewn stone of the hardest quality. Transversely through an upright post whirli turns upon Us axis in the centre of the plan, passes a shaft of wood, at each end of whi< are attached by cords one or two grinding-stones with smooth flat surfaces which are dragged (by mules fastened to the extremities of the shaft) slowly around upon the bot tom of the cistern, into which the ore is thrown after being pounded into small pieces It is here ground, with the addition of water, into an impalpable mortar, by the constant friction of the dragging stones against the sides and bottom of the cistern. A suitable quantity of quicksilver is perfectly mixed with the mortar ; to which are added some mu riates, sulphates, and other chemical substances, to facilitate the amalgamation. The compound is then piled up in small heaps, and not disturbed again untU this process is supposed to be complete, when it is transferred to the washing-machine. Those I have observed are very simple, consisting of a kind of stone tub, into which a stream of water is made to flow constantly, so as to carry off all the lighter matter, which is kept stirred up by an upright studded with pegs, that revolves in the centre, while the amalgamated metals sink to the bottom. Most of the quicksilver is then pressed out, and the silver submitted to a burning process, by which the remaining portion of mercury is expelled. "The silver which is taken from the furnace generally contains an intermixture of gold, averaging from ten to thirty per cent ; but what is extracted by amalgamation is mostly separated in the washing. While in a liquid state, the gold, from its greater spe cific gravity, mostly settles to the bottom ; yet it usually retains a considerable alloy of silver. The compound is distinguished by the name of oroche. The main portion of the silver generally retains too little gold to make it worth separating. " Every species of silver is moulded into barras, or ingots, weighing from fifty to eighty pounds each, and usually worth between one and two thousand dollars. These are assayed by an authorised agent of the government and stamped with their weight and character, which enables the holder to calculate their value by a very simple rule. When the bullion is thus stamped, it constitutes a species of currency, which is much safer for remittances than coin. In case of robbery, the barras are easily identified, provided the robbers have not had time to mould them into some other form. For this reason, people of wealth frequently lay up their funds in ingots ; and the cellars of some of the ricos of the South are often found teeming with large quantities of them, presenting the appear ance of a winter s supply of fuel. " As the charge for parting the gold and silver at the Mexican mints is generally from one to two dollars, and coinage about fifty cents per pound, this assayed bullion yields a profit upon its current value of nearly temper cent at the United States Mint ; but, if un- assayed, it generally produces an advance of about double that amount upon the usual cost at the mines. The exportation of bullion, however, is prohibited, except by special licence from the general government. Still, a large quantity is exported in this way, and considerable amounts smuggled out through some of the ports. "A constant and often profitable business in the silver trade* is carried on at these mines. As the miners rarely fail being in need of ready money, they are generally obliged to sell their bullion for coin, and that often at a great sacrifice, so as to procure available means to prosecute their mining operatiocs. To profit by this trade, as is already men tioned, was a principal object of my present visit. Having concluded my business trans actions, and partially gratified my curiosity, I returned to Chihuahua. " It is usual for each trader, upon his arrival in Chihuahua to engage a store-room, and to open and exhibit his goods, as well for the purpose of disposing of them at whole sale as retail. His most profitable custom is that of the petty country merchants from the surrounding villages. Some traders, it is true, continue in the retail business for a season or more, yet the greater portion are transient dealers, selling off at wholesale as soon as a fair bargain is offered. MODE OF SELLING GOODS. "The usual mode of selling in Chihuahua is by the lot. Cottons, as calicoes and other prints, bleached, brown, and blue domestics, both plain and twilled, stripes, checks, &c., are rated at two or three reales* per vara, without the least * 12 granos make 1 real ; 8 reales, 1 peso, or dollar. These are the divisions used in computa tion, but instead of granos, the copper coins of Chihuahua and many other places, are the claco 358 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. reference to quality or cost, and the general assortment at 60 to 100 per cent upon the bills of cost, according; to the demand. The varage is usually estimated by adding eight per cent to the yardage, but the vara being thirty-three inches (nearly), the actual difference is more than nine. In these sales, cloths indeed all measurable goods, except ribands and the like, sometimes enter at the varage rate. Every thing was sometimes rated by the vara not only all textures, but even hats, cutlery, trinkets, and so on! In such cases, very singular disputes would frequently arise as to the mode of measuring some particular articles : for instance, whether pieces of riband should be measured in bulk, or unrolled, and yard by yard ; looking-glasses, cross or lengthwise; pocket-knives, shut or open; writing-paper, in the ream, in the quire, or by the single sheet; and then, whether the longer or shorter way of the paper ; and many others. " Before the end of October, 1839, I had an opportunity of selling out my stock of goods to a couple of English merchants, which relieved me from the delays, to say nothing of the inconveniences attending a retail trade: such, for instance, as the accu mulation of copper coin, which forms almost the exclusive currency in petty dealings. Some thousands of dollars worth are frequently accumulated upon the hands of the merchant in this way, and as the copper of one department is worthless in another, ex cept for its intrinsic value, which is seldom more than ten per cent of the nominal value, the holders are subjected to a great deal of trouble and annoyance. " CITY OF CHIHUAHUA. This city, when compared with Santa Fe and all the towns of the North, Chihuahua might indeed be pronounced a magnificent place; but, com pared with the nobler cities of tierra afuera, it sinks into insignificance. According to Captain Pike, the city of Chihuahua was founded in 1691. The ground-plan is much more regular than that of Santa Fe, while a much greater degree of elegance and classic taste has been exhibited in the style of the architecture of many buildings; for though the bodies be of adobe, all the best houses are cornered with hewn stone, and the doors and windows are framed in the same. The streets, however, remain nearly in the same state as nature formed them, with the exception of a few roughly-paved side- walks. Although situated about a hundred miles east of the main chain of the Mexican Cordilleras, Chihuahua is surrounded on every side by detached ridges of mountains, but none of them of any great magnitude. The elevation of the city above the ocean is between four and five thousand feet ; its latitude is 28 deg. 36 min. ; and its entire population numbers about ten thousand souls. "The most splendid edifice in Chihuahua is the principal church, which is said to equal in architectural grandeur any thing of the sort in the republic. " Having closed all my affairs in Chihuahua and completed my preparations for de parting, I took my leave of that city for the North on the 31st of October, 1839. I was accompanied by a caravan consisting of twenty-two waggons (all of which save one belonged to me), and forty odd men, armed to the teeth, and prepared for any emer gency we might be destined to encounter: a precaution altogether necessary, in view of the^ hordes of hostile savages which at all times infested the route before us." Gregg s Commerce of the Prairies. join (| real) and the currtilla (f real). The silver coins are the media (6 cents), the real (12| cents), the peseta (2 reales), the toston, or half dollar, and the peso or dollar. The gold coins are the doblon or onza (doubloon), with the same subdivisions as the silver dollar, which are also pre cisely of the weight. The par value of the doubloon is sixteen dollars ; but as there is no kind of paper currency, gold, as the most convenient remittance, usually commands a high premium sometimes so high, indeed, that the doubloon is valued in the North at from eighteen to twenty dollars. NEW MEXICO. CHAPTER IX. NEW MEXICO. THIS country, the most recent account of which is that by Mr. Greg" is bounded north and east by the territories of the United States, south by that of Texas and Chihuahua, and west by Upper California, it is surrounded by chains of mountains and extensive prairies, extending to a distance of 500 miles or more except in the direction of Chihuahua, from which its settlements are separated by an uninhabited desert for nearly two hundred miles and without the means of water communication with any other part of the world. It is entered from Northern Mexico or Chihuahua, by El Paso del Norte. The whole territory, including extensive bleak regions with which it is inter- sected, comprises about 200,000 square miles. Mr. Gregg is of opinion that, " To which soever sovereignty that section of land may eventually belong, that portion of it at least, which is inhabited, should remain united. Any attempt on the part of Texas to make the Rio del Norte the line of demarcation would greatly retard her ultimate acquisition of the territory, as it would leave at least one-third of the population accustomed to the same rule, and bound by ties of consanguinity and affinity of customs wholly at the mercy of the contiguous hordes of savages, that inhabit the Cordilleras on the west of them. This great chain of mountains which reaches the borders of the Rio del Norte, not far above El Paso would, in my opinion, form the most natural boundary between the two countries, from thence northward." RIVERS. " There is not," it is stated by Mr. Gregg, " a single navigable stream to be found in New Mexico. The famous Rio del Norte is so shallow, for the most part of the year, that Indian canoes can scarcely float in it. Its navigation is also obstructed by frequent shoals and rippling sections for a distance of more than a thousand miles below Santa Fe. Opposite Taos, especially, for an uninterrupted distance of nearly fifteen miles, it runs pent up in a deep canon (ravine), through which it rushes in rapid torrents. This frightful chasm is absolutely impassable ; and, viewed from the top, the scene is imposing in the extreme. None but the boldest hearts and firmest nerves can venture to its brink, and look down its almost perpendicular precipice, over projecting crags and deep crevices, upon the foaming current of the river, which, in some places, appears like a small rippling brook ; while in others it winds its serpentine course silently but majestically along, through a narrow little valley ; with immense plains bordering and expanding in every direction, yet so smooth and level that the course of the river is not perceived till within a few yards of the verge. I have beheld this canon from the summit of a mountain, over which the road passes some twenty miles below Taos, from whence it looks like the mere fissure of an insignificant ravine." Baron Humboldt describes an extraordinary event as having occurred in 1752, of which he says the inhabitants of Paso del Norte still preserved the recollection in his day. The whole bed of the river," he says, " became dry all of a sudden, for more than thirty leagues above and twenty leagues below the Paso : and the water of the river precipitated itself into a newly-formed chasm, and only made its reappearance near the Presidio of San Eleazeario At length, after the lapse of several weeks, the water resumed its course, no doubt because the chasm and the subterraneous conductors had filled up." This savors of the marvellous, as not the least knowledge of these facts 360 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. appears to have been handed down to the present generation. During very great droughts, however, this river is said to have entirely disappeared in the sand, in some places, between San Elceario and the Presidio del Norte. " Notwithstanding the nnmerous tributary streams which would be supposed to pour their contents into the Rio del Norte, very few reach their destination before they are completely exhausted. Rio Puerco, so called from the extreme muddiness of its waters, would seem to form an exception to this rule. Yet this also, although at least a hundred miles in length, is dry at the mouth for a portion of the year, The creek of Santa Fe itself, though a bold and dashing rivulet in the immediate vicinity of the mountains, sinks into insignificance, and is frequently lost altogether before it reaches the main river. Pechos and Conchos, its most important inlets, would scarcely be enti tled to a passing remark, but for the geographical error of Baron Humboldt, who set down the former as the head branch of the Red River of Natchitoches. These streams may be considered the first constant-flowing inlets which the Rio del Norte receives from Santa Fe south say for the distance of five hundred miles! It is then no won der that this Great River of the North decreases in volume of water as it descends. In fact, above the region of tide-water, it is almost everywhere fordable during most of the year, being seldom over knee-deep, except at the time of freshets. Its banks are gene rally very low, often less than ten feet above low-water mark: and yet, owing to the dis- proportioned. width of the channel (which is generally three or four hundred yards), it is not subject to inundations. Its only important rises are those of the annual freshets, occasioned by the melting of the snow in the mountains. " This river, though its entire length, following its meanders from its source in the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf of Mexico, must be considerably over two thousand miles, is hardly navigable to the extent of two hundred miles above its mouth." SANTA FE, the capital of New Mexico, is the only town of any importance in the province. It is sometimes written Santa Fe de San Francisco (Holy Faith of St. Francis), the patron saint. It occupies the site of an ancient Pueblo or Indian village. Its situation in latitude 35 deg. 41 min. N., and longitude 106 deg. W., is twelve or fifteen miles east of the Rio del Norte, " at the western base of a snow-clad mountain, upon a beautiful stream of small mill-power size, which ripples down in icy cascades, and joins the river some twenty miles to the south-westward. The population of the city itself but little exceeds 3000 ; yet, including several surrounding villages which are embraced in its corporate jurisdiction, it amounts to nearly 6000 souls.* The town is very irregularly laid out, and most of the streets are little better than com mon highways traversing scattered settlements which are interspersed with corn fields nearly sufficient to supply the inhabitants with grain. The only attempt at any thing like architectural compactness and precision consists in four tiers of buildings, whose fronts are shaded with a fringe of portales or corredores of the rudest possible description. They stand around the public square, and comprise the Palacio, or gover nor s house, the custom-house, the barracks (with which is connected the fearful Gala- bozo\ the Casa Consistorial of the Alcaldes, the Capilla de los Soldados, or military chapel, besides several private residences, as well as most of the shops of the American traders. POPULATION. " The population of New Mexico is almost exclusively confined to towns and villages, the suburbs of which are generally farms. Even most of the ranchos and haciendas have grown into villages, a result almost indispensable for protection against the maiauding savages of the surrounding wilderness. The principal of these settlements are located in the valley of the Rio del Norte, extending from nearly one hundred miles north to about one hundred and forty south of Santa Fe.j The most * Its elevation above the ocean is nearly 7000 feet ; that of the valley of Taos is no doubt over a mile and a half. The highest peak of the mountain (which is covered with perennial snow) some ten miles to the north-east of the capital, is reckoned about 5000 feet above the town. Those from Taos northward rise still to a much greater elevation. J- The settlements up the river from the capital are collectively known as JRio-Arriba, and those down the river as Rio-Abajo. The latter comprise over a third of the population, and the principal wealth of New Mexico. NEW MEXICO. important of these, next to the capital, is El Valle de Taos* so called in honour of the raosa tribe of Indians, a remnant of whom still forms a pueblo in the north of the va i 1 No part of New Mexico equals this valley in amenity of soil, richness of produce " .M beauty of appearance. Whatever is thrown into its prolific bosom, which the earlv frei of autumn will permit to ripen, grows to a wonderful degree of perfection. "Wheat especially has been produced of a superlative quality, and in such abun dance, that, as is asserted, the crops have often yielded over a hundred fold I would have it understood, however, that this is a fair sample of New Mexican soil for in noin of fact, though many of the bottoms are of very fertile character, the uplands must chiefly remain unproductive; owing, in part, to the sterility of the soil, but as much r doubt, to want of irrigation ; hence nearly all the farms and settlements are located ii those valleys which may be watered by some constant-flowing stream. f "The first settler of the charming valley of Taos, since the country was reconquered by the Indians, is said to have been a Spaniard named Pando, about the middle of the eighteenth century. This pioneer of the North, finding himself greatly exposed to the depredations of the Comanches, succeeded in gaining the friendship of that tribe, by promising his infant daughter, then a beautiful child, to one of their chiefs in marriage But the unwilling maiden having subsequently refused to ratify the contract, the settle ment was immediately attacked by the savages, and all were slain except the betrothed damsel who was led into captivity. After living some years with the Comanches on the great prairies, she was bartered away to the Pawnees, of whom she was eventually pur chased by a Frenchman of St. Louis. Some very respectable families in that city are descended from her ; and there are many people yet living who remember with what affecting pathos the old lady was wont to tell her tale of woe. She died but a few years ago. CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. " Salubrity of climate is decidedly the most interesting feature in the character of New Mexico. Nowhere not even under the much-boasted Sicilian skies can a purer or a more wholesome atmosphere be found. Bilious dis eases the great scourge of the valley of the Mississippi are here almost unknown. Apart from a fatal epidemic fever of a typhoid character, that ravaged the whole province from 1837 to 1839, and which, added to the smallpox that followed in 1840, carried off nearly ten per cent of the population, New Mexico has experienced very little disease of a febrile character ; so that as great a degree of longevity is attained there, perhaps, as in any other portion of the habitable world. Persons withered almost to mummies are to be encountered occasionally, whose extraordinary age is only to be inferred from their recollection of certain notable events which have taken place in times far remote. "A sultry day, from Santa Fe north, is of very rare occurrence. The summer nights are usually so cool and pleasant that a pair of blankets constitutes an article of comfort seldom dispensed with. The winters are long, but not so subject to sudden changes as in damper climates ; the general range of the thermometer, throughout the year, being from 10 deg. to 75 deg. above zero, of Fahrenheit. Baron Humboldt was led into as great an error with respect to the climate of New Mexico as to the rivers ; for he remarks that near Santa Fe and a little further north, the Rio del Norte is sometimes covered for a succession of several years, with ice thick enough to admit the passage of horses and carriages: a circumstance which would be scarcely less astounding to the New Mexicans, than would the occurrence of a similar event in the harbour of New York be to her citizens. "The great elevation of all the plains about the Rocky Mountains, is, perhaps, the principal cause of the extraordinary dryness of the atmosphere. There is but little rain throughout the year, except from July to October known as the rainy season; and as the Missouri traders usually arrive about its commencement, the coincidence has given * " The Valley of Taos ," there being no town of this name. It includes several villages and other settlements, the largest of which are Fernandez and Los Ranches, four or five miles apart. f From the generally barren and desolate appearance which the uplands of New Mexico pre sent, some exceptions have possessed an extraordinary degree of fertility ; as is demonstrated by tl fact that many of the fields on the undulating lands in the suburbs of Santa Fd, have no c been in constant cultivation over two hundred years, and yet produce tolerable crops, w having been once renovated by manure. Gregg. VOL. I. 3 A 362 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. rise to a superstition, quite prevalent among the vulgar, that the Americans bring the rain with them. During seasons of drought, especially, they look for the arrival of the annual caravans as the harbinger of speedy relief. POPULATION. " There has never been an accurate census taken of the population of New Mexico. Of the one attempted in 1832, the Secretary of State at Santa Fe, speaks in the following terms : * At present (1841) we may estimate the Spanish or white population at about 60,000 souls or more, being what remains of 72,000, which the census taken seven or eight years ago showed there then existed in New Mexico. He supposes that this great diminution resulted from the ravages of the frightful diseases already al luded to. The decrease of population from these causes, however, is greatly overrated. The discrepancy must find its explanation in the inaccuracy of the census referred to. " If we exclude the unsubjugated savages, the entire population of New Mexico, including the Pueblo Indians, cannot be set down, according to the best estimates I have been able to obtain, at more than 70,000 souls. These may be divided as follows : White Creoles, say 1000 ; Mestizos, or mixed Creoles, 59,000 ; and Pueblos, 10,000. Of naturalised citizens, the number is inconsiderable scarcely twenty ; and if we except transient traders, there are not over double as many alien residents. There are no negroes in New Mexico, and consequently neither mulattoes nor zambos. In 1803, Baron Humboldt set down the population of this province at 40,200, so that according to this the increase for forty years has barely exceeded one per cent per annum. AGRICULTURE OF NEW MEXICO. " Agriculture, like almost every thing else in New Mexico, is in a very primitive and unimproved state. A great portion of the peasantry cultivate with the hoe alone their ploughs (when they have any) being only used for mellow grounds, as they are too rudely constructed to be fit for any other service. Those I have seen in use are mostly fashioned in this manner : a section of a trunk of a tree, eight or ten inches in diameter, is cut about two feet long, with a small branch left pro jecting upwards, of convenient length for a handle. With this a beam is connected to which oxen are yoked. The block, with its fore end sloped downwards to a point, runs flat, and opens a furrow similar to that of the common shovel plough. What is equally worthy of remark is, that these ploughs are often made exclusively of wood, without one particle of iron, or even a nail to increase their durability. "The labores and milpas (cultivated fields) are often, indeed most usually, without any enclosure. The owners of cattle are obliged to keep herdsmen constantly with them, else graze them at a considerable distance from the farms ; for if any trespass is committed upon the fields by stock, the proprietor of the latter is bound to pay damages: therefore, instead of the cultivator s having to guard his crop from the cattle as with us, the owners of these are bound to guard them from the crops. Only a chance farm is seen fenced with poles scattered along on forks, or a loose hedge of brush. Mud-fences, or walls of very large adobes, are also occasionally to be met with. " The necessity of irrigation has confined, and no doubt will continue to confine agriculture principally to the valleys of the constant-flowing streams. In some places the crops are frequently cut short by the drying up of the streams. Where water is abundant, however, art has so far superseded the offices of nature in watering the farms, that it is almost a question whether the interference of nature in the matter would not be a disadvantage. On the one hand, the husbandman need not have his grounds over flowed if he administers the water himself, much less need he permit them to suffer from drought. He is, therefore, more sure of his crop than if it were subject to the caprices of the weather in more favoured agricultural regions. " One acequia madre (mother ditch) suffices generally to convey water for the irri gation of an entire valley, or, at least, for all the fields of one town or settlement. This is made and kept in repair by the public, under the supervision of the alcaldes ; labourers being allotted to work upon it as with us upon our county roads. The size of this prin cipal ditch is, of course, proportioned to the quantity of land to be watered. It is con veyed over the highest part of the valley, which, on these mountain streams, is, for the most part, next to the hills. From this, each proprietor of a farm runs a minor ditch, in like manner, over the most elevated part of his field. Where there is not a superabun dance of water, which is often the case on the smaller streams, each farmer has his day, or portion of a day allotted to him for irrigation ; and at no other time is he permitted to NEW MfcXICO. 3(53 extract water from the acequia madre. Then the cultivator, after lettino- the water into his minor ditch, dams this, first at one point and then at another, so as to overflow a sec tion at a time, and with his hoe, depressing eminences and filling sinks, he causes the water to spread regularly over the surface. Though the operation would seem tedious an expert irngator will water, in one day, his five or six-acre field, if level, and every thine well arranged; yet, on uneven ground, he will hardly be able to get over half of that amount.* " All the acequias for the valley of the Rio del Norte are conveyed from the main stream, except where a tributary of more convenient water happens to join it. As the banks of the river are very low, and the descent considerable, the water is soon brought upon the surface by a horizontal ditch along an inclined bank, commencing at a conve nient point of constant-flowing water generally without dam, except sometimes a wing of stones to turn the current into the canal. FOOD. "The staple productions of the country are emphatically Indian corn and wheat. The former grain is most extensively employed for making tortillas an article of food greatly in demand among the people, the use of which has been transmitted to them by the aborigines. The corn is boiled in water with a little lime : and when it has been sufficiently softened, so as to strip it of its skin, it is ground into paste upon the metaterf and formed into a thin cake. This is afterwards spread on a small sheet of iron or copper, called comal (comalli, by the Indians), and placed over the fire, where in less than three minutes, it is baked and ready for use. The thinness of the tortilla is always a great test of skill in the maker, and much rivalry ensues in the art of prepara tion. The office of making tortillas has, from the earliest times, pertained chiefly to the women, who appear to be better adapted to this employ than the other sex, both as re gards skill and dexterity, in preparing this particular food for the table. I perfectly agree with the historian Clavigero, however, in the opinion that although this species of corn-bread may be very wholesome and substantial, and well-flavoured when newly made, it is unpleasant when cold. " A sort of thin mush called atole, made of Indian meal, is another article of diet, the preparation of which is from the aborigines; and such is its nationality, that in the north it is frequently called el cafe de los Mexicanos (the coffee of the Mexicans). How general soever the use of cofTee among Americans may appear, that of atole is still more so among the lower classes of Mexicans. They virtually * breakfast, dine and sup upon it. Of this, indeed, \\\\\i frijoles and chile (beans and red pepper), consist their principal food. The extravagant use of red pepper among the Mexicans has become truly proverbial. It enters into nearly every dish at every meal, and often so predominates as entirely to con ceal the character of the viands. It is likewise ground into a sauce, and thus used even more abundantly than butter. Chile verde (green pepper), not as a mere condiment, but as a salad, served up in different ways, is reckoned by them one of the greatest luxuries. But however much we may be disposed to question their taste in this particular, no one can hesitate to do homage to their incomparable chocolate, in the preparation of which the Mexicans surely excel every other people. " Besides these, many other articles of diet peculiar to the country, and adopted from the aborigines, are still in useoften of rich and exquisite flavour, and though usually not much relished at first by strangers, they are for the most part highly esteemed after a little use. " The rancheros, and all the humbler classes of people, very seldom use any tc for their meals, an inconvenience which is very little felt, as the dishes are generally served out from the kitchen in courses of a single plate to each guest, who usually take it upon his knees. Knives and forks are equally dispensed with, the viands * There is no land measure here correspondent to our acres. Husbandmen rate their fields by the amount of wheat necessary to sow them ; and thus speak of afanegaot lund-Jancga measure of about two bushels-meaning an extent which two bushels ot wheat will suffice to sow. Tracts are usually sold by the number of leguas (leagues), or van* front ot irngah those back from the streams are considered worthless. The van is very nearly thirt inches, 5000 of which constitute the Mexican league under two miles and tw f From the Indian word mclatt, a hollowed oblong stone, used as a gi 364 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. hashed or boiled so very soft as to be eaten with a spoon. This is frequently supplied by the tortillia, a piece of which is ingeniously doubled between the fingers so as to assist in the disposal of any thing, be it ever so rare or liquid. " The very singular custom of abstaining from all sorts of beverage during meals, has frequently afforded me a great deal of amusement. Although a large cup of water is set before each guest, it is not customary to drink it off till the repast is finished. Should any one take it up in his hand while in the act of eating, the host is apt to cry out, Hold, hold ! there is yet more to come. " I have never been able to ascertain definitely the meaning of this peculiarity ; but from the strictness with which it is observed, it is natural to suppose, that the use of any kind of drink whilst eating, is held extremely unwholesome.* The New Mexicans use but little wine at meals, and that exclusively of the produce of the Pasco del Norte. VARIOUS PRODUCTIONS. "But to return to the productions of the soil. Cotton is cultivated to no extent, although it has always been considered as indigenous to the country ; while the ancient manufactures of the aborigines prove it to have been especi ally so in this province. Flax is entirely neglected, and yet a plant resembling in every respect that of the linum usitatissimum, is to be found in great abundance in many of the mountain valleys. The potato (la papa), although not cultivated in this country till very lately, is unquestionably an indigenous plant, being still found in a state of nature in many of the mountain valleys though of small size, seldom larger than filberts : whence it appears that this luxury had not its exclusive origin in South America, as is the cur rent opinion of the present day. Universal as the use of tobacco is among these people, there is very little of it grown, and that chiefly of a light and weak species, called by the natives punche, which is also indigenous, and still to be met with growing wild in some places. What has in a great measure contributed to discourage people from attend ing to the cultivation of the tobacco plant, is the monopoly of this indispensable by the federal government; for although the tobacco laws are not enforced in New Mexico (there being no Estanquillo or public store- house), yet the people cannot carry it any where else in the republic for sale, without risk of its being immediately confiscated. A still more powerful cause operating against this, as well as every other branch of agricul ture in New Mexico, is the utter want of navigable streams, as a cheap and convenient means of transportation to distant markets. FRUITS. " Famous as the republic of Mexico has been for the quality and variety of its fruits, this province, considering its latitude, is most singularly destitute in this respect. A few orchards of apples, peaches, and apricots, are occasionally met with, but even these are of very inferior quality, being only esteemed in the absence of something better. A few small vineyards are also to be found in the valley of the Rio del Norte, but the grape does not thrive as at El Paso. The mode of cultivating the grape in these parts is somewhat peculiar, and might, I have no doubt, be practised to great advantage in other countries. No scaffold or support of any kind is erected for the vines, which are kept pruned so as to form a sort of shrubbery. Every fall of the year these are com pletely covered with earth, which protects them during the winter. Upon the opening of spring the dirt is scraped away, and the vines pruned again. This being repeated from year to year, the shrubs soon acquire sufficient strength to support the heavy crops of improved and superiorly-flavoured grapes which they finally produce. * Indigenous wild fruits are not quite so scarce ; a clear evidence that the lack of cul tivated fruit is not so much the fault of nature, as the result of indolence and neglect on the part of the people. The prickly pear is found in greatest abundance, and of several varieties: and though neither very wholesome nor savory, it is nevertheless frequently eaten. ** There is but little timber in New Mexico, except in the mountains and along the water-courses ; the table-plains and valleys are generally all open prairie. The forest growths, moreover, of all the north of Mexico, present quite a limited variety of timber, among which the common pitch-pine mostly predominates. The tree which appears to * Females rarely ever eat uith the males at least in the presence of strangers but usually take their food in the kitchen by themselves. NORTH-WESTERN MEXICO. be most peculiar to the country, is a kind of scrub pine, called pinon, which grows tren rally to the height of twenty or thirty feet, with leaves ever-green and pine-like but scarcely an inch long. From the surface of this tree exudes a species of turpentine resembling that of the pitch-pine, but perhaps less resinous. The wood is white and firm, and much used for fuel. The most remarkable appendage of this tree is the fruit it bears, which is also known by the same name. This is a little nut about the size of a kidney-bean, with a rich oily kernel in a thin shell, enclosed in a chestnut-like bur. It is of a pleasant flavour and much eaten by the natives, and considerable quantities are exported annually to the southern cities. It is sometimes used for the manufacture of a certain kind of oil, said to be very good for lamps. * The mezquite tree, vulgarly called muskeet in Texas, where it has attained some celebrity, grows in some of the fertile valleys of Chihuahua to the height of thirty and forty feet, with a trunk of one to two feet in diameter. The wood makes excellent fuel but it is seldom used for other purposes, as it is crooked, knotty, and very coarse and brittle, more resembling the honey-locust (of which it might be considered a scrubby species) than the mahogany, as some people have asserted. The fruit is but a diminu tive honey-locust in appearance and flavour, of the size and shape of a flattened bean- pod, with the seeds disposed in like manner. This pod, which, like that of the honey- locust, encloses a glutinous substance, the Apaches and other tribes of Indians o-rind into flour to make their favourite pinole. The mezquite seems undoubtedly of the Acacia Arabica species; as some physicians who have examined the gum which exudes from the tree, pronounce it genuine Arabic. " On the water-courses there is little timber to be found except cotton-wood, scantily scattered along their banks. Those of the Rio del Norte are now nearly bare throughout the whole range of the settlements, and the inhabitants are forced to resort to the distant mountains for most of their fuel. But nowhere, even beyond the settlements, are there o be seen such dense cotton-wood bottoms as those of the Mississippi valley. Besides the common cotton-wood there is another to be found upon the mountain streams of New Mexico, which has been called willow-leaf or bitter cotton-wood (populus augustifolia ?) and has been reckoned by some a species of cinchona, yet for no other reason perhaps than that the bark possesses efficacious tonic qualities. Attached to the seeds of this tree is also a cotton similar to that of the sweet cotton-wood, or populus angulata. " Among the wild productions of New Mexico is the palmilla a species of palmetto which might be termed the soap-plant whose roots, as well as those of another species known as palma (or palm), when bruised, form a saponaceous pulp called amole, much used by the natives for washing clothes, and is said to be even superior to soap for scour ing woollens. PASTURES. "Most of the high table-plains afford the finest grazing in the world, while, for want of water, they are utterly useless for most other purposes. That scanty moisture which suffices to bring forth the natural vegetation is insufficient for agricultural productions without the aid of irrigation. The high prairies of all Northern Mexico differ greatly from those of our border in the general character of their vegetation. They are remarkably destitute of the gay flowering plants for which the former are so cele brated, being mostly clothed with different species of a highly nutritious grass called grama, which is of* a very short and curly quality. The highlands, upon which alone this sort of grass is produced being seldom verdant till after the rainy season sets in, the grama is only in perfection from August to October. But being rarely nipt by the frost until after the rains are over, it cures upon the ground and remains excellent hay equal if not superior to that which is cut and stacked from our western prairies. Although the winters are rigorous, the feeding of stock is almost entirely unknown in New Mexico ; nevertheless, the extensive herds of the country, not only of cattle and sheep, but of mules and horses, generally maintain themselves in excellent condition upon the dry pasturage alone through the cold season, and until the rains start up the green grass again the following summer." The following are sketches of the parts of Mexico through which Mr. Gilliam travelled towards California, taken from his travels : " My disagreeable journey (after leaving Durango) was continued the whole day 366 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. until my arrival at Chinacates, a rancho belonging to the estate of the Conde of Guate- mepe. I dismounted at the house of the administrador before sunset. The governor was from home, but his wife came to the door and invited me in, which I did, and to my great astonishment, after I had become seated on the bench behind the long table, she took from a box a six-barrelled pistol, the only one that I had seen in the country, be sides my own, and walked across the floor. I drew from my belt my pair of similar weapons and laid them upon the table, so that she might behold also that I had twelve shots, which had a desirable effect ; for she appeared no sooner to discover them than she laid aside her own. The woman, I knew, did not intend hostility, but as that part of the country was very much infested with marauding land-pirates, she had ever been accustomed to be prepared to meet the worst. However, the husband soon arrived, and I fared well. My ride, the next day, was mostly upon the ridge of a mountain, which would, at times, bring me in view of the great valley of Gualamepe. COTTON FACTORY. u The attention of an enterprising Mexican company has, at that place, been directed to the manufacturing of cotton, and I was credibly informed by the superintendent of the factory, the company had borrowed their capital, and were enabled to make a handsome profit, paying thirty-seven and a half per cent upon the loan. ft Thus it can easily be perceived how dearly the Mexicans have to pay for cotton fabrics so much for protection and home markets ! The New Englander related to me what the swindler would call a smart, but to others a disgraceful account of a Mexican gentleman of Saltila, who having determined to go into the cotton manufacturing busi ness, visited the factories of the United States for the purpose of securing perfect machinery. Upon his arrival he made, through a merchant, as his broker, a purchase of a cotton factory machine, at the cost of twenty thousand dollars, and had it shipped to his home. He also engaged an American artisan to go to Saltila and put it together. But all having arrived, upon examination it was discovered that no two wheels of the whole fabrication belonged to one another, being all mismatched, some too large and others too small, like the cannon balls that were too great for their guns, not a wheel could be turned, nor a shot fired. Thus, while the Mexican character falls short of cor rectness, it is nevertheless taken advantage of sometimes. Still it is to be hoped that the twenty thousand has never done the swindler any good. " The Mexicans are very ingenious and apt artisans, acquiring with much celerity the skill of any of the mechanical branches. They never serve the long apprenticeships that are so common in the Union and in Europe ; but having worked at a trade some one or two years, they think themselves sufficiently proficient to carry it on ; and thus quit their tutor and set up for themselves." Mr. Gilliam then proceeded onwards over a rough country of mountains, rocks, cataracts, glens, and forests, until he ascends a height which commanded a view of the Pacific, and then descended to the mining town of Caneles, of which he says : ** The climate of Caneles is spring and summer. Vegetables and fruits which abound in any other latitudes, are plentifully cultivated there. The trees are perpetually green ; for, as fast as the leaves fade and fall, others are fresh expanding ; added to which the golden harvests of the orange-tree are ever beautiful to the eye and tempting to the taste. The streets are necessarily narrow. To the inhabitants this is no inconvenience, for a wheeled vehicle of any kind has never been seen in the town ; indeed, it would be impossible for one to ascend the mountain at any point. 44 The mountains of Caneles have ever been celebrated, from the early discovery of the country, for abounding in silver, but from the poverty of the ore, the mines have never been extensively worked. But what has rendered the place famous as a mineral locality is, that veins of quicksilver have been found there. These have never been worked suc cessfully. I learned that the people were much flattered with hopes, from the fact that an English company had but recently commenced opening a mercury mine, under the management of Mr. John Buchan, an Englishman. NORTH-WESTERN MEXICO. 3(57 "I was shown some specimens of quicksilver ore, of which there were two kind* The liquid metal was contained m a soft red stone. In the first kind the minera was not perceptible m the rock, which was only ascertained to be possessed of a foreign sub stance by its weight. The second and last degree of specimens differed from the first only by the mineral protruding out of the stone in small detached particles, the only contrast being, that the one was richer in mercury than the other. " Quicksilver is never found but in secondary formations. The ore is pulverised into an impalpable powder, and the mineral is obtained by washing the offal from the silver. The inhabitants of the mines of Caneles are most grievously affected with the loathsome disease bronchocele, or goitre." Of the difficulty of travelling towards California, he observes, "There were times when points of rocks or earth, sometimes steep, and at others low, had to be passed. Then the traveller would have to encounter the cat s-paw, or some other briery growth, which would tear his clothes and flesh ; for all the vegetable kingdom in Mexico is thorny. Indeed the idea often strikes one, that all nature There is at war the birds, the beasts, the creeping insects and reptiles, as well as the vegetation, are all armed for formidable aggression and defence ; and yet, above every other con sideration, man, who should be lord and subduer of uncultivated nature, is the bane over all, for he excels in his unkind and hostile deeds. The traveller has to spend the night at some narrow nook that may promise scanty picking for his animals, and safety for himself. He does not proceed more than half a day down the river before he perceive^ that the mountain-sides, which will admit of growth, are covered with forests of log wood. "The town of Topic is a rich mineral, situated upon a high mountain, fifteen miles north of Caneles. It is a place of great antiquity, and has three times been destroyed by the Indians ; to this day, bars of silver, that were buried under its ruins, are found ; while silver bullets are ploughed up in the fields. Since I have mentioned the subject of ploughing, I will remark, that I made inquiries as to the mode of cultivating the land in the cold regions of Madre Montre, and was informed, that there lived in those mountains some Indians who have not been civilised, who are in the habit of planting" their corn to a depth beyond the influence of the cold. Sometimes, I was told, they were known to have planted the grain as low as two feet under the earth, and if it should germinate and sprout to the surface, before the season of frost has passed, and be nipped down, the warm earth beneath would nourish the roots, and cause them to again grow up to perfection. Thus while the roots of corn are in a warm region, the stalk and fruit are nourished in a colder clime." Travelling down along a river from Topic, for three days among rocks and water, and enclosed between mountains, he at length arrived in a country, of which he says : " The forests, a perfect medley in every direction, by their growth being so indis criminately mixed, that the whole woods were thickly matted, and almost impenetrable, save by the paths of ancient usage. The birds, too, of many descriptions, strange to me, were merrily singing the flocks of paroquets of many species, drowning, by their wild and frantic screams, the melodies of the other portion of the feathered tribe. There were some birds that particularly attracted my attention the chechalaca, or pheasant ; to me it resembled more the guinea-fowl than any other bird I was acquainted with, being symmetrically and beautifully proportioned its plumage was dark with slight variations of shade, and although wild in its native state, no fowl is more capable of being rendered domestic." TAMAZULA, a town at which he stopped, appeared to be rapidly declining, and contained about 1000 inhabitants. It is situated on the same river as Ca neles. The inhabitants, jure hospitable, and the curate gave a brilliant ball." " Although the curate" seemed to be a man of about sixty years of age, his person was singularly well proportioned and handsome. His elegance of manners and splendid 368 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. waltzing, appeared to me, notwithstanding he was a curate, to be more becoming in him, than any other individual I ever beheld. Two of his daughters, as also one of the priests of the town, were at the entertainment. The young ladies were as modest, beautiful, and accomplished as any others I saw ; insomuch that they far eclipsed all others in the room, on that truly joyous occasion. " It may appear remarkable to the Christians of the United States that the clergy of Mexico should have children, but I can assure them, that they may have no doubt on that score ; for no truth is of more acknowledged publicity, and nothing is more common than for the favourite unmarried wives to live with the holy fathers at the same time their families are better educated and provided for, as a community, than any others in all Mexico. " TAMAZULA is situated on what is called the Tamazula river; it being the same stream that floods out of the Madre Monte, upon which Caneles is built; but from the junction of the Umaya with it, it assumes the name of Culiacan, and continues to be a deep broad stream, until it arrives upon the plain next to the ocean. It there sinks, and is absorbed by the sand ; and mouths in the Pacific an insignificant river. " CULIACAN, situated near the union of the Umaya and Tamazula rivers; contains about 6000 inhabitants ; is the capital of the department of Sinaloa. The city does not differ in its appearance, or in the character of its people, from any other capital of Mexico. But there, as in the other cities, the priests, with their broad-brimmed shovel hats, and the military, have congregated to take care of the souls and weal of their dear people ! " COSALA is situated about one day s journey south from Culiacan, and from Cosala it is but two days journey further to the port of Mazatlan on the Pacific Ocean. Mazat- lan is entirely defenceless from the surges and winds of the ocean, not possessing any of the attributes of a good harbour, and is unsafe for shipping, by its having a large rock immediately before the town, upon which vessels founder in time of storms. However, Mazatlan is the principal commercial port on the Mexican coast, on the Pacific Ocean. It contains about 5000 inhabitants, composed of every people from the four quarters of the globe, and seems to have been an attractive point for all the varieties of the human family. I imagine that the same number of people can hardly be found, where there is such a farrago of complexions and tongues. " MAZATLAN is the principal stopping point in a voyage from China, by way of the Sandwich Islands, to the United States and Europe. The scale and the shell-fish of the Pacific coasts are abundant and excellent. There is a blue-gilled oyster caught upon this coast, equal to any of those in the Chesapeake bay. The Mexicans of the Pacific have a manner of preserving them, different from any other mode I ever heard of. Immediately upon taking them from the water, they are thrown upon the fire, and when roasted until the shell opens, the oyster is salted and dried. Put up in this manner it will soundly keep in any climate, just like the mackarel that are barrelled up in salt. " On the plains of the Pacific coast I enjoyed perspiration, the atmosphere being more dense and humid than in the interior, and the heights of little elevation. Instead of the south-west winds having always a refreshing coolness in them, it was not unfre- quently the case that they resembled the monsoons of the east. " GUADALOUPE DE CALvo is a town of about 10,000 inhabitants. It is situated about two days journey north of Tamazula. It is, I was informed, of only ten or twelve years existence, and its great population can only be accounted for from the fact that people congregate at such places where minerals are in successful operation. The silver mines here are worked by an English company, under the management of Mr, John Buchan. The mines yielded very profitably, but the ore was becoming poor. The enter prising agent informed me that it was his intention to seek new veins, and abandon those of Guadaloupe" de Calvo. " The houses of Guadaloupe" are covered with shingles, and the windows had sashes and glass in them, as the English were the first builders there, and besides, timber is plen tiful in the mountains. " The mountain regions around Guadaloupe abounded in very rich silver ore. An English gentleman related to me an interesting account of the richest vein of silver, per haps, that was ever opened. At a place called Refugia (the Refuge), an Indian, who followed the trade of making pack-saddles, having ascended a mountain in search of a CENTRAL MKXICO. 3(J9 particular kind of grass, which he used for the purpose of stuffing, perceived under a turf a rock matted to a bunch of roots. Upon examining the stone, he found that it was heavier than rocks of that size generally are, and exhibited the specimen to a Spaniard who informed him that it was one-half silver. " The liberal Indian told the Spaniard where he had made the valuable discovery, and offered him a free gift of one-half of his right in the mine. The partners, with buoyant hopes, commenced proving the value of their enterprise, which resulted in the entire vein being one-half silver, and the other half stone. After they had extracted several millions of dollars of the precious metal, the mine became impoverished, and was abandoned, and the Indian and his partner were left worse off than when they first began to try their for tune. They were remarkably industrious in squandering their money faster than it could be dug from the earth. " The inland road to California is direct from Guadaloupe de Calvo, north-west to the mouth of the Colorado river, where it enters into the Gulf of California. This way is like the most of all others of the Mexican roads, being nothing more than Indian trails, tra velled only by animals, and never by carriages. "The country between Guadaloupe" de Calvo and the Colorado river is much infested by the Apache Indians, who are very barbarous, often cutting off the nose and ears of travellers, close to the head, and then turning them loose to their fate. " The ports of Mazatlan and Guaymas are the usual ports of embarkation to Lower and Upper California, by the way of the ocean. " At GUANOSEBI all of the rocks upon and under the surface of the earth, partake more or less of silver. Mr. Buchan informed me that he should open a mine at that place, which he thought would be profitable. " After the general and the priest, the lawyer is the most formidable personage in Mexico. Mr. Buchan related that, in consequence of the many difficulties which origi nate in transacting business with the Mexicans, he found it to be a matter of both impor tance and profit to employ, continually, on behalf of the company, a lawyer; by doing which he only found it necessary, in the commencement of difficulties with obstreperous customers, to call into his presence his lawyer, and all obstacles were removed. MAILS. " The mails of Mexico are most generally carried by Indians on foot, who transport them, from post to post, more speedily than it could be by horses. An Indian, with his small wallet of corn-meal, and his little package of letters, will take his straight course over mountain, hill, and dale, that cannot be travelled by animals, and by that means shorten the distance, overcoming space in a wonderful manner. The robbers never molest them, for money is never carried in the mails, or the Indians possessed of valuables. On the 30th of May, Mr. Gilliam commenced his homeward journey by way of Tampico, distant from Caneles about 1700 miles. The first place he arrived at was * the hacienda of Casa Blanca which was under the least improved condition of any that I had an opportunity of examining in all Mexico. In the first instance, there was an irri gating dam of water, one league and a half in extent. It was formed by a wall of earth and stone, built from hill to hill, and was filled by the rains. The water had, up to the time of my visit, been turned from it in a stream of eighteen inches in diameter, for a period of six weeks, to water the various parts of a corn-field two leagues and a half square. " The water was conducted over the land by canals, and turned upon the furrows by flood-gates at intervals, the canals running along the higher elevation of the farm. There was corn sealed up in many cone-like houses of from one to three years of age. There were other extensive lands used for pasturing purposes, upon which hundreds of animals grazed. There was at the principal granary a stack of what the Mexicans call fodder at least fifty feet high and 300 feet in length. Oca, fodder, in Mexico is the stalk witt the blade not cured separately, but cut altogether. " Indeed, I have, in the hot damp valleys, seen corn that had been thickly sown tc the purpose of making fodder. The estate belonged to one of the most enterprising an< speculating citizens of Mexico. I was informed that he once bought 20( VOL. i. 3s 370 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. two dollars each, and that when they were boiled into soap, they averaged him fifteen dol lars a-piece. " A day s journey, to my great joy, put me on the east side of the Cordilleras, where, perhaps, lies buried more of the precious metals than the world will ever have industry sufficient to excavate ; for it seemed as if silver ran through their whole extent, " The night of my first day s travel was most disagreeably spent at a wretched rancho in a deep glen. I had directed my servants to put up my carteras under a beautiful musquite-tree that stood before the door of a small filthy house, but by the time they commenced their work, a cloud suddenly sprung up, and the kind Mexicans invited me to lodge within doors. At the time I felt very grateful, but no sooner did the rain begin to pour down, than it ran through the flat roof and flooded in at the walls. I had my guns and pistols wrapped up in the buffalo robes to keep them dry: at the same time, however, I did not part with those around my body. The buckle of my belt was never disturbed, except to draw it tighter, when I was pinched with hunger, or overpowered with fatigue; indeed, from the commencement to the end of my journey, it was length ened about six inches, leaving me but the shadow of my original self. " Our journey lay across the dominions of the Conde de Coral, the most wealthy of all the citizens of Mexico, as I was informed. Ever since I had left the Cordilleras on my rear, my direction was a little south of due east. As I progressed, it was observable that I was rapidly descending from an elevated to a lower region ; for the towering peaks of the back-bone mountains were lost to my view, while the distant points of others would anon show their heads, in a country far below the elevation that I was on. I remarked that the end of each day s journey would place me upon a declivity, beneath that of the former one. In one instance, my entire day s travel was in the evening closed by abruptly descending a short height, which put me upon a plain as much below the former one, as was the elevation of the hills to my rear. "These plains are chiefly wooded with palm-trees, apparently not possessing the ste rility of the table-lands of the Cordilleras. " On the 14th, I arrived at the mineral town of Los Angelos. I had, ever since the commencement of my journey from Casa Blanca, been descending to a hot region, and at Matehaula I found fruits and vegetables in abundance. The sweet orange and the lemon, the pine-apple and the banana, the plantains, plums, pears, peaches, and water-melons also were abundant. I obtained, also, some delightful lettuce, cucumbers, and tomatoes, which I found most congenial to my appetite; for, when travelling, I could never buy vegetables, excepting in the towns. " The priests in Mexico are not the only people who make a commerce of their reli gion. It is the privilege of any individual to hawk about saints, for money-making. " For seven days after my departure from Matehaula, my direction was nearly east, over a country for the most part rolling, and better wooded than any other of the table lands I had seen in Mexico. Every thing seemed to pass off bueno, as the clerk had it. I noticed that my men appeared to know every person they met, and that I was greeted by all in a manner to which I had not formerly been used in the country. One of my men was a merry little fellow, who was perpetually whistling and singing. He was very expert with the lasso, never suffering a horse, mule, or steer, to escape him. He would heave at all animals that came in his way, and some of his rencontres were very exciting. " The atmosphere in the more arid portions of the country, is of such a drying nature that animal matter shrinks and dries rather than consume by putrid decomposition. " On the 25th, I arrived at the town of Tola, a place containing about 2000 inha bitants, and situated on an uneven and confined narrow slip of land, between two hills. At Tola I drank some excellent water. I also bought some good wine, and laid in a plentiful store of provisions, to last me until I should arrive at Tampico. " On the morning of the 26th, after travelling two leagues over a fertile and highly cultivated country. I discovered that a mountain of considerable magnitude lay before me, over which the road wound. My journey was most disagreeable, for the recent rains had made the black mould of the earth very miry, and between mud and stone alternately, our animals progressed very slowly, and with much difficulty. Yet my journey was not without its interest, for the mountain was covered with the most magnificent forest of live oak that I ever beheld. CENTRAL MEXICO. " After fording a small river at the foot of the mountain and well-watered valley for about one hour, when we higher mountain. So precipitate was the height, that one-half of the clay was con u in gaining its summit by the zig-zag and narrow path. < The rains that had fallen had given to the abundant vegetation a most perfect green aspect; while the farm-houses, with their sharp thatched roofs, had a picturesaue romantic appearance. Having descended about half-way down the steep, my men all suddenly dismounted when I perceived other travellers on foot. I was not long in discovering the object of the halt, for the arneros gravely took off their hats, and having ascended a rude flight of steps for about twenty feet, they entered a small cavern in a large rock and kneeled before an image. After praying devoutly, each one left a small piece of money on a niche in the cave. Upon inquiry, I ascertained that the image worshipped in the grotto, was the pro tecting- saint of travellers against ladrones. Many were the hair-breadth escapes re lated of travellers, through the instrumentality of that deity. Marvellous, indeed are the wonder-working powers of many of the saints of Mexico !" Within three leagues of Tampico, the lands were heavily loaded with iron- wood and fustic. On the 31st of June, he arrived at Tampico, having travelled about 4000 miles. CHAPTER X. SKETCHES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF MEXICO. MR. MAYER S EXCURSIONS. THE following extracts from Mr. Mayer s work, during excursions made from the capital to various neighbouring districts, conveys the most recent informa tion of these parts and of the inhabitants. " A party," says Mr. Mayer, "in better spirits never set out. We had the prospect of relaxation, the sight of something novel, and the hope of propitious skies. 45 As the cathedral clock struck four we put our animals in motion sed vana spes ! A cloud, which had been for some time threatening, opened its bosom. In one moment our serapes were on, the armas de aguatied round our waists, and the storm of wind and rain was upon us. We consoled ourselves by thinking it was only the baptism of the expedition. " The road over the plain was no longer a highway but a water-course, rushing and gurgling over every descent. The poor Indians returning from market paddled along, shrouded up in their petates. At the city gate the guard of custom-house officers wished to charge an export duty on our wine, but our passes from M. de Bocane^ra and the governor saved us, and we launched forth on the road to St. Augustin, with the shower increasing every minute. It is useless to say more of this dreary evening. For three hours the rain was incessant ; and that the rain of a tropical storm, with huge drops, and wind and lightning. The water flowed from our blankets like spouts. " It was quite dark when our cold, weary, Jand uncomfortable party entered St. Augustin and knocked at the gate of Mr. M s country-house, where we were to stay for the night. We hoped to find every thing duly prepared for our reception ; and among our hopes, not the least was for a blazing fire to dry our bespattered garments. We came up to the door, one by one, silently and surlily. We were not only angry with the weather, but seemed to be mutually dissatisfied. After a deal of thumping, the door was slowly opened, and instead of the salutation of a brilliant blaze in the midst of the court-yard one miserable, sickly tallow candle made its appearance! A colder, damper, or more un- 372 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. comfortable crew never reunited after a storm ; and we found, notwithstanding the usual protection of Mexican blankets, Mexican saddles, and armas de agua, that the rain had penetrated most of our equipments, and that we were decidedly damp, if not thoroughly drenched. " We entered the house after[disposing of our accoutrements in a large hall, and found quite comfortable quarters and beds enough for all parties. A change of dress, a glass of capital Farintosh (which was produced from the capacious leathern bottle of Douglas), and a cut at the ham, with a postscript of cigars, set us all to rights again ; and at eleven o clock, as I write this memorandum, the party are singing the chorus of a song to Du Roslan s leading. SUNDAY. "As the bells were ringing for mass, and the villagers hurrying through the streets to church, we sallied forth, every man trying to discover the symptom, even, of a break among the dreary brownish clouds that hung low from the mountain-tops to the valley. " As soon as the road leaves the town of St. Augustin, it strikes directly up the moun tain, and runs over crags and ravines which in our country would startle the delicate nerves of a lady. Railroads and McAdam have spoiled us; but here, where the toilsome mule and the universal horse have converted men almost into centaurs and are the tradi tionary means of communication, no one thinks of improving the highways. But, of late years, diligences are getting into vogue between the chief cities of the republic; and one, built in Troy, has been started on this very road. How it gets along over such ruts and drains, rocks and mountain-passes, it is difficult to imagine! " On we went, however, over hill and dale, the misty rain still drifting around us, and becoming finer and mistier as we rose on the mountain. The prospect was dreary enough ; but in fine weather these passes are said to present a series of beautiful land scapes. In front is then beheld the wild mountain scenery, while, to the north, the valley sinks gradually into the plain, mellowed by distance, and traversed by the lakes of Chalco and Tezcoco. Of the former of these we had a distinct view as the wind drifted the mist aside for a moment, when we had nearly attained the summit of the mountain. Here we passed a gang of labourers impressed for the army, and going tied in pairs, under an escort of soldiers, to serve in the capital. This was recruiting! Further on, we passed the body of a man laying on the side-path. He had evidently just died,, and, perhaps, had been one of the party we had encountered. No one noticed him ; his hat was spread over his face, and the rain was pelting on him. " We saw no habitations, no symptoms of cultivation ; in fact, nothing except rocks and stunted herbage, and now and then a muleteer, a miserable Indian plodding with a pannier of fruit to Mexico, or an Indian shepherd-boy, in his long thatch-cloak of water- flags, perched on a crag and watching his miserable cattle. We were now travelling among the clouds, near 9000 feet above the level of the sea. " After about four hour s journey in this desolation, the clouds suddenly broke to the southward, revealing the blue sky between masses of sullen vapour, and thus we reached our breakfasting house on the top of the mountain. MEXICAN FARE. "Imagine a mud-hole (not a regular lake of mud, but a mass of that clayey, oozy, grayish substance, which sucks your feet at every step), surrounded by eight huts, built of logs and reeds, stuck into the watery earth, and thatched with palm leaves. This was the stage breakfasting station, on the road from Mexico to Cuernavaca. We asked for * the house ; and a hut, a little more open than the rest, was pointed out. It was in two divisions, one being closed with reeds, and the other entirely exposed, along one side of which was spread a rough board supported on four sticks covered with a dirty cloth. It was the principal hotel ! " We asked for breakfast, but the answer was the slow movement of the long forefinger from right to left, and a No hai ! Any eggs? * No hai." Any tortillias ? No hai. Any pulque? No hai. Any chile? No hai. Any water? No hai! What have you got then? exclaimed we, in a chorus of desperation. Nada / nothing. " We tried to coax them, but without effect; and, at length, we ordered a mule to be unladen and our own provisions to be unpacked. This produced a stir in the house hold, as soon as it became evident that there was to be no high bid for food. CENTRAL MEXICO. 373 " In a moment I found a couple of women at work, one grinding corn for tortillia. and the other patting them into shape for the griddle. At length a girl arose and a rummaging, produced a couple of eggs, which shesaid should be cooked for me \ thankee her, and by a little persuasion, induced her to add half-a-dozen more for the rest of the party. By the time that the eggs were boiled and the tortillias baked, I suggested tin a dish of molle deyuagelote would be delicious with them. The result was the discovery of a pan heaped with the desired turkey and chile, and another quite as full of delicious frijoles. These were placed for five minutes over the coals, and the consequence was that out of Nada, I contrived to cater a breakfast that fed our company, servants and arriero, and which would have doubtless fed the mules also, if mules ever indulged in chile. I never made a heartier meal, relishing it greatly, in spite of the dirty -tablecloth the dirty women, and the dirty village. " About one o clock we had again mounted, and riding along a level road which winds through the table-land of the mountain-top, we passed the Cruz del Marquez, a large stone cross set up not long after the conquest to mark the boundary of the estate pre sented by Montezuma to Cortez. At this spot the road is 9500 feet above the level of the sea, and thence commences the descent of the southern mountain-slope toward the Vale of Cuernavaca. The pine forest in many places is open and arching, like a park, and covers a wide sweep of meadow and valley. The air soon became milder, the sun warmer, the vegetation more varied, the fields less arid, and yet all was forest scenery, apparently untouched by the hand of man. In this respect it presents a marked difference from the mountains around the Valley of Mexico, where the denser population has de stroyed the timber and cultivated the land. " The road is remarkable for being infested with robbers, but we fortunately met none, we were probably too strong for the ordinary gangs, some fifty shots from a company of foreigners, with double-barrelled guns and revolving pistols, being dangerous welcome. " After a slow ride during the afternoon, we suddenly changed our climate. We had left the tierras frias and tierras templadas (the cold and temperate lands), and had plunged at once, by a rapid descent of the mountain, into the tierra caliente, where the sun was raging with tropical fervour. The vegetation became entirely different and more luxuriant, and a break among the hiils suddenly disclosed to us the valley of Cuer navaca, bending to the east with its easy bow. The features of this valley are entirely different from those of the valley of Mexico, for, although both possess many of the same elements of grandeur and sublimity, in the lofty and wide sweeping mountains; yet there is a southern gentleness, and purple haziness about this, that softens the picture, and are wanting in the Vale of Mexico, in the high and rarefied atmosphere of which every object, even at the greater distance, stands out with almost microscopic distinctness. Be sides this, the foliage is fuller, the forests thicker, the sky milder, and every thing betokens the sway of a bland and tropical climate. " A bend of the road around a precipice, revealed to us the town of Cuernavaca, lying beyond the forest in the lap of the valley, while far in the east the mountains were lost in the plain, like a distant line of sea. Our company gathered together on the announce ment of the first sight of our port of destination for the night. It was decided by the novices in Mexican travelling, that it could not be more distant than a couple of leagues at furthest ; but long was the weary ride, descending and descending, with scarcely a perceptible decrease of space before we reached the cily. " In the course of this afternoon we passed through several Indian villages, and saw numbers of people at work in the fields by the road side. Two things struck me ; first, the miserable hovels in which the Indians are lodged, in comparison with which a decent dog-kennel at home is a comfortable household ; and second, the fact that this, although the Sabbath, was no day of repose to these ever-working, but poor and thriftless people. Many of the wretched creatures were stowed away under a roof of thatch, stuck on the bare ground, with a hole left at one end to crawl in ! APOLOGY FOR SLAVERY." What can be the benefit of a republican form of govern ment to masses of such a population ? They have no ambition to improve their condition, or in so plenteous a country it would be improved ; they are content to live and lie like the beasts of the field ; they have no qualifications for s?lf- government, and they can have no hope, when a life of such toil avails not to avoid such misery. Is it possible for such 374 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. men to become republicans ? It appears to me that the life of a negro, under a good master in our country, is far better than the beastly degradation of the Indian here. With us, he is at least a man (?) ; but in Mexico, even the instincts of his human nature are scarcely preserved. " It is true that these men are/ree, and have the unquestionable liberty, after raising their crop of fruits or vegetables, to trot with it fifty or sixty miles, on foot, to market; where the produce of their toil is, in a few hours, spent, either at the gambling-table or the pulque shop. After this they have the liberty, as soon as they get sober, to trot back again to their kennels in the mountains, if they are not previously lassoedby some recruit ing sergeant, and forced to * volunteer in the army. Yet what is the worth of such pur poseless liberty or the worth of such purposeless life? There is not a single ingredient of a noble-spirited and high-minded mountain peasantry in them. Mixed in their races, they have been enslaved and degraded by the conquest ; ground into abject servility during the colonial government ; corrupted in spirit by the superstitious rites of an igno rant priesthood ; and now, without hope, without education, without other interest in their welfare, than that of some good-hearted village curate, they drag out a miserable exisence of beastiality and crime. Shall such men be expected to govern themselves ? " It was long after sunset when we descended the last steep, and passed a neat little village, where the people were sitting in front of their low-roofed houses, from every one of which issued the tinkle of guitars. The bright sky reflected a long twilight, and it was just becoming dark when we trotted into Cuernavaca, after a ride of fourteen leagues. HOTEL ACCOMMODATIONS. * Our companions had already reached the inn, and as we dashed into the court-yard, we found them a tort et a travers with the landlord about rooms. We had seen a flaming advertisement of this tavern and its comforts in the papers of the capital, and counted largely on splendid apartments and savoury supper after our tiresome ride and pic-nic breakfast. But, as at the diligence hotel in the morning, every thing went to the tune of Nohai / No hai beds, rooms, meats, soups, supper nada! They had nothing ! We ended by securing two rooms, and I set out to examine them, as well as my legs (stiff from being all day in the hard Mexican stirrups) would let me. The first room I entered was covered with water from the heavy rains. The second adjoined the first ; and although the walls were damp, the floor was dry ; but there was no window or opening except the door. " We had secured the room, and of course wanted beds ; because, room and bed, and bureau, and wash-stand, and towels, and soap, are not all synonymous here as in other civilised countries. Four of our travellers had fortunately brought cots with them : but I had trusted to my two blankets and my old habits of foraging. At length the master managed to find a bed for two more of us, and a cot for me, and thus the night was pro vided for. We had resolved not to go without supper, and I was despatched to the kitchen. I will not disclose the history of my negotiations on this occasion, but suffice it to say that in an hour s time we had a soup ; a fragment of stewed mutton ; a dish of Lima beans ; a famous dish of turkey and peppers, and the table was set off by an enormous head of lettuce in the centre, garnished with outposts of oranges on either side, while two enormous pine-apples reared their prickly leaves in front and rear. * An hour afterward we had all retired to our windowless room, and after piling our baggage against the door to keep out the robbers, I wrapped myself in my blanket, on the bare, pillowless, sacking-bottom, and was soon asleep. CUERNAVACA lies on a tongue of land jutting out into the lap of the valley. On its western side, a narrow glen has been scooped out by the water which descends from the mountains, and its sides are thickly covered with the richest verdure. To the east, the city again slopes rapidly, and then as rapidly rises. I walked down this valley street past the valley church built by Cortez (an old picturesque edifice filled with nooks and corners), where they were chanting a morning mass. In the yard of the palace, or Casa Municipal, at the end of the street, a body of dismounted cavalry soldiers were going through the sword exercise. From this I went to the plaza in front of it, at pre sent nearly covered with a large wooden amphitheatre, that had been devoted to bull fights during the recent national holydays. Around the edges of this edifice, the Indians and small farmers spread out their mats, covered with fine fruits and vegetables of the CENTRAL MEXICO. 375 turret cahente. I passed up and down a number of the steep and narrow streets boi dered with ranges of one-story houses, open and cool, and fronted usually with balconie^ and porches screening them from the scorching sun. The softer and gentler appearance of the people, as compared with those of the Valley of Mexico, struck me forcibly The whole has a Neapolitan air. The gardens are numerous and full of flowers. By the street sides small canals continually pour along the cool and clear waters from the mountains. "The beautiful suburbs of Cuernavaca are chiefly inhabited by Indians, whose houses are built along the narrow lanes ; and in a country where it is a comfort to be all day long in the open air under the shade of trees, and where you require no covering except to shelter you in sleep and showers, you may readily imagine that the dwellings of the people are exceedingly slight. A few canes stuck on end, and a thatch of cam?, complete them. But the broad-leaved plantain, the thready pride of China, the feathery palm, bending over them, and matted together by lacing vines and creeping plants covered with blossoms these form the real dwellings. The whole, in fact, would look like a pic ture from * Paul and Virginia but for the figures! Unkempt men, indolent and lounging ; begrimed women, surrounded by a set of naked little imps as begrimed as they ; and all crawling or rolling over the filth of their earthern floors, or on dirty hides stretched over sticks for a bed. A handful of corn, a bunch of plantains, or a pan of beans picked from the nearest bushes, is their daily food ; and here they burrow, like so many animals, from youth to manhood, from manhood to the grave. " After leaving the city, our road lay for some distance along the high table-land, and at length struck into the glen which passes from the west of Cuernavaca, where, for the first time in Mexico, I actually lost the high-road. Imagine the channel of a moun tain-stream clown the side of an Alleghany mountain, with its stones chafed out of all order, and many of them worn into deep clefts by the continual tread of mules following each other, over one path, for centuries. This was the main turnpike of the country to the port of Acapulco, and several of our party managed to continue on horseback while descending the ravine. " This (the hacienda of Temisco) is one of the oldest establishments of note in the republic, and passed, not many years since, into the hands of the present owners for the sum of 300,000 dollars. The houses (consisting of the main dwelling, a large chapel, and all the requisite out buildings for grinding the cane and refining the sugar) were erected shortly after the conquest, and their walls bear yet the marks of the bullets with which the re fractory owner was assailed during one of the numerous revolts in Mexico. He stood out stoutly against the enemy, and mustering his faithful Indians within the walls of his court-yard, repulsed the insurgents. "This (the hacienda of Cocoyotla) is a small, but one of the most beautiful estates in the tierra caliente. A handsome chapel-tower has recently been added to the old edifice ; a wing on broad arches has been given to the dwelling, and the garden is kept in tasteful order. " Back of the house and bordering the garden, sweeps along a sweet stream, some twenty yards in width, and, by canals from it, the grounds are plentifully supplied with water. But the gem of Cocoyotla is the orangery. It is not only a grove, but a miniature forest, interspersed with broad-leaved plantains, guyavas, cocos, palms, and mammeis. It was burdened with fruits; and a multitude of birds, undisturbed by the sportsman, have made their abodes among the shadowy branches. " We sauntered about in the delicious and fragrant shade for half an hour, while the gardener supplied us with the finest fruits. We were then summoned to an excellent breakfast of several courses, garnished with capital wine. " When our repast was concluded, Senor Sylva conducted us over his house ; showed us the interior of the neat church, where he has made pedestals for the figures of various saints out of stalactites from some neighbouring cavern ; and finally dismissed us, with sacks of the choicest fruit, which he had ordered to be selected from his grove. A RANCHO, OR FARMHOUSE." Our journey from the hacienda (Cocoyotla) was toward the Cave of Cacahuawamilpa, which we propose visiting, and we have reached, to night, the rancho of Michapas. 376 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. "This is a new feature in our travels. Hitherto we have been guests at haciendas and comfortable town dwellings, but to-night we are lodged in a rancho a small farmer s dwelling an Indian hut. " We arrived about five o clock, after a warm ride over wide and solitary moors, with a background of the mountains we passed yesterday. In front another sierra stretches along the horizon ; and in the foreground of the picture, a lake, near a mile in circuit, spreads out its silver sheet in the sunset, margined with wide-spreading trees and covered with water-fowl. " The house is built of mud and reeds, matted together ; that is, there are four walls without other aperture but a door, while a thatch, supported on poles, spreads on either side from the roof-tree, forming a porch in front. This thatch is not allowed to touch the tops of the walls, but between them and it, all around the house, a space of five or six feet has been left, by means of which a free circulation of air is kept up within. The interior (of one room) is in perfect keeping with this aboriginal simplicity. Along the western wall there are a number of wretched engravings of saints, with inscriptions and verses beneath them ; next, a huge picture of the Virgin of Guadalupe, with tarnished gilded rays, blazes in the centre ; and near the corner is nailed a massive cross, with the figure of our Saviour apparently bleeding at every pore. A reed and spear are crossed below it, and large wreaths and festoons of marigolds are hung around. Six tressels, with reeds spread over them, stand against the wall ; and in one corner a dilapidated canopy, with a tattered curtain, rears its pretentious head to do the honours of state- bedste ad. The floor is of earth, and, in a corner, are safely stowed our saddles, bridles, guns, pistols, holsters, swords, and spurs so that taking a sidelong glance at the whole establishment, you might well doubt whether you were in a stable, church, sleeping- room, or chicken-coop ! "Don Miguel Benito the owner and proprietor of this valuable catalogue of domestic comforts received us with great cordiality. He is a man some fifty years of age ; delights in a shirt, the sleeves of which have been so long rolled up, that there is no longer any thing to roll down ; and a pair of those elastic leather breeches that last one s lifetime in Mexico, and grow to any size that may be required, as the fortunate owner happens to fatten with his years. Not the least curious part of Don Miguel s household, is his female establishment. He appears to be a sort of Grand Turk, as not less than a dozen women, of all colours and complexions, hover about his dwellings; while at least an equal number of little urchins, with light hair and dark (but all with an extraordinary resemblance to the Don,) roll over the mud-floors of the neighbouring huts, or amuse themselves by lassoing the chickens. " The caterer of our mess, thought it but a due compliment to Don Miguel (who does not disdain to receive your money) to order supper though we resolved to fall back, in case of necessity, upon our own stores, and accordingly unpacked some pots of soup and sardines. " In the course of an hour, a board was spread upon four sticks, and in the middle of it was placed a massive brown earthen platter, with the stew. At the same time, a dirty copper spoon and a hot tortillia were laid before each of us. Although we had deter mined to hold ourselves in reserve for our soups, yet there was but little left of the savoury mess. Our turtle, flanked with lemons and claret, then came into play ; and the repast was ended by another smoking platter of the universal frijoles (beans). " Wild and primitive as was the scene among these simple Indians, I have seldom passed a pleasanter evening, enlivened with song and wit. When we crept to our reed tressels and serapes, at eleven o clock, I found that the state-bed was already occupied by a smart-looking fellow from the West Coast (who I take to have been rather deeply engaged in the contraband) and his young wife a lively looking lass, rather whiter than the rest of the brood who had spruced herself up on our arrival. Twelve of our party lodged together in that capacious apartment, while Don Miguel betook himself, with the rest of his household, to mats under the porch. " It rained heavily last night (22nd September), but the morning, as usual, was fresh, clear, and warm. After a cup of chocolate, we sallied forth toward the Cave of CENTRAL MEXICO. 3*7 > 7 Cacahiiawamilpa, having previously despatched our arrieros with the mules to Tetecah to await our return on our journey toward Cuautla. Our forces this morning were increased by the addition of some tsvelve or thirteen Indians, who had been engaged by Don Miguel to accompany us as guides to the cavern They bore with them the rockets and torches which were to be burned within and a large quantity of twine for threading the labyrinth. " Leaving the lake, situated on the very edge of the table-land, we struck down a deep barranca, at the bottom of which our horses sunk nearly to their girths at every footstep, in an oozy marsh, that had not been improved by last night s rain. But pass ing these bogs, we ascended asleep line of hills, whence there was a splendid view of the snow-capped volcanos of Puebla, and soon reached the Indian village of Totla- wahmilpa, where it was necessary to j rocure a * licence to visit the cavern ; or, in other words, where the authorities extort a sum of money from every passenger, under the plea of keeping the road open, and the entrance safe. As we had special passports from the Mexican government to go where we pleased in the tierra caliente, I thought this pre caution unnecessary, but our Indians refused to budge a peg without a visit to the alcalde ; and therefore, while some of the party entered a hut, and set the women to cooking tortillias, others proceeded with the passports to the civic authorities." The following is the most pleasing description of any part of Mexico which we have met with : u We left Tetecala this morning (23rd September), at eight o clock, with the in tention of passing to-night at the hacienda of St. Nicolas. For the present, at least, we seern to have done with the mountains, as our road to-day lay entirely over the plain. During the three last days, we have been wandering among gigantic mountains and over wild moors, where the solitude of nature reigns in all its majesty ; but the picture varies in the direction of CUAUTLA. The mountains sink into the plain, and the plain is rich, fertile, and cultivated with the nicest economy. " About twelve o clock we saw the hacienda lying in the distance, in the lap of the plain, with a small hill or two hard by, just large enough to vary the scenery. As we approached the white-walled buildings, we could not help remarking the uncommonly neat appearance of every thing about the estate. The sugar-fields were in capital order, the roads smooth, the fences had been put up, the cattle were under the care of men. The Indian village, inhabited by many of the labourers on the estate, was tidy and com fortable, and there was a cleanness and decency in the appearance of the people that I had not seen elsewhere. Indeed, the whole view of this plain, hemmed in by the distant summits of the mountains, reminded me strongly of some of the pictures of rural beauty constantly presented to the traveller in New England : and I was the more forcibly struck with this, when I looked from the corridor of the hacienda over the whole expanse of country, and saw it dotted here and there with villages and haciendas, the white towers of whose chapels rose up beautifully from an unbroken mass of verdure. "We were received at this plantation by the administrador, or steward, who had been expecting us for an hour or more ; and though he had already partaken of his dinner (believing that we did not intend visiting St. Nicolas to-day), he immediately ord< another, in the meantime showing us to a large and cool apartment, containing a number of beds, where we made a hasty toilet. . " We took a siesta after dinner, and then walked with Don A. over the estate. Ine whole of the fields are planted with cane for a great distance around the house, w forms, by itself, a very extensive establishment. ,. " First there is the dwelling, a large two-story edifice, having in the basemei the offices, and the store where every necessary is sold to the Indians ; above i the kitchens, parlours, bedrooms, and an immense corridor on arches, looking t the east, filled with caged birds, and hung with hammocks, where the family pass of the long warm days of summer. In front is the corral, on the west of whi store-houses and buildings to receive the crop; while on the east is another VOL. I. 3 C 378 , SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS- where the boilers, engines,.crushing machines, cooling vats, moulding apartments, &c., constitute the trapiche of the hacienda. It is a little city in itself. "At sunset all the Indians employed on the premises assembled under the corridor on the basement floor, to account to the administrador for their day s labour and their presence. As he called their names each one replied with * Alabo a Dios, I praise God/ and ranged himself against the wall in a line with those who had already re sponded. When the whole list had been examined, they were dismissed, and departed in a body singing an Indian hymn to the Virgin, the sounds of which died away in the distance as they plodded home over the level fields to their village. " At night we heard the sound of a clarionet, bass-drum, and flute, at some distance from the dwelling, and on inquiry, discovered that a band of musicians had been organ ised in an adjoining village by the owner of the hacienda. We strolled over. The whole of a large hut had been appropriated for a musical hall, where the performers were just assembling ; while others, who had already arrived, were engaged in tuning their instruments. The leader was quite a respectable-looking Indian, decently dressed, who played the violin ; the clarionet player was fortunate in the possession of cotton drawers and a shirt ; the bassoon had a pair of drawers but no shirt ; the serpent was the wildest looking Indian I ever saw, with long dishevelled black hair, and eyes worthy of his instrument; the big drum was a huge portly old negro, who reminded me of many of our performers on it at home ; while the octave flute was an urchin of not more than twelve, the wickedest little devil imaginable, but a fellow of infinite talent, and a capital performer. "The night was rather too hot to permit us to remain long in the apartment with an Indian crowd; we therefore took our seats outside, where we were favoured by the self- taught amateurs with several airs from recent operas, performed in a style that would not have injured the reputation of many a military band at home (the United States). " It may reasonably be argued, from a scene like this, that the Indians have talents for one of the arts requiring a high degree of natural delicacy and refinement. If it had been the care of all Spanish proprietors gradually to bring forth their latent dispositions as the Senores J. have done, Mexico would now present a picture very different from that of the degradation which fills its valleys with a slothful, ignorant, and debased mul titude. " About two weeks since, seven armed and mounted ruffians attacked two French men and their servants near the hacienda of Trenta. One of the Frenchmen was severely wounded, but the other, aided by the two mosos, succeeded in beating off the robbers, who left one of their number dead on the field, and his horse and trappings as spoils for the victor. CUAUTLA DE AMiLpAS AND HACIENDA DE ST. INEZ. * We left the hospitable hacienda of San Nicolas at four o clock this morning (24th September), and passed through a great number of Indian villages, and some haciendas of considerable extent, especially that of Trenta, which derives its name from the fact that it was origin ally purchased for the sum of thirty dollars. With its village, its church (nearly a cathedral in size), its immense sugar works and princely domain, I suppose it could not be acquired now for much less than half a million. "After enjoying a fine view of the volcano of Popocatapetl at sunrise, and passing the village of Tlaltisappan, we struck into the mountain gorges which we had been for some time approaching. The ground gradually rose, the glens and defiles became more numerous, and among the wild and tangled forests of these solitary mountains we passed many ill-looking wretches, armed and mounted, but always in too small a number to attack our party. There is no doubt they were robbers, as several had their faces partly disguised, while their weapons were cocked and resting in their hands as they passed us. We cocked ours, also, and thus moved on fairly quits with the vaga bonds. " On the sides of these mountains, there were continuous groves of that tall pillar- like species of the cactus which is called * organos. CENTRAL MEXICO. 379 " The heat became insufferable towards noon, and I felt, for the first time, wearv of our journey among the lonely hills and defiles. Our impatience to reach CuautU wns increased by the accounts of the Indians we encountered on the road, who invariably added a league or half a league to the distance as we advanced. At length, however, after passing through a very extensive Indian corn-field, which I computed to contain at least five hundred acres, we reached the valley of Amilpas, and, in half an hour more, en tered an Indian village bowered in the foliage of bananas and palms, through the midst of which ran a cool and sparkling streamlet. Here we halted to refresh ourselves, as the sun was blistering our skins, and we burned with a fever that was scarcely mitigated by profuse perspiration. After leaving this village, Cuautla appeared immediately on our left, with a rapid river running by it; while, in front, was the stately hacienda of Cuauwistla, belonging to the Dominican monks of Mexico, from the revenues of which a liberal sum is annually set apart for the entertainment of travellers. CUAUTLA is a perfect southern city. The houses are small and airy ; clear water gurgles through the middle of the street; broad-leaved trees fling their branches over the low dwellings. The women loll, half-dressed, in the windows and doors, gazing at no thing or each other; the men seem to have as little to do as the women, and the whole has an air of the * dolce far niente, which prevails in this mild and tempting climate. " Passing through the square, we entered a by-street and arrived at the door of the meson (tavern). " I remembered immediately my experience at Perote, and the account given by La- trobe of his experience at this very inn. * The gate of the court-yard was thrown open for us. In front lay a narrow lane, on one side of which was ashed, and beneath it a couple of sheep munching a stack of green corn in a corner, while a couple of turkeys picked up what they could find. On the roof a lot of sheepskins, recently taken from the animal, were spread out to dry in the sun. At the end of the lane was the kitchen of the meson, which seemed also to be the cobbler s stall of the burly landlord ; who, tucking up his apron in front, ran out to salute us before we dismounted, followed by his stout wife and a greasy scullion, as fat, dirty, and disgusting as Maritornes. " We inquired if he could accommodate us. " Si senores, si senores! said he, with a strong emphasis on the si, as if surprised at our even doubting for an instant the capabilities of his establishment. "It will be remembered that we now numbered twelve in the party. We asked him (still without dismounting) to show us the rooms. "From the end of the 1 lane I have described, another struck off at right- angles with it, and both of its sides were adorned with a row of one-story windowless cabins, over the doors of which appeared, in true hotel fashion, the numbers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. " G got down to examine, and the landlord led the way. He first opened No. 3. It was eight feet long, about six wide, and ten high ; in one corner lay a pool of mud on the earthen floor, and the walls were literally black with fleas. G at once ob jected to this, and the landlord said that it was of course not intended tor the senores, but for the baggage and the mosos. He had another, more comfortable for our selves; and stepping across the street opened No. 6, which, from its exterior, appeare to be of the same size as No. 3. Scarcely had he turned the bolt when out walked full grown ass ! But our discontent did not satisfy the landlord he did not see why we could not be* accommodated in rooms that were good enough for other folks and we praise the Virgin if we got better in Cuautla! There was no time for discussion, however, and as we were hungry, and would betake ourselves to the fields and sleep under the trees than submit to the Ter Cuautla, I proposed that we should return to Cuauwistla. In the meantime, I* Don Juan Black had bethought him of all his friends in the village, and discovered 380 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the administrador of Santa Inez was an old acquaintance who had often requested a visit in his journeys to the tierra caliente. * The hacienda of Santa Inez is situated in the midst of sugar-fields to the north of the town, and the works, residence, chapel, and Indian village, are bordered by a beau tiful stream among some of the finest forest trees I have seen in the republic. I shall never forget the kind reception of Don Filipe Vargas ; it was that of a tried old friend. Ample accommodation and beds were offered us ; a meal (which, in apolo gising for, he called a penetencia/) was quickly spread on snowy damask, served with a fine display of silver and excellent claret ; and the whole was seasoned with a welcome that will mark Don Filipe in my memory as a man to be trusted in times of difficulty. "On Saturday evening, after a walk in the charming groves that border the brook and Indian village, from which there was a noble prospect of the whole of Popocatepetl, with the sunset tinging its snows, we returned to the hacienda and took seats in the lower court, near the office where the clerk of the administrador was paying off the hands for their week s work. Here chocolate was handed us, served in the same tasteful style as our dinner. DEGRADED STATE OF THE ABORIGINES. " The hands were all mustered, and came up with the usual Alabo a Dios ! to receive their weekly wages, as on last evening at San Nicolas. " Don Filipe informs me that all the ordinary expenses of this estate are 500 dollars per week ; but during the working season they rise frequently to 1200 dollars. Three hundred labourers are usually employed at two and a half to three reals a day, and the total production of the hacienda is about 40,000 loaves annually the loaves averaging twenty-three pounds or, in all, 920,000 pounds of refined sugar. Here, as elsewhere, the molasses nearly pays the expenses. " He complains greatly of the worthlessness of the Indians, and expresses hopes of improvement from the establishment of schools in Cuautla, where the young children learn rapidly, if they are allowed by their intemperate and gambling parents to continue in th^ir classes. He alleges that the greatest punishment for the Indians is to discharge and expel them entirely from the estate upon which they and their ancestors from time immemorial, have worked ; but he intimates that other punishments are resorted to for trifling faults and excesses, and I doubt not the whip is made to play an important part in the discipline of Mexican plantations. " Mr. Stephens, in his last work on Yucatan, describes a scene of this sort which he witnessed. " { Looking into the corridor, he says, we saw the poor Indian on his knees on the pavement, with his arms clasped around the knees of another Indian, so as to present his back fairly to the lash. At every blow he rose on one knee, and sent forth a piercing cry. He seemed struggling to retain it, but it burst forth in spite of all his efforts. His whole bearing showed the subdued character of the present Indians, and with the last stripe the expression of his face seemed that of thankfulness for not getting more. With out uttering a word, he crept to the major-domo, took his hand, kissed it, and walked away. No sense of degradation crossed his mind. Indeed, so humbled is this once fierce people, that they have a proverb of their own : * Los Indios no oigan sino por las nalgas the Indians only hear through their backs. ANOTHER ARGUMENT IN FAVOUR OF SLAVERY. u In what then is this Indian popu lation, throughout the planting, farming, and mining districts, equal to our slaves? Although not hereditary property by LAW, they are hereditary by custom, and the force of those circumstances which deny them the opportunity of bettering their condition, either by emigration to foreign countries, or by diffusing themselves over their own. They form a degraded caste. They are subjected to the control of masters and overseers, and although it is true that they are regularly paid for their labour and habitual degradation, yet they are ignorant, gambling, intemperate, and liable at any moment to be submitted 10 the lash, against which they have not the courage to offer the slightest resistance. With all the boast, therefore, of the authorities of Mexico, that no man is held in bond- CENTRAL MEXICO. age within its limits I still think that no candid person can inspect the condition of these \^m^ without giving the palm to our negroes, and exclaimin* indignantly at the masked slavery which is carried on from year to year, without the slightest project of ameliorating the character or condition of the miserable natives. " If a man become slave by descent, under the well-established laws ( ! ! !) of a nation by which the institution is recognised, he has always a master, whose duty it is to afford him food, raiment, and protection, in recompense for his toil; and although moralists may say that slavery is in its very nature deteriorating, yet it does not crush the very- spirit from the negro, or tend always to his debasement/ He is sober; he cares for his family; he feels the duties of the social relations, even in his quarter; and is ambi tious of the degree of respectability he may acquire among his fellow slaves. His condition must, therefore, both physically and intellectually, be superior tolhat of the Indian who becomes a slave, in spite of the law, by the servility of his character and the loathsome vices that absorb his earnings, without a care for the comfort of his family, the education of his children, or even the personal appearance he presents among his fellows (!! !) " When we remember the degree of civilisation that had been attained by these races anterior to the Mexican conquest, it is impossible to believe that their present de basement is to be alone attributed to an enervating climate ; nor can Mexico ever claim a high standing among nations until she blots this stain of hypocritical freedom from the fairest portions of her territory. With the improvement of the lot and character of her Indians (who number near four millions of the seven that compose her whole population,) the steady advancement of the nation will proceed ; but until that occurs, her fondest admirers can have but little hope, either for her progress or even for her con tinuance as a nation. CUAUTLA. "The next morning (Sunday, September 25) we arose early and went to the town of Cuautla, passing great numbers of Indians with half-shaved heads on their way to the Sunday market, where they usually assemble in the Plaza to purchase and sell their commodities. As we reached the town, the bells were ringing for mass, and we strolled into several of the churches. One of them was being repaired, and the altars were filled with skulls and bones that had been taken up while the floor was under going the requisite renovation. In the parroquia, or parish church, the stench from the dead bodies beneath the rough boards over which we trod, was so abominable that I hastened out of it, without examining some figures of Saints and Apostles done up in dresses that resembled very much the antique uniforms of the eighteenth century. Such anachronisms, however, are of frequent occurrence, and I have before alluded to them, in the instance where even our Saviour was represented in one of the most splendid churches of Mexico in a blue velvet robe and a Guyaquil sombrero ! " In the square, there were hundreds of Indians under cane booths, on mats spread with fruits, skins, rebosos, scrapes, ices, orgeats, lemonade, vegetables, flowers, and all the varied products of the tierra caliente. I stepped into one and breakfasted on oranges, sponge cake, and iced milk. The stores around the square were all open, and indeed I saw no cessation of the usual week-day occupations, except among the Indians who thronged the Plaza. The women, as on yesterday, lolled in the broad window- sills ! the men lolled opposite them, or leaned against the walls in the sh.- de and the excessive heat seemed to have predisposed every one, before ten o clock, to a doze or a siesta. " In one of the stores (while Don Juan was bargaining for a horse) the owner showed me a centipede of the tierra caliente, a horrible reptile of the scorpion kind, with which he says the old houses of Cuautla are infested. These and the alacranes (a sort of cross of the spider on the scorpion), are the scourges of the warm country, and the bite of both frequently results in the extreme illness of adults, and the death of children. " A wide plain skirts the foot of the sierra that hems in the Valley of Mexico, and runs from the valley of Cuautla into that of Puebla. Over it lay our road this afternoon (towards the city of Mexico) and after passing one of those strange and deep barrancas, down which plunged a cascade of clear water for some two hundred feet, we 382 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. menced the ascent of the range of mountains forming the last barrier between us and the capita!. " Scarcely had we mounted the hills when it began to rain, for the first time during the day since we left Cuernavaca, and I experienced immediately a remarkable change in the temperature, from the scorching heat in the square of Cuautla. Our serapes were at once put on, and we wore them for the rest of the evening. " Santa Inez is on the limit of the tierra caliente ; at five or six miles distance the culture of the sugar cane ceases, and the tierra templada commences. " We passed the beautiful Indian village of Acaclauca, with its green leaves, chapels, and churches, in front of one of which I saw the last tall group of palm-trees standing out with their feathery branches relieved against the snow of Popocapetl. It was a strange picture, mingling in one frame the tropic and the pole. " Near eight o clock the distant barking of dogs announced our approach to the village where we designed resting until morning. Small fires were lighted before each door, and by their light we meandered through half-a-dozen crooked and hilly streets before we reached the house of the worthy Don Juan Gonzales (an old friend of the consul), who at a moment s notice received us under his hospitable roof. "Don Juan is a man well to do in the world of his little village; he keeps a store, rents a room to a club of village folks, who like a drop of aguardiente or a quiet game of monte ; and, above all, has the loveliest girl in the tierra templada for a daughter. " Don Juan ushered us ceremoniously into his long, low, back parlour. In one corner stood a picture of the Virgin with a lamp burning before it, while opposite was a table, around which were gathered five of the neighbours in shirt-sleeves, slouched hats, and beards of a week s growth, busy with a game of greasy cards, in the light of a dim * tallow. Ever and anon, the little sylph of a daughter brought in the liquor for the boors. It was Titania and Bottom Ariel and the Clown ; and I longed for the pencil of Caravaggio to sketch the gamblers, or of Retzsch to embody the whole spirit of the scene. " After a frugal supper of tortillias and chocolate, we retired to feather-beds and clean sheets on the floor but I was glad when we were called to horse at three in the morning. It had been a night of sore encounter; an army of fleas attacked us, the moment we retired, with a vigour and earnestness that did justice both to their appetite and our blood. AYOTLA. " We were off at half-past three (26th of September), by the moonlight of a cold and frosty morning, and, at the first streak of day found that we were winding high up the spur of hills that juts out from the sides of Popocapetl, which was in full view, with the clouds rolling off from its lofty head as the sun rose. * Behind us, for near twenty leagues, the tierra caliente extended distinctly until the view was bounded by a bold and craggy sierra. We wound upward through the hill- farms, hanging against the sides of the mountains, and among the pine-forests, through whose branches a cold autumn wind was whistling. The road was lined with crosses, many of them recently erected, and hung with garlands and flowers; it is a dangerous pass, and infested by hordes of robbers, who attack the travellers either passing from Cuautla to the Valley of Mexico, or returning with the proceeds of their sales. " Beyond the village of Hoochietipec, we lost sight both of the plain of Cuautla and the tierra caliente, and soon afterward the Valley of Mexico appeared to the west. At TENANGO, " we stopped for breakfast. Our inn was a small rat-hole of a meson for muleteers, with a corral of a couple of acres; but the whole establishment bore the sounding name of the Purissima Sangre de Christo! * We found, to our sorrow, that we were no longer in the land of rich haciendas and hospitable administradors. The old song of no hai ! had recommenced. Tortillias, chile, molle", pan, pulque, agua? no hai. With a little coaxing, however, we got one of the women of the house to seek out the remnant of Indian corn from their breakfast, which was soon ground into tortillias. As we were beginning to devour them, Don Juan espied an Indian bearing a couple of earthen jugs of milk, with one of which, and our leathery cakes, we managed to stay our stomachs till dinner. We again mounted, and descending by a series of inclined planes, speedily reached the level of the plain of Mexico. CENTRAL MEXICO. ., s -, This valley is exceedingly different from the tierra caliente. Although the temr is milder, yet every thing is dry, parched, withered, and volcanic. The hilled mountains are stripped of their forests; the fields are arid ; the grain small and unn o ductive ; and the whole has a waste and moor-like appearance. The Indians seem , dirtier, if possible, than those we have left behind us, and the patient mules travel over the long and dreary sands as if in a new Arabia. " Passing through several mud-walled villages, we came at length upon the Ven Cruz road, and reached the town of Ayotla, seven leagues from Mexico. " I would recommend every one who is about to travel through the tierra caliente to procure a hammock of Sisal grass. With this, he is entirely his own master ; and surely no mode of sleeping is more luxurious in a hot climate. You swing it from the rafters of the room it is above the floor, clear of the walls, and free from insects it bends to each motion of the body, fitting neatly to every part of your frameyou set it in motion, and while it swings you to sleep, it fans and refreshes by its gentle waving through the air. " Besides the beautiful scenery through which I have passed during this journey, nothing has impressed me so favourably as the unaffected hospitality we met with every where, whether we came introduced or not. The old phrase, * Mi casa, senor, esta muy a su disposicion : My house is entirely at your service, was not a phrase of course a mere formula to be gone through and forgotten. Their houses, their animals, their servants, and themselves, were all at our command, and with a cordiality that forbad the idea of arriere pensee. " Living in the country, at a distance from large towns, with but little literature, and few and irregularly-received newspapers, the haciendados and their administradors are glad to welcome the traveller as a guest to their doors. With ample means of accommo dation and entertainment, they enjoy as well as confer a favour, and are as thankful for your visit, as you are to them for their repasts and attentions. You feel that the account is fairly balanced, that the other little elegancies and assiduities which are thrown in for your comfort are the result of genuine hospitality, and the promptings of excellent hearts." The descriptions of Mexico by Mr. Mayer, though in some respects contra dictory, are by far the most favourable ; but his excursions were very limited ; and generally we would consider that Mr. Chevalier, an acute observer, who visited the country in 1835, is far more conclusive. u I have only been two months in Mexico, and already I have witnessed five attempts at revolution. Insurrections have become quite ordinary occurrences here, and their settled forms have been gradually established, from which it is not considered fair to deviate. These seem almost as positively fixed as the laws of backgammon, or the recipes of domestic cookery. The first act of a revolution is called pronun- ciamiento. An officer of any rank, from a general down to a lieutenant, pro nounces himself against the established order, or against an institution which displeases him, or against any thing else. He gets together a detachment, a company, or a regiment, as the case may be, and these generally, without more ado, place themselves at his disposal. The second act is called the Gecto, or out cry, when two or three articles are drawn up, to state the motives or objects of the insurrection. If the matter is of some importance, the Outcry is called a plan. At the third act, the insurgents and the partisans of government are op posed to one another, and mutually examine each other s forces. At the fourth act, they come to blows ; but, according to the improved system lately introduced, the fighting is carried on in a very distant, moderate, and respectful manner. 384 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. However, one party is declared victor, and the beaten party dispronouuce. The conquerors march to Mexico, and their triumphal entry into the capital consti tutes the fifth act of the play ; the vanquished meanwhile embark at Vera Cruz, or Tampico, with all the horrors of war. " With tranquillity, unfortunately, every thing else is also lost. There is no longer any security. It is mere chance, if the diligence from Mexico to Vera Cruz proceed the whole way without being stopped and robbed. It requires whole regiments to convey the conducta of piastres to Vera Cruz. Travellers who cannot afford to* pay for an escort, go armed from head to foot, and in little caravans. Here and there, rude crosses erected by the side of the road, and sur rounded by heaps of stones, thrown by passers-by, in token of compassion, point out the spot where some wayfarer, and almost always a stranger, has perished by the hands of robbers. The immediate environs of the most populous cities are infested by malefactors, and even in the interior of cities not excepting the capi tal, there is no longer any security. There are numerous instances of people being robbed on a Sunday, and at the hour even when the greatest number of people are abroad, within a league of Mexico. An English charge-d affairs was lassoed on the Alameda, the public walk, in the middle of the day. In the even ing, after sunset, notwithstanding the numerous guardians of the night (serenos), notwithstanding the videttes of cavalry at every corner of the streets, notwith standing the law prohibits the riding on horseback through the streets after eight o clock, in order to prevent the use of the lasso, a man is not safe in Mexico, not even in his own house. If, in the evening at eight or nine o clock, you visit a friend, before the porter consents to open the enormous gate, lined with iron or bronze, there pass as many formalities as if it were a question of letting down the drawbridge of a fortress. Persons, on whose words I think I can rely, have assured me, that as many as 900 dead bodies are yearly deposited in the Morgue of Mexico." CHAPTER XI CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INHABITANTS OF MEXICO. THE Spanish Mexicans are accused of great indolence of character, occasioned by the abundant means of subsistence acquired by little industry. They are, from idleness, addicted to gambling, which is charged against them as a prevail ing vice. Probably no two men differ from each other so widely in habits and character as the Anglo-Saxon Americans and the Spanish Americans. Mr. Mayer says, "The Mexicans are a proud and sensitive people; yet, none are more easily subdued by kindness none more easily won by a ready disposition to min gle in their ranks, and treat them with a due respect for their habitudes and their preju dices. MEXICAN CHARACTER. " It seems impossible for them to get rid of the idea, that European powers are seeking to obtain their wealth and territory, and to re-establish the systems from which they freed themselves by so many years of revolutionary war; nor can they (since the Texan war) divest themselves of the erroneous notion, that the United States has ever a longing eye on their capital and country. "There are but few entertainments given in Mexico, in comparison with those of other cities abroad, where a lavish expenditure in viands, lights, and amusements for the few hours of a single evening, are mistaken for the elegancies and refinements of genuine hospitality; instead, however, of these ostentatious displays, there are frequent re unions at turtulias, where an hour or two are most agreeably spent. " I have already alluded to the extreme of fashionable life, and its disposition for the theatre ; and I do not intend to treat again of the propensity of the ultras to living thus constantly in the public eye, without devoting a portion of each day to that domestic intercourse and reunion which make the comfort and beauty of an English or American fireside. I speak, however, of thatjfttfe milieu of society, wherein resides the virtue and intellect of a country. "It was my good fortune to reside for more than half a year in a native family, once rich and titled, but broken in fortunes by the political and commercial vicissitudes of the republic, and it was there that I constantly witnessed the most beautiful evidences of a filial devotion and parental love, amounting almost to passionate attachment. The lady at the head of the establishment, was a person who had been distinguished for her talents and accomplishments in the days when Mexico was adorned with the splendour of a Spanish court. She would have been considered highly cultivated in any country ; her manners were excellent ; her bearing graceful and courteous ; and a wide circula tion in her youth among distinguished men (both before and during the revolution), and a ready talent for imparting her recollections, made her conversation delightful and instructive. Besides this, she possessed a genius for miniature-painting and sketching in crayons, rarely attained by a female, and worthy of a distinguished artist. Qualities like these, brought around her constantly a large and intelligent circle of both sexes. The change of fortune had by no means diminished her estimation in society, and the numbers of fast friends who adhered to her in her comparative indigence, proved their admiration of talent, and the constancy of attachment, by the repetition of the most delicate and disinterested assiduities. " It was in this Mexican home, and not from the unsympathising distance of the hotel and ball-room (the scene of most travellers observation), that I obtained my insight into the structure of Mexican society and character. Had 1 kept myself aloof in my own house or my own inn, as is the habit of foreigners, 1 should havejudged from the theatre, over a love-sicK piay, or 10 ogie, wun mie gaze, a. mvuuieu ^av a. img,"- - r posed, too, that the men were supremely blessed by this dalliance with the sex, and considered themselves in perfect elysiurn when they could divide their attention between their sirens, their horses, and the card-table ; but in the privacy of this dwelling 1 learned to estimate the love and regard between parents and children ; the 1 benevolence of ancient friendship; the universal respect for genius; and, besi frequent occasion to notice the expanding spirit, ardent patriotism, desire c on, and quick talent, which embellish the Mexican character. " It must not be said that I am estimating a country by one example ;- from so partial a judgment, as the opponents of Mexico are from a just one on their si. of the question. It is true, that this family afforded me an extensive field vation, but it chiefly served to stimulate my attention and inquiries elsewne 3 I can frankly declare, that wherever i observed, I invariably found the same qua I. head and heart. It is this heart that is in fact the great characterise of and especially of their females. There is a noble naturalness, an antique gei about them, which is the parent of a multitude of virtues, and it is by an of themselves to impulses, that so much irregularity and indiscretion have b manifested, both in politics and society. VOL. I. 3 D 386 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " I have said that the Mexicans are a people of quick talent, and my remark is borne out by the observation of all foreigners. They are quick to apprehend, quick of study, and quick in mastering a subject ; but this very facility, joined with their impulsiveness, is often fatal to their enduring application and progress. " I came among these people an entire stranger, without especial claims on their attention, and studious to avoid that bill of exchange hospitality, which is the result of introductory letters from former, and, perhaps, forgotten acquaintances. Yet mingling freely among all classes, and comparing them now when gratitude for acts of kindness has been long yielded and the annoyance of petty impertinences forgotten I have none but kindly recollections of the people, and none but favourable impressions of the mass of a society, in which I had been taught to believe that I should be held in utter anti pathy as an heretical stranger. "There are in Mexico as in all other countries, specimens of egotism, selfishness, haughtiness, ill-breeding, and loose morals, both among the men arid the women ; but, although we find these floating like bubbles on the top of society, they must not therefore be considered the characteristics of the country. A nation in which * revolutions and counter-revolutions are events of almost daily occurrence, is naturally prolific in desperate and crafty political adventurers, and dissimulation and stratagem may, in time, form the chief element of the character of such a people ; yet such, it is hoped, is not to be the corrupting fate of Mexico. "The idea that large social entertainments require great magnificence and lavish expense, deprives the Mexicans, in their towns, of many of those agreeable gatherings which fill up so pleasantly our winter nights and autumn evenings ; but it is on their haciendas or plantations that their hospitality is most distinguished. Nothing is with held from you ; their establishments are placed at your entire control, and the welcome is as sincere as it is hearty and cheerful. "That they are brave none will doubt, who read the history of their War of Inde pendence, although the bad discipline (especially of their officers) has prevented the very eminent exhibition of this quality in their foreign battles. In fact, regard them in any way, and they will be found to possess the elements of a fine people who want but peace and the stimulus of foreign emulation, to bring them forward among the nations of the earth with great distinction. "Their geographical position, however, is very unfavourable for this emulative stimulus. They are placed among the mountains, on an isthmus connecting two large continents, while their territory is washed by two seas. They are cut off by a large belt of savage country from us at the north, and the communication with Europe is both distant and uncertain. They have a small population, spread over an immense territory, and want, therefore, both the constant comparison of the intellect of other nations, and social compacting or aggregation among themselves. I can (from personal experience) state how disagreeable is this want of intercourse with the rest of the world. There is intelligence from the United States, perhaps, once a month, and about as often from Europe. The information brought by these arrivals, passes chiefly into the hands of the merchants and, after a while, is gradually translated in fragments for some of the meagre newspapers, which treat you, months afterward, to a refacciamento of the stories or improvements that you had already forgotten. In this respect, our community of language with Great Britain is of vast importance to us. England acts the part of an editor for the United States. She collects the news, the literature, the progressive in ventions, and the genius of the old world, with unparalleled activity ; and we are always, at furthest, but twelve days behind her in diffusing these results among the seventeen millions of our own people. But it may be feared, that it will be long before Mexico imitates our example. Spain is not an England in intellectual energy or advancement ; and the day has not yet arrived in Mexico when a work in two volumes can be printed, bound, and distributed to her chief cities within twenty-four hours after its reception from Europe. " I am afraid the tendency of our sister republic is too much toward the opposite extreme. She has not disenthralled herself from the Spanish bigotry which inculcated the idea that a nation must do all for herself, without a commercial marine of her own MEXICAN CHARACTER. 3g7 to carry on a well-regulated commerce. This seems as likely to make boors of the people who practise it, as seclusion is calculated to make ascetics of those who refuse to mingle with the world, and improve their spirits by a free interchange of opinions and o * CRIME." Passing westward, toward the Passeo Nuevo from the Alameda you cross the square in front of the Accordada, the common prison of the capital. In the front of one of its wings a low-barred window is constantly open, and within, on an in clined plane, are laid the dead bodies found daily within the limits of the city. It is almost impossible to take your morning walk to the adjoining fields, without seeing one and frequently two corpses, stretched bleeding on the stones. These are the victims of some sudden quarrel, or unknown murder during the night: and all who miss a friend, a parent, or a brother, resort to these iron bars to seek the lost one. It is painful to behold the scenes to which this melancholy assemblage frequently give rise, and hear the wails of sorrow that break from the homeless orphan, whose parent lies murdered on the stones of the dead-house. " Yet this is scarcely more shocking than the scenes presented by the living, within the walls of the loathsome prison. A strong guard of military is stationed at the gate, and you enter, after due permission from the commanding officer. A gloomy stair leads to the second story, the entrance to which is guarded by a portal massive enough to resist the assault of a powerful force. Within, a lofty apartment is filled with theofficers of the prison and a crowd of subalterns, engaged in writing, talking, and walking amid the hum of the crowd, the clank of chains, the shouts of prisoners, and the eternal din of an ill-regulated establishment. 11 Passing through several iron and wood-barred gates, you enter a lofty corridor, running around a quadrangular court-yard, in the centre of which, beneath, is a fountain of troubled water. The whole of this area is filled with human beings the great con gress of Mexican crime mixed and mingling, like a hill of busy ants swarming from their sandy caverns. Some are stripped and bathing in the fountain ; some are righting in a corner ; some making baskets in another. In one place, a crowd is gathered around a witty story-teller, relating the adventures of his rascally life. In another, a group is engaged in weaving with a hand-loom. Robbers, murderers, thieves, ravishers, felons of every description, and vagabonds of every aspect, are crammed within this court-yard ; and, almost free from discipline or moral restraint, form, perhaps, the most splendid school of misdemeanour and villany on the American continent. " Below, within the corridor of the second story from which I have described the view of this wretched mass of humanity a rather better sort of criminals are kept ; and yet, even here, many were pointed out to me as being under sentence of death, who still went about entirely without restraint. " In one corner of the quadrangle is the chapel, where convicts for capital offences are condemned to solitude and penance, during the three last days of their miserable life; and, at a certain hour, it is usual for all the prisoners to gather in front of the door, and chant a hymn for the victim of the laws. It is a solemn service of crime for crime. " I did not see the prison for women, but 1 am told it is much the same as the one 1 have just described. About 100 of the men, chained in pairs like galley-slaves, are driven daily into the streets, under a strong guard, as scavengers ; and it seems to be the chief idea of the utility of prisons in Mexico, to support this class of coerced labourers. "There can be no apology, at this period of general enlightenment in the world for such disgraceful exhibitions of the congregated vice of a country. Punishment, or rather incarceration, and labour on the streets, in the manner I have described, is, in fact, no sacrifice ; both because public exhibition deadens the felon s shame, and because it can not become an actual punishment under any circumstances of a lepero s lite. Indeed, what object in existence can the lepero propose to himself? His day is one of precarious labour and income ; he thieves ; he has no regular home, or if he has, it is some miserable hovel of earth and mud, where his wife and children crawl about with scarce the instinct of beavers. His food and clothing are scant and miserable. He is without education, or prospect of improvement. He belongs to a class that does not rise. He dulls his sense of present misery by intoxicating drinks. His quick temper stimulates him to quarrel. 388 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. His sleep is heavy and unrefreshing, and he only rises to a day of similar uncertainty and wickedness. What, then, is the value of life to him, or to one like him? Why toil ? Why not steal! What shame has he? Is the prison, with certainty of food more punish ment than the free air., with uncertainty? On the contrary, it is a lighter punishment ; and as for the degradation, he knows not how to estimate it. "Mexico will thus continue to be infested with felons, as long as its prison is a house of refuge, and a comparatively happy home to so large a portion of its outcast popula tion.* " I have collected some statistical information on these subjects, which I think will be interesting in connexion with Mexican prisons, and prove how necessary it is, in the first place, to alter their whole system of coercive discipline ; and, in the second, to strike immediately at the root of the evil, by improving the condition of the people by educat ing, and proposing advantages to them, in the cultivation of the extensive tracts of coun try that now lie barren over their immense territory. IMPRISONMENTS in Mexico for 1842. NUMBER OP PRISONERS. Men. Women. During the first six months of 1842, there were imprisoned in the city number. 3197 number. 1427 2858 1379 Total of both sexes for 1842 6055 ,2806 " Without specifying each of the several crimes, for which these persons were com mitted to prison, or being able, from all the accounts furnished me, to state the exact number of those who were finally convicted, I will present some lists of the numbers im prisoned for the chief crimes, during the whole year. CRIMES. Men. Women. Total. 1 . Prostitution, adultery, bigamy, sodomy, incest ..... 2. Robbery ; number. 312 1500 number. 179 470 number. 491 1970 2129 1104 3233 4. Quarreling and bearing arms, &c 612 444 1056 5. Homicide, attempt at homicide, and robbery aud 70 17 87 6. Rape and incontinence 65 21 86 7. Forgery .. . 7 1 3 8. Gambling 3 3 Whicb, added together, give the frightful amount of. . 6934 males and females, for the higher crimes and misdemeanors leaving a balance of 1927 only, to be divided among the lesser. It should be stated, in addition to the above, that numbers were committed for throwing vitrol on tbe clothes and faces of persons passing along the street; that 113 dead bodies were found ; 17 individuals executed, and 894 sent to the hospital. " The sum of 4121 dollars is expended in salaries of officers for this institution, and 30,232 dollars for the support of the prisoners. * " As an evidence of the little value these leperos place upon their lives, an old resident in Mexico told me, that he had once been the witness of a street-fight between two women, which resulted in the use of knives, and the ripping of one s belly, so that her bowels were exposed. The wound was not fatal, and as soon as she had slightly recovered from the loss of blood, while the attendants were preparing a litter, she drew forth a dgarrito from her bosom, obtained a light from a bystander, and was borne off to the hospital, smoking as contentedly as if preparing for a fiesta . " CITY OF MEXICO. 339 CHAPTER XII. CITY, AND DEPARTMENT, FORMERLY THE 1NTENDANCY, OF MEXICO. THE population of the former intendancy of Mexico was, in 1803, stated to be 1,511,800 souls. In the department which comprises a lesser extent of territory, the population in 1842 was enumerated at 1,389,520. The whole of the country which was included under the intendancy is situated under the torrid zone. It extended from the 16 deg. 34 min. to the 21 deg. 57 min. of north latitude. It was bounded on the north by the intendancy of San Luis Potosi, on the west by the intendancies of Guanaxuato and Vailadolid, and on the east by those of Vera Cruz and La Puebla de los Angelos. It is washed towards the south by the South Sea, or Pacific Ocean, from Acapulco to Zacatula. More than two-thirds of the area of this territory are moun tainous. The Valley of Mexico, or Tenochtitlan, of which M. Humboldt has published a very minute map, is situated in the centre of the cordil/era of Anahuac, on the ridge of the porphyritical and basaltic amygdaloid mountains, which run from the south- south- east to the north-north-west. This valley is of an oval form. Six great roads were made to cross the cordillera which encloses the valley, of which the medium height is 3000 metres (or 9842 feet) above the level of the ocean. 1. The road from Acapulco to Guchilaque and Cuervaracca by the high summit, called La Cruz del Marques (alluding to Hernan Cortez, Marques de. Valle de Oaxaca). 2. The road of Toluca by Tianguillo and Lerma, a magni ficent causeway, not sufficiently to be admired, constructed with great art, partly over arches. 3. The road of Queretaro, Guanaxuato, and Durango [el camino de tierra adentro], which passes by Guautitlan, Huehuetoca, and the Puerto de Reyes, near Bata, through hills scarcely eighty metres (or 262 feet) above the pavement of the great square of Mexico. 4. The road of Pachuco, which leads to the celebrated mines of real del Monte, by the Cerro Ventoso, covered with oak, cypress, and rose-trees, almost continually in flower. 5. The old road of La Puebla, by San Bonaventura and the Llanos de Apan. And, 6. the road of La Puebla by Rio Frio and Tesmelucos, south-east from the Cerro del Telapon, of which the distance from the Sierra Nevada, as well as that from the Sierra Nevada (Iztaccihuatl) to the great volcano (Popocatepetl), served for bases to the trigonometrical operations of MM. Velasquez and Costanzo. Alcedo. From the capital of Mexico being described as a city built in the midst of a lake, and connected with the continent by dikes, Alcedo observes, " Those who look at Humboldt s map will be no doubt astonished on seeing that the centre 390 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. of the present city is 4600 metres (or 14,763 feet) distant from the Lake of Tezcuco, and more than 9000 metres, or 29,52? feet from the Lake of Chalco ; but the city has certainly not changed its place, for the cathedral of Mexico occupies exactly the ground where the temple of Huitzilopochtli stood, and the present street of Tacuba is the old street of Tlacopan, through which Cortez made his famous retreat in the fatal night of the 1st of July, 1520, which still goes by the name of noche triste. The difference of situation between the old maps and those published by Humboldt, arises solely from the diminution of water in the lake of Tezcuco. A letter addressed by Cortez to the Emperor Charles V., dated 30th of October, 1520, gives a description of the Valley of Mexico. " The province in which the residence of this great lord Moctezuma is situated/ says Cortez, " is circularly surrounded with elevated mountains, and intersected with precipices. The plain contains near seventy leagues in circumference, and in this plain are two lakes, which fill nearly the whole valley ; for the inhabitants sail in canoes for more than fifty leagues round." (He speaks only of two lakes, for he knew but im perfectly those of Zumpango and Xaltocan, between which he hastily passed in his flight from Mexico to Tlascala, before the battle of Otumba.) " Of the two great lakes of the Valley of Mexico, the one is fresh and the other salt-water* They are separated by a small range of mountain (the conical and insulated hills near Iztapalapan) ; these mountains rise in the middle of the plain, and the waters of the lake mingle together in a strait between the hills and the high cordillera (undoubtedly the east declivity of Cerros de Santa Fe). The numerous towns and villages constructed in both of the two lakes carry on their commerce by canoes, without touching the continent. The great city of Temixtitan or Tenochtitlan is situated in the midst of the salt-water lake, which has its tides like the sea ; and from the city to the continent there are two leagues, whichever way we wish to enter. Four dikes lead to the city : they are made by the hand of man, and are of the breadth of two lances. The city is as large as Seville or Cordova. The streets, I merely speak of the principal ones, are very narrow and very long ; some are half-dry and half-occupied by navigable canals, furnished with very well-constructed wooden-bridges, broad enough for ten men on horse back to pass at the same time. The market-place, twice as large as that of Seville, is surrounded with an immense portico, under which are exposed for sale all sorts of merchandise, eatables, ornaments made of gold, silver, lead, pewter, precious stones, bones, sheels, and feathers ; delft-ware, leather, and spun-cotton. We find hewn stones, tiles, and timber fit for building. There are lanes for game, others for roots and garden-fruits ; there are houses where barbers shave the head (with razors made of obsidian) ; and there are houses resembling our apothecary shops, where prepared medicines, unguents, and plasters are sold. There are houses where drink is sold. The market abounds with so many CITY OF MEXICO. 39] things, that I am unable to name them all to your highness. To avoid con fusion, every species of merchandise is sold in a separate lane ; every thimr is sold by the yard, but nothing has hitherto been seen to be weighed in the market. In the midst of the great square is a house, which I shall call Vaudiencia, n which ten or twelve persons sit constantly for determining any disputes which may arise respecting the sale of goods. There are other persons who mix con tinually with the crowd, to see that a just price is asked. We have seen them break the false measures which they had seized from the merchants." Such was the state of Tenochtitlan in 1520. Humboldt sought in vain in the archives of the family of Cortez, preserved at Mexico in the Casa del Estado, for the plan which he ordered to be drawn up of the environs of the capital, and which he sent to the emperor, as he says, in his third letter published by Cardinal Lorenzana. The Abbe Clavigero has ventured to give a plan of the Lake of Tezcuco, such as he supposes it to have been in the sixteenth century. This sketch, though inaccurate, is thought preferable to that given by Robertson, and other European authors. Humboldt has drawn on the map of the Valley of Tenochtitlan the old extent of the salt-water lake, such as he conceived it from the historical account of Cortez, and some of his contemporaries. In 1520, and long after, the villages of Iztapalapan, Coyohuacan (improperly called Cuyacan), Tacubaja, and Tacuba, were quite near the banks of the Lake of Tezcuco. Cortez says expressly, " That the most part of the houses of Coyohuacan, Culuacan, Chulubuzco, Mexicaltzingo, Iztapalapan, Cuitaguaca, and Mizqueque, were built in the water on piles, so that frequently the canoes could enter by an under- door." The small hill of Chapultepec, on which the viceroy, Count Galvez, constructed a castle, was no longer an island in the Lake of Tezcuco in the time of Cortez. On this side, the continent approached to within about 3000 metres (or 9842 feet) of the city of Tenochtitlan, consequently the distance of two leagues indicated by Cortez in his letter to Charles V. is not altogether accurate : he ought to have retrenched the one-half of this, excepting, however, the part of the west-side at the small porphyritical hill of Chapultepec. We may well believe, however, that this hill was, some centuries before, also a small island, like the Fenol del Marques, or the Penol de los Banos. It appears extremely probable, from geological observations, that the lakes had been on the decrease ! long before the arrival of the Spaniards, and before the construction of the canal of Huehuetoca. Alcedo. The old city of Mexico communicated with the continent by the three great dikes of Tepejacac (Guadulupe), Tlacopan (Tacuba), and Iztapalapan. Cortez mentions four dikes, "because he reckoned, without doubt, the causeway which led to Chapultepec. The Calzada of Iztapalapan had a branch which united Coyohuacan to the small fort Xaloc, the same in which the Spaniards were entertained at their first entry by the Mexican nobility." Robertson speaks of a 392 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. dike which led to Tezcuco, but such a dike never existed, on account of the great distance, and the great depth of the east part of the lake. The city of Tenochtitlan was divided into four quarters, called Teopan, or Xochimilca, Atzacualco, Moyotla, and Tlaguechiuchan, or Cuepopan. The old division was preserved in the limits assigned to the quarter of St. Paul, St. Sebastian, St. John, and St. Mary ; and the present streets have for the most part the same direction as the old ones, nearly from north to south and from east to west, though more properly from the south 16 deg. west to north 74 deg. east, at least towards the convent of St. Augustin, where Humboldt took his azimuths. The direction of the old streets was undoubtedly determined by that of the principal dikes. Now, from the position of the places where these dikes appear to have terminated, it is improbable that they represented exactly meridians and parallels. But what gives the new city, as we have already observed, a peculiar and distinctive character, is that it is situated entirely on the continent, between the extremities of the two lakes of Tezcuco and Xochimilco, and that it only received, by means of canals, the fresh water of the Xochimilco. Alcedo. " Many circumstances have contributed to this order of things. The part of the salt-water lake between the south and west dikes was always the shallowest. Cortez complained that his flotilla, the brigantines which he constructed at Tezcuco, could not, notwithstanding the openings in the dikes, make the circuit of the besieged city. Sheets of water of small depth became insensibly marshes, which, when intersected with trenches or small defluous canals, were converted into chinampas and arable land. " Of the five lakes of the Valley of Mexico, the Lake of Tezcuco is most im pregnated with muriate and carbonate of soda. The nitrate of barytes proves that this water contains no sulphate in dissolution. The most pure and limpid water is that of the Lake of Xochimilco, the specific weight of which Humboldt found to be 1.0009, when that of water distilled at the temperature of 18 deg. centigrade, or 54 deg. Fahrenheit, was 1.000, and when water from the Lake of Tezcuco was 1.0215. The water of this last lake is heavier than that of the Baltic Sea, and not so heavy as that of the ocean, which, under different lati tudes, has been found between 1.0269 arid 1.0285. The quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen which is detached from the surface of all the Mexican lakes, and which the acetate of lead indicates in great abundance in the lakes of Tezcuco and Chalco, undoubtedly contributes in certain seasons to the unhealthiness of the air of the valley. Intermittent fevers, however, are very rare on the banks of these very lakes/ 5 Alcedo. Humboldt says, " two sorts of hewn stone, the porous amygdaloid called tetzontli, and especially a porphyry of vitreous feld-spa without any quartz, give to the Mexican buildings an air of solidity, and sometimes even magni ficence. There are none of those wooden balconies and galleries to be seen CITY OF MEXICO. which disfigure so much all the European cities in both the Indies. The balus trades and gates are all of Biscay iron, ornamented with bronze, and the houses, instead of roofs, have terraces, like those in Italy and other southern countries. " The edifice destined to the school of mines, for which the richest individuals of the country furnished a sum of more than 3,000,000 of francs, or 124,800/. sterling, would adorn the principal places of Paris or London. Two great pdaces were recently constructed by Mexican artists, pupils of the academy of fine arts of the capital. One of these palaces, in the quarter Delia Traspana, exhibits in the interior of the court a very beautiful oval peristyle of coupled columns. The traveller justly admires a vast circumference paved with porphyry flags, and enclosed with an iron railing, richly ornamented with bronze, containing an equestrian statue of King Charles IV. placed on a pedestal of Mexican marble, in the midst of the plaza major of Mexico, opposite the cathedral and the viceroy s palace. This colossal statue was executed at the expense of the Mar quis de Branciforte, formerly viceroy of Mexico, brother-in-law of the Prince of Peace. It weighs 450 quintals, and was modelled, founded, and placed by the same artist, M. Tolsa, whose name deserves a distinguished place in the history of Spanish sculpture 5 HumboldCs New Spain. Humboldt, who had seen successively, within a very short space of time, Lima, Mexico, Philadelphia, Washington, Paris, Rome, Naples, and the largest cities of Germany, remained nevertheless smitten with a recollection of the grandeur of this latter city, a circumstance which he attributes principally to the majestic character of its situation and the surrounding scenery. Alcedo. According to the same authority, "Large avenues of elms and poplars lead in every direction to the capital; and two aqueducts, constructed overarches of very great elevation, cross the plain, and exhibit an appearance equally agreeable and interesting. The magnificent convent of Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe appears joined to the mountains of Tepeyacac, among ravines which shelter a few date and young yuca trees. Towards the south the whole tract between San Angel, Tacabaya, and San Agustin de las Cuevas, appears an immense garden of orange, peach, apple, cherry, and other European fruit-trees. 3 Alcedo, in the edition of 181 7 5 observes, "The city of Mexico is also remark able for its excellent police. The most part of the streets have very broad pave ments ; and they are clean and well lighted. These advantages are the fruits of the activity of the Count de Revillagigedo, who on his arrival found the capital extremely dirty. "Water is everywhere to be had in the soil of Mexico, a very short way below the surface, but it is brackish, like the water of the Lake of Tezcuco. The two aqueducts already mentioned, by which the city receives fresh water, are monuments of modern construction worthy of the traveller s attention. The springs of potable water are situated to the east of the town, one in the insu lated hill of Chapultepec, and the other in the cerros of Santa Fe, near the VOL. I. 3 E 394 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. cordillera, which separates the Valley of Tenochtitlan from that of Lerma and Toluca. The arches of the aqueduct of Chapultepec occupy a length of more than 3300 metres, or 10,826 feet. The enumeration in 1790, by orders of the Count de Revillagigedo, gave a result of only 112,926 inhabitants for the city; but this result was considered too low by Alcedo, who says, " The regular troops and militia in garrison in the capi tal are composed of from 5000 to 6000 men in arms. We may admit with great probability that the actual population consists of 2,500 white Europeans. 65,000 white Creoles. 33,000 indigenous (copper-coloured). 26,500 Mestizoes, mixture of whites and Indians. 10,000 Mulattoes. 137,000 inhabitants. " There are consequently in Mexico 69,500 men of colour, and 67,500 whites: but a great number of the Mestizoes are almost as white as the Europeans and Spanish Creoles! " In the twenty-three male convents which the capital contains there are nearly 1200 individuals, of whom 580 are priests and choristers. In the fifteen female convents there are 2100 individuals, of whom nearly 900 are professed religieuses. " The clergy of the city of Mexico then was, and is now, extremely numerous, though less numerous by one-fourth than at that period at Madrid. The enu meration of 1790 gives c 573 priests and choristers. ^ In the convents of monks. -I 59 novices. C 867 I 235 lay brothers. 3 In the convents of nuns. \ 8 ^ P rofessed ***&"" } 923 1 35 novices. f Prebendaries ........ 26 Parish priests (cures) . . . . . ..16 Curates ......... 43 Secular ecclesiastics . . . . . . . 517 Total . . . .2392 and without including lay-brothers and novices, 2068." Alcedo, in comparing this capital with those of Europe in the beginning of the present century, says, " Mexico is the most populous city of the new conti nent. It contains only 40,000 inhabitants fewer than Madrid ; and as it forms a great square, of which each side is nearly 2750 metres, or 9021 feet, its popula tion is spread over a great extent of ground. Its greatest length is nearly 3900 metres (12,794 English feet) ; of Paris 8000 metres (26,246 English feet)." The Count de Revillagigedo set on foot accurate researches into the consump tion of Mexico. The following table was drawn up in 1791 : CITY OF MEXICO. CONSUMPTION of Mexico. 395 ARTICLES OF CONSUMPTION. Quantity. ARTICLES OF CONSUMPTION. Quantity. 1. Eatables : number. 16 300 2. Grain : number. Calves . . 450 278,023 Barley cargas . 40 2iy Hogs 50,676 24,000 Fowls 1,255,340 130 000 Ducks . .. 126,000 205 000 294 700 5,300 Wine and vinegar, barrels of 4J Partrid ges 140,000 arrobas 4 507 12 000 Spanish oil, arrobas of 251bs 5,585 " Supposing at that time, with M. Peuchet, the population of Paris to be four times greater than that of Mexico, we shall find that the consumption of beef is nearly proportional to the number of inhabitants of the two cities, but that that of mutton and pork is infinitely more at Mexico. The difference is as follows : ANIMALS. CONSUMPTION. Quadruple of the Consumption of Mexico. Of Mexico. Of Paris. number. 16,300 273,000 50,100 number. 70,000 350,000 35,000 number. 65,200 1,116,000 200,400 Hogs " M. Lavoisier found by his calculations that the inhabitants of Paris con sumed annually, in his time, 90,000,000 Ibs. of animal food of all sorts, which amounts to 163 Ibs. ( 7 9 T 7 j kilogrammes, or 175 T % Ibs. avoirdupois) per individual. In estimating the animal food yielded by the animals designated in the preceding table, according to the principles of Lavoisier, modified according to the loca lities, the consumption of Mexico in every sort of meat is 26,000,000 Ibs., or 189 Ibs., or 204 Ibs. avoirdupois, per individual. This difference is so much the more remarkable as the population of Mexico includes 33,000 Indians, who consume very little animal food. "The consumption of wine had formerly greatly increased since 1791, espe cially since the introduction of the Brownonian system in the practice of the Mexican physicians. These wines, however, are only drunk by the wealthy class of the inhabitants. The Indians, Mestizoes, Mulattoes, and even the greatest number of white Creoles, prefer the fermented juice of the agave, called ptilq i<e, of which there is annually consumed the enormous quantity of 44,000,000 bot tles, containing 48 French cubic inches each, or 58,141 cubic inches English. The immense population of Paris only consumed annually in the time of M. La voisier 281,000 muids of wine, brandy, cyder, and beer, equal to 80,928,000 bottles. The consumption of bread at Mexico is equal to that of the cities of rope. This fact is so much the more remarkable, as at Cara 9 as, at Cumana, and 396 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS . Carthagena de las Indias, and in all the cities of America situated under the tor rid zone, but on a level with the ocean, or very little above it. the Creole inha bitants live on almost nothing but maize bread, and ihejatropha manihot. If we suppose, with M. Arnould, that 325 Ibs. of flour yield 416 Ibs. of bread, we shall find that the 130,000 loads of flour consumed at Mexico, yield 4 9, 900,000 Ibs. of bread, which amounts to 391 T 8 o Ibs. avoirdupois, per individual of every age. Estimating the habitual population of Paris at 547,000 inhabitants, and the con sumption of bread at 206, 7 8 8,000 Ibs., we shall find the consumption of each in dividual in Paris 377 Ibs. French, or 406 T 9 olbs. avoirdupois." At Mexico, the consumption of maize is almost equal to that of wheat. It is the food most in request among the Indians. The market of Mexico has always been celebrated as richly supplied with eatables, particularly with roots and fruits of every sort. " It is a most interesting spectacle, which may be enjoyed every morning at sunrise, to see these provisions and a great quantity of flowers, brought in by Indians in boats, descending the canals of Istacalco and Chalco. The greater part of these roots is cultivated on the chinampasy called by the Europeans floating gardens. There are two sorts of them, of which the one is moveable and driven about by the winds, and the other fixed and attached to the shore. The first alone merit the denomination of floating gardens, but their number is daily diminishing. The invention of c/dnampas had its origin in the local situation of a people, who, surrounded with enemies, were compelled to live in the midst of a little lake abounding in fish, who were forced to fall upon every means of procuring subsistence. " The oldest chinampas were merely bits of ground joined together artificially, and dug and sown upon by the Aztecs. These floating islands are to be met with in all the zones. Humboldt saw them in the king dom of Quito, on the river Guayaquil, of eight or nine metres (or 26 or 29 feet) in length, floating in the midst of the current, and bearing young shoots of bambusa, pistia stratiotes, pontederia, and a number of other vegetables, of which the roots are easily interlaced. He found also in Italy, in the small lago di aqua solfa of Tivoli, near the hot baths of Agrippa, small islands formed of sulphur, carbonate of lime, and the leaves of the ulva ihermalls, which change their place with the smallest breath of wind. Floating gardens are, as is well known, also to be met with in the rivers and canals of China, where an excessive population compels the inhabitants to have recourse to every shift for increasing the means of subsistence. Masses of tufted earth, carried away from the banks, have probably origi nated the idea of artificial chinampas; but the industry of the Aztecs gradually car ried this system of cultivation to perfection. " The floating gardens, of which very many were found by the Spaniards, and of which many still (1817) exist in the CITY OF MKXICO. 397 Lake of Chalco, were rafts formed of reeds (totora), rushes, roots, and branches of brushwood. The Indians cover these light and well-connected materials with black mould, naturally impregnated with muriate of soda. The soil is gra dually purified from this salt by washing it with the water of the lake ; and the ground becomes so much the more fertile as this lixiviation is annually repeated. This process succeeds even with the salt-water of the Lake of Tezcuco because this water, by no means at the point of its saturation, is still capable of dissolving salt as it filtrates through the mould. The chinampas sometimes con tained even the cottage of the Indian, who acts as guard for a group of floating gardens. They are towed or pushed with long poles when wished to be removed from one side of the banks to the other. " In proportion as the fresh-water lake has become more distant from the salt water lake, the mo veable chinampas have been fixed. Every chinampa forms, or formed, a parallelogram of 100 metres in length, and from five to six metres (or 328 by 16 or 19 feet) in breadth. Narrow ditches, communicating symmet rically between them, separate these squares. The mould fit for cultivation, purified from salt by frequent irrigations, rises nearly a metre, or 3.28 feet above the surface of the surrounding water. On these chinampas are cultivated beans, small peas, pimento (chile, capsicum), potatoes, artichokes, cauliflowers, and a great variety of other vegetables. The edges of these squares are generally ornamented with flowers, and sometimes with a hedge of rose bushes. "The promenade in boats around the chinampas of Istacalco is one of the most agreeable that can be enjoyed in the environs of Mexico. The vegetation is extremely vigorous on a soil continually refreshed with water." Humloldt. Thomson s Alcedo. The modern city of Mexico has, after the visit of Humboldt, been well described by Mr. Ward. It is situated in a plain, near lakes, and surrounded by mountains, at an elevation of 7400 feet above the level of the sea, in latitude 19 deg. 26 min. north; longitude 101 deg. 26 min. west. The population is said now to amount to nearly 200,000 of all races. Its streets intersect each other generally at right angles. On looking down on it from the neighbouring heights, it has been compared to a chessboard. Although Humboldt describes it as " undoubtedly the finest city built by Europeans in either hemisphere/ we certainly doubt the truth of this assertion. Many of the public edifices are certainly magnificent, and the cathedral and churches contain gorgeous embellishments and treasures. There are fourteen parish churches, six additional churches, thirteen monasteries and seminaries, twenty-two nunneries, one university, six colleges, and five hospitals. The palace of the archbishop is a plain edifice. That of the president is to have been equally plain, and until 1842, was wretchedly furnished. Aft accession of Santa Anna, Mr. Mayer says of the grand saloon in this palace:- 398 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " In this spacious and well-proportioned apartment they have gathered a quan tity of gorgeous furniture, and placed, on a platform at the northern end, under a crimson canopy, a magnificently carved and gilded throne. Various flags, alleged to have been taken from the Texans, in battle, are affixed to staffs ex tending from the cornice. The walls are covered with large French mirrors, and the deep windows are festooned with the most tasteful upholstery of French artistes. I have wandered over the whole of this immense pile of edifices, but I recollect nothing else about it worthy of notice. The private apartments of General Santa Anna are plain, neat, and tasteful, and a full-length portrait of General Washington adorns an obscure chamber." There is a senate chamber and chamber of deputies behind the palace, near which also is the botanic garden of small extent. The mint is on the north of the Palace Square, near which is the adauna or custom-house. The Monte Pio, or national pawnbroking establishment, is in the palace said to be erected by Cortez: it is founded very much on the same principle as that of Paris. Mr. Mayer says ; ** You may form an idea of the number and variety of persons who derive assistance from the Monte Pio, by a walk through its extensive apartments. You will there find every species of garment, from the tattered reboso of the lepera to the lace mantilla of the noble dame ; every species of dress, from the blanket of the beggar, to the military cloak and jewelled sword of the impoverished officer; and, as to jewels, Aladdin would have had nothing to wish among the blazing caskets of diamonds for which the women of Mexico are proverbial." The Mineria, or School of Mines, is one of the most splendid edifices in America. " It was planned and built by Tolsa, the sculptor of the statue of Charles IV. and is an immense pile of stone, with courts, stairways, saloons, and proportions that would adorn the most sumptuous palaces in Europe. But this is all. The apparatus is miserable ; the collection of minerals utterly insignificant; the pupils few ; and, among the wastes and solitude of the pile, wanders the renowned Del Rio one of the most learned naturalists of this hemisphere ejaculating his sorrows over the departed glory of his favourite schools." An edifice used for the manufacture of tobacco, situated at the north western corner of the city, and erected by the old Spanish government, has been converted into a citadel. The Academy of Fine Arts, so highly admired by Humboldt, has, like the Mineria, university, and museum, became almost untenanted. Under the old Spanish government the academy was really a school of arts, and supplied at great expense with casts of the most celebrated statuary of Europe. There are a few private cabinets of pictures, &c. In the streets, wealth and poverty exhibit their extremes. CITY OF MEXICO. 309 " Go where you will," says, Mr. Mayer, in this city you are haunted by beggars. Beggary is a profession ; but it is not carried to quite the extent that it is in some of the Italian states, and especially the Sicilian dominions. " The capital employed in this business is blindness, a sore leg, a decrepit father or mother, or a helpless child ; in the latter case, a stout hearty boy usually straps the feeble one on his back, and runs after every passer beseeching succour. With such a stock in trade, and a good sunny corner, or wall of a church door, the peti tioner is set up for life. Placed in so eligible a situation, their cry is incessant from morning to night, Senores amicos, por el amor de dios, for the love of the blessed Virgin F by the precious blood of Christ \ 9 t by the holy mystery of the Trinity \* repeated with many variations between their eternal scratchings, winking of lids over sightless balls, and the display of maimed limbs and every species of personal deformity. There is no * poor-house* in Mexico, to which such vagrant wretches are forced to go." Whoever happens to be the successful head of a revolution, opens court cere monies ; and " military, diplomatic, and ecclesiastical uniforms/ and religious pro cessions form gorgeous displays, very inconsistent with the ideas usually enter tained of republican capitals. There are four theatres, a Plazo de los Torros for bull-fights, in which, like the old Spaniards, the Mexicans delight. On feast days all are joyous or idle. Mr. Gilliam, as a republican, was indignant on wit nessing the Christmas festivities in the city. "There was during the whole day, the firing of rockets from the churches, and of camion from before the national palace, at the plaza. In the evening, General Canalizo, the dictator pro tern., in his coach of state, accompanied by his guards of lancers, commanded by a general officer, rode through the streets to the alemade and the pasio. To inform plain republicans in the United States, that it was an extraordinary sight for the first officer of the republic of Mexico to appear in his coach, would not awaken their imaginations to the gaudy and royal state in which such things are done there. But never was I more surprised, and indeed indig nant, than when I beheld the chief magistrate of a republican government aping the gaudy show and circumstance of royal pride to please and gull a gaping people. " I had a thought that in the enlightened age of the nineteenth century, repub licans of all the continent of America had thrown aside and disdained the tinsel of monarchical pageantry and aristocracy, basing their noble bearing alone on the soundness of their constitutional principles, and devotion to their country s weal. " But so far from the dictator of Mexico appearing in plain garb and equipage, and like Washington assuming in public to be nothing more than a servant of the people and a private citizen, General Canalizo had hffi coach literally fringed and covered with gold ; and I hardly knew which the most to admire, the splendid uniforms of his coachman, or that of his own. But for the fact, that the dictator, instead of the driver, wore the shopo, and was seated within, I would have mistaken 400 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. that Yankee mounted on his seat like a golden throne, for the dictator pro tern, of the republic of Mexico. " There were also generals dressed in full uniforms, attending as outriders to his excellency, while not less than a hundred lancers were his body guard. Hang down your heads, ye respectable republicans and generals of the United States ! for you cannot aspire to being postillions and body-servants to the most high in authority. " Having seen the big show of the dictator, I followed the crowd to the Plaza de los Torres, for I was not satisfied with my speculations, upon the different castes of society, and the moral tone pervading each. Having convinced myself that decent and respectable portions of society, embracing both sexes, visited the shows of bull-fighting, I attended the exhibition, remaining there as long as 1 could do so with any degree of ease or comfort. I observed a mother with three children, call their attention so particularly to the scene of blood, that they might not escape seeing all the cruel performances of the occasion. I soon left the barbarous amphitheatre, never intending to enter it again. 55 Mr. Mayer was told, "that unless I remained some time I was likely to lose the three great amusements of Mexico, to wit, a revolution, an earthquake, and a bull-fight. " A fight came off rather unexpectedly in the Plaza de Torros, an immense circus, erected when this sport was in its palmy days in Mexico. " It was Sunday, and the people were unoccupied. The idlers had a few spare medios, picked up by toil, beggary, or pilfering during the week, and as to the rich, it was expected that of course they would be gratified by the sight of an exhibi tion from which they had been long debarred. " The exhibition of the slaughter-house as a sport, can tend only to foster a brutal passion for blood. Death becomes familiarised as a play-thing to the mul titude. They make a clown of the grim monster. They put him as a joker on the arena for Sabbath sports ; and the day that is assigned as a period of repose, thankfulness, love, and remembrance of the blessed God, is converted into a school-time of the worst passions that can afflict and excite the human heart. " It may be said that this is not true of all classes. I grant it, and reply, that although all classes visit the circus, yet the majority of the spectators is doubtless composed of the lowest ranks, requiring most moral instruction, and least addicted to reasoning. With such a population as that of the leperos of Mexico (men scarcely a remove from the beasts whose slaughter they gloat on), these scenes of murder, in which bulls, matadors, and picadors are often indiscriminately slain, can only serve to nourish tltfc most wicked passions, and to nerve the ignorant and vile to deeds of most daring criminality. " It will be a matter of sincere congratulation for Mexican patriots, when this remnant of barbarism is abolished in their country, and the thousands which are CITY OF MEXICO. 401 annually expended in bull-fights throughout the republic, are devoted to the edu cation or rational amusement of the people." There are, according to Mr. Mayer, scarcely any hotel accommodations in the city of Mexico. The best being a miserable establishment, only a few removes from the Fondas and Mesones of the olden time. This want of accommodation he attributes to the fact that travelling is only of a recent date ; a new invention, as it were, in Mexico. In former times, articles of merchandise were sent under the care of arrieros, who were satisfied with the accommodation of the ordinary tavern ; to wit, four walls, covered with a roof, in which they might stretch their mats pile their saddles, and sleep, living the while on tortillias, onions, pulque, and jerked meats. Whenever the better classes found it needful to visit the capital, the house of some friend was open to them, and thus hospitality prevented the creation of an honest race of Bonifaces to welcome the weary wayfarer." Mr. Mayer, like others who have visited Mexico, describes the religious cere monies, and especially the festival of the Virgin of Guadaloupe, the patron saint of Mexico, whose shrine is richer than that of St. John Nepomuc, at Prague. Of Mexican domestic character, among the families of the higher class, he speaks favourably, although he says " too much time is devoted to the morning, the even ing drive, and the theatre." "The universal conclusion of the day with a fashionable lady in Mexico, is the theatre. She begins with mass, to which she walks in the morning with her man tilla gracefully draped around her head, and falling in folds of splendid lace over her breast and shoulders. But the night must end in full dress at the opera or theatre. It is as regular and as much a matter of course as her meals." The houses of the Mexicans are usually built of the strongest materials, either brick or stone, and without much architectural pretension. They are erected around patios, or court-yards, and are from thirty to forty feet front on the street the grand saloon being generally the length of the whole house. On the ground-floor are the portePs lodge, offices, and coach-house. " From this a flight of steps leads to an entresol, devoted to the domestics, while the upper story is universally the fashionable and best one. Here the family dwells in perfect seclusion from the street and neighbours, and the arcade which fronts their doors is filled with the choicest fruit and flower-trees in constant bloom. Above all this is the azotea, or flat paved roof, a delightful retreat on summer nights. The front windows of the houses are all guarded by balconies covered with gaily-coloured awnings ; and on days of festival, when filled with the gay throng of Mexican women, and hung with tapestry and velvet, they present a most brilliant appearance. " The carriage, and ever-harnessed mules, stand constantly in the court-yard below ; and the postillion is ready to mount and sally forth at a moment s notice until after dark, when the large front gate is closed, locked, and barred ; and the house becomes as quiet and secure as a castle, with which no communication from VOL. i. 3 F 402 SPANISH AMKRICAN REPUBLICS. without is permitted, until you tell your name, or signify to the porter the object of your visit. Until this ceremony has passed, no bolt is drawn in the wicket or latch raised to admit you ; and the caution is extremely necessary, on account or the frequent robberies that have been committed by allowing unknown persons to enter after dark." The "old school" gays Mr. Mayer, " seems to have taken refuge among the Mexicans. They are formally, and I think, substantially, the politest people I have met with. 5 The Alameda is a great resort for carriages to drive, and for students, priests, and monks to loiter. The Passeo nuovo is another drive about a mile long, bordered with trees, and adorned with fountains and statues. It is crowded on festivals. Every person of consideration possesses an equipage. "It is not thought exactly proper, " observes the same writer, " for a lady ever to walk, except to mass, or, sometimes when she goes shopping. The coach, therefore, on all gala days, is sure to appear on the Passeo with its fair burden, dressed in the French style as for a dinner party or a ball. When 1 first arrived in Mexico, it was rare to see a bonnet on such occasions ; but that awkward appendage of fashionable costume was becoming gradually in vogue before I left. " For an hour or more, it is the custom to pass up and down the sides of the Passeo, nodding and smiling at the cavaliers, who show off their horsemanship along the centre of the road. Here the utmost luxury and style are exhibited in the equipment of carriage and animals. Gold embroidery, silver plating, and every ornament that can add splen dour to harness and livery are brought forth. To such an extent is the taste for these exhibitions carried, that one of the millionaires of Mexico appears occasionally at the Passeo, on a saddle which (without counting the value of the rest of his caparison) cost the sum of five thousand dollars. It was the chef-d oeuvre of an honest German saddler, who made it, and retired from trade to his beloved father land/ " On approaching this charming drive, the whole plain of the Valley of Mexico is at once revealed to you, without passing a dirty suburb. On your right, is the cypress- covered and castle-crowned hill of Chapultepec, formerly the site, it is alleged, of one of Moctezuma s palaces. " On the right, and before you are long lines of aqueducts sweeping to the city from the hills, and in others, studded with lakes, cultivation, and beautiful groves, until the distant view is closed by the volcanoes, whose snows rest against the blue sky, uncovered at this season, by a single cloud. <k Below is the great square or Plaza ; a large paved area, fronted on the north by the cathedral, on the east by the national palace (the residence of the presidents), to the south of which, again, are the museum and a stone edifice recently built in tasteful style for a market. The corner-stone of this was laid after I arrived at Mexico, and before I left the building was nearly completed. Until that time the fruits, flowers, vegetables, and most of the necessaries of the table, had been sold on that spot, in shambles and booths built of bamboos and reeds, sheltered from the rain and sun by thatched roofs ? " In the south-western corner of the square in the Parian, an unsightly building (erected, I believe, since the revolution) which greatly mars the effect of the Plaza. It is a uset ul establishment, however, as it affords a large revenue to the municipality, and is the great bazaar where every article requisite for the dress of Mexicans, male or female, may be purchased. On the pavement which runs round it, sit numbers of coachmen, whose stand is in the neighbourhood, and crowds of women with ready-made shoes. Not the least curious, however, among the multitude, with which this side-walk is generally thronged, are about a dozen * evangelistas or Metier-writers, whose post is always on the curb-stones of the eastern front of the Parian. A huge jug of ink is placed beside thecn : a board rests across their knees ; a pile of different coloured paper (most of which is either cut, valentine fashion, or flourished over and adorned with pen-and-ink orna- CITY OF MEXICO. 403 ments) is placed on it, and, on a stool before them, sits some disconsolate-looking damsel or heart-broken lover, pouring out a passion which the scribe puts into becoming phra seology. It is an important trade ; and more money is earned in Mexico by this proxv- making love, than perhaps anywhere else. You can have a * declaration for one rial ; a scolding letter for a medio ; and an upbraiding epistle, full of daggers, jealousy, love, and tenderness (leaving the unfortunate recipient in a very distracted state of mind), done upon azure paper be-sprinkled with hearts and doves, for the ridiculous price of twenty- five cents ! " West of the Parian, and all around the southern and western sides of the Plaza, or those portions of it which are not directly occupied by the cathedral and national palace, run the arched Portales, similar to the arcades of Bologna. These are filled with gay shops, pedlars, cafes, old clothes, toys, flower-venders, sweetmeats, bookstalls, cutlers, curiosity-hunters, antiquities (veritable and doubtful), and the usual crowd of loungers and quidnuncs. Here the last revolution, or the probability of a new one, is in continual discussion, by knots of idlers. Above stairs, in some of the dwellings, are gambling- houses, as formerly in the Palais Royal, with which the scene here presented does not, of course, vie in taste or splendour. " Opposite to the southern end of the Parian is the Casa Municipal, or town-hall, in the lower story of which is the Lonja (the exchange of the merchants of Mexico), a noble room, filled with all the gazettes of the republic, of Europe, and the United States, and adjoined by an apartment in which readers may occasionally amuse themselves with a game of billiards. " In order to afford you some idea of the wealth of the church, generally, and passing over plate glass and crystal, silver frames, lamps, carving and gilding enough to make an ordinary metropolitan church blaze with splendour, I will only mention one object in the body of the building the altar and its accessories. "The cathedral occupies a space of 500 feet by 420 front. The main altar is not erected against the wall, but near the centre of the edifice, beneath the dome. From this, extending round the choir probably 200 feet, there is a rail between four and five feet high, and of proportionable thickness, composed of gold, silver, and a small alloy of brass. This is surmounted with silver statues for candles. In front of the altar is the choir, itself a church, built of dark woods of the rarest antique carving. The altar (placed upon a marble platform, elevating it from the floor of the building, and covered with o-old and silver ornaments, candlesticks and crosses) is of wrought and polished silver ; and the whole is surmounted by a small temple, in which rests the figure of the Virgin of Remedies, who enjoys the exclusive right to three petticoats ; one embroidered with pearls, another with emeralds, and a third with diamonds, the value of which 1 am credibly informed, is not less than three millions of dollars! This, you will recollect, is only one part of one church in Mexico, and that one said not to be the richest Around this splendid mine of wealth are half-naked Indians, gaping with surpr.se, or kneeling to the figure of some favourite saint the misery of the man a painful coi with the splendour of the shrine ! Passing from the cathedral door to the south-eastern portion of the city, you reach the outskirts, crossing, in your way, the canals from the lake I have rarely seen such miserable suburbs ; they are filled with hovels built of sun-dried bricks, often worn with the weather to the shape of holes in the mud, while on their earthen floors crawl, cook, live, and multiply, the wretched-looking population of leperos. " This word believe is not pure Spanish, but is derived originally, it is said, trom the CastiHan ijra or leper; and although they do not suffer from that loathsome ma- lady, they are quite as disgusting. hppnmp filler! " Blacken a man in the sun ; let his hair grow long and tangled or ^become with vermin ; led him plod about the streets in all kmdi of dirt *** know the use of brush/or towel, or water even except m storms ; le him put on a pa,r of leather breeches at twenty, and wear them until fort V H , "Tmed withal and, over all, place a torn or blackened hat, and a tattered blanket b^r d t* abo minations; let him have wild eyes, and shining teeth, and features pmched 404 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. into sharpness ; breasts bared and browned, and (if females) with two or three miniatures of the same species trotting after her, and another certainly strapped to her back: com bine all these in your imagination, and you have a recipe for a Mexican lepero. " There, on the canals, around the markets and pulque shops, the Indians and these miserable outcasts hang all day long; feeding on fragments, quarrelling, drinking, steal ing, and lying drunk about the pavements, with their children crying with hunger around them. At night they slink off to those suburbs, and coil themselves up on the damp floors of their lairs, to sleep off the effects of liquor, and to awake to another day of misery and crime. Is it wonderful, in a city with an immense proportion of its inha bitants of such a class (hopeless in the present and the future), that there are murderers and robbers? * In the Indiaft population which pours into the capital from the lakes, I must say that there is apparently more worth and character. You see them lolling about in their boats on the canals, and passing and repassing in their canoes, plying between the city and Chalco and Tezcoco. It is a beautiful sight to behold these tiny vessels skim like floating gardens to the quays in the morning, laden to the water s edge with the fruits, flowers, and vegetables, that hide the skiff that bears them. " The old houses in this neighbourhood, rising out of the canals, the sluggish waters, and the dark multitude of the better classes in fanciful dresses, remind one strongly of Venice. " Skirting the canal, and leading to the plain which adjoins the chinampas, or for mer floating gardens, is the Passeo de la Viga, a public drive frequented by the beau monde, both in coach and on horseback, during the season of Lent. Scarcely an after noon passes, at that period of the year, that the observer will not find the canal covered with gay boat- loads of Indians, passing homeward from market, dancing, singing, laugh ing, strumming the guitar, and crowned with wreaths of poppies. I do not know the ori gin of the custom of wearing this forgetful flower; but it is both a healthier and more poetic oblivion than that resorted to by many folks in other lands, after a day of toil. " Turning westward, we again reach the great square. " As we pass the front of the national palace, from out of its main portal dash fifty gaily -caparisoned hussars, followed by a coach richly decked with crimson velvet and gold, drawn by four white horses, and driven by a Yankee coachman. Behind this dash fifty more hussars, while at the side of the coach, six aide-de-camps rein in their mettle some chargers. There is but one person in the vehicle. His dress is that of a general of division, with red facings and embroideries. He wears a number of decorations around his neck, while a medal blazing with diamonds, voted to him by the nation, rests on his bosom. His sword-handle is studded with diamonds, and his hand rests on a diamond- headed cane. He is uncovered, and, as he passes and bows gracefully to your saluta tion, you recognise the President of the Republic? " The departure of the president from the palace has attracted a crowd. The ad joining market, ever filled with people, pours forth its multitudes into the square." Speaking of the crowds who frequent the public walks, Mr. Mayer remarks, " The gay throng disperses, as the moon rises from behind the mountains, pouring a flood of clear light, bright as the day in other lands, over the tranquil landscape. "The moonlight of Mexico is marvellously beautiful. This city is 7500 feet above the level of the sea, and nearly that number of feet closer to the stars than we are ; the atmosphere, consequently, is more rarefied, and the light comes, as it were, pure and pellucid from heaven : you seem able to touch the stars, so brilliantly near do they stand out relieved against the background of an intensely blue sky. Stroll ing on such nights in Mexico, when I saw the sharp lines of tower and temple come boldly out with shape and even colour, almost as bright, yet softer than at noon-day, I have often been tempted to say that the moonlight you get at home (much as it is the theme of poets and lovers), is but second-hand stuff, compared with that of Mexico. " And so with the climates. Between the sea-shore at Vera Cruz and the volcanoes, uhose eternal snows hang over Mexico, you have every climate of the world. " In the valley there is a perpetual spring. For six months in the year (the winter CITY OF MEXICO. 405 months, as they are called), rain never falls; during the other six months, showers occur almost daily. It is never hot never very cool, and you may wear your cloak or your summer-dress the whole year, according to the temper of your nervous system. One side of the street is always too warm at noon. Cold and sleeting as it is here in January, the roses are already blooming freshly in the gardens of Mexico. Nor is there percep tible change of foliage on the forest-trees; the new leaves push off the old ones with a * gentle force, and the regeneration of the seasons is effected without the process of fading, withering, and dying, which makes with us the melancholy days of autumn * the saddest of the year. " To look at the external world, you would say there was no such thing as death in Mexico. The rose and the leaf you admire to-day, are replaced to-morrow, by fresh buds and renewed verdure. ENVIRONS. " By a road leading south-westwardly from Chapultepec, at the distance of about a mile, you reach Tacubaya, a town somewhat celebrated in the history of Spanish diplomacy. It is a quiet country village, containing many delightful residences of the Mexican merchants, and is chiefly remarkable for a palace of the archbishop, < surrounded by beautiful gardens and groves, from UIQ azotea of which there is one of the finest views of the volcano of Popocatepetl, and the neighbouring mountain of Ilztaccihuatl. u St. Augustin is another village of which I have already spoken ; and St. Angel is one of nearly the same character, except that the views from its azoteas over the valley I and city, are perhaps more beautiful. "The pleasantest ride, however, about the vale or its adjoining mountains, is to the : ruins known as * El Desierto? or the Desert ; the remains of an abandoned Carmelite convent, built among the rocky recesses of the western Sierra. " It is a fashionable ride of about seven leagues, and parties of gentlemen, and even ladies, make it a resort for agreeable pic-nics. The edifices were built bet ween two i hills, and are now going rapidly to decay, yet there are some remains of cells which still retain their coverings, while the main buildings are unroofed and almost choked with luxuriant trees and flowering shrubbery." Mr. Mayer and others describing the out-door appearances of the population bring forward the lepero as conspicuous. He is described as a beggar, thief, porter, and in any character which his despicable condition permits. The aguador or water-carrier is another peculiar character. His jars are sus pended from his head. Indians from the country carry turkeys, chickens, and other birds in coops or cages, or earthenware, or fruit, around to sell Others, men and women, drive asses about laden with vegetables, especially onions and radishes. A tinkle of a bell at the door of the cathedral sacristy, and a roll of drums calling out the guard of honour at the palace-gate, give warning of a change ot scene, and collect the multitude towards the spot. Another scene is described by Mr. Mayer : "Slowly issues a gaily-painted coach with glass windows on all sides, drawn by spotted mules ; a priest in his vestments sits within ; a band of boys walk on each side chanting a hymn; and in a moment a death-like stillness pervades the wh square. From the tradesman, selling his tapes under the Portales, to the who has barely time to conceal the handkerchief in his dirty blanket, t! crowd is uncovered and kneeling : the Host is passing to the house Catholic ! 406 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. "The carriage turns a corner, and the square is alive again ; the tradesman to sell, the lepero to steal, and the lesson of death is forgotten for ever !" The Mexican coaches are said still to be of the old heavy, almost globular form, suspended on clumsy carved and gaudy frame-work, dragged by mules almost hidden in leather and brass harness, bestridden by a postillion in leather embroidered jacket, short leggings, broad-brimmed hat, and long spurs. The military music of Mexico is highly praised by Mr. Mayer. " It would be improper," he observes, " in speaking of the Mexican military, not to notice, especially, their excellent bands of music. The Spaniards transplanted their love and taste for this beautiful science to Mexico. The Indians have caught the spirit from their task-masters; and whether it be in the tinkling guitar or the swelling harmonies of a united corps, you can scarce go wrong, in expecting an exhibition of the art from a native. It is the custom for one of the regimental bands to meet after sundown, under the windows of the palace in the Plaza, which is filled with an attentive crowd of eager listeners to the choicest airs of modern composers. " I have said, that this musical taste pervades all classes ; and it was, therefore, to be hoped that a regularly established operatic corps would have readily succeeded in the capital. The revolution of 1841 interfered with it at the outset, in the months of August and September; and, from the unfavourable location of the house and other circum stances, the whole enterprise was visited with a series of disastrous losses that left the management in July, 1842, with a deficit of upward of 32,000 dollars. The singers were good; the prima donna and basso unexceptionable; but the establishment never became fashionable. "Not so, however, with the theatres; three of which were almost constantly in operation while I resided in Mexico. The Principal, the resort of the old aristocracy, was the theatre of staid fashion ; the * Nuevo Mexico, a haunt of the newer people, who looked down on the legitimate drama, and tolerated the excitement of innovation and novelty ; and the * Puente Quebrada, a species of San Carlino, where the people* revelled in the coarser jokes and broader scenes of an ad libitum performance. " I frequently visited the Principal, but kept a box with several young friends at the Nuevo Mexico, where I found the greatest advantage in the study of the Spanish lan guage, from the excellent recitations of the comicos. Most of them were Castilians, who spoke their native tongue with all the distinctive niceties of pronunciation, besides producing all the newest efforts of the Spanish muse. " It was singular to observe, how from a small beginning and really excellent per formances, the taste and wealth of Mexico was gradually drawn from its old loves at the Principal to the daring upstart. The theatre is a Mexican necessary of life. It is the legitimate conclusion of a day, and all go to it; the old, because they have been accustomed to do so from their infancy ; the middle-aged, because they find it difficult to spend their time otherwise ; and the young, for a thousand reasons, which the young will most readily understand. "The boxes are usually let by the month or year, and are, of course, the resort of families who fill them in full dress every evening, and use them as a receiving-room for the habitues of their houses; although it is not so much the custom to visit in the theatre as in Italy. "The pit is the paradise of bachelors. Its seats are arm-chairs, rented by the month, and of course never occupied but by their regular owners. The stage is large, and the scenery well painted ; but the whole performance becomes rather a sort of mere repetition than acting, as the comicos invariably follow the words, uttered in quite a loud tone by a prompter, who sits in front beneath the stage, with his head only partially CITY OF MEXICO. 497 concealed by a wooden hood. A constant reliance on this person greatly impairs the dramatic effect, and makes the whole little better than bad reading ; but I was "lad to perceive that the actors of Nuevo Mexico had evidently studied their parts, amfrnallv performed the characters of the best dramas of the Spanish school. Even the riding horses of the Mexicans are not yet freed from the ancient lumber and trappings with which their ancestors covered them. " I have forgotten to say any thing to you hitherto of the parades of troops for which this capital is in some degree famous. As I profess to have no military know ledge, you must not expect a very critical account of their appearance and manoeuvres, but I have seldom seen better-looking regiments in Europe than the llth infantry under the command of Lombardini. The uniform is white, like the Austrian, and is kept in excellent order. The arms are clean and bright, and the officers of dmtion appear to be well trained, and to have imparted their training to the men. On the 13th of June last, about eight thousand of these troops were brought together, to be reviewed by General Santa Anna, on the meadows south of the city. In line they had an ex tremely martial bearing, and, so far as I was able to judge of their skill, the sham-fight that took place afterward was admirably executed. Excellent and daring riders as are all the Mexicans, they must ever have a decided advantage in their cavalry; and, although they did not present so splendid an appearance in equipments as some of the other regiments, I have no doubt they consitute the most effective arm of the Mexican service. Indeed, almost all the foreigners (and even Texans) with whom I have spoken in regard to the qualities of these men, concur in a high estimate of the Mexican soldier, although they do not think so well of the Mexican officer. This, in all probability, arises from the irregular manner in which persons arrive at command, and the want of soldier-like education and discipline. Officers have been, most fre quently, taken at once from private life, or pursuits by no means warlike, and found themselves suddenly at the head of troops, without a knowledge of their duties, either in the barrack, camp, or field ; or a due estimate of the virtues of obedience, and that dis ciplined courage, arising from a perfect self-reliance in every emergency. The result of this unfortunate state of things has been, that, in conflicts with the Texans, while the men have often appeared anxious to fight, they lacked officers who were willing to lead them into the thick of the melee. "You can fancy nothing more odd than the manner in which this army is recruited. A number of men are perhaps wanted to complete a new company, and a sergeant \\ith his guard is forthwith despatched to inspect the neighbouring Indians and Meztizoes. The subaltern finds a dozen or more at work in the fields ; and, without even the formality of a request, immediately picks his men and orders them into the ranks. If they attempt to escape or resist they are at once lassoed; and, at nightfall, the whole gang is marched, tied in pairs, into the guartel of the village or the guard-room of the palace, with a long and lugubrious procession of wives and children, weeping and howl ing for the loss of their martial mates. Next day the volunteers are handed over to the drill-sergeant ; and I have often laughed most heartily at the singular group pre sented by these new-caught soldiers on their first parade under their military tutor. One-half of their number are always Indians, and the rest, most likely, le"peros. One has a pair of trousers, but no shirt; another a shirt and a pair of drawers; another hides himself, as well as he can, under his blanket and broad-brimmed hat ; another has drawers and a military cap. But the most ridiculous-looking object I remember to have seen in Mexico, was a fat and greasy le*pero, who had managed to possess himself of a pair of trousers that just reached his hips, and were kept up by a strap around his loins, together with an old uniform coat a great deal too short for him, both in the sleeves and on the front. As he was not lucky enough to own a shirt, a vast continent of brown stomach lay shining in the sun between the unsociable garments ! He held his head (which was supported by a tall stock) higher than any man in the squad, and marched magnificently especially in lock step! " The drilling of these men is constant and severe. The sergeant is generally & well-trained soldier, and unsparing in the use of his long hard rod for the slightest symptom of neglect. 408 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " Curing the ceremonies at the cathedral and churches, ladies of the first rank mix indiscriminately with the multitude. * The commonest woman of the middle ranks you encounter on the streets, with but a fanciful petticoat, and her shawl or reboso, struts a queen her feet small almost to deformity. Her figure, though full to embonpoint, you never think too fat; her lively enthusiasm always seems tempered and delicately subdued by the softness of her eye, and you feel that her complexion, sallow or dark as it often is, is yet no more than * The embrowning of the fruit that tells How rich within the soul of sweetness dwells. Without the reboso the dress is scarcely dress at all : one garment, besides a petticoat, braced with a sash around the waist, while the hair falls in a long plait d own the back. With it their costume is made up. Flung gracefully over the left shoulder and passed across the mouth you see nothing but the eyes, which are her greatest charm, and she never attempts to conceal them or neglect their power. " In speaking of the fine eyes, the beautiful feet, and the queenly tread of the Mexi can ladies, and their costume, I should not forget to mention that an embroidered India crape shawl, blazing with all the colours of the rainbow and a painted fan, are indis pensable portions of a complete dress. The fan is none of your new-fangled inventions of feather and finery, but the old-fashioned reed and paper instruments used by our grandmothers. The opening and shutting, the waving and folding, of these is an espe cial language. They touch them to their lips, flirt them wide open, close them, let their bright eyes peep over the rim. display their jewelled hands and witching eyes, and, in fact, carry on a warfare of graceful coquetry from behind these pasteboard fortresses, that has forced, ere now, many a stout heart to cry for quarter !" Describing the Easter holidays Mr. Mayer says, "At the doors of most of the sacred buildings ladies were seated, who received alms on large silver dishes, and rewarded you with a sweet smile ; but in the sacristy of the cathedral a system of begging was carried on that I did not notice elsewhere. It was a regular fair for Indulgences. "The body of our Lord, in wax, was laid on a bier near the door as you entered from the cathedral, and near it another figure was set up, representing him as he came bleeding and wasted from the scourgers. Close to these two figures sat priests begging every passer for a donation in return for Indulgences. * Ten years indulgence for an alms to the Holy Sepulchre, said one of them, with the plate before him ; and * twenty years indulgence for an alms for the redemption of the faithful in captivity, shouted a tall blue-gowned Franciscan, who stood near the door as you went out, over-bidding his less liberal competitor between the figures. "25th, Good Friday. The gay dresses of yesterday are exchanged for deep black, worn by both men and women, and the day is celebrated by solemn services. I missed seeing the * descent from the cross, in the church of Balbanera, which is said to be per formed by puppets, and to be admirably well executed. 26th. This is the last day of the ceremonies, and at half-past nine in the morning the injunction was taken from the bells and carriages. The streets were of course imme diately filled with all the equipages of the city, whose postillions only waited for the first sound from the church-towers to dash out of their court-yards. The clang of the bells was incessant, and at the same moment, the air was filled with the smoke and explosion of myriads of crackers and fireworks, called Judases* and heretics extended on ropes across the streets. The multitudes of dogs with which the city is infested, scared at the unusual racket, howled along the streets, and the great amusement of the leperos was to trip the poor beasts with ropes as they dashed wildly over the crowded thoroughfares. And so ended in smoke, yells, jingling, carriage-rolling, horse-tramping, Judas-bursting, dog-tripping, and folly, this farcical caricature of the most awful event in the history of religion. In the vanity of personal ostentation its effect is thrown away on the better classes, and it is entirely lost in the barbaric spectacle and tinsel show which are got up to bewilder and surprise the ignorant and low." CALIFORNIA. 4Q9 CHAPTER XL OLD CALIFORNIA. CALIFORNIA, OLD, is a long narrow peninsula of North America, situated between latitudes 22 deg. 25 min. north, and about 32 deg. 30 inin. north lat. ; bounded on the east by a gulf of the same name, and on the west by the Pacific ocean, lying within the limits of Cape St. Lucas on the south, the gulf of the river Colorado on the east, and some point near St. Diego, west about 32 deg. 16 min. north on the Pacific, and Cape Blanco de San Sebastian, which is considered its west limit. Old California is about 720 miles in length from Cape San Lucas to St. Diego. Its width varies from thirty to 110 miles from the Gulf to the Pacific. Alcedo (in Thompson s edition, 1818), remarks, "The climate is various, according to the different heights of the land; but for the most part it is excessively hot. The ground is uneven, rough, and barren, full of ridges of mountains, stony and sandy places ; lacking moisture, but abounding in mules, horses, and neat cattle, and all sorts of swine, goats, and sheep, which have multiplied in the same proportion as the dogs and cats introduced by the Spaniards. There is found in the woods a kind of animal called taye, about the size of a calf of a year and a half old, and very much resembling one ; its head and skin being like those of a deer, its horns very thick, and similar to those of a ram ; its hoof is large, round, and cleft like that of an ox ; the tail is small, the flesh well tasted and delicate. There is also another animal very like a sheep, although somewhat larger ; of these there are black and white, bearing quantities of wool very easy to be spun, and their flesh is very delicate. Here are also found deer, hares, rabbits, berrendos, and coyotes, a species of fox, and called by this name in Nueva Espana. In the serrania, or mountainous parts, there are wild hogs, cats, tigers, and a species of beaver. This country abounds in reptiles, as vipers, snakes of different sorts, scorpions, spiders, ants, lizards, and tarantulas ; but it is free from bugs, fleas, and mguas. Of birds, it produces turtle-doves, herons, quails, pheasants, partridges, geese, ducks, wild ducks, ring-doves, and some birds of prey, as sparrow-hawks, vul tures, falcons, horned owls, eagles, and also jackdaws, those too which they call zopilotes in Nueva Espana, and others which they call auras (or West Indian crows), screech-owls, and different birds not known in any other parts. This country is extremely barren of wood; and only towards the cape of Sanducas, where the country is most level, fertile, and temperate, are there any trees to be found. Here, however, we have that peculiar tree called the pitajaia, the branches of which are fluted, and grow up straight from its trunk, bearing no leaf; on the same branch hangs the fruit, having the rind covered with prickles; so that it appears to some to be a species of the trinau (thistle-plant), although the fruit is VOL. I. 3 G 410 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. whiter and more delicate : some produce fruit of a reddish, and some of a yellow tint, which is extremely well-flavoured, and is either sweet or a little acidulous; the same is esteemed an excellent medicine in the venereal disease. From the fruit-trees aromatic gums are gathered in such abundance that they are mixed with grease for careening the bottoms of ships ; and from the crude root of the mezcales they compose the drink so-called. They have a sort of aloes, from strips of which they make nets ; and from other herbs, in a manner which is truly curious, they manufacture bowls and cruets to eat and drink out of. The Indians who inhabit the river Colorado, fabricate from the same herbs troughs or trays, which they call coritas, so large as to contain two hundred weight of maize. In them they carry by water, fruits and different articles from one shore to another. They have besides the alimentary herb called yucas, the Spanish potato, and the gicamas. This country produces also olives, figs, vines, wheat, maize, French beans, water-melons, melons, gourds, chickpeas, and all kinds of garden herbs, for which it is indebted to the Jesuits, who first planted them here. There are sufficient indications of the existence of every sort of metal. The quantity of fish and shell-fish found on its coasts is incredible; it is of every description, and among others, the profusion of pilchards is most astonishing ; these being at certain seasons left in shoals dry upon the beach. Whales are also found here, and on the exterior coast shells of the most beautiful lustre may be collected , some of these being more brilliant than the finest mother-of-pearl, and covered with a blue similar to that of the most delicate lapis-lazuli. The pearl fisheries in these parts are much favoured by the shallowness of the water. This country was discovered in the year 1526 by the celebrated Hernan Cortez, as he was endeavouring to find a passage from the North to the South Sea. Its conquest from that time had often been attempted, but without effect, until the year 1679, when, pursuant to the king s direction, it was invaded by Admiral Don Isidro Otondo, and was settled by the missionaries of the extinguished order of the Jesuits, under the direction of the Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, who first began to bring the infidel Indians under subjection." Alcedo. A chain of mountains runs through the centre of the peninsula, of which the most elevated, the Cerro de la Giganta, is from 1400 to 1500 metres (from 4592 to 4920 feet) in height, and appears of volcanic origin. At the foot of the moun tains of California the soil is sand, or a stony stratum, on which cylindrical cacti (or- ganos del tunal) shoot up to extraordinary heights. We find few springs ; and it is remarked by Alcedo, that the rock is naked where the water springs up, while there is no water where the rock is covered with vegetable earth. Wherever springs and earth occur together, the fertility of the soil is extraordinary. It was at these plains, of which the number is far from great, that the Jesuits established their missions. The maize, the jatropha, and the dioscorea, vegetate vigorously; and the vine yields excellent grapes. In general, however, Old California, on account of the arid nature of the soil, and the want of water and vegetable earth in the CALIFORNIA. 411 interior of the country, will never be able to maintain a great population any more than the northern part of Sonora, which is almost equally dry and sandy. Of all the natural productions of California, the pearls have, since the sixteenth century, been the chief attraction to navigators for visiting the coast of this desert country. They abound particularly in the southern part of the Peninsula, and the pearl-oyster is particularly to be found in the Bay of Ceralvo, and round the islands of Santa Cruz and San Jose. The most valuable pearls in the possession of the court of Spain were found in 1615 and 1665, in the expeditions of Juan Yturbi and Bernal de Pinadero. During the stay of the Visitador Galvez in California, in 1768 and l?69,a private soldier in the presidio of Loreto, Juan Ocio was made rich in a short time by pearl fishing on the coast of Ceralvo. Since that period the numbers of pearls of California brought annually to market were almost reduced to nothing. The Indians and negroes, who followed the severe occupation of divers, have been frequently drowned, and often devoured by sharks. The divers have always been poorly paid by the whites. Near the town of Angellos there are said to be rich gold ores, and gold and silver are found in separate deposits. In California the Jesuits obtained, under the Spanish govern ment, a complete ascendency over the soldiery posted at the presidios. By a cedula real, all the detachment of Loreto, even the captain, were placed under the command of the father at the head of the missions. The village of Loreto was founded under the name of Presidio de San Dionisio, in 169?. In the reign of Philip V. especially after the year 1744, the Spanish monasteries in California were greatly increased. The Jesuits, in a very few years 3 built sixteen villages in the interior of the Peninsula. After their expulsion in 1767, California was confided to the Dominican monks of the city of Mexico, who were in every respect inferior to the Jesuits, and also to the Franciscans on the coasts of New California. In the north parts of Old California rain does not fall for nine or ten months. The gulf-shore is remarkably low, without harbours, and the water shallow. There are within the gulf several islands. The western coast is precipitous, rocky, dangerous to approach, and with but few places of anchorage. Fresh water is scarce, except at Port St. Quenten. Ruy de la Magdalena is another harbour. CHAPTER XII. NEW OR UPPER CALIFORNIA. THE first permanent Spanish settlement was made in the year 1769, at the present town of San Diego, in latitude 32 deg. 41 min. Upper, or New California, extends along the Pacific from about lat. 32 deg., * to Cape Mindicino in latitude 40 deg. 19 min., and from the coast to the east, as i 412 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. far as the boundaries of the north-eastern departments of New Mexico. The exact area of Upper California is undefined, and, excepting as far as the journeys under the exploring expedition, the interior has been but inadequately explored. RIVERS. The chief rivers of New California are the Sacramento and the Colorado. Among the harbours on this coast, the principal are the ports of San Francisco, situated on the bay of that name, Monterey and San Diego, and several others of lesser note. San Carlos de Monterey is the capital of California, and has a tolerable harbour. SOIL AND CLIMATE. The soil of New California, according to the descrip tion of Alcedo, is as well watered and fertile as that of Old California is arid and stony. It is, he says, one of the most picturesque countries which can be seen. The climate is much more mild there than in the same latitude on the east coast of the new continent. The sky is foggy, but the frequent fogs 5 which render it difficult to land on the coast of Monterey and San Francisco, give vigour to vegetation and fertilise the soil, which is covered with a black and spongy earth. In the eighteen missions which now (1812) exist in New California, wheat, maize, and haricots (frijoles), are cultivated in abundance. Barley, beans, lentiles, and garbanzos, grow very well in the fields in the greatest part of the pro vince. Good wine is made in the villages of San Diego, San Juan Capistrano, San Gabriel, San Buenaventura, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Santa Clara, and San Jose, and all along the coast south and north of Monterey, to beyond the 37 deg. of latitude. The European olive is successfully cultivated near the canal of Santa Barbara, especially near San Diego, where an oil is made as good as that of the valley of Mexico, or the oils of Andalusia. The population of New California, including the Indians only attached to the soil of the missions, was, according to Alcedo, in "1790, 7748 souls; in 1801, 13,668 souls; and in 1802, 15,562 souls. " Thus the number of inhabitants has doubled in twelve years. Since the foundation of these missions, or between 1769 and 1802, there were in all, ac cording to the parish registers, 33,717 baptisms, 8009 marriages, 16,984 deaths. In 1791, according to the tables published by M. Galiano, the Indians sowed in the whole province only 874 bushels of wheat, which yielded a harvest of 15,197 bushels. The cultivation doubled in 1802 ; for the quantity of wheat sown was 2089 bushels, and the harvest 33,5?6 bushels. " The following statement, comprises the number of live stock in 1802 : Oxen, 67,782; sheep, 107,172; hogs, 1040; horses, 2187; mules, 877. "In 1791 there were only 24,958 head of black cattle (ganado mayor) in the whole of the Indian villages. The population of New California would have augmented still more rapidly if the laws by which the Spanish presidios have been governed for ages were not directly opposite to the true interests of both mother- country and colonies. By these laws the soldiers stationed at Monterey are not CALIFORNIA. 413 permitted to live out of their barracks and to settle as colonists. The Indians who inhabit the villages of New California have been for some years employed in spinning coarse woollen stuffs called frimdas ; but their principal occupation, of which the produce might become a very considerable branch of commerce, is the dressing of stag-skins. In the cordillera of small elevation which runs along the coast, as well as in the neighbouring savannas, there are neither buffalos nor elks ; and on the crest of the mountains which are covered with snow in the month of November, the berrendos, with small chamois horns, feed by themselves. But all the forest and all the plains covered with gramma, are filled with flocks of stags of a most gigantic size, the horns of which are round and extremely large. Forty or fifty of them are frequently seen at a time : they are of a brown colour, smooth, and without spot. Their horns, which are not palmated, are nearly fifteen decimetres (four and a half feet) in length. It is affirmed, that this great stag of New California is one of the most beautiful animals of Spanish America. It probably differs from the wewakish of M. Hearne, or the elk of the United States, of which naturalists have very improperly made the two species of cervus Canadensis and cervus Strongyloceros. The horns of these stags are said to be nine feet long, and the animal, when running, throws up its head to rest them on its back/ Thompsons Alcedo. The missions of New California, which had been founded up to 1803, were San Diego, a village founded in 1769, fifteen leagues distant from the most northern mission of Old California. Population in 1802, 1560. San Luis el Rey de Francia, a village founded in 1798, 600. San Juan Capistrano, a village founded in 1776, 1000. San Gabriel, a village founded in 1771? 1050. San Fernando, a village founded in 1797, 600. San Buenaventura, a village founded in 1782, 950. Santa Barbara, a village founded in 17&6, 1100. La Purissima Concepcion, a village founded in 1787, 1000. San Luis Obisbo, a village founded in 1772, 700. San Miguel, a village founded in 1797, 600. Soledad, a village founded in 1791, 570. San Antonio de Padua, a village founded in 17?1> 1050. San Carlos de Monterey, capital of New California, founded in 1770. San Juan Bautista, a village founded in 1?9?, 960. Santa Cruz, a village founded in 1794, 440. Santa Clara, a village founded in 1777, 1300. San Jose, a village founded in 1797, 630. San Francisco, a village founded in 1776, with a fine port. This port has been frequently confounded by geographers with the port further north under the 414 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 38 10 of latitude, called the Puerto de Bodega. Population of San Francisco, 820. The number of whites, Mustees and Mulattoes, who live in New California, either in the presidios, or in the service of the monks of St. Francis, was at that time about 1300 ; for in the two years of 1801 and 1802, there were in the caste of whites and mixed blood 35 marriages, 182 baptisms, and 82 deaths. The po pulation of the intendancy of New California was, in 1803, 15,600. Such was the condition of California under the Spanish monarchy and church missions. The only recent accounts of New California, upon which we can place any reliance, are those given by Captain Wilkes, commander of the exploring expe dition of the United States by sea. He sent a party overland from Oregon, and he entered with his ships the Bay of St. Francisco from the Pacific, and proceeded up the country. An overland expedition from the United States to Oregon and California, of which a most interesting journal was kept by the commander, Cap tain Fremont, of the Topographical Engineers. From these two works we have extracted and condensed the following sketches of St. Francisco, and the interior of New California. According to the account drawn up by Captain Wilkes : On approaching the coast in the neighbourhood of San Francisco, the country has by no means an inviting aspect. To the north it rises in a lofty range of mountains, whose highest summit is called Table Hill ; an iron-bound coast ex tends from Puerto de los Reyes to the mouth of San Francisco. To the south extends a sandy beach, behind which are the San Bruno sand hills. There is no appearance of cultivation. The land to the north is abrupt and mountainous ; to the south sandy and barren. The entrance to the bay is between bold and rocky shores, which confine the tide, and which flowing in, bore Captain Wilkes ship onwards through^ narrow passage into a large estuary, with in which several islands and rocks are scattered. Some of the islands are covered with rich vegetation, others are barren, and covered with guano ; immense flocks of sea-fowls are perpetually hovering over, around, and alighting upon them. The shores of the bay recede north and south far beyond the visible horizon; and there is comprehended within the magnificent view one of the most spacious and safest ports in the world. YERBA BUENA is the usual but not the best anchorage. The town, as it is called, or rather the scattered buildings, consists of a large frame house, occupied by the agent of the Hudson Bay Company ; a store, kept by an American ; a billiard-room and bar; a poop-cabin of a ship, occupied as a dwelling by an Anglo-American captain; a blacksmith s shop, and some out-buildings. There is an old dilapidated adobe, conspicuous building, on the top of the hill overlooking the anchorage. Yerba Buena stands on a sterile soil, and in the CALIFORNIA. 115 face of hills of bare rock. At low water an extensive mud-flat extends in front. Captain Wilkes says, he found a total absence of all government in California, and even its forms and ceremonies thrown aside. " After passing through the entrance of the bay/ he observes, " we were scarcely able to distinguish the Presidio; and had it not been for its solitary flag-staff, we could not have ascertained its situation. From this staff no flag floated ; the build ing was deserted, the walls had fallen to decay, the guns were dismounted, and every thing around it lay in quiet. We were not even saluted by the stentorian lungs of some soldier, so customary in Spanish places, even after all political power as well as military and civil rule has fled. I afterwards learned that the Presidio was still a garrison in name, and that it had not been wholly abandoned ; but the remnant of the troops stationed there consisted of no more than an officer and one soldier. I was not able to learn the rank of the former, as he was absent, and appeared, at least among the foreigners, to be little known. " At Yerba Buena there was a similar absence of all authority. The only officer was the alcalde, who dwells at the mission of Nostra Senora de los Dolores, some three miles ofF. He was full of self-importance, making up for what he wanted in the eyes of others, by a high estimate of his own dignity. I could find no one who could furnish me with his name, which must be my apology for not recording it in his place. Some excuse may be offered for his inattention to his duties, as I understood that he had just been united in wedlock to a lady of one of the distinguished families of the country ; and after such an event in Cali fornia, much gaiety and rejoicing usually follow, until the hilarity at times be comes so uproarious as to end in righting and bloodshed." Palermo mountain, called Table Hill by Captain Beechey, is about two thousand five hundred feet high, and wooded here and there with scraggy oaks. Between this mountain and the bay the hills recede, so as to form a sort of am phitheatre. This place was chosen for the observatory, and where the instru ments had been set up under the direction of Lieutenant Carr. Captain Wilkes says " This place is well adapted for the resort of whalers. Here they may repair their boats, obtain water, and refit ; and from their frequent resort to it, has ob tained the name of Whalers Harbour. The cove is a safe anchorage, being pro tected from the north-west and westerly winds, which prevail during the summer season, and often blow with great violence. " At the time of our visit, the country altogether presented rather a singular appearance, owing, as I afterwards observed, to the withered vegetation and the ripened wild oats of the country. Instead of a lively green hue, it had generally a tint of a light straw-colour, showing an extreme want of moisture. The drought had continued for eleven months; the cattle were dying in the fields, 416 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, and the first view of California was not calculated to make a favourable impres sion either of its beauty or fertility." The country, at the time of Captain Wilkes visit, and for several years previous, had, he says, been in a state of revolution, and was involved in anarchy and confusion, without laws or security of person and property. " It is under going," he remarks, " such frequent changes, that it is difficult to understand or to describe them." UPPER CALIFORNIA exhibits, inland, lofty ranges of mountains, narrow valleys, and extensive plains. A range of high land, from ten to twenty miles in breadth, extends along the Pacific from Cape Mendocino to latitude thirty- two degrees north. The valley of San Juan, of no great extent, is situated between these hills and the Sierra, a low range of mountains. East of the Sierra is the valley of the Sacramento, from which, to the south, extends the valley of Buena Ventura as far as Mount San Bernardino, about the thirty-fourth parallel of latitude. East of this valley is the Californian range of mountains, being a continuation of the cascade range of Oregon ; the southern summits are covered with snow. This range decreases in height until it declines into hills of moderate elevation. To the east of the Californian mountains are vast sandy, sterile plains. On the sea-coast range of hills the lands generally are unfit for agriculture, except in some vales of small extent. These hills are, however, well adapted for pasturage. They are covered with short sweet grass and wild oats, upon which deer and elk feed. The Valley of the Sacramento and that of San Juan are considered the most fertile districts of California. The Valley of San Juan is the garden of the country, and capable of producing wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats, &c., with all the fruits of the temperate and many of the tropical climates. It affords also excellent pasturage. This valley comprises a level plain from fifteen to twenty miles in width, extending north and south from the bay and mission of San Fran cisco. Several small streams and lakes water it, but in dry seasons the crops and herbage suffer extremely from drought, and the cattle are then also deprived of good pasture. The Sierra affords little soil for cultivation, being rugged, barren, or sandy. It is in places, wooded with cedar, pine, and oak. The great Valley of Buena Ventura, the chief resort of the Californian Indians, is, by all accounts, far inferior to that of San Juan. It lies nearly parallel to the latter, and is watered by the San Joachim river and its branches. This river receives numerous streams flowing from the Californian mountains. These near their base are wooded with oaks, to which succeeds the red California cedar (Schubertia Abertina), and still higher pines grow up to the region of per petual snow. On the eastern side of this range there is but little timber, and in consequence of the want of moisture, trees do not flourish west of their lower ac- UPPER CALIFORNIA. slopes. The inland plain, constituting a large part of Upper California, is, cording to all accounts, an arid waste ; the few rivers that exist rise periodically, and soon disappear in the sands. Of the latter portion of country, however, there is little known, and the accounts given of it are greatly at variance with each other. Of seven persons who traversed it at different times, one declared that the horses and men had not only a scanty supply of water, but were actually nearly famished for want of food ; while others stated they found both grass and water plentiful. Captain Wilkes remarks, "The only thing that can reconcile these contradictory state ments is, that these different persons had visited the country at different seasons of the year. It seems not at all improbable that the first of these accounts should be the correct one, for we find great aridity throughout the rest of California and Oregon also. All agree that the middle and most extensive portion of this country is destitute of the requisites for supplying the wants of man." CLIMATE. " With California," says Captain Wilkes, " is associated the idea of a fine climate and a rich and productive soil. This, at least, was the idea with which I entered its far-famed port ; but I soon found, from the reports of the officers, after the trial they had had of it during the months of August and Sep tember, that their experience altogether contradicted the received opinion upon ; the first-mentioned point. Many of them compared its climate to that of Orange Harbour, at Cape Horn, with all its cold blustering winds and cloudy skies. This kind of weather prevails during the greater part of the year, and the comparison is literally true in relation to one portion of California the sea-coast." The climate varies as much, if not even more, than the natural features and soil of the country. On the coast it has as high a mean temperature in winter as in summer. The latter is the coldest part of the year, owing to the constant prevalence of the north-west winds, which blow with the regularity of a monsoon, and are exceedingly cold, damp, and uncomfortable, rendering fire often necessary for comfort in midsummer. " This is, however, but seldom resorted to, and many persons have informed him that they have suffered more from cold at Monterey than in places of a much higher latitude. The climate thirty miles from the coast un dergoes a great change, and in no part of the world is there to be found a finer or more equable one than in the Valley of San Juan. It more resembles that of Andalusia in Spain, than any other, and none can be more salubrious. The cold winds of the coast have become warmed, and have lost their force and violence, though they retain their freshness and purity. This district of country, ^febout twenty miles long by twelve broad, is that in which the missions have been chiefly established ; and the accounts of these have led many to believe that the whole of Upper California is well adapted for agriculture. The sandy barren highlands which separate the valley of San Juan from that of Buena Ventura, are about VOL. I. 3 H 418 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 1500 feet high. Pines grow along and over these heights, and the climate is ex ceedingly dry, though refreshed by the wind that blows against and over them." Beyond these highlands lies the central valley of Buena Ventura, which may be considered an extension of the Sacramento, and through which the river San Joachim flows. Being confined within mountains, summer heat is oppressive, the thermo meter ranging, it is said, as high as within the torrid zone. Although the Californian range is covered with snow, immediately above this valley it appears to have but little effect in modifying the temperature, which is represented as tropical throughout the year. This valley extends as far south as the San Bernardino Mountain. The residents in California say that they have never known the wind to blow from the north-east within thirty miles of the coast. In ordinary seasons these valleys are well watered by the mountain streams ; these are for some periods of the year mere brooks, while during the rainy season, from November to February, they often become impassable torrents. The Sacra mento is the largest river in California. One of its branches, River Destruction, takes its rise near Mount Shaste, and was examined throughout the whole of its course by the party sent overland by Captain Wilkes, until it joined the Sacramento ; the latter is thought by some to pass through the mountains and join Pitt s River. Pitt s River is said to take its rise to the north-east of the Shaste Mountain, and from the information that they received, extends as far as Pitt s Lake, under the forty- second parallel. Captain Wilkes doubts whether the length of its course is so great, and believes that the Sacramento has its source in the eastern spurs of the Shaste Mountain. FEATHER RIVER is the principal stream between the American River and the source of the Sacramento. It flows into the latter below the Prairie Butes from the north-east. This branch takes its rise in the Californian Mountains, and has a course of about forty miles. The American River is a small branch that joins the Sacramento at New Helvetia. After receiving this stream, the Sacramento is joined by the San Joachim, which flows from the south, and below their confluence enters the Bay of San Pablo, through the Straits of Kaquines, and thence into the Bay of San Francisco. The Sacramento is navigable for boats for about 150 miles, and for vessels as far as New Helvetia. The upper portion of it, near the Prairie Butes, overflows its banks, and often submerges the whole of the SacramentoValley as far down as the San Joachim. Tfre San Joachim has its sources in the Californian range. The Tula Lake is called by the Indians Chintache Lake; it is for the most part separated from the channel of the river, but, when full, joins it. There are many small streams that flow through the different valleys and afford partial opportunities for irrigating the land ; but there are none of them navigable except the Sacramento. UPPER CALIFORNIA BAY OF ST. FRANCISCO. 41 y BAY OF SAN FRANCISCO. -Upper California, according to Captain Wilkes, has one of the finest, if not the very best harbour in the world, that of San Fran cisco. Few are more extensive or could be as readily defended, while the fleets of all the naval powers of Europe and America might moor in it. This, he admits, is, however, the only really good harbour which the country possesses, for the others so called may be frequented only during the fine season, being no more than roadsteads, affording scarcely any shelter, and but few supplies to shipping. MONTEREY is the capital of Upper California: the roadsteads Santa Barbara and San Pedro, are partly protected from the swell of the Pacific Ocean, by the islands. They are, however, but seldom resorted to, there being comparatively | little trade along all this coast. Hides and tallow, which formerly abounded and rendered the intercourse profitable are not now to be procured. The bay of Monterey is formed by Point Ano Nueva on the north, and Point Pinos on the south ; it is twenty-four miles wide at its entrance, and six in length to the east ; the east shore is low and sandy, and the surf of the Pacific rolls over the beach with a tremendous noise. The Spanish galleons at Monterey anchor in six fathoms water, at two cables length from the shore, and moored to the beach. Ships putting in keep the south shore aboard, and after doubling the south point (Point Pinos), which stretches to the north, until they see the fort, and drop anchor in ten fathoms behind the point, where they are sheltered from the west winds the south winds blow strongly off the shore. At full and change of the moon, it is high water here at half-past one ; the tide rises seven feet. Whales, a species of firmer, have frequented the bay, and La Perouse says, that they came within half pistol-shot of the ship, and occasioned a disagreeable smell. The coasts of this bay are often covered with fogs, which render it dan gerous to approach. Pelicans are said to frequent the sea at a short distance from land, and are a good sign for seamen, as they never go more than six leagues from shore. The Manilla galleons bore away for this place as a gooj harbour to recruit in, when driven to the north by contrary wind TRADE OF SAN FRANCISCO. The breaking up of the missions, and the duties and prohibitions, have nearly destroyed the little trade that once existed. In this port a few hulks may be seen lying, furnished with every needful article : these keep up an illicit intercourse by the connivance of the officers of the government. The principal articles imported are cotton, cloths, velvets, silks, brandies, wines, teas, &c., in return for which they receive hides and tallow, skins, wheat, and salmon. The attention of the inhabitants has been chiefly directed to the rear ing of cattle, and the greater part of the wealth of California may be considered as consisting of live stock. The value of exports on the average of years is stated to be about 150,000 hides, and 200,000 arrobas of tallow. The price for the former has been about two dollars, while the latter was worth one dollar and fifty cents the 420 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. arroba. About two thousand beaver skins, valued at two dollars each, are brought to this market by the trappers, and from four to five hundred sea-otter skins are brought in by the American hunters, which are valued at thirty dollars each* Wheat has been exported to the Russian posts to the amount of 12,000 bushels, of which the average price has been about fifty cents a bushel. It has been as high, in 1841, as two dollars and fifty cents, in consequence of the great drought that prevailed. Among the animal exports may be enumerated about 3000 elk and deer skins, which are valued at from fifty cents to a dollar each. The whole ex portable products of the country may be estimated at less than a million of dollars. AGRICULTURE WITHIN THE CALIFORNIAN VALLEYS. The wheat crops yield large returns. Capt. Wilkes was informed by Mr. Spears, of Yerba Buena, that he had delivered to an active American farmer thirty bushels of wheat for seed, at a time when it was difficult to procure it, under an agreement that he should have the refusal of the crop at the market-price. In July following, he delivered him 3000 bushels ; and on its delivery he found that the farmer had re served 600 bushels for himself, and this without estimating the loss from bad reaping and treading out with horses, would give 120 for one. This is not consi dered a fair criterion or average, as the land was remarkable for its richness, and was well attended to ; but Mr. Spears, and several others, assured him, that the average would be as high as eighty bushels yielded for one planted. Indian corn yields well, as also potatoes, beans, and peas. The cultivation of vegetables is increasing rapidly, and supplies in these latter articles may be had in abundance, and of the finest quality. The country appears to be well adapted for grapes. Those that have been tried at the missions yield most abundantly, and about 200 casks, each of eighteen gallons, of brandy, and the same quantity of wine are made. The cultivation of the grape increases yearly, but is not sufficient for the supply of the country, as large quantities of foreign wines and liquors are imported, which pay an enormous duty. Captain Wilkes was informed by every intelligent person he met with, that the inhabitants of California consumed more spirits, in proportion to their number, than any other part of the world. Brandy sold for sixty to seventy dollars the cask, or four dollars a gallon, while the price of wine was only eighteen dollars. The wine of the country which he tasted was miserable stuff, and would scarcely be taken for the juice of the grape. THE SALMON FISHERY is but little attended to. Captain Wilkes says the Californians never seem to attempt to catch salmon. The general opinion is, that they are too indolent to bestir themselves, and they naturally choose the employment which gives them the least trouble. Above every thing, the rearing of cattle requires the least labour in this country, for it is only necessary to pro vide keepers and have their cattle marked. This done, they can support themselves by the increase of the stock. GENERAL TRADE OF CALIFORNIA. 421 MANUFACTURES. At the missions, the manufacture of various coarse articles had been undertaken by the missionaries as a step in the education of the Neo phytes. Among these were blankets and wearing apparel, sufficient to supply all the Indians 5 but with the decline of these establishments the manufactures have in great part been discontinued. Soap of good quality is manufactured in considerable quantities, and it is thought that it might be exported at a profit, if the proper arrangements were made to use the grease which is now thrown away, The necessary alkali is very abundant. Leather of excellent quality is also made and well tanned, but in such small quantities as to be hardly sufficient to supply the wants of the country. MILLS. There are in California only two or three water-mills for grinding flour, and these are owned by foreigners. The mills in general use in the country are composed of no more than two burr-stones. To the upper stone a cross-beam is secured, to which mule-power is applied. In most of the estandas there is to be found a mill in an apartment adjoining the kitchen, if not in it. The whole is as primitive as well can be, although it is made to answer all the wants of an indo lent people. LIVE STOCK. From all accounts, besides cattle, the country is adapted for the raising of sheep, which simply require watching, as they can find plenty of nutri tious food the whole year round ; but there has been no attention paid to this sort of stock, and the wool is of very ordinary quality. The mutton is said to be of very fine flavour. The usual price for a sheep is from one dollar and fifty cents to two dollars, when a choice is made for killing. Hogs are raised in some parts, and might be fed to great advantage on the acorns which are abundant on the hills, where the land is not susceptible of cultiva tion. Pork may be salted and packed for three dollars the hundred weight. What adds to the facility of curing is the large quantities of salt which crystallize in the ponds in the dry season, and which may be obtained for the expense of carriage. GENERAL TRADE OF CALIFORNIA. Trade is so much interrupted, and so much under the influence of the governor and the officers of the customs, that those attempt ing to carry it on, under the forms usual elsewhere, would find it a ruinous pursuit- Foreign ad venturers, however, contrive to evade customs laws , by keeping their vessels at anchor, and selling a large portion of their cargoes from on board. " Great par tiality," according to Captain Wilkes, " is shown to those of them who have a full un derstanding with his excellency the governor ; and from what he was given to under stand, if this be not secured, the traders are liable to exactions and vexations with out number. The enormous duties, often amounting to eighty per cent ad valorem, cause much dissatisfaction on the part of the consumers ; the whole amount raised is about 200,000 dollars per annum, which is found barely sufficient to pay the 422 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. salaries of the officers and defray the costs of the government feasts, which are frequent, and usually cost a 1000 dollars each. These emoluments are shared among the heads of departments at Monterey \ whilst the soldiers are often for months without their pay, and are made to take it in whatever currency it may suit the government to give. Besides the above duties there is a municipal tax on many things ; thus, a dollar is demanded on every gallon of spirits imported; fifty cents on each beaver or otter skin, and on other articles in the same ratio. Next come the church tithes, which are enormous. I heard of a farmer who was made to pay 190 dollars as the tithe on his produce, although he lives far removed from either church or priest. All these things are bringing the government into great disrepute, and the governor is every day becoming more and more unpopular; so much BO* that his orders have not been complied with, and have been treated with contempt, particularly when he desires to recruit his forces. A short time before our arrival he sent a list to a pueblo of the young men to be drafted as soldiers ; when it was received they in a body refused to go, and sent back the disrespectful and defying message, that he might come and take them. Nothing can be more de graded than the lower functionaries, such as the alcaldes and their underlings. They are ignorant men, who have no ideas of justice, which is generally administered according to the alcalde s individual ideas or partiality. To recover a debt by legal means is considered beyond a possibility, and creditors have to wait until the debtor is disposed to pay." Captain Wilkes, however, qualifies this degraded administration, and observes : " Fortunately, and to the honour of the country, a just claim is rarely or never denied ; and, until lately, the word of a Californian was sufficient to insure the payment of claims on him ; but such has been the moral degradation to which the people have fallen since the missions have been robbed by the authorities, and the old priests driven out, that no reliance can be placed now upon their promises, and all those who have of late trusted them complain that engagements are not regarded, and that it is next to impossible to obtain any returns for*goods that have been delivered. The state of the country is, however, some excuse, as it has been impossible for any one to make calcula tions under the existing anarchy and confusion." " It was at first believed that the revolution which took place in November, 1836, would result in much immediate good to those who effected it, but such has not been the case. Foreigners unquestionably performed a large part in planning and carrying the change out; yet none have suffered so much by it as they have." On the future prospects of California he remarks, " The situation of Upper California will cause its separation from Mexico before many years. The country between it and Mexico can never be any thing but a barren waste, which pre cludes all intercourse except that by sea, always more or less interrupted by the course of the winds and the unhealthfulness of the lower or sea-port towns of ABORIGINES OF CALIFORNIA. 423 Mexico. It is very probable that this country witt become united icith Oregon, with which it will, perhaps, form a state that is destined to control the destinies of the Pacific. This future state is admirably situated to become a powerful maritime nation, with two of the finest ports in the world, that within the straits of Juan de Fuca, and San Francisco. These two regions have, in fact, within themse: every thing to make them increase, and keep up an intercourse with the whole of Polynesia, as well as the countries of South America on the one side, and China, the Philippines, New Holland, and New Zealand, on the other. Among the latter, before many years, may be included Japan. Such various climates will furnish the materials for a beneficial interchange of products, and an intercourse that must, in time^ become immense; while this western coast, enjoying a climate in many respects superior to any other in the Pacific, possessed, as it must be, by the Anglo-Norman race, and having none to enter into rivalry with it but the indolent inhabitants of warm climates, is evidently destined to fill a large space in the world s future history." ABORIGINES OF CALIFORNIA AND THE MISSIONS. The aborigines were first induced to adopt a change of religion either by the persuasion of the mis sionaries or by presents. Force was also resorted to as a last effort to bring them within the mission. The practice at that time was, that on being converted to Christianity, they were enforced to give ten years faithful service, after which period they were to be at liberty, and to have allotted to them a small piece of land for cultivation, and a few cattle, provided they could advance security for good behaviour. This was seldom realised ; but their treatment was much more kind after the expiration of their term of senrice, and they usually remained in the employ of the missions, having become attached to their masters and to their occupations. They were, no doubt, kindly treated by the ecclesiastics, and their labour or duties consisted chiefly in taking care of cattle, labouring on the mis sion-farm, gardening, and household work. Some were taught to become carpenters and blacksmiths, others weavers, shoemakers, and manufacturers of leather; and some were let out to private service to " gente de razon? or the people of reason, as the whites are still termed in California. The police of the missions was strict, and punishment was administered when required. Rewards for good behaviour were also given, as well as for bringing in Xeophytes. During the revolts in 1836, the Indians of many of the missions were cast off, neglected, and deprived of the fruits of their labour. It was always impressed upon them by the Spanish Padres that they were interested in the property which had been accumulated by their labour, and this belief had naturally tended to attach them to the soil. The ravages of the small-pox, two years prior to Captain Wilkes s visit, c pleted the destruction of these establishments, for it swept off one-half of the 424 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. aborigines and dispirited the rest, many of whom joined the wild tribes. He remarks, in 1841, they "are now committing acts of violence on the whites; they are becoming daily more daring, and have rendered a residence in single farm houses, or estancias, not without danger. In looking at the state in which these poor Indians have been left, it cannot be denied but that they have cause to be dissatisfied with the treatment they have received." Formerly each mission was considered as representing within its fold a distinct family of Indians, and consisting, in some missions, of about twelve hundred souls. Daring the authority of the Spanish priests, the administration of the missions was judiciously conducted : the aborigines were well clad, well fed, and lodged. The padres purchased, in exchange for the products of Indian labour, annually ten thousand dollars 3 worth of articles from the vessels trading upon the coast. Each mission formed a kind of municipality of itself, having its alcalde and inferior officers. The Indians, who were at first disinclined to labour, became gradually industrious, as they enjoyed equitable advantages from the fruits of their own better-directed labour, on becoming converts to Christianity : at least so far as to observe and perform the ceremonial of the church. The forms and ceremonials of the church also allured the aborigines, and attached them to the missions, which increased in wealth by the industry of the greatly increased number of labourers, cultivating a rich soil in a genial climate. In 1835 this happy state of the mission was revolutionised by one of the nominally republican, but in reality, military and despotic misgovernments which have afflicted the Mexican territories. Administradors were appointed to each mission, the priests were deprived of their municipal administration, and their duties limited to their clerical functions, with an allowance of a small stipend. It is not contended that the private lives of the padres were generally either virtuous or free from profligacy ; but with respect to the aborigines and the pecu niary prosperity of the missions, the latter have been plundered by the adminis- tradors, and the former have been, in many instances, dispersed, while the padres have not been able to bring in fresh Neophytes, During the visit of Captain Wilkes the padres of the mission of San Jose were, from want of substance, compelled to disperse five hundred of their proselytes to procure their subsistence. The ad- ministradors despoiled the missions as property acquired, only to be re-invested in the state ; that is, in its rapacious officers for the time being. The rights of the poor aborigines were entirely overlooked ; and when the latter brought away the cattle which justly belonged to them, they were severely punished. The injustice of being robbed of the fruits of their labour, and of witnessing others living upon the common stock of the missions, while the Indians were driven off to seek a precarious subsistence in the forests, naturally exasperated those who were brought up under these missions. UPPER CALIFORNIA. 425 The consequence of such injustice was depredations committed by those Indians often with great success ; Captain Wilkes observes, that " a month pre vious to the arrival of the squadron, they had driven off 300 horses. Retaliatory measures on the part of the Californians were adopted ; a party was collected and despatched to punish them, which proceeded towards the interior, came to a village, and, without any inquiry whether its dwellers had been the aggressors, it was set on fire and reduced to ashes ; some of the defenceless old men, who from their infirmities, could not escape, were put to death, and forty or fifty wo men and children carried off as prisoners. This was not all: these prisoners were apportioned as slaves to various families, with whom they still remain in servitude, and receive very harsh treatment. Smarting under such wrongs, it is not surprising that the Indians should retaliate. They openly assert, that after taking all the horses, they will commence with families ; and many of those which are situated on the frontiers experience much alarm. In June, 1841, an Englishman was shot by an arrow at the door of his house, early in the evening. The Indians enticed him out by making a noise near by, and the moment he opened the door, with a candle in his hand, an arrow was sent through his heart." The Indians at present rarely steal any property but horses ; but so daring are they, that they not unfrequently take them out of the enclosures near the pueblos. Their reason for confining themselves to this description of property is, that with them they are able to avoid pursuit, which would not be the case if they stole cattle. The Californians, on detecting and apprehending the aggressors, show them no mercy, and their lives are made the forfeit. This constant foray on one side or the other, maintains an unceasing animosity ; and as long as the present imbecile government lasts, there is not the least prospect of security or improvement. To all strangers but those of the Spanish race, the Indians seem in general I well disposed, as they have usually received from the former considerate and dnd treatment. The character of these Indians is not represented as savage, md they were little disposed to harass the whites until they had been themselves ejected from the missions and forced to consort with those who are yet in a wild ;tate. The knowledge they have of the Californians, of the missionary establish- nents, and the manner of conducting them, enables them to act effectively; md if it were not for the presence of the English and Americans, they would ither drive the Spanish race out of the country, or confine them to the limits f their villages. INDIAN POPULATION OF CALIFORNIA. The number of Indians is variously tated at from 12,000 to 15,000; but it is believed by some of thebest informed, aat their number, since the small-pox made its ravages among them, is not mch more than 8000 or 9000. The principal part of which consists of the trib n the Sacramento. VOL. i. 3 i 426 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. POPULATION OF THE EUROPEAN RACE. It is said that there has been an exaggeration in computing the number of the whites or " gente de razon." These have been usually estimated at 5000 ; but, from the best information ob tained by Captain Wilkes, he could not satisfy himself that they number more than 3000 souls. In this estimate is not included those of mixed blood, who may amount to 2000 more ; so that the whole of Upper California at the date of his visit in 1841, the entire population was about 15,000 souls; which estimate he considered about correct. The remarkably good health and robustness of the white inhabitants, he attributed to the " fine climate, as well as to their simple diet." This consists of beef roasted upon wood coals, a few vegetables, and the tortillia. Throughout the coun try, both with the rich and poor, this is the general fare ; but some few luxuries have been lately introduced, among which are rice and tea. The latter is used so sparingly, that the discolouration of the water is scarcely perceptible. At the missions, they live more after the Spanish fashion. The children are, for the most part, left to take care of themselves, and run about naked and dirty. They are generally robust, and their relative number seems to be very great ; thus, it is by no means uncommon to see families of fourteen or fifteen children ; and an instance was mentioned, of a woman near Yerba Buena, who had had twenty-six. A large number die from accidental falls from horses, which, from almost their childhood, they are accustomed to ride. They soon become expert and fearless riders, and this acquirement is not confined to the male sex; the women are almost equally expert. Although the Californians are comparatively few in number, they retain a distinctive character. Descended from the old Spaniards, they inherit all their vices, with a few of their virtues. Both sexes are addicted to gambling with cards, dice, &c. Among their other amusements are cock-fighting, bull and bear-baiting, and dancing, accompanied with excessive drinking. Parties of amusement, to which the surrounding population is invited, are frequent ; these generally last for three days, and rarely break up without some quarrel. Weddings are particularly liable to these disorders, and at each of the three last that took place at and in the vicinity of Yerba Buena, previous to Captain Wilkes s visit there, a life was lost by the cuchillo. This weapon, which is always worn, is promptly resorted to in all their quarrels. The female portion of the community are described by the same authority as " ignorant, degraded, and the slaves of their husbands. They are very fond of dress, and will make any sacrifice, even their own honour, to gratify it. The men have no trades, and depend for every thing upon the Indians at the missions, some of whom are ingenious, both as carpenters and blacksmiths. The whites are so indolent, and so proud, as to make them look upon all manual labour as BAY OF SAN FRANCISCO. degrading; regarding all those who work as beneath them ; they, in consequence, can never be induced to labour." The state of morals he describes as very low, and every day as becom inn- worse. During the residence of the old Spanish priests, the people were kepi under some control ; but, since the change, priests and laymen are alike given up to idleness and debauchery. They are, however, remarkable for their hospitality. It is alleged that they will give up all business to entertain a guest. They put no value whatever upon time, and on entering into contracts they have no regard to punctuality, frequently allowing two, three, and four years to pass by before payment. This does not proceed from dishonesty, or any intention to evade their debts, for eventually they pay, if they can, and do not object to the amount of in terest. They, in fact, regard the inconvenience to which they may have put their creditors as of no sort of consequence. Captain Wilkes was informed, that to offer money for entertainment was con sidered as an insult. He did so, and it was refused ; yet when he offered it through his servant, it was readily accepted. He says further, " While one is entertained by them, if he should want to hire or purchase any thing, the land lord will league with those about him in schemes of extortion to be practised upon the stranger, and appear vexed with those who are the prominent extortioners." The Californians, as a people, he says, must be termed cruel in their treatment to their wives, as well as to the Indians; and in a still greater degree, of course, to their slaves and cattle. They are exceedingly ignorant of every thing but extortion, riding horses, and catching bullocks. CHAPTER XV. EXPEDITION TO EXPLORE THE BAY OF SAN-FRANCISCO, AND UPPER COUNTRY. ON the 20th of August, Lieutenant-Commandant Ringgold left the United States ship of war, Vincennes, Captain Wilkes (lying in the bay of San Francisco), with six boats, accompanied by Dr. Pickering, Lieutenants Alden and Budd, Passed-Midshipman Sandford, Midshipmen Hammersley and Elliott, and Gunner Williamson, with provision for thirty days, accompanied by an Indian pilot. They first passed the island s of Angelas and Molute, next the points of San Pedro and San Pablo, and then entered the bay of San Pablo. This bay is of a form nearly circular, and ten miles in diameter ; many small streams flowed into it, fresh from the neighbouring hills. On the east side of this bay, the river Sacramento empties into it through the Straits of Kaquines. The land is high, and the sandstone rock on each side of the straits resembles that observed about the Straits of De Fuca. The hills are described as " thickly co vered with wild oats, which were ripe, and the landscape had a peculiar golden hue. The contrast of this with the dark green foliage of the scattered oaks, 428 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. heightened the effect, which, although peculiar, is not unpleasing to the sight. The trees all have an inclination towards the south-east, showing the prevalence and the violence of the bleak north-west winds, producing on them a gnarled and mountain character. This feature is general throughout the coast of California, and gives the trees a singular appearance, the flat tops having the air of being cut or trimmed after the manner of box-trees. The tops are bent to one side, and the larger branches hidden by the numerous twigs which compose the mass. The only place where a similar character was observed by us impressed upon the foliage, was at Terra del Fuego." After passing the straits, the delta of the Sacramento opened to view. The Tula marshes, which are overflowed by the river above, are very extensive, and are said to be the resort of a vast number of beavers, which, in consequence of the nature of the ground, are difficult to catch, many more traps being necessary than in other localities. They then proceeded up the Sacramento to the. American river falling into it, where a native of Switzerland has formed an establishment. NEW HELVETIA. Captain Suter, the founder, is a Swiss by birth, and informed Commandant Ringgold that he had been a lieutenant in the Swiss guards during the time of Charles X. Soon after the revolution of July, he came to the United States, and passed several years in the state of Missouri. He has but recently removed to California, where he has obtained from the government a conditional grant of thirty leagues square, bounded by the Sacramento on the west, and extending as far up the river as the Prairie Butes. The spot he has chosen for the erection of his dwelling and fortification, he has called New Helvetia ; it is situated on the summit of a small knoll rising from the level prairie, two miles from the east bank of the Sacramento, and fifty miles from its mouth. New Helvetia is bounded on the north by the American Fork, a small serpentine stream, which has a course of but a few miles. This river, having a bar near its mouth, no vessels larger than boats can enter it. At this place the Sacramento is 800 feet wide, and this may be termed the head of its navigation during the dry season, or the stage of low water. Mr. Geiger, a young American from Newport, was attached to Captain Suter s establishment; but he informed Captain Wilkes that he intended to settle higher up the Sacramento, on the banks of the Feather River. When Captain Suter first settled here in 1839, he was surrounded by some of the most hos tile tribes of Indians on the river; but, by his energy and management, with the aid of a small party of trappers, has prevented opposition to his plans. Although Captain Suter is, in general, in the habit of treating the Indians with kindness, yet he related to Lieutenant Ringgold and his party instances in which he had been obliged to fusilade nine of them ; indeed, he did not seem to stand upon much ceremony with those who opposed him in any way. His buildings consist of extensive currals and dwelling-houses for himself and people, all built BAY OF SAN FRANCISCO. 429 of adobes (unburnt bricks). Labour is paid for in goods. His stock then amounted to about 1000 horses, 2500 cattle, and about 1000 sheep, many of which were seen in flocks around his premises, giving the place an appearance of peaceful civilisation. Captain Fremont, who proceeded as far as New Helvetia three years after Captain Wilkes s visit, observes : " Captain Suter who, in 1838-9, formed the first settlement in the valley, on a large grant of land which he obtained from the Mexican government, had at first some trouble with the Indians, but by the occasional exercise of well-timed authority, he has succeeded in converting them into a peaceable and industrious people. The ditches around his extensive wheat-field the making of the sun- dried bricks, of which his fort is constructed the ploughing, harrowing, and other agricultural operations, are entirely the work of these Indians, for which they receive, a very moderate compensation, principally in shirts, blankets, and other articles of clothing. In the same manner, on application to the chief of j a village, he readily obtains as many boys and girls as he has any use for: there were at this time a number of girls at the fort in training for a future woollen factory, but they were now all busily engaged in constantly watering the gardens, | which the unfavourable dryness of the season rendered necessary. The occa sional dryness of some seasons, I understood, to be the only complaint of the settlers in this fertile valley, as it sometimes renders the crops uncertain. Mr. Suter was about making arrangements to irrigate his lands by means of the Rio de los Americanos. He had this year sown, and altogether by Indian labour, i 300 fanegas of wheat. " A few years since, the neighbouring Russian establishment of Ross being about to withdraw from the country, sold to him a large number of stock, with agricultural and other stores, with a number of pieces of artillery and other mu nitions of war; for these a regular yearly payment is made in grain. " The fort is a quadrangular adobe structure, mounting twelve pieces of ar tillery (two of them brass), and capable of admitting a garrison of a thousand men; this at present consists of forty Indians, in uniform, one of whom was always found on duty at the gate. As might naturally be expected, the pieces are not in very good order. The whites in the employment of Captain Suter American, French, and German amount, perhaps, to thirty men. The inner wall is formed into buildings, comprising the common quarters, with blacksmith s and other workshops ; the dwelling-house, with a large distillery-house and other buildings, occupying more the centre of the area. " It is built upon a pond-like stream, at times a running creek, communicating with the Rio de los Americanos, which enters the Sacramento about two miles below ; the latter is here a noble river, about 300 yards broad, deep and tranquil, with several fathoms of water in the channel, and its banks continuously timbered. 430 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. There were two vessels belonging to Captain Suter at anchor near the landing- one a large two-masted lighter, and the other a schooner, which was shortly to pro ceed on a voyage to Fort Vancouver for a cargo of goods. " Since his arrival, several other persons, principally Americans, have estab lished themselves in the valley. Mr. Sinclair, from whom I experienced much kindness during my stay, is settled a few miles distant, on the Rio de los Ame ricanos. Mr. Coudrois, a gentleman from Germany, has established himself on Feather River, and is associated with Captain Suter in agricultural pursuits. Some settlers also from the Columbia River had arrived. Among other improve ments, they are about to introduce the cultivation of rape-seed (brassica rapus), which there is every reason to believe is admirably adapted to the climate and soil. The lowest average produce of wheat, as far as we can at present know, is thirty-five fanegas for one sown ; but as an instance of its fertility, it may be mentioned that Senor Valejo obtained, on a piece of ground where sheep had been pastured, 800 fanegas for eight sown. The produce being different in va rious places, a very correct idea cannot be formed." Captain Suter, who had engaged in extensive agricultural operations, had, in the year of Captain Wilkes s visit, all his crops ruined by the drought. He had taught the Indians to make adobes. The agreement for their services were usually made with their chiefs, and in this way as many as he wanted were readily obtained. The chiefs had far more authority over their tribes than those which Captain Wilkes had seen to the north, and appeared to have more authority over, and were more respected by their tribes, than those of any other of the North American Indians. Connected with his establishment Captain Suter had erected a distillery, in which he made a kind of spirit from the wild grape of the country. To all the foregoing enterprises, Captain Wilkes says : " That Suter ao^ded the direction of a large party of trappers and hunters, mostly Americans, who enter here into competition with those of the H udson Bay Company ; and attended also the Russian establishment at Ross and Bodega, which had just been transferred to him for the consideration of 30,000 dollars. In the purchase were included all the stock, houses, arms, utensils, and cattle, belonging to the establishment. It was understood that this post was abandoned, by orders of the Russian government, the Russian company no longer having any necessity to hold it to procure supplies, as they are now to be fur nished under a contract with the Hudson Bay Company ; arid, by giving it up^ they avoid many heavy expenses." BODEGA. The trading post at this place was first established by the Rus sians in 1812, under a permission from the then governor of Monterey, to erect a few small huts for salting their beef. A small number of men were left to super intend this business, which in a few years increased, until the place became of BAY OF SAN FRANCISCO. 431 such importance in the eyes of the Spanish authorities, that on the Russians at tempting to establish themselves at San Francisco, on the island of Yerba Buena and to employ their men in trapping during the season, they were ordered to leave the country. This they refused to do, and having become too strong to be re moved by the Spanish force, the post had been suffered to remain undisturbed until the time of Captain Wilkes s visit. The PORT OF BODEGA is situated about ninety miles to the north of that of San Francisco, and being both inconvenient and small, cannot be entered except by vessels of a small draft of water. Captain VVilkes says, " From what I under stood from the officers who had been in charge of it, it had been a very consider able expense to the Russian American Company to fortify it, and the disposal of the whole, on almost any terms must have been advantageous. Captain Suter had commenced removing the stock and transporting the guns, &c., to his estab- ishment." The building at the two posts numbered from fifty to sixty, and they fre quently contained a population of 400 or 500 souls. Since the breaking up of the establishment, the majority of the Russians returned to Sitka ; the rest have remained in the employ of the present owner. Although the country around New Helvetia was parched up with the severe drought that had prevailed before the arrival of Captain Wilkes, yet the short grasses were abundant, and it was more completely covered with vegetation than that below. Scattered oaks grew in all directions, some of which were of large dimensions five or six feet in diameter, and sixty or seventy feet high. The scenery was very much admired, and Mount Diavolo, near the mouth of the San Joachim, adds to its beauty. The mountains to the east are visible from Captain Suter s settlement, and it is said that during some portions of the year they are covered with snow. A route across them was followed, directly east of this place, by a party, but they were twenty days in getting over, and found the country so thickly wooded that they were obliged to cut their way. The pass which is recommended as the best, is 200 miles to the north of this place, through the gap made by the head waters of the Sacramento. This has lead to the belief that Pitt s River extends in this direction through and beyond them. ROUTE FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THE UNITED STATES. The best route from San Francisco to the United States, as laid down by Captain Wilkes, is to follow the San Joachim for sixty miles, thence easterly, through a gap in the snowy mountains by a good beaten road ; thence the course is north-easterly to Mary s River, which flows south-east, and has no outlet, but loses itself in a lake thence continuing in the same direction, the Portneuf River in the Upper Shoshone 432 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. is reached ; and thence to Fort Hall, according to Dr. Marsh (an American of much intelligence, resident at the mouth of the San Joachim, to whom Captain Wilkes says, " we are indebted for much information of the country"), there is plenty of fresh water and pasturage all the way, and no proper desert between the Californian range and the Colorado. See hereafter " Captain Fremont s Journey from Fort Hall to the Columbia." Dr. Marsh crossed nothing like a range of mountains in the whole route from the United States. Hills and mountains were often seen on what he calls the table land of New Mexico. The most common plant met with was an acacia, a small shrub which is also to be found in the southern parts of New Mexico, where the climate is likewise very arid. In one district where it occurs, it is found necessary to protect both horse and rider with a sort of armour against this rigid and thorny vegetation, between latitude 37 deg. and 38 deg. north. He also reports that there are other streams to the east of the mountains without outlets, and which do not reach the Colorado, although running in that direction. He identifies the Youta, or Great Salt Lake, with the Lake Temponogos of the early Spanish fathers who visited it, and agrees with others in placing the north end of it nearly in the parallel of 42 deg. north. See also " Captain Fremont s Journey." The COLORADO OP THE WEST he reports to be impracticable for boats to descend from the head waters to its mouth, on account of its rapidity. There is one place in it that is described as similar to the Dalles of the Columbia, which is supposed to be where it passes through the range of mountains. EXPEDITION UP THE SACRAMENTO. Captain Wilkes sent a boat, with an officer on board to explore the Sacramento upwards. They found the banks of the river bordered with marshes which extend for miles back. This kind of country continues up both the Sacramento and San Joachim, and is the proper Tula dis trict, of which so much has been said and so many errors propagated. Here the Tula (scirpus lacustris} grows in great luxuriance. On the 26th, they reached the mouth of Feather River, which is fifteen miles above New Helvetia. It appeared nearly as broad as the main stream, but there is a bar extending the whole distance across it, on which the boats grounded. On the point of the fort, the ground was strewed with the skulls and bones of an In dian tribe, all of whom are said to have died within a few years of the tertian fever, and to have nearly become extinct in consequence. Near this had been an Indian village, which was destroyed by Captain Suter and his trappers, because its inhabitants had stolen cattle, &c. The affair resulted in one of the Indians being killed, twenty-seven made captive, and the removal of the remainder beyond the limits of his territory. The battle-ground was pointed out, at a bend of the river, which is only one-third of a mile across, though three around. BAY OF ST. FRANCISCO. 433 Game is represented to have decreased in this vicinity, from the numbers de stroyed by the parties of the Hudson Bay Company who annually frequent these grounds. (See account by Captain Fremont, of The Destruction of Buffalo," &c.) Large flocks of curlew were seen, and the California quail, which disap peared since leaving the coast, was again observed. The trees that line the banks consist of the cotton-wood, &c. Single oaks, with short grass beneath them, are scattered over the plain. The next day, as they advanced, game became more plentiful, and elk were found to be most so. Some of them were of large size, and at that season of the year, the rutting, they are seen generally in pairs, but at other times the females appear in large distinct herds. They were fine-looking animals, with very large antlers, and in the first instance, devoid of fear. The herds were usually thirty or forty in number, and chiefly composed of females and their young. The father of the flock is always conspicuous, and with his horns seemed to overshadow and pro tect the family. The tula, or bulrush, was found in great quantities, growing on the banks. The Indians use its roots as food, either raw or mixed with the grass seed, which forms the principal article of their food. This root is likewise eaten by the grisly bear. The party encamped in the ruins near a grove of poplars of large size, some of which were seventy feet high, and two and a half feet in diameter. The leaf resembled that of the American aspen. At night they had a slight thunder shower. The wolves and bears had entered the camp during the night, : . although there was a watch kept at each end of it. The howling of the wolves was almost constant. On the 27th, the current of the Sacramento had become much more rapid, and the snags more frequent. The banks were on an average about twenty feet above the water, though there was every appearance of their having been over flowed. The prairies were perfectly level, and everywhere overspread with the shells of the Planorbis. In some places these shells appeared as though they had been collected in heaps. From the top of these banks the prairie Butes were in sight to the northward and westward. As they proceeded up the river, the country continued of the same character, the level being only interrupted by trees that bordered the river. These consisted of oaks and sycamores. Game and fur bearing animals had become more numerous, and among them were the lynx and fox. The latter is the species whose fur brings a high price in China, where, as much as twenty dollars is paid for a skin. This fox is said to have one peculiarity, namely, that when chased it will ascend trees. Bears were also seen in great numbers. Dr. Marsh thinks there is but one species, the grisly bear; but the black bear VOL. I. 3 K 434 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. of the United States is found in New Mexico, and highly prized for its skin : though Dr. Pickering thinks he saw another species, whose summer coat ap proaches the yellow bear of Oregon. The skin of the young is here sometimes made into quivers, and they are destitute of the horny claws of the grisly bear. The skin of the later animal is said sometimes to be as large as that of an ox ; its food is the same as that of the Indians, and varies with the seasons. Its strength is said to be prodigiously great, and it has been known, when lassoed, to drag three horses; and, when baited in the bull and bear-fights, practised in California, will check the charge of a bull by stretching out one of its paws. They will also ascend the oaks for the acorns, and break off branches so large as almost to ruin the tree. It does not, at all times, kill its enemies when it has them in its power; rarely attacks a man unless he comes upon him by surprise, and is not considered a dangerous animal. The vegetation throughout the whole course of the Sacramento showed evi dent traces of salt, and in some places the prairies seemed to be incrusted with it. On the 4th, the expedition returned to New Helvetia, where they found that a small Russian schooner had arrived from Bodega, bringing the governor of that establishment, who was about delivering it up to Captain Suter. The vessel was understood to have been built at Sitka, and was of only thirty tons burden, very much resembling an English vessel of the same class. For a boat they use a skin " Badaka," that is admirably adapted for the seas and weather they have to contend with. When the persons are seated, and the opening closed, with a skin dress they more resemble an aquatic animal than any thing else. The morning after their arrival, Captain Suter paid his men their weekly wages, in cloths, calicoes, vests, shirts, and pantaloons. The whole was arranged through their chief, who spoke a little Spanish. The labourers are obtained from the different rancherias, and some from the vicinity of the mountains. It was ob served that the larger portion of the labourers were young men and boys ; no women were employed, and as yet their services are not needed ; but it is the captain s intention, as he informed our gentlemen, to have employment for them in a year or two. Captain Wilkes says, " Several Americans from the United States were then (1841,) beginning to settle in this part of the country, and it will not be long before it becomes, in some respects, an American colony. Although it was late in the season, a few salmon were caught at the fishery; they were not to be distin guished from the Columbia species of the first run. "The Indians have several rancherias around New Helvetia. Their lodges are all somewhat like low haycocks, being composed of a framework of sticks thatched with the bulrush. " In the preparation of the acorn bread all assist. The acorns are gathered in ESTABLISHMENTS WEST AND SOUTH OF SAN FRANCISCO. 435 very large quantities, piled in heaps, and spread in the sun to dry. Both men and women are to be seen employed shelling, pounding, and baking them into bread : the pounding is performed upon a plank that has been hollowed out with a stone pestle; to reduce the large quantity to a fine powder, requires oreat labour." Captain Wilkes continues to observe, " Around New Helvetia, although but a few days had elapsed since their former visit, the country, if possible, appeared more arid ; it by no means justified the high encomiums that we had heard be stowed upon this far-famed valley. Our expectations, probably, had been so much raised as scarcely to allow us to give it that credit it really deserves." " The valley of the Sacramento may include a space of 180 miles long, by from twenty to fifty miles wide. A large part of this is undoubtedly barren and unproductive, and must for ever remain so. The part that is deemed good soil, is inundated annually, not for any great length of time, yet sufficiently long to make it unfit for advantageous settlement. The high prairie is spoken of as being in general barren, and as affording but little good pasture. "The crops are usually ripe in June, which enables the wheat and Indian corn to be gathered before the summer drought begins. There is usually a rainy sea son of three months, but during the year of our visit no rain had fallen ; and from every crop having failed, the inhabitants had been living upon their cattle. The cattle suffered almost as much as the crops, and large numbers of them died from, starvation. On this account the inhabitants had forborne to kill their cattle fo r hides, believing it to be a great loss to do so, as the weight was so much depre ciated as to pay little more than the labour of slaughter and preparing for market. " The variety of game in this country almost exceeds belief. The elk may be said to predominate, but there are also many bears, black-tailed deer, wolves, foxes, minxes, hares, musk-rats, badgers, antelopes, and ovis montana. The wolf is reported by Dr. Marsh to be the same as the prairie wolf of the Upper Missis, sippi, but not the one described by Say. The fox is the same as the gray one of the wooded parts of the United States. According to Mr. Peale, the black- tailed deer is the only species found in this country. The ovis montana has been frequently seen by Dr. Marsh ; its coating is altogether hair, without any admix ture of wool. No specimens were obtained for the expedition. CHAPTER XVI. ESTABLISHMENTS ON THE WEST AND SOUTH OF THE BAY OF SAN FRANCISCO. ON the west side of the Bay of San Pablo, are some of the finest tracts of country in California. One of these is called the Valley of Nappa, another 436 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. that of Zonoma, and a third San Rafael. In Zonoma is situated the town of the same name, the residence of General Vallejo, and the mission of San Rafael. The fertile country extends across to Ross and Bodega, the two Russian settle ments before spoken of." ZONOMA is the seat of government, and is situated in an extensive plain, with some high hills for its southern boundary. The plain is covered with fine oaks, and there is a never-failing stream of water passing through it. There is besides an inlet from the bay, which allows a boat navigation to it of about twelve miles. Zonoma contained only the following buildings : " the general s house, built of adobes j of two stories, which fronts on the public square, and is said to be one of the best houses in California. On the right of this is the residence of the general s brother, Salvadore, and to the left, the barracks for the accommodation of the guard for the general, consisting of about twenty fusileers. Not far removed is the old dilapidated mission-house of San Francisco Solano, scarcely tenantable though a small part of it is inhabited still by a padre, who continues, notwith standing the poverty of his mission, to entertain the stranger, and show him all the hospitality he can." The anecdotes related to Captain Wilkes of the general commanding, all showed a disregard for the lives, as well as for the property and liberty of the In dians, and " Gente de razon" This general acted with the same impunity as all his predecessors, with one or two exceptions, have done before him. As an instance of the lawless acts of the governors, it is said that one of them enter tained the idea of training the Indians as soldiers, and a company of them which had been drilled made such proficiency in the use of their arms, that his excel lency became alarmed, and forthwith ordered them all to be shot! Captain Wilkes had little doubt that this story might be true, for the value of an Indian s life in the eye of these rulers, scarcely exceeds that of one of the wild cattle. The commandant-general is frequently said to hunt them, and by his prowess in these expeditions has gained some reputation. Salvadore Vallejo, the general s brother, was engaged in agricultural pursuits, and particularly in raising cattle, " which," says Captain Wilkes, " under the governor, he has the special privilege of supplying to vessels, which he does at prices that insure a handsome profit. In times of scarcity, vessels are sure to be supplied by applying to the governor, who will order supplies to be furnished, and even obtain them by compulsion. On my arrival, finding that we wanted supplies, and not knowing how long (in the event of an accident to our land party) I might be detained, I was advised to apply to the commandant-general, through whom I would be sure of obtaining them. I therefore despatched a note by an officer, whom the general treated with great politeness, and returned for answer, that he could supply me with the following articles : Lima beans, wheat, potatoes, and other vegetables, which we had been unable to obtain. Fortunately for us, as well as for the lower orders and Indians, the party arrived; ESTABLISHMENTS WEST AND SOUTH OF SAN FRANCISCO. 437 and we were not under the necessity of making use of his powerful intervention. The general, I was told, considers every bushel of grain as much at his command as he does the persons of the people, and the property of the state. Zonoma is to be the capital of this country, provided the general has power and lives long enough to build it up. An idea has got abroad that he is looking to the guberna torial chair, and to be placed there by the same force that has raised Alvarado and himself to the posts they now occupy/ Zonoma is on the road that leads to Ross and Bodega, and by this route Cap tain Suter had transported all the stock he purchased of the Russians. The state of society here was found, by Captain Wilkes, "to be exceedingly loose; envy, hatred, and malice, predominated in almost every breast, and the people were wretched under their present rulers ;" " Female virtue/ he regrets to say, " is also at a low ebb; and the coarse and lascivious dances, which meet the plaudits of the lookers-on, show the degraded tone of manners that exists." The mission of San Rafael is situated in a fertile valley about twelve miles from Sansalito. It at present consists of a large building with a small chapel attached ; both in a tolerable state of preservation, and under the superintendence of an Irishman, who has been appointed to the charge from its being considered a place of emolument, through his interest with the governor. A padre resides at this mission for six months of the year, and officiates as priest. On the 24th of October, during Captain Wilkes s visit, a/ete was given at this place, in honour of the patron saint; and it was rumoured that there was to be a grand bull-fight. The latter was miserably conducted. " The bulls had greatly the advantage, and the men and horses were tumbled about until both became quite shy. They had cut off the tips of the bull s horns, which was a fortunate circumstance for both horses and riders, who received no material injury. There was no bull and bear-fight, in consequence of their not being able to procure one of the latter animals. In the fights between the bull and bear, it is said, that however strong and savage the bull may be, the bear is always the conqueror: the only part of the bull he endeavours to attack is the tongue, by seizing which he invariably proves the victor. " When the fights were over, dancing was resorted to, and continued during the evening and all night. It was accompanied with hard drinking and uproarious conduct. Mr. Murphy s entertainment was considered fully equal to any that had been given for some time, and particularly the latter part of it." In order to ascertain the condition of the missions at the south end of the bay, Captains Wilkes and Hudson left the Vincennes at St. Francisco, on the morn ing of the 29th, and stopped a short time at Yerba Buena for a guide to point out the passages through the shoals, and the entrance to the creek that leads up to the Embarcadero, or lading place, whence the people of the mission usually ship their hides. 438 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. In consequence of the incapacity of the pilot, their boat grounded, and they were detained so long, that night overtook them before they entered the river Caravallio, which runs in a tortuous direction to the Embarcadero. It was so nnrrow that they were compelled to haul the boat along by the grass and rushes on each side,, and as they passed along at night, the water-fowl were, while sleep ing on the water among the rushes, alarmed by the noise, and flew up in thou sands from the marshes. The noise of their fluttering resembled that of the surf of the sea ; and as they rose thousands seemed to follow thousands until the sound died away in the distance, and again seemed to approach in an opposite direction, while in the darkness not a bird was to be seen, although they must have passed only within a few feet of the boat. " At the Embarcadero" says Captain Wilkes, " we found no house or accom modation of any kind ; but the guide soon led us to what he termed the road, which was found marked by the huge ruts made by the ox-carts. " After proceeding a mile over a level plain, they reached the estrancia, the out works of which was a broken coural, with the ground covered with the bones, hoofs, and horns of cattle. "They were greeted by the sudden appearance of a huge Californian, more than six feet in height, and proportionately large, who stalked towards them in his shirt, and in a gruff tone he demanded their wants. Having received satisfactory explanations, with a cigar given him as a token of friendship, he called up the whole family, which consisted of a mother, two daughters, and several other chil dren. " These/ says Captain Wilkes, " after dressing themselves, came forth, and greeted us with genuine hospitality, with such pleasant faces and cheerful talk, that it was really delightful to find ourselves in such quarters. They immediately set about providing us with supper, consisting of tea, tortillias, valdivias, ollas, with eggs and a steak ; and while this was in preparation by some, others were arranging the beds, and changing the furniture of the sleeping-room. All this was done while the mother was talking and waiting upon us ; and, after supper was over,*she pointed to our room, and then excused herself, by saying she must provide something for the sailors who had accompanied us ; whilst we retired to rest much fatigued with our jaunt. We arose about eight o clock, and conse quently missed our chocolate, which is given at an earlier hour, and could get no breakfast until eleven o clock. " While horses were sought for us, we spent the time in looking around the premises. The house was a long one-story adobe building, with a thickly thatched roof, forming, by its projection, a piazza in front, supported by columns. There were many enclosures about the house that gave it the appearance of a farm-yard and slaughter-house combined. Bones, hoofs, horns, and pieces of hide, were lying in every direction, and the ground was indented with the feet of cattle. Ducks, dogs, and fowls were picking at the bones and offal. There were one or two ox-carts, of clumsy proportions, a beehive and a ley-vat, formed of hide and ESTABLISHMENTS WEST AND SOUTH OF SAN FRANCISCO. 439 suspended to four stakes, in the shape of a large bag hung near by. At a short distance from the house was the vegetable garden, where every thing grew in pro- fusion, although without care. The only trouble in gardening was to put the seed into the ground, and await the result. This estancia is situated between two copses of wood, that grow on the banks of the brook that winds past it, and neatly join in the rear. In front is a plain extending fifteen or twenty miles to the foot of the Sierra, which forms a pleasing and bold contrast to the flat surface, on which nothing is seen but here and there a small group of cattle, and immense flocks of wild geese on some shrub, which, owing to the refraction, appears almost detached from the surface, and with dimensions so much enlarged as to appear like a great tree. The plain at this time was of a dark hue, somewhat resembling a light bronze colour, in consequence of the vegetation having been scorched up for many months." The mission of Santa Clara, which they visited, though it had, at a distance, a respectable appearance, consisted merely of a long line of huts, formerly occupied by the Indians. The church and mission-house adjoining, were in a dilapidated state. The mission-house was then occupied both by the administrador and the padre ; a wall dividing the temporal from the spiritual concerns of the establish ment. In the rear of the mission, there is a quadrangle of low sheds, in which the domestic manufacture of candles, preserves, baking, and a variety of other duties are performed. The garden was surrounded by a high adobe wall, and its gate is always kept locked. It was from one and a half to two acres in extent, and planted with vines. Grapes are cultivated without trellises ; the grapes were generally of the sweet Malaga kind. The mission claims the first picking to make their wine and preserves. The inhabitants, the women of the " gente de razon" pluck after wards, and then the children are allowed to gather the remainder. In this garden they also grow fruit of all kinds, both of the tropical and temperate cli mate, which they represented as succeeding admirably well. A few barrels of wine are annually made, but nothing can be more rude than the process of pre paration. The tillage is performed with ploughs formed of a crooked piece of timber four to six inches square, which is merely used to loosen the ground to a depth of three or four inches ; yet such is the fertility of the soil, and level nature of the land, that the crops yield an average of from sixty to eighty for one sown. The ploughs are drawn by oxen, and managed by the Indians. At the missions throughout the country, four meals are daily taken : at an early hour, chocolate ; at efeven o clock, breakfast ; at two, dinner ; and at seven, supper. The dinner and supper are the principal meals, and at them the Cah- fornians are described as indulging to the extent of gluttony. 440 SPANISH AMKR1CAN KKl l KUCS. "After some difficulty in procuring horses," Captain Wilkcs says, "we set out on sorry nags, and on leaving; the mission entered an avenue lined on eacli side with laixe trees. These 1 understood had been planted at an early day by one of the padres, in order to protect the people from the sun during the celebration of the church festivals, and to leave no excuse to the inhabitants of the Pueblo for not visiting the mission-church. Just before arriving at the Pueblo, we crossed over one of the tortuous branches of the Rio Guadaloupe, some twenty feet wide, and had a view of the Pueblo. It seemed as if this were a gala day, and as if every one were abroad celebrating it on the banks of this river, or rather creek, the overflowing of which had served to keep the grass green for a consi derable spaee around. Instead of its being a festival, it turned out to be a general washing-day of the village, and the long lines, trees, bushes, &c., were all hung with the many coloured garments, which, with the crowds of men, women, and children, and some cattle moving to and fro, or gathered in small groups, gave the \\hole quite a pleasing effect. I was told that the Pueblo of San Jose had a larger number of inhabitants than any other in Upper California; but as we rode into it, it seemed almost deserted. " The alcalde who gave the party a cordial reception, made his appearance like a French pastry-cook, with his white cap and apron, lie was a short, dapper, rosy-cheeked man, by birth a Frenchman, but had been now twenty years settled in the Pueblo; was married, and had eleven children, who looked both healthy and dirty. The moment he understood who his visiters were, he did them the honour to dofT his white cap and apron ; and shortly after he appeared in a round about ornamented with embroidery. lie spoke his native language imperfectly, intermingling a great many Spanish words with it. lie described himself as the sous prcjcty and said, that he administered justice, inflicted punishment, and had the ability to make the inhabitants as happy as he thought they should be. On my asking, by what laws he administered justice, his answer was by what he thought right he had very little trouble, except guarding against the attacks of the Indians, and preventing them from stealing horses, of which he had great fears, lie had, therefore, provided for the safety of his own by keeping them in a small shed attached to his house, and within a locked gate. " He considered the Pueblo as in danger of attacks from the Indians, who were now in great numbers within striking distance, and had become very trouble some of late in driving off horses of which they had lost 300 or 400, and he said that pursuit was impossible, as they now had no troops. He entertained us with wine and beer of his own making. " We took our departure a short time before sunset, amidst the gathering in of the villagers, with their goods and chattels, to a place of safety. There are two Americans settled here, who own mills. The evening was a beautiful one, and TRADE OP SAN FRANCISCO. we had a delightful ride back to the mission, and our horses, knowing they were on their return, were quite mettlesome. "The mode of conducting business in this part of California/ 1 says Captain WilkeH, " is peculiar. Vessels, on reaching the coast, employ, as a supercargo or travelling agent, Home person well J<nown throughout the country, who visits all the pueblos, missions, and estancias, as a traveller, pacing from place to place without any apparent object of business. He has thus an opportunity of inspect ing the worldly a/Fairs of those to whom he desires to sell; and if he finds them apparently thrifty, he produces his card of patterns, and soon induces a disposi tion on the part of his host or hostess to buy, being careful to secure in payment as much of their worldly goods as he can, arid trusting them for the rent of the indebtedness. A few live cattle delivered by each purchaser at the neighbouring Pueblo, become by this means a large herd, which is committed to cattle-Am^r* who in due time slaughter them and deliver the hides in exchange for merchan dise. A large amount of goods is thus disposed of to a very conniderablc profit- Large cargoes, consisting of a variety of articles, of both American and English manufactures are thus sold. From the state of the country, it has been difficult to obtain payments or returns in money; but the debts have usually been paid in cattle. When hides arc L iveri in payment, they are valued at two dollars, and are at all times the common currency of the country. No money is in circulation, unless what is paid by the foreign merchants; and in lieu of change an extra quantity of goods is taken, which excess is usually to the disadvantage of the buyer." At Santa Clara, the party found beds that were clean and comfortable, though the apartment had a strong smell of cordovan leather. The only place* of deposit for clothing, &c., was in the estancia, in large trunks. " We were up betimes, but were threatened with disappointment in our bones. The kind and attentive Donna Aliza served us with chocolate and toast, and prepared cold tongues, chickens, and ample stores of bread for our use. " After an hour s preparation, we took our leave and galloped off, in company With Don Miguel, who proposed to accompany us some fix or feren miles on our way, to visit tome of his herds, they were then feeding on the prairie. We bad not proceeded far before we were overtaken by the person who had them in charge, coming at a furious gallop. He was mounted on the best horse I had seen in the country, and dressed after the Californian fashion, in a dark brown cloth jacket, thickly braided, both before and behind, with slashed sleeves, showing hi* shirt elegantly embroidered, both on the breast and sleeves ; velvet breeches of bright blue, secured around his waist with a red gash, and open at the sides, ornamented with braid and brass bells in abundance; below the knee he wore leather leggings, fastened with garters, worked in silver, and below these, shoes, over which were fastened large silver spurs, with the heavy rowels of the country; cm his head WM . i. 3 L 442 SOUTHERN OREGON. tied a red bandana handkerchief, and over that a huge broad-brimmed sombrero, with peaked crown, covered with an oil-silk cloth; the whole decorated with cords, aiguillettes, and ribands, with a guard-cord passing under the chin. His horse was equally well caparisoned, the bridle being decked with silver, as were the tips of his large wooden stirrups; with pillions anqj saddle-cloths in abundance. Few riders had so gay an air, or seemed to have so perfect a command of the animal he rode; and until we arrived at the wood where his Indians were looking out, he was an object of great attraction, assuming all the airs and graces of a person of high rank. " After galloping for several miles, we reached a few trees and bushes, that are designated as the woods/ Near by was a large herd of cattle feeding. The rancheros we found lying about, in huts of hide, with a fire in front, and the leg- bone of an ox roasting over it; the skulls, bones, and the offal, lay about, with hides here and there pegged to the ground/ * The country which the party traversed on returning from the south to Yerba Buena, was then destitute of both water and grass, and the weather oppressively warm. In some places the scenery was picturesquely diversified by scattered oaks, laurels, and shrubs, but, to all appearance, the soil was unfit for cultivation. Wherever there was any running water, a pond, or vegetation, large flocks of geese and ducks were seen. " The term estancia" observes Captain Wilkes, " seems to give one an idea of something more extensive than a small farm ; it sounds more noble and wealthy ; but whatever had been our opinion before, the reality disappointed us. Senor Sanchez s estancia at a distance was quite a respectable-looking building ; the broad shadow cast by its projecting roof ave it a substantial and solid appear ance ; but a nearer approach dispelled these favourable impressions, and showed its uncouth proportions, as well as the neglect in which the whole was kept. The way to the house, which stands on a knoll, leads through miry places and over broken-down fences, winding around dilapidated ox-carts, over troughs, old baskets, dead hogs, dogs, and fowls, all huddled together. Rude articles of husbandry occupied the sides of the building." CHAPTER XVII. SOUTHERN OREGON. THE party which, under the instructions given by Captain Wilkes, to the com mander, departed on the overland expedition from Oregon to California, left Fort * The hides of the cattle that die, or that are killed for food, are cured in this way. AMERICAN OVERLAND EXPEDITION. -11:; Vancouver, and proceeded by the way of the Hudson Bay Company s farm on Multunomah or Wapautoo Island, near the place where Captain Wyeth had erected a fort. They then crossed the river and went towards the Faulitz Plains, passing on their route a large grazing farm belonging to the company, and those of numerous settlers, who supplied them with fresh horses. In this direction they describe the country beautiful and the land rich, travelling over the prairies and hills. The hills were wooded with large pines, and a thick undergrowth of rose-bushes, rubus, dogwood, and hazel. The prairies were covered with va riegated flowers, and abounded in nuttalia, columbines, larkspurs, and bulbous- rooted plants. Some of the party had attacks of ague and fever. Dr. Whittle ascribed these attacks to the length of time, nearly five weeks, during which they had been en camped on the Willamette, and particularly to the position of the camp, im mediately on the bank of the river, where it was subject to damp and fogs. The settlers in the Willamette valley are described as generally those who have been hunters in the mountains, and were still full of the recklessness of that kind of life. Many of them, although they had taken farms and built log- houses, could not be classed among the permanent settlers, as they were ever ready to sell them and resume their old favourite trapping pursuits. The party proceeded up the Willamette river, until they reached Champooing, where they disembarked. The country in the southern part of Willamette valley is described as stretching out into wild prairie-ground, gradually rising in the distance into low undulating hills, which are destitute of trees, except scattered oaks j these look more like orchards of fruit-trees, planted by the hand of man, than groves of na tural growth, and serve to relieve the eye from the yellow and scorched hue of the plains. The meanderings of the streams may be readily followed by the growth of trees on their banks as far as the eye can see. On the morning of the 9th they had a severe frost. In the course of the day they passed Creole Creek, and encamped on the Ignas. The atmosphere during the day had become thick, owing to the smoke arising from the burning of the prairie. Here they prepared themselves fully for their journey, by trimming their horses hoofs, and adjusting other matters. The soil, a red decomposed basalt, appeared well adapted for grazing and wheat-lands. On the 10th they travelled over a country intersected with small creeks, more hilly, and naturally yielding good pasturage. The rocks were previously basalt ; those which now appeared were a whitish clayey sandstone. The soil also varied to a grayish brown. The surface had lately been overrun by fire, which had destroyed all the vegetation, except the oak trees, which appeared not to be injured. 444 SOUTHERN OREGON. After passing Lake Guardipii, which is about five hundred yards long, they encamped on the Lumtumbuff River, which is a branch of the Willamette. This river is a deep and turbid stream, branching out in places like a lake, but, in ge neral, narrow and fordable. On the 12th the route led across a parched-up prairie, portions of which were composed of gravel and white-sand, mixed with clay. " The paths were very rough, owing to the soil, which was much cut up by the herds that had been driven through, and which, on becoming hard, was exceedingly fatiguing to the horses. Bands of wolves were met with, and were, throughout the night, constantly howling on various parts of the prairie. The party had hitherto made from fifteen to twenty miles a day; and in travelling this day the animals suffered a great deal from want of water. They encamped on the Male Creek, which was about thirty feet wide, and ran in a northerly direction. On the 15th they arrived, with their horses exhausted from want of water, after travelling from fifteen to twenty miles a day, at the base of the Elk Mountains, which divide the valley of the Willamette from that of the Umpqua. The ascent and descent of this ridge slope gently. The hills were covered with pines, spruces, and oaks, with an undergrowth of hazel, arbutus, rubus, and cornus. Through these thickets they forced their way along the back of one of the spurs, and were three hours in ascending to the summit, which was fifteen hundred feet above the plain. The route over the Elk mountains was tedious and difficult, owing to the obstruction caused by large fallen trees. Before ascending the mountain, they had crossed several small streams over which the Hudson Bay Company had constructed bridges for the passage of their flocks of sheep. At their place of encampment, during night, ice formed in the pools to the thickness of a quarter of an inch, and the thermometer had fallen to 26 deg. They descended the following day, and encamped on the Elk river, and the hunters killed a large elk. Lieutenant Emmons, accompanied by three of the party, proceeded from the encampment for Fort Umpqua, fourteen miles distant. They found the country for the first five miles hilly, with scattered patches of pines, and it appeared in some places suitable for cultivation. The trail after wards carried them over a succession of steep hills and through deep ravines, almost impassable for the horses, which were nearly then worn out with the journey. Fort Umpqua, at which the detachment arrived greatly fatigued late at night, was found, like all those built in Oregon, enclosed by a line of high pickets, with bastions at diagonal corners; the whole area about two hundred feet square. It is situated more than one hundred and fifty yards from the river, upon the edge of an extensive plain, and was inhabited by only five men, two women, and nine AMERICAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION. 445 dogs, and contained a dwelling for the superintendent, as well as storehouses, and some smaller buildings for the officers and servants apartments. An unusual number of Indians of the Umpqua tribe were at the time assembled around the place. The superintendent said they had shown a strong disposition to attack and burn the fort. Lieutenant Emmons stated its latitude 43 deg. 24 min. north. From the account given by the superintendent, the river Umpqua flows in a north-westerly course a distance of thirty miles before it enters the sea. "It is navigable from the ocean to the place where the Umpqua and Elk rivers unite, about three miles below the fort, for vessels drawing not more that six feet water. The mouth of the Umpqua offers no harbour for sea-going vessels, and has only nine feet water on its bar. Its entrance is very narrow, with low sands on the north and south sides. The Umpqua fort district yields a considerable supply of furs ; principally of beaver of small size." Captain Wilkes says, the regulations of the company do not seem to be so strictly in force here as to the north of the Columbia, in relation to buying the small skins. These, he understood, they refuse to purchase there ; and every Indian who is found with a small skin is refused supplies of ammunition, which has been found sufficient to prevent the killing of the young animals. Here they also obtain from the Indians some land and sea otter, deer, and bear skins. The superintendent at Fort Umpqua exchanged strong horses for the exhausted horses of the detachment, and supplied Lieutenant Emmons with some bear and deer skins, to be made into shirts and trousers, which several of the party were in want of. The river at the fort is one hundred and twenty yards wide, quite rapid, ob structed with rocks, and only navigable for canoes. The weather was cold and foggy. The soil in the vicinity is fertile, producing plentiful crops of maize, wheat, and potatoes. In the garden attached to the fort, are grown the vegetables common in the United States, with melons, both water and musk. Cattle are said jo thrive well. In respect to this part of Oregon and the route to California, Captain Wilkes observes " Few of these men seem to know the reason of the whites meeting with so few mishaps in passing through an apparently hostile country; and many deem it is owing to their own skill and prowess. The truth is, that as soon as the Indians have traded with the whites, and become dependant on them for supplies, thenceforward they can be easily controlled. If disposed to be hostile, the fort at Umpqua would offer no resistance to their attack ; but they are aware that all their supplies of ammunition, tobacco, blankets, and other articles of necessity, would be at once cut off, which would reduce them to great distress. The self-interest of the Indians is, therefore, the true safeguard of the white traders." 446 SOUTHERN OREGON. In the country surrounding Fort Umpqua a species of oak grew, resembling in its size and appearance that of the Willamette, excepting the lobes of the leaves, which were spiral at their termination ; the acorns were larger and more deeply set in the cup. A yellow honeysuckle grew also on the banks of the river. During the following day they passed over basaltic hills, and descended to another plain, with a loamy soil. The prairie was set on fire by the Indians, with the view, it was suspected, of obstructing the route. Lieutenant Emmons the following day deviated from the usual route, and proceeded by the upper ford or pass across the Umpqua, as he had reason to believe that the Indians had made preparations to obstruct his passage at the lower ford. Several of the party being in a sickly state, Lieutenant Emmons, after cross ing the Umpqua, encamped in a beautiful oak-grove. A new shrub was met with resembling the shrubby geranium of Hawaii. A beautiful laurel (laurus ptolemii), with fragrant leaves ; a canothus, with beautiful sky-blue flowers of delightful fragrance; a tobacco plant (nicotiana), of foetid odour, with white flowers. The first grisly bears were seen ; the white tailed deer was lost sight of, and the black tailed species met with. Elks were seen in great numbers. On the 20th the party moved onwards at an early hour, and passed, during the day, through valleys and over narrow plains, that afforded good pasturage. They encamped on the south branch of the Umpqua river, having tra velled along its eastern banks for some miles. On the following day their route along the bank of the stream was over a country of the same description as before. Passing some stray Indian de serted camps they approached the Umpqua mountains, and stopped at the usual place to encamp previous to commencing the ascent. The trappers had all become reconciled to the arduous journey, and seemed willing to obey orders, as they had entered a hostile country, in which it would be dangerous for any one to straggle or desert. On the 22nd they began a most difficult journey across the Umpqua moun tains. The path upwards was narrow, and through a dense underwood. At times they cut their way through the brushwood following each other, form ing a file of nearly a mile in length. Ascending an abrupt height of one thou sand feet, many of the pack horses stumbled, but without any material accident. On the top was a small grassy plain, along which they travelled for a short dis tance, after which they descended rapidly into a valley, where water was found after passing the thickets. The woods had been lately on fire, and many of the trees were still burning. The fire had been lighted by the Indians for the AMERICAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION. 447 purpose of causing the trees to fall across the path with the view to impede the party, and in other places some of the branches were tied together across the trail. All the wood and ground was charred, and the party were completely covered with charcoal dust. From the summit of this ridge a view is had of a confused mass of abrupt ridges, between which lie small valleys. The whole range was thickly wooded with a variety of trees, among which are pinus Lam- bertiana (the first time it had been met with), oaks, arbutus, prunus, corn us, yews, dogwood, hazel, spircea, and castanea. Dense wreaths of smoke were observed in various points : these were supposed to be from the fires of savages on the watch for the party and made as signals to muster for an attack if a favourable opportunity should offer. The pinus Lambertiana was not found quite so large as described by Douglas. The cones, about fourteen inches long, were small in circumference. They encamped on the plain of the Shaste country, separated by the mountains which they had crossed from the Umpqua valley. The greatest eleva tion of the range was, by the temperature of boiling water, one thousand seven hundred and fifty feet. Among the plants they found the bulb used in California in the place of soap. The next day s journey was over undulating hills ; and, after travelling about twenty-three miles, they encamped on Young s Creek, a stream a few yards wide, and a foot or less deep, which may be traced from the heights for a long distance by the trees which border it. They were now within the country of the Klamet Indians, known as rogues or rascals, which name they have obtained from the hunters from their villany. On the 25th they continued their journey over a country resembling that traversed the day before, with a light loamy soil, and less wood. The pinus Lam bertiana was more common. The trees of this species were not beyond the usual size of the pine tribe, but their cones were about fifteen inches in length. Some of the sugar produced by this tree was obtained : it is of a sweet taste, with a slightly bitter and turpentine flavour. It resembles manna, and is obtained by the Indians by making a cavity in the tree, whence it exudes. This sugar is a cathartic, and affected all the party that partook of it; yet it is said that it is used as a substitute for sugar by the trappers and hunters. Towards evening they entered on the plains of Rogues or Tootootutnas River, and encamped on its banks. This is a magnificent stream, upwards of 100 yards in width, with a rapid current flowing over a gravelly bottom at the rate of three miles an hour. It abounds in fish, on which the Indians chiefly subsist. The banks are low and overgrown with bushes. The soil is poor and sandy. Two or three hundred yards from the river there is a sudden rise of ten feet, and another at the same distance beyond, from the last of which the land rises into 448 SOUTHERN OREGON. hills from six hundred to a thousand feet in height. The formation of these hills and of the soil changes to granite and sand. An Indian hunter killed a deer at some distance from the camp, and while in the act of skinning it was surprised by a party of Indians, who shot a flight of arrows over him ; he sprang to his horse, seized his rifle, and, according to his own account, killed one of them, but left his game behind. Towards night a canoe with two Indians approached the camp, which they were not suffered to enter. These canoes were made of trees hollowed out, square at each end. The 26th they passed along the banks of the Rogues River which runs in a westerly direction. The Indians were observed spearing salmon from their canoes. As the party proceeded the river was inclosed within a ravine between the mountains. The river flowed in rapids, owing to its ragged channel, and its banks were faced with cliffs of jagged rocks. In the afternoon they reached the Forks, and followed the southern branch, which brought them to the place of encamp ment, where a party accompanied by a Mr. Turner were attacked, and most of them massacred by the Indians, who were allowed to enter the camp in numbers as friends, when they suddenly rose upon the whites, nine in number, at the time of the attack attending to their horses. Two of the party were killed immediately. Turner, who was a strong, athletic man, was seated by the fire when the fray began. He snatched up a fire-brand and defended himself, dealing destruction around him until his wife brought him his rifle, with which he killed several Indians. The party had suffered exceedingly before reaching this place from attacks of the ague. The chills were violent while they lasted, and several were obliged to stop for an hour or two during their continuance. The sudden and great atmospheric changes which constantly occurred tended to aggravate if they did not produce these attacks, the thermometer during the day frequently standing above 80, at night fell nearly as low as the freezing point. On the 27th they proceeded along the bank of the river ; the Indians were gathering, and were heard yelling on the opposite bank. Precautions were taken to clear the path from any dangers by sending a detachment of foot in advance of the main party. The high perpendicular bank confined the path to very narrow limits, rendering it a dangerous point of attack from Indians, who might conceal themselves among the rocks on the opposite side of the rapid river. A few miles beyond this pass the party left the banks of the Rogues River, taking a more easterly route, over a rolling prairie, which is bounded by low hills, resembling the scenery of the Willamette valley. The soil, in some few places, was good, but generally gravelly and sterile. A few Indians were seen at a distance on horseback, who fled like wild animals. Some of the horses, AMERICAN EXPLORING EXPEDITION. 449 from being exhausted were left behind. In the afternoon they encamped on Beaver creek, so named by Lieutenant Emmons from the number of those animals which were seen building dams. An antelope was killed, of a dun and white colour, and its hair was re markably soft. The Indians take this animal by exciting its curiosity. For this purpose they conceal themselves among the nearest bushes to its feeding grounds, and making a rustling noise soon attracts the antelopes towards the place of ambuscade, when it is shot. If there are others in company they will fre quently remain with the dead or wounded one until they are all killed. This species of antelope, according to the hunters, only inhabit the prairie, being seldom seen even in the open wooded country. The flavour of the flesh was considered superior to that of the deer. On the 28th they advanced to the foot of the boundary range, where they encamped. The country resembled that passed over the day before, and the woods were oak and pine, but none of the Lambertiana. On the hills granite was observed. On the 29th commenced the ascent of the Boundary Mountains, which sepa rate Mexico from the United States. This range rises from 1200 to 2000 feet high. Some of the summits have a mural front; the features of all the ridges present a basaltic appearance; In some the sandstone and fossils protruded. At the summit of this range, they had a first view of the Klamet valley. It was walled on both sides by high basaltic hills, rising above each other. Mount Shaste, a high snowy peak, of a sugar-loaf form, rose through the haze, south ward about forty-five miles distant. They descended on the south side, and en camped on the banks of the Otter creek, within a mile of the Klamet river. This ridge divides the waters flowing to the north and south. The soil was very sandy. In consequence of the illness of some of the party, the whole remained nearly stationary on the 30th. The surrounding country appeared to be a broad prairie valley, dotted with oaks and pines, with serpentine lines of trees marking the edges of the streams until lost in the distance. This valley lies in the midst of hills, clothed with a forest of evergreens, and through this the waters of the Klamet flow, passing beyond it, through a narrow valley on the west. The most remarkable object in this place is an isolated conical peak, which rises imme diately from the level plain to the height of 1000 feet, and is destitute of trees except on its summit. On the 1st of October, they proceeded onward at an early hour. The weather was sultry, and the atmosphere smoky ; they crossed the Klamet river, where it was about eight yards wide, about five feet deep, with a pebbly bottom, and with low banks destitute of bushes. Both above and below the ford, there were rapids. VOL. I. 3 M 450 SOUTHERN OREGON. From the appearance of its banks, it is subject to overflow. The prairie, after crossing the river, became dry and barren, and in which a solitary bute occasionally rose from 100 to 500 feet high. These butes are considered by Captain Wilkes as peculiar to this country. Heaps of volcanic rocks, consisting of large masses of grayish or reddish porphyritic lava, in blocks of from one to ten cubic feet in size, were lying on the surface in disorderly piles. To the eastward, the lava heaps became still more numerous. They encamped on the southern branch of the Klamet river, which is a beau tiful, clear, and rapid stream, where they found a small spot of grass, the only one they had seen during the day. On the 2nd, they travelled over an undulated prairie, without water, the low ground was incrusted with salt, the soil appeared better than that passed over the day previous. Some patches of spircea and dogwood were met with, and rather a better growth of grass. Large herds of antelopes were seen, but none of them were killed. The hunters saw also mountain sheep with large horns. They found some holes con taining water, from the want of which the horses suffered greatly; and they rushed into these holes with their packs, and stuck in the mire until dragged out, re quiring much labour to extricate them. The party then turned off from the Klamet valley, which is far inferior to any portion of the country they had passed over : the formation appeared to be composed of a dark green serpentine. They encamped a little beyond these hills, where boulders of coarse syenite formed the bed of the creek and its banks. The hornblend crystals of the latter rock were often two inches long, set in a white granular feldspar. At this camp they were visited by a party of Shaste Indians, who were al lowed to enter, and for some time there was a brisk trade for their bows and arrows. These Indians were a good-looking race, much better proportioned than those more to the northward ; their features more regular, and do not compress their heads. They wore their black hair hanging down to their shoulders. They exhibited their archery, by putting up a button at twenty yards distance, which one of them hit three times out of five : the successful marks man was rewarded with it, and a small piece of tobacco. They use these bows with such dexterity as to kill fish, and launch their arrows with such force, that one of the men remarked, " that he would as leave be shot at with a musket at the distance of a hundred yards, as by one of those Indians with his bow and arrow." These bows and arrows were beautifully made : the former are of yew, and about ten feet long; they are flat, and an inch and a half to two inches wide, and backed very neatly with sinew, and painted. The arrows are upwards of thirty inches long; some of them were made of a close-grained wood, a species of spirrea, while others were of reed. They were feathered for from five VALLEY OF THE SACRA MEN 1O. 451 to eight inches, and the barbed heads were made of finely wrought obsidian : the head is inserted in a grooved piece, from three to five inches long, and is at tached to the shaft by a socket : this barb, when it penetrates, is left in the wound when the shaft is withdrawn, a very shallow blood channel is sometimes cut in the shaft. Their quivers are made of deer, raccoon, or wild cat skin ; these skins are generally whole, being left open at the tail end. A disease was observed among them which had the appearance of the leprosy. As to dress, they can scarcely be said to wear any, except a mantle of deer or wolf skin. A few of them had deer-skins belted around their waists, with an ornamented girdle. On the 3rd, the exploring party travelled up the plain, from which they entered a forest on the slopes of the Shaste Range a by a path through the wood broken up by knolls of trachyte. On arriving at the top of the ridge, they had a magni ficent view of the snowy peak of Mount Shaste, with an intermediate one, destitute of snow, with tall pines growing almost to its summit. The conical shape of the Shaste indicated its volcanic origin, although no crater was per ceived. Its height is said to be 14,390 feet. Lieutenant Emmons estimates it as not so high. After passing this ridge, they met the head waters of the Sacramento flowing to the southward, and their camp was pitched on the banks of another stream, that appeared to flow from the Shaste. On the 4th, they ascended into the region of pines, some of which, the Lambertiana, were measured, and found to be eighteen feet in circumference, with cones sixteen inches long. They encamped on Destruction river, which runs from the mountain range towards the south, in a place where they found food for their horses, and water in abundance. The air was pleasant ; the forest protected them from the rays of the sun, and game was plentiful. Near the encampment in a north-west direction was a mountain ridge, shooting up in sharp conical and needle-shaped peaks, with precipitous sides. During night, a storm raged from the westward, and occasionally was heard the crash produced by the falling of large pines. The character of the country had now changed, and, according to Lieutenant Emmons account, "afforded a new and more extended botanical field, as well as new geological features. The general tendency of the ridges is north and south, but the whole may be classed as a series of valleys and hills thrown in all posi tions. The hills are for the greater part covered with soil when it can find any place of deposit, and all are richly clothed with vegetation. The principal timber consists of pines and oaks, and there are many smaller plants, of which the flowers must be abundant in the proper season." 452 SOUTHERN OREGON. They continued along the course of Destruction river until the 9th, when it was joined by a stream from the north-eastward, supposed to be the north east branch of Pitt river: it was larger than the stream they had been previously fol lowing. They encamped fatigued, with their jaded horses exhausted, late in the evening near a small rivulet, to the westward of the Sacramento. On the 10th they left the mountains. The width of the range where they had passed was upwards of 100 miles. At one place their guide lost his way ; but an Indian woman pointed out the trail. On descending into the valley of the Sacramento, they met with some Indians, who were known to be friendly. The botanical character of the country changed suddenly. Instead of firs, pines, &c., the trees were sycamores, oaks, and cotton- wood. The oaks bear acorns, which are equally the food of the bears and the Indians. The prairie bordering the Sacramento at this place is about fifty feet below the upper prairie, which continues regularly for many miles on the same level; the latter falling into the former by a sloping bank. Many of these Indians joined them. They had some resemblance to the Shaste Indians ; most of them were naked ; the others had a piece of deer-skin thrown over their shoulders ; their faces were marked with an expression of good - humour. Their food consists principally of fish and acorns ; of the latter they made a kind of black cake, by shelling the acorns, drying them in the sun, and then pounding them between stones. They mix this meal with a little water, some arbutus berries, and make it into cakes about two inches thick, when it is wrapped in leaves and baked. It is quite black, and eats like cheese. These acorns are edible in the raw state. The seeds of the different genus of pine are also eaten, particularly a kind peculiar to California. The arbutus berry, which here abounded, is also ground for food. Grapes were also plentiful among them. The game was very abundant, in consequence of the abundance of food, and many ante lopes and deer were observed. Large flocks of California partridges and geese were seen : among the birds was a new species of magpie. The men only of this tribe visited the camp, the women remained at the rancheria, which the party visited. It consisted of small dirty huts, built of poles, and divided by coarse mats into a number of small apartments. The whole was surrounded by a brush fence. The women were inferior to the men in personal appearance ; they looked careworn and wrinkled drudges. They prepare all the winter s supply of food, while the men are to be seen lounging about, or engaged in games of hazard. The men are, during the season, occupied in taking salmon, either in weirs, or a long forked spear or fish-gig. VALLEY OF THE SACRAMENTO. 453 At the rancheria several dances were performed ; and many of the women were tatooed on their arms and body. From what Lieutenant Emmons could learn there was no difficulty in pro ceeding in canoes from this place, though there would have been some obstacles to surmount, particularly the fish-weirs. On the llth the party proceeded down the westward bank of the Sacramento over an undulating prairie, considered as the most sterile they had met with. The soil consisted of gravel, coarse pebbles, and large stones, mixed with sand. They frequently crossed the beds of streams 300 yards wide, which intersect this part of the country, the pebbles in which are chiefly composed of jaspar and white quartz, with a few of basalt, pudding stone, and pieces of slate. They travelled this day twenty-five miles, the longest day s ride on the journey. On the 12th the party forded the river, and one of the hunters brought in the meat and skin of a large grisly bear which he had killed. The river was about three feet deep, and 200 yards wide. They stopped at a place known among the hunters as Bear Camp, from the number of grisly bears found here ; five of which were shot the same afternoon, with three deer, which were feeding near the camp, all in excellent condition. The country on the east side the river was more level than on the west, and the soil appeared to be better. Few plants were seen, in consequence of fire having overrun the surface. The country continued much the same until they came in sight of the Prairie butes, a collection of hills, rising out of the level plain like islands from the water. These may be seen from a great distance. The party encamped on a small creek, called by the trappers the Little Fork of the Butes. The hunters said that the party employed by the Hudson s Bay Company the previous year, had caught more than 100 beavers while pasturing their cattle in this neighbour hood. On the 16th they encamped, after an ineffectual search for water in the valley, or "kraal" of the butes. Here they found two deep holes of stagnant water, the remains of a rivulet that was dried up. The ground around and near the butes is covered with the bones of animals that resort hither for safety during the season of the freshets which flood the whole of this extensive plain. The soil was loose and crusted over with the deposit left by the water through which the horses feet sank to the depth of four or five inches : nearer the butes, the soil was harder and strewed with fragments of volcanic rocks. These butes are grouped within an oval vale or plain, which has a circumference of about thirty miles : the longest diameter of the oval district lies in a north-east and south-west direction. The valley passes through the southern part, and opens out on the eastern : it is about seven miles in length ; here the party found water. This valley may be 454 SOUTHERN OREGON. considered almost as a prolongation of the exterior plain, though parts of it are somewhat higher, as appeared by its not having been overflowed. The highest of the butes was ascertained to be 1794 feet in diameter. On the 17th they reached the banks of the Feather River, which is dangerous to ford on account of the quicksands. They crossed the stream, proceeded on to Captain Suter s, and arrived the next day at New Helvetia. The party appears to have entered this valley with a high idea of its fruitful- ness, and, with the expectation of finding the soil abounding with every thing that could render it desirable for agriculturists, and susceptible of producing all that would be necessary for the comfort and convenience of man. They were sadly disappointed when they found a large part of it barren and destitute even of pas turage, and that even the fertile portion was annually overflowed. The high prairie was equally gravelly and sterile. But Captain Wilkes considers " that there is a sufficient quantity of good soil for a valuable agricultural country, and that it would be capable of affording subsistence to a large number of inhabi tants, more, however 3 from the extraordinary fertility of these grounds than from their extent." After leaving New Helvetia, the party divided. The detachment under Lieu tenant Emmons embarked in the Vincennes launch, which met them a short dis tance below that place, and reached San Francisco on the 24th. The other detachment, under Mr. Eld, proceeded by land on the 21st, and commenced their journey, with a young and intelligent Spaniard for a guide. The same day they made fifteen miles, passing over a dry portion of the country, and encamped near two ponds, called in the country, Poros, the only place, as was supposed, where water could be obtained within twenty miles ; they however, found some the next day in the Rio Cosmenes, within a mile and a half of the camp. Game was, as usual, very abundant ; but the whole country was suffering from the drought. On the 22nd, about noon, they crossed the river Mogueles, which was then a small stream, but at other seasons, it is said, it cannot be crossed on horseback. They travelled this day as far as the San Juan ; the only water that it contained was a small pool. This place had been termed the Frenchman s Camp. Wild ducks and geese had rendered the water scarcely drinkable. On the 23rd, before noon, they reached the San Joachim, which they found about fifty yards wide and about three feet deep. Under the expectation of finding water, they were induced to ride forty-four miles, but were again dis appointed. On the 24th they entered among the Pul Porrice hills, a bare and barren range, composed of sandstone and volcanic rocks. As they approached the mission of San Jose, the country became more hilly, the oak abundant, and herds of cattle and horses were seen. On their way they fell in with large en- VALLEY OF SAN JOACHIM. campments of Indians, who were busily employed in collecting acorns. These men were clothed in shirts and trousers, some in velvet breeches ; the women in calico gowns and gay-coloured shawls : several hundred of these were met, each loaded with the beef which is distributed to them in weekly rations. They are an nually allowed a short holiday to return to their native wilds during the acorn season. The approach to the mission which was once a large establishment, had all the appearance of a town, being built in the form of a street of considerable length. In the centre was the church and convent, with large dwelling-houses on each side of it, and on the opposite side the houses for the neophytes, consisting of small, low buildings, with every appearance of filth and decay about them. The walls and gates are dilapidated, and every thing wears the aspect of neglect, both in the buildings and the inhabitants. It is no longer the abode of hospitality and good cheer since it has fallen into the hands of the admiriis- tradors or agents of the government. Within a large and neglected garden there was some good fruit, and there were still extensive fields of Indian corn, which were formerly cultivated by irrigation. The reception of the party was neither hospitable nor friendly. The administradortold them there was no accommodation for them. They met with the tailor to the establishment, an American of Philadelphia, who took them round the gardens, through the churches, and told them that the Indians under the care of the mission were, at the present time, about six hundred, which was only one-third of the number they had two years before. In consequence there was but little cultivation carried on compared to what there had been formerly. The harvest at the mission had been ruined by the great drought. No rain had fallen for upwards of a year. The vintage, however, had been good, and forty barrels of wine had been made, besides a large supply of grapes for the establishment. The two vineyards comprised about four acres, and besides vines, were stocked with apple, pear, and other fruit-trees. The buildings of the missions were all constructed of adobes and covered with tile roofs. Mr. Forbes, the agent of the Hudson Bay Company, residing a few miles further, happened to be at the mission, and conducted the party to his house. They found him lodged in a comfortable two-story adobe house, situated on the borders of an extensive prairie, but without any trees or cultivation around it. He entertained them most hospitably. Although this journey from the Columbia to the Sacramento was attended with much fatigue, yet the labour and suffering were more than compensated by the information it furnished in relation to the southern section of Oregon. Al though every thing was not attained that Captain Wilkes intended, yet he felt satisfied that all was done which the limited time and the hostile state of 456 SOUTHERN OREGON. the country would permit. He says, "To the perseverance and prudence of Lieutenant Emmons much credit is due, as well as to the other officers and natu ralists, for the manner in which they co-operated with him. The duties assigned them were performed under the most trying circumstances, while worn down by distressing attacks of the ague and fever. This disease, in particular, affected those members of the party who had been encamped on the Willamette, where it was supposed they contracted it." CHAPTER XVIII. EXPLORATION OF NORTHERN OREGON AND THE COLUMBIA RIVER BY THE UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. SINCE the time of journeys made by Lewis and Clark to the Columbia, and the establishment formed at Astoria by Jacob Astor, several trading adventurers have made excursions across the Rocky Mountains and down the Columbia River. Captain Wilkes, and those under his command, have, however, given us the most complete and satisfactory account of Oregon, its harbours, and the River Columbia. Four years later, Captain Fremont, of the United States Topo graphical Engineers, was instructed to proceed to the eastern limits explored by the expedition under Captain Wilkes. Both these expeditions having been under official authority, the following sketches of those regions are drawn up, con densed, or abstracted from the journals and accounts which were kept by the respective travellers. The expedition of Captain Wilkes was directed to the circumnavigation of the globe, to exploring the southern Polar regions, the islands of the Pacific, Cali fornia, Oregon, and its rivers and harbours, and various parts of the Asiatic and African coasts. He sailed from the Sandwich Islands for the Columbia River, in attempting to pass the bar of which, some time after his arrival, one of the ships under his command was lost, and according to his description of the entrance of this river, its importance for maritime intercourse with Oregon is attended with great, and, except with much delay, almost insurmountable danger. On the 28th of April, 1841, at 6 A.M., he made Cape Disappointment, which, he says, we soon came up with. A heavy sea, caused by the strong winds that had prevailed for several days, was running. I, notwithstanding, stood for the bar of the Columbia River, after making every preparation to cross it ; but on approaching nearer, I found breakers extending from Cape Disappointment to Point Adams in one unbroken line. EXPLORATION OF THE PORTS OF OREGON. 457 " I am at a loss to conceive how any doubt should ever have existed that here was the mouth of the mighty river whose existence was reported so long before the actual place of its discharge was known, or how the inquiring mind and talent of observation of Vancouver could have allowed him to hesitate, when he must have seen the evidence of a powerful flood of fresh water contending with the tides of the ocean, in a bar turbulent with breakers, in turbid waters extending several miles beyond the line of the shore, and in the marked line of separation between the sea and river water. "Such appearances must be constant, and if seen, the inferences could hardly be questionable, that the great river of the west poured itself into the ocean at this point. " Mere description can give little idea of the terrors of the bar of the Columbia. All who have seen it have spoken of the wildness of the scene, and the incessant roar of the waters, representing it as one of the most fearful sights that can pos sibly meet the eye of the sailor. The difficulty of its channels, the distance of the leading sailing marks, their uncertainty to one unacquainted with them, the want of knowledge of the strength and direction of the currents, with the ne cessity of approaching close to unseen dangers, the transition from clear to tur bid water, all cause doubt and mistrust. " Under such feelings I must confess that I felt myself labouring ; and although I had on board a person from the Sandwich Islands who professed to be a Columbia River pilot, I found him at a loss to designate the true passage, and unable to tell whether we were in a right way or not. I therefore at once determined to haul off with the tide, which was running ebb with great rapidity, and which soon carried us back into the blue waters of the ocean, to wait there until the sea on the bar had in some measure subsided. " The land near the mouth of the river is well marked, and cannot readily be mistaken, and on the summit of the two capes, are several lofty spruce and pine trees, which the officers of the Hudson s Bay Company have caused to be trimmed of branches nearly to their tops. These serve as conspicuous marks, but our pilot was ignorant of their relation to the channel. " Our passage from Oahu had been no more than twenty-two days, which is unusually short. The first part of it, until we passed in lat. 28 deg. north, beyond the influence of the trades and variables, had been, as already stated, attended with light and contrary winds. " The temperature of the air had fallen from 78 deg. to 43 deg., and that of the sea to 46 deg. " During the night we had boisterous weather, and the ship was very un comfortable, in consequence of her shipping water in considerable quantities through the hawse-holes, which flooded her gun-deck. As in conformity with VOL. I. 3 N 458 OREGON. my determination to wait until the surf on the bar should have subsided, the anchors would not be needed for some days, I ordered the chain cables to be unbent, which would permit the hawse-holes to be closed. "During the night I took into consideration the loss of time that must arise from awaiting an opportunity to cross the bar, and after due reflection came to the conclusion that it would be better to proceed at once to the Straits of Juan de Fuca, and there begin my work on this coast. " The coast of Oregon to the south of Cape Flattery, is rocky, much broken, and affords no harbours, except for very small vessels. It may be considered as extremely dangerous, particularly on account of its outlying rocks. The sound ings off the coast were discovered to serve as a certain indication to avoid danger by not approaching the shore nearer than seventy fathoms. " On the morning of the 1st of May, we found ourselves well into the Straits of Juan de Fuca, and anchored in Port Discovery on the afternoon of the 2nd of May, forty-nine years after Vancouver had visited the same harbour. " The Straits of Juan de Fuca may be safely navigated. The wind will for the greater part of the year be found to blow directly through them, and generally outwards : this wind is at times very violent. The shores of the strait are bold, and anchorage is to be found in but few places. We could not obtain bottom in some places with sixty fathoms of line, even within a boat s length of the shore. " The south shore is composed of perpendicular sandy cliffs, that run back into high and rugged peaks, and is covered with a forest of various species of pines, that rises nearly to the highest summits of the mountains, which are covered with snow ; among them Mount Olympus was conspicuous, rising to an altitude of 8138 feet." The north shore is rocky, and composed, as far as Captain Wilkes examined it, of conglomerate, and in some few places of a reddish granite. On the following morning the ships were boarded by a large canoe, with Indians who spoke a few words of English. They seemed to have scarcely any idea of decency, and to be little less elevated in their morals than the wretched natives of Terra del Fuego. Captain Wilkes says, " They were short thick-set, bow-legged, muscular, and seemed capable of enduring great fatigue. The most obvious peculiarity was the shape of their heads, which appears to have been compressed, both before and be hind, so as to give them the form of a wedge. Their cheek-bones were high, and their eyes, which were fine, were set wide apart ; their colour was a light copper, The oblique eye of the Chinese was not uncommon, and they had long flowing hair : aquiline or Roman noses were prevalent. Their countenances wore an ex pression of wildness, and they had, in the opinion of some of us, a melancholy cast of features." EXPLORATION OF THE PORTS OF OREGON. } ;,f) The ships then proceeded onwards, and late in the afternoon reached and weathered a low sand-point, called by Vancouver, New Dungeness, and stood over for his Protection Island. They passed within less than a quarter of a mile of the point, in three and a half fathoms depth of water. After passing that island, an extensive bay opened : on the shores were seen the long poles mentioned by Vancouver. The use of these he was unable to discover, but the Indians informed Captain Wilkes, " that they were for the pur pose of suspending nets for taking the wild-fowl that frequent the shores in great numbers. On these poles the nets are set up at night, at which time the geese search these grounds for food; fires are then lighted, which alarm the birds, and cause them to fly against the nets, by which they are thrown upon the ground, where, before they have time to recover themselves, they are caught and killed. 5 Captain Wilkes observes, that "the description of Vancouver is so exactly appli cable to the present state of this post, that it was difficult to believe that almost half a century had elapsed since it was written. The beautiful woods and lawns of Pro tection Island in particular, exist unchanged. The lawns still produce the same beautiful flowers and shrubs, and although closely surrounded by dense woods, do not seem to have been encroached upon by their luxuriant growth, although there is no apparent reason why it should not long ere this have overrun them. " Our anchorage in Port Discovery was close to the shore, in twenty-seven fathoms water. It is a well-protected harbour, and very convenient of access but the high precipitous banks would almost preclude its being made the seat of a settlement. " The name of Port Discovery was given by Vancouver. It is eio ht miles long, two miles in average width, and its points, which terminate in low sandy projec tions, interlock each other. The shores are supplied with large quantities of shell-fish. Protection Island covers it completely to the north, and would render it easily defensive against the most formidable attack. The only objection to it as a harbour is the great depth of the water, which in the middle is nowhere less forty or fifty fathoms, and is often as much as sixteen fathoms close to the shore." The Indians, a most filthy race, occupied a few miserable lodges on one of the points. During his stay at Port Discovery, they supplied Captain Wilkes plentifully with venison, ducks, geese, salmon, a large species of cod, flounders, herrings, and crabs. They also brought shell-fish, among which were the common clam, muscles, and small oysters. He remained at Port Discovery until the 6th of May, during which time he employed his people in surveying the harbour and exploring the country. The botanists of the expedition discovered an interesting field opened to them amidst 460 NORTHERN OREGON. the great variety and beauty of the Flora. Dodecatheon, Viola, Trifolium, Lepto- siphon, Scilla (the cammass of the natives), Colliersia, Claytonia, Stellaria, &c., vied with each other in beauty, and were in such profusion, as to excite both ad miration and astonishment. According to Mr. Brackenridge, the soil on which the plants grow consists of a light brown loam, but the general character of the soil around Port Discovery was a thin, black, vegetable mould, with a substratum of sand and gravel. The trees grow so closely, that in some places the woods are almost impene trable. The timber consists principally of pine, fir, and spruce. Of the latter there are two species, one of which resembles the hemlock-spruce of the United States: it is of very tall growth, and puts out but few, and those small, lateral branches. Some maple-trees grow in the open grounds and on the banks, but they are too small to be of any service for building purposes. Several trees which they had cut down to make spars for the Vincennes, proved, although healthy in appearance before they were felled, to be more or less defective; the wood was sound and compact on one side only, while on the other it was opened, grained, and fibrous. On the 5th of May, the officers were all engaged in surveying, and Captain Wilkes occupied one of the points as a station, where he made astronomical and magnetic observations. He found the latitude 48 deg. 02 min. 58 sec. north ; the longitude 123 deg. 02 min. 07-5 sec. west; the variation was 20 deg. 40 min. east. The temperature in the shade was 55 degrees. On the 6th of May, finding that the messenger whom he had despatched to Fort Nisqually did not return, Captain Wilkes determined to proceed towards that place without delay. He weighed anchor, and the ships got under way at half-past ten, and beat out of Port Discovery. He stood towards Point Wilson (of Vancouver), which forms one side of the entrance into Admiralty Inlet. Turning the point, he entered the inlet and anchored in Port Townsend, on its northern side, in ten fathoms water. Port Townsend is a fine sheet of water, three miles and a quarter in length, by one mile and three-quarters in width. Opposite to the anchorage there is an extensive table land, without trees. He considers that it would afford a good site for a town. The bay is free from dangers, and is well protected in the directions from whence high winds blow. The anchorage is of convenient depth, and there is abundance of fresh water to be had. The soil is a light sandy loam, and appeared to be fertile. It was covered with wild flowers, and strawberry plants in blos som. From this point Mount Baker is distinctly seen to the north-east, and forms a remarkable object, especially when its conical peak is embellished by the rays of sun-setting. EXPLORATION OK THE PORTS OF OREGON. 461 On the ?th he completed the survey. At noon both vessels moved up about eight miles, and anchored in a place which he called Port Lawrence. This har bour is at the entrance of Hood s Canal, from whence they had a view of it, and of Admiralty Inlet. The weather was unpleasant, and the only duty that could be performed was that of dredging for shells. Several new specimens were thus taken. The natives brought them plenty of fish, venison, geese, and ducks. "On the morning we made the survey of Port Lawrence, beginning at day light. This being completed, I took advantage of the tide making to get under way with a fresh breeze, and passed with both vessels as far as a small cove on the west side of the inlet, opposite to the south end of Whidby s Island. Here we anchored before sunset. " We were under way soon after daylight, taking advantage of the tide, and continued beating as long as it lasted. This was about two hours, by which time we reached another small cove. This was named Appletree Cove, from the num bers of that tree which were in blossom along its shores. This cove answers well for all the purposes of a temporary anchorage. Before the tide began to make in our favour, we had finished the survey of the cove. We again sailed, and at dark anchored under the west shore, near a fine bay, which the next day was sur veyed and named Port Madison. This is an excellent harbour, affording every possible convenience for shipping." The scenery of this portion of the Admiralty Inlet is described by Captain Wilkes as resembling parts of the Hudson River, particularly those about and above Poughkeepsie. The distant highlands, though much more lofty, reminded him of the Kaatskills. He saw but few Indian lodges on his way up, and the shores appeared as if never having been intruded upon by man. The wind proved fair; the ships sailed up the inlet by the passage to the right of Vashon s Island, and anchored in sixteen fathoms water, below the nar rows leading into Puget Sound, within a few yards of the shore, and under a high perpendicular bank. The shores of all these inlets and bays are so bold, that in many places a ship s side would strike the banks before the keel would touch the bottom. On the llth of May he surveyed this part of the sound, and on the turn of tide sailed inwards, but had great difficulty in getting beyond the reach of the eddy winds occasioned by the high banks. On each side of this pass, high projecting bluffs of sandstone, ornamented along their base with shrubbery, rose almost perpendicularly from the water. The tide runs through the narrows with great velocity, carrying forward a ship amidst eddies and whirlpools. Captain Wilkes observes, "The Porpoise succeeded in entering the narrows first, and in a few minutes was lost sight of. The Vincennes entered, and seemed 462 NORTHERN OREGON. at first to be hurrying to destruction, with her sails quite aback. We were carried onward wholly by the force of the tide, and had backed and filled only once be fore we found ourselves in as spacious a sound as the one we had just left. This narrow pass seems as if intended by its natural facilities to afford every means for its perfect defence. Twelve miles more brought us to the anchorage off Nisqually, where both vessels dropped their anchors about eight o clock. Here we found an English steamer (belonging to the Hudson s Bay Company) undergoing repairs. Soon after we anchored I had the pleasure of a visit from Mr. Anderson, who is in charge of the fort, and Captain M Neil. They gave me a warm welcome, and offered every assistance in their power to aid me in our operations." In describing these inlets he says, " Nothing can exceed the beauty of these waters and their safety. Not a shoal exists within the Straits of Juan de Fuca, Admiralty Inlet, Puget Sound, or Hood s Canal, that can in any way interrupt their navigation by a seventy-four gun ship. I venture nothing in saying there is no country in the world that possesses waters to equal these." The anchorage off Nisqually is contracted by the rapid shelving of the bank, which abruptly falls into very deep water. The shore rises at the same places to the height of about two hundred feet, above and beyond which a table-land extends, covered with pine, oak, and ash trees, in clumps, or detached. This plateau appears like a vast park. The ascent is overcome by a well-constructed gently winding road, from the summit of which there is a splendid view of the sound, its numerous islands, Mount Olympus covered with snow in the back ground, and Fort Nisqually, with its out-buildings and enclosure about half a mile from the slope of the table-land. The Porpoise, with two of the Vincennes boats, under Lieutenant-com mandant Ringgold, were directed to the survey of Admiralty Inlet. The launch, the first cutter, and two boats of the Vincennes were placed under the com mand of Lieutenant Case to survey Hood s Canal. A land party was formed to explore the interior, and placed under the command of Lieutenant Johnson, of the Porpoise, accompanied by Dr. Pickering, Mr. T. W. Waldron of the Por poise, Mr. Brackemidge, Sergeant Steams, and two men. Eighty days were allowed them for the excursions through the interior to cross the cascade range of mountains to the river Columbia, and then to proceed to Fort Colville, thence south to Lapevai, the mission station on the Kooskooskee River, thence to Walla- walla, and finally to return by the way of the Yakima River, and repass the moun tains to Nisqually. Another land party, consisting of Captain Wilkes, Messrs. Drayton and Waldron of the Vincennes, and two servants. The intended route proposed by the latter was across the country to the Columbia River, to visit Astoria, then Fort Vancouver and the Willamette settlement, and to proceed up the river as far OREGONHUDSON S BAY COMPATVY AT NISQUALLY. A(\l\ as Walla-walla. Captain Wilkes expected to find the ship Peacock safe at Astoria, and to despatch parties from that vessel into the interior, and with her boats to commence a survey of the Columbia River. CHAPTER XIX. NISQUALLY HUDSON BAY COMPANY^ TRADING AND AGRICULTURAL OPERA TIONS. THE fort at Ni squally is constructed of pickets, enclosing a long square space each side, about 200 feet, with four corner bastions. Within this enclosure are the agents stores, and about half-a-dozen houses, built of logs, and roofed with bark. This fort was considered sufficiently large when first established, but since Nisqually has become an agricultural as well as a trading post, it is found insuf ficient for the purpose, and its situation is ill chosen, on account of the difficulty of obtaining good water, which is nearly a mile distant. Captain Wilkes was informed that there was little necessity for protection against the Indians, who had become few in number and peaceably disposed. Mr. Anderson and Captain M Neil resided in the fort with their families : both were married to half-breeds, and had several fine children. In their garden there were growing strawberries, gooseberries, salads, &c. They had fine fields of grain, large barns and sheepfolds, agricultural implements, and workmen with cattle were engaged in the various employments of husbandry. A Dr. Richmond who had been settled there for some months, " occupied a nice log-house, built on the borders of one of the beautiful prairies." There is a mission-house at some distance, on the borders of an extensive and beautiful prairie, which Captain Wilkes says 7 " would be admirably adapted for a large settlement, if the soil was in any respect equal to its appearance. This is composed of a light brown earth, intermixed with a large proportion of gravel and stones : it requires an abundance of rain to bring any crop to perfection, and this rarely falls during the summer months. At the season when we arrived, nothing could be more beautiful, or to appearance more luxuriant than the plains, which were covered with flowers of every colour and kind : among these were to be seen ranunculus, scilla, lupines, collinsia, and balsamoriza (a small sunflower peculiar to Oregon) ; but the soil is quite thin, and barely sufficient for these in many places. The best land occurs where the prairies are intersected or broken by belts of woods, that have a dense undergrowth, consisting of hazel, spiraea, cornus, and prunus. On the borders of these belts are scattered oaks and some 464 NORTHERN OREGON. ash, arbutus, birch, and poplars, and in some places the yew is to be found ; but the predominant character of the vegetation is of the tribe of coniferse, which seem to occupy large ranges of the country, and among which the cedar is found to attain a large size/ Belonging to the company s establishment at Nisqually, there are a large dairy, several hundred head of cattle, and among them seventy milch cows, which yield a large supply of butter and cheese, large crops of wheat, peas, and oats, potatoes, &c., are raised. These operations are managed by a farmer and dairy man, who were sent for these purposes from England. A few Indians are en gaged in attending the flocks, and the company s servants are almost exclusively employed as labourers. PUGET SOUND COMPANY. Captain Wilkes remarks, that he has described these agricultural establish ments as connected with the Hudson Bay Company. They are de facto so ; but as the charter precludes farming operations, another company has been organised, under the title of the "Puget Sound Company," the shares of which are held by the officers, agents, and servants of the Hudson Bay Com pany, and its officers are exclusively chosen from among them. Dr. McLaughlin, for instance, chief officer and governor of Fort Vancouver, on the part of the Hudson s Bay Company, is also a director of the Puget Sound^Company, and has the entire management of its concerns. His salary is five hundred pounds. The capital of the latter Company is five hundred thousand pounds, divided into shares of one hundred pounds each. Two hundred thousand pounds was found sufficient capital, and no more was paid in. " The operations of this company," says Captain Wilkes, <f are, in consequence, large : they began by making large importations of stock from California and some of the best breed of cattle from England. They have also entered into farming on an extensive scale, using as labourers the servants of the Hudson Bay Company, who are bound by their contracts to do all manner of service that may be required of them, even to the bearing of arms. " This company supplies all the forts and stations of the Hudson s Bay Com pany on the west of the American continent, and also furnishes the Russian ports with wheat, butter, and cheese. The Russians take annually about fifteen thousand bushels of wheat. The directors of the company expect to succeed in breeding a sufficient stock of cattle and sheep, to enable them to export hides, horn, tallow, and wool to England in the return ships, which hitherto have left the coast comparatively empty, as the furs occupy only a small portion of the ship. Captain Wilkes is of opinion {e that they will be enabled to drive a pro fitable trade, particularly when it is considered how little care the cattle require UNITED STATES EXPLORATION OF OREGON. 465 in this territory, in consequence of the grass and natural hay which the soil affords at all seasons. It is the prospect of the advantageous results to be derived from these operations, that has induced the Hudson s Bay Company to change their trading establishments into large agricultural ones. For some years pre vious to our arrival, they had not been able to meet their own wants, and at the same time -fulfil their contracts with the Russians. They were, therefore, obliged to purchase from the settlers in the territory, as well as send to California, to procure the requisite quantity of agricultural products. A demand was conse quently created for wheat, and all that could be raised in the Willamette settle ments was bought for six shillings currency (seventy-five cents) a bushel, and paid for in drafts on their stores, in goods, at fifty per cent advance on the first London cost. This gave an encouragement to the small farmers, that was fated to meet with grievous disappointment the next season ; for the company was able not only to meet their engagements, and their own wants, but had, besides, a surplus. The prices consequently would be merely nominal, unless raised by the influx of new settlers. Whether the latter cause had any effect in creating a market, I know not; but I understand, that in 1842, some of the settlers fed their horses upon their finest wheat." The scenery around Nisqually embraces a splendid panorama, with Mount Rainier, rising nearly east of it ; there are two or three other magnificent snowy peaks. They are all nearly regular cones, with summits indicating extinct volcanoes. One of these, Mount Hood, Captain Wilkes intended to ascend but was prevented in consequence of the loss of the Peacock. The steam-vessel employed at Nisqually by the Hudson s Bay Company, is stated by him to be ill-adapted for the purpose from her incapacity to carry necessary fuel for her entire voyage, which occasions great delay by stopping at intermediate places, where a supply of wood is only obtained by cutting it by the crew. But this vessel was, however, equipped with a sufficient armament, barricades, and boarding-nettings, deemed essential on the northern coast, where the savage tribes are hostile and numerous. After the several parties were in readiness to start on their respective expedi tions, Captain Wilkes proceeded with his own party for the Columbia River. He says, " It was a strange cavalcade, for most of us were but sorry horsemen, and we had every variety of accoutrements, from the saddle and bridle to the bare back and halter. We were eight in number : Messrs. Drayton, Waldron, and myself, two servants, two Indians, and a Canadian guide, with four pack- horses. The horses and the guide were kindly furnished us by the gentlemen at the fort, to carry us as far as Cowlitz Farms, about sixty miles distant, where we intended taking canoes. Our Indians, though partially clothed in worn-out European clothing, still showed their free and easy carriage on horseback : the few ribands and cocks 3 feathers that were stuck in their caps gave them a flaunt VOL. I. 3 O 466 OREGON. ing kind of air; and they manifested a species of self-esteem that was not un- pleasing, and betokened an independence and want of care, in good keeping with their mode of life. These savages should never be seen but on horseback, in which position they are really men, and inspire a certain degree of respect. When dis mounted, all these qualities vanish, and the Indian becomes the lazy, lounging creature, insensible to any excitement but his low gambling propensities. They have a peculiar knack in managing their horses, and this, too, without any appa rent means of controlling them, for their only bridle is a single cord fastened to the lower jaw; with this they contrive to govern the most refractory animals, without the aid of whip or spur, and will urge to speed an animal that has become all but lifeless under our guidance. They practise great cruelty to their horses, and pay no regard whatever to the state of their backs." They travelled nearly south over grassy lawns, interspersed with groves of oak and ash-trees, until they reached the river Nisqually, the channel of which run ning between precipitous banks, is about 300 feet below the plain. Its ravine* about half a mile wide, is filled with large timber trees, occasionally uprooted by the torrents occasioned by the melting of the snows in the mountains. The usual bed of the stream is about 100 yards wide, with a rapid current: its course in this place was north-north-west. Its average depth at the ford where the parties crossed was about three feet. They ascended the opposite high banks, and reached the table-land on the plain; the route over which unfolded the most beautiful park scenery, with the prairie now and then opening to view, in which magnificent pines grew detached. The prairie was covered with a profusion of flowers. After crossing Shute s river, the features of which are similar to those of the Nisqually, they encamped and lighted fires before dark, having travelled about twenty-two miles. On examining the alforcas, or saddle-bags, they found the small stores had been damaged in fording the river. In the lower country, snakes were observed, but they are seldom venomous; the rattle-snake is rarely seen, in consequence of the dampness of the climate. In the middle section, where it is dry, they are met in great numbers. Elk and deer had been attracted by the fire during the night. The grass around the tents was of the most nutritious kind for the horses to feed on. In the morning, on resuming the journey, the park-like scenery increased in beauty; "And," Captain Wilkes observes, " it was almost impossible to realise that we were in a savage and wild country, and that nature, not art, had perfected the landscape. Beautiful lakes, with greensward growing to the water s edge, with deer feeding fearlessly on their margin, and every tint of flower, many of which were not new to our gardens at home, strewn in profusion around ; we could hardly, in galloping along, but expect to see some beautiful mansion, as a fit accompaniment to such scenery!" UNITED STATES EXPLORATION OF OREGON. 467 The Bute prairies over which they passed, are extensive, and covered with tumuli, or small conical mounds, about thirty feet in diameter, six to seven feet high above the level, and many thousands in number. " We opened three of the mounds, but nothing was found in them but a pavement of round stones." After a ride of twelve miles they reached Chickeeles River, which flows into Gray s Harbour, about forty miles north of the Columbia. Its stream was about 200 yards wide. On its banks there were a few lodges containing about twenty Indians of the miserable Nisqually tribe, who had come here to make preparations for the salmon-fishery, then about to commence (20th of May). Hanging around their lodges were hundreds of lamprey eels, from a foot to eighteen inches long, and an inch thick. These fish [are caught in great quantities and dried for food; they are also used for candles or torches: for being full of oil they burn brightly. On proceeding, the soil changed from gravel to a rich unctuous clay. After crossing the branch of the Chickeeles, they passed over some high hills, the track being exceedingly difficult, and so miry that the pack-horses frequently stuck fast. The woods and underbush grew also so thickly, that it was with difficulty that a horse and rider could pass; fallen trees were to be jumped or hobbled over. They finally ascended to the crest of the heights, " where," Captain Wilkes observes, " we commanded one of the most charming views I saw in Oregon, extending to a distance over the luxuriant country, while at our feet lay one of the beautiful prairies, bedecked in every hue of the rainbow, with the Chickeeles winding through it." They descended and passed over the prairie to some Indian lodges, whose inhabitants were squalid and dirty. Their route then lay through alternate woods and prairies, the former composed of large pines and cedars. Several considerable streams of water were crossed. The banks were not so high as those before passed. " The latter/ 5 he says, " covered with strawberries, so tempting as to induce us to dismount and feast upon them, and many plants that excited a feeling of interest, and reminded us of home : among the number was the red honeysuckle (caprifolium), which was in full bloom. After passing extensive Cammass plains, the party reached the company s farm on the Cowlitz, which occupies an extensive prairie on the banks of that river. This establishment comprises 600 or 700 acres enclosed, under skilful cul tivation, with several large granaries, a large farm-house, and numerous out buildings, to accommgdate the dairy, workmen, cattle, &c. The fields were covered with a luxuriant crop of wheat. At the further end of the prairie, there was a settlement with its orchards, &c., and amidst a grove of trees, stood the cha pel and house of the Catholic mission. " The place," says Captain Wilkes, " re sembled that of a settlement of several years standing; in our western states, with the exception, however, of the remains of the conquered forest (charred stumps) . for here the ground is ready for the plough, and nature seems as it were to invite the husbandman to his labours," 468 OREGON. The party was hospitably entertained by Mr. Forrest, the superintendent, who readily made arrangements for canoes to carry the expedition down the Cowlitz and Columbia rivers to Astoria, or Fort George. At this farm the company had then a large dairy, and were about erecting a saw and grist mill. The superintendent s dwelling was large and built of well- hewn logs, with the workmen s houses, &c., it formed a village. Captain Wilkes observes, " Large numbers of cattle were being brought in for the night, which is a very necessary precaution in Oregon, in consequence of the numerous wolves that are prowling about. In some places it becomes neces sary for the keeper to protect his beasts even in the daytime. The cattle at times suffer from drought, in which case the Indians are sent across the river to cut fodder for them, in order to avoid sending the cattle to the cammass plains, where they would be subject to the loss of all their young. The farm at the Cowlitz has no sort of defence about it, proving, as far as the Indians are concerned, that there is no danger of being molested ; indeed, their numbers here are too small to attempt any aggression, and their dependence on the company for both food and clothing too complete to allow them to quarrel except among themselves. Of such disputes the agent of the company takes no sort of notice. The mortality that has attacked them of late has made sad ravages, for only a few years since they numbered upwards of a hundred, while they are now said to be less than thirty. The quantity of land contained within the company s farms at the Cowlitz was then about six hundred acres, most of which was under wheat/ * Around the superintendent s house there was a kitchen garden, in which all the usual horticultural plants, similar to those of the United States, were growing luxuriantly. The superintendent informed Captain Wilkes that the weather was never actually cold, nor the winter long. Snows seldom lasted more than a day or two; fires were, however, found comfortable during most months of the year. Cattle were sometimes housed ; but little or no provision was made for their sustenance, as the grass is sufficient during the whole year. The Cowlitz Farm is in latitude 46 deg. 30 min. north, longitude 123 deg. west. The guide procured by the superintendent for Captain Wilkes had been the coxswain of General Cass s canoe, when that belligerent senator performed a trip to the lakes in the North-west Territory. This guide had been for several years in Oregon. He left the company s service, married an Indian wife, and was living on a farm of about fifty acres, at the Cowlitz, independent and con tented. Captain Wilkes says he " had seldom seen so pretty a woman as his wife ; before her marriage she was the belle of the country, and celebrated for her feats of horsemanship." The Cowlitz River takes its rise in the Cascade Range, near Mount Rainier. * The crop of 1841 produced about 7000 bushels. THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 469 Its banks are tolerably high until it approaches the Columbia. It is only navi gable even for boats at high water, in the spring and fall, at which time the sup- plies from Vancouver are sent up, and the wheat and other produce of the farm in large flat barges. The soil along the river appeared to be of a good quality, a clayey loam with vegetable mould, overlaying trap rock and sandstone. The trees were chiefly poplars, white maple, ash, fir, pine, and cedar, with some laurel, where the prairies are flooded in the month of May. It was reported that coal of good quality existed near the banks of the Cow- litz, but Captain Wilkes examined all the places that indicated its formation, and only found lignite. He observes, " The route by the way of the Cowlitz will, in all probability, be that which will hereafter be pursued to the northern waters and sounds. Although there are many difficulties in crossing the rivers, &c., yet it is believed to be the most feasible course. On our way, we met with many canoes passing up loaded with salmon and trout, which had been taken at the Willamette Falls, and which they were then carrying to trade with the Indians for the cammass root. "The Columbia, where the Cowlitz joins it, is abroad flowing stream, and was at this time much swollen. We had, after entering it, about forty miles yet to make, and it was past noon, but we glided briskly on with the current, although it was by no means so rapid as I had expected to have found it. Near the mouth of the Cowlitz is a high conical hill which has received the name of Mount Coffin, from its having been a burial-place of the Indians ; and the re mains of many of their coffins were still to be seen scattered over it. On the opposite side of the river is a high barrier of trap- rocks, covered with majestic pines. " About ten miles lower down, we passed Oak Point, where the river turns nearly at right angles, taking its course along a barrier of trap-rocks, which it here meets on its west side, and which rises 800 feet perpendicularly above its surface. On the other side of the river is one of the remarkable prairies of the country covered with tall waving grass and studded with many oaks, from which the point takes its name. What adds additional interest and beauty to the scene is Mount St. Helen s, which may be seen from the sea when eighty miles distant; its height I made 9550 feet. " In this part of the river, which I named St. Helen s reach, we met the brig Wave that had brought our stores from Oahu. By sunset we had reached Ter mination Island, and had yet twenty miles to make in a very dark night. We had already passed the only place where we could have encamped, and the natives showed extreme reluctance to go on. They soon desired to return, saying, that the night was very dark, and that the bay would be dangerous. This re quest was overruled, however, and we continued our course, though under appre hension of disaster. The Indians said that many canoes had been lost, and after 470 OREGON. I became acquainted with this part of the river, I no longer wondered at their objections to pass over it at night; for if there is any wind, it becomes exceed ingly rough and dangerous for their canoes. " We found the water quite smooth, and glided on hour after hour without any appearance of a landing. I was at a loss to account for the length of our pas sage until I found the tide had been against us. We at last reached what the guide called Tongue Point, and afterwards kept skirting the shore for so long a time that I began to have misgivings that we should pass Astoria, and began firing muskets, the usual signal of an arrival. They were immediately answered by others from behind us, and the loud clamour of about forty yelping dogs. These sounds, although discordant, gave us the delightful assurance that we had reached our destination, and might now make our escape from the confined and irksome position we had been in a whole day. Mr. Birnie, the agent to the Hudson s Bay Company, met us at the landing, with lanterns and every assist ance, and gave us a truly Scotch welcome. We soon found ourselves in his quarters, where, in a short time, a fire was burning brightly, and his hospitable board spread with good cheer, although it was past midnight. After partaking of the supper, blankets were furnished us, and we were made exceedingly com fortable for the night. In the morning, we had a view of the somewhat famous Astoria, which is any thing but what I should wish to describe. Half-a-dozen log-houses, with as many sheds and a pig-sty or two, are all that they can boast of, and even these appear to be going rapidly to decay. The company pay little regard to it, and the idea of holding or improving it as a post has long since been given up. The head-quarters of their operations have been removed to Vancou ver, eighty miles further up the river, since which Astoria has merely been held for the convenience of their vessels. It boasts of but one field, and that was in potatoes, which I can, however, vouch for as being very fine. In former times it had its gardens, forts, and banqueting -halls ; and, from all accounts, when it was the head-quarters of the North-west Company, during their rivalship with the Hudson s Bay Company, there was as jovial a set residing here as ever were met together. I have had the pleasure of meeting with several of the survivors, who have recounted their banquetings, &c." ASTORIA. "In point of situation, few places will vie with Astoria. It is situated on the south side of the Columbia River, eleven miles from Cape Disappoint ment, as the crow flies. From Astoria there is a fine view of the high promon tory of Cape Disappointment, and the ocean bounding it on the west ; the Chinook Hills and Point Ellice, with its rugged peak, on the north ; Tongue Point and Katalamet Range on the east; and a high background, bristling with lofty pines to the south. The ground rises from the river gradually to the top of a ridge 500 feet in elevation. This was originally covered with a thick forest of pines ; that part reclaimed by the first occupants is again growing up in THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 471 brushwood. From all parts of the ground the broad surface of the river is in view. The stillness is remarkable, and makes it evident that one is yet far more removed from civilised life ; the distant, though distinct, roar of the ocean is the only sound that is heard, this, however, is almost incessant; for the stream though rushing onwards in silence to meet the ocean, keeps up an eternal war with it on the bar, producing at times scenes of great grandeur, but which, as we had already experienced, renders the bar wholly impassable for days together. " The magnificent pine, so often mentioned by travellers, lies prostrate near the tomb of the hospitable chief Concomely, now in ruins. The chief s skull, it is believed, is in Glasgow, having been long since removed by Dr. Gardner. " There were many things to remind us of home, among them was a luxuriant sward of white clover, now in full blossom, and numerous other plants that had found their way here ; the trees were also familiar, and truly American. I felt that the land belonged to my country, that we were not strangers on the soil ; and could not but take great interest in relation to its destiny, in the prospect of its one day becoming the abode of our friends and relatives." The Columbia, opposite to Astoria, is about four miles wide, but in the mid dle of the river is an extensive sand-flat, with only a few feet water on it, and at low tides it is bare ; the channel is very narrow on each side, and difficult to na vigate. At Astoria there is only width for about ten or twelve vessels to ride at anchor. It is, therefore, unfit for an extensive seaport. A point of land extends about half a mile below the fort to where Young s River joins the Columbia, and forms the bay, on the banks of which Lewis and Clarke wintered. Plumondon, the guide, who was also an expert trapper, informed Captain Wilkes, "That the country lying north of the Columbia, between the Cowlitz and Cape Disappointment, is generally rough and rugged, with numerous streams of water, and in many places a rich soil ; it is extremely well timbered, and is ca pable, when cleared, of growing grain and other agricultural produce." Captain Wilkes, on the 24th, accompanied the superintendent on a visit to the missionaries at Clatsop. They crossed Young s Bay, and, after walking a mile, came to the mission. The missionary and his wife gave them a kind wel come at their new wooden dwelling, which Captain Wilkes understood him to say had been built by the missionary s own hands. It is situated on light dry soil in front of a spruce and fir grove, which is thought to be the most healthy. There were also two American settlers, who were building houses here, both of them good mechanics. The place is not susceptible of much improvement, but was under stood to have been chosen for its salubrity. Another missionary resided four miles distant, upon a tract of land, where he was chiefly occupied in raising a large crop and superintending cattle; there appeared to Captain Wilkes "to be little opportunity for exercising their ministerial calling, though he understood 472 OREGON. afterwards, that at particular seasons a number of Indians collected to hear them." After spending some time at the mission, they set off for Point Adams and Clatsop village ; and he says, " I think in all my life, I had never met with so many snakes as I saw during this short walk ; they were on the beach, where they were apparently feeding at low water. We looked from the sand-hills on Point Adams for vessels, but none were in sight; and then we walked on to the village. It consisted of few rough lodges, constructed of boards or rather hewn planks of large size ; the interior resembled a miserably constructed ship s cabin, with bunks, &c. ; the] only light was admitted from above, near the ridge and gable end. Pieces of salmon and venison were hanging up in the smoke of their fire. Numbers of the Indians are always to be seen lounging about, and others gambling. On the bunk~p\a.nks were painted various uncouth figures of men, and in one was seen hanging the head of an elk, which it was understood they make use of occasionally as a decoy in the chase, for the purpose of taking their game more easily. Around the whole is a palisade, made of thick planks and joists, and fifteen feet in length, set with one end in the ground to protect them from attack/ The Indians of this region make war with each other on the most trivial oc casions, chiefly to gratify individual revenge. The Hudson Bay Company s officers exert great influence in order to preserve peace. Inasmuch as it is safe for a white man to pass in any direction through those parts of the country in which their posts are established. In case of accident to a white settler, a war-party is at once organised by the company, and the offender hunted up. In 1840, an Indian was executed at Astoria for the murder of a white man, whom he came upon while asleep, killed, and stole his property. On the Ciatsop beach, Captain Wilkes saw a great number of dead fish, and was informed that they were thrown up in great multitudes during the autumn ; and supposed to be killed by a kind of worm generated in their stomachs. On the 28th, the company s barks, Cowlitz and Columbia, were discovered; the Columbia bound for Oahu, the Cowlitz for the Russian port of Sitka. Captain Wilkes, on his Indians recovering from their fatigue, left Mr. Waldron at Astoria to await the arrival of the ship Peacock, and embarked on the Columbia to ascend to Fort Vancouver. The wind and waves were too bois terous for the canoe to venture across the open bay. Tongue Point, a high bluff of trap-rock, covered with trees of large dimen sions. " The top," says Captain Wilkes, " has been cleared and taken posses sion of by the superintendent of Astoria, who has erected a log-hut, and planted a patch of potatoes. The hut was inhabited for a year by a Sandwich Islander and his wife. It is rather a rough spot for cultivation, but the end of occupancy HUDSON BAY COMPANY S POSTS IN OREGON. 473 was answered by it. There is a small portage on Tongue Point which canoes often use in bad weather, to avoid accidents that might occur in the rough seas that make in the channel that passes round it. "We encamped a few miles above Oak Point, on the prairie, in a grove of trees. The next morning was beautiful, and the birds were singing blithely around us. Our Indians were as merry as the birds. There was an entire absence of game birds, though a great number of singing ones were seen. We passed during the day Coffin Rock, which is about seven miles above the Mount Coffin before spoken of. It is of small dimensions, and has been the burial-place of chiefs, who are usually interred in canoes, which are provided with all the necessary appendages for their journey to the land of spirits and their hunting-grounds. The mode of disposing of their dead seems to have been different on the south side of the Columbia. On the Cowlitz we observed many canoes near the bank of the river, supported between four trees ; these contain the remains of their dead, are painted in a variety of figures, and have gifts from their friends hung around them. I was told that this is not only done at the time of their burial, but frequently for several months after." The scenery before ascending to the lower mouth of the Willamette was diversified with high and low land. In the woods were frequently seen three lofty snowy peaks with many fine views. The country became more open, and appeared much better adapted to agriculture than lower down the Columbia. CHAPTER XX. HUDSON BAY COMPANY S POSTS IN OREGON. AT Warrior Point, Captain Wilkes entered the Caltepuya, for the purpose of avoiding the current of the strong Columbia. This branch forms a canal during the floods from a chain of lakes which extend to within a mile of Vancouver. On their approach to the latter, they passed one of the dairies and some rich meadow-land, on which were grazing herds of cattle, and flocks of sheep of the best English and Spanish breeds. FORT VANCOUVER.-" On landing within a mile of Vancouver, we walked to the fort by a road through a wood of large pines, and an undergrowth of various flowering shrubs. The old stumps in the road were overgrown with the red honeysuckle in full blossom. Lupins and other flowers grow over the roadway." They entered at the back part of the village, which then consisted of " about fifty comfortable log-houses, placed in regular order on each side of the road- They are inhabited by the company s servants, and were swarming with c VOL. I. 3 F 474 OREGON. dren, whites, half-breeds, and pure Indians. The fort stands at some distance beyond the village, and to the eye appears like an upright wall of pickets, twenty- five feet high ; this encloses the houses, shops, and magazines of the company. The enclosure contains about four acres, which appear to be under full cultiva tion. Beyond the fort large granaries were to be seen. At one end is Dr. M Laughlin s house, built after the model of the French Canadian, and one story weather-boarded and painted white. It has a piazza and some flower-beds with grape and other vines in front; between the steps are two old cannons on sea-carriages, with a few shot to speak defiance to the natives, who no doubt look upon them as very formidable weapons of destruction. I mention these as they are the only warlike instruments to my knowledge that are within the pickets of Vancouver, which differs from all the other forts in having no bastions, galleries, or loop-holes. Near by are the rooms for the clerks and visiters, with the blacksmith s and cooper s shops. In the centre stands the Roman Catholic chapel, and near by the flag- staff; beyond these again are the stores, magazines of powder, ware-rooms, and offices. He (Dr. M Laughlin) is of Scotch parentage, but by birth a Canadian, enthusiastic in disposition, possessing great energy of character, and extremely well suited for the situation he occupies, which requires great talent and industry. He at once ordered dinner for us, and we soon felt ourselves at home, having comfortable rooms assigned us, and being treated as part of the establishment. " The situation of Vancouver is favourable for agricultural purposes, and it may be said to be the head of navigation for sea-going vessels. A vessel of four teen feet draft of water, may reach it in the lowest state of the river. The Columbia at this point makes a considerable angle, and is divided by two islands, which extends upwards of three miles to where the upper branch of the Willa mette joins it. " The shores of these islands are covered with trees, consisting of ash, poplars, pines, and oaks, while the centre is generally prairie, and lower than the banks ; they are principally composed of sand. During the rise of the river in May and June, the islands are covered with water, that filters through the banks that are not overflowed. This influx renders them unfit for grain crops, as the coldness of the water invariably destroys every cultivated plant it touches. " The company^ establishment at Vancouver is upon an extensive scale, and is worthy of the vast interest of which it is the centre. The residents mess at several tables ; one of the chief factor and his clerks ; one of their wives (it being against the regulations of the company for their officers and wives to take their meals together) ; another for the missionaries ; and another for the sick and Catholic missionaries. All is arranged in the best order, and I should think with great economy. Every thing may be had within the fort; they have an HUDSON BAY COMPANY S POSTS IN OREGON. 475 extensive apothecary s shop, a bakery, blacksmith s and cooper s shops, trade- offices for buying, others for selling, others again for keeping accounts and trans acting business ; shops for retail, where the English manufactured articles may be purchased at as low a price, if not cheaper than in the United States, con sisting of cotton and woollen goods, ready-made clothing, ship-chandlery, earthen and iron-ware, and fancy articles; in short, everything and of every kind and description, including all sorts of groceries, at an advance of eighty per cent on the London prime cost. This is the established price at Vancouver, but at the other posts it is 100 per cent to cover the extra expenses of transpor tation. All these articles are of good quality, and suitable for the servants, set tlers, and visitors. Of the quantity on hand some idea may be formed from the fact that all the posts west of the Rocky Mountains get their annual supplies from the depot. " Vancouver is the head-quarters of the north-west or Columbian department, which also includes New Caledonia ; all the returns of furs are received here and hither all accounts are transmitted for settlement. These operations occa sion a large mass of business to be transacted at this establishment. Dr. Douglass, a chief factor, and the associate of Dr. M Laughlin, assists in this department, and takes sole charge in his absence. et Dr. M Laughlin showed us our rooms, and told us that the bell was the signal for meals. " Towards sun-set, tea-time arrived, and we obeyed the summons of the bell, when we were introduced to several of the gentlemen of the establishment ; we met in a large hall, with a long table spread with abundance of good fare. Dr. M Laughlin took the head of the table, with myself on his right, Messrs. Douglass and Dray ton on his left, and the others apparently according to their rank. I mention this as every one appears to have a relative rank,, privilege, and station assigned him, and military etiquette prevails. The meal lasts no longer than is necessary to satisfy hunger. With the officers, who are clerks, business is the sole object of their life, and one is entirely at a loss here who has nothing to do. The agreeable company of Dr. M Laughlin and Mr. Douglass made the time at meals pass delightfully. Both of these gentlemen were kind enough to give up a large portion of their time to us, and I felt occasionally that we must be tres passing on their business-hours. After meals, it is the custom to introduce pipes and tobacco. It was said that this practice was getting into disuse, but I should have concluded from what I saw that it was at its height. Canadian French is generally spoken by the servants ; even those who come out from England, after a while, adopt it, and it is not a little amusing to hear the words they use, and the manner in which they pronounce them. " The routine of a day at Vancouver is, perhaps, the same throughout the year. At early dawn the bell is rung for the working parties, who soon after go to work; 476 OREGON. the sound of the hammers, click of the anvils, the rumbling of the carts, with tinkling of bells, render it difficult to sleep after this hour. The bell rings again at eight for breakfast; at nine they resume their work, which continues till one; then an hour is allowed for dinner, after which they work till six, when the labours of the day close. At five o clock on Saturday afternoon the work is stopped, when the servants receive their weekly rations. " Vancouver is a large manufacturing, agricultural, and commercial depot, and there are few, if any, idlers except the sick. Every body seems to be in a hurry, whilst there appears to be no obvious reason for it. " Without making any inquiries, I heard frequent complaints made of both the quantity and quality of the food issued by the company to its servants. I could not avoid perceiving that these complaints were well founded, if this allowance were compared with what we deem a sufficient ration in the United States for a labouring man. Many of the servants complained that they had to spend a great part of the money they received to buy food; this is I?/- per annum, out of which they have to furnish themselves with clothes. They are engaged for five years, and after their time has expired, the company are obliged to send them back to England or Canada, if they desire it. Generally, however, when their time expires, they find themselves in debt, and are obliged to serve an extra time to pay it; and not unfrequently, at the expiration of their engagement, they have become at tached, or married to some Indian woman, or half-breed, and have children, on which account they find themselves unable to leave, and continue attached to the company s service, and in all respects under the same management as before. If they desire to remain and cultivate land, they are assigned a certain portion, but are still dependent on the company for many necessaries of life, clothing, &c. ee This causes them to become a sort of vassal, and compels them to execute the will of the company. In this way, however, order and decorum are pre served, together with steady habits, for few can in any way long withstand this silent influence. The consequence is, that few communities are to be found more orderly than that which is formed of the persons who have retired from the company s service. That this power, exercised by the officers of the company, is much complained of, I am aware, but I am satisfied that as far as the morals of the settlers and servants are concerned, it is used for good purposes. For in stance, the use of spirits is almost entirely done away with. Dr. M Laughlin has acted in a highly praiseworthy manner in this particular. Large quantities of spirituous liquors are now stored in the magazines at Vancouver, which the company have refused to make an article of trade, and none is now used by them in the territory for that purpose. They have found this rule highly beneficial to their business in several respects; more furs are taken in consequence of those who are engaged having fewer inducements to err; the Indians are found to be less quarrelsome, and pursue the chase more constantly ; and the settlers as far as I could hear, have been uniformly prosperous. HUDSON BAY COMPANY S POSTS IN OREGON. 477 " In order to show the course of the company upon this subject, I will mention one circumstance. The brig, Thomas H. Perkins, arrived here with a large quan tity of rum on board, with other goods. Dr. M Laughlin, on hearing of this, made overtures immediately for the purchase of the whole cargo, in order to get possession of the whiskey or rum, and succeeded. The doctor mentioned to me, that the liquor was now in store, and would not be sold in the country, and added, that the only object he had in buying the cargo, was to prevent the use of the rum, and to sustain the temperance cause; "The settlers are also deterred from crimes, as the company have the power of sending them to Canada for trial, which is done with little cost, by means of the annual expresses which carry their accounts and books. " The interior of the houses in the fort are unpretending. They are simply finished with pine board panels, without any paint ; banks are built for bedsteads ; but the whole, though plain, is as comfortable as could be desired. " Several of the American and other missionaries make Fort Vancouver for the most part their home, where they are kindly received and entertained, at no ex pense to themselves, by the governor. The liberality and freedom from sectarian principles of Dr. M Laughlin may be estimated from his being thus hospitable to missionaries of so many Protestant denominations, although he is a professed Roman Catholic, and has a priest of the same faith officiating daily at the chapel. Religious toleration is allowed in its fullest extent. The dining-hall is given up on Sunday to the use of the ritual of the Anglican church, and Mr. Douglass, or a missionary, reads the service." All the missionaries, except the Methodist, travelled across the Rocky Mountains : they represented the pass through them as by no means difficult, and that they had entertained no apprehension of the hostile Indians. They had accompanied a party of fur-traders from St. Louis, and gave a deplorable account of the dissipation and morals of the party. They were disappointed in finding self-support in Oregon, and had it not been for the hospitality of Dr. M Laughlin, who took them in, they would have suffered much. They were then advised to settle on the Faulitz Plains, where Captain Wilkes understood they had, since his departure, taken land, and succeeded in forming good farms. There are two large entrance-gates to the " fort," for waggons and carts, and one in the rear leading to the granaries and the garden ; the latter occupies four or five acres of ground, in which are grown all kinds of kitchen vegetables, and many varieties of fruit, with which the tables are abundantly supplied by the Scotch gardener. This gardener, after his first term of service, returned to England, and after visiting and making himself acquainted with the horticulture of Chiswick, meeting Dr. M Laughlin accidentally in London begged to be sent back to Fort Vancouver, the garden of which he was ambitious should surpass that of the celebrated one at Chiswick. 478 OREGON. Besides the store-houses there is also a large granary, of two stories high. In addition to the other advantages, there are extensive kitchens and apart ments for the half-breed and Indian children, whom the company have taken in order to bring up and educate. Of these latter there were twenty-three boys and fifteen girls. A teacher was employed for the boys, who superintended them not only in school but in the field and garden. During Captain Wilkes s stay an examination took place, and he observes, " Although the pupils did not prove very expert at their reading and writing, yet we had sufficient evidence that they had made some improvement, and were in a fair way to acquire the rudiments. Some allowance was to be made for the boys, who had been constantly in the field, under their teacher, for a few months past. Dr. M Laughlin estimated the labour of four of these small boys as equal to that of one man. It was an interesting sight to see these poor little cast-away fellows, of all shades of colour, from the pure Indian to that of the white, thus snatched away from the vices and idleness of the savage. They all speak both English and French ; they were also instructed in religious exercises, in which I thought they were more proficient than in their other studies. These they are instructed in on Sunday, on which day they attend divine worship twice. They were a ruddy set of boys, and when at work had a busy appearance. They had planted and raised six hundred bushels of potatoes ; and from what Dr. M Laughlin said to me, fully maintain themselves. The girls are equally well cared for, and are taught by a female, with whom they live and work. " An opinion has gone abroad, I do not know how, that at this post there is a total disregard of morality and religion, and that vice predominates. As far as my observations went, I feel myself obliged to state that every thing seems to prove the contrary, and to bear testimony that the officers of the company are exerting themselves to check vice and encourage morality and religion in a very marked manner, and that I saw no instance in which vice was tolerated in any degree. I have indeed reason to believe, from the discipline and the ex ample of the superiors, that the whole establishment is a pattern of good order and correct deportment. "This remark not only extends to this establishment, but as far as our opportunities went (and all but two of their posts were visited), the same good order prevails throughout the country. Wherever the operations of the com pany extend, they have opened the way to future emigration, provided the means necessary for the success of emigrants, and rendered its peaceful occupation an easy and cheap task." HUDSON BAY TRADE IN OREGON. All the goods imported by the com pany into Oregon are divided into three classes, viz., articles of gratuity ; those of trade ; and those intended to pay for small services, labour, and provisions. The first consists of knives and tobacco ; the second of blankets, guns, cloth, HUDSON BAY COMPANY S POSTS IN OREGON. 479 powder, and shot ; the third of shirts, handkerchiefs, ribands, beads, &c. These articles are bartered at seemingly great profits, and many persons imagine that large gain must be the result from the Indian trade, but this is seldom the case. The Indians and settlers fully understand the value of each article. The com pany make advances to all their trappers if they wish to be sure of their services ; and from such a reckless set, there is little certainty of getting returns even if the trapper has it in his power. In fact, he will not return with his season s acquisition unless he is constrained to pursue the same course of life for another year, when he requires a new advance. In order to avoid losses by the de parture of their men, the parties, some thirty or forty in number, are placed under an officer, who has charge of the whole. These are allowed to take their wives and even their families with them, and places where they are to trap during the season, on some favourable ground, are assigned to them. These parties leave Vancouver in October and return in May or June. They usually trap in shares, and the portion they are to receive is defined by an agreement the conditions of which depend very much on their skill. All the profits of the company depend upon economical management, for the quantity of peltry in this section of the country ; and indeed it may be said the fur-trade on this side of the mountains has fallen off fifty per cent within the last few years. It is indeed reported that this business, at present, is hardly worth pursuing. Captain Wilkes was shown over the granary, which contained wheat, flour, barley, and buckwheat. The wheat averaged sixty-three pounds to the bushel ; barley yields twenty bushels to the acre ; buckwheat, in some seasons, gives a good crop, but it is by no means certain owing to the early frosts ; oats do not thrive well ; peas, beans, and potatoes yield abundantly ; little or no hay is made, the cattle being able to feed all the year round on the natural grass, which is very nutritious and they fatten upon it. The grass grows up rapidly in the beginning of summer, and the subsequent heat and drought actually convert it into hay, in which the juices are preserved. Besides this, they have on the prairies along the river two luxuriant growths of grass ; the first in the spring, and the second soon after the overflowing cf the river subsides, which is gene rally in July and August. The last crop lasts the remainder of the season. Neither do they require shelter, although they are penned in at night. The pens are moveable, and the use of them is not only for security against the wolves but to manure the ground. The farm at Vancouver is about nine miles square. On this they have two dairies, and milk upwards of one hundred cows. There are also two other dairies situated on Werpauto island on the Willamette, where they have one hundred and fifty cows, whose milk, under the direction of dairymen, is made into butter and cheese for the Russian settlements. Tho tsxmivAuy I\A Ukoxvi&o A #vUt Ami *A\v<n\ttU hoth \\*\\ oon*tn\ott*a, uhout M\ \mU x * rthoxo Yrtm v O\\YVV on tho Wl\\mlM,\ K\Y*t\ I \v\xiA\n \\Mktv* vUittnl tho vUivy form \vhtoh ho* to tho \vo*t of \w tho t W&jmv** Thta \v* ou* of tho moat IwtutiftiU Uo voao to it oiu x ,; > ..... n>o v \\ U fo\\ \H \\s\\ \ \\\\\\\\\\\\ \\ TKov \v\\lk \ l t\\\ hut Iho \\b\\ ovti*n iw \vho\\ \vitU cnttlo t .MU ^ v\l S MM t I^Y% )M of htm l \t. a Uo i\\\\(M\\\;\ l\\voa viola A vrvv i the hulo t nn\l \ n . \\ir.-i\ \\-,\* ^ \ lu\t uot tou\\a t\^ thrive, \u \VAlU fho w . tl . to\\\tv>\> to tiki of \<s fov A\\* \x\tho\vt vu-mvlv of vM \V\lki\H xxith tho >oiluxu of . ^ \\x\t\\ tho w ;\ \ to ioh tho of * *ri.% ti<Mti* *t*t ******** 1 *U l\v M\ VOVIrnVN \ X -v v-N-.^-"^- >\ \ V \ ^^ , , |hO> th,M it i hjuxUv i\OwMi hi \n Novthoru .,, ....l ., ., , \ hohina tho Ami is vory ^\\\u I ;\i\\ \noli\\o\l to think ft Ml tXMl tttinuttc of (l\o :\n\v>\\nt t* thtt ti fi H 44 \ ^d^frgjfr^ *Mtof tMr IflMl* * tV, *H*w#* *ssM/#y <j*M* tit** wnH t* *A T * v*tf, \**mty TV, fat* A I w/i ***/*,, pwAutf t/> 44 **, tttiwfa <A t* . f, * * * ##<> - *<""> *< * ***** *itfA f*A **** 482 OREGON. large smithy, in which is prepared the iron work required for mill work, and all the axes and hatchets used by the woodcutters and trappers. A trapper s suc cess depends chiefly upon his axe, and if it should be lost or broken, he is com pelled to relinquish his pursuit, and to return for another. About fifty axes can be manufactured in a day, and twenty-five are usually made, and like those used by the American labourers, are of excellent temper and quality. They are pur chased by the Indians, and are made for them of a certain shape, somewhat like a tomahawk" On one of the sheep-walks belonging to the company on the high prairie, which Captain Wilkes visited, the soil is a light sandy loam, which yields a plentiful crop of columbine, lupin, and cammass flowers. Throughout these upper prairies, in places are seen growing pines of gigantic dimensions and towering height, with their branches drooping to the ground, with clumps of oaks, elders, and maple. These prairies have such an air of being artificially kept in order, that they never cease to create surprise, and it is difficult to believe that the hand of taste and refinement has not been at work upon them. He observes, " On our way back to Vancouver, we met the droves of horses and cattle that they were driving to the upper prairie on account of the rise of the river, and the consequent flooding of the low grounds. A certain number of brood mares are assigned to each horse ; and the latter it is said, is ever mindful of his troop, and prevents them from straying. An old Indian is employed to watch the horses, who keeps them constant company, and is quite familiar with every in dividual of his charge. We reached the fort just at sunset, after a ride of twenty miles. The air was mild, and a pleasant breeze prevailed from the west. Mount Hood showed itself in all its glory, rising out of the purple haze with which the landscape was shrouded. " The usual time for the highest rise of the river is in the middle of June. " The crop of wheat of the last year had been partially destroyed by the floods, causing a loss of a thousand bushels. " Although the Columbia does not overflow its banks anywhere except in the lower prairie, there are quicksands in these, through which the water, before it reaches the height of the embankment, percolates and rises on the low parts of the prairie. In consequence of the low temperature of the water, it chills and destroys the grain. " I witnessed the Columbia at its greatest and least heights, and no idea can be formed of it unless seen at both these epochs. The flood is a very grand sight from the banks of the river at Vancouver, as it passes swiftly by, bearing along the gigan tic forest trees, whose immense trunks appear as mere chips. They frequently lodge for a time, in which case others are speedily caught by them, which, obstruct ing the flow of the water, form rapids, until, by a sudden rush, the whole is borne off to the ocean, and in time lodged by the currents on some remote and savage islands, WILLAMETTE VALLEY. 483 to supply the natives with canoes. I also witnessed the undermining of large trees on the banks, and occasional strips of soil : thus does the river yearly make inroads on its banks, and changes in its channels. " From the circumstance of this annual inundation of the river prairies, they will always be unfit for husbandry, yet they are admirably adapted for grazing, except during the periods of high water. There is no precaution that can pre vent the inroad of the water. At Vancouver they were at the expense of throw ing up a large embankment of earth, but without the desired effect. It has been found that the crop of grain suffers in proportion to the quantity of the stalk immersed : unless the wheat is completely covered, a partial harvest may be ex pected . < The waters of the Columbia have no fertilising qualities, which is remakable when the extent of its course is considered : on the contrary, it is said, to de teriorate and exhaust the soil. It is, when taken up, quite clear, although it has a turbid look as it flows by. Quantities of fine sand are, however, borne along, and being deposited in the eddies, rapidly form banks, which alter the channel in places to a great degree. 5 During Captain Wilkes s visit at Vancouver, he was applied to by three of a party of eight young Americans, who were desirous of leaving the country, but could not accomplish it in any other way but by building a vessel. They were not dissatisfied with the territory, but they would not settle themselves down in it because there were no young women to marry, except squaws or half breeds. They informed Jiim that they were engaged in building a vessel on the oak islands in the Willamette, where he promised to visit them on his way up the river. CHAPTER XXI. WILLAMETTE VALLEY. ON the 4th of June, 1841, Captain Wilkes left Fort Vancouver, and pro ceeded on an expedition up the valley of the Willamette river. Dr. M Laughlin kindly procured him a large boat and provisions. The barge in which Captain Wilkes embarked, was usually employed in carrying grahi and other produce, but on this occasion was fitted up with seats and other conveniences as a passage boat. These boats are flat-bottomed, and capable of carrying about 300 bushels of wheat over a small draft of water ; when well-manned, they are made to go as swiftly as canoes, and are extremely well adapted to the navigation of the river; they are provided with large tarpaulings to protect their cargo from the weather. -From Vancouver," says Captain Wilkes, we floated down with the cur- 484 rent to the upper mouth of the Willamette, which we entered before night, and passed the encampment of the principal" of the Methodist mission in Oregon, which was on its way to Clatsop, at the mouth of the Columbia. " The musquitoes and sand flies were so annoying, that \ve were glad to seek for higher ground to encamp on, for the purpose of escaping them. " The Willamette river is generally about one-fourth of a mile wide. For the distance of four miles from its entrance into the Columbia, its banks are low, and during the rise of the latter, are overflowed ; its waters being backed into the Willamette. There is little current to contend with in this river during mid summer. After passing this low ground, the banks become high and precipitous, and are only in a few places susceptible of cultivation. " We encamped on the island occupied by the young Americans, close to the place where they were building their vessel. The group of which it is one, is called the Oak Islands. "The grove of oak on this island was beautiful, forming an extensive wood, with no undergrowth. The species that grows here is a white oak of very close grain. Its specific gravity is much greater than water; and it is used for the purposes to which we apply both oak and hickory. It makes excellent hoops for casks, and is the only timber of this region that is considered durable. " The falls of Willamette are about twenty feet in height, and probably offer the best mill sites for any place in the neighbouring country. Being at the head of navigation for sea vessels, and near the great wheat-growing valley of Willa mette, it must be a place of great resort. A Mr. Moore, from the western states, whom I saw on the Willamette, informed me that he had taken possession of the west side of the falls, under a purchase from an old Indian chief. Whe ther such titles will be recognised by the government, is already a matter of spe culation in the country ; and there is much talk of pre-emption rights, &c. ( At the time of our visit to the falls, the salmon fishery wasat its height, and was to us a novel as well as an amusing scene. The salmon leap the fall ; and it would be inconceivable, if not actually witnessed, how they can force themselves up, and after a leap of from ten to twelve feet, retain strength enough to stem the force of the water above. About one in ten of those who jumped would succeed in getting by. They are seen to dart off the foam beneath, and reach about two- thirds of the height, at a single bond: those that thus passed the apex of the running water, succeed ; but all that fall short, were thrown back again into the foam. I never saw so many fish collected together before ; and the Indians are constantly employed in taking them. They rig out two stout poles, long enough to project over the foaming cauldron, and secure their larger ends to the rocks. On the outer end, they make a platform for the fisherman to stand on, who is perched on it with a pole, thirty feet long, in hand, to which the net is fastened by a hoop, four feet in diameter : the net is made to slide on WILLAMETTE VALLEY. 435 the hoop, so as to close its mouth when the fish is taken. The mode of using the net is peculiar : they throw it into -the foam as far up the stream as they can reach, and it being then quickly carried down, the fish who are running up in a contrary direction, are caught. Sometimes twenty large fish are taken by a single person in an hour ; and it is only surprising that twice as many should not be caught." The Willamette river, at the falls, is 350 yards wide. The height of the fall about twenty-five feet. The number of Indians at the Willamette falls during the fishing season, is about seventy, including all ages and sexes : there are others who visit the falls in canoes for fish, which at times will raise the number to not far from 100. Those fish which are unable to get up, remain some time at the falls, very much exhausted, and finally resort to the smaller streams below. The rocks above the falls change their character. Much volcanic scoria, vesicular lava, and pudding-stone, intermingled with blocks of trap, and many crystals of quartz occur. On the rocks are to be seen large knots of lamprey eels, worming themselves up, which look at a little distance as if alive with snakes. Above the falls, in crossing the river, they passed through an Indian village, " which was absolutely swarming with fleas ; a filthier place cannot be found in Oregon." Above the falls, the current was strong, and they made but little head way ; and the boatmen, in order to take advantage of the smallest eddies, crossed and recrossed the river. The banks became much higher and more picturesque, and this part of the Willamette is considered dangerous when the floods are high, and accidents frequently occur. Before night, they encamped above " the Stony Islands/ on a barren point of land, at some height above the river. Here they found various mosses in flower. " At this season of the year," Captain Wilkes observes, " the river is not high; its rise usually takes place in February and March, when it becomes very much swollen, and with its tributaries does much damage. These floods, how ever, are of very short duration, for the descent is so rapid that the waters are soon discharged. It was raining quite hard when we passed Camp Maude du Sable, a sandy point just at the opening out of the Willamette valley, which was one of the points originally occupied when the river was first explored by the whites. About two miles further up, the river is Champooing, eighteen miles above the falls, which we reached at about four p. M. Here we found a few log- houses, one of which belonged to a Mr. Johnson, who gave us a hearty welcome. He was formerly in the navy, then a trapper in the Hudson Bay Company^s service, but had commenced farming on the Willamette, and taken to himself an Indian girl for a wife, by whom he had several children. He had them educated. His wife was extremely industrious, making and mending, and taking care of the 486 OREGON. household concerns, and is rather pretty. Johnson s estimate of her," says Captain Wilkes, " was that she was worth about half-a-dozen civilised wives. There was little cleanliness, however, about his house, and many of the duties were left to two young male slaves, of Indian blood, but of what tribe I did not learn. Johnson s farm consists of about forty acres under cultivation; his wheat and potatoes were flourishing, and he had a tolerable kitchen-garden. He has some little stock, but complained much of the Oregon tiger, or American panther. These voracious animals are numerous and bold ; the night before we arrived, they had entered the pen and killed a calf regardless of the dogs. " We were informed that there are plenty of elk and deer, and that the grizzly bear is also common. The flesh of the latter animal is very much esteemed. Wild ducks and geese are numerous in the spring and fall, covering the rivers, lakes, and ponds." One of Johnson s neighbours, was an old man by the name of Cannon, who had been one of the party with Lewis and Clarke, and was, from his own account, the only remaining one in the country. Another, old Moore, who taught Johnson s children, possessed much information in relation to the country he had passed through. He had crossed the mountains the year before, and said he found no difficulty in making the trip. The great drawback to the country on the route up the Willamette, is the want of wood. Captain Wilkes, having found an intelligent guide, and having mounted on horseback, rode up the Willamette valley. He passed many small farms of from fifty to one hundred acres, belonging to the old servants of the Hudson Bay Company, Canadians who had settled here; they all appeared very comfortable and thriving. " We stopped," says Captain Wilkes, " for a few hours at the Catholic mission, twelve miles from Champooing, to call upon the Rev. Mr. Bachelet, who is here settled among his flock, and is doing great good to the settlers in ministering their temporal as well as spiritual wants. " Annexed to his house is a small chapel, fully capable of containing the present congregation. They are erecting a large and comfortable house for Mr. Bachelet, after which it is intended to extend the chapel. These houses are situated on the borders of an extensive level prairie, which is very fertile, having a deep alluvial; they also have near them a forest of pine, oak, &c. They are now oc cupied in turning of the fields for the first time. Mr. Bachelet informed me that it was intended to take enough of land under cultivation to supply a large community that will be attached to the mission ; for it is the intention to estab lish schools here for the instruction of the Indians, as well as the Canadians and other settlers. He has already ten Indian children under his care. The mission had been established about a year, and it had already done much good. When he first arrived, all the settlers were living with Indian women whom they had since married. This was the first step he had taken towards their moral im- WILLAMETTE VALLEY. 487 provement, and he had found it very successful. There were about thirty Cana dian families settled here, besides about twenty persons who have no fixed resi dence and are labourers. The number of Indians is estimated at between 400 and 500 including all tribes, sexes, and ages. The district under Mr. Bachelet s superintendence, takes in about fifty square miles, including the Willamette valley, Faulitz and Yam Hill Plains, and extending below the Willamette falls, as far as the Klackamus River. The number of white residents, including the missionaries of both denominations, is thought to be about sixty." Captain Wilkes dined with Mr. Bachelet on oatmeal porridge, venison, straw berries, and cream. Soon after leaving, the party arrived at where some American and English had settled; and entered on the grounds of the Methodist mission. Here were the log-houses which were built when they first settled here ; and in the neigh bourhood, the wheelwrights and blacksmiths workshops, belonging to the mission ; and the hospital, built by Dr. White, who was formerly attached to the mission. It was still used as a residence for some of the missionaries, and is said to be the best building in Oregon. " This place/ says Captain Wilkes, " seemed an out-of-the-way place to find persons of delicate habits struggling with difficulties such as they have to encounter, and overcoming them with cheerfulness and good-temper. Near the hospital are two other houses, built of logs, in one of which Dr. Babcock, the physician of the mission, lives. He stated that the country was healthy, although during the months of August and September, they were subject to fever and ague on the low grounds, but in high and dry situations, he believed they would I be free from it. A few other diseases existed, but they were of a mild character, and readily yielded to simple remedies. " The lands of the Methodist mission are situated on the banks of the Willa mette River, on a rich plain adjacent to fine forests of oak and pine. They are about eight miles beyond the Catholic mission, eighteen miles from Champooing, in a southern direction. Their fields are well enclosed, and we passed a large one of wheat, which we understood was self-sown by the last year s crop, which had been lost through neglect. The crop so lost amounted to nearly 1000 bushels, and it is supposed that this year s will yield twenty-five bushels to the acre. About all the premises of this mission crop, there was an evident want of the at tention required to keep things in repair, and an absence of neatness that I regretted much to witness." The next day, Captain Wilkes visited " the Mill," distant about nine miles, in a southern direction. They passed in the route several prairies, both high and low. The soil on the higher was of a gravelly or light nature, while on the lower it was a dark loam, intermixed with a bluish clay. " The prairies are at least one-third greater in extent than the forest; they were again seen carpeted 488 OREGON. with the most luxuriant growth of flowers, of the richest tints of red, yellow, and blue, extending in places a distance of fifteen to twenty miles. The timber we saw consisted of the live and white oak, cedar, pine, and fir. We reached the mill by noon, which consists of a small grist and saw-mill on the borders of an extensive prairie. They are both under the same roof, and are worked by a horizontal wheel. " During the whole summer both mills are idle for want of water, the stream on which they are situated being a very small one, emptying into the Willamette. We found here two good log-houses, and about twenty lay members, mechanics of the mission. There are, besides, about twenty-five Indian boys, who, I was told, were not in a condition to be visited or inspected. Those whom I saw were nearly grown up, ragged, and half-clothed, lounging about under the trees. Their appearance was any thing but pleasing and satisfactory ; and I must own I was greatly disappointed, for I had been led to expect that order and neatness, at least, would have been found among them, considering the strong force of mis sionaries engaged here. " The missionaries, as they told me, have made individual selections of lands to the amount of 1000 acres each, in prospect of the whole country falling under our laws. " I rode about two miles to the situation selected by the Rev. Mr. Hines. We found him and family encamped under some oak-trees, in a beautiful prairie, to which place he had but just removed: he intended putting up his house at once, and they had ordinary comforts about them." He dined, on his return, with the secular superintendent, on salmon, pork, potted cheese, strawberries and cream, nice hot cakes, &c. The number of Indians within the limits of this mission, are, at Nisqually, 200; Clatsop, 209; Chinooks, 220 ; Kilamukes, 400 ; Callapuyas, 600; Dalles, 250: in all this district, about 2000 Indians. This field is in part occupied by the Catholics. " Of these/ 3 says Captain Wilkes, " the Methodist missionaries have under their instruction, if so it may be called, twenty-five at the Willamette station ; at the Dalles, and occasionally on the Klackamus River, are the only places where divine service is attempted. " I cannot but believe that the same labour and money which have been ex pended here, would have been much more appropriately and usefully spent among the tribes about the Straits of Juan de Fuca, who are numerous and fit objects for instruction." The river at the site of the old mission on the banks of the Willamette, makes a considerable bend, and has undermined and carried away its banks to some extent : a short distance beyond it is making rapid inroads into the rich soil of these bottom lands. WILLAMETTE VALLEY. " This is the usual place of crossing the river, which is too deep to be forded, and about 200 yards wide. Its banks were twenty feet high, and composed of stratified layers of alluvium. "On the shore of the river which consists of a shingle beach, some 200 feet wide, are to be found cornelians, agates, and chalcedony, among the loose pieces of basalt of which it is composed. The current was found to run at the rate of three miles an hour, although the water was said to be low. An old canoe was procured, in which we passed over, while one of the horses was led, and swam by its side. Here we met George Gay, who was travelling with his Indian wife ; he told us that he would join us in our trip to the Yam Hills, which we proposed to make the next day. " We found our camp established by Plumondon (a trapper), near the residence of a Mr. O Neill,* about a mile from the river, in a pretty oval prairie, contain ing about 300 or 400 acres, with a fine wood encircling it. Sixty of these are under cultivation : about forty in wheat, that was growing luxuriantly. 66 This farm is the best we have seen, in every respect; and it is not only well arranged, but has many advantages from its location. "The next day (9th of June), we started for the Yam Hills, which divide the valleys of the Willamette and Faulitz. They are of but moderate elevation ; the tops are easily reached on horseback, and every part of them which I saw, was deemed susceptible of cultivation. The soil is a reddish clay, and bears few marks of any wash from the rains. These hills are clothed to the very top with grass, and afford excellent pasturage for cattle, of which many were seen feeding on them. On our route through the Yam Hills, we passed many settlers esta blishments. From their top the view is not unlike that from Mount Holyoake, in Massachusetts, and the country appears as if it were as much improved by the hand of civilisation. The oak trees sprinkled over the hills and bottoms have a strong resemblance to the apple orchards. The extent of country we looked over is from twenty-five to thirty miles, all of which is capable of being brought to the highest state of cultivation. There are, in truth, few districts like that of the valley of Faulitz. " We passed one or two brick-kilns, and finally reached the new residence of * Three years since O Neill came to the valley with only a shirt to his back, as he ex pressed it : he began by working part of this farm, and obtained the loan of cattle and other articles from Dr. JVTLaughlin, all of which he has, from the natural increase of his stock and out of his crops, since repaid. He has bought the farm, has 200 head of stock, horses to ride on, and a good suit of clothes, all earned by his own industry ; and he says it is only necessary for him to work one month in the year to make a living : the rest of the time he may amuse himself. He spoke in the highest terms of Dr. M Laughlin, and the generous aid he had afforded him in the beginning. The success of O Neill is a proof of what good education and industrious habits will do, and it is pleasing to see the happiness and consideration they produce. Mr. O Neill is also a mechanic, and has gained much of his wealth in that way : he ploughs and reaps himself, and is assisted by a few Indians, whom he had the tact to manage. He has a neat kitchen-garden, and every thing that a person in his situation can desire. VOL. I. 3 K 490 OREGON. George Gay, one of the most remote on this side the river. He had reached home with his wife and two children not long before us. " On our return towards the wood, we passed the farm of one of Dr. M Laugh- lin s sons, who has settled here, and has an extensive portion of the prairie fenced in. This part of Willamette valley is a prolonged level of many miles in extent, circumscribed by the woods, which have the appearance of being at tended to, and kept free from undergrowth. This is difficult to account for except through the agency of fire destroying the seeds. The Indians are in the habit of burning the country yearly, in September for the purpose of drying and procuring the seeds of the sunflower, which they are thus enabled to gather with more ease, and which form a large portion of their food. That this is the case appears more probable from the fact, that since the whites have had possession of the country, the undergrowth is coming up rapidly in places. Of the different settlers in the valley of the Willamette, Captain Wilkes says, " Those of French descent appeared the most happy, contented, and comfortable ; while those of Anglo-Saxon race manifested the go-a-head principle of the Ame rican citizens. The Willamette River sometimes rises suddenly thirty feet perpendicular. He crossed the Yam Hills to the Faulitz plains. The hills on the way were co vered with wall-flowers, lupins, and ripe strawberries. The cattle brought to this valley were originally from San Francisco ; and were increasing rapidly in numbers, no care being taken of them but driving them into the pens for security during the night. On returning down the Willamette valley, they found salt springs, to which cattle and game resort in great numbers. The inhabitants on the Willamette stated to him, that they could obtain abundance of food for the year from the pastures, and the growing of wheat being little more than one month s labour. In fact, that they might pass in idleness at least two-thirds of the year. The climate was, however, complained of as too wet for growing In dian corn, though excellent for pasturage. Captain Wilkes observes, " In speaking of the Willamette valley, I have viewed its advantages for raising crops, pasturage of stock, and the facilities of settlers becoming rich. There is, however, one objection to its ever becoming a large settlement, in consequence of the interruption of the navigation of its rivers in the dry season ; which renders it difficult to get to a market, as well as to receive supplies. SALMON FISHERY. The salmon fishery affords abundant food at a very low price, and of excellent quality : it does not extend above the falls. He found it impossible to obtain any data to found a calculation of the quantity taken, but estimated it at 800 barrels. The finest of the salmon are those caught nearest the sea. " The settlers and Indians," he says, "told us that the salmon, as they pass up the river, become poorer, and when they reach the tributaries of NORTHERN OREGON. the Upper Columbia, they are exceedingly exhausted, and have their bodies and heads much disfigured and cut, and their tails and fins worn out by contact with the rocks. Many of the salmon, in consequence, die ; these the Indians are in the habit of drying for food, by hanging them on the limbs of trees. This is to preserve them from the wolves, and to be used in time of need, when they are devoured, though rotten and full of mag gots. The fish of the upper waters are said to be hardly edible, and, com pared with those caught at the mouth of the Columbia are totally different in flavour. The latter are the richest and most delicious fish I ever recollect to have tasted: if any thing, they were too fat to eat, and one can perceive a dif ference even in those taken at the Willamette falls, which, however, are the best kind for salting. There are four different kinds of salmon which frequent this river in different months ; the latest appears in October, and is the only one that frequents the Cowlitz river. The finest sort is a dark silvery fish, of large size, three or four feet long, and weighing forty or fifty pounds. There is one point which seems to be still in doubt, namely, where the spawn of this fish is de posited. It is asserted, and generally believed, that none of the old fish ever return to the sea again. It has not been ascertained whether the young fry go to the ocean : and if they do so, whether as spawn or young fish." On returning to Vancouver, Captain Wilkes found that Mr. Ogden, the Hudson Bay agent in the north, had arrived with his voyageurs. That gentle man had then been thirty-two years in the territory, and possessed much infor mation respecting it, having travelled nearly all over it. He resides at Fort St. James, on Stuart s lake, and has six posts under his care. The northern section of the country he represented " as not susceptible of cultivation on account of the proximity of the Snowy Mountains, which causes sudden changes, even in the heat of summer, that would destroy the crops. His posts are amply supplied with salmon from the neighbouring rivers, which flow down into the sounds on the coast. These fish, when dried, form the greatest part of the food of those employed by the company during the whole year. Their small stores of flour, &c., are all carried up the country from Colville to Van couver. Furs, which are more abundant in the northern region, and are pur chased at lower prices from the Indians. 5 The return this year (1841), brought down by Mr. Ogden, was valued at 100,000 dollars, which he informed Captain Wilkes was much less than the usual amount. The southern section of Oregon , he was informed, scarcely repaid the expense of an outlay for a party of trap pers. " The southern country is, however/ says Captain Wilkes, " well adapted to the raising of cattle and sheep ; of the former many have been introduced by parties, which trap on their way thither, and return with cattle. Although there were but a few heads of them four or five years before, in 1841 there were up wards of 10,000. The whole country is particularly adapted to grazing, which, 492 OREGON. together with the mildness of the climate must cause this region to become, in a short time, one of the best stocked countries in the world. The price of cattle may be quoted at ten dollars a head ; but those that are broken in for labour, or milch cows, command a higher price ; and in some places in the Willamette valley, they have been sold for the enormous price of eighty dollars. Every endeavour is made to keep the price of cattle up, as labour is usually paid for in stock. The price of labour for a mechanic may be set down at from two dollars and a half to three dollars a day; and there is much difficulty to procure them even at that rate. The wages for a common labourer is one dollar per day. The price of wheat is fixed at sixty-two cents and a half (about 2s. 6d.) per bushel, by the company, for which any thing but spirits may be drawn from the stores, at the low advance of fifty per cent on the London cost. This is supposed, all things taken into consideration, to be equal to one dollar and twelve cents per bushel ; but it is difficult for the settlers so to understand it, and they are by no means satisfied with the rate. There is a description of currency in the country called beaver money ; which seems to be among the whites what blankets are among the Indians. The value of the currency may be estimated from the fact, that a beaver skin represents about two dollars throughout the territory. 5 On leaving Vancouver Captain Wilkes speaks in the highest terms of the kind hospitality received by him and his party from Dr. M Laughlin. The river had swollen rapidly by the flowing down of the mountain torrents, and Captain Wilkes says : " On reaching the river, we found one of Mr. Ogden s boats manned by four teen voyageurs, all gaily dressed in their ribands and plumes ; the former tied in large bunches of divers colours, with numerous ends floating in the breeze. The boat was somewhat of the model of our whale-boats, only much larger, and of the kind built expressly to accommodate the trade ; they are provided yearly at Okonagan, and are constructed in a few days ; they are clinker-built, and all the timbers are flat. These boats are so light that they are easily carried across the portages. They use the gum of the pine to cover them instead of pitch/ Captain Wilkes and Mr. Ogden embarked together in this boat. On a sig nal being given, they shoved off into the stream, and the voyageurs immediately commenced singing one of their boat-songs. After paddling up the stream for some distance, they made a graceful sweep to reach the centre, and then passed downwards past the spectators with great animation. " The boat," says Captain Wilkes, " and voyageurs seemed a fit object to grace the wide-flowing river. On we merrily went, while each voyageur in suc cession took up the song and all joined in the chorus. In two hours and a half, we reached the mouth of the Cowlitz, a distance of thirty-five miles. " In ascending the Cowlitz, we found a strong current to contend against, NORTHERN OREGON. 493 and by nightfall had only proceeded twelve miles further. As we encamped, the weather changed, and rain began to fall, which lasted till next morning. " On the second day, our voyageurs had doffed their finery, and their hats were carefully covered with oiled skins. They thus appeared more prepared for hard work. The current became every mile more rapid, and the difficulty of surmounting it greater. The management of the boats in the rapids is dexterous and full of excitement, as well to the passengers as to the voyageurs themselves. The bowman is the most important man, giving all the directions, and is held responsible for the safety of the boats ; and his keen eye arid quick hand in the use of his paddle, delights and inspires a confidence in him in moments of danger that is given without stint. We did not make more than ten miles during the day, and were forced to encamp three miles below the farm. On the 19th, we reached our destination. On our approach, although there were no spectators except a few Indians, to be expected, the voyageurs again mounted their finery, and gaily chaunted their boat song. " Mr. Ogden informed me that he has seen the whole country inundated by the rise of the river. This, however, can but rarely occur, and could only be the result of a sudden melting of the snows when accompanied with violent rain storms. I visited, with Mr. Ogden, the Catholic mission and several of the settlers houses. The neighbourhood, though consisting of few families, appear very happy and united. They prefer the Cowlitz to the Willamette, although the land is not so good as in the valley of the latter ; but they say that many vege tables succeed here, that will not grow on the Willamette. " We rode up to the Indian lodges, near the Chick eeles River, in order to engage some of them to accompany us. I noticed the excessive propensities that the whole Indian population seem to have for rum; many of these poor creatures would labour for days, and submit to all sorts of fatigue, for the sake of a small quantity. No other inducement would move them in the salmon and cammass seasons, for then they have abundance and nothing to desire, but the stimulating liquid/ 5 Towards night they encamped on a small prairie, or mount, with flowers and detached trees. The Indians on the Chickeeles River were engaged in the salmon-fishery. Their method of taking the fish is by staking the river across with poles, and constructing pikes, or fish-holes, through which the fish are obliged to pass. Over these are erected triangles to support a stage, on which the Indians stand with nets and spears, and take the fish as they attempt to pass through; the fish are then dried by smoking, and prepared for future use. The smoked fish are packed in baskets, but the supply is usually not sufficient for their wants. At Vancouver, they use the river in preference to the well-water, though they do not consider the latter as unwholesome. 494 OREGON. Excellent spotted trout are abundant in the ponds. Captain Wilkes then returned to Nisqually. " Fully as much," he says, " enchanted with the beautiful park-scenery as when I passed it before. To it was now added additional peeps of Mount Rainier s high and snowy peaks." CHAPTER XXII. EXPEDITION TO WALLA-WALLA. IT having been decided to explore the Walla-walla Valley and River as an impor tant part of Oregon, preparations were made to execute that object; and Mr. Ogden agreed to carry in his boats the party up the Columbia, as far as the mouth of the Walla-walla. These boats have great strength and buoyancy, carry three tons weight, and have a crew of eight men, besides a padroon, or master ; they are thirty feet long, and five feet and a half beam, sharp at both ends, clinker- built, and have no knees. In building them, flat timbers of oak are built to the requisite shape by steaming; they are bolted to a flat keel at distances of a foot from each other; the planks are of cedar, and generally extend the whole length of the boat. The gunwale is of the same kind of wood, but the row locks are of birch. The peculiarity in the construction of these boats is, that they are only rivetted at each end with a strong rivet, and being well gummed, they have no occasion for nailing. They answer, and, indeed, are admirably adapted to, all the purposes for which they are intended; are so light as to be easily transported over the portages by their crews, and in case of accident easily repaired. The goods embarked for the supply of the northern ports are all packed up in bales of ninety pounds each, and each consists of parcels of groceries, clothing, flour, powder, bullets, &c. The equal division of weight is necessary, in conse quence of the numerous portages they have to make, as well as convenient in forming packs for horses, which they take at Okonagan for a journey to Thomp son River, which takes twenty days to accomplish. Mr. Ogden is generally six months of every year to and from his post on the south end of Stuart s Lake, called Fort St. James, in latitude 54 deg. north. He leaves it early in the spring, and returns in the fall of each year. Before he departs, he fits out his summer trappers, and, on his return, those for the winter s campaign. He brings down with him the produce of a year s hunting. This post is the most profitable of all the sections west of the Rocky Mountains. The average cost of a beaver-skin is about twenty-five cents, and when it reaches Vancouver, it has enhanced in price to two dollars and fifty cents. The amount of furs brought down by Mr. Ogden yearly, will nett in London 50 ; 000/. WALLA- WALLA. ,jj,;, In setting out on his journey, Mr. Ogden s practice, as well as that of all the company s parties, is to go only a few miles the first day, in order that they may discover if any thing has been neglected, and be able to return for it. For this reason, their first encampment was at the saw-mill. Their brigade consisted of nine boats rowed by sixty voyageurs, eight of whom had their Indian wives with them. Besides these, were Mr. and Mrs. M Kinley (Mr. Ogden s son-in-law), who was to take charge of the Walla- walla Fort, and a Mr. Cameron, also of the company, who was on his way to Mr. Black s station. The boats take each sixty packages, excepting the trader, which is Mr. Ogden s own boat, and carries only forty. The boatmen are Canadians, excepting about one-fourth, who are Iro- quois Indians, all strong, active, and hardy men. They are provided also with a square sail, as the wind blows generally either directly up or down the river. On the 27th of June, they set off at early dawn, took their breakfast at Prairie du The, and reached the company s fishery, at the Cascades, at six P.M^ where they encamped. This is the head of ship-navigation, where the river takes a turn northward, and for upwards of two miles is comparatively narrower, 450 yards wide. It falls in this distance about forty feet, and the whole body of water drives through the channel with great impetuosity, forming high waves and fear ful whirlpools too dangerous to be encountered by boats. When the river is low, these rapids are sometimes passed by skilful boatmen, but there have been many lives lost in the attempt. The country bordering on the river is low until the Cascades are approached, with the exception of several high basaltic bluffs. Some of them are 200 feet high, pointed like turreted castles. The Columbia, at this part, passes through the Cascade range of mountains, between high and rocky banks. The geological character of this range is basaltic lava, basaltic conglomerate, and sand-stone. Large quantities of petrified wood are to be found in the neighbourhood. Mr. Drayton obtained specimens of all these. The river thus far is navigated by seeking out the eddies. The great diffi culty is found in doubling the points, which are, at times, impassable, except by tracking and poling. The oars are used after the French or Spanish fashion, add ing the whole weight of the body to the strength of the arm. At the Cascades, during the fishing season, there are about 300 Indians, only about one-tenth of whom are residents; they occupy three lodges; but there was formerly a large town here. Great quantities of fish are taken by them ; and the manner of doing this resembles that of the Willamette Falls. They also construct canals, on a line parallel with the shore, with rocks and stones for about fifty feet in length, through which the fish pass in order to avoid the strong current, and are here taken in great numbers. There are two portages here, under the names of the new and the old. At 496 OREGON. the first only half of the load is landed, and the boats are tracked up for half a mile further, when the load is again shipped. The boats are then tracked to the portage. A strong eddy occurs at this place which runs in an opposite direction ; and here it is necessary to land the whole of the cargo ; after which the empty boats are again tracked three-quarters of a mile beyond. To a stranger unacquainted with the navigation of this river, the management of these boatmen is wonderful ; for it is surprising how they can succeed in sur mounting such rapids at all, as the Cascades. Their mode of transporting the goods, and the facilities with which they do it, are equally novel. The load is secured on the back of a voyageur by a band which passes round the forehead and under and over the bale ; he squats down, adjusts his load, and rises with ninety pounds on his back ; another places ninety pounds more on the top, and off he trots, half-bent, to the end of the portage. One of the party had seen a voyageur carry six packages of ninety pounds each on his back (540 pounds); but it was for a wager, and the distance was not more than 100 yards. The voyageurs in general had not the appearance of being very strong men. At these portages, the Indians assist for a small present of tobacco. The boats seldom escape in jury in passing; and in consequence of that which they received on this occasion, the party was detained the rest of the day repairing damages. A short distance above the Cascades, they passed the sunken forest, which was at the time entirely submerged. On the 30th of June they had a favourable wind, but it blew so hard that they were obliged to reef their sail, and afterwards found the waves and wind too heavy for them to run without great danger. They, in consequence, put on shore to await until it abated. In these forty miles of river it usually blows a gale from the westward in the summer season, almost daily. In the evening they reached within seven miles of the Dalles, and four below the mission. Here the roar of the water at the Dalles was heard distinctly. The country had now assumed a different aspect; the trees began to decrease in number, and the land to look dry and burnt up. Before pitching their tents, the men went beating about the bushes to drive away the rattlesnakes, a number of which were killed, and preserved as speci mens. In the morning they were again on their route, and reached Little River, from which the station of the Methodist mission is three-fourths of a mile distance. The mission consists of two log and board houses, hewn, sawed, and built by themselves, with a small barn, and several out-houses. The buildings are situated on high ground, among scattered oaks, and immediately in the rear is an exten sive wood of oaks and pines, with numerous sharp and jagged knolls and obelisk- looking pillars of conglomerate, interspersed among basaltic rocks ; in front is an alluvial plain, having a gradual descent towards the river, and extending to the NORTHERN OREGON. 497 right and left. This plain comprises about 2000 acres of good land, well sup plied with springs, with Little River, and other smaller streams flowing through it. The soil consists of decomposed conglomerate. In some places there appeared deep black loam. Around this tract the land is high, devoid of moisture, and covered with basaltic rocks or sand. They have raised wheat and potatoes by irrigation : the latter grown in great perfection, yield twenty to thirty bushels to the acre. They had just gathered a crop of 200 bushels from land which they irrigated by means of several fine streams near their houses. The summers here are much hotter than at Vancouver, and consequently drier ; the spring rains cease earlier, and the harvest begins in June. There are only a few Indians residing near the mission during the winter, and these are a very miserable set, who live in holes in the ground, not unlike a clay oven. They are too lazy to cut wood for their fires. The number that visit the Dalles during the fishing season is about 1500 ; these are from all the country round, and are generally the outlawed of the different villages. The mission aries complain much of the insolent behaviour and of the thieving habits, both of the visiters, and those who reside permanently at the falls. They are, there fore, very desirous of having a few settlers near, that they may have some pro tection from this annoyance, as they are frequently under apprehension that their lives will be taken. The river between the Cascades and the Dalles, a distance of forty miles, has no rapids, and is navigable for vessels drawing twelve feet of water. It flows through high rocky banks of basalt. The missionaries informed Mr. Drayton, that the salmon fishery at the Dalles lasted six months, and that sturgeon are taken during the greater part of the year. The Dalles is appropriately called the Billingsgate of Oregon. The diversity of dress among the men was greater even than in the crowds of natives which Captain Wilkes saw at the Polynesian islands ; but, he says, they lack the decency and care of their persons which the islanders exhibit. The women also go nearly naked, for they wear little else than what may be termed a breech-cloth of buck-skin, which is black and filthy with dirt ; and some have a part of a blanket. The children go entirely naked, the boys wearing nothing but a small string round their body. It is only necessary to say that some forty or fifty live in a tempo rary hut, twenty feet by twelve, constructed of poles, mats, and cedar bark, to give an idea of the degree of their civilisation. "The men are engaged in fishing, and do nothing else. On the women falls all the work of skinning, cleaning, and drying the fish for their winter stores. As soon as the fish are caught, they are laid for a few hours on the rocks, in the hot sun, which permits the skins to be taken off with greater ease ; the flesh is then stripped VOL. I. 3S 498 OREGON. off tlie bones, mashed and pounded as fine as possible ; it is then spread out on mats, and placed upon frames to dry in the sun and wind, which effectually cures it; indeed, it is said, that meat of any kind dried in this climate never becomes putrid. Three or four days are sufficient to dry a large matful, four inches deep. The cured fish is then pounded into a long basket which will contain about eighty pounds; put up in this way, if kept dry, it will keep for three years. During the fishing season the Indians live entirely on the heads, hearts, and offal of the salmon, which they string on sticks, and roast over a small fire. The fishing is conducted very much in the same manner as at Willamette falls, except that there is no necessity for planks to stand on, as there are great con veniences at the Dalles for pursuing this fishery. They use hooks and spears attached to long poles: both the hook and the spear are made to unship readily, and are attached to the pole by a line four feet below its upper end. If the hook were made permanently fast to the end of the pole, it would be liable to break, and the large fish would be much more difficult to take. The Indians are seen standing along the walls of the canals in great numbers, fishing, and it is not un common for them to take from twenty to twenty-five salmon in an hour. When the river is at its greatest height, the water is about three feet below the top of the bank. The Dalles is one of the most remarkable places upon the Columbia. The river is here compressed into a narrow channel, 300 feet wide, and half a mile long ; the walls are perpendicular, flat on the top, and composed of basalt; the river forms an elbow, being situated in an amphitheatre, extending several miles to the north-west, and closed in by a high basaltic wall. From appearances, one is led to conclude, that in former times the river made a straight course over the whole; but having the channel deeper, is now confined within the present limits. Mr. Dray ton, on inquiry of an old Indian, through Mr. Ogden, learned that he be lieved, that in the time of his forefathers they went up straight in their canoes. Besides the main channel, there are four or five other small canals, through which the water passes when the river is high : these are but a few feet across. The river falls about fifty feet in the distance of two miles, and the greatest rise between high and low water mark is sixty feet. This great rise is caused by the accumulation of water in the river above, which is dammed by this narrow pass, and is constantly increasing until it backs the waters, and overflows many low grounds and islands above. A tremendous roar is constantly heard, caused by the violence of the river and its whirlpools and eddies. The officers of the company have but little time allowed them to attend to their comforts ; so completely are they under the control of accident, that they are liable to be called upon at any moment. Their rights, however, are looked to as much as possible, and the great principle adopted as the incentive to ac tion, is the advancement they may obtain by their own merit, through which WALLA-WALLA. 409 alone they can get forward. In consequence of adhering to this principle, the Hudson s Bay Company are always well served. The discipline that is preserved is the very best, and sits lightly upon all. Those who do not meet with advance ment, have some great fault in a trader s eye. The enterprise and energy required to serve this company well, is of no ordinary kind, and few men exhibit more of both these qualities than those I met with in its employ. On the morning of the 4th of July, they began to pass the portage, which is a mile in length. It is very rugged, and the weather being exceedingly warm, many of the Indians were employed to transport articles on their horses, of which they had a large number. It required seventy men to transport the boats, which were carried over, bottom upwards, the gunwale resting on the men s shoulders. By night all was safely transported, the boats newly gummed, and the encamp ment formed on a sandy beach. The sand, in consequence of the high wind, was blown about in great quantities, and every body and every thing was literally covered with it. From the high hills on the southern bank of the river, there is an extensive view of the country to the south. The distant features of this prospect was pre sented round barren and arid hills. These hills, as well as the country nearer at hand, were covered with natural hay, or bunch grass, which affords very nu tritious food for cattle. The number of Indians within the Dalles mission is reckoned at about 2000 ; in but few of these, however, has any symptom of reform shown itself. They frequent the three great salmon fisheries of the Columbia; the Dalles, Cascades, and Chutes, and a few were found at a salmon fishery about twenty-five miles up the Chutes river. The season for fishing for salmon, which is the chief article of food in this country, lasts during five months, from May to September. The country also furnishes quantities of berries, nuts, roots, and game, chiefly of bears, elk, and deer; but owing to the improvidence of the native inhabitants, they are, notwith standing this ample source of food, often on the verge of starvation. After the fishing and trading season is over, they retire to their villages, and pass the rest of the year in inactivity, consuming the food supplied by the labours of the preceding summer ; and as the season for fishing comes round, they again resort to the fisheries. The country about the Dalles is broken, and the missionaries report that this is the case for some miles around. There are, however, some plains and table lands, which are considered as very fertile, being well watered with springs and small streams ; affording abundant grazing, and well supplied with timber oak and pine. The soil varies in quality, and portions of it are very rich. Garden vegetables succeed, but require irrigation. Potatoes also must be wa tered, by which mode of culture they succeed well. Corn and peas can be raised 500 OREGON. in sufficient quantities. The produce of wheat is about twenty-five bushels to the acre : this is not, however, on the best land. They sow in October and March, and harvest begins towards the end of June. The climate is considered healthy; the atmosphere is dry, and there are no dews. From May till November but little rain falls, but in winter they have much rain and snow. The cold is seldom great, although during the winter preceding our arrival, the thermometer fell to 18 deg. Fahrenheit. The greatest heat experienced in the summer wa slOO deg. in the shade ; but even after the hottest days, the nights are cool and pleasant. At daylight on the 3rd of July, the goods were all embarked. When the party reached the Chutes : a portage over which they carried their goods for a quarter of a mile, and in an hour and a half they were again on their way above these rapids. During very high water, the fall, whence the place takes its name, is not visible, but when it is low, there is a fall of ten feet perpendicular, that occupies nearly the whole breadth of the river. It is impossible to pass this fall at low water ; but when the river is swollen, boats shoot it with ease and safety. The Columbia, from the Chutes as far as John Day s River, is filled with rocks, which occasion dangerous rapids. The boats were, in consequence, tracked for the whole distance. After passing the Dalles, an entirely new description of country is[ entered. The line of wood extends no further. The last tree stands on the south side of the river, about six miles above the Dalles. The woods terminate at about the same distance from the coast in all parts of this region south of the parallel of 48 deg. north. The country between these places is decidedly volcanic, and the banks on either side of the river are rocky and high. In this part of the country it is very hot when there is no wind. Mr. Drayton had no thermometer, and therefore was unable to ascertain the exact degree of heat but any metallic substance exposed to the sun for a short time, became so hot, as not to be held in the hand without suffering, and the men were nearly exhausted with the oppressive heat. John Day s River falls into the Columbia from the south. It abounds with salmon, and, to catch which, the Indians resort to if, and erect temporary lodges during the salmon season. This part of Oregon is described as a rocky region, with vast quantities of fine sand, brought down the freshets of the river, and deposited, where the Indian or trading encampments are made. When proceeding up and down the Columbia, these sand-banks become in summer exceedingly dry and hot. Few places can be more uncomfortable to encamp upon. A basaltic wall rises 900 or 1000 feet within 200 yards of the encampment, and reflects the sun s rays down upon the white sand-beach, the heated atmos phere becomes, in consequence, almost insupportable; the rocks, an hour after WALLA-WALLA. the sun had set, were found too hot to sit upon. At the time of encamping they had a rattle-snake hunt, and several large ones were killed. The party proceeded upwards the next morning with the rising sun, a breeze carried them onwards, and about eight miles above their encampment, they came to the Hieroglyphic Rocks, upon which are supposed to be recorded the deeds of some former tribe. Above John Day s River, the country becomes much lower, more arid, and the stream of the Columbia less rapid. The weather continued exceedingly hot, and islands, or dry banks in the river, were passed, composed entirely of drifted sand. At the long reach, below Grand Island, the country is sandy and flat up to the Grand Rapid Hills. Proceeding up the long reach, the voyageurs exchanged the pole for the tow- line and oar, and the Indians being no longer wanted, were discharged. The distance ascended this day, aided by the breeze, was fifty-seven miles ; the previous day the progress was only sixteen miles. While passing close along the banks, numerous pin tailed grouse were so tame as to allow the boats to ap proach within a few yards. All along the Columbia, from the Dalles upwards, there was only one tree seen growing, and, except a log or trunk drifting down occasionally, nothing larger than a splinter of wood was seen. The wood used for cooking was brought there by the Indians, who would follow the party for miles with a long pole, or a billet of wood, which they exchanged for a small piece of tobacco. The Indians also sold the party several large hares of extremely fine flavour. The country upwards continued to be, as far as could be seen, on both sides of the Columbia, a barren and sterile waste, covered with white sand, mixed with pebbles, producing nothing but a little grass, some hard wood, and a species of small cactus, filled with long, white, hard, and sharp spines. On the 6th of July, the party reached the foot of the Grand Rapids, up which the boats were tracked. They afterwards passed along the foot of Grand Rapid Hills, which consist of basalt, lava, and scoria. These hills rise abruptly near the river, and are fast crumbling and falling into the stream. Eighteen miles below Walla-walla, they passed the Windmill Rock, near which arise a number of basaltic peaks. On approaching Walla-walla, the scen ery changes into bold grandeur. Fantastic volcanic peaks arise, either isolated or in groups. Through a pass in the river which flows rapidly through volcanic rocks, the wind rushes with great violence in summer, to restore the equilibrium in the ratified atmosphere above. About a mile and a half below the Hudson Bay Company s fort, Nez Perce, at the junction of the Willamette, the banks of the river become flat, and during floods scarcely rise above the stream. This low ground is composed of pebbles and drifting sand for several miles to the east and to the north, with little 502 OREGON. or no soil for arable purposes. It produces nothing but scattered tufts of bunch grass and wormwood. NEZ PERCE; or, Fort Walla-walla is about 200 feet square, and fenced in with pickets : having a gallery erected within ; along the walls, so high as to enable those inside to overlook the pickets, and observe the surrounding country. It has two bastions, one on the south-west, and the other on the north-east. On the inside are several buildings, constructed of logs and mud ; one of which is the Indian store ; the whole is covered with sand and dust, which is blown about in vast quantities. The climate in summer is very hot, and every thing about the fort seemed so dry, that it appeared that a single spark would ignite the whole, and reduce it to ashes. Mr. Ogden informed the party, that the most experienced voyageur is taken by him for the brigade as pilot, or bowman of the leading boat. This post is considered one of great trust and honour. Each other boat has also its bowman, who is considered the first officer and responsible man ; the safety of the boat in descending rapids, particularly, depends upon the bowman, and the padroon who steers the boat. They both use long and broad blade paddles ; and it is surprising how much power both possess over the direction of the boat. These men, from long training, become very expert, and acquire extraordinary self-pos session, courage, and dexterity amidst the most frightful dangers. Their la borious fidelity and endurance are remarkable; for a remuneration of no more than 17/. sterling a year, pay, and the coarse fare they receive. Their food con sists of coarse bread, made of unsifted flour or meal, dried salmon, fat (tal low), and dried peas. Captain Wilkes "is satisfied, that no American would submit to such food; the Canadian and Iroquois Indians use it without murmuring, except to strangers, to whom they complain much of their scanty pay and food. The discipline is strict, and of an arbitrary kind; yet they do not find fault with it." Very few of those who embark or join the company s service, ever leave the part of the country they have been employed in; for after the expiration of the first five years, they usually enlist for five more. This service of eight years, in a life of so much adventure and hazard, attaches them to it, and they generally continue till they are old men; when, being married, and having children by In dian women, they retire under the auspices of the company, to small farms, either on the Red or Columbia rivers. There is no allowance stipulated for their wives or children; but one is usually made, if they have been useful. If a man dies, leaving a family, although the company is not under any obligation to pro vide for them, they are generally taken care of. " The officers of the company are particularly strict in preventing its servants from deserting their wives ; and none can abandon them without much secrecy and cunning. In cases of this sort, the individual is arrested, and kept under restraint, until he binds himself with se- WALLA-WALLA. 503 curity, not to desert his family. The chief officers of the company hold the power of magistrates over their own people, and are bound to send fugitives or criminals back to Canada for trial, where the courts take cognizance of the offences " The community of old voyageurs settled in Oregon, are thus constrained to keep a strict watch upon their behaviour; and although perhaps against their inclinations, are obliged to conform to the wishes of those whose employ they have left." The brigade of voyageurs and traders under Mr. Ogden, proceeded up the Columbia to Okonagon, and the American party rode upwards of twenty miles before dark, passing over the pasture grounds of the horses belonging to the com pany. Some months before several horses were driven by the wolves over an alluvial bank, about 100 feet in height, and killed and eaten by those voracious beasts, which are very numerous in this territory. They passed over borders of the Walla-walla, for about half a mile from its banks. As far as seen by the party, the country was green and fertile. The banks of the small tributaries falling into the Walla-walla were of a simi lar character. To the north and south are extensive prairies, covered with the natural hay of the country, on which the cattle feed. This natural grass grows tip spontaneously and luxuriantly with the early spring rains. It is afterwards, on the ground, without cutting, actually transformed into hay by the great heat and drought of the month of July. It is not withered, but suddenly dried with its nutritious qualities retained. In this state cattle prefer it even to the young green grass of the meadows bor dering the streams. The party visited the American mission Walilaptu, established in 1837. There is a second missionary station, Lapwai (clear water), at the mouth of the Koos- kooskee. There was a third, Kamia, instituted about sixty miles up that river. It was abandoned in two years as useless. The mission at Chimikaine,is about sixty miles south-east of Fort Colville, and near the river Spokane, a stream falling into the Columbia. At the first mission, Waulaptu, the party found two houses, each of one story, built of adobes, with mud roofs, to insure a cooler habitation in summer. Also a small saw-mill and some grist-mills, all moved by water ; a kitchen-garden in which grows all the ordinary kinds of vegetables raised in the United States, and se veral kinds of fine melons. The wheat, some of which stood seven feet high, was nearly ripe. Indian corn grew as high as nine feet m flower. The soil in the vicinity of the small streams near the mission, was found to be a rich black loam, and very deep ; but the whole area fit for cultivation along these streams did not amount to more than 10,000 acres. Parts are annually overflowed by the rivers ; and the whole might, if necessary, be easily irrigated. 504 OREGON. These streams take their rise in the Blue Mountains, about forty miles east of Walla-walla, and are never known to fail. " The climate of this district/ says Captain Wilkes, " is very dry, as it sel dom rains for seven or eight months in the year. During the greater part of this time, the country, forty miles north and south of this strip, has an arid appearance. There are large herds of horses owned by the Indians, that find excellent pastur age in the natural hay on its surface. There is a vast quantity and profusion of edible berries on the banks of the stream above spoken of, consisting of the ser vice berry, two kinds of currants, whortleberry, and wild gooseberries; these the Indians gather in large quantities for their winter supplies. " The Grande Ronde is a plain or mountain prairie, surrounded by high ba saltic walls. This is called by the Indians Karpkarp/ which is translated into Balm of Gilead. Its direction from Walla-walla is east-south-east, and the road to the United States passes through it. It is fifteen miles long by twelve wide, and is the place where the Cayuse, Nez Perce, and Walla-walla Indians meet to trade with the Snakes or Shoshones, for roots, skin-lodges, elk, and buffalo meat, in exchange for salmon and horses. " The Grande Ronde is likewise resorted to for the large quantities of cam- mass-root that grows there, which constitutes a favourite food with all the In dians. The missionaries have quite a number of cattle and horses, which require little or no attention, there being an abundance of hay and grass. The price of a good horse is twenty dollars. This district is capable of supporting a vast number of cattle. One Cayuse chief has more than 1000 horses on these feeding grounds. 5 The winters are described of about three months duration, and snow re mains on the ground for only a short time. Grass grows all winter. Mr. Kinley, of the Hudson Bay Company passed from the north-west or Snake Indian country across the Blue Mountains in January, 1841. He found the snow on the mountains five to six feet deep and the weather intensely cold. On descending to the plains and the Grande Ronde, the following day the tempera ture was agreeably warm ; the grass was green, and the flowers in bloom. Trees re-appear on the banks of the Walla-walla, chiefly poplar, willow, birch, and alder. The poplar grows to the thickness of about two and a half feet, and to the height of about 100 feet. Captain Wilkes says little that is satisfactory of the success of the labours of the missionaries. " The Indians wander away, and seldom continue more than three or four months in the same place. After they return from the Grande Ronde, which is in July, they remain for three or four months and then move off to the north and east to hunt buffalo. After their return from the Buffalo hunt they are again stationary for a short time. 5 The Indians have begun irrigating their arable lands, in imitation of the missionaries. There are WALLA- WALLA. 505 grouse, curlew, and two kinds of hare, and some other sorts of game abound in this district. In company with Mr. Gray the party proceeded from the Mission to the Blue Mountains. On their way they passed through large herds of horses belonging to the Cayuse Indians: the soil improved. It consisted chiefly of decomposed scoria of a reddish colour, finding luxuriant grass here in every direction ; and the grass in such places, from receiving more moisture, is more luxuriant. They ascended from the prairie up the mountain to " the snowline," about 5600 feet. The pine-forest extend up to this height, and the Walla-walla, with its numerous branches, could be seen wending through the plains beneath until it flowed into the Columbia River. Captain Wilkes observes, " There seems to be a peculiarity about the climate at Walla- walla not readily to be accounted for. It has been stated above that little winter weather is experienced here, and that this mildness is owing to the hot winds of the south, which sweep along from the extensive sandy deserts existing in Upper California. This wind or simoon during the summer is held in great dread in this part of the country, for it is of a burning character that is quite overpowering. It generally comes from the south-west. In consequence of this feature of the climate there is very little vegetation near the fort, not only on account of the heat and dryness, but owing to the vast clouds of drifting sand which are frequently so great as to darken the sky. In summer it blows here constantly, and at night the winds generally amount to a gale." A phe nomenon is observed at the junction of the Columbia and Snake Rivers. The current of the Columbia, flowing from the north, is remarkably cold; the Snake River, flowing from the south, is warm. ee This difference is perceived even at Walla-walla, for the water passing along the east shore near the fort is too warm to drink, and when they desire to have cooler water for drinking it is brought from the middle of the river by a canoe." The party on descending from Walla-walla chose the left or south bank of the Columbia. The route on the north side is shortest, but not so easily tra velled over as on the south. In passing along Indian trails are seen, many sometimes converging into one, or diverging from one into several tracks, mark the routes of the Indians in their journeys over the country. When they reached the Dalles, the aspect of this part of the Columbia was greatly changed. The waters had fallen during the previous twenty days thirty feet. The river had not even then fallen to its lowest depression, but was confined within high perpendi cular rocks, and the beach where the party three weeks before had stood, and from which they were able to touch the flood as it passed, was now far above it, and the river, instead of rushing through many channels, was now confined to a VOL. i. 3 T 508 OREGON. single one. It still, however, rushed along with all the fury and violence of a mighty torrent, and had as yet as much as twenty-seven feet to fall to low water. " In this state of the river the company s boats frequently shoot or descend it, but this is at all times an exploit of great danger. Many fearful accidents have taken place with the most experienced boatmen, who with all their skill could not pre serve themselves from being carried into the vortex, drawn under, and destroyed. " Such is the peculiar nature of the rush of water through the Dalles, that for some minutes the whole will appear quite smooth, gliding onwards as though there were no treachery within its flow, when suddenly the waters will begin to move in extended and slow whirls, gradually increasing in velocity until it narrows itself into almost a funnel shape, when having drawn towards it all within its reach, it suddenly ingulphs the whole, and again resumes its tranquil state. 5 During the expedition to Walla-walla, Mr. Drayton made the necessary obser vations for constructing a map of the Columbia above the Cascades as far as Walla-walla, which has been incorporated in Captain Wilkes s chart of Oregon* in the small atlas accompanying the narrative of the exploring expedition. CLIMATE. The state of the weather during the period of one hundred and six days, was as follows : Fair, seventy-six days; cloudy, nineteen days; rain, eleven days. The crops of all descriptions of grain were good, which Captain Wilkes sup posed to be the best criterion of the climate. The temperature of the western section throughout the year, is mild; with little extreme heat in summer, or severe cold in winter. He considered this to be owing to the constant prevalence of the south-westerly or ocean winds. " It certainly is not owing to the influence of any warm stream setting along its shores. The current near the coast sets to the south east, and is of a cold temperature : it would rather tend to lessen the heats in summer than the cold in winter. There have been no observations kept by the missionaries in this lower section of the country. It is liable, from the ex perience of our parties, to early frosts, owing to the proximity of the snowy mountains. Frosts sometimes occur in the latter part of August, which check all vegetation at that early season. 5 " The south-west winds are caused by the vast extent of the sandy and arid country lying east of the Cascade and Californian range of mountain, which, be coming heated, rarefies the air, and causes an indraught from the west. The current is found to increase in violence as the rarefied region is approached ; and BO constant is this draught, that we experienced only three days of easterly winds during our stay, and these were very moderate in force. Immediately on the * This map embraced the whole of the territory of Oregon between the parallels of 42 and 54 N. The southern pass (called Fremont s Pass) of the Rocky Mountains is also included, which was taken from the surveys of Lieutenant Fremont, of the United States Engineer Corps. \VALLA-\VALLA. 507 coast the winds are from the west-south-west to west-north-west : these main tain their direction until they reach the interior, and blow with great violence. " The winters are invariably what would be termed open ones with us. Snow seldom falls, and when it does, it rarely lasts more than two or three days. The rains during this season are frequent, though not violent. The climate in the v/estern section, from all accounts, is not unlike that of England, and would be termed a wet one. The winter of 1840 was the severest they had yet ex perienced. " The middle section is, on the contrary, exceedingly dry, and the tempe rature more changeable, the variations being great and sudden ; the mercury has been known to fall as low as 18 degrees in the winter, and to rise as high as 108 degrees in the shade in summer. In Appendix xiii., vol. iv., will be found a register of the temperature kept at one of the missionary stations, Lap- wai, on the Kooskooskee. It may be said to be on the eastern border of the middle section. " The eastern section has an exceedingly variable climate : it fluctuates from cold to hot in a few hours, ranging through fifty or sixty degrees of temperature; yet from the accounts I have from very respectable authority, the cold is by no means severe for any length of time. The Rev. Mr. Smith, who was two years there, assured me that the cattle and horses required no other food than what they could pick up, the natural hay before spoken of being sufficient for their sup port. " The climate throughout Oregon is thought to be salubrious for the white race ; and was considered so by the Indians, prior to the year 1830, when the ague and fever, or any disease resembling it, was not known to exist. The In dians fully believe to this day that Captain Dominis introduced the disease in 1830. Since that time it has committed frightful ravages among them, not so much, perhaps, from the violence of the disease itself, as the manner in which they treat it. It was not until quite lately that they were willing to be treated after our mode, and they still in many cases prefer the incantations and practices of the medicine-man. " 508 OREGON, CHAPTER XXIII. EXPEDITION TO OKONAGAN IN 1841. ON the 20th of May, Lieutenant Johnson was despatched in command of an expedition to explore the country below Nisqually over the Cascade range of mountains to Okonagan, on the Columbia. He was accompanied by guides and an interpreter, who understood the dialects of each tribe : the party were mounted on horses, and well equipped. The practicability of crossing the mountains was at first doubted, but accomplished by the perseverance and prudence of Lieutenant Johnson. After leaving the prairie they ascended by a path nearly overgrown with hazel, gualtheria, cornus, spiraea, vacunum, &c. The streams they met were crossed with difficulty, being swollen by the melting of snows in the mountains. They had frequently to cut their way through thickets and fallen timber: steep precipices were ascended, their horses often stuck fast in miry holes among the roots of trees. Along the banks of Upthascap they saw arbor vitse trees thirty feet in circumference four feet from the ground, and above 100 feet high. They saw little game and killed but one deer. They then passed over valleys and hills, and forests of spruce. Some of the fallen trees measured 265 feet in length. One which had been broken off, was supposed to measure little less than 300 feet, and was about thirty-five feet in circumference. Some of the fallen spruce trees were so thick that it was impossible to see over them on horseback. On their trunks seedlings were frequently seen growing forcing their roots through the old bark and round the trunk until sustenance was found in the earth. To add to the difficulties the horses frequently strayed away during the night. Along the Smalocho the road lay near conical hills, the sides clad with gigantic pines. Cotton wood, maple, spruce, pine, elder, and an undergrowth of rasberry bushes were also passed. Lieutenant Johnson ascended La Tete, a bare mountain (2790 feet high), to make observations latitude 47 deg. 8 min. 54 sec. north. The mountain and country near it had been over run by fire. The horses and Indians soon after became exhausted, and food scarce, which de layed them at the Little Prairie (47 deg. 5 min. 54 sec. north, longitude, 120 deg. 13 min. west, magnetic variation 19 deg. 39 sec. east). On the Cascade summit the snow was found ten feet deep by Mr.Waldron, who was sent on, before attempting the ascent with the horses and baggage. The snow began to melt rapidly. After enduring great fatigue the summit was passed by the cavalcade, and the descent accomplished. The breadth of snow passed over was about eight miles. The banks of the small streams on the eastern side of the range, were clothed with a EXPEDITION TO OKONAGAN. 5Q9 great variety of trees and shrubs. They proceeded down along the banks of the Spiper, a branch of the Columbia, Its banks were rugged, and they continued their journey over a very rough country, and afterwards over a high ridge covered with a scanty growth of pines, until they reached the Yakima, which being too deep to ford, was crossed in the India-rubber Balsas. Here they succeeded in purchasing moose and salmon from the Indians, and then continued their route to the northward, until they encamped on a plateau 5203 feet high. They continued their route up the mountain, but the barometical experiments were intercepted by the accidental breaking of the instrument, and they after wards descended to the Columbia, near the stream called Pischous River. Here the Columbia was rapid, its banks rugged, sterile, and destitute even of scattered trees. It flows through a narrow ravine from 1000 to 1500 feet deep. They then ascended and encamped on the south-west side on a patch of meadow land, where the Indians cultivate some potatoes. Many grouse and curlews were killed. They crossed, men and horses, the Pischous, with the aid of the Indians, and proceeded upwards towards Okonagan, over a rugged country grouse prevailed. Some white marble was also seen. They afterwards crossed the Columbia by means of the India-rubber Balsas and a raft. They then ascended about 2000 feet to a plateau without wood and covered with long grass, and, after much fatigue, they reached on the 8th of June banks of the Columbia, opposite to Okonagan, to which they crossed. This as a trading post is described as fall ing into decay, and only kept up as a depot for supplies in connexion with the northern parts of New Caledonia. Few furs are found in this neighbourhood, and the extreme scarcity of game and fur animals is remarkable in this part of middle Oregon. This post and Spokane were the first established by the American Fur Company (in 1812). It afterwards fell to the North-west, and then to the Hud son Bay Company. It has, as usual at the posts, an Indian encampment on the outside, but there is no Indian settlement nearer than eight miles, where there is a salmon fishery. It is somewhat difficult to account for the scarcity of game, as the exploring party was " well satisfied that there is an abundance of food, and that all kinds of cattle would thrive exceedingly in this section, where grass is so abundant." Okonagan is situated on a poor, flat, sandy neck, about two miles above the junction of the river of that name with the Columbia. It is a square, picketed in the same manner as those already described, but destitute of bastions, and re moved sixty yards from the Columbia. French is the language spoken here, as it is at all the other posts of the company. Half a mile above the mouth of the Okonagan it was found to be 300 feet wide : it is a dull, turbid stream. The Columbia at this place was found to be 1900 feet wide. Besides the care of barges for navigating the river, and the 510 OREGON. horses for "the land journey to the northern ports, the employes at this post collect what skins they can: about eighty beaver skins during the year, the price of each of which is usually about twenty charges of powder and ball. Some bear, marten, and other skins are also obtained, for which the prices vary. At this point the company had some goats, and thirty-five head of very fine cattle, which produce abundance of milk and butter. Neither of them were then permitted to be slaughtered, and the only animal food used is a species of rat, caught by the Indians, called " siffleurs" which burrow among the stones on the hill sides in great numbers. They are very fat, and considered good food. The soil is too poor for farming operations, and only a few potatoes are grown. There is, much further north, Fort Thompson, near the Kamloops Lake, from which a stream falls into Fraser s River, which is in charge of an Indian, and is of less importance than Okonagan. The company s servants at this northern post live mostly on salmon. The difficulty of getting provisions to the posts in. the interior is very great ; all that is consumed at the north is carried twenty-four days journey on pack-horses, and eighteen in barges, before it arrives at its destination ; and the amount trans ported is not more than enough to supply the officers whose allowance is very limited. The servants of the company at these places receive an increase of pay as some recompense for their privations. In the vicinity of Fort Okonagan, are found gooseberries, June berries, and currants, which ripen in June. The Columbia, in the neighbourhood of Okonagan is very winding in its course, and is interrupted by dalles, about five miles above. The expedition ascended the Okonagan to the country above Grande Coulee, supposed previously to have once been the bed of the Columbia ; but, on examination, it was considered as " much too wide, and that its entrance was nearly choked up by granite hills, that do not leave sufficient space for the river to have flowed through. The walls of the Coulee consist of basaltic cliffs similar to those of the Palisades of the Hudson, 790 feet high ; and where it was crossed by the party, it was three miles wide; but a few miles further to the south, it narrowed to two miles. Its direction is nearly north and south, fifteen miles. " In the level parts of the Coulee, the earth was much cracked; saline incrus tations were abundant, which, sparkling brilliantly in the sun, gave the plain somewhat the appearance of being covered with water. The Coulee, which was probably at a former period a lake, is impregnated with saline matter, and considered unfit for grain crops, but as " admirably adapted for the raising of cattle and sheep, there being abundance of water, and plenty of good grass here, and for twenty miles on each side of it." After leaving the Coulee, they travelled over a gently-rolling prairie country, affording excellent sheep-pasture, but entirely destitute of trees. After travelling fourteen miles, they reached the " Coulee des Pierres," where the prairie termi- EXPEDITION TO OKONAGAN. 5H nated. This has features somewhat similar to those of the Grande Coulee for two miles, when, turning to the right, and two miles further, brought them to the Columbia, whose banks were here thickly wooded.* Following the course of the river for four miles, over spurs of hills, they reached the confluence of the Spokane, which was 300 feet broad at its mouth ; but which, like the Columbia, was at this time much swollen opposite to the mouth of the Spokane ; there are rocks in the Columbia beneath the surface of the water, which cause rapids ; but there is no perceptible fall, and the barges shoot over them without much danger. By the assistance of some Indians, with two canoes they crossed the river, and breakfasted on the opposite side that day. On arriving at Fort Colville, after having experienced some difficulty in riding their Indian horses up to the gate ; for the waggons, poultry, pigs, cabins, and other objects of civilisation, excited no little alarm to their animals. Lieutenant Johnson proceeded up the Spokane, " which, for the first ten miles, has a course of east-south-east. The route passes through much fine scenery, and on the southern side of the river, the hills form terraces, clothed with grass, and having a few pines growing on them. The pines yield an agreeable shade, and the banks offer numerous beautiful sites for dwellings. The river itself is pretty : its waters are transparent, and it is joined in its course by many bubbling brooks. To judge from the number of sheds for drying salmon, it must abound with fish. The average width of the stream was about 200 feet." After leaving the Spokane, they rode in a north-east direction, over hills co vered with pines, and through valleys rich with fine meadows ; and after a ride of thirty-five miles from the mouth of the Spokane, reached the missionary station of Chimikaine. On returning from this mission to Colville, they travelled through an exten sive valley to the north, with hills on either side of from 600 to 1000 feet in height. This valley is crossed by numerous streamlets and brooks, and appears to have an extremely fertile soil. The largest stream passed was one near Colville, on which the Hudson Bay Company have their grist-mills; this is about fifty feet wide. Within ten miles of the fort, the house of the company s storekeeper was passed, and near it is found a species of white chalk, or pigment, which is much used at the fort, instead of the common lime whitewash, from which it is scarcely distinguishable. On reaching the fort, the hospitality of the Hudson Bay Company s superintendents soon made the party forget the fatigues of their journey up the Spokane. Fort Colville is situated on the east bank of the Columbia, just above the Ket tle Falls, where the river is pent up between rocks, and runs or rushes in a lateral channel, which nearly encircles a level tract of land, containing about 200 acres of rich soil. Of this peninsula, about 130 acres are under cultivation, and producecrops * On the banks were found a singular species of Trillium, almost stemless. 512 OREGON. of wheat, barley, and potatoes; small quantities of oats, Indian corn, and peas, are also raised, but garden vegetables have never succeeded well. The failure, however, is to be attributed either to bad seeds, or unskilful management ; for the soil, which is a rich black loam, mixed with a portion of gravel, seems capable of producing any thing. The whole peninsula has the appearance of having been deposited by the river, and is believed to be the only spot of that character formed in its whole course. There are two entrances to the fort, from one of which a road leads to the grist-mill ; from the other a path leads along the bank of the river. Fort Colville, like the other posts of the Hudson Bay Company, contains the dwellings and warehouses, and is surrounded with high pickets and bastions, forming a strong defensive work against the Indians. Being surrounded by good soil, it is superior for the purposes of cultivation, to any other post on the upper waters of the Columbia. The Kettle Falls are formed by a ledge or stratum of quartz which crosses the river, and from being harder than the rocks either above or below, has suffered less by abrasion, and thus forming a basin, which, from its fame, is called the Kettle or Churdur. The total descent of the water is about fifty feet, which prevents the passage of boats. At the foot of the falls, the breadth of the river is 2330 feet, and the average of the current is four miles an hour. There is an Indian village on the banks of the great falls, inhabited by a few families, who are called " Quiarlpi" (Basket People), from the circumstance of their using baskets to catch their fish (salmon).* At the lower end of the falls are large masses of quartz rock, on which the Indians dry their fish. Few of the salmon, even if able to pass the lower falls, ever get by the upper one, being generally caught between the two falls ; conse quently, above this place no salmon are taken. A short distance below the Ket tle Falls, are the Thompson Rapids, which begin at the mouth of Mill River, and extend for some distance below that point. Fort Colville is stated, by the officers of the Hudson Bay Company, to be 2200 feet above the sea. " This great rise takes place within the space of 500 miles, and is unequalled in any other river of so great a size. The cultivation of crops is here the principle object of attention ; for the whole of the northern posts depend upon Fort Colville for supplies of provisions. " As to climate, this region has the reputation of being more rainy than the country below, but seasons occur when no rain falls. In the summer the tempe rature varies very considerably in the course of twenty-four hours. The tempera ture in summer (July) rises to 100 deg, and falls to 12 deg. in January and Fe bruary. The winter commences in November, and ends in March. They fre- * These are great basket-work cribs, in which, Captain Wilkes says, that sometimes 300 fish are caught at one haul. EXPEDITION TO OKONAGAN. 513 quently have flowers blooming in February. The time of planting the spring- wheat is in April ; the winter grain is sown in October, and succeeds best parti cularly if the autumn should be a wet one. The crops of wheat are reaped in August. Indian corn is not a sure or prolific crop : it is planted in May, and gathered in September. Potatoes, beans, and some oats, with 2000 bushels of wheat, are raised annually at this place. " Of fruits they have those of the country, such as the service-berry, straw berry, wild-cherry, and the hawthorn-berry. These ripen from June to September. Imported fruit-trees have not as yet succeeded ; it is said the spring frosts are too frequent and too severe." This post was established in 1825, at which time a bull and two cows were introduced from Vancouver, and (down to 1841), from these have sprung 196 head of fine cattle. They have likewise thirty mares with foal, and sixty grown horses. The horses are little used during the winter, and are usually turned out to shift for themselves. Care is, however, taken to keep them in places which are much exposed to the sun, and in consequence least covered with snow. The operations of the Hudson s Bay Company over the northern portion of Oregon, which is included in their maps, under the name of New Caledonia, are very extensive, and in this section they have several posts.* * Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in his voyage of discovery across the continent in 1793, came to the spot on which Fort Alexandria is built, and was dissuaded by the Indians from following the course of the river to its mouth. On quitting this place he proceeded to the West Road River, from whence, by an overland journey, he succeeded in reaching the shores of the Pacific Ocean. This country is full of small lakes, rivers, and marshes. It extends about ten days march in a north and north-east direction. To the south and south-east the Atnah, or Chin Indian country, extends about one hundred miles; on the east there is a chain of lakes, and the mountains bor dering Thompson s River ; while to the westward and north-west lie the lands of the Naskotins and Clinches. The principal rivers are Eraser s, Quesnel s, Rough Poplar, Chilcotin, and West ! Road. Of these Frazer s River only is navigable. It receives the waters of Quesnel and West 1 Poplar rivers, which issue from small lakes to the eastward. The lakes are numerous, and some of them tolerably large ; one, two, and even three days, are at times required to cross some of them. They abound in a plentiful variety of fish, such as trout, sucker, &c. ; and the natives assert that white fish is :ometimes taken. These lakes are generally fed by mountain streams, and many of them spread out, and are lost in the surrounding marshes. In visiting the Naskotin and Chin Indians, our conveyance is by canoes on Frazer s River ; but our journeys to Bear Lake, Kloukins, and Chilcotins, must be performed on foot. The trading goods are now obtained from the Columbia department, to which the returns of furs are forwarded. Horses are used for conveying the goods, and the journey generally occupies six weeks. The roads are extremely bad, and in every direction vre encounter numerous rivulets, small lakes, and marshes. The soil is poor : an indifferent mould, not exceeding eight inches in depth, covers a bed of gravel and sand. All the vegetables we planted, notwithstanding the utmost care and precaution, nearly Tailed ; and the last crop of potatoes did not yield one-fourth of the seed planted. On the banks of the river, and in the interior, the trees consist of poplar, cypress, alder, cedar, birch, and dif ferent species of fir, spruce, and willow. There is not the same variety of wild fruit as on the Columbia. Service-berries, choke cherries, gooseberries, strawberries, and red whortleberries, are gathered ; but among the Indians the service-berry is the great favourite. There are various cinds of roots, which the natives preserve and dry for periods of scarcity. There is only one und which we can eat. It is called tza-chin, has a bitter taste, but when eaten with salmon im parts an agreeable zest, and effectually destroys the disagreeable smell of that fish when smoke- Iried. St. John s wort is very common, and lias been successfully applied as a fomentation n opical inflammations. A kind of weed, which the natives convert into a species of flax, is in ;eneral demand. An evergreen similar to that found at the mouth of the Columbia, with small terries growing in clusters like grapes, also flourishes in this district. Sarsaparilla and bear-rool VOL. i. 3 u 514 OREGON. At Colville, the number of beaver-skins purchased is but small, and the packs \vhich accrue annually from it and its two outposts, Koutaine and Flatbead, with the purchases made by a person who travels through the Flathead country, amount only to forty, including the bear and wolf-skins. Musk-rats, martens, and foxes, are the kinds most numerous in this neighbourhood. The outposts above-mentioned are in charge of a Canadian trader, who receives his outfit from Colville. Fort Chillcoaten is a clerk s station in latitude 52 deg. 10 min. north on the Chillcoaten Branch of Frazer s River. The Chillcoatens are a small tribe num- are found in abundance. A strong decoction of the two latter with the berries last mentioned has been repeatedly tried by our men in venereal cases, and has always proved successful. White earth abounds in the vicinity of the fort ; and one description of it, mixed with oil and lime, might be converted into excellent soap. Coal in considerable quantities has been discovered, and in many places we observed a species of red earth, much resembling lava, and which appeared to be of volcanic origin. We also found in different parts of New Caledonia quartz, rock crystal, cobalt, talc, iron, marcasites of a gold colour, granite, fuller s earth, some beautiful specimens of black marble, and limestone in small quantities, which appeared to have been forced down the beds of the rivers from the mountains. The jumping-deer, or chevreuil, together with the rein and red- deer, frequent the vicinity of the mountains in considerable numbers, and in the summer season they oftentimes descend to the banks of the rivers and the adjacent flat country. The marmot and wood-rat also abound ; the flesh of the former is exquisite, and capital robes are made out of its skin ; but the latter is a very destructive animal. Their dogs are of diminutive size, and strongly resemble those of the Esquimaux, with the curled-up tail, small ears, and pointed nose. We purchased numbers of them for the kettle, their flesh constituting the chief article of food in our holiday feasts for Christmas and New Year. The fur-bearing animals consist of beavers ; bears, black, brown, and grizzly ; otters, fishers, lynxes, martens ; foxes, red, cross, and silver ; minks, musquash, wolverines, and ermines. Rabbits also are so numerous that the natives manage to subsist on them during the periods that salmon is scarce. Under the head of ornithology we have the bustard, or Canadian outarde (wild goose), swans, ducks of various descriptions, hawks, plovers, cranes, white-headed eagles, magpies, crows, vultures, wood-thrush, red-breasted thrush, or robin, woodpeckers, gulls, pelicans, hawks, partridges, pheasants, and snow-birds. The spring commences in April, when the wild flowers begin to bud, and from thence to the latter end of May the weather is delightful. In June it rains incessantly, witli strong southerly and easterly winds. During the months of July and August the heat is intolerable ; and in September the fogs are so dense that it is quite impossible to distinguish the opposite side of the river any morning before ten o clock. Colds and rheumatisms are prevalent among the natives during this period : nor are our people exempt from them. In October the falling of the leaves and occasional frost announce the beginning of winter. The lakes and parts of the river are frozen in November. The snow seldom exceeds twenty-four inches in depth. The mercury in Fahrenheit s ther mometer falls in January to 15 degrees below 0; but this does not continue many days. In general, I may say, the climate is neither unhealthy nor unpleasant ; and if the natives used com mon prudence, they would undoubtedly live to an advanced age. The salmon fishery com mences about the middle of July, and ceases in October. This is a busy period for the natives^; for upon their industry in saving a sufficiency of salmon for the winter depends their chief sup port. Their method of catching the salmon is ingenious, and does not differ much from that practised by the upper natives of the Columbia. The Chilcotin River takes its rise in a lake of the same name : its course from Alexandria is S.S.E. ; its length, including its meanderings, about one hundred and eighty miles ; and its breadth varies from forty to sixty yards ; it is quite shallow, and full of rapids. The lake is about half a mile in breadth,* and sixty miles in length, and is surrounded by lofty mountains, from which a number of small rivulets descend. It contains abundance of sucker, trout, and white fish. Salmon, however, is the favourite fish ; but as it does not regularly descend their river, they are often obliged to content themselves with the produce of the lake. They are poor hunters, otherwise they might chiefly subsist on animal food ; for the rein-deer, with the red and moose deer, are found in great numbers in the moun tains ; and in the autumnal months the black-tail and jumping-deer are plentiful. According to their accounts, travellers may in six days, from the end of Chilcotin Lake, after crossing a range of mountains, reach a river in a southerly direction which discharges its waters into the ocean, at a place where the Indians carry on a traffic with Europeans. Cox s Columbia, EXPEDITION TO OKONAGAN. 515 bering about sixty families, and only four packs of peltries are contributed by them. A pack is equal to fifty-five beaver-skins of large size ; a beaver-skin costs one foot and a half of tobacco (rolled kind), or six are bought for a blanket. Fort Alexandria, called after the celebrated Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in lati tude 52 deg. 30 min. north, is the point where the navigation of Frazer s River is begun by the northern brigade, on their way north a chief trader resides. Twenty or thirty packs are procured here, seven of which are beaver. A few cattle are kept at Alexandria, about which is the only small open space in the northern country that is cleared, the rest being covered with a dense fir-forest, consisting principally of different species of firs, with some birch willow, alder, poplar, and maple-trees. Fort George is another station at the junction of Stuart s and Frazer s Rivers. It has a few cattle, and provides during the year a few packs. A clerk of the company is stationed here. Fort Thompson, on the Kamloops River, lies in 50 deg. 38 min. north longitude, | 120 deg. 7 min. 10 sec. west of Frazer s, Babine s, and M Leod s, on the lakes of the same names, together with that of Fort St. James on Stuart s Lake, are all i places of trade, and yield a profitable return for the expenditure and labour em- i ployed in maintaining them. The company are now extending their posts to the northward, behind the Russian settlements, where an officer of the company has been exploring. During the summer, the travelling in this country is performed on horseback, or in canoes ; but in winter, when the ground is covered to a great depth with snow, and the rivers frozen, the only mode of journeying is on snow- shoes, or in sledges drawn by dogs. These animals draw a weight of 200 pounds. The snow-shoes require to be six feet long and eighteen inches broad ; and not withstanding the incumbrance they might be supposed to cause, it is not uncom mon for individuals in the company s service to travel on them for days together a distance of thirty-five miles a day. Frazer s River takes its rise far north in this region, and flows through it. The country is also well watered by the numerous streams flowing from the moun tains. The company s boats never navigate the Frazer s River below Fort Thomp son. Sir George Simpson, who passed down in 1828, says, that he found the navigation so dangerous and difficult, that it was almost totally impracticable If it had offered any facilities for navigation, the distance it would have saved in the transportation of goods for the northern posts, would have caused the adoption of the route. From Vancouver to Okonagan, is 300 miles by water, with four portages; and from Okonagan to Fort Thompson by land, 150 miles; thence to Fort Alexandria, 120 miles, and as much more to Fort St. James, 120 miles; total distance, 720 miles, requiring nearly sixty days in travelling, two- thirds of which time is employed in going from Fort Okonagan to Fort St, James. The distance, however, without loads, and with expedition, may be travelled in twenty days. 516 OREGON. The climate. of this northern section of country is unfavourable to agriculture* in consequence of its being situated between two ranges of mountains: the Rocky Mountains on the east, and the extension of the Cascade Range on the west. Both of these are constantly covered with snow, notwithstanding which, the cli mate is said not to be remarkably severe. Snow, however, lies on the ground from November till April or May, and is on an average six feet deep. From the end of May till the beginning of September, fires can be dispensed with, but not during the rest of the year. There are many spots of fertile land along the rivers, but the early frosts are a great obstacle to agriculture. Potatoes, turnips, and some wheat and barley, are, however, raised at Fort Alexandria and Fort George ; but at the more northern, as St. James, Babine, and Frazer s, only the two former vegetables can be cultivated. Cattle are now reared in considerable numbers at most of the posts. The latitude of Fort Colville was ascertained by observations at the fort, to be 48 deg. 36 min. 16 sec. north, longitude 118 deg. 04 min. 00 sec. west. The formation of the country, after leaving the Spokane, was lava or trap, of which rock the latitude of 48 deg. north, seems to be the limit, after which it gives place to granite. This was found to be the case, also, in the Straits of Fuca, where the same parallel is the dividing line of the two rocks; and as far as our opportunities and information went, there seemed to be but little doubt, that this line extends from the sea-coast to the Rocky Mountains. And Captain Wilkes considers, that the whole portion of the Oregon territory to the south of the Spokane is of igneous formation. The party then travelled the next thirty miles in an east-north-easterly direc tion from the Spokane. The country they passed over was hilly, with lakes and open glades intervening; the soil was poor, sandy, and stony; a few scattered pines were seen on the hills, and around the lakes were cotton, wood, and willow bushes. They afterwards rode through a rich and fertile valley running in a south-west and north-east direction, in which the horses sank in clover up to their knees. On the following day, they passed over, for thirty miles, a fine rolling prairie country, producing rich pasture, and being well watered though destitute of wood. The plants seen were convolvulus, frasera, habenaria, calochortus, baptisia, and trifolium: the last is good food for cattle. During the day they met a party of Indians travelling with abundance of spare horses; to one of which were slung their tent-poles, wood of the kind being scarce in this country. On the 25th of June, the party reached the Kooskooskee, which was found 2000 feet below the plain they had been travelling on, and 800 feet wide. Lewis and Clarke reached this river about forty-five miles above this place. On the Kooskooskee, Mr. Spalding, the missionary, had built himself a house NORTHERN OREGON. 517 of two stories, with boarcUfloors, as well as a grist and saw-mill. For these he pro cured the timber in the mountains, and rafted it down himself. He had twenty acres of fine wheat, and a large field, in which were potatoes, corn, melons, pump kins, peas, beans, &c., the whole of which were in good order. " This part of Oregon (the district of the Kooskooskee) is admirably adapted to the raising of sheep : the ewes bear twice a year, and often produce twins ? One ewe was pointed out to our gentlemen that had seven lambs within 365 days. Horned cattle also thrive, but the stock is at present limited. The Indians have a strong desire to procure them. A party were persuaded to accom pany a missionary, and take horses over to St. Louis (Missouri) to exchange for cattle. When they reached the Sioux country, the chiefs being absent, they were attacked, and all murdered, except the white man." The missionary regards the Kookooskee climate as a rainy one, notwithstanding the appearance of aridity in the vegetation. There is no doubt of its being so in winter, and even during summer there is much wet. A good deal of rain had fallen the month before the visit of the exploring party. The nights were always cool. The tem perature falls at times to a low point. On the 10th of December, 1836, it fell to 10 deg.; and subsequently was not so low till the 16th of January, 1841, when it fell to 26 deg.; and on the 10th of February, it was as low as 14 deg. Fah renheit. The greatest heat experienced during his residence, was in 1837 ; on the 23rd of July, in that year, the thermometer rose to 108 deg. in the shade. In 1840, it was 107 deg.; and in the sun it reached 144 deg. The extreme variations of the thermometer were more remarkable, the greatest monthly change being 72 deg. ; while the greatest daily range was 58 deg. Since the missionary s residence, no two years have been alike. The grass remains green all the year round. For arable culture irrigation is necessary ; wheat, Indian corn, vegetables, &c., suc ceed well. The description which we have of the coast of Oregon as far as had been ex plored by the celebrated Vancouver, is remarkably in accordance with the ac count given by Captain Wilkes, and the accuracy of the sketches made by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, one of the most intrepid travellers who ever accom plished great and perilous undertakings, are still more remarkable in describing the more northerly sections which he traversed, and in his suppositions regarding the portions which he had not explored. Captain Cook s account of the Nootka Sound, and of the adjacent parts of Vancouver s Island, is considered remarkably correct, but the aborigines would appear to have greatly diminished in number since the period of his visit. At that time they were noted thieves, and perfidy seems to have ever since been characteristic of the natives of that place, and of all Vancouver s Island. Of the parts of Northern Oregon over which Sir Alexander Mackenzie travelled, we have no recent description more correct than the sketches in his journal. Al- 518 OREGON. though there are, no doubt, some parts of the regions north of the inlet where he fell in with the sea, capable of cultivation, and, although many tracts are covered with wood even north of Cook s Inlet, yet, except for fishing and for the wild animals, there would appear to be but little other value in the region possessed by Russia* north of 54 deg., or of that part of Oregon, west of the Rocky Moun tains, and north of 49 deg. north latitude. All the glowing descriptions of Van couver all that is described fit for cultivation and settlement by Captain Wilkes apply to districts and places south of that parallel. All north of 49 deg. is described as dreary, rugged, and unfit for settlements, by Vancouver ; and the parts of Oregon west of, and within Admiralty Inlet, and south of Vancouver s Islands are those of which he says, " To describe the beauties of this region will, on some future occasion, be a very grateful task to the pen of a skilful panegyrist. The serenity of the climate (he was here in May), the innumerable pleasing landscapes, and the abundant fertility that unassisted nature puts forth, require only to be enriched by the industry of man, with villages, mansions, cottages, and other buildings to render it the most lovely country that can be imagined; whilst the labour of the inhabitants would be amply rewarded in the beauties which nature seems ready to bestow on cultivation." Of the whole western shores of Oregon, north of 48 deg. 29 min., he gives the most cheerless, sterile, and uncultivable character. " This country" (extending north from 48 deg. 29 min.), he says, "presented a very different aspect from that which w r e had been accustomed to behold from the south. The shores now before us were composed of steep rugged rocks, whose surface varied exceedingly in respect to height, and exhibited little more than the barren rock, which in some places produced a little herbage of a dull colour, with a few dwarf trees." The whole east coast of Vancouver s Islands and the opposite shores are described as little better, and generally more forbidding. Sir Alexander Mackenzie proceeded from Canada over the waters and wilder ness of America to the height of land which separates the waters running into Hudson s Bay from those flowing into the Pacific. His perilous journey was one of the most arduous, perhaps, the most difficult ever performed by man. This is evident when we consider the unknown state of the wilderness and of the savage tribes. On the 12th of June, 1?93, he left a small lake, in latitude 54 deg. 24 min. north, longitude 121 deg. west, considered by him the source of the Unjign, or Peace River, which falls into the Slave Lake, and after flowing through which, discharges its waters in the Frozen Ocean. He crossed the ridge from this plain through a pass, between rocky precipices, of no more than 817 paces over, to a lake, from whence its waters flowed to a branch of Frazer s River. Along the pass spruce and liards were growing. The canoe was carried over * Of the trade and navigation of Russian America, we have given an account in another work, Commercial Statistics, vol. ii. NORTHERN OREGON. 519 this portage and then crossed overland to another lake. They embarked on the lake, by a portage, on which was a growth of large fir and pine-trees, and many fallen ones. Their progress then became slow and arduous ; the stream by which they descended was obstructed by terriffic difficulties ; they often had to cut a road through the thick forest, and make their way over swamps, in order to pass by the rocks, rapids, or other obstacles of the river; such as being choked up with fallen trees carried down by the floods. Their escapes appear almost marvellous. They were frequently in danger of wanting food, and lived on a limited allowance. The coolness and intrepidity of the leaders braved all physical dangers, and tempered the ferocity of unknown savages, until they finally reached the waters of the Pacific. The climate of the country he passed over, was often foggy and wet, although in the middle of summer; but the vegetation was far more advanced than on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. Cedar, maple, hemlock, and other trees and shrubs, also appeared in a more northern latitude on the west than on the east, and the temperature, except on the mountains, was much warmer. The largest trees were lofty pines and wide-spreading cedars. They met red-deer and shot some. Their canoe was upset in the rapids, and often dashed against the rocks, and finally so shattered, that after frequent mending and patching, they were compelled to construct a new one; which they afterwards laid up, when they left the river to cross over-land to the Pacific. The account he gives of the tribes of natives is interesting; they appear to have degenerated, and they have greatly decreased in number, since that period. Among some of the tribes old age was venerated. Their burial-places were also held sacred. The first considerable stream which he met with, after leaving the canoe, abounded with fish. On the 17th of July, he descended into a beautiful valley, where ground logs abounded. There was, at the same time, much snow on the mountains. One of which appeared of stupendous height. On reaching the first river flowing vest, the cedar, pine, hemlock, and elder-trees, were of great size. The inner or glutinous part of the hemlock bark was scraped off for food by the natives. They vere, by several tribes received hospitably, and feasted with salmon ; of which ;here was an abundant supply. The tribes who feed on them did not eat the lesh of quadrupeds. These Indians were expert canoe- men. Neither chastity lor honesty were considered virtues. They stole an axe, but delivered it up tfterwards. He descended the river in a canoe about forty-five feet in length, md accompanied by four natives. Some of the habitations on the banks were of arge dimensions. The women were occupied in various acts of servitude, and in pinning thread made of the fibres of cedar-bark, beaten until it had the appear- mce of flax, making nets, &c. He disembarked at the Cascades, above which he canoe was left. Further down another canoe was obtained, and, on the even- ng of the 20th of July, reached the ebbing and flowing of the tide, and saw a 520 OREGON. number of sea-otters in a bay about three miles wide. The white-headed eagle, black sea-gulls, and porpoises were seen. A large porcupine was shot, cooked, and eaten. The weather was cloudy; the rise of tide was about fifteen feet perpendi cular. After proceeding down the inlet, and greatly annoyed by an insolent Indian, he had an altitude of the sun on the 22nd, which gave the latitude 52 deg. 20 min. 48 sec. There he painted on a rock, with red vermilion, his name and the date, and, on the following day, commenced his return homewards. He narrowly escaped assassination by the savage above alluded to, and others of his tribe. The observations of Sir Alexander Mackenzie have been confirmed by the exten- tion of the North- West and Hudson Bay Company s posts, over the territory of Oregon ; a vast region, but in which the fertile and cultivable soil would appear, from all accounts, to form but an exception to the general rule : that is either a naturally barren, rocky, sandy, or snow-clad mountain country. The harbours within Puget and Admiralty Sound, as explored by Captain Wilkes, offered abun dant space and shelter : many of the shores of the harbours and the valleys of the rivers south of 48 deg. north, afford fertile tracts, but if we consider the great distance, whether by sea or by land, of Oregon and its harbours, from populous and thriving countries and markets, the dangerous entrance of the Columbia River, and the almost inaccessible coast from that river south to San Francisco, we are led to the conclusion, that there appears no region of equal area within the temperate zones of the earth, so worthless, so ill adapted for maintaining a great population in comfort, prosperity, or for attaining power, as Oregon and North California. We at the same time admit, that when the fertile parts of Oregon and California become through the enterprise of future generations as populously inhabited as they are capable of affording sustenance either from the resources to be obtained from the soil, the forest, the sea, and the rivers regions so extensive possess sufficient natural advantages to constitute a nation of no mean, nor inconsiderable power; and whether under a dependent, or independent, government, afford the ample means of subsistance to a large popu lation, the foundation for which will no doubt be establishedby an Anglo-Saxon race. CHAPTER XXIV. SURVEY OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER, 1841, BY THE UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION. THE United States ship of war, Peacock, having been totally wrecked in attempting to enter the Columbia, Captain Wilkes afterwards fitted out the boats of that vessel, fully manned, with all the requisites for surveying duties and with an officer commanding each boat, in order to make a complete survey of that river. The operations were attended with more than ordinary difficulties. They encamped the first night on a small sandy island in the centre of the bay, SURVEY OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 521 where their position was rendered uncomfortable by the sand which was drifted about by the wind. In the morning they were enveloped in a thick fog, and as the water of the Columbia was not fresh as low down as this point, they had to send a party for fresh water to Baker s Bay. Captain Wilkes describes the tide as exceedingly strong, and having some apprehensions that the boats might lose their way, he thought it better to make for the Chinook shore, and follow it until they reached the Cape. "It may seem strange," he says, " that this precaution should be taken, but it is necessary at all times, even in clear weather ; for the tide is frequently so strong, that it cannot be stemmed by oars, and too much caution cannot be ob served in passing across the bay. As little frequented as it is, many accidents have occurred to boats and canoes, by their being swept by the tide into the breakers on the bar, where all hands have perished. The Indians are very cau tious, and it is only at certain times of the tide they will attempt to make the passage. We reached Baker s Bay in two hours, and formed our encampment and here we determined to remain until the weather should become clear, and allow us to proceed with our duties." During the occupation of Astoria by the expedition, Captain Wilkes observes, * the place became quite civilised-looking, in comparison to what it was on my first arrival, and a mart for all the commodities of the country. Besides our own men, there were many Indians to be seen lounging and moving about, seeking em ployment, or with some small articles to sell. " Short excursions were made by many of us in the vicinity, and one of these was to visit the primeval forest of pines in the rear of Astoria, a sight well worth seeing. The soil on which this timber grows is rich and fertile, but the obstacles to the agriculturist are almost insuperable. The largest tree was thirty-nine feet six inches in circumference, eight feet above the ground, and had a bark eleven inches thick. The height could not be ascertained, but it was thought to be upwards of two hundred and fifty feet high, and the tree was perfectly straight." When the Peacock was wrecked, the Kilamukes, Clatsops, and Chinooks were collected in the neighbourhood, it being the season of the fishery : many of these came with their families, and took up their abode near Astoria. They generally had for sale salmon, venison, sturgeon, moccassins, and mats. When the crew first landed, eight or ten salmon might be bought for a cotton shirt, or its value in red or green baize ; but the Indians soon found that higher prices might be obtained for the asking, and before the departure of the expedi tion from the Columbia River, the price was enhanced one-half. Having completed all the arrangements, and the weather becoming fine, on the 16th Captain Wilkes resumed the survey. The stations being established, VOL. i. 3 x 522 OREGON. and the triangulation completed, the tender, with two boats, was left to sound the bay outwards, while the remaining part of the force proceeded up the river, to continue the surveys in company with the vessels, Porpoise and Oregon (the latter purchased to replace the Peacock). Captain Wilkes found it necessary that both vessels should proceed up to Vancouver, in order to insure a more thorough outfit for the Oregon, and to afford the officers and men quarters at night to protect them during the sickly season that was approaching, and of which he had received very unfavourable accounts. On the 18th of August, Captain Wilkes left Astoria, with the Porpoise and Oregon and anchored at Tongue Point, previously to crossing thence to the op posite side of the river, through the crooked channel, which was then believed to be the only passage by which a vessel of any class could ascend the stream.* " On the 19th the vessels attempted to pass through this channel, but on en tering it they both took the ground. The tide was at its full height, and soon began to fall, when the Porpoise began to heel over, until she fell on her beam- ends. We were in hopes that the night-tide would be sufficient to float her off, but we found its rise less by nearly a foot than that of the day : it therefore be came necessary to make extraordinary exertions to prepare for the next day s tide, by buoying her up with casks." They finally succeeded in getting her off, and ran up the river a few miles, and anchored below the Pillar Rock, opposite Waikaikum: a large lodge, picketted around with planks belonging to a chief named Skamakewea. The next morning, in proceeding up the river to carry on the survey, one of the small boats in tow of the Porpoise was, through the negligence of her crew, capsized. Every thing in her, except her oars, was lost, and the accident caused much detention. In the afternoon they reached Katalamet Point, and anchored at the lower end of Puget Island, where they passed the next day (Sunday.) On Monday he re sumed the surveying, and reached Oak Point, where the river takes a turn to the southward and eastward. Just before reaching Walker s Island, the Porpoise ran aground, from the pilot mistaking his marks, but they got her soon afloat. In the evening of the next day, they ascended to Mount Coffin, at the mouth of the Cowlitz. This mount afforded a favourable point for astronomical observa tions, being 710 feet high, and quite isolated. The canoes used by the Indians as coffins are hung up in every direction, in all stages of decay. They were suspended between trees, at the height of four or five feet above the ground, and about them were hung the utensils that had belonged to the deceased, or that had been offered as tokens of respect. * A channel which he afterwards discovered leads directly upwards from Tongue Point, and affords every desirable facility for the navigation within the Columbia River. SURVEY OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 523 Captain Wilkes remained the whole day on the top of the mount, and ob tained a full set of observations, the sky being remarkably clear. An untoward circumstance happened at this place. " Here," says Captain Wilkes, " my boat s crew carelessly omitted to extinguish the fire they had used for cooking our dinner, and as we were putting off to the brig, I regretted to see that the fire had spread, and was enveloping the whole area of the mount, but there was no help for it. The fire continued to rage throughout the night, until the whole was burnt (viz., all the wood, canoes or coffins, with the dead bodies). I took the earliest opportunity of explaining to the Indians, who were in the neighbourhood, that the fire was accidental, and after receiving a few small presents, they appeared satisfied that it was so. But a few years earlier, the consequence of such care lessness would have been a hostile attack, that might have involved us in diffi culty of no ordinary kind. We had a minor punishment to undergo, for the smoke was so great, that it enveloped all the signals towards the mouth of the river, and made it necessary for me to anchor within sight of Mount Coffin till the next morning." Before reaching the mouth of the Willamette, better known here as the Wapautoo Branchy a long flat extends across the river, where Captain Wilkes was again unfortunately detained a few hours, by getting aground. Warriors Point, the locality where a Mr.Wyeth proposed to erect his great city of the west, was passed, and on the 28th, at sunset, the Porpoise and Oregon anchored off Vancouver. Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hudson Bay Company had, at the time, arrived overland from Canada on a tour of inspection, and on his way to visit the Russian settlement at Sitka. The Celumbia river was now greatly diminished from its swollen state during the flood season, May and June. The stream had fallen, and was confined within its narrowest limits, and was nineteen feet below high flood mark. The Indians were encamped on the strands, over which the waters from the mountains had rolled in with irresistible force. Vancouver exhibited the aspect of an extensive farming establishment: the granaries, corn-stacks, showed the signs of an early and plentiful harvest. While at Vancouver, Captain Wilkes was engaged in making astronomic and magnetic observations. The former gave its position in longitude 129 deg. 3D min. 34.6 min. west, and latitude 45 deg. 36 min. 33 sec. north. On the 1st of September, Messrs. Eld and Colvocoressis, midshipmen, with Mr. Brackenridge and party arrived from their detached expedition and orders were given to them to explore the region through the Chickeeles country to Gray s Harbour, and afterwards to join Lieutenant Emmon s party on the Willa mette, and for both to proceed by that route to California. Ihey left Nisqually on the 19th of July, and proceeded towards one of the south-west arms of Puget Sound in two wretched canoes. 524 OREGON. On the same evening they all arrived within a short distance of the portage 5 and the next morning Mr. Colvocoressis went to an old squaw chief, who had promised at Nisqually to be their guide to the Sachal River, and to furnish horses and men to cross the portage. The portage was easily accomplished : it passes through a forest of lofty spruce and maple trees, with an undergrowth of common hazel and spiroea ; its length was four miles. The soil was composed of a shallow, black, sandy, vege table earth. On their route they passed over three small prairies. The lake called Sachal by the Indians, was examined, and found to be one mile and a half in length and three-fourths of a mile in breadth. It is surrounded on all sides by willows and alders ; the soil about it was a light brown sandy loam. The forest extends down to the water. After their return they broke up the encampment, and embarking in their canoes on Lake Sachal, passed to its southern end, where they entered the river of the same name. This appeared at first almost impassable, for it was for four miles almost choked up with sparganiums, &c., so that it was difficult to pass even with the small canoe. Its breadth was from twenty to sixty feet, and it was from three to twelve feet deep. The turns were sometimes so short, that the large canoe would be in contact with the thickets on the banks at both ends, and it required much force to drag it along, by pulling the branches, and great labour in cutting their way. They also unfortunately lost their hatchet, which afterwards proved a serious mishap. They were obliged to continue their course down the river until nine o clock at night, before they could find any place to encamp, on account of the bog and thicket. At that hour they came to a small green spot, occupied by a party of Indians. Here Mr. Eld obtained some altitudes of the north star for latitude, and the next day, being compelled to make a portage of two miles to avoid an impassable part of the river, he employed himself, during the time it was making, in getting a full set of equal altitudes. By six P.M., they had carried every thing across, and embarked; but the river was full of sand-bars, shallow rapids, and sunken snags, which often compelled them to drag the canoe over by main force. The land on both sides of the river was flat, marshy, and thickly wooded. Among the woods were many ash trees. They stopped for the night at an Indian camp. On the 24th they again embarked on the river, and had another fatiguing day; but being provided with poles, they succeeded better in navigating the canoe. During the day they saw several deserted native huts, situated on small prairies, extending back some distance from the river, and in the rear, on either side, were seen hills rising to the height of about 1500 feet. No kind of EXPLORATION OP OREGON. 525 rock had been observed on their route, except a single block of granite, which was passed on one of the prairies near Lake Sachal. On the 25th they set out at an early hour, and in passing one of the rapids in the large canoe, it came in contact with a snag, which tore off part of the gun wale, and half filled the canoe with water. At ten o clock they reached the place where the Sachal enters the Chickeeles, which is there 150 feet wide, and runs with a rapid current. The bottom was gravelly, and the surface smooth, except where a sand and gravel bar stretched across the river in a direction about east-north-east. One lonely Indian was met at the junction, from whom they bought some pieces of dried elk. The soil on both sides of the river, for about one-third of a mile back, was a deep rich alluvial loam, overgrown with poplar, willow, dogwood, and alder with an undergrowth of raspberry. On the 26th, the old chief joined the party, and they all proceeded down the river together to the point where the Kluckullum enters the Chickeeles. Here they halted. No inducement could prevail upon the chief to serve as a guide up the Sachap, another branch of the Chickeeles. In the afternoon they encamped at the mouth of the Sachap, and Mr. Eld made preparations to set out early the next morning to explore it, having obtained a guide from among the Indians they met with at a fishing station in the vicinity. No fish, however, were to be procured, but on their descent they came upon several large flocks of teal, of which Mr. Brackenridge killed four. At an early hour they proceeded up the Sachap in a small canoe. About eight miles from the camp they came to the place where the river branches, forming the Sachap and Tarqucoran ; here they took horses, and proceeded further in a north-easterly direction, and encamped on a small prairie. Both rivers were overgrown and choked up with bushes and mossy bogs ; they passed a party of Suquamish Indians, who were very anxious that Mr. Eld should encamp with them ; but this he declined doing, and preferred passing some distance beyond. On the morning of the 28th, they again started at an early hour, and passed through a very rough, and apparently little frequented country. The guide had much difficulty in finding his way through a forest which the fire had partly con sumed. At half-past mne^they recrossed the Sachap, where it was about twenty feet wide, flowing from a north-west direction. It was but knee-deep, and clogged with large logs and trees. Shortly after passing the stream, the country grew so rough, that it was impossible to proceed further with the horses, and the guide told Mr. Eld, that he would be obliged to leave them. This appearing suspicious, Mr. Eld led the chief aside, and told him that he intended to hold him responsible in case of the loss of any of his things, or of his being deceived. He then ordered him to leave one of the slaves in charge 526 OREGON. of the horses and effects until their return. This was accordingly done, and they proceeded on foot for Lake Nanvitz, which was a mile and a half long, by three- fourths of a mile wide, surrounded by a thick forest of pines. Here they found an Indian family hunting, who had just killed an elk, of which Mr. Eld procured the greater part, for a small quantity of powder and shot. These were also of the Suquamish tribe. The next day he returned to the Chickeeles, passing on their route some of the gigantic pine trees, so often to be met within this territory. Some of these had been burnt, and had in consequence fallen. One that was not selected as the largest, for there were many of equal, if not greater length and diameter, was measured, and the part that lay in one piece was found to be 200 feet long : another piece of the same tree was twenty-five feet long, and at the small end of the latter, it was still ten inches in diameter, allowing twelve feet for the portion destroyed by fire. Mr. Eld thought twenty-five feet ought to be added for its top, which would make the whole length of the tree, when growing, 260 feet. Others were believed to exceed this both in height and diameter. During Mr. Eld s absence, Mr. Colvocoressis remained at the carnp, and Mr. Brackenridge made short excursions to the south of the Chickeeles. The country on this side of the river is covered with a thick spruce forest, and the soil appears to differ much from that of the north, being a sterile mixture of sand and gravel. On the north side it consists of an alluvial deposit, from a half to two-thirds of a mile in width, well adapted to yield good crops of grain- From the marks on the trees, however, it is believed to be subject to an annual inundation of considerable height. The weather continued dry and clear. In descending the Chickeeles, they perceived an ebb and flow of the waters. Mr. Eld tried its current, and found it setting flood about one fathom per hour. As they proceeded, the shores lost some of their luxuriance of foliage. The banks had become high, and so muddy, that they had some little difficulty in find ing a suitable place to encamp. The bluffs on the south side of the river, appeared to consist of talcose slate, so soft and fragile, that it could not be brought away unbroken. They encamped in a fir-grove, so thick over head, as to render it impossible for the usual nightly observations to be taken. The roar of the surf of the ocean was distinctly heard from the camp during the night. On the 31st, after passing two bends of the river, the cape on the south en trance to Gray s Harbour was observed. They met the flood-tide, which was so very strong that they made but slow progress, and as they opened out the har bour and entered it, they found a strong south-west wind blowing, with an abrupt and difficult sea, in which their canoe was nearly swamped, and which compelled them to make the lee-shore. Here all the things were taken out and placed to dry, on one of the huge trees that had been brought down by the freshets. From EXPLORATION OF OREGON. 527 this awkward situation they were relieved by the old squaw chief, who had pre ceded them from Nisqually. She came over in her large canoe, with ten Indians, and offered to carry the party across to the western shores, where they might encamp in a less exposed place. The offer was accepted, and they were taken over to her village. Mr. Eld and his party had a great many difficulties to con tend with in surveying Gray s Harbour. The Indians for some days were un willing to aid in the management of their canoes, and none of them could be induced to venture out in what they deemed stormy weather, nor to leave their wives behind. It being finally conceded that their wives might accompany them, Mr. Colvocoressis embarked to join Mr. Eld, against the wind and sea; the Indians refused then to proceed unless they received an extra allowance of powder and tobacco. After remaining a few days, they selected another spot at the south head, on the 10th of August, the Indians failing to perform their en gagements. The party had now very nearly exhausted their provisions, and were living on the dead fish they gathered along the beach (a sort of hake) and some berries. From continual exposure to wet, with hard work, as well as scanty and bad food, they all became feeble and sick, and were able to do but little work. On the 13th, Lieutenant De Haven, from the Columbia, joined the party, and relieved them ; and on his return to Baker s Bay, twenty days provisions were sent with a party of Kanakas, under the guidance of a Canadian. The tract of land bordering on the Chickeeles, below the mouth of the Sachap, was found well adapted for agriculture. The spruce forest extends down to the water s edge, except in a few places around the harbour, where there are patches of salt-marsh, which produce coarse grasses and cat s-tail (typhci). The salt- creeks, or ravines, into which the tide flows through the marshes, are generally tortuous ; and the meadows are occasionally overflowed at spring-tides. The only piece of land at Gray s Harbour which appeared suitable for cultivation, was immediately within the south head ; but this is of small extent. The coast, as far as Cape Shoalwater, is no more than a smooth sandy beach, which rises in a gentle acclivity to a line of low sand-hills. GRAY S HARBOUR seems to offer but few facilities for maritime purposes. The entrance is narrow, the width being from one-half to two-thirds of a mile, with dangerous breakers on both sides. The depth of water is from five to seven fathoms. After entering, the bay is extensive, but the greater part is filled up with mud flats, which are bare at low water, and confines the harbour suitable for the anchorage of vessels to an insignificant limit. The river Chickeeles, before flowing into the harbour, increases in breadth to several hundred feet, and is navigable for vessels drawing twelve feet water eight miles above its mouth. The harbour is only suitable for vessels of from 100 to 200 tons ; and there are places where such vessels may find security between the mud-shoals some dis tance within the capes. 528 OREGON. The tides are irregular, and influenced by the winds and weather; the time of high water at full and change was found to be 11 h. 30 min. Fogs prevail on the coast during the summer-season. The party remained at this place for twenty-three days, three- fourths of which time it blew a strong gale from either the south-west or north-west, accompanied with a dense fog, that rendered it impossible to see further than half a mile. The Indians in this portion of the country are not numerous. The region at the head of Puget Sound is inhabited by a tribe called the Toandos, whose number Mr. Eld was unable to learn. This tribe lives principally on salmon, which are of excellent quality, and which they take during the season in vast quantities, in the Columbia. On the Chickeeles, and in its branches there are several fishing weirs and stakes. Stur geon are also taken in great numbers. From the circumstance of the party seldom receiving any venison from the Indians, or meeting with any, it was inferred there is but little game in this part of the country. The party shot a few grouse, and some wild geese were seen, and the mud flats were covered with white gulls in immense numbers, among which were a few pelicans. On the 24th August, the expedition left Gray s Harbour, after having, by great perseverance and with much fatigue, completed the survey. Mr. Eld, in pursuance of his instructions, then proceeded to trace the coast around Cape Disappoint ment. The Indians whom he had hired to take the canoe around by water, preferred to pass close along the beach, inside the surf, by tracking the canoe : notwithstanding there was a heavy surf, they managed to pass along very quickly. This is the mode they always adopt in journeying along the coast with their canoes, to avoid accident from the heavy surf, which they greatly dread. The evening of the day on which they left Gray s Harbour, they reached a small islet, distant fifteen miles from Cape Shoalwater, where they found the lodge of the Chickeeles chief, who supplied them with dried sal mon, &c. The coast between Gray s Harbour and Cape Shoalwater is bordered by sand-hills, behind which, from the description given by the Indians, there are lagoons and streams of fresh water, in which plenty of beaver are found. From this chief they hired another canoe, and accompanied by him they pro ceeded through Shoalwater Bay towards Cape Disappointment. The two canoes separated, which caused them to pass over the two portages between Shoalwater and Baker s Bay ; that to the east is about four miles and a half in length, while that to the west is six or seven miles across. The former is usually preferred by the Indians, and is one of the main passes of communication between the different EXPLORATION OF OREGON. 529 tribes on the sea- coast. The woods through which they passed were of spruce- trees, some of which were of large dimensions. The lesser plants were principally vaccinium, ledums, and some candleberry-bushes (myrica). On the 27th, they reached the Flying-Fish, then in Baker s Bay, and were taken over to Astoria. HOOD S CANAL; along, well-sheltered inlet, and a principal arm of Admiralty Inlet, was also surveyed by another exploring party. It forms within two branches. The banks are about 100 feet high, and further upwards, rocky in some parts, and wooded; and in others, the soil fertile ; but there are no very extensive cultivable tracts. It was formerly examined by Vancouver, but it extends ten miles further than his survey, and approaches eastward to within two miles and a half of Puget Sound ; and at the southern extremity there is a large inlet, from which the Indians pass to the Columbia and to Chickeeles River. The water in the middle of this sound is too deep for anchorage ; but it affords several good har bours: streams of good fresh water flow into the latter. At the Observatory at Nisqually, the height of Mount Rainer was found to be, by trigonometrical measurement, 12,330 feet. Around Nisqually, there are 1 beautiful rides, and the prairie ground in its natural state will admit carriages being drawn over it for several miles around the fort. The cattle are penned up at night to save them from the wolves. Having completed the surveys of the numerous branches of Puget s Sound, they were all found to afford good harbours for the largest ships. The lands are generally low near the shore, and covered with trees, chiefly pines, besides other trees, as spruce, oaks, arbutus, &c. Beautiful flowers, decked the prairies and banks. The soil, in some places, good, in others light and sandy. At the heads of all the branches, there are mud flats and salt marshes. The spring tides in the sound, at Nisqually, rise about eighteen feet, the neap-tides about twelve feet. He considers Nisqually ill chosen, on account of the high banks and confined anchorage for a commercial town. The country around the inlets are considered very healthy. The Indians around the plain are addicted to stealing, lazy, and dirty; they live on fish and clams, which are abundant. Shoals of young herrings appear during the salmon-fishery. The former are used as bait to take the latter. A species of rock bird was found abundant, and some so large as to weigh fifty pounds. Captain Wilkes then observes, " The surveying parties having returned, Dn the 14th of September, we took leave of Vancouver. After proceeding lown to the mouth of the Willamette, we anchored for the purpose of inishing the soundings, and making an examination of the channels into vhich the river is here divided by a few islands. This work being completed, ve dropped down several miles, to overtake the sounding parties. Here we VOL. i. 3 Y 530 OREGON. were a good deal annoyed from the burning of the prairies by the Indians, which filled the atmosphere with a dense smoke, and gave the sun the appearance of being viewed through a smoked glass. We were, fortunately, in a great degree, independent of it, as it was not necessary to see more than a short distance to discover the signals for the soundings. It, however, prevented me from verifying my astronomical stations, which I was desirous of doing/ 5 On the 20th, Captain \Vilkes descended the Columbia, and anchored again off Coffin Rock, near which he found a depth of twenty-five fathoms, which is the deepest water within the capes and bar of the entrance. This place is sixty miles from the mouth of the river, and eight miles above the confluence of the Cowlitz. The shores here are composed of trap and a conglomerate, the last of which is the same rock as that which occurs below. The Coffin Rock, which is not more than sixty feet in diameter, and twelve feet above the water appears to have been exclusively reserved for the burial of the chiefs. Dr. Holmes procured here some fine specimens of flat-head skulls. Captain "Wilkes anchored the same evening off the Cowlitz ; and early the next morning, proceeded up the Cowlitz in his gig, in order to finish the survey of that stream, and examine the strata of coal said to exist there. After entering it, it was with difficulty that he recognised the river, for there is greater difference than even in the Columbia, between its high and low floods. After passing up the Cowlitz several miles, he encountered rapids, through which it was necessary to drag the boat by a line. He found, after great exertion and fatigue, that he could not ascend beyond thirteen miles; for it had become so shallow that the boat would not float, and they had not strength enough to force her over the wide bars of gravel and sand, that had apparently accumulated during the previous spring. Some specimens of lignite were found embedded in the alluvial banks, and taking observations for time, he turned back. Feeling anxious to reach the brig at an early hour, he ventured to shoot one of the rapids. In doing this they all had a narrow escape ; and particularly two of the boat s crew, who were in great danger of their lives. They fortunately escaped, but with considerable damage to the boat and a few bruises, the whole of which was the work of an instant. The Cowlitz is not navigable, except at high water during the spring and fall; and even then it is difficult to ascend, on account of the strength of its current. Having reached the influence of the tide below Oak Point, all fears of the ague and fever vanished. On the 26th they reached Katalamet Point, the lower end of Puget Island, The brig passed down the usual channel on the south side, while Captain Wilkes surveyed the northern passage. The latter is about four miles in length. Puget Island affords no land fit for cultivation, and during the season of freshets is overflowed. It is fringed around its borders with cotton wood, willow, pine, and hazel, &c., but it may be considered valueless. SURVEY OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 53] On the 29th of September they descended to the Pillar Rock, and on the 3rd of October passed through the Tongue Point channel. Before doing this, Cap tain Wilkes took the precaution to buoy it out, and then towed the vessel through at high water. This enabled him to lay down its tortuous course with accuracy, although he was aware that there is little probability of its remaining over the season without some material change. The new and direct channel discovered by them, leading up from Tongue Point, will, he thinks, supersede the necessity of using the old channel ; and the new, from its direct course is more likely to be permanent; but he says the channels in this river will be always more or less subject to change, from the impediments the large trees drifting down cause, when they ground on the shoals. The same evening they anchored about two miles above Astoria, and in order to lose no time, he proceeded there in his boat to make arrangements for getting off the stores, and embarking every thing previous to his departure from Oregon. The Porpoise anchored at Astoria, and all were engaged in expediting the embarkation of stores on board of both vessels : the officers were detained temporarily to the Oregon, whilst the necessary observations for the chro nometers and magnetisms were made. It now became important that the two larger vessels should be got to sea as early as possible. They, in conse quence proceeded on the 2nd to Baker s Bay, whilst the boats were still em ployed under Lieutenant De Haven in taking soundings. Acting-master Knox and Midshipman Reynolds were ordered to the Porpoise and Oregon for the purpose of piloting them to sea when the earliest opportunity should serve. In Baker s Bay they found that the company s schooner, the Cadborough, had i been waiting there three weeks for an opportunity to get over the bar. As the Peacock s launch could not be taken away, although he at one time had intended to send her along the coast to San Francisco, Captain Wilkes found that the weather and advanced state of the season would have rendered such a voyage dangerous. He consequently provided her with every essential to fit her to be used as a pilot boat at the mouth of the river, or, for the relief of vessels in distress; and he wrote to Dr. M Laughlin, placing the launch at his disposal, under the supervision of the company s officers for the above purposes. On the 5th the prospect of passing the bar was favourable, and at 2 h. 30 m. P. M. the company s bark Columbia which had been lying off and on for the week, having just returned from the northern posts entered, and proceeded up the river to Astoria. At 3 h. 30 m. the exploring vessels got under way, and in an hour afterwards passed the bar in safety. The Cadborough followed and went to sea also. Her master had strong mis givings as to undertaking the risk at so late an hour both of the day and tide. The vessels of the Hudson Bay Company never attempt to pass either in or out un- 532 OREGON. less the opportunity is such as will warrant the master in making the attempt. They consider that there is sufficient risk at the best of times, and are unwilling to increase it. Captain Wilkes says, " the Columbia is impracticable for two- thirds of the year. This arises from the fact that it can never be entered at night, and in the day only at particular times of the tide and direction of the wind. Unlike all known ports, it requires both the tide and wind to be contrary to insure any degree of safety. Having succeeded in getting the brigs beyond the risk of detention, he gave them orders to await his return, and he then went on board the tender to pass again into the river, for the purpose of completing all that remained of the survey. The survey was completed on the morning of the 10th of October, when Captain Wilkes returned to Baker s Bay, and being determined to lose no time, he made the attempt to pass the bar : though he succeeded in doing so, he says, " I am satisfied it was at great risk ; for, as I have been told is fre quently the case, the wind failed us just at the most critical point, and rendered it doubtful if we could pass. Our situation was dangerous, and a vessel of any other class must have been wrecked. For at least twenty minutes I was in doubt whether we could effect our object; but by the use of sweeps we accomplished it, principally through the exertions of the extra men belonging to the surveying boats, whom we had on board. " The Oregon was the only vessel in sight, and when I boarded her, I learned that they had not seen the Porpoise for three days. The next day she hove in sight, and the arrangements were soon completed. I now supplied the tender with water and other requisites, and gave Mr. Knox orders to take a few more soundings on the outside of the bar, and then proceeded along the coast as far as latitude 42 deg. north, and to examine it, and the mouth of the Umpqua. " On the night of the 15th we parted company with the Oregon, and did not see her again until she arrived at San Francisco. We coasted along to the south ward in the Porpoise. The land is high and mountainous, and may be seen at a great distance. Soundings of dark sand are obtained in from thirty to forty fathoms water, about fifteen or twenty miles from the land. " No ports exist along any part of it that are accessible to any class of vessels, even those of but very small draught of water, and the impediment that the constant and heavy surf offers along the whole coast to a landing in boats, makes this part of our territory comparatively valueless in a commercial point of view. Along a great part of it is an iron-bound shore, rising precipitately from the water. Anchorage in a few places may be had, but only in fair weather and during the fine season." SPANISH EXPLORING VOYAGES. 533 CHAPTER XXV. EXPLORATION BY SPAIN OF THE NORTH-WESTERN COAST OF AMERICA. Spanish vessels sailed along parts of the coast of America north of San Fran cisco, since the beginning of the seventeenth century, but the country was neglected until 1774, when surveys were ordered, ahd several expeditions made by Spain be fore 1792. The attempt to form a settlement at Nootka Sound nearly produced a war against Spain by England. In about 1786, Europeans frequented the coasts for sea-otter-skins, and, according to Alcedo, the rivalry in this trade was most disadvantageous for themselves and the natives of the country. " The price of the skins as they rose on the coast of America fell enormously in China. Corruption of manners increased among the Indians; and, by following the same policy by which the African coasts have been laid waste, the Europeans endeavoured to take advantage of the discord among the tays (chiefs). Several of the most debauched sailors deserted their ships to settle among the natives of the country. At Nootka, as well as at the Sandwich Islands, the most fearful mixture of primitive bar barity with the vices of polished Europe was observed. It is difficult to con ceive that the few species of. roots of the old continent transplanted into these fertile regions by voyagers, which figure in the list of the benefits that the Europeans boast of having bestowed on the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands, have proved any thing like a compensation for the real evils which they introduced among them. ee In the sixteenth century, when the Spanish nation, favoured by a combination of singular circumstances, freely displayed the resources of their genius and the force of their character; the problem of a passage to the north-west, and a direct road to the East Indies, occupied the minds of the Castilians with the same ardour displayed by some other nations afterwards. We do not allude to the apocryphal voyages of Ferrer Maldonado, Juan de Fuca, and Bartolome Fonte, to which for a long time only too much importance was given. The most part of the impostures published under the names of these three navigators were destroyed by the laborious and learned discussion of several officers of the Spanish marine." (See Memoirs of Don Ciriaco Cevallos. Researches into the Archives of Seville, by Don Augustin Cean. Historical Introduction to the Voyage of Galiano and Valdes, pp. 49, 56, 76, and 83.) The following sketches, partly drawn from the manuscript memoirs of Don Antonio Bonilla and M. Casasola, preserved in the archives of the viceroyalty of Mexico, present facts which, combined together, deserve attention. Ulloa, under the Spanish flag, first explored the coast as far as 30 deg. north. Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo explored the coast of New California to the 37 deg. 534 OREGON. 1,0 min., or the Punta del Ano Nuevo, to the north of Monterey. He perished (on the 3rd of January, 1543) at the island of San Bernardo, near the channel of Santa Barbara. (Manuscript preserved in the Archivo-general de Indias at Ma drid.) But Bartolome Ferrelo, his pilot, continued his discoveries north to the 43 deg. of latitude, until he saw the coast of Cape Blanc, called afterwards by Vancouver, Cape Orford. But there is some doubt as to whether Ferrelo sailed further than 40 deg. 20 min. north. Francisco Gali, or De Gualle, in his voyage from Macao to Acapulco, dis covered in 1582, the north-west coast of America, latitude 37 deg. 30 min. north (in the original />/y-seven and a half degrees in words, not in figures), not 57 deg. 30 min. as a translator has made it; and he beheld with great admiration, " The beauty of those colossal mountains, of which the summit is covered with perpetual snow, while their bottom is covered with the most beautiful vegeta tion." It was asserted from a translator s error that Gali coasted part of the archipelago of the Prince of Wales, or that of King George. That Sir Francis Drake sailed, in 1597, as far as the 48 deg. of latitude to the north of Cape Grenville, in New Georgia, is corroborated by the following passage. In the account of the voyage of Galiano and Valdes, printed at the royal printing-press, and published at Madrid, in 1802, by the order of the King of Spain, is this pas sage " The true glory which the English navigator (Drake) may claim for him self is, the having discovered the portion of coast comprehended betiveen the parallels of 43 deg. and 48 deg. } to which, consequently, the name of NEW ALBION ought to be limited, without interfering with the discoveries of preceding navi gators." ( Relacion del Viage/ &c.) Alcedo says, " Thirty-two maps, drawn up at Mexico by the cosmographer Henry Martinez, prove that Viscayno, in 1596, surveyed those coasts with more care and more intelligence than was ever done by any pilot before him. The diseases of his crew, the want of provision, and the extreme rigour of the season, prevented him, however, from ascending higher than Cape St. Sebastian, situated under the 42 deg. of latitude, a little to the north of the Bay of the Trinity. One vessel of Viscayno s expedition, the frigate commanded by Antonio Florez, alone passed Cape Mendocino. This frigate reached the mouth of a river in the 43 deg. of latitude, which appears to have been already discovered by Ferrelo in 1543, and which was believed by Martin d Aguilar to be the west extremity of the Straits of Anictn. We must not confound this entry or river of Aguilar, which could not be found again in our times, with the mouth of the llio Columbia (latitude 46 deg. 15 min.), celebrated from the voyage of Vancouver, Gray, and Captain Lewis." D Aguilar explored the coast in 1596 as far as 43 deg. north. "The brilliant epocha of the discoveries made anciently by the Spaniards on the north-west coast of America ended with Gali, Viscayno, and D Aguilar. The history of the navigations of the seventeenth century, and the first half of the SPANISH EXPLORING VOYAGES. 535 eighteenth, offers us no expedition directed from the coast of Mexico to the im mense shore from Cape Mendocino to the confines of Eastern Asia. In place of the Spanish the Russian flag was alone seen to float in these latitudes, waving on the vessels commanded by two intrepid navigators, Behring and Tschiricow. " At length, after an interruption of nearly 170 years, the court of Madrid again turned its attention to the coast of the Great Ocean. But it was not alone the desire of discoveries useful to science which roused the government from its lethargy. It was rather the fear of being attacked in its most northern posses sions in New Spain; it was the dread of seeing European establishments in the neighbourhood of those of California. Of all the Spanish expeditions undertaken between 1774 and 1792, the two last alone bear the true character of expeditions of discovery. They were commanded by officers whose labours display an inti mate acquaintance with nautical astronomy. The names of Alexander Malaspina, Galiano, Espinosa, Valdes, and Vernaci, will ever hold an honourable place in the list of the intelligent and intrepid navigators, to whom we owe an exact knowledge of the north-west coast of the new continent. If their predecessors could not give the same perfection to their operations, it was because, setting out from San Bias, or Monterey, they were unprovided with instruments and the other means furnished by civilised Europe." Alcedo. The first exploring voyage made after the expeditions of Viscayno and D Aguilar was that made by Juan Perez. From a manuscript journal, kept by two monks, Fray Juan Crespi, and Fray Tomas de la Pena, and for which Humboldt was indebted to the kindness of M. Don Guillermo Aguirre, a member of the aw- diencia of Mexico. It appears that Perez and his pilot, Estevan Jose Martinez, left the port of San Bias on the 24th of January, 1774, in order to examine all the coast from the port of San Carlos de Monterey to the 60th deg. of north latitude. They discovered on the 20th of July, the north-west point of Queen Charlotte s Island, and the strait which separates this island from that of the Prince of Wales. On the 9th of August, they anchored in an inlet, asserted to be Nootka Sound. They carried on barter with the natives, among whom they saw iron and copper. They exchanged with them axes and knives for skins and otter- furs. Perez did not land, however, on account of the rough weather and high sea. His cutter was nearly lost in the attempt; and the corvette only escaped by cutting its cables and abandoning its anchors to get into the open sea. " The natives," says Father Crespi, " stole several articles belonging to M. Perez and his crew." This may account for the European silver spoons found by Captain Cook, in 1778, in the possession of the Indians of Nootka. M. Perez returned to Monterey on the 27th of August, 1774, after a cruise of eight months. There appears, however, obscurity as to whether Perez entered the bay known as Nootka, or some other inlet. In 1775, an expedition sailed from San Bias, under the command of Don 536 OREGON. runo Heceta, Don Juan d Ayala, and Don Juan de la Bodega y Quadra. The narrative of this voyage is to be found in the journal of the pilot, Maurelle, attached to the instructions to the unfortunate La Perouse. Quadra is said to have dis covered" the mouth of the Rio Columbia, called Entrada de Heceta, the Pic of San Jacinto (Mount Edgecumbe), near Norfolk Bay, and the port of Bucareli (latitude 55 deg. 24 min.). Quadra believed that Drake anchore tpord at the De la Bogeda. Quadra and Don Ignacio Arteaga sailed from the port of San Bias, on the llth of February, 1779- During this interval, Cook explored the coast. Quadra and the pilot, Don Francisco Maurelle, carefully examined the port De Bucareli, saw Mont Sant Elias, and the island De la Magdalena, called by Vancouver, Hinchinbrook Island (latitude 60 deg. 25 min.), situated at the entry of Prince William s Bay, and the whole island of Regla, in Cook River. The expedition returned to San Bias on the 21st of November, 1779. No further attempts were made at discovery by Spain until 1788, when two Spanish vessels, the frigate La Princesa, and the packet-boat San Carlos, com manded by Don Esteban Martinez and Don Gonzalo Lopez de Haro, left the port of San Bias with the design of examining the position and state of the Rus sian establishments on the north-west coast of America. The existence of these establishments, of which it appears that the court of Madrid had no knowledge till after the publication of the third voyage of Cook, gave the greatest uneasiness to the Spanish government. The fur-trade drew numerous English, French, and American vessels towards a coast which, before the return of Lieutenant King to London, had been as little frequented by Europeans, as New Holland had pre viously been. Martinez and Haro sailed on the 8th of March, and returned on the 5th of December, 1788. They sailed direct from San Bias to the entry of Prince Wil liam, called by the Russians the Gulf Tschugatskaja. They visited Cook River, the Kichtak (Kodiak) Islands, Schumagin, Unimak, and Unalaschka (Onalaska). They were very kindly treated at the different factories which they found esta blished in Cook River and Unalaschka, and even received several maps of the coast drawn up by the Russians. Humboldt discovered among the archives of the viceroyalty of Mexico, a large volume, in folio, in manuscript, entitled, " Re- conocimiento de los quatros Establecimientos Russos al Norte de la California, hecho en 1788." The account of the voyage of Martinez, in this manuscript, fur nishes, however, few data relative to the Russian colonies. Not understanding a word of the Russian language, the Spaniards could only make themselves under stood by signs. Since the time that Cook, Dixon, Portlock, Mears, and Duncan, explored the country, Europeans began to consider the port of Nootka as the principal fur entrepot on the north-west coast of America. The court of Madrid, in 1789, in- NORTH-WEST EXPLORING VOYAGES. 537 structed M. Martinez to form an establishment at Nootka, and to examine the coast comprised between 50 deg. to 55 deg. north latitude. Don Esteban Martinez, commanding the frigate La Princesa, and the packet- boat San Carlos, anchored in the port of Nootka on the 5th of May, 1789. He was received in a very friendly manner by Macuina. Macuina, the Tays of the island, described as an absolute authority, is the Montezuma of these countries ; and celebrated among all the nations who carry on the sea-otter skin trade. Martinez two months after his entry into Nootka, saw the arrival of an English vessel, the Argonaut, commanded by James Colnet, known by his observations at the Galapagos Islands. Colnet showed the Spanish navigator the orders which he had received from his government to establish a factory at Nootka, to construct a frigate and a cutter, and to prevent every other European nation from interfering with the fur trade. The dispute between the commanders of the Argonaut and the Princesa was near occasioning a rupture between the courts of London and Madrid. Martinez arrested Colnet, and sent him by San Bias to the city of Mexico. " The true proprietor of the Nootka country, the Tays Macuina, de clared himself prudently for the vanquishing party ; but the viceroy, who deemed it proper to hasten the recall of Martinez, sent out three other armed vessels in the commencement of the year 1790, to the north-west coast of America." Martinez had previously seized the English vessels, Iphenise and North America, and after wards the Princess Royal was taken possession of. " Don Francisco Elisa, and Don Salvador Fidalgo, the brother of the astrono mer who surveyed the coast of South America, from the mouth of the Dragon to Portobello, commanded this new expedition. M. Fidalgo visited Cook Creek and Prince William s Sound." Alcedo. Don Francisco Elisa remained at Nootka to enlarge and fortify the establish ment founded by Martinez in the preceding year. But by the treaty signed at the Escurial on the 28th of October, 1790, Spain had desisted from further pre tensions to Nootka and Cox Channel in favour of the court of London. "The frigate Dedalus, which brought orders to Vancouver to watch over the execution of this treaty, only arrived at the port of Nootka in the month of August, 1792, when Fidalgo was employed in forming a second Spanish establishment to the south-east of the island of Quadra, on the continent, at the port of Nunez Gaona, or Quinacamet, situated under the 48 deg. 20 min. of latitude, at the creek of Juan de Fuca." Alcedo. The expedition of Elisa was followed by two others, that of Malaspina in 1791, and that of Galiano and Valdes in 1?92. The explorations of Malaspina and the officers under him, embrace an immense extent of coast from the mouth of the Rio de la Plata to Prince William s Sound. This able navigator, after examining both hemispheres, and escaping all the dangers of the ocean, was confined six years in a dungeon, the victim of a political intrigue. VOL. i. 3 z 538 OREGON. He obtained his liberty through the French government, and returned to his na tive country (Tuscany) on the banks of the Arno. "The labours of Malaspina," says Alcedo, "remain buried in the archives, not because the government dreaded the disclosure of secrets, the concealment of which might be deemed useful, but that the name of this intrepid navigator might be doomed to eternal oblivion. Fortunately, the directors of the Deposito Hydro- grafico of Madrid (established by a royal order on the 6th of August, 1797)> na ve communicated to the public the principal results of the astronomical observations of Malaspina s expedition. The charts which have appeared at Madrid since 1799 are founded in a great measure on those important results; but instead of the name of the chief, we merely find the names of the corvettes, La Descubierta and L Atrevida, which were commanded by Malaspina." He sailed from Cadiz on the 30th of July, 1789, and arrived at the port of Acapulco on the 2nd of February, 1791. At this period the court of Madrid again turned its attention to a subject which had been under dispute in the beginning of the seventeenth century, the pretended straits by which the imposter, Maldonado, was said to have passed in 1588 from the Labrador coast to the Great Ocean. A memoir read by M. Buache, at the Academy of Sciences, received the belief cf the existence of such a passage ; and the corvettes, La Descubierta and L Atrevida, received orders to ascend to high latitudes on the north-west coast of America, and to examine all the passages and creeks which interrupt the continuity of the shore between the 53rd deg. and 60th deg. of latitude. Malaspina, accompa nied by the botanists Haenke and Nee, sailed from Acapulo on the 1st of May, 1791. After a navigation of three weeks he reached Cape St. Bartholomew, which had been sailed close to by Quadra in 1775, by Cook in 1778, and in 1786 by Dixon. He surveyed the coast from the mountain of San Jacinto, near Cape Edgecumbe (Cabo Engano), lat. 57 deg, 1 min. 30 sec. to Montagu Island, opposite the entrance of Prince William s Sound. During the course of this expedition, the length of the pendulum and the inclination and declina tion of the magnetic needle were determined on several points of the coast. The elevation of St. Elies and Mount Fairweather (or Cerro de Buen Tempo), which are the principal summits of the northern cordillera, were measured by trigonometrical observation: the height of the former was calculated at 17,850, and of the second 14,992 feet. After an attempt to discover the straits mentioned in the apocryphal nar rative of the voyage of Maldonado, and after remaining some time at Behring s Bay (lat. 59 deg. 34 min. 20 sec.), Malaspina returned south, and anchored at Nootka on the 13th of August, sounded the channels, and determined by celes tial observations the positions of Nootka, Monterey, San Lucas, and the island of Guadaloupe, and returned to San Bias and Acapulco in October, 1791. This voyage of six months was of too short duration for discovering and sur- NORTH-WEST EXPLORING VOYAGES. 539. veying the extensive coasts, afterwards so carefully examined by Vancouver, but the longitude and latitude of four points of the coast, Cape San Lucas, Monte rey, Nootka, and Port Mulgrave, were ascertained by Malaspina. Intermediate points were connected with these fixed points. By the aid of " four sea- watches " as they were called, made by Arnold, many places were laid down according ta calculations based on the difference of time. The information, received from the officers stationed at Nootka, revived the probability of the existence of the De Fuca Channel. Martinez had, in 1774, observed a broad opening in about 48 deg. 20 min. of north latitude. This opening was successively visited ! by the pilot of the Gertrudis, by Manuel Quimper, and in 1701 by Elisa. In order to complete a survey of this inlet, the galeras Sutil and Mexicana sailed from Acapulco on the 8th of March, 1792, under the command of Dionisiso Galiano and Cayetano Valdes. They passed, and employed four months in exploring the several channels, inlets, and shores, within the Straits of Fuca, and the channel Del Rosario, called by the English the Gulf of Georgia ; they met the English navigators Vancouver and Broughton, who had previously entered, and who were en- I gaged in exploring the same coast and channels. The British and Spanish expeditions made a mutual and unreserved communication of their dis coveries ; " they assisted one another in their operations ; and there subsisted among them till the moment of their separation a good intelligence and com plete harmony, of which, at another epocha, an example had not been set by the astronomers on the ridge of the cordil/eras." - Alcedo s Narrative of Voyages, fyc. Vancouver, in 1792, thoroughly surveyed all the inlets within the island which bears his name, and there is little doubt that he was the first European who sailed round it. The smallness of the Spanish vessels were objects of surprise to him. Galiano and Valdes, on their return from Nootka to Monterey, examined the mouth of the river Ascencion, Columbia, which Don Bruno Eceta was said to have discovered on the 17th of August, 177^? an d afterwards was called the Colombia by the American navigator Gray, who in 1792 was the first who passed over its dangerous bar. During the same year Mr. Broughton, under the lirection of Vancouver, ascended and surveyed the Columbia See Vancouver s Voyages. Vancouver who had previously kept very close to this coast, was inable to discern an entrance from the 45th deg. of latitude to the channel of Fuca. In 1797, the Spanish government gave orders that charts, drawn by Graliano and Valdes, should be published, " in order that they might be in the lands of the public before those of Vancouver." The publication was not made mtil 1802: when the charts of Vancouver and those of the Spanish navigators md the Russian chart published at Petersburg in 1802, in the depot of the maps 540 OREGON. and charts of the emperor, were all about the same time given to the world. An examination of those maps is curious ; for, the same capes, the same channels and inlets, and the same islands, frequently bear three or four different names. About the same time Revillagigedo despatched another expedition from Mexico, for higher latitudes. The mouth of the river of Martin d Aguilar had been unsuccessfully sought for in the vicinity of Cape Orford and Cape Gregory. Malaspina, in place of the channel De Maldonado, discovered inlets with termi nations. Galiano and Valdes had ascertained that the pretended Strait of Fuca was merely an arm of the sea. Cook regretted his want of ability to examine the continent called afterwards New Hanover by Vancouver ; and the assertions of Colnet rendered it probable that the continuity of the coast was interrupted by a great inlet, which might extend to the North Atlantic. To ascertain the fact, the Viceroy of New Spain ordered Jacinto Caamano, commander of the frigate Aranzazu, to examine the coast from 51 deg. to 56 deg. north latitude. Caamano sailed from San Bias on the 20th of March, 1792 ; and surveyed the north part of Queen Charlotte s Island, the south coast of the Prince of Wales s Island, which he called Isla de Ulloa, the islands of Revillagigedo, of Banks (or De la Calamidad), and of Aristizabal, and the inlet of Moniiio. The number of Spanish names retained by Vancouver in his charts prove that the expeditions which we have enumerated, explored the north-west coast of America with tolerable accuracy. The foregoing include from 45 deg. north latitude, to Cape Douglas in the east of Cook s river. The foregoing were the voyages undertaken, as far as we can ascertain, by the Spaniards, to explore the coast of America, north of New California, from the year 1553 down to the end of the eighteenth century. Vancouver s and Cook s surveys appear however to have been the most complete, at least so far as the different exploring expeditions have been communicated to the world. Geographers have divided the north-west coast of America into an English part, a Spanish part, and a Russian part. These divisions have been made without any respect to the different tribes who inhabit those countries. It is remarked with much justice, in Thomson s edition of Alcedo, u If the puerile ceremonies which the Europeans call taking possession, and if astrono mical observations made on a recently discovered coast, could give rights of pro perty, this portion of the new continent would be singularly pieced out and di vided among the Spaniards, English, Russians, French, and Americans* One small island would sometimes be shared by two or three nations at once, because each might have discovered a different cape of it. The great sinuosity of the coast between the parallels of 55 deg. arid 60 deg. embraces the successive discoveries of Gali, Behring, and Tschireko\v, Quadra, Cook, La Perouse, Malas pina, and Vancouver \" When Alcedo wrote, " the west coast of America," he says, " affords the VANCOUVER S ISLAN only example of a shore of 1900 leagues in length, inhabited!^ one European nation. The Spaniards have formed establishments from Fort Maulin in Chile to St. Francis in New California. To the north of the parallel of 38 deg. suc ceed independent Indian tribes. It is probable that these tribes will be gradually subdued by the Russian colonists, who, towards the end of the last century, passed over from the eastern extremity of Asia to the continent of America. The progress of these Russian Siberians towards the south ought naturally to be more rapid than that of the Spanish Mexicans towards the north. A people of hunters, accustomed to live in a foggy and excessively cold climate, find the temperature of the coast of New Cornwall very agreeable ; but this coast appears an uninhabitable country, a polar region, to colonists from a temperate climate, from the fertile and delicious plains of Sonora and New California/ This prophecy in respect to Russia has not been realised. No permanent settlement south of latitude 59 deg. north has been made by Russia. That in the Bay of Bodega having, as already stated, been abandoned. Vancouver s and Queen Charlotte s Islands. With the exception of the descriptions of Nootka by Cook, and the surveys of Vancouver, we have little that gives us a satisfactory knowledge of the islands which extend along the north-western coast of America, south of the Russian settlements. Captain Wilkes, during the exploring expedition which he commanded, sur veyed but a very limited portion of Vancouver s Island, and he had little to re mark in addition to the description by Vancouver, which, he says, applies cor rectly at this day. Vancouver Island extends from south-east to north-west, between latitudes 48 deg. 15 min. north, and 51 deg. 30 min. north ; and longitudes 122 deg. 30 min. and 128 deg. 15 min. west. Cook, in approaching, on the 29th of March, the island in latitude 49 deg. 29 min. north, says, " The country is full of high moun tains, whose summits were covered with snow, but the valleys between them and the sea-coast, high as well as low, were covered to a considerable extent with high straight trees that formed a beautiful prospect, as if one vast forest." The natives of Nootka, who traded freely with him in furs and skins, were the most expert thieves ever met with. The natives of Vancouver s Island, and especially those of Nootka Sound, were also noted, by Vancouver, for their thievish disposition. They appear to have been, and to have continued, a ferocious, cruel race. The attack upon, and massacre of the crew of the American ship Tonquin, constitutes one of the most shocking atrocities which has occurred in the history of America.* * The Tonquin sailed from the Columbia on the 5th of June, 1811, on a trading speculation to the northward; and Mr. M Kay (who had accompanied Sir Alexander Mackenzie in Ins - !l x---i U ard, as an interpreter, a native of Gray s dialects of the tribes on the coast. From A few days after their departure from perilous journey across America in 1793) took on board, Harbour, who was well acquainted with the various diale this Indian the following particulars were learned: " __,- the Columbia they anchored opposite a large village, named New Whitty, in the vicinity ot Nootka, where Mr. M Kay immediately opened a trade with the natives. He went on shore witl 542 OREGON. There is much timber growing on Vancouver s Island and the lands south of 48 deg. 8 tnin., which border the numerous inlets within it; and some parts of this large island are described as well adapted for agriculture. But its moun tainous and rocky districts occupy a great part of its area. Its harbours, its a few men ; was received in the most friendly manner, and slept a couple of nights at the village. During this period several of the natives visited the vessel with furs. The unbending manners of the captain were not calculated to win their esteem ; and having struck one of their principal men whom he had caught in a theft, a conspiracy was formed by the friends of the chief to surprise and cut off the vessel. The faithful interpreter, having discovered their designs, lost no time in acquainting Mr. M Kay, who instantly hurried on board for the purpose of warning the captain of the intended attack. That evening Mr. M Kay told the interpreter that the captain only laughed at the information, and said he could never believe that a parcel of lazy, thieving Indians would have the courage to attack such a ship as his. The natives, in the mean time, apprehensive from Mr. M Kay s sudden return that their plans were suspected, visited the ship in small numbers, totally unarmed, in order to throw our people off their guard. Even the chief who had been struck by Captain Thorn, and who was the head of the conspiracy, came on board in a manner.seemingly friendly, and apparently forgetful of the insult he had received. Early in the morning of the day previous to that on which the ship was to leave New \\ hitty, a couple of large canoes, each containing about twenty men, appeared alongside. They brought several small bundles of furs ; and, as the sailors imagined they came for the purpose of trading, were allowed to come on deck. Shortly after another canoe, with an equal number, arrived also with furs ; and it was quickly followed by two others, full of men carrying beaver, otter, and other valuable skins. No opposition was made to their coming on board ; but the officer of the watch perceiving a number of other canoes pushing off, became suspicious of their intentions, and warned Captain Thorn of the circumstance. He immediately came on the quarter-deck, accompanied by Mr. M Kay and the interpreter. The latter, on observing that they all wore short cloaks or mantles of skins, which was by no means a general custom, at once knew that their designs were hostile, and told Mr. M Kay of his suspicions. That gentleman immediately apprised Captain Thorn of the circumstances, and begged of him to lose no time in clearing the ship of the intruders. This caution was however treated lightly by the captain, who remarked, that with the arms they had on board they would be more than a match for three times the number. The sailors in the meantime had all come on deck, which was crowded with the Indians, who completely blocked up the passages, and obstructed the men in the performance of their various duties. The captain re quested them to retire, to which they paid no attention. He then told them he was about going to sea, and had given orders to the men to raise the anchor ; that he hoped they would go away quietly : but if they refused he should be compelled to force their departure. He had scarcely finished, when at a signal given by one of the chiefs, a loud and frightful yell was heard from the assembled savages, who commenced a sudden and simultaneous attack on the officers and crew with knives, bludgeons, and short sabres, which they had concealed under their robes. Mr. M Kay was one of the first attacked. One Indian gave him a severe blow with a bludgeon, which partially stunned him ; upon which he was seized by five or six otners, who threw him overboard into a canoe alongside, where he quickly recovered, and was allowed to remain for some time un injured. Captain Thorn made an ineffectual attempt to reach the cabin for his fire-arms, but was overpowered by numbers. His only weapon was a jack-knife, with which he killed four of his savage assailants by ripping up their bellies, and mutilated several others. Covered with wounds, and exhausted from the loss of blood, he rested himself for a moment by leaning on the tiller wheel, when he received a dreadful blow from a weapon called spautumaugan on the back part of the head, which felled him to the deck. The death-dealing knife fell from his hand; and his savage butchers, after extinguishing the few sparks of life that still remained, threw his mangled body overboard. On seeing the captain s fate, our informant, who was close to him, and who had hitherto escaped uninjured, jumped into the water, and was taken into a canoe by some women, who partially covered his body with mats. He states that the original intention of the enemy was to detain M r. M Kay a prisoner ; and after securing the vessel, to give him his liberty, on obtaining- a ransom from Astoria ; but on finding the resistance made by the captain and crew, the former of whom had killed one of the principal chiefs, their love of gain gave way to revenge, and they resolved to destroy him. The last time the ill-fated gentleman was seen^ his head was hanging over the side of a canoe, and three savages, armed with pautumaugans, were battering out his brains. In the meantime the devoted crew, who had maintained the unequal conflict with un paralleled bravery, became gradually overpowered. Three of them, John Anderson, the boatswain, John Weekes, the carpenter, and Stephen Weekes, who had so narrowly escaped at the Columbia, succeeded, after a desperate struggle, in gaining possession of the cabin, the entrance to which they securely fastened inside. The Indians now became more cautious, for they well knew there RUSSIA N-AMERICA . 543 woods, its limited cultivable soils, its wild animals, and its fisheries, with those of the adjacent coast, and with Queen Charlotte s Island, and several other islands, and the coast northward, may, at some distant period, afford sufficient advantages for occupation and settlement. But as far as all the descriptions which we have of the islands and regions of the north-west coast of America extend, north of about latitude 48 deg. 30 min., their value for agricultural purposes must be con sidered as utterly insignificant. were plenty of fire-arms below ; and they had already experienced enough of the prowess of the three men while on deck, and armed only with handspikes, to dread approaching them while they had more mortal weapons at their command. Anderson and his two companions seeing their commander and the crew dead and dying about them, and that no hope of escape remained, and feeling moreover the uselessness of any further opposition, determined on taking a terrible revenge. Two of them, therefore, set about laying a train to the powder magazine, while the third addressed some Indians from the cabin windows, who were in canoes, and gave them to understand that if they were permitted to depart unmolested in one of the ship s boats, they would give them quiet possession of the vessel without firing a shot ; stipulating however that no canoe should remain near them while getting into the boat. The anxiety of the barbarians to obtain possession of the plunder, and their disinclination to risk any more lives, induced them to embrace this proposition with eagerness, and the pinnace was immediately brought astern. The three heroes having by this time perfected their dreadful arrangements, and ascertained that no Indian was watching them, gradually lowered themselves from the cabin windows into the boat ; and having fired the train, quickly pushed off towards the mouth of the harbour, no obstacle being interposed to prevent their departure. Hundreds of the enemy now rushed on deck to seize the long-expected prize, shouting yells of victory ; but their triumph was of short duration. Just as they had burst open the cabin door, an explosion took place, which in an instant hurled upwards of two hundred savages into eternity, and dreadfully injured as many more. The interpreter, who had by this time reached land, states he saw many mutilated bodies floating near the beach, while heads, arms, and legs, together with fragments of the ship, were thrown to a considerable distance on the shore. The first impression of the survivors was, that the Master of Life had sent forth the Evil Spirit from the waters to punish them for their cruelty to the white people. This belief, joined to the con sternation occasioned by the shock, and the reproaches and lamentations of the wives and other relatives of the sufferers, paralysed for a time the exertions of the savages, and favoured the attempt of Anderson and his brave comrades to escape. They rowed hard for the mouth of the harbour, with the intention, as is supposed, of coasting along the shore to the Columbia: but after passing the bar, a head wind and flowing tide drove them back, and compelled them to land late at night in a small cove, where they fancied themselves free from danger ; and where, weak from the loss of blood, and the harassing exertions of the day, they fell into a profound sleep. In the meantime the terror of the Indians had in some degree subsided, and they quickly discovered that it was by human agency so many of their warriors had been destroyed. They therefore determined on having the lives of those who caused the explosion ; and being aware from the state of the wind and tide that the boat could not put to sea, a party proceeded after dark cautiously along the shore of the bay, until they arrived at the spot where their helpless victims lay slumber ing. Bleeding and exhausted, they opposed but a feeble resistance to their savage conquerors ; and about midnight their heroic spirits mingled with those of their departed comrades." Cox s Columbia. Extract of a letter dated Oregon, July, 1829. " The number of lives lost last winter is incredible, particularly in your old department the Columbia. " The Company s ship, after a tolerably quick passage from England, was lost on the bar, and the entire crew, twenty-six in number, were inhumanly butchered by the Clatsops. " Your friend Ogden, in a hunting excursion, was attacked by a party of the Blackfeet, who killed four of his men ; and six of the people stationed at New Caledonia were murdered by the Carriers during the winter. " Two American parties, under the command of Messrs. Smith and Tulloch, were completely cut off; riot a soul escaped ; and property to a considerable amount fell into the hands of the savages. " These misfortunes have considerably weakened our influence with the Indians on the Columbia, whose behaviour, in consequence, has become very bold and daring, and we greatly fear the ensuing winter may be productive of more disasters. " We shall have much difficulty in filling up the appointments for that district next spring ; in 544 RUSSIAN-AMERICA. CHAPTER XXVI. RUSSIAN-AMERICA. ON the coast of North America, along Behring s Straits, between 67 deg. and 64 deg. 10 min. of latitude, under the parallels of Lapland and Iceland, there have long been established a great number of posts or rather huts frequented by the Siberian hunters. These, from north to south, were principally at Kigiltach, Leglelachtok, Tuguten, Netschich, Tchinegriun, Chibalech, Topar, Pintepata, Agulichan, Chavani, and Nugran, near Cape Rodney (Cap du Parent). The extensive region, considered under Russian dominion, is a country of islands, ice, rocks, barrens, pine, and beech forests. Its boundaries are supposed to be Dixon s Inlet, in about latitude 54 deg. north; and, including several islands, and a narrow strip along the coast to Mount St. Elias, in latitude 60 deg. 20 min., and thence separated from British America by a line running due north, along the meridian of longitude 141 deg. west to the Arctic Sea, com prising the whole region from that meridian west to Behring s Straits, and in cluding the peninsula of Aliaska and the Aleutian Islands. The following re marks were drawn up in 1837, by an officer of the Hudson Bay Company, and in most respects apply to the present time, with the exception that the post of Bodega, on the coast of Mexico, has been sold to a Swiss adventurer, and that several Swiss and Germans have settled there. " The Russian Fur Company s principal establishment on the north-west coast is named < New Archangel/ formerly Sitka, and situated in Norfolk Sound, in north latitude 57 min., west longitude 132 deg. 20 min. It is maintained as a regular military establishment, garrisoned by about 300 officers and men, with good natural defences, mounting sixteen short eighteen, and twelve long nine- pounders, and is the head-quarters of the governor, Captain Kaupryanoff, of the Russian army. The Russians have other establishments on the coast and islands to the northward of New Archangel, and one fort, Ross, in the Bay of Bodega, or Romanzoff, on the coast of California, situated near the entrance of the Bay of San Francisco, in latitude 37 deg. 25 min.; in all, ten establishments on the north-west coast of America. They have, moreover, twelve vessels from 100 up to 400 tons 3 burden, armed with ten guns each of different calibre. All the officers fact, symptoms of rebellion have already begun to manifest themselves, and several of our gentle men have been heard to declare, that in the event of their being nominated to the Columbia, they will retire from the service sooner than risk their lives among such sanguinary barbarians. God speed them ! I say. Numbers of them have been long enough enjoying idleness and luxury on the east side of the mountains, and it is only fair they should experience some of our Columbian privations. I have had my full share of them, and am therefore under no apprehensions of being ordered there in a hurry." ABORIGINES OF OREGON. 545 and most of the people employed in their sea and land service belong to the Rus sian army and navy; receive pay from the Russian government, and their ser vices, while attached to the Russian Fur Company, entitle them to the advan tages of promotion, pension, &c., in like manner as if employed on active ser vice in the army and navy. They have, moreover, attached to these establish ments a number of Indians of the Kodiak tribe, who are usually employed in hunting or fishing, but are under no fixed engagement, and are looked upon and considered as slaves. Their annual returns in fur are in value from 80,000/. to 100.000/. CHAPTER XXVII. ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF OREGON. THE aborigines of Oregon are, from all accounts, decreasing in numbers, and degenerating in character. They were, from the time they were first visited by Europeans, notorious thieves, and generally cruel and treacherous. Filthiness and laziness are characteristic of most of the Oregon tribes, though some are far more barbarous than others. They have adopted scarcely any of the virtues of European civilisation, nor have they imitated even their vices, with the excep tion of the ready indulgence of drinking ardent spirits, and the use of tobacco* The former was unknown to their ancestors, and although the use of tobacco was known among the southern and eastern aborigines of America, it is doubt ful if it was known to the nations west of the Rocky Mountains. The different tribes have their several rites, and superstitions, and barbarities. Nor does it appear that the Christian missionaries have been successful in their labours.* Some * Speaking of the missionary, Captain Wilkes says of a village up the Klackamus, its inhabi tants number about forty-five individuals. Mr. Waller went there to preach, and about half the inhabitants of the village attended. The chief was the interpreter, and was thought to have done his office in rather a waggish sort of manner. Preaching to the natives through an interpreter is at all times difficult, and especially so when the speaker has to do it in the Indian jargon of the country. This village has been disputed ground between Mr. Waller and Mr. Bachelet (two missionaries). To the generally bad character of the Oregon tribes, there have been known some in dividual exceptions. " During my stay at Vancouver," says Captain Wilkes, " I frequently saw Casenove, the chief of the Klackatack tribe. He lives in a lodge near the visage of Vancouver, and has always been a warm friend of the whites. He was once lord of all this domain. His village was situated about six miles below Vancouver, on the north side of the river, and within the last fifteen years was quite populous : he then could muster four or five hundred warriors ; but the ague and fever have within a short space of time swept off the whole tribe; and it is said that they all died within three weeks. He now stands alone, his land, tribe, and property, all parted, and he left a dependent on the bounty of the Company. Casenove is about fifty years of age, and a noble and intelligent-looking Indian. At the fort he is always welcome, and is furnished with a plate at meal-times at the side-table. I could not but feel for the situation of one who, in the short space of a few years, has lost not only his property and importance, but his whole tribe and kindred, as I saw him quietly enter the apartment, wrapped in his blanket, and take his seat at VOL. I. 4 A 546 OREGON. tribes are far more daring and intrepid than others. The most degraded are those who live chiefly on roots, and known by the name of diggers. The boldest are those inhabiting Vancouver s and Queen Charlotte s Islands; and those south ward about the opposite inlets, near the point where Sir Alexander Mackenzie, after crossing America from Canada, arrived at the waters of the Pacific. Cap tain Wilkes gives, in his narrative, a very interesting account, of the condition and number of the native inhabitants of Oregon in Texas. He says "I satisfied myself that the accounts given of the depopulation of this country are not exaggerated ; for places were pointed out to me where dwelt whole tribes that have been entirely swept off; and during the time of the greatest mortality, the shores of the river were strewed with the dead and dying. This disease, ague and fever, occurs, it is said, semi- annually, and in the case of foreigners it is more mild at each succeeding attack. " Owing to the above causes, the population is much less than I expected to the lonely board. He scarce seemed to attract the notice of any one, but ate his meal in silence, and retired. During the time of his prosperity he was ever ready to search out and bring to punishment all those who committed depredations on strangers. " Casenove s tribe is not the only one that has suffered in this way ; many others have been swept off entirely by this fatal disease, without leaving a single survivor to tell their melancholy tale. " The cause of this great mortality among the Indians, has been attributed to the manner in which the disease has been treated, or rather to the superstitious practices. Their medicine-men and women are no better than jugglers, and use no medicine except some deleterious roots ; while, from the character of these Indians, and their (barbarous) treatment of an unsuccessful practitioner, the whites decline administering any medicines, for fear of revengeful consequences. " Of their medicine-men they have a great dread, and even of their bones after death. Thus, a medicine-man was buried near this burying-ground about a year before our visit to the country, whose body the wolves dug up : no one could be found to bury his bones again, and they were still to be seen bleaching on the surface of the ground. " It is no sinecure to be a medicine-man ; and if they inspire dread in others they are made to feel it themselves, being frequently obliged to pay the forfeit of their own lives, if they are not successful in curing their patients. The chief of the Klackamus tribe told Mr. Drayton that some of his men had gone to kill a medicine-man, in consequence of the death of his wife. These men afterwards returned with a horse and some smaller presents from the medicine-man, which he had paid to save his life. " This rule equally applies to the whites who prescribe for Indians, an instance of which appeared a short time before our arrival, when Mr. Black, a chief trader in one of the northern posts, was shot dead in his own room, by an Indian to whose parent (a chief) he had been charitable enough to give some medicine. The chief died soon after taking it, and Mr. Black paid the forfeit of his kindness with his life. The deed was done in a remarkably bold and daring manner. The Indian went to the fort and desired to see Mr. Black, saying he was sick and cold. He was allowed to enter, and Mr. Black had a fire made for him, without any suspicions of his intentions. On his turning his back, however, towards the Indian, he was instantly shot, and fell dead on his face, when the man made his escape from the fort before any suspicions were excited of his being the murderer. " To Mr. Black the world is indebted for the greater part of the geographical knowledge which has been published of the country west of the Rocky Mountains ; and he not only devoted much of his time to this subject, but also to the making of many collections in the other departments of natural history, as well as in geology and mineralogy." Many of the Oregon Indians leave their tribes and go on long journeys. Mr. Spalding, a missionary, informed Captain Wilkes that the number of Oregon Indians whom he has ascertained to have visited the United States was surprising. He informed our gentlemen that he had letters to Boston in eighty-one days from the Dalles, by means of Indians and the American rendezvous ; and, what was remarkable, the slowest part of the route was from St. Louis to Boston. The communication is still carried on by Indians, although it was generally supposed to be by the free trappers. He considers that these tribes, both men and women, are an industrious people. ABORIGINES OF OREGON. 547 find it. I made every exertion to obtain correct information, and believe that at the time of our visit, the following was very nearly the truth, viz. : Vancouver and Washington Island . . . 5000 From latitude 50 to 54 north on the main . . . 2000 Fenn s Cove, Whidb/s Island, including the main land (Sachet tribe) . . . . . 650 Hood s Canal (Suquamish and Toando tribes) . . 500 Birch Bay . . . . . 300 Fraser s River . . . . .500 Clalams, at Port Discovery, New Dungeness . . . 350 Port Townsend . . . . .70 Classet Tribe, Cape Flattery, and Point Grenville . . 1250 Nisqually ...... 200 Chickeeles and Puget Sound . . . 700 Port Orchard . . . . .150 Cowlitz . . . . . 330 Okonagan ..... 300 Colville and Spokane . . . . . 450 Kilamukes . . . 400 Chinooks . . . . . 209 Clatsops ...... 220 Cascades . . . 150 Pillar Rock, Oak Point, and Columbia River . . 300 Willamette Fall and Valley . . 275 Dalles ...... 250 De Chute s and John Day s River . . . 300 Yakima ...... 100 Wallawalla . . . . 1100 Blackfeet, that dwell principally on the west side of the Rocky Mountains . . . . . . 1000 Umpquas . . . . .400 Rogues River . . . . . 500 Klamets . . . . . . . 300 Shaste . . . , 500 Callapuyas . 600 Total . . 19,354 " The whole territory may therefore be considered as containing about 20,000 Indians ; and this, from a careful revision of the data obtained by myself and some of the officers, I am satisfied is rather above than under the truth. The whites and half-breds were between 700 and 800; 150 were Americans. The number of the latter has, however, increased very much since the year 1840, as many emigrants have crossed the mountains. The decrease of the red race is no doubt equivalent to the increase by immigration." 548 OREGON. CHAPTER XXVIII. OVERLAND EXPEDITIONS FROM THE UNITED STATES TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. IN order to continue our account of the progress of America, we must follow the advance of the European race over the wilderness countries, which extend be tween the Mississippi and the Pacific Ocean. The spirit of enterprise, and the love of adventure, have urged bold men to face the most perilous dangers, to suffer the most miserable privations, and to endure the greatest fatigue, in tra versing those vast regions, from the time, when Sir Alexander Mackenzie explored the breadth of America, between the rivers of Canada and the shores of the Pacific, until the period when the Rocky Mountains have been crossed by the most recent band of adventurers. We shall hereafter sketch the routes from the Missouri, over the great central prairies to Santa Fe, and to the great Mexican plain of Anahuac. We have followed the United States exploring parties under Captain Wilkes, in North and South Oregon and California. To complete, or follow up, the explorations made in Oregon and California, two expeditions were fitted out, the first in 1843, the second in 1844 : both under the command of Captain Fremont, of the United States Topographical Engineers. The narrative, or journal of those expeditions, is remarkably well written, and abounds in the most interesting information relative to the climate, soil, geology, and natural history generally, of the countries traversed by Captain Fremont. The object of the first expedition was to explore the regions between the Missouri River and the SOUTH PASS of the Rocky Mountains, and the territories also drained by the Kansas and Great Platte Rivers. He departed from the city of Washington on the 2nd of May, 1842, and arrived at St. Louis on the 22nd, from whence Captain Fremont and his party proceeded about 400 miles to Chou- teau s trading place, ten miles above the mouth of the Kansas in latitude 39 deg. 6 min. north, longitude 94 deg. 26 min. west, 700 feet above the level of the sea. This exploring party consisted of Captain Fremont, as commander, Mr. Preuss, a German, as assistant surveyor, Maxwell a hunter, Carson, long noted as a bold trapper in the Rocky Mountains, two youths as adventurers, and about twenty men, habituated to prairie, mountain, river, and forest life, chiefly Canadian voyageurs and half-breds, who had been brought up in the service of the fur companies : all were well armed and mounted on horses. They started with eight waggons, drawn by mules carrying the luggage, some oxen, driven along to be killed for provisions, and a few spare horses. "From the belt of wood," says Captain Fremont, "which borders the Kansas, EXPEDITIONS TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 54 ( J in which we had passed several good-looking Indian farms, we suddenly emerged on the prairies, which received us at the outset with some of their striking characteris tics ; for here and there rode an Indian, and but a few miles distant heavy clouds of smoke were rolling before the fire. In about ten miles we reached the Santa Fe road, along which we continued for a short time, and encamped early on a small stream ; having travelled about eleven miles. During our journey, it was the customary practice to encamp an hour or two before sunset, when the carts were disposed so as to form a sort of barricade around a circle some eighty yards in diameter. The tents were pitched, and the horses hobbled and turned loose to graze; and but a few minutes elapsed before the cooks of the messes, of which there were four, were busily engaged in preparing the evening meal. At nightfall, the horses, mules, and oxen, were driven in and picketed that is, secured by a halter, of which one end was tied to a small steel- shod picket, and driven into the ground ; the halter being twenty or thirty feet long, which enabled them to obtain a little food during the night. When we had reached a part of the country where such a precaution became necessary, the carts being regularly arranged for defending the camp, guard was mounted at eight o clock, consisting of three men, who were relieved every two hours ; the morning w r atch being horse guard for the day. At daybreak, the camp was roused, the animals turned loose to graze, and breakfast generally over between six and seven o clock, when we resumed our march, making regularly a halt at noon for one or two hours. Such was usually the order of the day, except when accident of country forced a variation ; which, however, happened but rarely. We travelled next day along the Santa Fe road, which we left in the afternoon, and encamped late in the evening on a small creek called by the Indians Mishmagwi." After a journey of extraordinary fatigue, attended frequently with severe pri vation, Captain Fremont arrived at the ascent to the southern pass of the Rocky Mountains. The narrative of this journey is remarkably interesting, The perils of fording and ascending rivers, the hostility of the Indian tribes, the disturbed state of the country west of the American settlements, the buffalo herds and hunts,* the sufferings of the emigrants on their way to Oregon, the lives of the trappers,t the account of the trading-posts, the arrangements for * See account of the Buffalo and Fur Trade in Supplement, and in vol. ii. f THE TRAPPEBS OR BEAVER HUNTERS. " In the old times of the Canadian Fur trade, when the trade in furs was chiefly pursued about the lakes and rivers, the expeditions were, in a great degree, carried on in batteaux and canoes. But a totally different class has now sprung up the " mountaineers" the traders and trappers that scale the vast mountain chains, and pursue their hazardous vocation amidst their wild recesses moving from place to place on horseback exposed not alone to the perils of the wilderness, but to the perils of attack from fierce Indians, to whom it has become as favourable an exploit to harass and waylay a band of trappers with their pack-horses, as it is to the Arabs of the desert to plunder a caravan. The equestrian exercises in which they are constantly engaged the nature of the country they traverse vast plains and mountains pure and exhilarating in their atmospheric qualities seem to make them, physically and mentally, a more lively, vigorous, daring, and enduring race than the fur traders and trappers of former days, who generally had huts or tents to shelter them 550 OKEGON. travelling, the exhausted state of their horses, the manner in which fresh horses and guides were procured, and the accounts of the regions travelled over, are clearly described. On the 15th of July the party reached Fort Laramie. On the left bank of the river, about twenty-five feet above the water, Captain Fremont says, " Its lofty walls whitewashed and picketed, with large bastions at the angles, gave it an imposing appearance. A cluster of Sioux lodges was pitched under the walls, and with the background of the Black Hills, and the pro minent peak of Laramie Mountain, strongly drawn in the clear light of the western sky, where the sun had already set, the whole formed at the moment a strikingly beautiful picture. Mr. Boudeau, in charge of the post, received us with great hospitality. " Laramie, is a quadrangular structure, built of clay, after the fashion of the Mexicans, who are generally employed in building them. The walls are about fifteen feet high, surmounted with a wooden palisade, and form a portion of ranges of houses, which entirely surround a yard of about 130 feet square. Every apartment has its door and window all opening on the inside. There are two entrances opposite each other, and midway the wall, one of which is a large and public entrance ; the other smaller and more private a sort of postern gate. Over the great entrance is a square tower with loop-holes, and, like the rest of the work, built of earth. At two of the angles, and diagonally opposite each other, are large square bastions so arranged as to sweep the four faces of the walls. This post belongs to the American Fur Company, and intrusted to the care of two clerks and about sixteen men. " As usual, these had found wives among the Indian squaws : and with the usual accompaniment of children the place had a populous appearance." The object of the establishment is trade with the neigh bouring tribes, who, in the course of the year, generally make two or three visits to the fort. In addition to this, traders, with a small outfit, are constantly kept from the inclemency of the seasons were seldom exposed to the hostility of the natives, and generally were within reach of supplies from the settlements. There is, perhaps, no class of men on the earth who lead a life of more continued exertion, danger, and excitement, and who are more enamoured of their occupations, than the free trappers of the wild regions of the West. No toil, no danger, no privation, can turn the trapper aside from his pursuit. If his meal is not ready in time, he takes his rifle hies to the forest- shoots his game lights his fire, and cooks his repast. With his horse and his rifle he is independent of the world, and spurns its restraints. In vain may the most vigilant and cruel savages beset his path in vain may rocks, and precipices, and wintry torrents oppose his progress ; let but a single track of a beaver meet his eye, and he forgets all danger, and defies all difficulties. At times he may be seen, with his traps on his shoulders, buffeting his way across rapid streams amidst floating blocks of ice ; at other times, with his traps slung on his back, clambering the most rugged mountains scaling or descending the most frightful precipices searching by routes in accessible to horse, and never before trodden by white man, for springs and lakes unknown to his comrades, where he may meet with his favourite game. This class of hunters are generally Canadians by birth, and of French descent ; who, after being bound to serve the traders for a certain number of years and receive wages, or hunt on shares, then continue to hunt and trap on their own account, trading with the company like the Indians ; hence they are called free men." Dunn s History of the Oregon Territory. EXPEDITIONS TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 551 amongst them. The articles of trade consist on the one side, almost entirely of buffalo robes ; and, on the other, of blankets, calicoes, guns, powder, and lead, with such cheap ornaments as glass beads, looking-glasses, rings, vermilion for painting, tobacco, and principally, and in spite of the prohibition, of spirits, brought into the country in the form of alcohol, and diluted with water before sold. The American Fur Company, throughout the country, are strenuously opposed to the introduction of spirituous liquors. "But," says Captain Fremont, "when a keg of alcohol will purchase from an Indian every thing he possesses his furs, his lodge, his horses, and even his wife and children and when any vagabond, who has money enough to purchase a mule, can go into a village and trade against them successfully, without withdrawing entirely from the trade it is impossible for them to discontinue its use. In their opposition to this practice, the company is sustained, not only by their obligation to the laws of the country and the wel fare of the Indians, but clearly also on grounds of policy; for, with heavy and expensive outfits, they contend at manifestly great disadvantage against the numerous independent and unlicensed traders, who enter the country from various i avenues, from the United States and from Mexico, having no other stock in trade than some kegs of liquor, which they sell at the modest price of thirty-six dollars per gallon. The difference between the regular trader and the coureur des bois (as the French call the itinerant or peddling traders), with respect to the sale of spirits, is here, as it always has been, fixed and permanent, and growing out of the nature of their trade. The regular trader looks a-head, and has an interest in the preser vation of the Indians, and in the regular pursuit of their business, and the preser vation of their arms, horses, and every thing necessary to their future and perma nent success in hunting : the coureur des bois has no permanent interest, and gets what he can, and for what he can, from every Indian he meets, even at the risk of disabling him from doing any thing more at hunting."* The fort had a very cool and clean appearance. The great entrance was * Captain Fremont learned the following particulars of the condition of the country. " For several years the Cheyennes and Sioux had gradually become more and more hostile to the whites, and in the latter part of August, 1841, had had rather a severe engagement with a party of sixty men under the command of Mr. Frapp, of St. Louis. The Indians lost eight or ten warriors, and the whites had their leader and four men killed. This fight took place on the waters of Snake River ; and it was this party, on their return under Mr. Bridger, which had spread so much alarm among my people. In the course of the spring two other small parties had been cut off by the Sioux one on their return from the Crow nation, and the other among the Black Hifls." The emigrants to Oregon and Mr. Bridger s party met here a few days before Captain Fremont s arrival. " Divisions and misunderstandings had grown up among them ; they were already somewhat disheartened by the fatigue of their long and wearisome journey, and the feet of their cattle had become so much worn as to be scarcely able to travel. In this situation they were not likely to find encouragement in the hostile attitude of the Indians, and the new and unexpected difficulties which sprang up before them. They were told that the country was entirely swept of grass, and that few or no buffalo were to be found on their line of route; and, with the ir weakened animals, it would be impossible for them to transport their heavy waggons over the mountains. Under these circumstances, they disposed of their waggons and cattle at the forts ; selling them at the prices they had paid in the States, and taking in exchange coffee and sugar at one dollar a pound, and miserable worn-out horses, which died before they reached the mountains. The superintendent at Laramie purchased thirty, and at the lower fort eighty head of fine cattle, some of them of the Durham breed. Mr. Fitzpatrick, whose 552 OREGON. floored, and about fifteen feet long, made a pleasant, shaded seat, through which the breeze swept constantly; for this country is famous for high winds. The Indian tribes were at this period in a state of hostility, and the routes to Oregon, California, and Mexico were rendered extremely dangerous. " The effect of a recent engagement (with a Mr. Frapp) had been greatly to irri tate the hostile spirit of the savages ; and immediately subsequent to that event, the Gros Ventre Indians had united with the Oglallahs and Cheyennes, and taken the field in great force to the amount of 800 lodges. Their object was to make an attack on a camp of Snake and Crow Indians, and a body of about 100 whites, who had made a rendezvous somewhere in the Green River Valley, or on the Sweet Water. After spending some time in buffalo hunting in the neighbour hood of the Medicine Bow Mountain, they were to cross over to the Green River Waters, and return to Laramie by way of the South Pass and the Sweet Water Valley." Captain Fremont subsequently learned that a party of emigrants, led by Mr. Fitzpatrick were overtaken by their pursuers near Rock Independence, in the valley of the Sweet Water ; but that his skill and resolution saved them. From Fort Laramie to the Red Buttes, by the ordinary road is 135 miles; and, though only on the threshold of danger, the services of an interpreter were secured. " So far as frequent interruption from the Indians would allow," says Captain Fremont, te we occupied ourselves in making some astronomical calculations, and bringing up the general map to this stage of our journey ; but the tent was ge nerally occupied by a succession of our unceremonious visiters. Some came for presents, and others for information of our object in coming to the country ; now and then, one would dart up to the tent on horseback, jerk off his trappings, and stand silently at the door, holding his horse by the halter, signifying his desire to trade. Occasionally a savage would stalk in with an invitation to a feast of honour, a dog feast, and deliberately sit down and wait quietly until I was ready to accompany him. I went to one ; the women and children were sitting outside the lodge, and we took our seats on buffalo robes spread around. The dog was in a large pot over the fire, in the middle of the lodge, and immediately on our arrival was dished up in large wooden bowls, one of which was handed to each. The flesh appeared very glutinous, with something of the flavour and ap pearance of mutton. "During the 18th of July, an expected Indian village arrived, consisting princi pally of old men, women, and children. They had a considerable number of horses, and large troops of dogs. Their lodges were pitched near the fort, and our camp was name and high reputation are familiar to all who interest themselves in the history of this country, had reached Laramie in company with Mr. Bridger ; and the emigrants were fortunate enough to ohtain his services to guide them as far as the British post of Fort Hall, about 250 miles beyond the south pass of the mountains. They had started for this post on the 4th of July, and imme diately after their departure, a war party of 350 braves set out upon their trail. As their principal chief or partisan had lost some relations in the recent fight, and had sworn to kill the first whites on his path, it was supposed that their intention was to attack the party, should a favourable oppor tunity offer ; or if foiled in their principal object, content themselves with stealing horses and cutting off stragglers." EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 553 constantly crowded with Indians of all sizes, from morning until night; at which time some of the soldiers, generally, came to drive them all off to the village. My tent was the only place which they respected. Here only came the chiefs and men of distinction, and generally one of them remained to drive away the women and children. The numerous strange instruments, applied to still stranger uses, excited awe and admiration among them, and those which I used in talkino- with the sun and stars they looked upon with especial reverence, as mysterious things of " great medicine." Of the three barometers which I had brought with me thus far successfully, I found that two were out of order, and spent the greater part of the 19th in repairing them, We had the misfortune to break here a large thermometer, graduated to show fifths of a degree, which I used to ascertain the temperature of boiling water, and with which I had promised myself some in teresting experiments in the mountains. We had but one remaining on which the graduation extended sufficiently high ; and this was too small for exact obser vations. During our stay here, the men had been engaged in making numerous repairs, arranging pack-saddles, and otherwise preparing for the chances of a rough road and mountain travel. All things of this nature being ready, I gathered them round me in the evening, and told them that I had determined to proceed next day. They were all well armed. Our observations showed that the chro nometer had preserved its rate in a most satisfactory manner. As deduced from it, the longitude of Fort Laramie is 7 hours 01 min. 21 sec., and from lunar dis tance 7 hours 01 min. 29 sec.; giving for the adopted longitude 104 deg. 47 min. 43 sec. The elevation of the fort above the Gulf of Mexico is 4470 feet. The winter climate here is remarkably mild for the latitude; but rainy weather is frequent, and the place is celebrated for winds, of which the prevailing one is west. An east wind in summer, and a south wind in winter, are said to be always accompanied with rain." On being ready to depart on the 21st of July, the interpreter stated his ap prehension of formidable dangers, and that the chiefs were assured they would all be cut off by hostile tribes ; but Captain Fremont was not to be daunted, and he determined on prosecuting the journey. The road led over an interesting plateau between the north fork of the Platte on the right, and Laramie River on the left. " Our tents," he observes, " having been found too thin to protect ourselves and the instruments from the rains, which in this elevated country are attended with cold and unpleasant weather, I had procured from the Indians at Laramie a tolerably large lodge, about eighteen feet in diameter, and twenty feet in height. Such a lodge, when properly pitched, is, from its conical form, almost perfectly secure against the violent winds which are frequent in this region, and, with a fire in the centre, is a dry and warm shelter in bad weather. By raising the lower part, so as to permit the breeze to pass freely, it is converted into a pleasant VOL. i. 4s 554 EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. summer residence, with the extraordinary advantage of being entirely free from mosquitoes, one of which I have never seen in an Indian lodge." " To keep open the communications/ says Captain Fremont, e( with Oregon territory, a show of military force in this country is absolutely necessary ; and a combination of advantages renders the neighbourhood of Fort Laramie the most suitable place, on the line of the Platte, for the establishment of a military post. It is connected with the mouth of the Platte and the Upper Missouri by excellent roads, which are in frequent use, and would not in any way interfere with the range of the buffalo, on which the neighbouring Indians mainly depend for sup port. It would render any posts on the Lower Platte unnecessary, the ordinary communication between it and the Missouri being sufficient to control the inter mediate Indians. It would operate effectually to prevent any such coalitions as are now formed among the Gros Ventres, Sioux, Cheyennes, and other Indians, and would keep the Oregon road through the valley of the Sweet Water and the South Pass of the mountains constantly open. It lies at the foot of a broken and mountainous region, along which, by the establishment of small posts in the neighbourhood of St. Vrain s Fort, on the South Fork of the Platte, and Bent s Fort, on the Arkansas, a line of communication would be formed, by good waggon roads, with our southern military posts, which would entirely command the mountain passes, hold some of the most troublesome tribes in check, and protect and facilitate our intercourse with the neighbouring Spanish settlements. The valleys of the rivers on which they would be situated are fertile; the country, which supports immense herds of buffalo, is admirably adapted to grazing ; and herds of cattle might be maintained by the posts, or obtained from the Spanish country, which already supplies a portion of their provisions to the trading posts mentioned above." Narrative. To the south, along the route on the 22nd, the main chain of the Black or Laramie Hills rises precipitously upward in masses along the summits. An in verted cone of black cloud (cumulus) rested during all the forenoon on the lofty peak of Laramie Mountain, estimated to be 6500 feet above the sea. Eastward of the meridian of Fort Laramie, the principal objects which strike the eye of a traveller are the absence of timber, and the immense expanse of prairie, covered with the verdure of rich grasses, and highly adapted for pasturage. Wherever they are not disturbed by man, large herds of buffalo give animation to this country. Westward of Laramie River, the region becomes sandy, and apparently sterile. " The prominent characteristic is the extraordinary abundance of artemisia, which grows everywhere on the hills, and over the river bottoms, in tough, twisted, wiry clumps ; and, wherever the beaten track was left, they rendered the progress of the carts rough and slow. As the country increased in elevation on our advance to the west, they increased in size ; and the whole air is strongly impregnated and saturated with the odour of camphor and spirits of turpentine, which are combined in this plant," " This climate," says Captain Fremont, "has been KXPED1TION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 555 found very favourable to the restoration of health, particularly in cases of con sumption ; and possibly the respiration of air so highly impregnated with aro matic plants may have some influence. The present year had been one of unpa ralleled drought, and throughout the country the water had been almost dried up. The greater number of the springs, and many of the streams, which made halting-places for the voyageurs had been dried up. Every where the soil looked parched and burnt; the scanty yellow grass crisped under the foot, and even the hardiest plants were destroyed by want of moisture. I think it necessary to mention this fact, because, to the rapid evaporation in such an elevated region, nearly 5000 feet above the sea, almost wholly unprotected by timber, should be attributed much of the sterile appearance of the country, in the destruction of vegetation, and the numerops saline efflorescences which covered the ground." Before leaving the last crossing of the Platte, Captain Fremont says, " I will endeavour to give some description of the nature of the road from Laramieto this point. The nature of the soil may be inferred from its geological formation. The limestone at the eastern limit of this section is succeeded by limestone without fossils, a great variety of sandstone, consisting principally of red sandstone and fine conglomerates. The red sandstone is argillaceous, with compact white gypsum or alabaster, very beautiful. The other sandstones are grey, yellow, and ferrugi nous, sometimes very coarse. The apparent sterility of the country must, there fore, be sought for in other causes than the nature of the soil. The face of the country cannot, with propriety, be called hilly. It is a succession of long ridges, made by the numerous streams which come down from the neighbouring mountain f range. The ridges have an undulating surface, with some such appearance as the ocean presents in an ordinary breeze. "The road which is now generally followed through this region is therefore a very good one, without any difficult ascents to overcome. The principal obstruc tions are near the river, where the transient waters of heavy rains have made deep ravines with steep banks, which renders frequent circuits necessary. It will be remembered that waggons pass this road only once or twice a year, which is by no means sufficient to break down the stubborn roots of the innumerable arte- misia bushes. A partial absence of these is often the only indication of the track ; and the roughness produced by their roots in many places gives the road the cha racter of one newly opened in a wooded country. This is usually considered the worst part of the road east of the mountains ; and, as it passes through an open prairie region, may be much improved, so as to avoid the greater part of the ine qualities it now presents. " From the mouth of the Kansas to the Green River Valley, west of the Rocky Mountains, there is 110 such thing as a mountain road on the line of com- nunication." Before starting on the most difficult and perilous part of the journey, and vhich he was earnestly dissuaded, from the hostile state of the country, not to 556 EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. attempt, Captain Fremont says, " Having resolved to disencumber ourselves im mediately of every thing not absolutely necessary to our future operations, I turned directly in toward the river, and encamped on the left bank, a little above the place where our council had been held, and where a thick grove of willows offered a suitable spot for the object I had in view. " The carts having been discharged the covers and wheels were taken off, and, with the frames, carried into some low places among the willows, and concealed in the dense foliage in such a manner that the glitter of the iron-work might not attract the observation of some straggling Indian. In the sand, which had been blown up into waves among the willows, a large hole was then dug, ten feet square and six deep. In the mean time all our effects had been spread out upon the ground, and whatever was designed to be carried along with us separated and laid aside, and the remaining part carried to the hole and care fully covered up. As much as possible all traces of our proceedings were obli terated, and it wanted but a rain to render our cache safe beyond discovery. All the men were now set at work to arrange the pack-saddles and make up the packs." The best thermometer was accidentally broken at this place, which was named Cache camp, longitude 106 deg. 38 min. 26 sec., latitude 42 deg. 50 min. 53 sec." All the arrangements having been completed, the expedition left the encamp ment early on the morning of the 29th of July. In a few miles they reached the Red Buttes, a famous landmark, whose geological composition is red sandstone, limestone, and calcareous sandstone and pudding-stone. Here the river cuts its way through a ridge; on the eastern side of which are the lofty escarpments of red argillaceous sandstone, called the Red Buttes. On the banks were willow and cherry-trees. The cherries were not yet ripe, but in the thickets were numerous fresh tracks of the grizzly bear, which is very fond of this fruit. Before leaving the course of the Platte, they saw numerous herds of mountain sheep, and frequently heard the rattling of stones rolling rapidly down the steep hills. This was the first place at which they had killed any of these sheep or goats (for they are called by each name). Their flesh is much esteemed by the hunters; and the horns are often three feet long and seventeen inches in circumference at the base, weighing eleven pounds. The use of these horns seems to be to protect the animal s head in pitching down precipices to avoid the wolves their only safety being in places where they cannot be followed. " The bones are very strong and solid, the marrow occupy ing but a very small portion of the bone in the leg, about the thickness of a rye- straw. The hair is short, resembling the winter colour of our common deer, which it nearly approaches in size and appearance. Except in the horns, it has no re semblance whatever to the goat." On leaving the course of the Platte, to cross over to the Sweet Water, they wound their way to the summit of the hills, of which the peaks are about 800 feet above the Platte, bare and rocky. EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. 557 On the 1st of August, the hunters went a-head, as buffalo appeared tolerably abundant, and the party moved about seven miles up the valley, and encamped one mile below Rock Independence. This is an isolated granite rock, about 650 yards long, and forty in height. "Everywhere, within six or eight feet of the ground, where the surface is sufficiently smooth, and in some places sixty or eighty feet above the rock is inscribed with the names of travellers. Many a name famous in the history of this country, and some well known to science, are to be found mixed among those of the traders and travellers for pleasure and curiosity, and of mis sionaries among the savages. Some of these have been washed away by the rain, but the greater number are still very legible. The position of this rock is in longi tude 107 deg. 56 min., latitude 42 deg. 29 min. 36 sec. We remained at our camp of August 1st until noon of the next day, occupied in drying meat." Five miles above Rock Independence they reached a place called the Devil s Gate, where the Sweet Water cuts through a granite ridge. " The length of the passage is about 300 yards, and the width thirty-five yards. The walls of rock are vertical, and about 400 feet in height; and the stream in the gate is almost entirely choked up by masses which have fallen from above. In the wall, on the right bank, is a dike of trap-rock, cutting through a fine-grained grey granite. Near the point of this ridge crop out some strata of the valley formation, consisting of a greyish micaceous sandstone, and fine-grained conglomerate and marl. The country for several miles up this valley, is exceedingly picturesque. On either side of the valley, which is four or five miles broad, the mountains rise to the height of 1200 and 1500 or 2000 feet. On the south side the range appears to be timbered, and during the night of the 3rd of August, was luminous with fires probably the work of the Indians, who had just passed through the valley. On the north, broken and granite masses rise abruptly from the green sward of the river, terminating in a line of broken summits. Except in the crevices of the rock, and here and there on a ledge or bench of the mountain, where a few hardy pines have clustered together, these are perfectly bare and destitute of vegetation. " Among these masses, where there are sometimes isolated hills and ridges, green valleys open in upon the river, which sweeps the base of these mountains for thirty-six miles. Everywhere its deep verdure and profusion of beautiful flowers is in pleasing contrast with the sterile grandeur of the rock and the bar renness of the sandy plain, which, from the right bank of the river, sweeps up to the mountain range that forms its southern boundary. The great evaporation on the sandy soil of this elevated plain, and the saline efflorescences which whiten the ground, and shine like lakes reflecting the sun, make a soil wholly unfit for culti vation." Travelling along the upland part of the valley, which is overgrown with artemisia, scattered about on the plain there were small isolated hills. One of these, about fifty feet high, consisted of white clay and marl, in nearly horizon tal strata. Several bands of buffalo made their appearance on the 3rd, with herds of antelope; and a grizzly bear was seen scrambling up among the rocks. On 558 EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. passing over a slight rise near the river, we caught the first view of the Wind River mountains, appearing, at this distance of about seventy miles, to be a low and dark mountainous ridge. On the 9th of August, they approached the summits. Captain Fremont says, 11 The weather still cloudy, with occasional rain. Our general course was west, as I had determined to cross the dividing ridge by a bridle-path among the broken country more immediately at the foot of the mountains, and return by the waggon road, two and a half miles to the south of the point where the trail crosses. fl About six miles from our encampment brought us to the summit. The ascent had been so gradual, that we were obliged to watch very closely to find the place at which we had reached the culminating point. This was between two low hills, rising on either hand fifty or sixty feet. "When I looked back at them, from the foot of the immediate slope on the western plain, their summits appeared to be about 120 feet above. From the impression on my mind at this time, and subsequently on our return, I should compare the elevation which we surmounted immediately at the pass, to the ascent of the Capitol hill from the avenue at Washing ton. It is difficult for me to fix positively the breadth of this pass. From the broken ground where it commences, at the foot of the Wind River chain, the view to the south-east is over a champaign country, broken, at the distance of nineteen miles, by the Table Rock ; which, with the other isolated hills in its vicinity, seems to stand on a comparative plain. This I judged to be its termination, the ridge re covering its rugged character with the Table Rock. It will be seen that it in no manner resembles the places to which the term is commonly applied nothing of the gorge-like character and winding ascents of the Alleghany passes in Ame rica ; nothing of the Great St. Bernard and Simplon passes in Europe. Approach ing it from the mouth of the Sweet Water, a sandy plain, 120 miles long, con ducts by a gradual and regular ascent to the summit, about /OOO feet above the sea; and the traveller, without being reminded of any change by toil some ascents, suddenly finds himself on the waters which flow to the Pacific Ocean. By the route we had travelled, the distance from Fort Laramie is 320 miles, or 950 from the mouth of the Kansas. " Continuing our march, we reached, in eight miles from the Pass, the Little Sandy, one of the tributaries of the Colorado, or Green River of the Gulf of Cali fornia. The weather had grown fine during the morning, and we remained here the rest of the day to dry our baggage and take some astronomical observations. The stream was about forty feet wide, and two or three deep, with clear water and a full swift current, over a sandy bed. It was timbered with a growth of low bushy and dense willows, among which were little verdant spots, which gave our animals fine grass, and where I found a number of interesting plants. Among the neigh bouring hills I noticed fragments of granite containing magnetic iron. Longitude of the camp was 109 deg. 37 min. 59 sec., and latitude 42 deg. 27 min. 34 sec. EXPEDITION TO OHEGON AND CALIFORNIA. 559 The face of the country traversed next day was of a brown sand of granite materials, the detritus of the neighbouring mountains. Strata of the milky quartz cropped out, and blocks of granite were scattered about, containing magnetic iron; In the afternoon we had a severe storm of hail, and encamped at sunset on the first New Fork. Within the space of a few miles, the Wind Mountains supply a number of tributaries to Green River, which are called the New Forks. Near our camp were two remarkable isolated hills, one of them sufficiently lar^e to merit the name of mountain. They are called the Two Buttes, and will serve to identify the place of our encampment, which the observations of the evening placed in longitude 109 deg. 58 min. 11 sec., and latitude 42 deg. 42 min. 46 sec." The air next morning, August the 10th, was clear and pure, and the morning extremely cold, but beautiful. " A lofty snow peak of the mountain is glittering in the first rays of the sun, which has not yet reached us. The long mountain wall to the east, rising 2000 feet abruptly from the plain, behind which we see the peaks, is still dark, and cuts clear against the glowing sky* A fog, just risen from the river, lies along the base of the mountain. A little before sunrise the thermometer was at 35 deg., and at sunrise 33 deg. Water froze last night, and fires are very comfortable. The scenery becomes hourly more interesting and grand, and the view here is truly magnificent; but, indeed, it needs something to repay the long prairie journey of 1000 miles. The sun has just shot above the wall, and makes a magical change. The whole valley is glowing and bright, all the mountain peaks are gleaming like silver. Though these snow mountains are not the Alps, they have their own character of grandeur and magnificence, and will doubtless find pens and pencils to do them justice. In the scene before us, we feel how much wood improves a view. The pines on the mountain seemed to give it much additional beauty. Instead of the creeks, which description had led me to expect, I find bold, broad streams, with three or four feet water, and a rapid current. The fork on which we are encamped is upwards of 100 feet wide, timbered with groves or thickets of the low willow. We were now approaching the loftiest part of the Wind River chain ; and I left the valley a few miles from our encampment, intending to penetrate the mountains as far as possible with the whole party. We were soon involved in very broken ground, among long ridges covered with fragments of granite. Winding our way up a long ravine, we came unexpectedly in view of a most beautiful lake, set like a gem in the mountains. The sheet of water lay transversely across the direction we had been pursuing, and, descending the steep, rocky ridge, where it was necessary to lead our horses, we followed its banks to the southern extremity. Here a view of the utmost magnificence and grandeur burst upon our eyes. With nothing between us and their feet to lessen the effect of the whole height, a grand bed of snow capped mountains rose before us, pile upon pile, glowing in the bright light of an August day. Immediately below them lay the lake, between two ridges, covered 560 EXPEDITION TO OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. with dark pines, which swept down from the main chain to the spot where we stood. Here, where the lake glittered in the open sunlight, its banks of yellow sand and the light foliage of aspen groves contrasted well with the gloomy pines. e Never before/ said Mr. Preuss, in this country or in Europe, have I seen such magnificent grand rocks. I was so much pleased with the beauty of the place, that I determined to make the main camp here, where our animals would find good pasturage, and explore the mountains with a small party of men. Proceed ing a little further, we came suddenly upon the outlet of the lake, where it found its way through a narrow passage between low hills. Dark pines which over hung the stream, and masses of rock, where the water foamed along, gave it much romantic beauty. Where we crossed, which was immediately at the out let, it is 250 feet wide, and so deep that with difficulty we were able to ford it. Its bed was an accumulation of rocks, boulders, and broad slabs, and large angular fragments, among which the animals fell repeatedly. " The current was very swift, and the water cold, and of a crystal purity. In crossing this stream I met with a great misfortune in having my barometer broken. It was the only one, A great part of the interest of the journey for me was in the exploration of these mountains, of which so much had been said that was doubtful and contradictory ; and now their snowy peaks rose majestic ally before me, and the only means of giving them authentically to science, the object of my anxious solicitude by night and day, was destroyed. We had brought this barometer in safety 1000 miles, and broke it almost among the snow of the mountains. "The lake is about three miles long, and of very irregular width, and apparently great depth, and is the head water of the third New Fork, a tributary to Green River, the Colorado of the west, which flows into the Gulf of California. I encamped on the north side, about 350 yards from the outlet. This was the most western point at which I obtained astronomical observations, by which this place, called Bernier s encampment, is made in llOdeg. 08 min. 03 sec. west longitude from Greenwich, and latitude 43 deg. 49 min. 49 sec. We had no othe- compass than the small ones used in sketching the country; but from an azimuth, in which one of them was used, the variation of the compass is 18 deg. east. " As soon as the camp was formed, I set about endeavouring to repair my barometer. The glass cistern had been broken about midway; but as the instru ment had been kept in a proper position, no air had found its way into the tube, the end of which had always remained covered. Among the powder-horns in the camp, I found one which was very transparent, so that its contents could be almost as plainly seen as through glass. This I boiled and stretched on a piece of wood to the requisite diameter, and scraped it very thin, in order to increase in OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. to the utmost its transparency. I then secured it firmly in its place on the strument, with strong glue made from a buffalo, and filled it with mercury, pro perly heated. A piece of skin, which had covered one of the phials, furnished a good pocket, which was well secured with strong thread and glue, and then the brass cover was screwed to its place. The instrument was left some time to dry, and when I reversed it, a few hours after, I had the satisfaction to find it in per fect order ; its indications being about the same as on the other side of the lake before it had been broken. Our success in this little incident diffused pleasure throughout the camp ; and we immediately set about our preparations for ascend ing the mountains. " As will be seen on reference to a map, on this short mountain chain are the head waters of four great rivers of the continent: namely, the Colorado, Colum bia, flowing to the west ; Missouri and Platte Rivers to the east. " Our arrangements for the ascent were rapidly completed. We were in a hos tile country, which rendered the greatest vigilance and circumspection necessary. The pass at the north end of the mountain was generally infested by Blackfeet; and immediately opposite was one of their forts, on the edge of a little thicket, j 200 or 300 feet from our encampment. We were posted in a grove of beech, on the margin of the lake, and a few hundred feet long, with a narrow prairillon on the inner side, bordered by the rocky ridge. In the upper end of this grove we cleared a circular space about forty feet in diameter, and with the felled timber and interwoven branches, surrounded it with a breastwork five feet in height. A gap was left for a gate on the inner side, by which the animals were to be driven in and secured, while the men slept around the little work. It was half hidden by the foliage ; and, garrisoned by twelve resolute men, would have set at defiance any band of savages which might chance to discover them in the interval of our absence. Fifteen of the best mules, with fourteen men, were selected for the mountain party. Our provisions consisted of dried meat for two days, with our little stock of coffee and some maccaroni. In addition to the barometer and a thermometer, I took with me a sextant and spy-glass, and our compasses. " Early in the morning of August 12, we left the camp, fifteen in number, well armed, of course, and mounted on our best mules. A pack animal carried our provisions, with a coffee-pot and kettle, and three or four tin cups. Every man had a blanket strapped over his saddle, to serve for his bed, and the instruments were carried by turns on their backs. We entered directly on rough and rocky ground ; and, just after crossing the ridge, had the good fortune to shoot an an telope. We heard the roar, and had a glimpse of a waterfall as we rode along ; and, crossing in our way two fine streams, tributary to the Colorado, in about two hours ride we reached the top of the first row or range of the mountains. Here, again, a view of the most romantic beauty met our VOL. i. 4 C 562 OREGON. our eyes. It seemed as if, from the vast expanse of uninteresting prairies we had passed over, nature had collected all her beauties together in one chosen place. We were overlooking a deep valley, which was entirely occupied by three lakes, and from the brink the surrounding ridges rose precipitously 500 to 1000 feet, covered with the dark green of the balsam pine, relieved on the border of the lake with the light foliage of the aspen. They all communicated with each other; and the green of the waters, common to mountain lakes of great depth, showed that it would be impossible to cross them. The surprise manifested by our guides when these impassable obstacles suddenly barred our progress proved that they were among the hidden treasures of the place, unknown even to the wander ing trappers of the region. Descending the hill, we proceeded to make our way along the margin to the southern extremity. A narrow strip of angular fragments of rock sometimes afforded a rough pathway for our mules, but generally we rode along the shelving side, occasionally scrambling up, at a considerable risk of tumbling back into the lake. "The slope was frequently 60 deg.; the pines grew densely together; and the ground was covered with the branches and trunks of trees. The air was fragrant with the odour of the pines ; and I realised this delightful morning the pleasure of breathing that mountain air which makes a constant theme of the hunter s praise, and which now made us feel as if we had all been drinking some exhilarating gas. The depths of this unexplored forest were a place to delight the heart of a botanist. There was a rich undergrowth of plants and numerous gay- coloured flowers in brilliant bloom. We at length reached the outlet where some freshly-barked willows that lay in the water showed that beaver had been recently at work. There were some small brown squirrels jumping about in the pines, and a couple of large mallard ducks swimming about in the stream. "We resumed our journey after a halt of about an hour, making our way up the ridge on the western side of the lake. " We had reached a very elevated point ; and in the valley below, and among the hills, were a number of lakes at different levels ; some 200 or 300 feet above others, with which they communicated by foaming torrents. Even to our great height, the roar of the cataracts came up, and we could see them leaping down in lines of snowy form. From this scene of busy waters, we turned abruptly into the stillness of a forest, where we rode among the open bolls of the pines, over a lawn of verdant grass, having strikingly the air of cultivated grounds. Towards evening, we reached a defile, or rather a hole in the mountains, entirely shut in by dark pine-covered rocks. " A small stream, with a scarcely perceptible current, flowed through a level bottom of perhaps eighty yards width, where the grass was saturated with water. Into this the mules were turned, and were neither hobbled nor picketed during OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 563 the night, as the fine pasturage took away all temptation to stray ; and we made our bivouac in the pines. "Among all the strange places on which we had occasion to encamp during our long journey, none have left so vivid an impression on my mind as the camp of this evening. The disorder of the masses which surrounded us the little hole through which we saw the stars over head; the dark pines where we slept ; and the rocks lit up with the glow of our fires, made a night-picture of very wild beauty. The next morning was bright and pleasant, just cool enough to make exercise agreeable, and we soon entered the defile I had seen the preceding day. It was smoothly carpeted with a soft grass, and scattered over with groups of flowers, of which yellow was the predominant colour. Sometimes we were forced, by an occasional difficult pass, to pick our way on a narrow ledge along the side of the defile, and the mules were frequently on their knees ; but these obstructions were rare, and we journeyed on in the sweet morning air, delighted at our good fortune in having found such a beautiful entrance to the mountains. This road con tinued for about three miles, when we suddenly reached its termination in one of the grand views which, at every turn, meet the traveller in this magnificent region. Here the defile up which we had travelled, opened out into a small lawn, where, in a little lake, the stream had its source. " There were some fine asters in bloom, but all the flowering plants appeared to seek the shelter of the rocks, and to be of lower growth than below, as if they loved the warmth of the soil, and kept out of the way of the winds. Imme diately at our feet a precipitous descent led to a confusion of defiles, and before us rose the mountains. " I determined to leave our animals here, and make the rest of our way on foot. The peak appeared so near, that there was no doubt of our returning before night; and a few men were left in charge of the mules, with our provisions and blankets. We took with us nothing but our arms and instruments ; and, as the day had become warm, the greater part left our coats. Having made an early dinner, we started again. We were soon involved in the most ragged precipices, nearing the central chain very slowly, and rising but little. The first ridge hid a succession of others ; and when, with great fatigue and difficulty, we had climbed up 500 feet, it was but to make an equal descent on the other side ; all these in tervening places were filled with small deep lakes, which met the eye in every direction, descending from one level to another, sometimes under bridges formed by huge fragments of granite, beneath which was heard the roar of the water. These constantly obstructed our path, forcing us to make long detours; frequently obliged to retrace our steps, and frequently falling among the rocks. We clam bered on, always expecting, with every ridge that we crossed, to reach the foot of the peaks, and always disappointed, until about four o clock, when, pretty well 564 OREGON, worn out, we reached the shore of a little lake, in which was a rocky island. By the time we had reached the further side of the lake, we found ourselves all exceedingly fatigued, and encamped. The spot we had chosen was a broad flat rock, in some measure protected from the winds by the surrounding crags, and the trunks of fallen pines afforded us bright fires. Near by was a foaming torrent, which tumbled into the little lake about 150 feet below us, and which, by way of distinction, we have called Island Lake. We had reached the upper limit of the piney region ; as, above this point, no tree was to be seen, and patches of snow lay everywhere around us on the cold sides of the rocks. The flora of the region we had traversed since leaving our mules was extremely rich, and, among the characteristic plants, the scarlet flowers of the dodecatheon dentatum everywhere met the eye in great abundance. A small green ravine, on the edge of which we were encamped, was filled with a profusion of Alpine plants in bril liant bloom. From barometrical observations, made during our three days sojourn at this place, its elevation above the Gulf of Mexico is 10,000 feet. During the day we had seen no sign of animal life ; but among the rocks here, we heard what was supposed to be the bleat of a young goat, which we searched for with hungry activity, and found to proceed from a small animal of a grey colour, with short ears and no tail probably the Siberian squirrel. We saw a considerable number of them, and, with the exception of a small bird like a spar row, it is the only inhabitant of this elevated part of the mountains. On our return, we saw, below this lake, large flocks of the mountain goat. We had nothing to eat to-night. Lajeaunesse, with several others, took their guns and sallied out in search of a goat; but returned unsuccessful. Here we had the misfortune to break our thermometer, having now only that attached to the baro meter. I was taken ill shortly after we had encamped, and continued so until late in the night, with violent headach and vomiting. This was probably caused by the excessive fatigue I had undergone, and want of food, and perhaps, also, in some measure by the rarity of the air. The night was cold, as a violent gale from the north had sprung up at sunset, which entirely blew away the heat of the fires. The cold and our granite beds had not been favourable to sleep, and we were glad to see the face of the sun in the morning. Not being delayed by any preparation for breakfast, we set out immediately. "On every side as we advanced was heard the roar of waters and of a torrent, which we followed up a short distance, until it expanded into a lake about one mile in length. On the northern side of the lake was a bank of ice, or rather of snow covered with a crust of ice. Carson had been our guide into the mountains, and, agreeably to his advice, we left this little valley, and took to the ridges again; which we found extremely broken, and where we were again involved among precipices. Here were ice-fields; among which we were all dispersed, each seeking the best path to ascend the peak. Mr. Preuss attempted to walk OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 5G5 along the upper edge of one of these fields, which sloped away at an angle of about twenty degrees ; but his feet slipped from under him, and he went plung ing down the plane. A few hundred feet below, at the bottom, were some frag ments of sharp rock, on which he landed ; and though he turned a couple of somersets, fortunately received no injury beyond a few bruises. Two of the men had been taken ill, and lay down on the rocks a short distance below; and at this point I was attacked with headach and giddiness, accompanied by vomiting, as on the day before. Finding myself unable to proceed, 1 sent the barometer over to Mr. Preuss, who was in a gap 200 or 300 yards distant, desiring him to reach the peak, if possible, and take an observation there. He found himself unable to proceed further in that direction, and took an observation, where the barometer stood at 19-401 ; attached thermometer 50 deg., in the gap. Carson, who had gone jover to him, succeeded in reaching one of the snowy summits of the main ridge, whence he saw the peak, towards which all our efforts had been directed, tower ing 800 or 1000 feet into the air above him. " We were now better acquainted with the topography of the country, and it became so unpleasantly cold, though the day was bright, that we set out on our return to the camp, at which we all arrived safely, straggling in one after the other. [I continued ill during the afternoon, but became better towards sundown. They brought blankets and provisions, and we enjoyed wall our dried meat and a cup of good coffee. We rolled ourselves up in our blankets, and, with our feet turned to a blazing fire, slept soundly until morning. " When we had secured strength for the day by a hearty breakfast, we covered what remained, which was enough for one meal, with rocks, in order that it might be safe from any marauding bird ; and, saddling our mules, turned our faces once more towards the peaks. Our mules had been refreshed by the fine grass in the little ravine at the island camp, and we intended to ride up the defile as far as possible, in order to husband our strength for the main ascent. Though this was a fine passage, still it was a defile of the most rugged mountains known, and we had many a rough and steep slippery place to cross before reaching the end. In this place the sun rarely shone ; snow lay along the border of the small stream which flowed through it, and occasional icy passages made the footing of the mules very insecure, and the rocks and ground were moist with the trickling waters in this spring of mighty rivers. We soon had the satisfaction to find our selves riding along the huge wall which forms the central summits of the chain. There at last it rose by our sides, a nearly perpendicular wall of granite, terminating 2000 to 3000 feet above our heads in a serrated line of broken jagged cones. We rode on until we came almost immediately below the main peak, which I denominated the Snow Peak, as it exhibited more snow to the eye than any of the neighbouring summits. Here were three small lakes of a green colour, each of, perhaps, a thousand yards in diameter, and apparently very deep. These lay 566 OREGON. in a kind of chasm ; and, according to the barometer, we had attained but a few hundred feet above the island lake. The barometer here stood at 20.450, attached thermometer 70 deg. " We managed to get our mules up to a little bench about a hundred feet above the lakes, where there was a patch of good grass, and turned them loose to graze. During our rough ride to this place, they had exhibited a wonderful surefootedness. Parts of the defile were filled with angular, sharp fragments of rock, three or four and eight or ten feet cube; and among these they had worked their way, leaping from one narrow point to another, rarely making a false step, and giving us no occasion to dismount. Having divested ourselves of every un necessary iricumbrance, we commenced the ascent. This time, like experienced travellers, we did not press ourselves, but climbed leisurely, sitting down so soon as we found breath beginning to fail. At intervals we reached places where a number of springs gushed from the rocks, and about 1800 feet above the lakes came to the snow line. From this point our progress was uninterrupted climbing. Hitherto I had worn a pair of thick moccassins, with soles of parfleche; but here I put on a light thin pair, which I had brought for the purpose, as now the use of our toes became necessary to a further advance. I availed myself of a sort of comb of the mountain, which stood against the wall like a buttress, and which the wind and the solar radiation, joined to the steepness of the smooth rock, had kept almost entirely free from snow. Up this I made my way rapidly. Our cautious method of advancing in the outset had spared my strength; and, with the exception of a slight disposition to headach, I felt no remains of yester day s illness. In a few minutes we reached a point where the buttress was over hanging, and there was no other way of surmounting the difficulty than by pass ing around one side of it, which was the face of a vertical precipice of several hundred feet. Putting hands and feet in the crevices between the blocks, I succeeded in getting over it, and, when I reached the top, found my companions in a small valley below. Descending to them, we continued climbing, and in a short time reached the crest. I sprang upon the summit, and another step would have precipi tated me into an immense snow-field 500 feet below. To the edge of this field was a sheer icy precipice ; and then, with a gradual fall, the field sloped off for about a mile, until it struck the foot of another lower ridge. I stood on a narrow crest, about three feet in width, with an inclination of about 20 deg. north, 51 deg. east. As soon as I had gratified the first feelings of curiosity, I descended, and each man ascended in his turn ; for I would only allow one at a time to mount the unstable and precarious slab, which it seemed a breath would hurl into the abyss below. We mounted the barometer in the snow of the summit, and fixing a ramrod in a crevice, unfurled the national flag to wave in the breeze where never flag waved before. During our morning s ascent, we had met no sign of animal OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. life, except the small sparrow-like bird already mentioned. A stillness the most profound, and a terrible solitude forced themselves constantly on the mind as the great features of the place. Here, on the summit, where the stillness was abso lute, unbroken by any sound, and the solitude complete, we thought ourselves beyond the region of animated life; but while we were sitting on the rock, a solitary bee (bromus, the humble bee) came winging his flight from the eastern valley, and lit on the knee of one of the men. " It was a strange place, the icy rock and the highest peak of the Rocky Mountains, for a lover of warm sunshine and flowers ; and we pleased ourselves with the idea that he was the first of his species to cross the mountain barrier a solitary pioneer to foretell the advance of civilisation. I believe that a moment s thought would have made us let him continue his way unharmed ; but we carried out the law of this country, where all animated nature seems at war; and, seizing him immediately, put him in at least a fit place in the leaves of a large book, among the flowers we had collected on our way. The barometer stood at 18-293, the attached thermometer at 44 deg. j giving for the elevation of this summit 13,570 feet above the Gulf of Mexico, which may be called the highest flight of the bee. It is certainly the highest known flight of that insect. From the description given by Mackenzie of the mountains where he crossed them, with that of a French officer still further to the north, and Colonel Long s mea surements to the south, joined to the opinion of the oldest traders of the country, it is presumed that this is the highest peak of the Rocky Mountains. The day was sunny and bright, but a^slight shining mist hung over the lower plains, which interfered with our view of the surrounding country. On one side we overlooked innumerable lakes and streams, the spring of the Colorado of the Gulf of Cali fornia ; and on the other was the Wind River valley, where were the heads of the Yellow-stone branch of the Missouri ; far to the north, we could just discover the snowy heads of the Trois Tetons, where were the sources of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers; and at the southern extremity of the ridge, the peaks were plainly visible, among which were some of the springs of the Nebraska or Platte River. Around us, the whole scene had one main striking feature, which was that of terrible convulsion. Parallel to its length, the ridge was split into chasms and fissures ; between which rose thin lofty walls, terminated with slender minarets and columns. According to the barometer, the little crest of the wall on which we stood was 3570 feet above that place, and 2780 above the little lakes at the bottom, immediately at our feet. Our camp at the Two Hills (an astronomical station) bore south 3 deg. east, which with a bearing afterwards obtained from a fixed position, enabled us to locate the peak. The bearing of the Trois Tetons was north 50 deg. west, and the direction of the central ridge of the Wind River Mountains south 39 deg. east. The summit rock was gneiss, succeeded by sienitic gneiss. Sienite and feldspar succeeded in our descent to 5G8 OREGON. the snow line, where we found a feldspathic granite. I had remarked that the noise produced by the explosion of our pistols had the usual degree of loudness, but was not in the least prolonged, expiring almost instantaneously. Having now made what observations our means afforded, we proceeded to descend. We had accomplished an object of laudable ambition, and beyond the strict order of our instructions. We had climbed the loftiest peak of the Rocky Mountains, and looked down upon the snow a thousand feet below, and, standing where never human foot had stood before, felt the exultation of first explorers. It was about two o clock when we left the summit; and when we reached the bottom, the sun had already sunk behind the wall, and the day was drawing to a close. It would have been pleasant to have lingered here and on the summit longer, but we hurried away as rapidly as the ground would permit, for it was an object to re gain our party as soon as possible, not knowing what accident the next hour might bring forth. "August 16. We left our encampment with the daylight. We saw on our way large flocks of the mountain goat looking down on us from the cliffs. At the crack of a rifle, they would bound off among the rocks, and in a few minutes make their appearance on some lofty peak, some hundred or a thousand feet above. It is needless to attempt any further description of the country: the por- tion over which we travelled this morning was rough as imagination could picture it, and to us seemed equally beautiful. A concourse of lakes and rushing waters, mountains and rocks destitute of vegetable earth, dells and ravines of the most exquisite beauty, all kept green and fresh by the great moisture in the air, arid sown with brilliant flowers, and everywhere thrown around all the glory of most magnificent scenes : these constitute the features of the place, and impress them selves vividly on the mind of the traveller. "August 23. Yesterday evening we reached our encampment at Rock Inde pendence, where I took some astronomical observations. Here, not unmindful of the custom of early travellers and explorers in our country, I engraved on this rock of the Far West a symbol of the Christian faith. Among the thickly inscribed names, I made on the hard granite the impression of a large cross, which I covered with a black preparation of India-rubber, well calculated to resist the influence of wind and rain. It stands amidst the names of many who have long since found their way to the grave, and for whom the huge rock is a giant grave-stone. " One George Weymouth was sent out to Maine by the Earl of Southampton, Lord Arundel, and others ; and in the narrative of their discoveries, he says : The next day, we ascended in our pinnace that part of the river which lies more to the westward, carrying with us a cross a thing never omitted by any Christian traveller which we erected at the ultimate end of our route/ This was in the year 1605; and in 1842 I obeyed the feeling of early travellers, and left the impression of the cross deeply engraved on the vast rock 1000 miles OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 569 beyond the Mississippi, to which discoverers have given the national name of Rock Independence." In pursuance of instructions, Captain Fremont, to connect the explorations which he had conducted in 1842, with the surveys of Commander Wilkes on the coast of the Pacific Ocean, so as to give a connected survey of the interior of the American continent, proceeded to the Great West early in the spring of 1843, and arrived, on the l?th of May, at the little town of Kansas, on the Missouri frontier, near the junction of the Kansas River with the Missouri River His party consisted principally of Creole and Canadian French, and Americans, amounting in all to thirty-nine men. The party was armed generally with Hall s carbines, which, with a brass 12lb. howitzer, had been furnished from the United States arsenal at St. Louis Three men were especially detailed for the management of this piece, under the charge of Louis Zindel, a native of Germany, who had been nine teen years a non-commissioned officer of artillery in the Prussian army. The camp equipage and provisions were transported in twelve carts, drawn each by two mules ; and a light covered waggon, mounted on good springs, had been provided for the safer carriage of the instruments. These were one refracting telescope, one reflecting circle, two sextants, two pocket chronometers, one syphon barometer, one cistern barometer, six thermometers, and a number of small compasses. To make the exploration as useful as possible, he, in conformity to general Instructions, varied the route to the Rocky Mountains from that followed in the year 1842;. and, instead of traversing the valley of the Great Plate River to the South Pass, in north latitude 42 deg., to proceed up the valley of the Kansas River, to the head of the Arkansas, and to some pass in the Rocky Mountains, if any could be found, near the sources of that river. The object of this deviation from the former route, was to open a new road to Oregon and California, in a climate more genial, and to obtain a better know ledge of an important river, and the country it drained ; while the great object of the expedition would find its point of commencement at the termination of the for mer, which was at that great gate in the ridge of the Rocky Mountains called the South Pass, and on the lofty peak of the mountain w r hich overlooks it, deemed the highest peak in the ridge, and from the opposite sides of which four great rivers take their rise, and flow to the Pacific or to the Mississippi. After a tedious fatiguing journey, with jaded horses, the expedition halted on the 9th of August, in latitude, by observation, 42 deg. 20 min. 06 sec., im mediately at the foot of the southern side of the range which walls in the Sweet Water Valley, at the head of a small tributary to that river. They encamped on the banks of the Sweet Water River, about twenty miles above the Devil s Gate, in longitude 107 deg. 50 min. 07 sec. ; elevation above VOL. i. 4 D 570 OREGON. the sea 6040 feet ; and distance from St. Vrain s Fort, by the road we had just travelled; 315 miles. Here passes the route to Oregon ; and the broad smooth highway, where the numerous heavy waggons of the emigrants had beaten and crushed the ar- temisia. On the morning of the 13th, they left their encampment on the waters which flow towards the rising sun, and travelled along the upland, towards the dividing ridge which separates the Atlantic from the Pacific waters, and crossed it by a road some miles further south than the route followed on their return in 1842. " We crossed," says Captain Fremont, " very near* the table mountain, at the southern extremity of the South Pass, which is near twenty miles in width, and already traversed by several different roads. Selecting, as well as I could, in the scarcely distinguishable ascent, what might be considered the dividing ridge in this remarkable depression in the mountain, I took a barometrical observation, which gave 7490 feet for the elevation above the Gulf of Mexico (in the report of 1842, I estimated the elevation of this pass at about ?000 feet). Its importance, as the great gate through which commerce and travelling may hereafter pass be tween the valley of the Mississippi and the North Pacific, justifies a precise notice of its locality and distance from leading points, in addition to this state ment of its elevation. As stated in the report of 1842, its latitude at the point where we crossed is 42 deg. 24 min. 32 sec; its longitude 109 deg. 26 min. its distance from the mouth of the Kansas, by the common travelling route, 962 miles ; from the mouth of the Great Platte, along the valley of that river, accord ing to our survey of 1842, 882 miles; and the distance from St. Louis about 400 miles more by the Kansas, and about 700 by the Great Platte route ; these additions being steamboat conveyance in both instances. From this pass to the mouth of the Oregon is about 1400 miles by the common travelling route ; so that, under a general point of view, it may be assumed to be about half way between the Mississippi and the Pacific Ocean, on the common travelling route. Following a hollow of slight and easy descent, in which was very soon formed a little tributary to the Gulf of California (for the waters which flow west from the South Pass go to this gulf), we made our usual halt four miles from the pass, in latitude, by observation, 42 deg. 19 min. 53 sec. Entering here the valley of Green River the great Colorado of the West and inclining very much to the southward along the streams which form the Sandy River, the road led for several days over dry and level uninteresting plains, to which a low, scrubby growth of artemisia gave a uniform dull grayish colour ; and on the evening of the 15th we encamped in the Mexican territory, on the left bank of Green River, sixty- nine miles from the South Pass, in longitude 110 deg. 05 min. 05 sec., and lati tude 41 deg. 53 min. 54 sec., distant 1031 miles from the mouth of the Kansas. This is the emigrant road to Oregon, which bears much to the southward, to OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 571 avoid the mountains about the western heads of Green River the Rio Verde of the Spaniards. "August 16. Crossing the river, here about 400 feet wide, by a very good ford, we continued to descend for seven or eight miles on a pleasant road along the right bank of the stream, of which the islands and shores are handsomely tim bered with cotton-wood. The refreshing appearance of the broad river, with its timbered shores and green wooded islands, in contrast to its dry sandy plains, probably obtained for it the name of Green River, which was bestowed on it by the Spaniards who first came into this country to trade some twenty-five years a;o. It was then familiarly known as the Seeds-ke-dee-agie, or Prairie Hen (tctrao urophasianus) River ; a name which it received from the Crows, to whom its upper waters belong, and on which this bird is still very abundant. By the Shos- honee and Utah Indians, to whom belongs, for a considerable distance below, the country where we were now travelling, it was called the -Bitter Root River, from the great abundance in its valley of a plant which affords them one of their favourite roots. Lower down, from Brown s Hole to the southward, the river runs through lofty chasms, walled in by precipices of red rock ; and even among the wilder tribes who inhabit that portion of its course, I have heard it called by Indian refugees from the Californian settlement the Rio Colorado. We halted at noon at the upper end of a large bottom near some old houses, which had been a trading post, in latitude 41 deg. 46 min. 54 sec. At this place the eleva tion of the river above the sea is 6230 feet. That of Lewis s Fork of the Colum bia at Fort Hall is, according to our subsequent observations, 4500 feet. The descent of each stream is rapid, but that of the Colorado is but little known, and that little derived from vague report. Three hundred miles of its lower part, as it approaches the Gulf of California, is reported to be smooth and tranquil ; but its upper part is manifestly broken into many falls and rapids. From many descriptions of trappers, it is probable that in its foaming course among its lofty precipices it presents many scenes of wild grandeur ; and though offering many temptations, and often discussed, no trappers have been found bold enough to undertake a voyage which has so certain a prospect of a fatal termination. The In dians have strange stories of beautiful valleys abounding with beaver, shut up among inaccessible walls of rocks in the lower course of the river ; and to which the neighbouring Indians, in their occasional wars with the Spaniards and among themselves, drive their herds of cattle and flocks of sheep, leaving them to pas ture in perfect security. " In the afternoon we resumed our westerly course, passing over a somewhat high and broken country ; and about sunset, after a day s travel of twenty-six miles, reached Black s, Fork of the Green River. The heavy waggons have so completely pulverised the soil, that clouds of the same light dust are raised by the slightest wind, making the road sometimes very disagreeable. 572 OREGON. " August 18. We passed on the road, this morning, the grave of one of the emigrants, being the second we had seen since falling into their trail ; and halted till noon on the river, a short distance above. " One of our mules died here, and in this portion of our journey we lost six or seven of our animals. The grass which the country had lately afforded was very poor and insufficient ; and animals which have been accustomed to grain become soon weak and unable to labour, when reduced to no other nourishment than grass. " In the river hills at this place, I discovered strata of fossiliferous rock, having an oolitic structure, which, in connexion with the neighbouring strata, authorise us to believe that here, on the west side of the Rocky Mountains, we find repeated the modern formations of Great Britain and Europe, which have hitherto been wanting to complete the system of North American geology. " I discovered, among alternating beds of coal and clay, a stratum of white indurated clay, containing very clear and beautiful impressions of vegetable re mains. " Coal made its appearance occasionally in the hills. Artemisia was charac teristic among the few plants. " August 20. Gradually ascending, we reached the lower level of a bed of white limestone, lying upon a white clay, on the upper line of which the whole road is abundantly supplied with beautiful cool springs, gushing out a foot in breadth and several inches deep, directly from the hill side. At noon we halted at the last main fork of the creek, at an elevation of 7200 feet, and in latitude, by observation, 41 deg. 39 min. 45 sec. ; and in the afternoon continued on the same excellent road, up the left or northern fork of the stream, towards its head, in a pass which the barometer placed at 8230 feet above the sea. This is a con necting ridge between the Utah, or Bear River Mountains, and the Wind River chain of the Rocky Mountains, separating the waters of the Gulf of California on the east, and those on the west belonging more directly to the Pacific, from a vast interior basin whose rivers are collected into numerous lakes having no outlet to the ocean. From the summit of this pass, the highest which the road crosses between the Mississippi and the Western Ocean, our view was over a very mountainous region, whose rugged appearance was greatly in creased by the smoky weather, through which the broken ridges were dark and dimly seen. The ascent to the summit of the gap was occasionally steeper than the national road in the Alleghanys; and the descent, by way of a spur on the western side, is rather precipitous, but the pass may still be called a good one. Some thickets of willow in the hollows below deceived us into the expecta tion of finding a camp at our usual hour at the foot of the mountain; but we found them without water, and continued down a ravine, and encamped about dark at a place where the springs again began to make their appearance, but where our OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 573 animals fared badly ; the stock of the emigrants having razed the grass as com pletely as if we were again in the midst of the buffalo. " August 21. An hour s travel this morning brought us into the fertile and picturesque valley of Bear River, the principal tributary to the Great Salt Lake. The stream is here 200 feet wide, fringed with willows and occasional groups of hawthorns. We were now entering a region which for us possessed a strange and extraordinary interest. We were upon the waters of the famous lake which forms a salient point among the remarkable geographical features of the country, and around which the vague and superstitious accounts of the trappers had thrown obscurity. " We continued our road down the river, and at night encamped with a family of emigrants two men, women, and several children who appeared to be bring^ ing up the rear of the great caravan. I was struck with the fine appearance of their cattle, some six or eight yoke of oxen, which really looked as well as if they had been all the summer at work on some good farm. It was strange to see one small family travelling along through such a country, so remote from civilisation. Some nine years since, such a security might have been a fatal one; but since their disastrous defeats in the country a little north, the Blackfeet have ceased to visit these waters. Indians, however, are very uncertain in their localities; and the friendly feelings, also, of those now inhabiting it may be changed." According to barometrical observation, the elevation of the valley was 6400 feet above the sea, the encampment at night in latitude 42 deg. 03min. 47sec., and longitude 111 deg. 10 min. 53 sec., within the territorial limit of the United States; the route from entering the valley of the Green River, on the 15th of August, was to the south of the 42nd deg. of north latitude, and consequently on Mexican territory; by this route emigrants now travel to Oregon. Antelope and elk were seen during the day on the opposite prairie; and ducks and geese on the river. Halted on the 22nd, in a fertile bottom, where the common blue flax was growing abundantly, and then the edge of the wood for several miles along the river was dotted with the white covers of emigrant waggons, collected in groups at different camps, where the smokes were rising lazily from the fires, around which the women were occupied in preparing the evening meal, and the children playing in the grass; and herds of cattle, grazing about in the bottom, had an air of quiet security and civilised comfort that made a rare sight for the traveller in such a remote wilderness. They had been reposing for several days in this delightful valley, in order to recruit their animals on its luxuriant pasturage, after their long journey, and prepare them for the hard travel along the compara tively sterile banks of the Upper Columbia. At the lower end of this extensive bottom the river passes through an open canon, where there were high vertical rocks to the water s edge, and the road here turns up a broad valley to the right. " The road, next morning, presented an animated appearance. We found that 574 OREGON. we had encamped near a large party of emigrants, and a few miles below another party was already in motion. " We had approached within something more than a mile of the village, when suddenly a single horseman emerged from it at full speed, followed by another, and another, in rapid succession; and then party after party poured into the plain, until, when the foremost rider reached us, all the whole intervening plain was occupied by a mass of horsemen, which came charging down upon us with guns and naked swords, lances, and bows and arrows Indians entirely naked, and warriors fully dressed for war, with the long red streamers of their war bonnets reaching nearly to the ground, all mingled together in the bravery of savage war fare. They had been thrown into a sudden tumult by the appearance of our flag, which, among these people, is regarded as an emblem of hostility, it being usually borne by the Sioux, and the neighbouring mountain Indians, when they come here to war: and we had, accordingly, been mistaken for a body of their enemies. A few words from the chief quieted the excitement, and the whole band, increasing every moment in number, escorted us to their encampment, where the chief pointed out a place for us to encamp, near his own lodge, and made known our purpose in visiting the village. In a very short time we purchased eight horses, for which we gave in exchange blankets, red and blue cloth, beads, knives, and tobacco, and the usual other articles of Indian traffic. We obtained from them also a considerable quantity of berries of different kinds, among which service-berries were the most abundant; and several kinds of roots and seeds, which we could eat with pleasure, as any kind of vegetable food was gratifying to us. I ate here, for the first time, the kooyah, or tobacco-root (valeriana eduUs), the principal edible root among the Indians who inhabit the upper waters of the streams on the western side of the mountains, It has a very strong and remarkably peculiar taste and odour, which I can compare to no other vegetable that I am acquainted with, and which to some persons is extremely offensive. It was characterised by Mr. Preuss as the most horrid food he had ever put in his mouth. To others, however, the taste is rather an agreeable one ; and I was afterwards always glad when it formed an addition to our scanty meals. It is full of nutriment, and in its unprepared state is said to have very strong poisonous qualities, of which it is deprived by a peculiar process, being baked in the ground for about two days. " On the 24th, encamping in latitude (by observation) 42 deg. 36 min. 56 sec., chronometric longitude 111 deg. 42 min. 05 sec. " In our neighbourhood the mountains appeared extremely rugged, giving still greater value to this beautiful natural pass. " August 25. Six miles travel from our encampment, we reached one of the points in our journey to which we had always looked forward with great interest the famous Beer Springs. " A pretty little stream of clear water enters the upper part of the basin from an OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OEEGON. 575 open valley in the mountains, and, passing through the bottom, discharges into Bear River. Crossing this stream, we descended a mile below, and made our en campment in a grove of cedar immediately at the Beer Springs, which, on account of the effervescing gas and acid taste, have received their name from the voyageurs and trappers of the country, who, in the midst of their rude and hard lives, are fond of finding some fancied resemblance to the luxuries they rarely have the fortune to enjoy." The temperature of the largest of the Beer Springs was 65 deg. at sunset, that of the air being 62 deg. -5. The barometric observation gave 5,840 feet for the elevation above the gulf, being about 500 feet lower than the Boiling Springs at the foot of Pike s Peak. The astronomical observations gave for latitude 42 deg. 39 min. 57 sec., arid 111 deg. 46 min. for longitude. The temperature at sunrise 28 deg. 5. At the same time the temperature of the large Beer Spring, was 56 deg., that of the Steamboat Spring 87 deg., and that of the steam-hole near it, 81 deg. *5. Next day he examined an extinct volcano. The country broken and tolerably well watered ; frequently crossed ravines. Weather frequently hot and cloudy among the hilly country, with thunder-storms. They soon after, August the 29th, entered the country of the Diggers. " Scattered over the great region west of the Rocky Mountains, and south of the Great Snake River, are numerous Indians whose subsistence is almost wholly derived from roots and seeds, and such small animals as chance and great good fortune sometimes bring within their reach. They are miserably poor, armed only with bows and arrows, or clubs ; and as the country they inhabit is almost destitute of game, they have no means of obtaining better arms. In the northern part of the region just mentioned, they live generally in solitary families ; and further to the south they are gathered together in villages. Those who live together in villages, strengthened by association, are in exclusive possession of the more genial and richer parts of the country, while the others are driven to the ruder mountains, and to the more inhospitable parts of the country. " Roots, seeds, and grass, every vegetable that affords any nourishment, and every living animal, thing, insect, or worm, they eat. Nearly approaching to the lower animal creation, their sole employment is to obtain food ; and they are constantly occupied in a struggle to support existence/ 5 Prairie hens, or grouse (bonasia umbellus), became abundant. Buffalo were seldom seen, and antelope rarely. " September 1. -Travelling between Roseaux and Bear Rivers, we continued to descend the valley, which gradually expanded, as we advanced, into a level plain of good soil, about twenty-five miles in breadth, between mountains 3000 and 4000 feet high, rising suddenly to the clouds, which all day rested upon the peaks. Descending to the bottoms of Bear River, we found good grass for the *, and encamped 300 yards above the mouth of Roseaux, which here 576 OREGON. makes its junction, without communicating any of its salty taste to the main stream, of which the water remains perfectly pure. An India-rubber boat, eighteen feet long, made somewhat in the form of a bark canoe of the northern lakes, constituted part of the outfit. The sides were formed by two air-tight cylinders, eighteen inches in diameter, connected with others forming the bow and stern. These were divided into four different compart ments, and the interior space was sufficiently large to contain five or six persons, and a considerable weight of baggage. The Roseaux being too deep to be forded, this boat was filled with air, and in about one hour all the equipage of the camp, carriage and gun included, was carried across the river, which was from 60 to 100 yards broad, and the water so deep, that even on the shallowest points there were more than fifteen feet depth of water. On either side were alternalely low bottoms and willow points, with an occasional high prairie ; and for five or six hours the party in the boat descended slowly the winding course of the river, which crept along with a sluggish current among frequent detours several miles around. When endeavouring to get a shot at strange, large, shy birds, that were numerous among the willows, they came unexpectedly upon several families of Boot Diggers, who were encamped among the rushes on the shore, and appeared very busy about several weirs or nets which had been rudely made of canes and rushes for the purpose of catching fish. They had the usual very large heads, remarkable among the Digger tribe, with matted hair, and were almost entirely naked; looking very poor and miserable, as if their lives had been spent amidst the rushes, beyond which they seemed to have very little knowledge. The boat moved so heavily, that they landed near a high prairie bank, hauled up the boat, and cached their effects among the willows. The high arable plain on which they had been travelling for several days past, terminated in extensive low flats, generally occupied by salt marshes, or beds of shallow lakes. The water had in most places evaporated, leaving the hard surface encrusted with a shining white residuum, and covered e with small univalve shells. As they advanced, the whole country assumed this appearance ; and there was no other vegetation than the shrubby chenopodiaceous and other apparently saline plants, on the rising grounds. Basil was sent back next day with several men and horses for the boat, which in a direct course across the flats, was not ten miles distant. A pelican (pelecanus onocrotalus) was killed as he passed by, and many geese and ducks flew over the camp. " On the plain were blackbirds and grouse. About seven miles from Clear Creek, at the foot of a mountain, there rushed with considerable force ten or twelve hot springs, highly impregnated with salt. In one of these the ther mometer stood at 136 deg., and in another at 132 deg. "5 ; and the water, which flowed over the low ground, was coloured red. OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 577 They encamped on the 5th of September on the banks of a large and com paratively well-timbered stream call Weber s Fork, which was 100 to 150 feet wide, with high banks. Its water was clear and pure, without the slightest indi cation of salt. Leaving the encampment early next day, they directed their course for the peninsular butte. They ascended to the summit. " Immediately at our feet," says Captain Fremont, " we beheld the object of our anxious search the waters of the Inland Sea, stretching in still and solitary grandeur far beyond the limit of our vision. It was one of the great points of the exploration ; and as we looked eagerly over the lake in the first emotions of excited pleasure, I am doubtful if the followers of Balboa felt more enthusiasm when, from the heights of the Andes, they saw for the first time the great western ocean. It was cer tainly a magnificent object, and a noble terminus to this part of our expedition ; and to travellers so long shut up among mountain ranges, a sudden view over the expanse of silent waters had in it something sublime. Several large islands raised their high rocky heads out of the waves; but whether or not they were timbered was still left to our imagination, as the distance was too great to de termine if the dark hues upon them were woodland or naked rock. During the day the clouds had been gathering black over the mountains to the westward, and, while we were looking, a storm burst down with sudden fury upon the lake, and entirely hid the islands from our view. So far as we could see along the shores there was not a solitary tree, and but little appearance of grass ; and on Weber s Fork, a few miles below our last encampment, the timber was gathered into groves, and then disappeared entirely. As this appeared to be the nearest point to the lake where a suitable camp could be found, we directed our course to one of the groves, where we found a handsome encampment, with good grass and an abundance of rushes (equisetum hyemah). At sunset, the thermometer was at 55 deg. ; the evening clear and calm, with some cumuli. " September 7. The morning was calm and clear, with a temperature at sun rise of 39 deg. "5. On the edge of the stream a favourable spot was selected in a grove, and, felling the timber, we made a strong coral, or horse-pen, for the animals, and a little fort for the people who were to remain. The India-rubber boat was repaired with cloth and gum, and filled with air, in readiness for the next day. The bottoms along the river were timbered with several kinds of willow, hawthorn, and fine cotton-wood trees (populus Canadensis\ with remarkably large leaves, and sixty feet in height by measurement." Captain Fremont, with Mr. Preuss, and three of his most intrepid men, Carson, Bernier, and Lajeunesse, prepared for the boat expedition on the lake the first ever attempted on this interior sea ; he says : " We were favoured with most delightful weather. To-night there was a brilliant sunset of golden orange and green, which left the western sky clear and VOL. i. 4 E 578 OREGON. beautifully pure ; but clouds in the east made me lose an occultation. The sum mer frogs were singing around us, and the evening was very pleasant, with a tem perature of 60 deg. a night of a more southern autumn. For our supper we had yampah, the most agreeably flavoured of the roots, seasoned by a small fat duck. Around our fire to-night were many speculations on what to-morrow would bring forth ; and in our busy conjectures we fancied that we should find every one of the large islands a tangled wilderness of trees and shrubbery, teeming with game of every description that the neighbouring region afforded, and which the foot of a white man or Indian had never violated. Frequently, during the day, clouds had rested on the summits of their lofty mountains, and we believed that we should find clear streams and springs of fresh water; and we indulged in antici pations of the luxurious repasts with which we were to indemnify ourselves for past privations. Neither, in our discussions, were the whirlpool and other mys terious dangers forgotten, which Indian and hunters 5 stories attributed to this unexplored lake. Instead of being strongly sewed (like that of the preceding year, which had so triumphantly rode the canons of the Upper Great Platte), the present boat was only pasted together in a very insecure manner, the maker having been allowed so little time in the construction. " In view of our present enterprise, a part of the equipment of the boat had been made to consist in three air-tight bags, about three feet long, and capable each of containing five gallons. These had been filled with water the night be fore, and were now placed in the boat, with our blankets and instruments, consist ing of a sextant, telescope, spy-glass, thermometer, and barometer. te We left the camp on the 8th of September, at sunrise, and had a very plea sant voyage down the river, in which there was generally eight or ten feet of water, deepening as we neared the mouth in the latter part of the day. In the course of the morning we discovered that two of the cylinders leaked so much as to require one man constantly at the bellows, to keep them sufficiently full of air to support the boat. Although we had made a very early start, we loitered so much on the way stopping every now and then, and floating silently along to get a shot at a goose or a duck that it was late in the day when we reached the outlet. The river here divided into several branches, filled with fluvials, and so very shallow that it was with difficulty we could get the boat along, being obliged to get out and wade. We encamped on a low point among rushes and young- willows, where there was a quantity of drift wood, which served for our fires. The evening was mild and clear; we made a pleasant bed of the young willows; and geese and ducks enough had been killed for an abundant supper at night, and for breakfast the next morning. The stillness of the night was enlivened by millions of water-fowl. Latitude (by observation) 41 deg. 11 min. 26 sec.; and longitude 112 deg. 11 min. 30 sec. " September 9. The day was clear and calm ; the thermometer at sunrise at OVEHLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 579 49 deg. The channel in a short distance became so shallow that our navigation was at an end, being merely a sheet of soft mud, with a few inches of water, and sometimes none at all, forming the low-water shore of the lake. All this place was absolutely covered with flocks of screaming plover. We took off our clothes, and, getting overboard, commenced dragging the boat making, by this opera tion, a very curious trail, and a very disagreeable smell in stirring up the mud, as we sank above the knee at every step. The water here was still fresh, with only an insipid and disagreeable taste, probably derived from the bed of foetid mud. After proceeding in this way about a mile, we came to a small black ridge on the bottom, beyond which the water became suddenly salt, beginning gradually to deepen, and the bottom was sandy and firm. It was a remarkable division, sepa rating the fresh waters of the rivers from the briny water of the lake, which was entirely saturated with common salt. Pushing our little vessel across the narrow boundary, we sprang on board, and at length were afloat on the waters of the un known sea. " We did not steer for the mountainous islands, but directed our course to wards a lower one, which it had been decided we should first visit, the summit of which was formed like the crater at the upper end of Bear River Valley. So long as we could touch the bottom with our paddles, we were very gay ; but gra dually, as the water deepened we became more still in our frail bateau of gum cloth distended with air, and with pasted seams. Although the day was very calm, there was a considerable swell on the lake ; and there were white patches of foam on the surface, which were slowly moving to the southward, indicating the set of a current in that direction, and recalling the recollection of the whirl pool stories. The water continued to deepen as we advanced ; the lake becoming almost transparently clear, of an extremely beautiful bright green colour; and the spray which was thrown into the boat and over our clothes, was directly con verted into a crust of common salt, which covered also our hands and arms. " The form of the boat seemed to be an admirable one, and it rode on the waves like a water-bird ; but, at the same time, it was extremely slow in its pro gress. When we were a little more than half way across the reach, two of the divisions between the cylinders gave way, and it required the constant use of the bellows to keep in a sufficient quantity of air. For a long time we scarcely seemed to approach our island, but gradually we worked across the rougher sea of the open channel into the smoother water under the lee of the island ; and began to discover that what we took for a long row of pelicans, ranged on the beach, were only low cliffs whitened with salt by the spray of the waves ; and about noon we reached the shore, the transparency of the water enabling us to see the bottom at a considerable depth. " It was a handsome broad beach where we landed, behind which the hill, 580 OREGON. into which the island was gathered, rose somewhat abruptly, and a point of rock at one end enclosed it in a sheltering way, and as there was an abundance of drift wood along the shore, it offered us a pleasant encampment. t( Among the successive banks . of the beach, formed by the action of the waves, our attention, as we approached the island, had been attracted by one ten to twenty feet in breadth, of a dark-brown colour, composed, to the depth of seven or eight and twelve inches, entirely of the larvae of insects. The cliffs and masses of rock along the shore were whitened by an incrustation of salt where the waves dashed up against them ; and the evaporating water,which had been left in holes and hollows on the surface of the rocks, was covered with a crust of salt about one-eighth of an inch in thickness. "Exposed to the sun, this became very white and fine, having the usual flavour of very excellent common salt, without any foreign taste ; but only a little was collected for present use, as there was in it a number of small black insects. " Carrying with us the barometer and other instruments, in the afternoon we ascended to the highest point of the island a bare rocky peak 800 feet above the lake. Standing on the summit, we enjoyed an extended view of the lake, enclosed in a basin of rugged mountains, which sometimes left marshy flats and extensive bottoms between them and the shore, and in other places came di rectly down into the water with bold and precipitous bluffs. Following with our glasses the irregular shores, we searched for some indications of a communi cation with other bodies of water, or the entrance of other rivers ; but the dis tance was so great that we could make out nothing with certainty. To the south ward, several peninsular mountains, 3000 or 4000 feet high, entered the lake, appearing, so far as the distance and our position enabled us to determine, to be connected by flats and low ridges with the mountains in the rear. These are pro bably the islands usually indicated on maps of this region as entirely detached from the shore. The season of our operations was when the waters were at their lowest stage. At the season of high waters in the spring, it is probable that the marshes and low grounds are overflowed, and the surface of the lake considerably greater. In several places the view was of unlimited extent here and there a rocky islet appearing above the water at a great distance ; and beyond, every thing was vague and undefined. As we looked over the vast expanse of water spread out beneath us, and strained our eyes along the silent shores over which hung so much doubt and uncertainty, and which were so full of interest to us, I could hardly repress the almost irresistible desire to continue our exploration ; but the lengthening snow on the mountains was a plain indication of the advancing season, and our frail linen boat appeared so insecure, that I was unwilling to trust our lives to the uncertainties of the lake. I therefore unwillingly resolved to terminate our survey here? and remain satisfied for the present with what we had OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 581 been able to add to the unknown geography of the region. We felt pleasure also in remembering that we were the first who, in the traditionary annals of the country, had visited the islands, and broken, with the cheerful sound of human voices, the long solitude of the place. From the point where we were standing, the ground fell off on every side to the water, giving us a perfect view of the island, which is twelve or thirteen miles in circumference, being simply a rocky hill, on which there is neither water nor trees of any kind ; although the Fremontia vermicularis, which was in great abundance, might easily be mistaken for timber at a distance. The plant seemed here to delight in a congenial air, growing in extraordinary luxuriance seven to eight feet high, and was very abundant on the upper parts of the island, where it was almost the only plant. This is eminently a saline shrub ; its leaves have a very salt taste ; and it luxuriates in saline soils, where it is usually a characteristic. It is widely diffused all over this country. " I accidentally left on the summit the brass cover to the object end of my spy-glass; and as it will probably remain there undisturbed by Indians, it will furnish matter of speculation to some future traveller. In our excursions about the island, we did not meet with any kind of animal ; a magpie, and another larger bird, probably attracted by the smoke of our fire, paid us a visit from the shore, and were the only living things seen during our stay. The rock constituting the cliffs nlong the shore where we were encamped, is a talcous rock, or steatite, with brown spar. " At sunset the temperature was 70 deg. We had arrived just in time to obtain a meridian altitude of the sun, and other observations were obtained this evening, which place our camp in latitude 41 deg. 10 min. 42 sec., and longitude 112 deg. 21 min. 05 sec. from Greenwich. From a discussion of the barometrical observations made during our stay on the shores of the lake, we have adopted 4200 feet for its elevation above the Gulf of Mexico. " Out of the drift wood, we made ourselves pleasant little lodges, open to the water, and, after having kindled large fires to excite the wonder of any straggling savage on the lake shores, lay down, for the first time in a long journey, in perfect security; no one thinking about his arms. The evening was extremely bright and pleasant; but the wind rose during the night, and the waves began to break heavily on the shore, making our island tremble. I had not expected in our in land journey to hear the roar of an ocean surf; and the strangeness of our situa tion, and the excitement we felt in the associated interests of the place, made this one of the most interesting nights I remember during our long expedition. " In the morning the surf was breaking Heavily on the shore, and we were up early. The lake was dark and agitated, and we hurried through our scanty breakfast, and embarked having first filled one of the buckets with water from the lake, of which it was intended to make salt. The sun hud risen by the time 582 OREGON. we were ready to start ; and it was blowing a strong gale of wind, almost directly off the shore, and raising a considerable sea, in which our boat strained very much. It roughened as we got away from the island, and it required all the efforts of the men to make any head against the wind and sea, the gale rising with the sun ; and there was danger of being blown into one of the open reaches be yond the island. At the distance of half a mile from the beach, the depth of water was sixteen feet, with a clay bottom ; but, as the working of the boat was very severe labour, and during the operation of sounding it was necessary to cease paddling, during which the boat lost considerable way, I was unwilling to dis courage the men, and reluctantly gave up my intention of ascertaining the depth, and the character of the bed. There was a general shout in the boat when we found ourselves in one fathom, and we soon after landed on a low point of mud, immediately under the butte of the peninsula, where we unloaded the boat, and carried the baggage about a quarter of a mile to firmer ground." Analysis of the salt obtained by boiling the lake water : Chloride of sodium (common salt) .... 97*80 Chloride of calcium . . . . . . 61 Chloride of magnesium ...... 0*24 Sulphate of soda 0-23 Sulphate of lime M2 100-00 Captain Fremont was informed by Mr. Walker, who had travelled with Bonneville, that on the upper part of a stream falling into the Utah lake, there are immense beds of rock-salt of very great thickness. Farther to the south ward, the streams which flow into the Colorado, such as the llio Virgen, and Gila River, are, near their mouths, impregnated with salt by the cliffs of rock-salt between which they flow. They encamped early on the 12th of September on Clear Creek, at the foot of the high ridge; one of the peaks of which was ascertained to be 4210 feet above the lake, or about 8400 feet above the sea. Behind these peaks ridges rise towards the Bear River Mountains, which are probably as high as the Wind River Chain. Among a variety of trees were birch (betula), the narrow-leaved poplar (populus angustifolia), several kinds of willow (salix), hawthorn (cratcsgus)^ alder (alnus viridis), and cerasus, with an oak allied to quercus alba, but very distinct from that or any other species in the United States. They supped on sea-gulls killed near the lake. They proceeded on their journey, greatly fatigued, towards Oregon, and until relieved by supplies brought by parties sent for provisions to Fort Hull, suf fered greatly from want of food, although they had killed and ate one of their horses. On the 15th of September they entered a long ravine leading to a pass in OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 583 the dividing ridge between the waters of Bear River and the Snake River, or Lewis s Fork of the Columbia; the way almost entirely covered by compact fields of luxuriant artemisia. Departing at this point from the waters of Bear River, and of the geographical basin which encloses the system of rivers and creeks which belong to the Great Salt Lake, Captain Fremont says, " The bottoms of this river (Bear), and of some of the creeks which I saw, form a natural resting and recruiting station for travellers, now, and in all time to come. The bottoms are extensive ; water excellent ; timber sufficient ; the soil good, and well adapted to the grains and grasses suited to such an elevated region. A military post, and a civilised settlement, would be of great value here ; and cattle and horses would do well where grass and salt so much abound. The lake will furnish exhaustless supplies of salt. All the mountain sides here are covered with a valuable nutritious grass, called bunch grass, from the form in which it grows, which has a second growth in the fall. The beasts of the Indians were fat upon it; our own found it a good subsistence; and its quantity will sustain any amount of cattle, and make this truly a bucolic region. " We met here an Indian family on horseback, which had been out to gather service-berries, and were returning loaded. This tree was scattered about on the hills, and the upper part of the pass was timbered with aspen (populus trem.) ; the common blue flowering flax occurring among the plants. The approach to the pass was very steep ; and the summit about 6300 feet above the sea. We descended by a steep slope into a broad open valley good soil from four to five miles wide ; coming down immediately upon one of the head waters of the Pannack river, which here loses itself in swampy ground. The appearance of the country here is not very interesting. On either side is a regular range of mountains of the usual character, with a little timber, tolerably rocky on the right, and higher and more smooth on the left, with still higher peaks looking out above the range. The valley afforded a good level road, but it was late when it brought us to water, and we encamped at dark. The north west wind had blown up very cold weather, and the artemisia, which was our fire-wood to-night, did not happen to be very abundant. This plant loves a dry sandy soil, and cannot grow in the good bottoms where it is rich and moist, but on every little eminence, where water does not rest long, it maintains absolute possession. Elevation above the sea, about 5100 feet. "At night scattered fires glimmered along the mountains, pointing out camps of the Indians ; and we contrasted the comparative security in which we travelled through this country, with the guarded vigilance we were compelled to exert among the Sioux and other Indians on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. At sunset the thermometer was at 50 deg., and at midnight at 30 deg. " There is throughout this mountain country a remarkable difference between 584 OREGON. the morning and mid-day temperatures, which at this season was very generally 40 deg. or 50 deg., and occasionally greater ; and frequently, after a very frosty morning, the heat in a few hours would render the thinnest clothing agreeable. The Pannack River was before us; the valley being here a mile and a half wide, fertile, and bordered by smooth hills, not over 500 feet high, partly covered with cedar ; a high ridge, in which there is a prominent peak, rising behind those on the left. We continued to descend this stream, and found on it at night a warm and comfortable camp. Flax occurred so frequently during the day as to be almost a characteristic, and the soil appeared excellent. Longitude, from mean of satellite and chronometer, 112 deg. 29 min. 52 sec.; and latitude, by observa tion, 42 deg. 44 min. 40 sec. "September 18. We emerged on the plains of the Columbia, in sight of the famous * Three Buttes, a well-known landmark in the country, distant about forty-five miles. The French word butte, which so often occurs in this narrative, is retained from the familiar language of the country, and identifies the objects to which it refers. It is naturalised in the regions of the Rocky Mountains; and, even if desirable to render it in English, I know of no word which would be its precise equivalent. It is applied to the detached hills and ridges which rise abruptly, and reach too high to be called hills or ridges, and not high enough to be called mountains. Knob, as applied in the Western States, is their most descriptive term in English. Cerro is the Spanish term ; but no translation, or paraphrasis, would preserve the identity of these picturesque landmarks, familiar to the traveller, and often seen at a great distance. Covered, as far as could be seen, with artemisia, the dark and ugly appearance of this plain obtained for it the name of the Sage Desert ; and we were agreeably surprised, on reaching the Portneuf River, to see a beautiful green valley with scattered timber spread out beneath us, on which, about four miles distant, were glistening the white walls of Fort Hall. We had a night of snow and rain, and the thermometer at sunrise was at 34 deg. ; the morning was dark, with a steady rain, and there was still snow on the ground, with abundance on the neighbouring hills and mountains. Ice made tolerably thick during the night ; next morning the weather cleared up very bright, with a temperature at sunrise of 29 deg. ; the thermometer, at sunset, 48 deg." The early approach of winter, and the difficulty of supporting a large party, determined Captain Fremont to send back a number of the men, who had become satisfied that they were not fitted for the laborious service and frequent privation to which they were necessarily exposed, and which there was reason to believe would become more severe in the further extension of the voyage. FORT HALL. Except that there is a greater quantity of wood used in its construction, Fort Hall very much resembles the trading posts east of the Rocky Mountains, described by Captain Fremont, and would be another excel- OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 585 lent post of relief for the emigration. It is in the low, rich bottom of the valley, apparently twenty miles long, formed by the confluence of Portneuf River with Lewis s Fork of the Columbia, which it enters about nine miles below the fort. Allowing fifty miles for the road from the Beer Springs of Bear River to Fort Hall, its distance along the travelled road from the town of Westport, on the frontier of Missouri, by way of Fort Laramie and the great South Pass, is 1323 miles. " Beyond this place, on the line of road along the barren valley of the Upper Columbia, there does not occur, for a distance of nearly 300 miles to the westward, a fertile spot of ground sufficiently large to produce the necessary quantity of grain, or pasturage enough to allow even a temporary repose to the emigrants. On their recent passage, they had been able to obtain, at very high prices, and in insufficient quantity, only such assistance as could be afforded by a small and remote trading post ; which, in the supply of its own wants, had necessarily drawn around it some of the resources of civilisation, but which obtained nearly all its supplies from^Vancouver, by a difficult water-carriage of 250 miles up the Columbia River, and a land-carriage by pack horses of 600 miles. An American military post, sufficiently strong (and all others which may be established on the line to Oregon) would naturally form the nucleus of a settlement, at which supplies and repose would be obtained by the emigrant or trading caravans, which may hereafter traverse these elevated and, in many places, desolate and inhospitable regions/ Analysis of Soil in the River Bottom near Fort Hall. Silica 68-55 Alumina Carbonate of lime Carbonate of magnesia Oxide of iron . . Organic vegetable matter . Water and loss . 100-00 By observation longitude 112 deg. 29 min. 54 sec., latitude 43 deg. 01 min. 30 sec., elevation above the sea 4500 feet. Captain Fremont resumed the journey down the valley on the 22nd of Septem ber, the weather being very cold, and the rain coming in hard gusts with the wind. The river bottoms he found narrow and swampy, with frequent sloughs; after crossing the Pannack, the road continued along the uplands, covered with artemisia bushes, and encamped under a grove of willows, at the upper end of a group of islands about half a mile above the American Falls of Snake River. "The river here enters between low mural banks, which consist of a fine vesicular trap rock, the intermediate portions being compact and crystalline. Grad ually "be coming higher in its downward course, these banks of scoriated volcanic rock form, VOL. i. 4 F 586 OREGON. with occasional interruptions, its characteristic feature along the whole line to the Dalles of the Lower Columbia, resembling a chasm which had been rent through the country, and which the river had afterwards taken for its bed. The immediate valley of the river is a high plain covered with black rocks and artemisias. In the south is a bordering range of mountains, which, although not very high, are broken and covered with snow; and at a great distance to the north is seen the high, snowy line of the Salmon River Mountains, in front of which stand out pro minently in the plain the three isolated rugged-looking little mountains, commonly known as the Three Buttes. Between the river and the distant Salmon River range, the plain is represented as so entirely broken up and rent into chasms as to be impracticable for a man even on foot. By measurement, the river above is 870 feet wide, immediately contracted at the fall in the form of a lock, by jutting piles of scoriaceous basalt, over which the foaming river must present a grand appearance at the time of high water. At sunset the temperature was 54 deg. By observation, latitude 42 deg. 47 min. 05 sec., and the longitude 112 deg. 40 min. 13 sec. "Thermometer at sunrise 47 deg., September 25th. The road led along the river, which is full of rapids and small falls. Grass is very scanty; and along the rugged banks are scattered cedars, with an abundance of rocks and sage. Tra velled fourteen miles ; encamped in the afternoon near the river, on a rocky creek, the bed of which w 7 as occupied with boulders of large size. For the last three or four miles the right bank of the river has a palisaded appearance. The thermo meter at evening was at 55 deg., the sky almost overcast, and the barometer indi cated an elevation of 4400 feet." On the 8th of October, they travelled along a ridge on the right, having scattered pines on the upper parts; and then continuing along the river bottom, encamped in the evening on the right bank of the river, a mile above the mouth, and early the next morning arrived at Fort Boisee. This is a dwelling-house on the right bank of Snake River, about a mile below the mouth of Riviere Boisee. During the day there were considerable numbers of miserable half-naked Indians around the fort, who had arrived from the neighbouring mountains. During the summer the only subsistence of these people is derived from the salmon, of which they are not provident enough to lay up a sufficient store for the winter, during which many of them die from absolute starvation. While the summer weather and the salmon lasted, they lived scattered along the different streams where the fish were to be found; and as soon as the winter-snows began to fall, little smokes would be seen rising among the mountains, where they would be found in miserable groups, starving during the winter, and sometimes, according to report, " reduced to the horror of canni balism the strong, of course, preying on the weak. Certain it is, they are driven to any extremity for food, and eat every insect and every creeping thing, OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 587 however loathsome and repulsive; snails, lizards, ants, all are devoured with the readiness and greediness of mere animals." In common with all the other Indians they had encountered since reaching the Pacific waters, these people use the Shoshonee or Snake language. By observations, the longitude of the fort is 116 deg. 47 min. 00 sec., latitude 43 deg. 49 min. 22 sec., and elevation above the sea 2100 feet. " We were now, October 13th," says Captain Fremont, " about to leave the valley of the great southern branch of the Columbia River, to which the absence of timber, and the scarcity of water, give the appearance of a desert, to enter a mountainous region where the soil is good, and in which the face of the country is covered with nutritious grasses and dense forest-land, embracing many varieties of trees peculiar to the country, and on which the timber exhibits a luxuriance of growth unknown to the eastern part of the continent and to Europe. This mountainous region connects itself in the southward and westward with the elevated country belonging to the Cascade or California range, and forms the eastern limit of the fertile and timbered lands along the desert and mountainous region included within the Great Basin," a term which Captain Fremont applies, "to the intermediate region between the Rocky Mountains and the next range, containing many lakes, with their own system of rivers and creeks (of which the Great Salt Lake is the principal), and which have no connexion with the ocean or the great rivers which flow into it. This Great Basin is yet to be adequately explored. And here, on quitting the banks of a sterile river, to enter on arable mountains, the remark may be made, that, on this western slope of the American continent, the usual order or distribution of good and bad soil is often reversed ; the river and creek bottoms being often sterile, and darkened with the gloomy and barren artemisia; while the mountain is often fertile, and covered with rich grass, pleasant to the eye, and good for flocks and herds." Leaving the Snake River, which, from this point, is said to flow through canons, amidst rocky and impracticable mountains, where there is no possibility of travelling with animals, the party ascended a long and somewhat steep hill ; and, crossing the dividing ridge, came down into the valley of Burnt River. The average breadth of the stream here is thirty feet ; it is well fringed with the usual small timber, and the soil in the bottoms is good, with tolerable grass. They now travelled through a mountainous country; the stream running rather in a ravine than a valley, and the road bad, and dangerous for single waggons, frequently crossing the stream where the water is sometimes deep The animals were greatly fatigued in climbing up and descending a succession of steep ascents ; and the common trail, which leads along the mountain side at places where the river strikes the base, is difficult even on horseback. The appearance of the country was green and refreshing after the journey down the 588 OREGON, parched valley of Snake River. The mountains were covered with good bunch grass (festuca) ; the water of the streams was cold and pure ; their bottoms were wooded with various kinds of trees ; and huge lofty and picturesque precipices arose where the river cuts through the mountains. He says, " For several weeks the weather in the daytime has been very beautiful, clear, and warm ; but the nights, in comparison, very cold. During the night of the 16th of October there was ice a quarter of an inch thick in the lodge; and at daylight the thermometer was at 16 deg., and the same at sunrise ; the weather being calm and clear. The annual vegetation now is nearly gone, almost all the plants being out of bloom. " Travelling across the affluents to Powder River, the country became con stantly more pleasant and interesting. The soil appeared to be very deep, black, and extremely good; as well among the hollows of the hills on the elevated flats, as on the river bottoms ; the vegetation being such as is usually found in good ground.*" The Grand Rond is a level basin, or mountain valley, " covered with good grass, on a rich soil, abundantly watered, and surrounded by high and well- timbered mountains, and its name descriptive of its form the great circle is about twenty miles in diameter, and may, in time, form a superb county." Captain Fremont remarked, in descending, some white spots glistening on the plain, which he found to be the bed of a dry salt lake, or marsh, firm and bare, and covered thickly with a fine white powder, containing a large quantity of caabonate of soda (33 in 100 parts). "The old grass had been lately burned off from the surrounding hills, and, wherever the fire had passed, there was a recent growth of strong, green, and vigorous grass ; and the soil of the level prairie, which sweeps directly up to the foot of the surrounding mountains, appears to be very rich, producing flax spon taneously and luxuriantly in various places.f Next day (18th of October) they travelled in a nearly north direction across the valley; and reached one of the principal streams, where the emigrants, appeared to have held some consultation as to their further route. Captain Fremont then passed out of the Grand Rond along a creek, which, for a short distance, runs in a kind of rocky chasm. " Crossing a low point, which * Analysis of Powder River Soil : i f Analysis of the Grand Rond Soil : Silica 72-30 Silica 7081 Alumina 6-25 Alumina.. 10 97 Carbonate of lime 6*86 Carbonate of magnesia 4-62 Oxide of iron 1-20 Organic matter 4-50 Water and loss ,.....,... 4-27 100-00 Lime and magnesia 1 38 Oxide of iron 2;2l Vegetable matter, partly decomposed..... 8* 16 Water and loss 5 46 Phosphate of lime , 1-01 100-00 OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO OREGON. 589 was a little rocky, the trail conducted into the open valley of the stream a hand some place for farms, the soil being rich and black. " October 20. The pines, as we proceeded downwards were more dense, and still retained their magnificent size. The larches cluster together in masses on the sides of the mountains, and their yellow foliage contrasts handsomely with the green of the balsam and other pines. After a few miles we ceased to see any pines, and the timber consisted of several varieties of spruce, larch, and balsam pine, which have a regularly conical figure. These trees appeared from sixty to nearly 200 feet in height ; the usual circumference being ten to twelve feet, and in the pines sometimes twenty-one feet." On the 25th of October, the party arrived at a rocky streamlet of the Walla- walla river. Crossing the stream they travelled over a hilly country with good bunch grass ; the river bottom, which generally contains the best soil in other countries, being here a sterile level of rocks and pebbles. They had found the soil in the Blue Mountains to be of excellent quality, and it appeared also to be good here among the lower hills. Reaching a little eminence, over which the trail passed, they had an extensive view along the course of the river, which was divided and spread over its bottom in a net-work of water, receiving several other tributa ries from the mountains. There was a band of several hundred horses grazing on the hills about two miles a-head ; and as they advanced on the road they met other bands, which Indians were driving out to pasture also on the hills. The hills and mountains were rich in grass, the bottoms barren and sterile. They passed on the way several unfinished houses, and some cleared patches where corn and potatoes were cultivated, and arrived at the Walla-walla missionary establishment, which then consisted, of one adobe house i. e. built of unburnt bricks, as in Mexico. On the next morning the party arrived at the Nez Perce fort, a few hundred yards above the junction of the Walla-walla with the Columbia River. Here they had the first view of this river, and found it " about 1200 yards wide, and presenting the appearance of a fine navigable stream." The post is on the bank of the Columbia, on a plain of bare sands, from which the air was literally filled with clouds of dust and sand, during one of the few days they remained here. Captain Fremont says "the appearance of the post and country was without interest, except that we here saw, for the first time, the great river on which the course of events for the last half century has been directing attention and conferring historical fame. The river, is, indeed, a noble object, and has here attained its full magnitude. About nine miles above, and in sight from the heights about the post, is the junction of the two great forks which constitute the main stream that on which we had been travelling from Fort Hall, and known by the names of Lewis s Fork, Shoshonee, and Snake River, and the North Fork, which has.retained the name of Columbia, as being the main stream. The union of two large streams, coming one from the south-east, and the 590 OREGON. other from the north-east, and meeting in what may be treated as the geographical centre of the Oregon valley, thence doubling the volume of water to the ocean, while opening two great lines of communication with the interior continent, constitutes a feature in the map of the country which cannot be overlooked ; and it was probably in reference to this junction of waters, and these lines of communication, that this post was established. They are important lines, and from the structure of the coun try must for ever remain so one of them leading to the South Pass, and to the valley of the Mississippi ; the other to the pass at the head of the Athabasca River, and to the countries drained by the waters of the Hudson Bay. The British fur com panies now use both lines ; the Americans, in their emigration to Oregon, have begun to follow the one which leads towards the United States. Bateaux from tide-water ascend to the junction, and thence high up the North Fork or Columbia. Land conveyance only is used upon the line of Lewis s Fork. To the emigrants to Oregon, the Nez Perce is a point of interest, as being, to those who choose it, the termination of their overland journey. The broad expanse of the river here in vites them to embark on its bosom; and the lofty trees of the forest furnish the means of doing so. "From the South Pass to this place is about 1000 miles ; and as it is about the same distance from that pass to the Missouri River, at the mouth of the Kansas, it may be assumed that 2000 miles is the necessary land travel in crossing from the United States to the Pacific Ocean on this line. From the mouth of the Great Platte it would be about one hundred miles less. " By a meridional altitude of the sun, the only observation that the weather permitted us to obtain, the mouth of the Walla-walla River is in latitude 46 deg. 03 min. 46 sec.; and, by the road we had travelled, 612 miles from Fort Hall. At the time of our arrival, a considerable body of the emigrants, under the direc tion of Mr. Applegate, a man of considerable resolution and energy, had nearly completed the building of a number of Mackinaw boats, in which they proposed to continue their further voyage down the Columbia. I had seen, in descending the Walla-walla River, a fine drove of several hundred cattle, which they had ex changed for Californian cattle, to be received at Vancouver, and which are con sidered a very inferior breed. The other portion of the emigration had preferred to complete their journey by land along the banks of the Columbia, taking their stock and waggons with them. " Having reinforced our animals with eight fresh horses, hired from the post, and increased our stock of provisions with dried salmon, potatoes, and a little beef, we resumed our journey down the left bank of the Columbia, being guided on our road by an intelligent Indian boy, whom I had engaged to accompany us as far as the Dalles." Captain Fremont with his party descended to Fort Vancouver, where he found OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO CALIFORNIA. 591 the Hudson Bay Company s ship ready to sail for England, being detained only in waiting the arrival of the express bateaux, which descend the Columbia and its north Fork with the overland mail from Canada and Hudson Bay, which had been delayed beyond their usual time. He waited upon Dr. M Laughlin, who received him with courtesy and hospitality, and was immediately supplied by him with the necessary stores and provisions to refit his party in the intended journey through Oregon to California and back to the United States ; and also with a Mackinaw boat and canoes, manned with Canadian and Iroquois voyageurs and Indians, for their transportation to the Dalles of the Columbia, and a letter of re commendation and credit for any officers of the Hudson Bay Company into whose posts they might be driven by unexpected misfortune. The supplies were paid for, but every hospitable attention was extended to Captain Fremont. There were many American emigrants at the fort ; others had crossed the river into their land of promise the Willamette Valley. Others were daily arriving ; and all of them had been furnished with shelter, so far as it could be afforded by the buildings connected with the establishment. Necessary clothing and provi sions (the latter to be afterwards returned in kind from the produce of their labour) were also furnished. This friendly assistance was of very great value to the emigrants, whose families were otherwise exposed to much suffering from the winter rains, which had now commenced, at the same time that they were in want of all the common necessaries of life. Those who had taken a water conveyance at the Nez Perce Fort continued to arrive safely. The party which had passed over the Cascade Mountains were reported to have lost a number of their animals; and those who had driven their stock down the Columbia had brought them safely in, and found for them a ready and very profitable market, and were then pro posing to return to the States in spring for another supply. The object of Captain Fremont s instructions had been, he says, " fulfilled, in having connected his reconnoissance with the surveys of Captain Wilkes." On the 25th of November, he departed on a perilous and arduous expedition up the Fall River and over the mountain country to California. " It was a serious enterprise at the commencement of winter, to undertake the traverse of such a region, and with a party consisting only of twenty-five persons, and they of many nations American, French, German, Canadian, Indian, and coloured and most of them young, several being under twenty-one years of age. All knew that a strange country was to be explored, and dangers and hardships to be encountered; but no one blenched at the prospect. On the contrary, courage, and confidence animated the whole party. Cheerfulness, readiness, subordination, prompt obedience, characterised all ; nor did any extremity of peril and privation, to which we were afterwards exposed, ever belie, or derogate from, the fine spirit of this brave and generous commencement. The course of the nar rative will show at what point, and for what reasons, we were prevented from the 592 OREGON. complete execution of this plan, after having made considerable progress upon it, and how we were forced by desert plains and mountain ranges, and deep snows, far to the south, and near to the Pacific Ocean, and along the western base of the Sierra Nevada." Their route lay south, up the valley of a tributary of the Columbia, called Fall River, and along the eastern base to Tlamath Lake. They travelled over a region in parts traversed by ravines, in others spreading into prairies, but generally rugged and high, and partly covered with pines, cedars, and other trees. With the cold severe, the water in many places frozen, the snow on the heights compelling the party to deviate from the last summer route, until the 10th of De cember, " when," Captain Fremont says, " the country began to improve; and about 11 o clock we reached a spring of cold water on the edge of a savannah, or grassy meadow, which our guides informed us was an arm of the Tlamath Lake ; and a few miles further we entered upon an extensive meadow, or lake of grass, surrounded by timbered mountains. This was the Tlamath Lake. It was a pic turesque and beautiful spot, and rendered more attractive to us by the abundant and excellent grass which our animals, after travelling through pine forests, so much needed ; but the broad sheet of water which constitutes a lake was not to be seen. Overlooking it, immediately west, were several snowy knobs, belonging to what we have considered a branch of the Cascade range. A low point covered with pines made^out into the lake, which afforded us a good place for an encampment, and for the security of our horses, which were guarded in view on the open meadow. " The character of courage and hostility attributed to the Indians of this quarter induced more than usual precaution ; and seeing smokes rising from the middle of the lake (or savannah) and along the opposite shores, I directed the howitzer to be fired. It was the first time our guides had seen it discharged; and the burst ing of a shell at a distance, which was something like the second fire of the gun, amazed and bewildered them with delight. It inspired them with triumphant feelings; but on the camps at a distance the effect was different, for the smokes in the lake and on the shores immediately disappeared. " The point on which we were encamped forms, with the opposite eastern shore, a narrow neck, connecting the body of the lake with a deep cove or bay which re ceives the principal affluent stream, and over the greater part of which the water (or rather ice) was at this time dispersed in shallow pools. Among the grass and scattered over the prairie lake, appeared to be similar marshes. It is simply a shallow basin, which, for a short period at the time of melting snows, is covered with water from the neighbouring mountains ; but this probably soon runs off, and leaves for the remainder of the year a green savannah, through the midst of which the River Tlamath, which flows to the ocean, winds its way to the outlet on the south-western side. tf That day," says Captain Fremont, " we rode out towards the village in the OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO CALIFORNIA. 593 middle of the lake, which one of our guides had previously visited. It could not be directly approached, as a large part of the lake appeared a marsh, and there were sheets of ice among the grass on which our horses could not keep their foot ing. We therefore followed the guide for a considerable distance along the forest, and then turned off towards the village, a few large huts, on the tops of which were collected the Indians. When we had arrived within half a mile of the village, two persons were seen advancing to meet us ; and, to please the fancy of our guides, we ranged ourselves into a long line, riding abreast, while they galloped ahead to meet the strangers. " They were the village chief and his wife, who, in excitement and alarm at the unusual event and appearance, had come out to meet their fate together. The chief was a very prepossessing Indian, with very handsome features, and a singu larly soft and agreeable voice so remarkable as to attract general notice. " The huts were grouped together on the bank of the river, which, from being spread out in a shallow marsh at the upper end of the lake, was collected here into a single stream. They were large round huts, perhaps twenty feet in dia meter, with rounded tops, on which was the door by which they descended into the interior. Within, they were supported by posts and beams. " Almost like plants, these people seem to have adapted themselves to the soil, and to be growing on what the immediate locality afforded. Their only sub sistence at this time appeared to be a small fish, great quantities of , which that had been smoked and dried were suspended on strings about the lodge. Heaps of straw were lying around; and their residence, in the midst of grass and rushes, had taught them a peculiar skill in converting this material to useful purposes. Their shoes were made of straw or grass, which seemed well adapted for a snowy country; and the women wore on their head a closely- woven basket, which made a very good cap. Among other things were party-coloured mats about four feet square, which we purchased to lay on the snow under our blankets, and to use for table-cloths. Dogs, resembling wolves, were sitting on the tops of the huts. The language spoken by these Indians is different from that of the Shoshonee and Columbia River tribes ; and otherwise than by signs they can not understand each other. They made us comprehend that they were at war with the people who lived to the southward and to the eastward. The river on which they live enters the Cascade Mountains on the western side of the lake, and breaks through them by a passage impracticable for travellers; but over the mountains to the northward, are passes which present no other obstacle than the almost impenetrable forests. Unlike any Indians we had previously seen, these wore shells in their noses. " By observation, the latitude of the camp was 42 deg. 56 min. 51 sec.; and the diameter of the lake, or marshy meadow, as has been intimated, about twenty miles. It is a picturesque and beautiful spot; and, under the hand of cultivation, VOL. i. 4 G 594 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. might become a little paradise. Game is found in the forest; timbered and snowy mountains skirt it, and fertility characterises it. Situated near the heads of three rivers, and on the line of inland communication with California, and near to Indians noted for treachery, it will naturally, in the progress of the settlement of Oregon, become a point for military occupation and settlement. " On the morning of the 12th of December, the camp was thronged with Tiamath Indians from the south-eastern shore of the lake; but, knowing the treacherous disposition which is a remarkable characteristic of the Indians south of the Columbia, the camp was kept constantly on its guard. I was not unmind ful of the disasters which Smith and other travellers had met with in this country, and therefore was equally vigilant in guarding against treachery and violence." After crossing this marshy lake in which were frozen ponds, they entered a pine-forest, and traversed a broad mountain, for seven hours during a snow-storm, and on the 15th, crossed the upper stream of the Sacramento. On the 16th, the snow was about three feet deep, and the branches of the pines overlaid with snow. And they continued ascending until they reached open ground on the verge of a vertical and rocky mountain wall ; beneath which lay a green valley and lake be low. To the east not a tree was to be seen. " We were now immediately on the verge of the forest land, in which we had been travelling so many days; and, looking forward to the east, scarce a tree was to be seen. Viewed from our elevation, the face of the country exhibited only rocks and grass, and presented a region in which the artemisia became the princi pal wood, furnishing to its scattered inhabitants fuel for their fires, building mate rial for their huts, and shelter for the small game which ministers to their hunger and nakedness. Broadly marked by the boundary of the mountain wall, and im mediately below us, were thejirst waters of that Great Interior Basin which has the Wahsatch and Bear River Mountains for its eastern, and the Sierra Nevada for its western rim; and the edge of which we had entered upwards of three months before, at the Great Salt Lake. u When we began to think about descending, which here was im possible, we turned towards the north, travelling always along the rocky wall. We continued on for four or five miles, making ineffectual attempts at several places; and at length succeeded in getting down at one which was extremely difficult of descent. Night had closed in before the foremost reached the bottom, and it was dark before we all found ourselves together in the valley. There were three or four half-dead dry cedar-trees on the shore, and those who first arrived kindled bright fires to light on the others. One of the mules rolled over and over 200 or 300 feet into a ravine, but recovered himself, without any other injury than to his pack; and the howitzer was left midway on the mountain until morning. By observation, the latitude of this en campment is 42 deg. 67 min. 22 sec. We were now in a country where the OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO CALIFORNIA. 595 scarcity of water and of grass makes travelling dangerous, and great caution was necessary. We continued next day on the trail along the narrow strip of land between the lake and the high rocky wall, from which we had looked down two days before. Almost every half mile we crossed a little spring, or stream of cold pure water; and the grass was certainly as fresh and green as in the early spring. From the white efflorescence along the shore of the lake, we were enabled to judge that the water was impure, like that of the lakes we subsequently found ; but the mud prevented us from approaching it." Passing over the marshy lake, and travelling for two days, they came sud denly in sight of another and much larger lake, which, along its eastern shore, was closely bordered by high black ridge which walled it in by a precipitous face. Throughout this region the face of the country was characterised by precipices of black volcanic rock, generally enclosing the valleys of streams, and fre quently terminating the hills. " Spread out over a length of twenty miles, the lake when we first came in view, presented a handsome sheet of water; and I gave to it the name of Lake Albert, in honour of the chief of the corps to which I belonged. The fresh-water stream we had followed emptied into the lake by a little fall. The miry ground in the neighbourhood of the lake did not allow us to examine the water conveniently, and being now on the borders of a desert country, we were moving cautiously. We were following an Indian trail which led along the steep rocky precipice; a black ridge along the western shore holding out no prospect whatever. The white efflorescences which lined the shore like a bank of snow, and the disagreeable odour which filled the air as soon as we came near, informed us too plainly that the water belonged to one of those fcetid salt lakes which are common in this region. We continued until late in the evening to work along the rocky shore, but as often afterwards, the dry inhospitable rock deceived us; and, halting on the lake, we kindled up fires to guide those who were straggling along behind. We tried the water, but it was impossible to drink it, and most of the people to-night lay down without eating; but some of us, who had always a great reluctance to close the day with out supper, dug holes along the shore, and obtained water, which, being filtered, was sufficiently palatable to be used, but still retained much of its nauseating taste. There was very little grass for the animals, the shore being lined with a luxuriant growth of chenopodiaceous shrubs, which burnt with a quick bright flame, and made our firewood. " We ascended the bordering mountain in order to obtain a more perfect view of the lake in sketching its figure; hills sweep entirely around its basin, from which the waters have no outlet. " On the 22nd of December, they left this forbidding lake. Impassable rocky ridges barred the progress to the eastward, and they travelled towards the south, over an extensive sage plain. Ahead, and a little to the left, a range of snowy mountains arose. On the summit of the ridge, snow was visible, aud there being SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS . every indication of a stream at it, rode on until after dark, halted among the sage bushes on the open plain, without either grass or water. Two India-rubber bags had been filled with water in the morning, which afforded sufficient for the camp ; arid rain in the night formed pools, which relieved the thirst of the animals. The party rested on Christmas-day, and the expedition then travelled south over a country interspersed with large and small basins, into which the mountain waters run down, forming small lakes; they present a perfect level, into which the mountain torrents run down abruptly. Between the basins the dividing ridges are not usually high ; and it is probable that, in the seasons of high floods many of these basins are in communication. On either side, the mountains, though not very high, appear to be rocky and sterile. Latitude of the encamp ment 42 deg. north. They continued next day over a broad pass ; snow about a foot deep ; remark ably large cedars ; a horse stolen in the night by the Indians. As they discovered and travelled along lower grounds, foggy weather prevailed ; the country travelled over, was rugged, or marshy and muddy, with traces of sheep and antelopes. On the 6th of January, they entered a valley, and crossing the bed of another lake, over mud and sand, they reached hot springs and a grassy plat. Captain Fremont says " This is the most extraordinary locality of hot springs we have met during the journey. The basin of the largest one has a circumference of several hundred feet ; but there is at one extremity a circular space of about fifteen feet in diame ter, entirely occupied by the boiling water. It boils up at irregular intervals, and with much noise. The water is clear, and the spring deep; a pole, about sixteen feet long, was easily immersed in the centre ; but we had no means of forming a good idea of the depth. It was surrounded on the margin with a border of green grass, and near the shore the temperature of the water was 206 deg. We had no means of ascertaining that of the centre, where the heat was greatest; but, by dispersing the water with a pole, the temperature at the margin was increased to 208 deg., and in the centre it was doubtless higher. By driving the pole towards the bottom, the water was made to boil up with increased force and noise. There are several other interesting places, where water and smoke or gas escape ; but they would require a long description. The water is impregnated with common salt, but not so much so as to render it unfit for general cooking; and a mixture of snow made it pleasant to drink. "In the immediate neighbourhood, the valley bottom is covered almost exclu sively with chenopodiaceous shrubs, of greater luxuriance and larger growth than we have seen them in any preceding part of the journey. Latitude of the hot springs, 40 deg. 39 min. 46 sec. north. , " Our situation now required caution. Including those which gave out from the injured condition of their feet, and those stolen by Indians, we had lost, since leaving the Dalles of the Columbia, fifteen animals ; and of those, nine had bee" OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO CALIFORNIA. 597 left in the last few days. I, therefore, determined, until we should reach a coun try of water and vegetation, to feel our way ahead, by having the line of route ex plored some fifteen or twenty miles in advance, and only to leave a present en campment when the succeeding one was known. "Using our old plan of breaking the road with alternate horses, we reached a creek in the evening, and encamped on a dry open place in the ravine. " Many of the men looked badly, and some this evening were giving out." On the 10th of January the expedition travelled onwards in a southern direc tion through the basin along the ridge. On a large trail there is never any doubt of finding suitable places for encampments. Passing a defile between the mountains they descended rapidly for about 2000 feet : when a lake about twenty miles broad opened before them like the ocean. One of the high neighbouring peaks was ascended to obtain a better view. The waves of the lake beneath were curling in the breeze, and from their dark green colour it would appear that the water was very deep. The mountains seemed to enclose it in all parts ; but the western end communicated with the line of basins which were passed to the north; and on the opposite side its shores swept a ridge of the snowy mountains of the great Sierra. This lake appears to have been a new discovery, except to the Indians. On the next day herds of mountain-sheep were seen, and the party en camped on a little stream at the mouth of the defile, about a mile from the margin of the lake. The shore was rocky ; with a beach resembling that of the sea. On some large granite boulders scattered about the shore, there was a coating of a calcareous substance, in some places a few inches, and in others a foot in thickness. The hills were of primitive rock ; the latter covered with this substance. This place appeared to be a favourite Indian camping place. On the 13th of January they followed a broad Indian trail along the shore of the lake to southward. After travelling a short distance, the water swept the foot of the precipitous mountains, the peaks were about 3000 feet above the lake. The trail wound along the base of these precipices, against which the water dashed below, by a way nearly impracticable for them to bring along the howitzer. During a greater part of the morning, the lake was nearly hidden by a snow-storm, and the waves broke on the narrow beach in a long line of foaming surf, five or six feet high. They saw several flocks of sheep, but did not succeed in killing any. Ducks were riding on the waves, and several large fish were seen. The mountain sides were crusted with calcareous cement. There were chenopodiaceous and other shrubs along the beach, and, at the foot of the rocks, an abundance of ephedra occidentulis. Towards evening, the snow began to fall heavily, and the country had a wintry appearance. Oa the following morning the snow was rapidly melting under a warm sun. 598 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. The delay occasioned in bringing up the gun, prevented the party from tra velling more than nine miles, when they encamped on the shore, opposite a remarkable rock in the lake. It rose, according to estimate, 600 feet above the water, and, from the point viewed presented a pretty exact outline of the great pyramid of Cheops. Like other rocks along the shore, it seemed to be encrusted with calcareous cement. This suggested a name, and it was called Pyramid Lake. The elevation of this lake above the sea is 4890 feet, nearly 700 feet higher than the Great Salt Lake, from which it lies nearly west, distant about eight de grees of longitude. This is the nearest lake to the western confine, and the Great Salt Lake the nearest to the eastern boundary of the Great Basin which lies between the base of the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. Captain Fremont observes, in speaking of the river flowing into this lake " Groves of large cotton-wood, which we could see at the mouth of the river, indicated that it was a stream of considerable size : and, at all events, we had the pleasure to know that now we were in a country where human beings could live. Accompanied by an Indian, who appeared at the confine, we resumed our road, passing on the way several caves in the rock, where there were baskets and seeds, but the people had disappeared. We saw also horse-tracks along the shore. " Reaching the groves, we found the inlet of a large fresh-water stream, and all at once were satisfied that it was neither Mary s River nor the waters of the Sa cramento, but that we had discovered a large interior lake, which the Indians in formed us had no outlet. It is about thirty-five miles long, and, by the mark of the water-line along the shores, the spring level is about twelve feet above its present waters. The chief commenced speaking in a loud voice as we approached; and parties of Indians armed with bows and arrows issued from the thickets. We selected a strong place for our encampment a grassy bottom, nearly enclosed by the river, and furnished with abundant firewood. The village, a collection of straw huts, was a few hundred yards higher up." The Indians brought them plenty of large salmon-trout. They were of extraordinary size, generally from two to four feet in length and of delicious flavour. Mr. Walker, who passed among some lakes lying more to the eastward, says this fish is common to the streams of the inland lakes, and constitute the chief subsistence of these people. Latitude of encampment, 39 deg. 51 min. 13 sec., by observation. On the 26th of January they continued the journey along this stream, which they called Salmon-trout River. It was timbered with large cotton-woods, and the waters were clear and pure. The mountains of the great Sierra, which rose on the right, were covered with snow; below, the temperature was mild and plea sant. The country was oftimes tolerably level. Indian smokes arose in all direc tions, and are made from one camp to another when the country is alarmed. The horses arid mules nearly worn out. They continued for several days tra- OVERLAND EXPEDITION TO CALIFORNIA. 599 veiling to the south, to the upper waters of the stream, followed from the Pyra mid Lake. The morning of January 25th was cold and bright, and as the sun rose the day became beautiful. Captain Fremont then observes " A party of twelve Indians came down from the mountains to trade in pine-nuts, of which each one carried a little bag. These seemed now to be the staple of the country; and, whenever we met an Indian, his friendly salutation consisted in offering a few nuts to eat and to trade : their only arms were bows and flint-pointed arrows. It appeared that in almost all the valleys the neigh bouring bands were at war with each other; and we had some difficulty in pre vailing on our guides to accompany us on this day s journey, being at war with the people on the other side of a large snowy mountain which lay before us. The general level of the country appeared to be getting higher, and we were gradually entering the heart of the mountains. Accompanied by all the Indians, we ascended a long ridge, and reached a pure spring at the edge of the timber, where the Indians had waylaid and killed an antelope, and where the greater part of them left us. Our pacific conduct had quieted their alarms ; and though at war among each other, yet all confided in us thanks to the combined effects of power and kindness for our arms inspired respect, and our little presents and good treatment conciliated their confidence. Here we suddenly entered snow six inches deep, and the ground was a little rocky with volcanic fragments, the mountain appearing to be composed of such rock. The timber consists princi pally of nut-pines (pynus monophyllus), which here are of larger size twelve to fifteen inches in diameter; heaps of cones lying on the ground, where the Indians have gathered the seeds. " The snow deepened gradually as we advanced. Our guides wore out their moccassins ; and putting one of them on a horse, we enjoyed the unusual sight of an Indian who could not ride. He could not even guide the animal, and appeared to have no knowledge of horses. The snow was three or four feetdeep in the sum mit of the pass ; and from this point the guide pointed out our future road, declining to go any further. Below us was a little valley, and beyond this the mountains rose higher still, one ridge above another, presenting a rude and rocky outline. We descended rapidly to the valley ; the snow impeded us but little, yet it was dark when we reached the foot of the mountain. " After a hard day s march of twenty-seven miles, we reached the river some time after dark, and found the snow about a foot deep on the bottom the river being entirely frozen over. There were dry willows abundant, and we soon had blazing fires. A little brandy, which I husbanded with great care remained, and I do not know any medicine more salutary, or any drink (except coffee) more agreeable, than this on a cold night after a hard day s march. The next morning, when the sun had not yet risen over the mountains, the thermometer was 2 deg. below zero ; but the sky was bright, and the weather changed rapidly into a pleasant day of summer. * 600 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. On the 28th of January the party travelled through the pass, after a hard day s journey of twelve miles, and encamped on a high point where the snow had been blown off, and the exposed grass afforded a scanty pasture for the horses. Snow, and the broken country made the travelling difficult, and they were often compelled to make large circuits, and ascend the highest and most exposed ridges, in order to avoid snow, which in other places was banked up to a great depth. During the day a few Indians were seen circling around on snow shoes, and skimming along like birds, but they could not bring them within speaking distance. They would not allow one to approach, but, breaking into a laugh skimmed off over the snow, seeming to have no idea of the power of fire-arms. "To-night, 5 says Captain Fremont, "we did not succeed in getting the howitzer into camp. This was the most laborious day we had yet passed through, the steep ascents and deep snow exhausting both men and animals. Our single chronometer had stopped during the day, and its error in time occasioned the loss of an eclipse of a satellite this evening, It had not preserved the rate with which we started from the Dalles, and this will account for the absence of longitudes along this interval of our journey. " The party/ says Captain Fremont, " had now entirely left the desert country, and were on the verge of a region which, extending westward to the shores of the Pacific, abounds in large game, and is covered with a singular luxuriance of vege table life." The journey, however, for several days 3 was fatiguing and dreary. Snow and ice, elevated ridges, from 6000 to 7000 feet high, and deep ravines were crossed, meeting occasionally with some wretched natives. The mules were one by one falling off. A dog was killed and eaten. In about latitude 38 deg. north, Cap tain Fremont says "On the 2nd and 3rd of February it had ceased snowing, and this morning the lower air was clear and frosty : and 6000 or 7000 feet above, the peaks of the Sierra (Nevada), now and then appeared among the rolling clouds which were rapidly dispersing before the sun. Our Indian shook his head as he pointed to the icy pinnacles, shooting high up into the sky, and seeming almost immediately above us. Crossing the river on the ice, and leaving it immediately, we commenced the ascent of the mountain along the valley of a tributary stream. The people were unusually silent ; for every man knew that our enterprise was hazardous, and the issue doubtful. " The snow deepened rapidly, and it soon became necessary to break a road. For this service, a party of ten was formed, mounted on the strongest horses ; each man in succession opening the road on foot, or on horseback, until himself and his horse became fatigued, when he stepped aside, the remaining number passing ahead, he took his station in the rear. Leaving this stream, and pursuing a very direct course, we passed over an intervening ridge to the river we had left. On the way we passed two low huts entirely covered with snow, which might very EXPLORATION OF CALIFORNIA. G01 easily have escaped observation. A family was living in each; and the only trail I saw in the neighbourhood was from the door-hole to a nut-pine tree, which sup plied them with food and fuel. We found two similar huts on the creek where we next arrived ; and, travelling a little higher up, encamped on its banks in about four feet of snow. " The nut-pines were now giving way to heavy timber, and there were some immense pines on the bottom, around the roots of which the sun had melted away the snow ; and here we built our camps and made huge fires. To-day we had travelled sixteen miles, and our elevation above the sea was 6760 feet. " On the following morning, turning our faces directly towards the main chain, we ascended an open hollow along a small tributary to the river, which, according to the Indians, issues from a mountain to the south. The snow was so deep in the hollow, that we were obliged to travel along the steep hill sides, and over spurs, where wind and sun had in places lessened the snow, and where the grass, along the sides of the mountains, was exposed." The journey was in this manner continued to the summit ridge, which pre sented a range of naked peaks, apparently destitute of snow and vegetation ; below, the whole country was covered with timber of extraordinary size. " Towards a pass, which the guide indicated, we attempted in the after noon of the 4th, to force a road ; but after a laborious plunging through two or three hundred yards, our best horses gave out, entirely refusing to make any fur ther effort; and, for the time, we were brought to a stand. The guide informed us that we were entering the deep snow, and here began the difficulties of the mountain; and to him, and almost to all, our enterprise seemed hopeless." The camp had been all the day occupied in endeavouring to ascend the hill, but only the best horses had succeeded ; the animals, generally, not having sufficient strength to bring themselves up without the packs ; and all the line of road between this and the springs, where the party encamped the previous night, were strewed with camp stores and equipage, and horses floundering in snow. At night they had no shelter, but made a large tire around the trunk of one of the huge pines; and covering the snow with small boughs, on which they spread their blankets, they encamped. The night was very bright and clear, though the thermometer was only at 10 deg. A strong wind, which sprang up at sundown, made it intensely cold ; and this was one of the bitterest nights during the journey/ " It had been too cold to sleep, and in the morning our guide was standing by the fire with all his finery on ; and seeing him shiver in the cold, I threw on his shoulders one of my blankets. We missed him a few minutes afterwards, and never saw him again. He had deserted. His bad faith and treachery were in perfect keeping with the estimate of Indian character, which a long intercourse with this people had gradually forced upon my mind. "While a portion of the camp were occupied in bringing up the baggage to VOL. i. 4 H 602 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. this point^ the remainder were busied in making sledges and snow-shoes. I had determined to explore the mountain ahead, arid the sledges were to be used in transporting the baggage. " The mountains here consisted wholly of a white micaceous granite. The day was perfectly clear, and,, while the sun was in the sky, warm and pleasant. By observation, our latitude was 38 deg. 42 min. 26 sec. ; and elevation, by the boiling point, 7400 feet/ On the 6th February the party were engaged chiefly in opening a road through the snow, and on the morning of the following day, says Captain Fremont, " All our energies were now directed to getting our animals across the snow ; and it was supposed that, after all the baggage had been drawn with the sleighs over the trail we had made, it would be sufficiently hard to bear our animals. At several places between this point and the ridge, we had discovered some grassy spots, where the wind and sun had dispersed the snow from the sides of the hills, and these were to form resting-places to support the animals for a night in their passage across. On our way across we had set on fire several broken stumps and dried trees, to melt holes in the snow for the camps. Its general depth was five feet, but we passed over places where it was twenty feet deep. " With one party drawing sleighs loaded with baggage, I advanced to-day about four miles along the trail, and encamped at the first grassy spot, where we expected to bring our horses. Another party remained behind, to form an inter mediate station between us and the animals. ie February 8. The night has been extremely cold ; but perfectly still, and beautifully clear. Before the sun appeared this morning the thermometer was 3 deg. below zero, 1 deg. higher when his rays struck the lofty peaks. " Scenery and weather combined must render these mountains beautiful in summer ; the purity and deep-blue colour of the sky are singularly beautiful ; the days are sunny and bright, and even warm in the noon hours ; and if we could be free from the many anxieties that oppress us, even now we would be delighted here ; but our provisions are getting fearfully scant. Sleighs arrived with the baggage about ten o clock ; and leaving a portion of it here we con tinued on for a mile and a half, and encamped at the foot of a long hill on this side of the open bottom. Elevation of the camp, 7920 feet. " February 9. During the night the weather changed, the wind rising to a gale, and commencing to snow before daylight: before morning the trail was covered. We remained quiet in camp all day. We suffer much from the want of salt; and all the men are becoming weak from insufficient food. " February 10. Taplin was sent back with a few men to assist Mr. Fitz- patrick ; and continuing on with three sleighs carrying a part of the baggage, we had the satisfaction to encamp within two and a half miles of the head of the hollow, and at the foot of the last mountain ridge. Here two large trees had been set on fire, and in the holes where the snow had been melted away, we EXPLORATION OF CALIFORNIA. found a comfortable camp. The wind kept the air filled with snow the sky was very dark in the south-west, though elsewhere very clear. The forest here has a noble appearance ; the tall cedar is abundant ; its greatest height being 130 feet, and circumference twenty, three or four feet above the ground ; and here I see for the first time the white pine, of which there are some mao-- O nificent trees. Hemlock spruce is among the timber, occasionally as large as eight feet in diameter four feet above the ground ; but in ascending it tapers rapidly to less than one foot at the height of eighty feet. I have not seen any higher than 130 feet, and the slight upper part is frequently broken off by the wind. The white spruce is frequent, and the red pine, (pinus Colorado of the Mexicans,) which constitutes the beautiful forest along the flanks of the Sierra Nevada to the northward> is here the principal tree, not attaining a greater height than 140 feet, though with sometimes a diameter of ten. The elevation of the camp, 8050 /eet, 1000 feet above the level of the South Pass of the Rocky Mountains. " Putting on our snow-shoes, we spent the afternoon in exploring a road ahead. The glare of the snow, combined with great fatigue, had rendered many of the people nearly blind ; but we were fortunate in having some black silk handkerchiefs, which, worn as veils, very much relieved the eye. "February 11. High wind continued, and our trail this morning was nearly invisible, here and there indicated by a little ridge of snow. Our situation became tiresome and dreary, requiring patience and resolution. " In the evening I received a message from Mr. Fitzpatrick, acquainting me with the utter failure of his attempt to get our mules and horses over the snow ; the half-hidden trail had proved entirely too slight to support them, and they had broken through, and were plunging about or lying half buried in snow. I wrote to him to send the animals immediately back to their old pastures, and, after having made mauls and shovels, turn in all the strength of his party to open and beat a road through the snow, strengthening it with pine branches and boughs. " February 12. We made mauls, and worked hard at our end of the road all the day. The wind .was high, but the sun bright, and the snow thawing. We worked down the face of the hill, to meet the people at the other end. Towards sundown it began to grow cold, and we shouldered our mauls and trudged back to camp. Next day continued to labour in opening the road ; and supped at night on pea-soup, mule, and dog." On the night of February 14th, Captain Fremont ascended the highest peak to the right, from which he had a view of a mountain lake, about fifteen miles in length, and so entirely surrounded by mountains that he could not discover an outlet. "-Snow could be distinguished on the higher parts of the coast mountains ; eastward, as far as the eye could extend, it ranged over a terrible mass of broken snowy mountains. The rock composing the summit consists of a very etoarse, dark, volcanic conglomerate ; the lower parts appeared to be of a 604 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. slaty structure. The highest trees were a few scattering cedars and aspens. From the immediate foot of the peak we were two hours in reaching the summit, and one hour and a quarter in descending. The day had been very bright, still, and clear, and spring seems to be advancing rapidly. While the sun is in the sky the snow melts rapidly, and gushing springs cover the face of the mountain in all the exposed places, but their surface freezes instantly with the disappearance of the sun. Obtained to-night some observations; the result gave for the latitude 38 deg. 41 min. 57 sec., longitude 120 deg. 25 min. 57 sec." February 16, 17, and 18. Exploring the way in order to bring the mules and effects forward, they travelled along the crests of narrow ridges, extending down from the mountain in the direction of the valley. "February 20. After enduring almost incredible hardships we encamped with the animals, and all the materiel of the camp, on the summit of the PASS in the dividing ridge, 1000 miles, by our travelled road, from the Dalles of the Columbia. The temperature of boiling water gave for the elevation of the en campment 9338 feet above the sea, 2000 feet higher than the South Pass in the Rocky Mountains ; and several peaks in view rose several thousand feet still higher. Thus, at the extremity of the continent, and near the coast, the phenome non was seen of a range of mountains still higher than the great Rocky Mountains. This extraordinary fact accounts for the Great Basin, and shows that there must be a system of small lakes and rivers here scattered over a flat country, and which the extended and lofty range of the Sierra Nevada prevents from escaping to the Pacific Ocean. Latitude 38 deg. 44 min. ; longitude 120 deg. 28 min. This Pass in the Sierra Nevada, which well deserves its name of Snowy Mountain, is eleven degrees west and about four degrees south of the South Pass. Before them there were now the difficulties of deep fields of snow and a large intervening space of rough-looking mountains, through which they had yet to wind their way to the valley beneath. They started next morning long before daybreak, in order to pass the snow-fields before the sun melted the frozen crust. The scene at sunrise was unusually glorious and beautiful. " Immediately above the eastern mountains was repeated a cloud-formed mass of purple ranges, bordered with bright yellow gold ; the peaks shot up into a narrow line of crimson cloud, above which the air was filled with a greenish orange ; and over all was the singular beauty of the blue sky. Passing along a ridge which commanded a lake on our right, of which we began to discover an outlet through a chasm on the west, we passed over alternating open ground, and hard crusted snow-fields which sup ported the animals, and encamped on the ridge, after a journey of six miles. The grass was better than we had yet seen, and we were encamped in a clump of trees twenty or thirty feet high, resembling white pine. With the exception of these small clumps, the ridges were bare; and, where the snow found the support of the trees, the wind had blown it up into banks ten or fifteen feet high. It re quired much care to hunt out a practicable way, as the most open places fre quently led to impassable bunks. EXPLORATION OF CALIFORNIA. 605 " Ascending a height, we traced out the best line we could discover for the next day s march, and had at least the consolation to see that the mountain descended rapidly. The day had been gusty, with a few occasional flakes of snow ; which, in the afternoon, enveloped the upper mountain in clouds. Shortly after we heard the roll of thunder, and, looking towards the valley, found it all enveloped in a thunder-storm. When the sky cleared off brightly and we saw a shining line of water directing its course towards another, a broader and larger sheet : these could be no other than the Sacramento and the Bay of San Francisco. "February 22. We took advantage of the coolness of the early morning to get over the snow, which occurred in very deep banks among the timber, and the animals passed successfully with their loads the hard crust. Now and then, the delay of making a road occasioned much labour and loss of time. In the after-part of the day we saw before us a handsome grassy rid^e point; and, making a desperate push over a snow-field ten to fifteen feet deep, we happily succeeded in getting the camp across; and encamped on the ridge after a march of three miles. We had again the prospect of a thunder-storm below, and to-night we killed another mule now our only resource from starvation. We satisfied ourselves during the day that the lake had an outlet between two ranges on the right ; and with this the creek on which I had encamped pro bably effected a junction below. Between these we were descending. " The elevation above the sea, by the boiling point, is 8565 feet." February 24. By an astronomical observation latitude 38 deg. 46 min. 58 sec. ; longitude 120 deg. 34 min. 20 sec. Green grass began to make its appearance. The character of the forest con tinued the same. The flood of the river was a roaring torrent, its fall very great ; and descending with furious rapidity. Oaks appeared on the ridge, and soon became frequent ; with unusually great quantities of misletoe. Rushes began to make their appearance. At one of these rivulets, some beautiful evergreen trees, resembling live oak, were forty to fifty feet high and two in diameter, with a tufted top; and a sum mer green of beautiful foliage. The singing birds cheered the woods, and the soft summer wind was whirling about the dry oak leaves. The party hurried onwards, " filled with excitement, to escape from the horrid region of inhospitable snow to the perpetual spring of the Sacramento." Along the road the rock there ap peared a white granite, which seemed to constitute the upper part of the moun tains on both the eastern and western slopes: between the central prevail volcanic rocks; a horse was killed at night for food. The river flowed in a direct westerly course through a narrow valley, with a very slight and narrow bottom land. The party travelled down twelve miles, and encamped at some old Indian huts: apparently a fishing-place on the river. The bottom was covered with deciduous trees, vines, and rushes. GOG SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. The forest abounded with magnificent trees ; some of the pines bearing large cones, were ten feet in diameter; cedars also abounded. One measured twenty-eight feet and a half in circumference, four feet from the ground. These trees were found on both sides of the Sierra, but most abundant on the west. On the 2Gth of February they continued to follow the descending stream : the mountains on each side increasing in height, and shutting up the river between narrow precipices, along which they had great difficulty to get on with the horses. It rained heavily during the afternoon, and they were forced off the river to the heights above; from whence they descended, at nightfall, between the river and a fork of nearly equal size coming in from the right. Here appeared, on the lower hills, the first flowers in bloom, one of them a species ofgilia. The current in both rivers, or rather torrents, was broken by large boulders. It was late, the animals fatigued ; and where the party encamped, the hill side afforded but a few stray bunches of grass, and the horses, standing in the rain, looked miserable. On the following morning they succeeded in fording the stream, about sixty feet wide, but rapid, and occasionally deep, foaming among boulders, and the water beautifully clear. A mule being killed here, the head was boiled in a large kettle for several hours, and made a " passable soup for famished people." Next day precipices on the river forced them to the heights, which were ascended by a steep spur 2000 feet high. They saw a deer, but did not succeed in killing him. As the day advanced no grass appeared, and the lives of our horses depended on food for the night. They were in such a condition that only grass and repose for the night enabled them to travel the next day A new shrub, which had made its appearance since crossing the mountain, became frequent. 4 It branched out near the ground, forming a clump eight to ten feet high, with pale green leaves of an oval form, and the body and branches had a naked appearance as if stripped of the bark, which is very smooth and thin, of a chocolate colour, con trasting well with the pale green of the leaves." Near nightfall they descended into the steep ravine of a creek and when Captain Fremont was engaged in getting the horses up the opposite hill, he heard a shout from Carson, who had gone a-head a few hundred yards " Life yet, 55 said he as he came up, " life yet ; I have found a hill-side sprinkled with grass. 55 They drove along the horses, and encamped about dark, where there was just room enough, near a grassy hill, on the edge of the stream. Three horses were lost this day. "March 1. Continued on over the uplands, crossing many small streams, and camped again on the river, having made six miles. Here we found the hill-side covered (although lightly) with fresh green grass ; and from this time forward we found it always improving and abundant. There were some beautiful specimens of the chocolate-coloured shrub, which were a foot in diameter near the ground, and iifteen to twenty feet high. We are rapidly descending into the spring, and we arc leaving our snowy region fur behind; every thing is getting green; butterflies EXPLORATION OF CALIFORNIA. GOT are swarming; numerous bugs are creeping out, wakened from their winter s sleep; and the forest flowers are coming into bloom. Among those which ap peared most numerously to-day was dodecatheon dentatum" The condition of the party may be judged, when some wandered away from the camp in a state of mental derangement, plunged into the torrents, or wandered into the forest, and Captain Fremont well remarks, "The times were severe when stout men lost their minds from extremity of suffering when horses died and when mules and horses, ready to die of starvation, were killed for food. "March 3. The daily journeys were necessarily short, but at every step the country improved in beauty ; the pines were rapidly disappearing, and oaks became the principal trees of the forest. Among these, the prevailing tree was the ever green oak (which, by way of distinction, we shall call the live oak); and with these occurred frequently a new species of oak bearing a long slender acorn, from an inch to an inch and a half in length, which was afterwards found to constitute a prin cipal vegetable food of the inhabitants of this region. " March 4. We continued rapidly along on a broad, plainly-beaten trail. Our road led along a ridge inclining to the river, and the air, and the open grounds were fragrant with flowering shrubs ; and in the course of the morning we issued on an open spur, by which we descended directly to the stream. Here the river issues suddenly from the mountains, which hitherto had hemmed it closely in; these now become softer, and change sensibly their character; and at this point commences the most beautiful valley in which we had ever travelled. The river grounds were undulating, and covered with grass to the river brink. We ascended to the uplands, where the river passes round a point of great beauty, and goes through very remarkable dalles, in character resembling those of the Colum bia River. et Continuing the next day down the river, we discovered three squaws in a little bottom, and surrounded them before they could make their escape. They had large conical baskets, which they were engaged in filling with a small leafy plant (erodium cicutarium) just now beginning to bloom, and covering the ground like a sward of grass. They offered us smaller baskets of the plant, which they signi fied to us was good to eat, making signs also that it was to be cooked by the fire. We drew out a little cold horse-meat, and the squaws made signs to us that the men had gone out after deer, and that we could have some by waiting till they came in. The horses eat with great avidity the herb which they had been gather ing : and here, also, for the first time, we saw Indians eat the common grass one of the squaws pulling several tufts, and eating it with apparent relish. See ing our surprise, she pointed to the horses ; but we could not well understand what she meant, except, perhaps, that what was good for the one was good for the other. "We encamped in the evening on the undulating river shore, shaded with the live oaks, which formed a continuous grove over the country, and the same grassy G08 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. sward extended to the edge of the water ; we made our fires near some large granite masses which were lying among the trees. Saw acorn caches during the day; two of which were very large, containing each, probably, ten bushels. "March 6. We continued on our road through the same surpassingly beautiful country, entirely unequalled for the pasturage of stock by any thing we had ever seen , Our horses had now become so strong that they were able to carry us, and we tra velled rapidly, over four miles an hour ; four of us riding every alternate hour. Every few hundred yards we came upon a little band of deer; but we were too eager to reach the settlement, which we momentarily expected to discover, to halt for any other than a passing shot. In a few hours we reached a large fork, the northern branch of the river, and equal in size to that which we had descended. Together they formed a beautiful stream, sixty to one hundred yards wide; which at first, ignorant of the nature of the country through which that river ran, we took to be the Sacramento. t( We continued down the right bank of the river, travelling for a while over a wooded upland, where we had the delight to discover the tracks of cattle. To the south-west was visible a black column of smoke, which we had frequently noticed in descending, arising from the fires we had seen from the top of the Sierra. From the upland we descended into broad groves on the river, consisting of the ever green, and a new species of white oak with a large tufted top, and three to six feet in diameter. Among these was no brushwood, and the grassy surface gave to it the appearance of parks in an old settled country. Following the tracks of the horses and cattle in search of people we discovered a small village of Indians. Some of these had on shirts of civilised manufacture, but were otherwise naked, and we could understand nothing from them." The party, after an acorn meal, hurried on down a valley gay with flowers, and the banks absolutely golden with the Californian poppy (eschscholtzia crocea }. The grass was smooth and green, the groves open, the large oaks throwing a broad shade over sunny spots. They came to a neatly built adobe house with glass windows, but found only Indians. They then followed the river which swept in a large bend to the right ; and as the hills diverged they entered a broad valley, and arrived at a large Indian village, where the people looked clean, and wore cotton shirts and various other articles of dress. One spoke a little indifferent Spanish ; a well-dressed Indian then came up, and made salutations in good Spanish. He informed them that they were upon the Rio de los Americanos (the river of the Americans), and that it flowed into the Sacramento River about ten miles below. He was a vaquero (cow herd) in the service of Captain Suter, and the people of this rancheria worked for him. Soon after they came in sight of Captain Suter s fort: passing on the way the house of an American settler named Sinclair. They then forded the river, and met Captain Suter, who gave them a cordial reception, and were hospitably lodged in his fort: the account of which by Captain Fremont is already introduced under the head of California. JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THE UNTTKU STATES, After remaining until the 22nd of March at New Helvetia and its neighl,- hood, Captain Fremont started on the homeward route to the United V Having made a preparatory movement, he resumed his journey on the 24th of March, with an ample stock of provisions and a large cavalcade of animals, con sisting of 130 horses and mules, and about thirty head of cattle, five of which were milch cows. Mr. Suter furnished them also with an Indian boy, who had IXM-M trained as a vaquero, and who would be serviceable in managing the cavalcade, great part of which were nearly as wild as buffalo. The direct course for the United States was east; but the Sierra forced them south, above 500 miles of travelling, to a pass at the head of the San Joaquim River. This pass, reported to be good, was discovered by Mr. Joseph Walker, a celebrated trapper. To reach it," says Captain Fremont, " our course lay along the valley of the San Joaquim, the river on our right, and the lofty wall of the impassable Sierra on the left. From that pass we were to move south-eastward ly, having the Sierra then on the right, and reach the s Spanish trail, deviously traced from one water ing-place to another, which constituted the route of the caravans from Pueblo, de los Angeles, near the coast of the Pacific, to Santa Fc of New Mexico. From the pass to this trail was 150 miles. Following that trail through a desert, re lieved by some fertile plains, indicated by the recurrence of the term vegas, until it turned to the right to cross the Colorado, our course would be north-east until we regained the latitude we had lost in arriving at the Utah Lake, and thence to the Rocky Mountains at the head of the Arkansas, This course of travelling, forced upon us by the structure of the country, would occupy a computed dis tance of 2000 miles before we reached the head of the Arkansas; not a settlement to be seen upon it; and the names of places along it all being Spanish or Indian." The party travelled the next day about eighteen miles, and encamped on the Rio de los Cosumnes, a stream receiving its name from the Indians who live in its valley. The route was through a level country, admirably suited to cultivation, and covered with groves of oak-trees, principally the evergreen-oak, and a large oak in form like those of the white oak. The weather, which here, at this season, can easily be changed from the summer heat of the valley to the frosty mornings and bright days nearer the mountains, continued delightful for travellers, but un favourable to the agriculturists, whose crops of wheat began to wear a yellow tinge from want of rain. On the 25th of March, they travelled for twenty-eight miles over the same delightful country as before, and halted in a beautiful bottom at the ford of the Rio de los Mukelemnes, receiving its name from another Indian tribe living on the river. "The bottoms on the stream are broad, rich, and extremely fertile; and the uplands are shaded with oak-groves. A showy lupinus, of extraordinary beauty, growing four to five feet in height, and covered with spike?, in bloom, adorned the banks of the river, and filled the air with a perfume." VOL. i. 4 i 610 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. On the 26th, they halted at the Arroyo de las Calaveras, a tributary to the San Joaquim the previous two streams entering the bay between the San Joaquim and Sacramento Rivers. This place was beautiful, with open groves of oak, and a grassy sward beneath, with many plants in bloom. Near the river, and replacing the grass, were great quantities of ammole (soap plant), the leaves of which are used in California for making, among other things, mats for saddle-cloths. A vine with a small white flower (mefat/iria ?) called la yerba buena, and which, from its abundance, gives name to an island and town in the bay, was very fre quent on the road sometimes running on the ground or climbing the trees. On the following day they travelled rapidly up the valley; making about five miles an hour. During the earlier part of the day the ride had been over a very level prairie, or rather a succession of long; stretches of prairie, separated by lines and groves of oak-timber, growing along dry gulleys, which are filled with water in seasons of rain ; and by the melting snows. Over much of this extent, the vegetation was spare; the surface showing the action of water, which, in the season of flood, the Joaquim spreads over the valley. About one o clock they came again among innumerable flowers; and few miles further, fields of the beautiful blue-flowering lupine, which thrives in the neighbourhood of water, indicated that they were approaching a stream. They here found this beautiful shrub growing in thickets, some being twelve feet in height. Occa sionally three or four plants were clustered together, forming a grand bouquet, about ninety feet in circumference, and ten feet high ; the whole summit covered with flowers. They continued their road for about half a mile, through an open grove of live oaks, which, in form, were the most symmetrical and beautiful they had yet seen in this country. The ends of their branches rested on the ground, forming somewhat more than a half sphere of very full and regular figure, with leaves apparently smaller than usual. The Californian poppy, of a rich orange colour, was also abundant. Elk and several bands of antelope made their ap pearance. The route was delightful, amidst green pastures, flowers and scattered groves, and in the warm spring weather, the view of the rocky and snowy peaks among which they had lately endured fatigue, privation, and severe cold. " Emerging from the timber," says Captain Fremont, " we came suddenly upon the Stanislaus River, where we hoped to find a ford, but the stream was flowing by, dark and deep, swollen by the mountain snows; its general breadth was about fifty yards. We travelled about five miles up the river, and encamped without being able to find a ford. Here we made a large coral, in order to be able to catch a sufficient number of our wild animals to relieve those previously packed. " Under the shade of the oaks along the river, I noticed erodium circutarium in bloom, eight or ten inches high. This is the plant which we had seen the JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO Till- UNITED SIAH> <;l 1 squaws gathering on the Rio de los Americanos. By the inhabitants of the val ley it is highly esteemed for fattening cattle, which appear to be very fond of it" Here, where the soil begins to be sandy, it supplies to a considerable extent the want of grass. " Desirous, as far as possible, without delay, to include in our examination the San Joaquim River, I returned this morning down the Stanislaus fpr seventeen miles, and again encamped without having found a fording-place. After follow- ing it for eight miles further the next morning, and finding ourselves in the vicinity of San Joaquim, encamped in an oak grove, and, several cattle being killed, we ferried over our baggage in their skins. Here our Indian boy, who probably had no idea of where he was going, began to be alarmed at the many streams which we were rapidly putting between him and the village, deserted. "Thirteen head of cattle took a sudden fright, while we were driving them across the river, and galloped off. I remained a day in the endeavour to recover them; but, finding they had taken the trail back to the fort, let them go without further effort. Here we had several days of warm and pleasant rain, which doubt less saved the crops below. "On the 1st of April, we made ten miles across a prairie without timber, when we were stopped again by another large river, which is called the Rio de la Merced (River of our Lady of Mercy). Here the country had lost its character of extreme fertility, the soil having become sandy and light; but for several days past, its beauty had been increased by the additional animation of animal life ; and now, it is crowded with bands of elk and wild horses ; and along the rivers are frequent fresh tracks of the grizzly bear, which are unusually numerous in this country. Our route had been along the timber of the San Joaquim, generally about eight miles distant, over a high prairie. " In one of the bands of elk seen to-day, there were about 200 ; but the larger bands, both of these and wild horses, are generally found on the other side of the river, which, for that reason, I avoided crossing. I had been informed below, that the droves of wild horses were almost invariably found on the western bank of the river ; and the danger of losing our animals among them, together with the wish of adding to our reconnoissance the numerous streams which run down from the Sierra, decided me to travel up the eastern bank. " The next day was occupied in building a boat, and ferrying our baggage across the river; and we encamped on the bank. A large fishing eagle, with white head and tail, was slowly sailing along, looking after salmon ; and there were some pretty birds in the timber, with partridges, ducks, and geese innume rable in the neighbourhood. " On the 3rd of April we touched several times the San Joaquim River here a fine-looking tranquil stream, with a slight current, and apparently deep. 612 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. resembled the Missouri in colour, with occasional points of white sand, and its banks, where steep, were a kind of sandy clay ; its average width appeared to be about eighty yards. In the bottoms are frequent ponds, where our approach dis turbed multitudes of wild-fowl, principally geese. Skirting along the timber, we frequently started elk ; and large bands were seen during the day, with antelopes and wild horses. The low country and the timber rendered it difficult to keep the main line of the river ; and this evening we encamped on a tributary stream, about five miles from its mouth. On the prairie bordering the San Joaquim bot toms, there occurred during the day but little grass, and in its place was a sparse and dwarf growth of plants. The soil being sandy, with small bare places and hillock, reminded me much of the Platte bottoms ; but, on approaching the tim ber, we found a more luxuriant vegetation ; and at our camp was an abundance of grass and pea-vines. The foliage of the oak is getting darker." On the 4th of April they crossed the river without any difficulty, and travelled up along its banks. Elk were running in bands over the prairie and in the skirt of the wood. Here the country becomes very flat ; oak trees entirely disap peared, and were replaced by willows nearly equal in size to the oaks. The river was about 100 yards in breadth, branching into sloughs, and interspersed with islands. It appeared sufficiently deep for a small steamer, but its navigation would be interrupted by shallows at low water. The prairies along the left bank were covered with droves of wild horses. Latitude of encampment, by observation, 37 deg. 08 min. ; longitude, 120 deg. 45 min. 22 sec. As they travelled onward on the following day, " the country presented a lacus trine appearance ; the river was deep, and nearly on a level with the surrounding country ; its banks raised like a levee, and fringed with willows. Over the bor dering plain were interspersed spots of prairie among fields of tult (bulrushes), which in this country are called tulares, and little ponds. On the opposite side, a line of timber was visible, which, according to information, points out the course of the slough, which at times of high water connects with the San Joaquim River a large body of water in the upper part of the valley, called the Tule Lakes. Here elk were frequently started, and one was shot. On our left, the Sierra maintains its snowy height, and masses of snow appear to descend very low to wards the plains ; probably the late rains in the valley were snow on the moun tains. We travelled thirty-seven miles, and encamped on the river. " April 6. After having travelled fifteen miles along the river, we made an early halt under the shade of sycamore trees. Here we found the Jan Joaquim coming down from the Sierra with a westerly course, and checking our way, as all its tributaries had previously done. We had expected to raft the river, but found a good ford, and encamped on the opposite bank, where droves of wild horses were raising clouds of dust on the prairie. Columns of smoke were visible in the direction of the Tule Lakes to the southward probably kindled in the tulares by the Indians, as signals that there were strangers in the valley. JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THE UNITED STATI v (\\:\ We made on the 7th a hard march in a cold chilly rain from morniucr until night the weather so thick that we travelled by compass. This was a traverse from the Joaquim to the waters of the Tule Lakes, and our road was over a very level prairie country. We saw wolves frequently during the day, prowling about after the young antelope, which cannot run very fast. These were numeroui during the day, and two were caught by the people. " Late in the afternoon we discovered timber, which was found to be groves of oak trees on a dry arroyo. The rain which had fallen in frequent showers, poured down in a storm at sunset, with a strong wind, which swept off the clouds, and left a clear sky. " April 8. We reached a large stream, called the River of the Lake, resem bling in size the San Joaquim, and being about 100 yards broad. This is the principal tributary to the Tule Lakes, which collect all the waters in the upper part of the valley. " The Indians of the Sierra make frequent descents upon the settlements west of the Coast Range, which they keep constantly swept of horses ; among them are many who are called Christian Indians, being refugees from Spanish mis sions. Occasionally parties of soldiers follow them across the Coast Range, but never enter the Sierra. " On the opposite side we found some forty or fifty Indians who had come to meet us from the village below. We made them some small presents, and in vited them to accompany us to our encampment, which, after about three miles ride through fine oak groves, we made on the river. We made a fort, principally on account of our animals. The Indians brought otter-skins, and several kinds of fish, and bread made of acorns, to trade. Among them were several who had come to live among these Indians when the missions were broken up, and who spoke Spanish fluently. They informed us that they were called by the Spaniards mansitos (tame), in distinction from the wilder tribes of the mountains. They, however, think themselves very insecure, not knowing at what unforeseen mo ment the sins of the latter may be visited on them. They are dark-skinned, but handsome and intelligent Indians, and live principally on acorns and the roots of the tuU, of which also their huts are made. By observation, the latitude of the encampment is 36 deg. 24 min. 50 sec., and longitude 119 deg. 41 min. 40 sec." The expedition travelled onwards, over a country in some parts rough, in others wooded, and in many parts barren, until the 13th of April, when they approached the mountains. They ascended by a trail for a few miles along the bed of a creek without water, and suddenly came to a stream running with a lively current, but losing itself almost immediately in the sand. In a similar manner the moun tain-waters lose themselves in sand at the eastern foot of the Sierra, leaving only a parched desert and arid plains beyond. The stream enlarged as they ascended. A new species of pine, several kinds of oaks, and a variety of trees, became abun- 614 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. dant, and the party found themselves again travelling among the old orchard-like places. Here they selected a delightful encampment in a handsome green oak hollow, where, among the open bolls of the trees, was an abundant sward of grass and pea-vines. In the evening a Christian Indian rode into the camp, well dressed, with long spurs and a sombrero, and speaking Spanish fluently: it was an unexpected apparition, and a strange and pleasant sight in this desolate gorge of a mountain an Indian face, Spanish costume, jingling spurs, and horse equipped after the Spanish manner. He belonged to one of the Spanish missions to the south, distant two or three days 5 ride, and had obtained from the priests leave to spend a few days with his relations in the Sierra. He appeared familiarly acquainted with the country. The interior of the Great Basin, pur suing a direct course for the frontier, he represented as "an arid and barren desert that had repulsed by its sterility all the attempts of the Indians to pene trate it." This information induced Captain Fremont to relinquish the plan which he had previously formed for crossing this dreaded region. Latitude of the camp, 35 deg. 17 min. 12 sec., and longitude 118 deg. 35 min. 03 sec. The expedition then travelled onward towards the Sierra up a valley, enriched by a profusion of flowers, sycamore, oaks, cotton-wood, and willow, with other trees, and shrubby plants. The cotton-wood varied its foliage with white tufts. Gooseberries, nearly ripe, were very abundant on the mountain slopes. On passing the dividing grounds, which were not very easy to ascertain, the air was filled with perfume, as if they were entering a highly cultivated garden ; and, instead of green, the pathway and the mountain sides were covered with fields of yellow flowers, which was the prevailing colour. The journey was in the midst of an advanced spring, whose green and floral beauty offered a delightful contrast to the sandy valley they had just left. All the day snow was in sight on the butt of the mountain, which frowned down on the right as they rode along between green trees, and on flowers, with humming-birds and other feathered friends of the traveller enlivening the serene spring air. "As we reached/ 3 says Captain Fremont, "the summit of this beautiful pass, and obtained a view into the eastern country, we saw at once that here was the place to take leave of all such pleasant scenes as those around us. The distant mountains were now bald rocks again ; and below, the land had any colour but green. Taking into consideration the nature of the Sierra Nevada, we found this pass an excellent one for horses; and with a little labour, or perhaps with a more perfect examination of the localities, it might be made sufficiently practicable for waggons. Its latitude and longitude may be considered that of our last encampment, only a few miles distant. The elevation was not taken our half-wild cavalcade making it too troublesome to halt before night, when once started. JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THE UXITI.I) si Airs. (\\ ;, We here left the waters of the bay of San Francisco; though forced upon them contrary to my intentions, I cannot regret the necessity which occasioned the deviation. It made me well acquainted with the great range of the Sierra Nevada of the Alta California, and showed that this broad and elevated snowy ridge was a continuation of the Cascade Range of Oregon, between which and the ocean there is still another and a lower range, parallel to the former and to the coast, and which may be called the Coast Range. It also made me well acquainted with the basin of the San Francisco bay, and with the two pretty rivers and their valleys (the Sacramento and the San Joaquim), which are tribu tary to that bay ; and cleared up some points in geography on which error had long prevailed. It had been constantly represented, as I have already stated, that the bay of San Francisco opened far into the interior, by some river coming- down from the base of the Rocky Mountains, and upon which supposed stream the name of Rio Buenaventura had been bestowed. Our observations of the Sierra Nevada, in the long distance from the head of the Sacramento, to the head of the San Joaquim, and of the valley below it, which collects all the waters of the San Francisco bay, show that this neither is nor can be the case. No river from the interior does or can cross the Sierra Nevada itself more lofty than the Rocky Mountains; and as to the Buenaventura, the mouth of which, seen on the coast, gave the idea and the name of the reputed great river, it is, in fact, a small stream of no consequence, not only below the Sierra Nevada, but actually below the Coast Range taking its rise within half a degree of the ocean, running parallel to it for about two degrees, and then falling into the Pacific near Monterey. There is no openin from the bay of San Francisco into the interior of the continent. The two rivers which flow into it are comparatively short, and not perpendicular to the coast, but lateral to it, and having their heads towards Oregon and Southern California. They open lines of communica tion north and south, and not eastwardly ; and thus this want of interior com munication from the San Francisco bay, now fully ascertained, gives great additional value to the Columbia, ivhich stands alone as the only great river on the Pacific slope of our continent, which leads from the ocean to the Rocky Moun tains, and opens a line of communication from the sea to the valley of the Mississippi. "Four companeros joined our guide at the pass; and two going back at noon, the others continued on in company. Descending from the hills, we reached a country of fine grass, where the erodium cicutarium finally disappeared, giving place to an excellent quality of bunch grass. Passing by some springs where there was a rich sward of grass among groves of large black oak, we rode over a plain on which the guide pointed out a spot where a refugee Christian Indian had been killed by a party of soldiers which had unexpectedly penetrated into the mountains. Crossing a low sierra, and descending a hollow where a 616 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. spring gushed out, we were struck by the sudden appearance of yucca tree?, which gave a strange and southern character to the country, and suited well with the dry and desert region we were approaching." Next day the party continued a short distance down a creek, in which the guide informed them that the water very soon disappeared, and descended to a kind of plain among the lower spurs; the desert being in full view to the left, apparently illimitable. Captain Fremont describes the scene as indeed dismal to look upon, and it was hard to conceive so great a change in so short a distance. "One might travel the world over without finding a valley more fresh and verdant more floral and sylvan more alive with birds and animals more bounteously watered than we had left in the San Joaquim ; here, within a few miles ride, a vast desert plain spread before us, from which the boldest traveller turned away in despair. ce Directly in front of us, at some distance to the southward, and running out in an easterly direction from the mountains, stretched a sierra, having at the eastern end (perhaps fifty miles distant) some snowy peaks, on which, by the information of our guide, snow rested all the year. " Our cavalcade made a strange and grotesque appearance , and it was im possible to avoid reflecting upon our position and composition in this remote solitude. Within two degrees of the Pacific Ocean ; already far south of the latitude of Monterey; and still forced on south by a desert on one hand and a mountain range on the other; guided by a civilised Indian; attended by two wild ones from the Sierra; a Chinook from the Columbia; and our own mixture of American, French, German all armed ; four or five languages heard at once; above a hundred horses and mules, half wild; American, Spanish, and Indian dresses and equipments intermingled such was our composition. Scouts ahead and on the flanks; a front and rear division; the pack animals, baggage, and horned cattle in the centre ; and the whole stretching a quarter of a mile along our dreary path. In this form we journeyed; looking more as if we belonged to Asia than to the United States of America." By observation, the latitude of the camp in the evening was 34 deg. 41 min. 42 sec. ; and longitude 118 deg. 20 min.; and on the following day the most southerly point in latitude 54 deg. 27 min. 03 sec., longitude 117 deg. 13 min. west. They continued travelling over a mountainous country near, or along ridges, until the 25th of April, when "The country assumed the character of an elevated and mountainous desert ; its general features being black, rocky ridges, bald, and destitute of timber, with sandy basins between. Where the sides of these ridges are washed by gulleys, the plains below are strewed with beds of large pebbles or rolled stones, destructive to our soft-footed animals, accustomed to the grassy plains of the Sacramento valley. Through these sandy basins JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THE r\M T.I) STATES. () I 7 sometimes struggled a scanty stream, or occurred a hole of water, which furnished camping grounds for travellers. Frequently in our journey across, snow wai visible on the surrounding mountains ; but their waters rarely reached the sandy plain below, where we toiled along, oppressed with thirst and a burning sun. But throughout this nakedness of sand and gravel were many beautiful plants and flowering shrubs, which occurred in many new species, and with greater variety than we had been accustomed to see in the most luxuriant prairie coun tries. This was a peculiarity of this desert; even where no grass would take root, the naked sand would bloom with some rich and rare flower, which found its appropriate home in the arid and barren spot. " Scattered over the plain, and tolerably abundant, was a handsome legu minous shrub, three or four feet high, with fine bright purple flowers. It is a new psoralea, and occurred frequently henceforward along our road. Beyond the first ridge, the route followed was a little to the east of north, towards a gap in the mountains. They arrived at the Agua de Tomaso, the spring where horses had been left for them, but they had been driven off by the Indians. Carson, Godey, and a Mexican, well mounted, rode off in pursuit of the Indians and the horses. Next day, a war-whoop was heard, and Carson and Godey appeared, driving before them the horses which had been stolen. Captain Fremont then ob serves ; "Two bloody scalps, dangling from the end of Godey s gun, announced that they had overtaken the Indians as well as the horses. They informed us, that after Fuentes, the Mexican, left them, from the failure of his horse, they continued the pursuit alone, and towards nightfall entered the mountains, into which the trail led. After sunset the moon gave light, and they followed the trail by moon shine until late in the night, when it entered a narrow defile, and was difficult to follow. Afraid of losing it in the darkness of the defile, they tied up their horses, struck no fire, and lay down to sleep in silence and in darkness. Here they lay from midnight till morning At daylight they resumed the pursuit, and about sunrise discovered the horses ; and, immediately dismounting and tying up their own, they crept cautiously to a rising ground which intervened, from the crest of which they perceived the encampment of four lodges close by. They proceeded quietly, and had got within thirty or forty yards of their object, when a move ment among the horses discovered them to the Indians; giving the war- shout, they instantly charged into the camp, regardless of the number which the/our lodges would imply. The Indians received them with a flight of arrows shot from their long bows, one of which passed through Godey s shirt-collar, barely missing the neck ; our men fired their rifles upon a steady aim, and rushed in. Two Indians were stretched on the ground, fatally pierced with bullets; the rest fled, except a lad that was captured. The scalps of the fallen were VOL. i. 4 K 618 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. instantly stripped off; but in the process, one of them, who had two balls through his body, sprung to his feet, the blood streaming- from his skinned head, and uttered a hideous howl. An old squaw, possibly his mother, stopped and looked back from the mountain side she was climbing, threatening and lamenting. The frightful spectacle appalled the stout hearts of our men; but they did what humanity required, and quickly terminated the agonies of the gory savage. They were now masters of the camp, which was a pretty little recess in the mountain, with a fine spring, and apparently safe from all invasion. Great pre parations had been made to feast a large party, for it was a very proper place for a rendezvous, and for the celebration of such orgies as robbers of the desert would delight in. Several of the best horses had been killed, skinned, and cut up ; for the Indians, living in mountains, and only coming into the plains to rob and murder, make no other use of horses than to eat them. Large earthen ves sels were on the fire, boiling and stewing the horse beef; and several baskets, containing fifty or sixty pairs of moccassins, indicated the presence, or expectation, of a considerable party. They released the boy, who had given strong evidence of the stoicism, or something else, of the savage character, in commencing his breakfast upon a horse s head as soon as he found that he was not to be killed, but only tied as a prisoner. Their object accomplished, our men gathered up all the surviving horses, fifteen in number, returned upon their trail, and rejoined us at our camp in the afternoon of the same day. They had rode about 100 miles in the pursuit and return, and all in about thirty hours. The time, place, object, and numbers, considered, this expedition of Carson and Godey may be considered among the boldest and most disinterested which the annals of western adventure, so full of daring deeds, can present. Two men, in a savage desert, pursue day and night, an unknown body of Indians into the defiles of an unknown mountain attack them on sight, without counting numbers and defeat them in an instant and for what ? To punish the robbers of the desert, and to avenge the wrongs of Mexicans whom they did not know. I repeat : it was Carson and Godey who did this the former an American, born in the Boonslick county of Missouri ; the latter a Frenchman, born in St. Louis and both trained to western enterprise from early life." On the 29th of April the expedition reached the Archilette, where the Mexican party had been attacked. The party had traversed a part of the desert the most sterile and repulsive that they had yet seen. " Its prominent features were dark sierras, naked and dry; on the plains a few straggling shrubs among them, cactus of several varieties. Fuentes pointed out one called by the Spaniards bisjiada, which has a juicy pulp, slightly acid, and is eaten by the traveller to allay thirst. The course was generally north ; and, after crossing an intervening ridge, we descended into a sandy plain, or basin, in the middle of which was the grassy spot, with its springs and willow bushes, which constitutes a camping-place in JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO TIIK (Ml Ki, g , .yi gg. ( ; 1 9 the desert, and is called the Archilette. The dead silence of the place was ominous ; and galloping rapidly up, they found only the corpses of the two men : every tiling else was gone. When we beheld this pitiable sight, and pictured to ourselves the fate of the two women, carried off by savages so brutal and so loathsome, all compunction for the scalped-alive Indian ceased ; and we rejoiced that Carson and Godey had been able to give so useful a lesson to these American Arabs, who lie in wait to murder and plunder the innocent traveller. By observation its la titude of the place was 35 deg. 51 min. 21 sec. On the 9th or 10th .of May, one of the party, named Tabeau, was killed by the Indians. "We went/ says Captain Fremont, "to the spot where the appearance of puddled blood had been seen ; and this, we saw at once, had been the place where he fell and died. From the place where he lay and bled, it could be seen that he had been dragged to the river bank, and thrown into it. No vestige of what had belonged to him could be found, except a fragment of his horse equip ment. Horse, gun, clothes all became the prey of these Arabs of the New World. " Tabeau had been one of our best men, and his unhappy death spread a gloom over our party. Men who have gone through such dangers and sufferings as we had seen become like brothers, and feel each other s loss. To defend and avenge each other is the deep feeling of all. We wished to avenge his death, but the condition of our horses, languishing for grass and repose, forbade an ex pedition into unknown mountains. We knew the tribe who had done the mis chief the same which had been insulting our camp. They knew what they deserved, and had the discretion to show themselves to us no more. The day before, they infested our camp ; now, not one appeared ; nor did we ever after wards see but one who even belonged to the same tribe, and he at a distance." The morning of the llth of May was cloudy arid cool, with a shower of rain the first since their entering the desert, a period of twenty-seven days ; and they now experienced the usual weather of the Rocky Mountains. On the 12th of May they encamped on the summit of the ridge which forms the dividing chain between the waters of the Rio Virgen, which flows south to the Colorado, and those of Sevier River, flowing northwardly into the Great Basin. "We considered ourselves," says Captain Fremont, "as crossing the rim of the Great Basin; and, entering at this point, we found here an extensive mountain mea dow, rich in bunch grass, and fresh with numerous springs of clear water, all refresh ing and delightful to look upon. It was, in fact, that las Vegas de Santa Clara, which had been so long presented to us as the terminating point of the desert, and where the annual caravan from California to New Mexico halted and recruited for some weeks. It was a very suitable place to recover from the fatigue and exhaustion of a month s suffering in the hot and sterile desert. The meadow was about a mile wide,and some ten miles long, bordered by grassy hills and mountains some of the latter risino- 2000 feet, and white with snow down to the level of the Vegas. C3 620 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Its elevation above the sea was 5280 feet; latitude, by observation, 37 cleg. 28 mm. 28 sec. ; and its distance from where we first struck the Spanish trail about 400 miles. Counting from the time we reached the desert, and began to skirt, at our descent from Walkers Pass in the Sierra Nevada, we had travelled 550 miles, occupying twenty-seven days, in that inhospitable region. In passing before the great caravan, we had the advantage of finding more grass, but the dis advantage of finding also the marauding savages, who had gathered down upon the trail, waiting the approach of their prey. This greatly increased our labours, besides costing us the life of an excellent man. We had to move all day in a state of watch, and prepared for combat scouts and flankers out, a front and rear division of our men, and baggage animals in the centre. At night, camp duty was severe. Those who had toiled all day had to guard, by turns, the camp and the horses all night. Frequently one-third of the whole party were on guard at once, and nothing but this vigilance saved us from attack. We were constantly dogged by bands, and even whole tribes of these marauders : and although Ta- beau was killed, and our camp infested and insulted by some, while swarms of them remained on the hills and mountain sides, there was manifestly a consulta tion and calculation going on to decide the question of attacking us. " After we left the Vegas, we had the gratification to be joined by the famous hunter and trapper, Mr. Joseph Walker, who now became our guide. He had left California with the great caravan, and perceiving from the signs along the trail that there was a party of whites ahead, which he judged to be mine, he detached himself from the caravan, with eight men (Americans), and ran the gauntlet of the desert robbers, killing two, and getting some of the horses wounded, and succeeded in overtaking us. Nothing but his great knowledge of the country, great courage, and presence of mind, and good rifles, could have brought him safe from such a perilous enterprise." The expedition remained one day at las Vegas de Santa Clara-, and then travelled in a north-eastwardly direction into a broad valley, the water of which is tributary to Sevier Lake. The next day they came in sight of the Wah-satch range of mountains on the right, white with snow, and forming the south-east boundary of the Great Basin. Sevier Lake, upon the waters of which they now were, belongs to the lakes of the eastern part of the basin of which the Great Salt Lake and the Utah Lake, are the principal. They travelled for several days within the rim of the Great Basin, crossing little streams which flowed to the left into Sevier Lake, and, by the changed aspect of the country, they were entirely clear of the desert, and approaching the region of the Rocky Mountains. Captain Fremont then observes; " After 440 miles of travelling on a trail, which served for a road, we again found ourselves under the necessity of explor ing a track through the wilderness. The Spanish trail had borne off to the south-east, crossing the Wah-satch range. Our course led to the north- JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THF, UNITED ST A I i;s. (\ 2 1 east, along the foot of that range, and leaving it on the right. We had now entered a region of great pastoral promise, abounding with fine stn the rich bunch grass, soil that would produce wheat, and indigenous flax gro win- as if it had been sown. Consistent with the general character of its bordmn mountains, this fertility of soil and vegetation does not extend far into the (in at Basin. Mr. Joseph Walker, our guide, and who has more knowledge of these parts than any man I know, informed me that all the country to the left was un known to him, and that even the Digger tribes, which frequented Lake Sevier, could tell him nothing about it. " May 20. We met a band of Utah Indians, headed by a well-known chief, who had obtained the American or English name of Walker, by which he is quoted and well known. They were all mounted, armed with rifles, and use their rifles well. The chief had a fusil, which he had carried slung, in addition to his rifle. They were journeying slowly towards the Spanish trail, to levy their usual tribute upon the great California Caravan. They were robbers of a higher order than those of the desert. They conducted their depredations with form, and under the colour of trade and toll for passing through their country. Instead of attacking and killing, they affect to purchase taking the horses they like, and giving something nominal in return. The chief was quite civil to me. He was personally acquainted with his namesake, our guide, who made my name known to him. He knew of my expedition of 1842 ; and as tokens of friendship, and proof that we had met, proposed an interchange of presents. We had no great store to choose cut of; so he gave me a Mexican blanket, and I gave him a very fine one which I had obtained at Vancouver. "From the Dalles to the point where we turned across the Sierra Nevada, near 1000 miles, we heard Indian names, and the greater part of the distance none ; from Nueva Helvetia (Sacramento) to las Vegas de Santa Clara, about 1000 more, all were Spanish, from the Mississippi to the Pacific, French and American or English were intermixed ; and this prevalence of names indicates the national character of the first explorers." Here one of his men, Francois Badeau, was killed in drawing towards him a gun by the muzzle: the hammer being caught, discharged the gun, driving the ball through his head. They buried him on the banks of the river. On the 25th of May, they came in sight of the Utah Lake; and, as they descended to the broad bottoms of the Spanish fork, three horsemen were seen gal loping towards them who proved to be Utah Indians scouts from a village which was encamped near the mouth of the river. They were armed with rifles, and their horses were in good condition. On arriving at the Utah Lake, Captain Fremont remarks;- "We had completed an immense circuit of 12 deg. north and south, and 10 deg. east and west; and found ourselves, in May, 1844, on the same sheet of water which we had left in ) SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. tember, 1843. The Utah is the southern limb of the Great Salt Lake; and thus we had seen that remarkable sheet of water both at its northern and southern extremity, and were able to fix its position at these two points. The circuit which we had made, and which had cost us eight months of time and 3500 miles of travelling, had given us a view of Oregon and of North California from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, and of the two principal streams which form bays or harbours on the coast of that sea. Having completed this circuit, and being now about to turn the back upon the Pacific slope of our continent, and to recross the Rocky Mountains, it is natural to look back upon our footsteps, and take some brief view of the leading features and general structure of the country we had traversed. These are peculiar and striking, and differ essentially from the Atlantic side of gur country. The mountains are all higher, more numerous, and more distinctly defined in their ranges and directions; and, what is so contrary to the natural order of such formations, one of these ranges, which is near the coast (the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range), presents higher elevations and peaks than any which are to be found in the Rocky Mountains themselves. In our eight months circuit, we were never out of sight of snow; and the Sierra Nevada, where we crossed it, was near 2000 feet higher than the South Pass in the Rocky Mountains. In height, these mountains greatly exceed those of the Atlantic side, constantly presenting peaks which enter the region of eternal snow; and some of them volcanic, and in a frequent state of activity. They are seen at great distances, and guide the traveller in his course. "The course and elevation of these ranges give direction to the rivers and character to the coast. No great river does, or can, take its rise below the Cascade and Sierra Nevada range; the distance to the sea is too short to admit of it. The rivers of the San Francisco Bay, which are the largest after the Columbia, are local to that bay, and lateral to the coast, having their sources about on a line with the Dalles of the Columbia, and running each in a valley of its own, between the Coast Range and the Cascade and the Sierra Nevada range. The Columbia is the only river which traverses the whole breadth of the country, breaking through all the ranges, and entering the sea. Drawing its waters from a section of ten degrees of latitude in the Rocky Mountains, which are collected into one stream by three main forks (Lewis s, Clark s, and the North Fork), near the centre of the Oregon valley, this great river thence proceeds by a single channel to the sea, while its three forks lead each to a pass in the mountains, which opens the way into the interior of the continent. This fact, in relation to the rivers of this region, gives an immense value to the Columbia. Its mouth is the only inlet and outlet to and from the sea ; its three forks lead to the passes in the mountains ; it is therefore the only line of communication between the Pacific and the interior of North America ; and all operations of war or commerce, of national or social intercourse, must be conducted upon it. This JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THE UNI I T.D STATES. gives it a value beyond estimation, and would invoke irreparable injury if l (J , t In this unity and concentration of its waters, the Pacific side of our continent differs entirely from the Atlantic side, where the waters of the Alleghany Mountains are dispersed into many rivers, having their different entrances iiito this sea, and opening many lines of communication with the interior. " The Pacific coast is equally different from that of the Atlantic. The coast of the Atlantic is low and open, indented with numerous bays, sounds, and river estuaries, accessible everywhere, and opening by many channels into the heart of the country. The Pacific coast, on the contrary, is high and compact, with feu- bays, and but one that opens into the heart of the country. The immediate coast is what the seamen call iron bound. A little within, it is skirted by two succes sive ranges of mountains, standing as ramparts between the sea and the interior country ; and to get through which there is but one gate, and that narrow and easily defended. This structure of the coast, backed by these two ranges of mountains, with its concentration and unity of waters, gives to the country an immense military strength, and will probably render Oregon the most impregnable country in the world. " Differing so much from the Atlantic side of our continent in coast, moun tains, and rivers, the Pacific side differs from it in another most rare and singular feature that of the Great Interior Basin, of which I have so often spoken, and the whole form and character of which I was so anxious to ascertain. Its existence is vouched for by such of the American traders and hunters as have some knowledge of that region ; the structure of the Sierra Nevada range of mountains requires it to be there ; and my own observations confirm it. Mr. Joseph Walker, who is so well acquainted with those parts, informed me that, from the Great Salt Lake west, there was a succession of lakes and rivers which have no outlet to the sea, nor any connexion with the Columbia, or with the Colorado of the Gulf of California. He described some of these lakes as being large, with numerous streams, and even considerable rivers, falling into them. In fact, all concur in the general report of these interior rivers and lakes ; and, for want of understand ing the force arid power of evaporation, which so soon establishes an equilibrium between the loss and supply of waters, the fable of whirlpools and subterraneous outlets has gained belief, as the only imaginable way of carrying off the waters which have no visible discharge. The structure of the country would require this formation of interior lakes ; for the waters which would collect between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, not being able to cross this formidable barrier, nor to get to the Columbia or the Colorado, must naturally collect into reservoirs, each of which would have its little system of streams and rivers to supply it. This would be the natural effect; and what I saw went to confirm it. The Great Salt Lake is*a formation of this kind, and quite a large one; and having many streams, and one considerable river, 400 or 500 miles long, falling G24 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. into it. This lake and river I saw and examined myself; and also saw the Wah- satch and Bear River Mountains which enclosed the waters of the lake on the east, and constitute in that quarter, the rim of the Great Basin. Afterwards, along the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, where we travelled for forty-two days, I saw the line of lakes and rivers which lie at the foot of that Sierra; and which Sierra is the western rim of the basin. In going down Lewis s Fork and the main Columbia, I crossed only inferior streams coming in from the left, such as could draw their water from a short distance only; and I often saw the moun tains at their heads, white with snow, which all accounts said, divided the waters of the desert from those of the Columbia, and which could be no other than the range of mountains which from the rim of the basin on its northern side. And in returning from California along the Spanish trail, as far as the head of the Santa Clara Fork of the Rio Virgen, I crossed only small streams making their way south to the Colorado, or lost in sand as the Mo-hah-ve ; while to the left, lofty mountains, their summits white with snow, were often visible, and which must have turned water to the north as well as to the south, and thus constituted, on this part, the southern rim of the Basin. At the head of the Santa Clara Fork, and in the Vegas de Santa Clara, we crossed the ridge which parted the two systems of waters. We entered the Basin at that point, and have travelled in it ever since, having its south-eastern rim (the Wah-satch Mountain) on the right, and crossing the streams which flow down into it. The existence of the Basin is therefore an established fact in my mind ; its extent and contents are yet to be better ascertained. It cannot be less than 400 or 500 miles each way, and must lie principally in the Alta California ; the demarcation latitude of 42 deg. probably cutting a segment from the north part of the rim. Of its interior but little is known. It is called a desert, and, from what I saw of it, sterility may be its prominent characteristic ; but where there is so much water, there must be some oasis. The great river, and the great lake, reported, may not be equal to the report; but where there is so much snow 7 , there must be streams; and where there is no outlet, there must be lakes to hold the accumulated waters, or sands to swallow them up. In this eastern part of the Basin, containing Sevier, Utah, and the Great Salt lakes, and the rivers and creeks falling into them, we know there is good soil and good grass, adapted to civilised settlements. In the western part, on the Salmon-trout River, and some other streams, the same remark may be made. "The contents of this great basin are yet to be examined. That it is peopled, we know, but miserably and sparsely. From all that I heard and saw, I should say that humanity here appeared in its lowest form, and in its most elementary state. Dispersed in single families, without fire-arms, eating seeds and insects, digging roots (and hence their name), such is the condition of the greater part. Others are a degree higher, and live in communities upon some lake or river that supplies JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THE UMTtU HA I ! & G V> fish, and from which they repulse the miserable Digger. The rabbit is the largest animal known in this desert : its flesh affords a little meat, and their bag-like covering is made of its skins. The wild sage is their only wood, and here it is of extraordinary size, sometimes a foot in diameter, and six or eight feet hio-h. It serves for fuel, for building material, for shelter to the rabbits, and for some sort of covering for the feet and legs in cold weather. Such are the accounts of the inhabitants and productions of the Great Basin ; and which, though imperfect, must have some foundation, and excite our desire to know the whole. "The whole idea of such a desert, and such a people, is a novelty in our country, and excites Asiatic, not American, ideas. Interior basins, with their own systems of lakes and rivers, and often sterile, are common enough in Asia ; people still in the elementary state of families, living in deserts, with no other occupation than the mere animal search for food, may still be seen in that ancient quarter of the globe ; but in America such things are new and strange, unknown and unsus pected, and discredited when related. But I flatter myself that what is discovered, though not enough to satisfy curiosity, is sufficient to excite it, and that subsequent explorations will complete what has been commenced. "This account of the Great Basin, it will be remembered, belongs to the Alta California, and has no application to Oregon, whose capabilities may justify a separate remark. In general and comparative terms, that, in that branch of agri culture which implies the cultivation of grains and staple crops, it would be inferior to the Atlantic states, though many parts are superior for wheat, while in the rearing of flocks and herds it would claim a high place. Its grazing capabilities are great, and even in the indigenous grass now there, an element of individual and national wealth may be found. In fact, the valuable grasses begin within 150 miles of the Missouri frontier, and extend to the Pacific Ocean. East of the Rocky Mountains, it is the short curly grass, on which the buffalo delight to feed (whence its name of buffalo) and which is still good when dry and apparently dead. West of those mountains it is a larger growth, in clusters, and hence called bunch grass, and which has a second or fall growth. Plains and mountains both exhibit them ; and I have seen good pasturage at an elevation of 10,000 feet. In this spontaneous product, the trading or travelling caravans can find subsist ence for their animals; and in military operations any number of cavalry may be moved, and any number of cattle may be driven ; and thus men and horses be supported on long expeditions, and even in winter, in the sheltered situations. "Commercially, the value of the Oregon country must be great, washed as it is by the North Pacific Ocean, fronting Asia, producing many of the elements of commerce, mild and healthy in its climate, and becoming, as it naturally will, a thoroughfare for the East India and China trade. The expedition under Captain Fremont returned from the Utah Lake over the pass by the Spanish branch of the river, and thence across a broken country, of VOL. i. 4 L I G26 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. which the higher parts were rocky, and timbered with cedar, and the lower parts covered with good grass. On the 3rd of June he arrived at Fort Uintah, a trading post belonging to a Mr. Roubideau, on the principal fork of the Uintah River, with a. motley garrison of Canadian and Spanish engages and hunters, with the usual number of Indian women.* The longitude of the post is 109 deg. 56 min. 42 sec., the latitude 40 deg. 27 min. 45 sec. On the 7th, they journeyed through beautiful little valleys and a high mountain country until they arrived at the verge of a steep and rocky ravine, by which they descended to Broivn s Hole: a place well known to trappers, where the canons through which the Colorado flows, expand into a narrow pretty valley, about six teen miles in length. The river was several hundred yards in breadth, swollen to the top of its banks, near to which it was in many places fifteen to twenty feet deep. They crossed the river with a skin boat which had been purchased at the fort. According to information, the lower end of this valley forms the most eastern part of the Colorado : the latitude of the encampment, opposite to the remains of an old fort on the left bank of the river, was 40 deg. 46 min. 27 sec., and the elevation above the sea 5150 feet; here the river flowed between lofty precipices of red rock, and the country below is said to assume a very rugged character; the river and its affluents passing through canons which forbid all access to the water. This sheltered little valley was formerly a favourite winter ing-ground for the trappers, as it afforded them sufficient pasturage for their animals, and the surrounding mountains are well stocked with game. After leaving Brown s Hole they advanced over a country which has long been infested by the war-parties of the Sioux and other Indians, and considered among the most dangerous war-grounds in the Rocky Mountains; parties of whites having been repeatedly defeated on this river. On the llth of June they encamped a little below a branch of the river, called St. Vrain s Fork. A few miles above was the fort at which Frapp s party had been defeated two years previously ; and they passed during the day a place where one of Carson s men was fired upon and had five bullets through his body. On the 12th they reached the country of, and saw, the buffalo, and wel comed the appearance of two old bulls. As they descended to St. Vrain s Fork, an affluent of Green River, the hunters brought in mountain sheep and the meat of two fat bulls. They killed two fine cows near the camp. A band of elk broke out of a neighbouring grove; antelopes were running over the hills, and on the opposite river plains, herds of buffalo were raising clouds of dust. The country here appeared more variously stocked with game than any * This fort was attacked and taken by a band of the Utah Indians since Captain Fremont passed it, and the men of the garrison killed and the women carried off. Mr. Roubideau was absent, and so escaped the fate of the rest. JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THE UNITED STATES. 627 part of the Rocky Mountains they had visited; owing to the excellent pastura- and its being avoided by the hunters on account of its dangerous.characteAs Indian war-ground. On the 13th of June they reached the summit towards mid-day, at an eleva tion of 8000 feet. Captain Fremont says" With joy and exultation we saw ourselves once more on the top of the Rocky Mountains, and beheld a little stream taking its course towards the rising sun. It was an affluent of the Platte called Pullam s Fork, the name of a trapper who, some years since, was killed here by the Gros Ventre Indians. Issuing from the pines in the afternoon, we saw spread out before us the valley of the Platte, with the pass of the Medi cine Butte beyond, and some of the Sweet Water Mountains. We were now about two degrees south of the South Pass, and our course home would have been eastwardly ; ^but that would have taken us over ground already examined, and therefore without the interest which would excite curiosity. Southwardly there were objects worthy to be explored, to wit: the approxima tion of the head waters of three different rivers the Platte, the Arkansas, and the Grand River Fork of the Rio Colorado of the Gulf of California; the passes at the heads of these rivers, and the three remarkable mountain coves, called Parks, in which they took their rise. The coves, the heads of the rivers, the approximation of these waters, the practicability of the mountain passes, and the locality of the THREE PARKS, were all objects of interest, and, although well known to hunters and trappers, were unknown to science and to history. We, therefore, changed our course, and turned up the valley of the Platte in stead of going down it. We crossed several small affluents, and again made a fortified camp in a grove. The country had now become very beautiful rich in water, grass, and game ; and to these were added the charm of scenery and pleasant weather. " Our route this morning (June 14) lay along the foot of the mountain, over the long low spurs which sloped gradually down to the river, forming the broad valley of the Platte. The country is beautifully watered. In almost every hollow ran a clear, cool, mountain stream ; and in the course of the morning we crossed seventeen, several of them being large creeks, forty to fifty feet wide, with a swift current, and tolerably deep. These were variously wooded with groves of aspen and cotton- wood, with willow, cherry, and other shrubby trees. Buffalo, antelope, and elk, were frequent during the day. " Encamped on a pretty stream, where there were several beaver-dams, and many trees recently cut down by the beaver. We gave to this the name of Beaver Dam Creek, as now they are becoming sufficiently rare to distinguish by their name the streams on which they are found. In this mountain they occurred more abundantly than elsewhere in all our journey, in which their vestiges had been scarcely seen. 628 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " The next day we had an animated chase after a grizzly bear, which we tried to lasso. Rentes threw the lasso upon his neck, but it slipped off, and he escaped into the dense thickets of the creek. Our course in the afternoon brought us to the main Platte River, here a handsome stream, with a uniform breadth of seventy yards, except where widened by frequent islands. It was apparently deep, with a moderate current, and wooded with groves of large willow. " The valley narrowed as we ascended, and presently degenerated into a gorge, through which the river passed as through a gate. We entered it, and found ourselves in the New Park a beautiful circular valley of thirty miles diameter, walled in all round with snowy mountains, rich with water and with grass, fringed with pine on the mountain sides below the snow line, and a para dise to all grazing animals. The Indian name for it signifies * cow lodge, of which our own may be considered a translation ; the enclosure, the grass, the water, and the herds of buffalo roaming over it, naturally presenting the idea of a park. We halted for the night just within the gate, and expected, as usual, to see herds of buffalo ; but an Arapahoe village had been before us, and not one was to be seen. Latitude of the encampment, 40 deg. 52 min. 44 sec. Elevation by the boiling point, 7720 feet. "It is from this elevated cove, and from the gorges of the surrounding mountains, and some lakes within their bosoms, that the Great Platte River col lects its first waters, and assumes its first form ; and certainly no river could ask a more beautiful origin. " We continued our way among the waters of the Park, over the foot hills of the bordering mountains, where we found good pasturage, and sur prised and killed some buffalo. We fell into a broad and excellent trail made by buffalo, where a waggon would pass with ease ; and, in the course of the morn ing, we crossed the summit of the Rocky Mountains, through a pass which was one of the most beautiful we had ever seen. The trail led among the aspens, through open grounds, richly covered with grass, and carried us over an elevation of about 9000 feet above the level of the sea. " The country appeared to great advantage in the delightful summer weather of the mountains, which we still continued to enjoy. Descending from the pass, we found ourselves again on the western waters; and halted on the edge of another mountain valley, called the Old Park, in which is formed Grand River, one of the principal branches of the Colorada of California. We were now moving with some caution, as, from the trail, we found the Arapahoe village had also passed this way. As we were coming out of their enemy s country, and this was a war-ground, we were desirous to avoid them. The appearance of the country in the Old Park is interesting, though of a different character from the New ; instead of being a comparative plain, it is more or less broken into hills, JOURNEY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO THE UNITED STA 1 l.s. 629 and surrounded by the high mountains, timbered on the lower parts with quaking asp and pines. "On the 18th of June our scouts, who were as usual ahead, made from a lutte this morning the signal of Indians. We had scarcely made our few pre parations, when about 200 of them appeared on the verge of the bottom, mounted, painted, and armed for war. We planted the American flag between us; and a short parley ended in a truce, with something more than the usual amount of presents. It will be remembered that it is customary for this people to attack the trading parties which they meet in this region, considering all whom they meet on the western side of the mountains to be their enemies. " The next morning we descended the river for about eight miles, and halted a short distance above a canon, through which Grand River issues from the Park. Here it was smooth and deep, 150 yards in breadth, and its elevation at this point 6700 feet. A frame for the boat being very soon made, our baggage was ferried across ; the horses, in the mean time, swimming over. "The shade of the pines, and the weather, were most delightful on the 20th. The country was literally alive with buffalo : and the continued echo of the hunters rifles on the other side of the river for a moment made me uneasy, think ing perhaps they were engaged with Indians; but in a short time they came into camp with the meat of seven fat cows. " In the afternoon the river forked into three apparently equal streams ; broad buffalo trails leading up the left hand, and the middle branch indicating good passes over the mountains ; but up the right hand branch (which, in the object of descending from the mountain by the main head of the Arkansas, I was most desirous to follow), there was no sign of a buffalo trace. Apprehending, from this reason, and the character of the mountains, which are known to be extremely rugged, that the right-hand branch led to no pass, I proceeded up the middle branch, which formed a flat valley bottom between timbered ridges on the left and snowy mountains on the right, terminating in large buttes of naked rock. The trail was good, and the country interesting ; and at nightfall we encamped in an open place among the pines, where we built a strong fort." Next morning, a party of six trappers, who had ventured out among the mountains after beaver, informed Captain Fremont that two of their number had been killed by the Indians, one of them but a few days since, by the Arapahoes. By the temperature of boiling water, the elevation of the camp was 10,430 feet; and the pine forest and good grass still continued. The captain proceeded upwards, occasionally through open pines, with a very gradual ascent. They surprised a herd of buffalo near a small lake among pines. Having ascended about 800 feet from the camp, he reached the SUMMIT OF THE DIVIDING RIDGE, which was calculated to be 11,200 feet above the sea. Here the river spreads itself into small branches and springs, heading nearly in 630 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the summit of the ridge, which is very narrow. Immediately below was a green valley, through which ran a stream ; and a short distance opposite rose snowy mountains, whose summits were formed into peaks of naked rock. He descended from the summit of the pass into the creek below, and en camped on a bottom of good grass near its head, which gathers its waters in the crest of the Rocky Mountains, and, according to the best information he could obtain, separated only by the rocky wall of the ridge from the head of the main Arkansas river. By observations, the latitude of the encampment was 39 deg. 20 min. 24 sec., and south of which he laid down, the head of the Arkansas River. A band of buffalo furnished some excitement, by charging through the camp in the evening. On the following day they descended the stream by a buffalo trail, along the open grassy Bottom of the river. On the right, the bayou was bordered by a mountainous range, crested with rocky naked peaks. Below the country exhibited ts a beautiful park-like character of pretty level prairies, interspersed among low spurs, wooded openly with pine and quaking asp, contrasting well with the denser pines which swept around on the mountain sides." Descending the valley of the stream, they met a party of Utah women, who informed them that on the other side of the ridge their village was fighting with the Arapa- hoes : they filled the air with cries and lamentations, to make it understood that some of their chiefs had been killed. Pike s Peak was in view from the encampment. It bore N. 87 deg. E. by compass. On returning from this region, after several days* laborious travelling, the expedition left the mountains, and on the morning of the 28th encamped im mediately at their foot, on a tributary of the Arkansas River, and on the 1st of July arrived at Bent s Fort, about seventy miles below the mouth of the Fontaine-qui-bouit. Captain Fremont left the Arkansas, about twenty miles below the fort, to examine the Kansas, and he observes, " The country through which we had been travelling since leaving the Arkansas River, for a distance of 260 miles, pre sented to the eye only a succession of far-stretching green prairies, covered with unbroken verdure of the buffalo grass, and sparingly wooded along the streams with straggling trees and occasional groves of cotton-wood; but here the country began perceptibly to change its character, becoming a more fertile, wooded, and beautiful region, covered with a profusion of grasses, and watered with innumer able little streams, which were wooded with oak, large elms, and the usual varieties of timber common to the lower course of the Kansas River. As we advanced, the country improved, gradually assimilating in appearance to the north-western part of Missouri. The beautiful sward of the buffalo grass, which is regarded as the best and most nutritious found on the prairies, appeared now JOURNFY FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO llli: UNITED STATIC. 63 1 only in patches, being replaced by a longer and coarser grass, which covered the face of the country luxuriantly. The difference in the character of the gras- became suddenly evident in the weakened condition of our animals, which beg;.u sensibly to fail as soon as we quitted the buffalo grass. " The river preserved a uniform breadth of eighty or a hundred yards, with broad bottoms continuously timbered with large cotton-wood trees, among which were interspersed a few other varieties. " After having travelled directly along its banks for 290 miles, we left the river, where it bore suddenly off in a north westerly direction, towards its junction with the Republican Fork of the Kansas, distant about sixty miles ; and, con tinuing our easterly course, in about twenty miles we entered the waggon road from Santa Fe to Independence, and on the last day of July encamped again at the little town of Kansas, on the banks of the Missouri River. " During our protracted absence of fourteen months, in the course of which we had necessarily been exposed to great varieties of weather and of climate, no one case of sickness had ever occurred among us, " Here ended our land journey : and the day following our arrival, we found ourselves on board a steamboat rapidly gliding down the broad Missouri. Our travel-worn animals had not been sold and dispersed over the country to renewed labour, but were placed at good pasturage on the frontier, and are now ready to do their part in the coming expedition. On the 6th of August we arrived at St. Louis, where the party was finally disbanded ; a great number of the men having their homes in the neighbourhood." The extracts and condensed accounts which we have prepared from the nar ratives of exploring expeditions, from the recent travels of Americans in Mexico and California, although but embracing but a very limited portion of the actual letter-press of these narratives and travels, afford, in a compressed form, all the really important information recently obtained of countries hitherto but very imperfectly known : and the importance of the circumstance which now involve the future destinies of Oregon, California, and Mexico, and of the progress of the Anglo-Saxon race in America, constitute, we believe, a full justification of the length to which we have extended these chapters. 632 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER XXIX. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. AFTER the overthrow of the Imperial Government of Iturbide, a national representative body met, and before separating, at the end of fourteen months, agreed to a federal constitution, embracing the original royal states of New Spain. It was proclaimed on the 4th of October, 1824.* The first congress under it met on the 1st of January, 1825, with General Victoria, as president of the federal republic. Discord and Pronundamientos followed. One cabal de clared that no man of Spanish birth should fill any public office. One opposed the federation, another the central system. Centralists were called Escossais, or Scotch the federalists, the Yorkinos, or Yorkists : strange names for Spanish races. Sanguinary revolutions and insurrections continued. Rulers were over turned, or replaced, or executed. After the execution of President Guerera, in 1831, an exiled president Pedraza, was recalled to serve out three months of his allotted term. Santa Anna succeeded in 1833. Pronunciamientos and insurrec tions were vigorously, and not very mercifully, quelled by him. In the first year of his presidency, a " Pronunciamiento" was made in favour of the "fueros" of the church and army. The latter proclaimed him Dictator * This constitution was, with the exception of the article on religion, founded on the articles of the constitution of the United States of North America. Each of the Mexican states was to preserve the right of changing and modifying its state government, provided it retained the re publican form. The congress of the Union was to consist of the president and the vice-presi dent, and of two legislative bodies, the senate and the house of representatives. The senate to be composed of twice as many members as there are states ; every state sending two senators, elected by the legislative bodies of the state. The number of the members of the house of re presentatives were not limited. Every district containing a population of between 40,000 and 80,000 inhabitants, were entitled to choose a representative ; a census was to be made every ten years. The legislative bodies to meet on the 1st of January, and continue to the 15th of April ; but if necessary, might prolong it one month. The president might call an extraordinary meet ing of the legislative bodies. The representatives were to be elected for two years ; the senators for four years. The president, or executive, to be chosen by the legislative bodies of the different states. Every state to name two candidates, one of whom not to be a citizen of the state ; the congress to declare the person to be duly elected, as chosen by the majority of the states. The vice-pre sident to be chosen in the same manner. The president and vice-president to remain four years in office. The president to appoint the secretaries of state, and the officers in the army and navy ; to be commander-in-chief of the forces, to treat with foreign powers, and cause the laws enacted by the congress to be published and executed. But he was required to consult the privy council, in which every state was represented by one member. Disputes arising between the authorities of the United States or their citizens were to be de cided by a superior court, consisting of eleven members, chosen by the legislative bodies of the states. That court to explain the true meaning of the laws whenever they are obscure, and to determine the limits of the jurisdiction of the federal courts of the republic. The crimes or misdemeanours of senators, representatives, ambassadors, consuls, and other public officers of the first rank, to be also tried by this court. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 633 at Cuautla he refused to accept and marched against and subdued the insur gents at Guanajuato. In 1835, a " Pronunciamiento" was published and quelled in Zacatecas. A few days after this victory there was another, called the " Plan of Toluca," which was generally believed to have been framed by Santa Anna. This plan was fatal to the federal system. It destroyed the constitution of 1824, vested the power in a central government, abolished the legislatures of the states, and changed those states into departments, under the control of mili tary commandants and governors, responsible only to the chief authorities of the republic. This last bold act of Santa Anna, previous to his capture in Texas, formed in its principles, the basis of the "Central Constitution/ adopted in 1836, instead of the federal constitution of 1824. This defacto dictator of his own country, and the conqueror of the Spaniards, lost his liberty by being defeated and taken prisoner by the Americans at San Jacinto. He was liberated, and returned through the United States to Mexico, and having become exceedingly unpopular, retired to his farm at Manga de Clavo. When Santa Anna departed for Texas, Barrigan, whom he left in his ab sence as president, died, and Coro assumed the administration, until Bustamente (a former president), whose friends had elected him to the presidency under the new and central constitution, returned from France, where he had lived obscure since his defeat at Tenhilon, in 1830, by Santa Anna. In 1838, the unfortunate Mexia advanced towards the capital of Mexico with a considerable army. He was met in the neighbourhood of Puebla by Santa Anna. Mexia was defeated, taken prisoner, and immediately shot, by order of Santa Anna.* Soon after Vera Cruz was blockaded by a French squadron, and attacked by the French troops. Santa Anna at once repaired to the port and assumed the command of the troops. While following the French, as they retreated to their boats, he was wounded in the leg.f He remained quiet during the " Pronunciamiento of the Federalists under * Mr. Mayer, in two notes informs us, " You are right," said he to Santa Anna, when he was refused a respite : I would not have granted you half the time, had I conquered ! + " Santa Anna," says Mr. Mayer, " causes the 5th of December to be celebrated in Mexico, as a day of victory over the French ! They tell a story of him at Vera Cruz, which is illustrative of his cunning. One morning, early, during the siege, a party of French soldiers had made its way into the town and got possession of the house in which Santa Anna was lodged. As soon as he was disturbed by the noise of the troops, he jumped out of bed, and in his shirt and trowsers, attempted to escape. On the stairs he met the soldiers, headed by the Prince de Joinville, who immediately demanded, Where is Santa Anna? There, said he, pointing over his shoulder with his thumb to a room in which another general was quietly sleeping. And who are you V said the Prince ; Oh ! nobody, said Santa Anna, nobody but a servant of the house. The prince pushed on in a hurry to secure the general, while the general as hurriedly pushed for the door!" Santa Anna was evidently no favourite of Mr. Mayer. VOL. I. 4 M 634 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Urrea, at the palace of Mexico, on the 15th of July, 1840, which was suppressed by Valencia. In August 1841, an insurrection was announced by the " Pronunciamimto" of Paredes in Guadalaxara, and enforced by Valencia and Lombardini, in the capi tal, and by Santa Anna at Vera Cruz. The consumption duty of 15 per cent was one of the grievances complained of; which, with the constitution of 1836, were difficulties entirely beyond the control of the administration of Bustamente. The {( Pronunciamientos" of those generals were succeeded by a month*s contest in the streets of Mexico; a bombardment of the capital ; some conflicts between the rival troops of the neighbourhood ; the downfall of Bustamente ; the elevation of Santa Anna to the provisional presidency, and the " Plan of Tacubaya," by the seventh article of which he was invested with dictatorial powers. By this plan, a congress was to meet in 1842, to form a new constitution. In June of that year, " a corps of patriotic citizens, chosen by the people, met J or that purpose in the capital." The provisional president, in a speech, declared forcibly his partiality for a firm and central government ; but that he should acquiesce in the final decision of the congress. In December 1842, after two attempts to form a system of administration, the provisional president dissolved the congress, and convened a junta of notables. This junta, headed by Santa Anna, proclaimed on the 13th of June, 1843, " the bases of political organization of the Mexican republic." It is not called a constitution. By this instrument, it is declared that Mexico adopts the form of a popular representative system for its government; that the republic shall be divided into departments ; that the political power essentially resides in the nation, and that the Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic creed is professed and protected to the ex clusion of all others. It declares that slavery is not to be permitted ; that no one is to be molested for his political opinions, or called on for contributions, except such as are regu larly imposed by law. It distinguishes who are Mexican citizens, their rights and obligations. Citi zens are all who are born within the Mexican territory, or beyond it, of a Mexi can father ; all who were alive in Mexico in 1821, and have not renounced their allegiance ; all who were natives of Central America when it belonged to the Mexican nation, and since then have continued to reside in Mexico;- and all who have obtained or shall obtain letters of naturalization. The rights of citizenship, voting for qualifications, require that they must be eighteen years of age and married, or t*venty-one years if not married ; and they must enjoy an annual income of at least 200 dollars, derived from actual capital, industry, or honest personal labour. In addition to these requirements, no one will be allowed to vote, after the year 1850, unless he is able to read and write. CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO. 635 The rights of citizenship are suspended (among other disqualifications) by domestic servitude, habitual intemperance, taking of religious vows, keeping of prohibited gaming-houses, and fraudulent bankruptcy. The legislative power is to reside in a congress, divided into a chamber of deputie* and a senate. The Chamber of Deputies is to be composed of individuals elected by the electoral colleges of the departments, in a manner which will be hereafter specified, and in the ratio of one for 70,000 inhabitants. The departments which have not so many resi dents shall, nevertheless, be entitled to a deputy, and there shall likewise be one for every fraction over 35,000. It is required, that a deputy shall be 30 years of age, and possessed of an annual income of 1200 dollars. A moiety of the chamber is tobe re newed every two years. The Senate is to be composed of 63 members, two-thirds of whom are to be elected by the departmental assemblies, and the other third by the chamber of deputies, the president of the republic, and the supreme court of justice. One-third of this body is to be renewed biennially. The departmental assemblies are to select five persons from each of the classes of agriculturists, miners, proprietors, or merchants, and manufac turers; the rest of the quota to be chosen by them from distinguished individuals, Those who are to be appointed by the president and the supreme court, are to be taken from among individuals who have signalised themselves in the civil, military, and eccle siastical career. Senators must possess an annual income of 2000 dollars. The congress, so constituted, to sit twice a year for the space of three months, commencing its terms on the 1st of January and 1st of July. Its members are not al lowed to obtain place or preferment from the government, except for the most impera tive reasons. A third body, called the Permanent Deputation, is to be formed by this congress, and will be composed of four members of the senate and five of the chamber, whose term of office shall continue until the next meeting of the national assembly and the election of their successors. The duty of this permanent deputation is to call extra sessions of Congress whenever they may be decreed by the government, and to receive the certificates of the election of president of the republic, senators, and ministers of the supreme court of justice. The Executive Power is confided for five years to a president, who must be a Mexi can by birth, in the full enjoyment of all his rights of citizenship, more than forty years of age, and a resident of the republic at the time of his election. Among the numerous duties prescribed for him by the bases, are the following: To impose fines not exceeding 500 dollars on those who disobey his orders, and are wanting in due respect and obedience to the laws. To see that prompt justice is administered ; to visit the tribunals whenever he is informed of delays, or that prejudicial disorders exist in those bodies ; to require that a preference be given to causes concerning the public welfare, and to exact information touching the same whenever it may be deemed proper. To object (kacer observaciones) within thirty days (after audience of the council, which will be hereafter described), to the projects of laws approved by the chambers, suspending their operations in the mean time. If the project be reapproved, the govern ment may suspend it until the near termination of the period when the chambers can consider the subject. If it be then approved by two-thirds of both bodies, the govern ment will be obliged to publish it as a law. If the thirty days terminate after the regu lar period of the session, the government is to direct its observations to the permanent deputation ; and if the term passed without any action by the president, the law will be considered as sanctioned, and published without delay. The president may declare war, and dispose of the armed forces of the nation as he sees fit, according to the objects of their institution. He may expel from the repub lic unnaturalized foreigners, who are deemed dangerous; and he may name orators from the council to defend the opinions of the government before the chambers. The Council of the Government is to be composed of seventeen persons named by 636 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the president, whose tenure of office is perpetual, and whose duties are to give their aid to the government in all matters required in these bases, and others upon which it shall be proper to consult them. It is their privilege, moreover, to propose to the government all regulations and systems they may deem necessary for the public good in every branch of the administration. The judicial power of the country is vested in a supreme court, in departmental tribunals, and others already established by law. There is to be a perpetual court mai*- tial, chosen by the president. The Government of the Departments is regulated by the seventh title. Each department is to have an assembly composed of not more than eleven, nor less than seven, who must be twenty-five years of age, and possessed of the qualifications required for a deputy to congress. Their term of office is four years. The powers of these assemblies are very simple and irresponsible, and scarcely amount to more than a species of municipal police, the whole of which is subject to the review of the president of the republic, and of a governor appointed by the presi dent. Electoral Power. The population of Mexico is divided into sections of 500 inha bitants for the election of primary juntas, and the citizens to vote, by ticket, for one elector for every 500 inhabitants. These primary electors will name the secondary, who are to form the electoral college of the department in the ratio of one secondary elector for every twenty of the primary. This electoral college, again, will elect the deputies to congress, and the members of the departmental assembly ; and its members must have an income qualification of at least five hundred dollars per annum. On the 1st of November of the year previous to the expiration of the presidential term, each departmental assembly, by a majority of votes, or, in case of a tie, by lot, will select a person as president for the succeeding five years. There is no clause in the in strument limiting the term or terms for which an individual may be elected, or pre scribing a mode of supplying the vacancy occasioned by his death, resignation, or in- competency. Mr. Mayer observes, " The people are divided into classes of citizens and inhabi tants. Property qualifications are created, while domestic servants, and the clergy, are disfranchised in the same category with gamblers and drunkards, though they possess both the required income and education. "The opinion of the people is not to be taken directly by vote in regard to the men who are to represent them in the departments and in congress, or to govern them in the presidency ; but their sentiments are to be filtered through three bodies of electors before their representation is finally effected. And, last of all, the supreme power is vested in a central government, while the people are left with scarce a shadow of authority over their homes and interests in the departments. " It will be at once observed, that the President Santa Anna has thus succeeded in en forcing his favourite scheme of centralism. " The four millions of Mexican Indians (scarcely one of whom ever had an annual income of 200 dollars in his life), must always be unrepresented in the government. No hope is proposed to them of advancement or regeneration ; while the chief magistrate, himself, is surrounded by a complicated machine, that wants every element of demo cratic simplicity, and possesses a thousand inlets to corruption and mismanagement. " In either event, the president may deem himself safe. If the bases succeed in giving peace, progress, and prosperity to Mexico, he will have the honour of the move ment. But if he finds that they are not efficacious, or are likely to injure his schemes, it will be a task neither of difficulty nor danger, in so complicated a maze, to loosen some trifling screw, or throw some petty wheel from its axle, by which the whole must be dis arranged without the responsibility of even its humblest engineers. " So long as the president rules under an instrument which gives him complete con trol of the army, the power to declare war, entire patronage of the civil list, the right to impose fines, veto laws, and interfere with the judiciary ; he will possess an authority too great to be intrusted to any one individual in our day and generation." CONDITION AND PROSPECTS OF .MEXICO. G37 Since the institution of this central system, Santa Anna has been banished, another president elected insurrections have succeeded insurrections -l> r <mun- ciamientosandthe Presidentship of Paravane! a war with the United States, are among the events of the year 1846. CHAPTER XXX. REFLECTIONS ON THE PRESENT CONDITION AXD PROSPECTS OF MEXICO. IT will appear evident, from the foregoing sketches of the various countries north and south of this vast region, that Mexico, with the most fertile resources and with all climates, soils, and productions, with magnificent forests, with the precious, and most of the useful minerals, in abundance, is a powerless and de clining state. Spain, from the first day of occupation, planted in this physically highly- favoured empire, the elements of future weakness, dissolution, and decay. Arbitrary civil and military power, injustice and cruelty to the aboriginals, and an ecclesiastical hierarchy, which fascinated the senses and paralyzed the intellect, were the elements of Spanish policy in America. No sound rea- soner, who studied human character, no statesman, who judged of the present, in accordance with the conduct of mankind in all countries in all past ages, could have expected that a whole people born and brought up under such a government, and under such a church, would, on becoming independent of Spain, be prepared for civil liberty, for self-government, and especially for a republican government, when the only religion they professed and tolerated was thoroughly anti-republican, in all its institutions, in all its observances, and in its doctrines of passive obedience. In other Catholic countries, as in France and in many parts of Germany, the circumstances were widely different. The inhabitants, at least those of the towns, and the prominent men in the country, were and are intelligent, and liberally educated. The people of Mexico had scarcely any other education, but the ceremonies of the church : which, being far above their comprehension, were mysterious, yet agreeable to them. The people were taught to perform their devotions with mechanical exactitude, and the priestly and monkish injunctions have been, since the days of Cortez, obeyed with unquestionable non-resistance. The ecclesiastical power exacted and obtained obedience, but only to the church. The ignorance of the people in the arts, sciences, and all administra tive principles, is, no doubt, greatly attributable, to the Spanish government; but the sin of ignorance in the people, and intolerance in religion, is, in the most absolute sense, chargeable to the church.* This church is still rich almost be- * See State of Education and Religion in Mexico hereafter. 638 CONDITION AND PROSPECTS OF MEXICO. yond precedent in Mexico. Ecclesiastical property is sacred. It has been invaded, almost utterly despoiled, in Spain; but amidst all the anarchy which has disturbed the country, the lands, and the treasures, of churches have been held in holy reverence in Mexico. A standing army of great numerical organisation, consisting of mixed breeds of all shades of colour and character, without either patriotic or chivalrous spirit, has been maintained at ruinous expense to the country ever since Mexico became independent of Spain. This force, which, morally speaking, is little superior to numerous hordes of bandits, has served each military adventurer who has been successful in the declaration of a pronunciamiento* With respect to the civil power, in Mexico, the incapacity for self-govern ment, or rather the impatience of that control, which must be submitted to in order to enjoy civil and religious liberty, can only be attributed to the most remarkable prevalence of ignorance, to the evils which the ancient govern ment engendered, and to the jealousy which one individual entertains of any other attaining power under the modern administration. Under other circum stances we believe that Iturbide would have been, in his general government, a fitting ruler for the country. With no very exalted opinion of Santa Anna as an administrator, we believe there might have been less dangerous presi dents elected in the most advanced of republics. In Europe we have in another work drawn a parallel between the prosperous and powerful condition of Holland, and the distracted and feeble state of Spain. f In America we may well contrast one small community, that of Massachusetts, with a vast empire, that of Mexico. One hundred years after the date, when the great epoch of Spanish power sent forth Cortez and his followers, to conquer and possess, the most magnificent, populous, fruitful, and rich empire in America, a few persecuted pilgrims landed in, naturally, the most forbidding and savage regions of the territory now included in the Anglo-American union. Indo mitable energy, rigid virtue, habits of thrift, the most laborious perseverance, and the spirit of civil and religious liberty, have gradually transformed a country of rocks and wilds, with a severe and boisterous climate, into one of the most prosperous, happy, populous, and intelligent states in the world. In truth one may behold more of the spirit of industry and enterprise on a frozen lake in Massachusetts, than in the vast fertile plain, amidst which the city of Mexico stands. In New England, if a public question affect the interests of the people, they meet and discuss it gravely at a preliminary, or caucas meeting. Each citizen retires in the evening calmly to within the circle of his domestic enjoyments, and on the following morning attends to the duties of his farm, or of his trade, or profession. Such have been, with the early education of her people, some of * See Armed Force of Mexico hereafter. f See Commercial Statistics, vols. i. and ii. CONDITION AND PROSPECTS OF MEXICO. the leading causes which has made Massachussetts a great agricultural, manu facturing, fishing, maritime, and commercial commonwealth. But in Mexico revolution has succeeded revolution. The states of th federal government are not only divided from the central administration-hut they have their local revolutions and rapid change of rulers.* In all, the elements of discord appear to be effectually working towards dismemberment and decay, and to be preparing for the mastery of a mighty power, energetic, irresistible and progressive in its origin, in its growth, and in its character. The epoch destined for this great advent, may not arrive within the period of half an age, but it requires no uncommon forecast of the future progress of an enterprising, in telligent, and bold race, to fix the date, which will replace Spanish American misrule, by an Anglo-Saxon power, and substitute for the Spanish language, and an absolute Roman Catholic hierarchy, an English tongue, and practical, civil, and religious liberty. TEXAS is, de facto and dejure, Anglo-Saxon-American. CALIFORNIA is now, in power and in occupation, an Anglo-Saxon-American country. YUCATAN is not only independent, but, with all the jealousy of the 5 00,000 to 600,000 inhabit ants of that country towards strangers, they have already solicited protection from Anglo-Saxons, whether from the United Kingdom, or from the United States of Anglo- America. Eighty-six years ago, there did not live a stationary inhabitant who spoke the English language, from the mouth of the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence to the mouth of the Columbia from the Lakes of Canada to the Gulf of Mexico from the Alleghany Mountains to the Pacific. The English language was con fined to the old Atlantic provinces lying east of the Alleghanies, and from some few spots, in Nova Scotia and Maine, to South Carolina. It has been chiefly within the last fifty years that the progress of the English language has advanced, with the exception of Mexico (which it has also most extensively invaded), over the whole of North America from the frozen region, to the Mexican Gulf from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Its progress has been infinitely more rapid than the conquests of the Romans, or the descents of the Goths, Huns, and Vandals. In marking this progress, we are not justifying all the circumstances of its past, or its probable future, march. We judge from the events of the past in * In a communication dated the city of Mexico, 29th of June, 1846, it is stated that " Mazat- lan, Guadalaxara, Acapulco, Sinaloa, and Sonora have declared against the government. On the 26th inst. an express arrived from Tepic, announcing that a convention had been held in Santa Barbara, on the Californian coast, in which the Californias declared themselves sovereign and independent states, renouncing their connexion with Mexico. In the south, although General Alvarez has received a temporary check, he was still roaming about with a disorganised band of lawless adventurers, committing excesses of the most horrible nature. To sum up the melancholy catalogue, the Indians, alive to the general disorganisation, are ravaging the northern provinces with fire and slaughter, and only so lately as the 7th instant Durango attacked and killed a company of cavalry, and filled the adjacent villages with well-founded fears for their lives and- property." 640 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. forming our anticipations of the forthcoming. Even if the government of the United States should endeavour to bring the present warfare to a speedy termi nation, and, without further annexation of any part of the Mexican territories, we are persuaded that the advances of private individuals, independently of the government, will gradually, if not rapidly, establish Anglo-Saxon rule over the regions, where the Aztecs yet predominate in numbers, where the Spanish race still misrule, regions which once formed the empire of the Moctezumas. CHAPTER XXXI. STATISTICS OF MEXICO. THE statistics of this magnificent country, from the anarchy which has pre vailed since its independence of Spanish authority, are very deficient and uncer tain. Official accounts are either not completed, or they are not made known rf> the public ; unless it be in the form of vague statements. From estimates obtained by Mr. Ward, and the British, American, and French consuls by Mr. Mayer, and by the Baron Von Humboldt, we have been enabled to compile the following statements : POPULATION. The number of inhabitants in Mexico is not even approxi mately known: we have, in a former page, given the various estimates as col lected by Mr. Mayer, viz: 7,015,509 inhabitants, about 1,000,000 of which were estimated of pure European race; 4,000,000 of aboriginal race; 2,000,000 of mixed breeds, and 6000 negroes. Recent accounts do not correspond with tflfe statements of Humboldt : for the increase of the population, since the independence of Mexico, is far from proportionate to his statements of the rapid increase during the thirty years pre vious to the period when he visited the country. The registry of the births and burials were then, he informs us, kept in many places with great accuracy by the parish clergy, whose emoluments depend somewhat on baptisms and funerals. Through the archbishop of Mexico, Humboldt had free access to these collec tions. The proportion of births to deaths throughout the kingdom was as 1?0 to 100 ; in some parts of the table-land of Mexico the proportion was as high as 253 to 100; but at Panuco, on the coast of the North Sea, it was as low as 123 to 100; this difference arose from the great salubrity of the table-land compared with the low, marshy lands upon the coast. He remarks that the salubrity of tro pical climates depends more on the dryness of the air than its other sensible qualities. The burning province of Cumana the coast of Coro and the plains of Caracas, prove that excessive heat alone is not unfavourable to human life ; that STATISTICS OF MEXICO. 641 in very hot, but dry countries, mankind attain to a greater age than in the tem perate zones. Humboldt says, while he was at Lima A Peruvian Indian died at the age of 147 ; bavin- been married for ninety ve^ to the same woman, who had lived to the age of 1 17 ; till he attained to the ao- e of V this venerable personage used to walk three or four leagues every day but for the last twelve years of his life he had lost his sight. Many instances of similar longevity iJ related in the MercuriPeruano." "The table-land of Mexico, which constitutes three-fifths of the kingdom, enjoys not only a dry and light a mosphere, but a mild and temperate climate ; the winters are a gentle as at Naples ; the medium temperature of that season is from 13 deg. to 14 de*. of the centigrade thermometer : sometimes, indeed, though rarely, the thermometer de scends below the freezng point ; but in the greatest heat of summer it never rises in the shade above 24 deg. On the coast the medium temperature of the whole year is, on the contrary, about 25deg. or 26 deg. ; and wherever the air is moist as well as hot/ the climate is exceedingly unwholesome ; this is the case upon the north coast of Mexico, from the mouth of the river Alvarado to the river Tampico, and plains of the New San- tander ; and the south coast is equally unhealthy, from San Bias to Acapulco. The combination of heat and moisture in the atmosphere, in like manner, renders the coast of Caracas unwholesome, from New Barcelona to Puerto Caballo." Thompson s Alcedo. The population of the whole viceroyalty of Mexico, as calculated in 1703 by the census ordered by Revillagigedo, viceroy of the kingdom, amounted at that time to 4,483,559 souls, and in 1808 Von Humboldt says the population was 7,800,000. From an examination of the registers of different parishes, he estimates the proportion of births to the whole population as one to 17, and that of deaths as 1 to 30; and he finds the number of male births to be greater than that of females, in the proportion of 100 to 97, which is somewhat less than the proportion observed in France. At this rate of increase Mexico should now be as populous as the United States, instead of being estimated at less than in 1808.* The data on which M. Von Humboldt calculated were most assuredly of no value. He informs us also that " The tithes, which are collected from all sorts of agricultural produce, have doubled in their amount in twenty- four years, and he describes the general face of the country * Mr. Waddy Thompson, lately American minister at Mexico, says " My own observation would lead me to believe that the number of mulattoes is very small. I am sure that I never saw half a dozen in the city of Mexico, and the African blood is, I think, easily detected. The ap pearance of the mulattoes is almost as distinct from the Indian as it is from the white man ; there is a manifest difference even in colour. Of the number of Mestizoes, descendants of the Indian and white races, it is impossible to form even a conjecture with any approach to accuracy. As the cross partakes more or less of either of the races, it is difficult to say whether the individual is of pure or mixed blood. When the Indian cross is remote, it is difficult to distinguish the person from a swarthy Spaniard, and so vice versa. Neither do I think that there are many Zambos, for the African blood shows itself as distinctly in the cross with the Indian as with the white man. I have never looked upon any colour so horribly revolting as that of the Zambo. Many of the inhabitants of the Pacific coast are very dark, as dark as brown negroes, and darker than mulattoes, but have none of the physical or physiognomical peculiarities of the negro. They are tall, well- formed, fine-looking men, with limbs and faces much more Grecian than African. If I were to form an opinion of what I saw, I should say that the estimate of white persons is a large one. They are much confined to the cities, and a few wealthy proprietors, who reside upon their estates. I am quite sure that nine of every ten persons whom one meets in the streets of Mexico are Indians or Mestizoes, and it is in that city that the white population is greater in proportion than anywhere else ; in travelling in the country it would be safe to wager that forty-nine of every fifty persons you might meet would be Indians. I have heretofore spoken of the sympathy of race, VOL. I. 4 N 642 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. as indicating the rapid progress and extension of its agriculture. Fields brought recently into cultivation, country-houses building or lately erected, populous, rising, and industrious villages, are the objects which meet the eye of the traveller in every direction in which he crosses the country." " Another indication of the growing prosperity of Mexico," says Von Humboldt, " was the productiveness of the taxes levied on its internal trade and consump tion. The duty of alcabala in the kingdom of Nueva Espana, which from 1766 to 1778 inclusive, yielded only 19,844,054 dollars, produced in the same number of years, from 1772 to 1791 inclusive, 34,218,463^ dollars; making a difference in favour of the second period of 14,374,409. The alcabala was an oppressive tax of six per cent on all commodities sold in the interior of the country, and exacted as often as the sale is repeated. Its productiveness was consequently the best indication possible of the prosperity of internal trade." We have great respect for M. Von Humboldt, but the above remarks would incline us to conclude that he would have made a meagre commercial minister. RELIGION AND ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. The Roman Catholic faith is the only religion publicly tolerated by the constitution of Mexico; other religions, but not places of worship, are merely allowed by sufferance. The church establishment has remained much the same as under Spain. The hierarchy consists of the Arch bishop of Mexico, nine bishops, and from three to five thousand parish priests. There are ten cathedrals with innumerable canons and many other dignitaries. There are nearly 2000 monks, and more than 150 convents. Church property neither paid under Spain, nor since the revolution, any state burden or tax. The priests and monks have the sole distribution of all money bequeathed for charitable or pious uses. The old Spanish monks and priests were banished during the revolution, their places, like civil offices, were filled by Creoles. Mr. Mayer, in his work on Mexico, regrets his want of an accurate account of convents, property, numbers, and wealth of the religious orders in 1842. The want of a general work of reference on statistics is denounced, as " shameful and lamentable," by Senor Otero in his treatise on the social and political condition of Mexico. " In 1842," says this writer, "we possess no publication upon Mexican sta tistics except the work of Baron Humboldt, written in 1804. That work, precious as it is, has become useless as a guide, in consequence of the immense changes during the intervention of a long and revolutionary period. A complete statistical treatise might be easily compiled without expense to the* National Treasury, by merely obliging the func tionaries of the government to make regular and minute returns, which should be digested and edited by competent persons in the capital. Without such a work it will be im possible to understand the complicated interests of this vast country, or to keep the machinery of its government in successful operation."* Mr. Mayer says: " Of all branches of the national administration, none has suf- but it is not half so strong as the antipathy of race. The feelings of the Indians of Mexico towards the Spaniards is very much the same now that it was at the period of the Conquest. Although every thing admonishes them that the European is the superior race, they are generally averse to alliances with them, and whenever such are formed, they are prompted more by interest than inclination." * Otero, Cuestion Social y Politica, p. 3031. RELIGION AND ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. <>43 fered more obscuration by this diplomatic rhetoric than the question of the Church which properly belonged to the portfolio of the Minister of Public Justice and luslru tion. It was a subject that men seemed fearful to approach. They admitted that there were abuses in the body ; that many of its members were corrupt, idle, ignorant and vicious ; -and that it enjoyed large revenues, flowing in a narrow stream, which, if suf fered to diverge into smaller rivulets, would nourish the parched land and improve the condition of suffering multitudes. But wealth and property were banned and s(in<ti- fad. The ESTABLISHMENT was the RELIGION ; and he who ventured to assail the one must necessarily attack the other. Thus, even patriots who were not ordinarily affected by nervous dread, stood appalled at the first frown of priestly indignation ; and trembled for their fate in a conflict between the temporal power and that tremendous spiritual in fluence which slept like an electric fire in the hearts of the people, readv, on the slightest impulse to be kindled into a destructive flame." " It would be unjust, however, to leave you under the impression that the ministers of this church have been solely engaged in enriching themselves, and scandalising the cause of true faith, as has been so often proclaimed by European travellers. Although many of them are unworthy persons, and notwithstanding their rites and ceremonies are often rather accommodated to a population scarcely emerged from the forests, than to intel lectual man ; yet the wealth of the church has not been at all times devoted to base and sordid purposes, or used to corrupt its possessors and the people. Throughout the republic no persons have been more universally the agents of charity and the ministers of mercy, than the rural clergy. The village curas are the adviser-, the friends and pro tectors of their flocks. Their houses have been the hospitable retreats of every traveller.* Upon all occasions they have constituted themselves the defenders of the Indians, and contributed toward the maintenance of institutions of benevolence. They have inter posed in all attempts at persecution, and wherever the people were menaced with in justice, stood forth the champions of their outraged rights. To this class, however, the wealth of the church was of small import. "These virtues and devotion have served to fix the whole priesthood deeply in the hearts of the masses, and to attach thepoor to their persons and enlist them in defence of their property. The priest, the creed, the church and its revenues, seemed to be one and indivisible in the notions of the people; and in turn, the priesthood became jealous and watchful of the power which this very affection had created. Avarice was not wanting to increase their gains from dying penitents, pious bequests, holy offerings and lavish endowments. And thus (often grossly human while humbly good), they have contrived, upon the same altar, to serve God and Mammon. " It is now quite natural, that they should desire to preserve the property which has been collected during so many years of religious toil and avaricious saving, and they dread the advance of that intellectual march which, in the course of time, will consign their monastic establishments to the fate of those of England and Spain. The combina tion of larg:e estates, both real and personal, in the hands of a united class acting by spirual influence, under the direction of one head, must be powerful in any country, but certainly is most to be dreaded in a republic, where secret ecclesiastical influence is added to the natural control of extraordinary wealth. " It is difficult to say with accuracy, for the reasons I have already assigned, what this wealth at present is, but I think the number of convents, devoted to about 2000 NUNS in the republic is fifty-eight ; for the support of which (in addition to a floating capital of rather more than four millions and a half, with an income therefrom of 250,000 dollars), they possess some 1700 estates or properties, producing an annual revenue of about 560,000 dollars. " There are about 3500 SECULAR CLERGYMEN and 1700 MONKS. "The latter possess 150 conventual establishments, and divided as follows: Domi nicans, 25 ; Franciscans, 68; Augustines, 22; Carmelites, 16; Mercedarios 19 total * These observations as to the village curas are analogous to what we have witnessed as characteristic of the most exemplary priests we have ever known the Catholic cures in the central parishes of Lower Canada. Sec Mac Gregorys British America. 644 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 1.50. The number of nuns, 2000; of monks, 1700; of secular clergy, 3500 total 7200. A number certainly inadequate to the spiritual wants of a population of 7,000,000, and yet too small to be proprietors of estates worth at least 90,000,000 of dollars, according to the annexed valuation. dollars. Real property in town and country . . . . . ; . 18,000,000 Churches, houses, convents, curates, dwellings, furniture, jewels, precious vessels, &c . ... . 52,000,000 Floating capital together with other funds and the capital required to produce the sum received by them annually in alms . . 20,000,000 Total . . . 90,000,000 " The real property is estimated to have been worth at least twenty-five per cent more previous to the revolution, and, to this enhanced value must be added about 115,000,000 dollars of capital, founded on contributions and derechos reales, 1 to imposts to which they were entitled, on the property of the country.* "The value of their churches, the extent of their city property, the power they possess as lenders, and the quantity of jewels, precious vessels, and golden ornaments, will raise the above statement, I am confident, to nearer 100,000,000 dollars than ninety, or to a sum about eighty-eight millions less than it was before the outbreak of the war of independence ; at which period, the number of ecclesiastics is estimated to have been 10,000 or 13,000, including the lay-brotherhood and the subordinates of the church." During the royal government it was the policy of the Spanish cabinet to cherish the temporalities of the Mexican church. The mayorazgos, or rights of primogeniture, forced, as in Spain, the younger sons either into the profession of arms or of religion ; and it was resolved that ample provision should be made for them. All the lucrative benefices came into the hands of the crown or the hierarchy, and the greater number of the elevated ecclesiastics were men of high birth. The rights of primogeniture having been ab olished in the republic, the power to collect tithes by compulsion is also abrogated. The church has become odious in the upper classes as a means of maintenance, and its members now belong to the humbler classes. But wealth and superstition has preserved for it a powerful influence over ignorance. It is remarkable that the army has become equally unpopular with the upper class of Mexicans as a profession ; its command is generally intrusted to men who have arisen from the people. Both the church and army sustain each other against the aristocracy of landed proprietors, who chiefly live retired. Mr. Mayer, however, observes: " The government, pressed by its wants, is begin ning to encroach gradually on its resources, and within the last two years has appro priated parts of the real estates of the clergy to replenish an empty treasury. That such is an honest and patriotic devotion of ecclesiastical means, no one can deny, and the doctrine is sustained by legal writers of the highest authority. f The church has no * Vide Otero, p. 38, 39. 43. f Vide Vattel, book I, chap. xii. sec. 152. " The state," says this high legal authority, " has unquestionably the power to exempt the pro perty of the church from all imposts, when that property is not more than adequate to the sup port of the ecclesiastics. But the priesthood has no right to this favour except by the authority of the state, which has always the right to revoke it when the public good requires. One of the fundamental and essential laws of society is, that on all occasions of need the goods of all its members ought to contribute proportionably to the wants of the community. Even the prince himself cannot, by his authority, grant an entire exemption to a numerous and wealthy body of persons, without committing an extreme injustice to the rest of his subjects, upon whom the burden would altogether fall by this exemption." Mr. Mayer follows Vattel, by saying, " Far from the goods of the church being exempted be cause they are consecrated to God, it is for that very reason that they should be the first taken for the welfare of the state. There is nothing more agreeable to the Common Father of men RELIGION AND ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. < , i~> need of possessions, except for the purposes of beneficence and chariu. The vo* members is for chastity and poverty. It receives onl to become nly to become an almoner extensive benevolence. And as the state in the hour of need, must ever be the c pauper, she has an unquestioned right to call upon the ministers of God in the soi the religion they teach, to open their coffers freely for the public zoocl \Vi I 90 000 000 or 100,000,000 of property and money, it rni.ht^xtinguUh the n debt of 84,000,000, and still leave an ample support for its 7000 members or at lea for its secular clergy, who would be cherished and sustained more liberally bv the ma< for an act of such Christian sacrifice and benevolence." Mr. Waddy Thompson, late United States Minister in Mexico, ob serves : " There is another and equally indispensable reform which I have little hope will be made the curtailment of the revenues and the power of the priesthood, and the free toleration of all religions. Without this I have no hope whatever for the country When Charles I. of England visited Spain he said that he had never liked the Catholic religion, but that he had never detested it until he had visited a Catholic country. I do not choose to say that, but I will say that the prevalence of that religion to l\\e exclusion of all others, and the power of the priesthood as it exists in Mexico, are, in my judg ment, incompatible with a Republican form of government. Wherever such a state of things exists there is a power behind the throne greater than the throne. The more ignorant the people, the greater is this power, and hence the opposition of the Catholic priesthood in other countries than Mexico to the diffusion of knowledge. I have not visited any other Catholic country, but in Mexico the subjection of fortune, mind, and body to an ignorant and licentious priesthood, is a crying and a burning shame. But, to say nothing of any thing else, the impositions levied by the church, in one form w other, are more than the country can bear. It may be that no administration will be strong enough to cope with the priesthood. It is said that Santa Anna tried it and was forced to yield. If this be so, they might as well abandon at once all hope of free institutions. The two things cannot exist together ; they never have, and they never will." EDUCATION. Of the total population, it was estimated that only 687.,748 could read including women and children.* Of the male population, Mr. Mayer con siders that not more than 100,000 can read and write : and then observes ; " We will no longer be surprised that a population of more than seven millions has hitherto been controlled by a handful of men. In addition to this, you will. observe than to preserve a nation from destruction. As God has no need of property, the consecration of goods to Him, is their devotion to such usages as are pleasant to him. Besides, the property of the church, by the confession of the clergy themselves, is chiefly destined for the poor. Now, when the state is in want, it is, doubtless, the first pauper^and the worthiest ofsuccour. We may extend this reasoning to the most ordinary cases, and say, that to impose a part of the current expenses on the church property in order to relieve the people to that extent, is really to give those goods to the poor, according to the spirit of their original destination." * " In fact/ says M. Chevalier, " elementary instruction has remained what it was in the time of the Spaniards. The clergy had then the exclusive management of it, and having so still, show but little inclination to enable the poor to read the books published under the regime of a free press. There are even fewer schools than there were, in consequence of the diminution in the number of the clergy. Education of a superior kind is even worse provided for. Under the Spaniards there existed at Mexico a school for the fine arts, richly endowed : I have been unable to discover its existence now. There is a building called a museum, where I found nothing of interest except a collection of the portraits of the viceroys since the time of Cortez, and a few Azteque manuscripts. Some years ago the establishment of a polytechnic school was derceed, but the decree has yet to see the commencement of its execution. There is not even a military school, though the attention of the government is almost exclusively devoted to the army. There is nothing deserving the name of a school of law or medicine ; and it may be well imagined that schools of industry or commerce are whollv unknown." 646 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. how little has been done hitherto for the cause of learning by the government, when you examine a table of the expenses of the nation, by which it will be seen, that in the year 1840, while 180,000 dollars were spent for hospitals, fortresses, and prisons, and 8,000,000 dollars for the army (without a foreign war !), only 110,000 dollars were given to all the institutions of learning in Mexico."* Mr. Mayer s further remarks are, however, more consolotary. He says, " I learn, however, with pleasure, that under the new scheme of national regeneration which has recently been put in action, the subject of education has engaged the especial attention of the existing powers, and that they design to foster it by every means in their power. " In every one of the parishes into which the city of Mexico is divided, there is established a school for boys, and another for girls, supported by the Ayuntamiento , or town council. In these establishments the pupils are taught, without charge, to read, write, and calculate, and are besides instructed in religious and political catechisms. In the schools for girls, in addition to these branches, they learn sewing and other occupations suitable for their sex. Books and stationery are furnished gratis. "There is another establishment called the Normal School, supported by the govern ment, and devoted to the instruction of the soldiers of the army in the rudiments of learning. Advancement and improvement in this school are suitably rewarded by ranks in the army. Besides this, there is, also, a Lancasterian company, which, com mencing its labours in the capital, is spreading its branches all over the country. It is devoted to primary instruction, and is protected by all the citizens of the republic who are remarkable either for their wealth, education, or social position. The contribution is a dollar monthly. I am glad to learn that, since I left Mexico, the usefulness of this company has been so apparent to the people, that schools upon its plan have not only been established in the principal cities and towns, but that they are now being founded in almost every village of importance, and even upon extensive haciendas or plantations, where the labouring population is numerous and ignorant. " In the city of Mexico this company has formed a large number of schools for chil dren of both sexes, upon the same footing as those established by the Ayuntamiento ; that is to say, the pupils are taught without charge, and are furnished with the requisite stationery and books. There is a night school for adults, very fully attended by citizens, whose occupation prevents them from devoting themselves to study during the day. In the women s and men s prisons, and in the house of correction for juvenile delinquents, I also learn that schools have been formed ; and it is by no means a cheerless feature in this picture of dawning improvement, that the ladies of Mexico, most distinguished by talent, wealth, and cultivation, have gladly availed themselves of the opportunity to de vote a portion of their time for the purpose of instructing their unfortunate sisters in the prisons. " Besides these establishments (which are all of a free and public character), it is difficult to give any idea of the number of private schools for both sexes in the capital and departments. Many of them are conducted by foreigners as well as Mexicans, and although they generally instruct in French, English, grammar, reading, writing-, arith metic, geography, the rudiments of history, book-keeping, drawing, and music, I have reason to believe that none of them are remarkable for the regularity or perfection of their system. " In the city of Mexico there are the collegiate establishments of El Seminario Conci- liar, San Ildefonso, San Gregorio, and San Juan Lateran. The first of these is under the immediate supervision of the archbishop, and supported by a portion of the ecclesias tical revenues. The other three are under the care of the government. In almost all The United States census for 1840 gives the following results ; Number of universities and colleges 173 of students in ditto 16,233 Academies and grammar schools... 3,242 Students in ditto 164,159 Primary common schools 47,209 Scholars in ditto 1 ,845,244 Scholars at public charge 468,264 Total number of whites in the United States 14,189,108 Total number of whites in the United States over the age of 20 who cannot read and write .... 549,69-3 RF.VENUE AND EXPENDITURE. the departments of the republic, there are collegiate institutes, and in some, even two or three. " The course of instruction in these establishments is alleged to be thorough and modern. The students, who live within the walls, are expected to contribute for then education, while others, who only attend the lectures of the professors, are exempt from all costs and charges, so that about two-thirds of the pupils of every college receive their literary education gratuitously. "The regeneration of Mexico lies in her schools. Without their success she must not expect to drive leperos from the streets, or usurping dictators from the palace of her ancient kings." Mr. Thompson speaks rather more favourably of the progress of common instruction. He says " he had not a servant when he was in Mexico who could not read and write not very well, it is true ;" and he continues " I often observed the most ragged leperos, as they walked down the streets, read the signboards over the store doors. How this happens I know not, unless it be the effect of Lancasterian schools, which are esta blished all over the country, chiefly, I think, through the instrumentality and exertions of General Tornel a noble charity, which should of itself cover a multitude of sins much greater than those which even his enemies impute to him." Recollections of Mexico. New York, 1846. When Mr. Mayer wrote there were forty-four newspapers in the republic. CHAPTER XXXII. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF MEXICO. THE public revenue of a state, if equal to its necessary expenditure, and if equitably levied, constitutes not only the great element of the power and per manency of government, but of the steady industrial and moral condition of the people. The distribution, levying, and proceeds of the taxes, the expenditure of the revenue, and the maintenance of public credit in Mexico unfortunately does no honour to the wisdom of the different administrations, nor to the intel ligence of those who in the legislative assemblies have passed laws for raising a public revenue. Of several statements, the following, drawn up by Mr. Mayer, is that which seems, approximately, the most correct : 44 The income of the Mexican government is derived from revenues on foreign com merce, imposts on internal trade, imposts on pulque, export duty on the precious metals, lotteries, post-office, stamped paper, taxes, tobacco, powder, salt-works, and several other sources of trifling importance. "The amount of the revenue of Mexico at different dates has been given as follows : YEARS. Revenue. YEARS. Revenue. 1700 1763 1780 dollars. 3,000,000 5,705,876 15,010,974 20 "200 000 1827 1828 1829...-. ! 1830 dollars. 10,494,299 12,232,385 14,493,189 18,923,299 1802 1825 1826 10,690,602 13,289,682 1831 16,413,060 648 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " In 1840, these revenues are stated in the report of the minister of the treasury as follows : FOREIGN COMMERCE, &c. Nett Proceeds after deducting Expense of Collection. FOREIGN COMMERCE, &c. Nett Proceeds after deducting Expense of Collection. dollars. 7 115 849 dollars. 12 190 586 4 306 JSS Enteros de productos liquidos 452 146 466 061 103 Exchanges &c .... 307 427 78177 3 309 483 355 13662 12,199,586 Total 12,744,157 " In 1839 the revenues amounted to 11,215,848 dollars. The income from the post- office department (which is not included in the statement for 1840), was 178,738 dollars in 1839. In 1840 the lotteries produced the gross sum of 215,437 dollars, but as the expenses connected with their management amounted to 158,485 dollars, it left a balance of but 56,952 dollars for the government. The sealed paper , or stamp-tax produced 110,863 dollars, but as this impost has been nearly doubled during 1842, the revenue must at present be proportionally greater. " I have been unable to obtain any of the official documents of 1841 and 1842 (in consequence of the disturbed condition of the country), with the exception of the following custom-house returns for the former year. CUSTOM-HOUSES. Tonnage Duty. Nett Proceeds after deducting Costs of Collection. TVera Cruz... dollars. 31,032 dollars. 3,374,528 East coast. . << Tampico 7,363 3 525 1,019,046 279 627 fMa/atlan 6 245 397 213 2 092 46 189 West coast . <j Monterey 810 85 982 573 7 193 ( San Bias 2 719 190270 Total 55,259 5,399,948 " It will be perceived that the custom houses of Tabasco, Campeachy, Sisal, Isla de Carmen, and Bacalar, are not included in the preceding statement in consequence of the separation of the first (during the period) from her allegiance to the republic, and on account of the rebellious condition of the rest. At the date of the statement, reports from Goatzacoalco, Alvarado, Tuxpan, Huatulco, Manzanillo, La Paz, Pueblo Viejo, Altata, Loreto, San Diego, San Francisco, Soto la Marina, and from the frontier posts of Paso del Norte, Comitan,Tonala, Santa Fe de N. Mexico, y Presidio del Norte, had not been yet received at the treasury office in the capital. The costs of the collection of this revenue amounted to 52,886 dollars, and the salaries of officers to 295,404 dollars. SMUGGLING." No one who has resided any length of time in Mexico, either con nected or unconnected with commerce, can fail to have heard of the extent to which smuggling has been and still is carried on in the republic. This infamous system, alike destructive of private morals and public integrity, has become a regular business in portions of the country, and, after having been, to a great extent, suppressed on the eastern coast, has for several years occupied the attention of numbers on the west. Mr. M Clure calculated that the republic possesses " a frontier of five thousand miles, in cluding the sinuosities, windings, and turnings of bays, gulfs, and rivers on the Pacific; three thousand miles on the United States of America and Texas; and above two thousand five hundred on the Gulf of Mexico ; making, in all, ten thousand five hundred miles; of frontier to guard against illicit trade, without an individual on the one thousand tivo hundredth part of the space to give notice of any depredations that may happen." Mr. Mayer observes, " That wherever there are smugglers to introduce it is probable that there are individuals to receive, and consequently that the government, might be pro FINANCES OF MEXICO. tected ; stilt it is undeniable that the territory is vast, the population sparse, and the corruption of government agents has been as shameful as it was notorious. Facts came to my knowledge while a resident in Mexico, which proved beyond question, this im moral tampering, and went far to implicate men of rank and capacity in the country. I forbear to detail these occurrences here, but I have the documents in writing, under the attestation of an individual who was approached by one of the vile instruments in the deed of shame, and I feel perfectly satisfied of their unexaggerated accuracy. I do not mention this circumstance for the purpose of reflecting on the existing government, but simply to direct the attention of such Mexicans as may read these letters to a fright ful evil, the extirpation of which will at once increase the financial resources of the country and improve the morals of their people. It may be urged, perhaps, that it is impossible to correct this maladministration ; and, I confess, there appears to be much force in the remarks which I subjoin from the author I have just quoted. At page 292 of his Opinions/ Mr. M Clure observes : " i In the comparatively limited frontiers and crowded population of the European monarchies, with their hundreds of thousands of soldiers and officers of the customs, it has been found impossible to prevent smuggling, with all its attendant crimes and corruptions. What hopes, then, can a small population scattered over so extensive a surface have that a revenue will be collected, even if it were probable in the present state of morals to find honest collectors ! It would be contrary to all former experience and analogy, to expect any thing else in this country than a gradual diminution of the revenue, in the ratio of the organisation of smuggling. All additional guards or officers of the customs would certainly increase the quantity of bribery and corruption, but would not add to the revenue a sum equal to their pay ! " NATIONAL DEBT AND FINANCES OF MEXICO. The national debt of Mexico is one of very considerable importance, and may be divided into the two great classes of foreign and internal debt. The internal debt amounts to 18,550,000 dollars; and in 1841 the customs were mortgaged to pay this sum, in the following subdivisions: INTERNAL DEBT. Amount. 17 dollars. 2,040,000 15 410,000 " 2,100,000 10 " 3,100,000 " 1,200,000 9,700,000 161 , ,, interest on English debt., garrison fund ^ 100 balance clear of lien, for the government ! 18,550,000 The foreign debt is still larger than this ; and (including the above), I will state the entire national responsibility, as it existed at the end of last year: FOREIGN DEBT. Amount. Internal debt dollars. 18,550,000 60,000,000 2,400,000 2,000,000 700,000 500,000 United States claims and in ere , y L/opper to be leaeem .... Total 84,150,000 Until 1841, the whole of the revenue, except 11^- per cent was appropriated to the payment of 18,550,000 dollars, while the remaining claims were entirely unprotected VOL. I. 4 650 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. by securities. Shortly after the accession of Santa Anna to power, he suspended (by a decree of the 16th of February) the payment of the first five funds charged upon the customs, as stated in a preceding table, but reserved the active appropriation for the tobacco and English interest debts. This, as may be well imagined, created great dis satisfaction among the mercantile classes, and among numbers of persons who had invested their capital in government loans, with a reliance upon the revenues as a solemn pledge for their redemption. Santa Anna, however, withstood the torrent manfully. He was assailed by legations, newspapers, and individuals, but nothing could induce him to yield the pressing wants of the government to their importunities. He was, in fact, forced to the measure. The national credit was irremediably impaired, and he found it impossible to obtain loans. The consequence was the seizure of the customs by the suspension of their prior appropriation until he was enabled to relieve his treasury. PROSPECT OF PAYMENT OF THE DEBT OF MEXICO. As to the prospect which may be held in view in regard to the payment of either in terest or principal of this debt, we have little further to observe than that, in June this year, 1846, President General Parades tells the assembled legislative congress, that, how ever much convinced * that credit is the first element of power to a government, and reliance on its good faith the greatest resource of its strength, he had been reluctantly compelled to suspend provisionally the payments of government ; an extreme measure, rendered, however, imperative to save the nation from ruin, a ruin that must have equally been shared by its self-same creditors ; and, in conclusion, he urged congress to adopt some method of finance, capable of assisting him to carry on the war with vigour, and support the honour of the country." Independently of the English and the American debt, the claims upon the Mexican government have usually been created by means of loans of the most usurious character. On the 20th of September, fifteen days before the treaty of Estansuela, the adminis tration of President Bustamente offered the following terms for a loan of 1,200.000 dollars. It proposed to receive the sum of 200,000 dollars in cash, and 1,000,000 dollars represented in the paper or credits of the government. These credits or paper were worth, in the market, nine per cent. About one-half of the loan was taken, and the parties obtained orders on the several maritime custom houses, receivable in payment of duties. The revenues of the custom house of Matamoras have been always hitherto appro priated to pay the army on the northern frontier of the republic. During the adminis tration of General Bustamente, the commandant of Matamoras issued bonds or drafts against that custom house for 150,000 dollars, receivable for all kinds of duties as cash. He disposed of these bonds to the merchants of that port for 100,000 dollars, and in addition to the bonus of 50,000 dollars, allowed them interest on the 100,000 dollars at the rate of three per cent per month, until they had duties to pay which they could extinguish by the drafts. The mint at Guanajuato, or the right to coin at that place, was contracted for in 1842 by a foreign house in Mexico, for 71,000 dollars cash, for the term of fourteen years, at the same time that another offer was before the government, stipulating for the payment of 400,000 dollars for the same period, payable in annual instalments of 25,000 dollars each. The 71,000 dollars in hand were, however, deemed of more value than the prospective 400,000 dollars ! This mint leaves a nett annual income of 60,000 dollars ! It appears to us quite evident that all the taxes which can be levied, even to an amount equal to confiscation, on the produce of labour in Mexico, will be found to be far short of the amount necessary to maintain the army, the civil expenditure, and the payment of the interest of the national debt ; especially while the church and priests absorb so large a share of the produce of industry. STATISTICS OF MEXICO. 651 TABLE of the Expenses of the Mexican Government, in i s 10. CIVIL LIST. Expenses. TOTAL. CIVIL LIST. Expense*. TOTAL. SUPREME POWERS. Porter ctmservador , dollars cts. 30,000 00 319,550 00 230,930 00 79,300 00 140,000 00 dollars cts. 659,780 00 140,000 00 587,254 60 1,207,376 00 847,476 00 47,13 00 18,600 00 Brought forward Instruction, &c. (continued) Conservatoiyot Chapultepec, and professor of botany... . Colleges of St. Juan Laterau, lldefonso, Esperito Santo at Piu-bla dollars cts. 2,200 00 20,000 CO 7,613 00 1,500 00 10,800 00 2,160 00 180,000 00 dollars ct. 3,507,807 60 260,409 00 3,420 00 96,596 49 87,596 53 8,000,000 00 1,155,922 25 Legislature Executive, ministers., council secretary, archives, &c... Supreme court DIPLOMACY. Legations, consuls, cominis- Professors in university at Mexico TREASURY. National treasury, almacanes generalis, direccion de rentas, heads of the trea sury, and. departmenta treasuries 251,758 60 174,942 00 160,554 00 Professors of medical school or college Director of Institution of Me dical sciences, &c. &c Hospitals, prisons, fortresses SALARIES OF VARIOUS OPFiCEKS OF PALACE. Concierge 420 00 200 00 600 00 1,200 00 1,000 00 26,391 49 70,178 00 87,596 53 Pensions to retired officers. . Pensions of the Mont de Piete Architect JUDICIARY. Salaries of departmental ma gistrates, judges, and sub- aiterns Chaplain 1,207,376 00 847,467 09 Gardener RENTS, PENSIONS, &c. Collegiate of N. S. of Guada- POLITICAL. Governors, secretaries, de partmental juntas, prefects, their secretaries and sub- Civil pensions SUNDRIES. ECCLESIASTICAL. Bishoprics of Sonora and Yu- WAR-OFFICE. Salaries of officers (active;. (on leave) (retired). Military Mont de Piete Army, privates, and all other military expenses Dividends on foreign debt... Total 15,200 00 31,930 00 357,397 36 28,759 70 718,399 20 291,079 39 6,604,379 79 Missions., INSTRUCTION, BENEVO LENCE, AND PUNISH MENT. Academy of San Carlos 13,000 00 5,600 00 .... C arried forward 13,155,922 25 Exclusive of the payment of loans and balances. 3,507,607 60 The mode of taxation in Mexico is severely and justly commented on by the late American minister, Mr. Thompson. Alluding to the exports, he says, out of the official gross amount. " Of the average of 22,000,000 of exports, less than 2,000,000 consist of all other articles than the precious metals. I have no doubt that the amount of specie exported is very much larger than is indicated by the books of the custom-houses. A duty of six per cent is levied upon all that is exported, and no one acquainted with the character and practices of Mexican custom-houses, and I may add, of their officers, can believe that the whole amount is returned. The duty upon all that is not returned goes into the pockets of the officers of the customs, and I have no doubt that it amounts to a very large sum. Gold is an article so easily smuggled that enormous sums are sent off in almost every vessel which sails for Europe. 7 he amount of duties on imports varies, of course, with their ever-changing tariff. Those who had the best, means of forming an accurate estimate during my residence in Mexico, told me that it amounted to from 4,000,000 to 6,000,000 per annum. This, also, would be a most fallacious standard by which to estimate the amount of importations, for the same reason. Eminent writers upon political economy say that any duty above twenty-five per cent offers temptations to smuggling too strong to be resisted. With all the efforts of Buonaparte to carry out his continental system, he was unable to prevent smuggling upon the very limited coast of France and the insurance in England upon a cargo of goods intended to be smuggled into France was little more than on the same cargo to be regularly imported. How ex tensive must the practice be in a country like Mexico of more than 10,000 miles of sea board and frontier, and with so sparse a population ! 652 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " In addition to the revenue derived from imports, the direct taxes are exceedingly onerous. Every thing is taxed, from the splendid palaces, coaches, and plate of the wealthy, to the dozen eggs which the poor Indian brings to market. / do not suppose there is any city in the ivorld where houses are taxed so high, and hence the enormous rents. But after paying the taxes very little is left to the proprietor. A decent house cannot be had for less than 2500 dollars, and from that price to 4000 and 5000 dollars per annum. 4< The government seems to have been engaged in the experiment of how much taxa tion the people can bear, and they have really achieved a miracle almost as great as that of extracting blood from a turnip. There is no country in the world, which, from its unsurpassed climate, variety of productions and lands, to be had almost for the taking, which, in proportion to its population, is capable of producing so much, certainly none which does produce so little. The population of Massachusetts is about one-tenth as great as that of Mexico, and its productions very nearly in an inverse ratio with the num ber of the respective populations excluding the produce of the mines very much more than in that inversed ratio. " Besides the sources of revenue which I have mentioned, there is another and a very large one from imposts on internal commerce, that is between one department and another. Every article of commerce thus passing from one department to another, provided it has been opened and the bulk broken, is thus taxed. The principal revenue from the alcaba, internal duties, thus derived is from the duty on specie. The revenue from duties on internal commerce in 1840, amounted to 4,500,000 dollars. Another fruitful source of revenue is the per centage of the produce of the mines, seignorage, coining, &c. The charges upon money taken from the mines amount to about five per cent, all of which is paid to the departmental government. The general government receives in addition to this about three per cent, which goes to support the College of the Mineria in the city of Mexico." TOBACCO MONOPOLY. " The culture of tobacco is prohibited except to a very limited extent in the districts of Orizaba and Cordova. Each farmer is restricted to a limited number of acres. The tobacco produced is sold to the government at a stated price, which was very much below its real value, by whose agents it was made into cigars and snuff, and sold at very large profits. Within the last three years this monopoly was sold by the government to a private company. This company agreed to pay 50,000 dollars per month for this mono poly, which in the time of the vice-regal government yielded the enormous sum of 5,000,000 dollars per annum. This contract has since been rescinded, and the govern ment still possesses the monopoly, which would, if properly managed, and if smuggling could be prevented, produce very nearly as much at this time. But the latter is impos sible, and the receipts from this source very little more than cover the expenses of the establishment. At all events the net proceeds do not exceed the sum stipulated to be paid by the company to which it was transferred, that is to say 600,000 dollars per annum." Mr. Thompson says a similar sale took place just before I left Mexico of the interest of one-thirdwhich the government owned in the Fresnillo Mine, which is at this time the most profitable of all the mines in Mexico. The government derived a revenue of upwards of 500,000 dollars per annum from this mine ; it sold the fee-simple for about 400,000 dol lars. That is to say, that sum was all which went into the public exchequer how much more in gratifications, I know not; but a very large sum of course. Is it any wonder that officers in the army are forced to sell a certificate of pay due to them, amounting to 2500 dollars, for 125 ?" Before the revolution, the King of Spain received, among other ecclesiastical revenues, the ninth part of the tithes, which was granted him by the pope. After the revolution compulsory process for the collection of tithes was abolished, and since that time the government has received nothing from this source, nor of any other revenues which are derived from the church. There are taxes levied on the cock-pits, the sale of pulque, and there is a monopoly of FINANCES OF MEXICO. ,;;,;; playing cards; and the ice is taxed which the Indian, bring on their hacks i n lMtmi( .,, forty miles from the mountain of Popocatepelt. The revenue from the post-office* pays the expenses. Mr. Thompson tells us, Of gunpowder, an immense quantity is used in their civil wars, in the mines, firing cannon on days of religious festivals, and firework* for wl id the Mexicans have a great passion. The powder manufactured is of the most iufWioi quality ; good powder used by sportsmen sells as high as four dollars the pound. Thi manufacture is also a government monopoly. " A small amount is realised from the sale of lottery-tickets, raised for special grants to convents and other religious establishments. " The revenue from the different mints is considerable, but there are no data from which it can be accurately stated. " The maritime custom-houses in 1832, yielded to the government the sum of 12,000,000 dollars, that is to say, that sum was acknowledged to have been received by the respective custom-house officers ; how much more the actual receipts were can only be conjectured. It would, however, be very safe to say at least one-third. * The receipts at the maritime custom-houses do not now amount to more than 6,000,000 or 7,000,000 dollars. As nothing is more capricious than Mexican legisla tion on the subject of imports on foreign commerce, it is very difficult to form an estimate approximating accuracy upon this point. " The following, although not pretending to minute accuracy, may be regarded as in some degree an approximation to a correct estimate of the revenues of the government, and the sources from which they are derived : dollars. From the maritime custom-houses .... 6,500,000 Interior commerce . . . . . . 4,500,000 Direct taxes . . . ... ... . 3^000,000 Per centage on produce of mines . . ... 1,000,000 Profits of mints . . 500,000 Tobacco monopoly 500,000 Post-office, lotteries, manufactures of powder and salt . 500,000 Tolls and all other sources . . .... 500,000 16,000,000 " The local taxes levied by the different departments which may be stated at 4,000,000 dollars more, making an aggregate of 21,000,000 dollars, to which an addi tion should be made of 5,000,000 or 10,000,000 dollars more which is paid, but embez zled, and, therefore, does not find its way into the public treasury. " With a government wisely and honestly administered, this sum is more than is ne cessary. But how that of Mexico is supported with it, and whence it is derived, are both, as I have said, inexplicable to me. Besides their army, of 30,000 to 40,000 men, for that is the number on the pay list, and an immense disproportion of this army officers, not less than from 200 to 300 generals, an otherwise enormous civil list, and the interest on a debt very little short of 100,000,000 dollars, there are a great variety of other and extraordinary charges upon a government so unstable and revolutionary.* With a pro ductive industry at least fifty times as great as that of Mexico, very little more than the sum above stated is levied on the people of the United States. The annual expenditure of the vice-regal government was never more than 8,000,000 dollars. Can it be true that it costs more to execute laws made by the people themselves than the edicts of a despot? <; To all these heavy items must be added the taxes which are levied by the different departments for domestic purposes, the heavy exactions of tithes and other compulsory contributions to the church. These last have been estimated at 2,000,000 dollars, but they must greatly exceed that amount. There are in the city of Mexico alone, 700 or 800 secular, and near 2000 regular clergy. The salaries of some of them are enormous. Under the vice-regal government the various perquisites and salary of the archbishop * The Report of the Secretary of the Treasury in 1832, contains an estimate of the whole ex penses of the government for the next year, amounting to 22,39:2,008 dollars. Of this sum the estimate for the army is stated at 16 ? 4(>, 12 1 dollars. 654 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. amounted to 130,000 dollars, and those of several of the bishops to 100,000 dollars, but they are all much less now. Exclusively of donations and birth-day presents, which are often very large, the archbishop does not receive more than 30,000 or 40,000 dollars, and the incomes of the bishops are proportionately reduced. " Some idea may be formed of the amount of these birth-day presents, from the fact that General Santa Anna, on the anniversary of his birth, has been known to receive pre sents to the amount of 20,000 dollars. " All these enormous charges are to be paid out of the productions of a country where less is produced than in any other, except from the mines. Perhaps the universal dilapidation of all the old and large estates may indicate the quarter from which much of the revenue has hitherto been derived. " The large estates and possessions of the banished Jesuits have supplied the govern ment with very large sums. But these, with the mine of Fresnillo, have all been sold and the money wasted." Thompson s Recollections of Mexico, 1846. Mr. Thompson does not scruple to make the church property of Mexico, sub sequent to the paying of the national debt, and contributary to the annual expenditure. Speaking of the cathedral of Mexico, he says "Upon entering it, one is apt to recall the wild fictions of the Arabian Nights; it seems as if the wealth of empires was collected there. The clergy in Mexico do not, for obvious reasons, desire that their wealth should be made known to its full extent; they are, therefore, not disposed to give very full information upon the subject, or to exhibit the gold and silver vessels, vases, precious stones, and other forms of wealth ; quite enough is exhibited to strike the beholder with wonder. The first object that presents itself on entering the cathedral is the altar, near the centre of the building ; it is made of highly-wrought and highly-polished silver, and covered with a profusion of ornaments of pure gold. On each side of this altar runs a balustrade, enclosing a space about ei^ht feet wide and eighty or a hundred feet long. The balusters are about four feet high, and four inches thick in the largest part; the hand-rail from six to eight inches wide. Upon the top of this hand-rail, at the distance of six or eight feet apart, are human images, beautifully wrought, and about two feet high. All of these, the balustrade, hand-rail, and images, are made of a compound of gold, silver, and copper more valuable than silver. I was told that an offer had been made to take this balustrade, and replace it with another of exactly the same size and workmanship of pure silver, and to give 500,000 dollars besides. There is much more of the same balustrade in other parts of the church; I should think, in all of it, not less than 300 feet. " As you walk through the building, on either side there are different apartments, all filled, from the floor to the ceiling, with paintings, statues, vases, huge candlesticks, waiters, and a thousand other articles, made of gold or silver. This, too, is only the every day display of articles of least value ; the more costly are stored away in chests and closets. What must it be when all these are brought out, with the immense quantities of precious stones which the church is known to possess ? And this is only one of the churches of the city of Mexico, where there are between sixty and eighty others, and some of them possessing little less wealth than the cathedral ; and it must also be remembered, that all the other large cities, such as Puebla, Guadajara, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Durango, San Louis, Potosi, have each a proportionate number of equally gorgeous establishments. It would be the wildest and most random conjecture to attempt an estimate of the amount of the precious metals thus withdrawn from the useful purposes of the currency of the world, and wasted in these barbaric ornaments, as incompatible with good taste as they are with the humility which was the most striking feature in the character of the Founder of our religion, whose chosen instruments were the lowly and humble, and who himself re garded as the highest evidence of his divine mission, the fact that to the poor the gospel was preached. I do not doubt but there is enough of the precious metals in the different churches of Mexico to relieve sensibly the pressure upon the currency of the world, which has resulted from the diminished production of the mines, and the increased quantity which FINANCES OF MEXICO. ,; -, -, has been appropriated to purposes of luxury, and to pay the cost of much Mftrf . /,./,// ,/< corations in architecture and statuary, made of mahogany and marhl, "But the immense wealth which is thus collected in the churches is not by any means all, or even the larger portion, of the wealth of the Mexican church and clergy. They own very many of the finest houses in Mexico and other cities (the rents of which must be enormous), besides valuable real estates all over the republic. Almost ever*/ y,,// feavei a bequest in his ivill for masses for his soul, which constitute an incumbrance upon //, c estate, and thus nearly all the estates of the small proprietors are mortgaged to the church. The property held by the church in mortmain is estimated at fifty millions. " Mexico is, I believe, the\ only country ivhere the church property remains in its untouched entirety. Some small amount has been recently realised from the sale of the estates of the banished Jesuits ; but, with that exception, no president, however hard pressed (and there is no day in the year that they are not hard pressed), has ever dared to encroach upon that which is regarded consecrated property, ivith the exception of Gomez Farrias, who, in 1834, proposed to the legislative chambers to confiscate all the. church property, and the measure ivould, no doubt, have been adopted, but for a re ruin - tion ivhich overthrew the administration. " But it is impossible that such a state of things can last always. As a means oj raising money, I would not give the single institution of the Catholic religion of masses and indulgences for the benefit of the souls of the dead, for the power of taxation pos sessed by any government. No tax-gatherer is required to collect it ; its payment is enforced by all the strongest and best feelings of the human heart. All religions and superstitions have their priesthood and their priestcraft, from the reptile worship of the Nile to our own pure and holy religion ; but of all the artifices of cunning and venality to extort money from credulous weakness, there is none so potential as a mass for the benefit of souls in purgatory. It would seem to be in direct contradiction to the Sa viour, in the comparison of the camel passing through the eye of a needle. Nothing is easier than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven ; he purchases that entrance with money. He who can pay for most masses, shortens in proportion the period of his probation of torment in purgatory. Who is it that will not pay his last farthing to relieve the soul of a departed friend from those torments ? I do not know how the fee for these masses is exacted, but I do know that it is regularly paid; and that without the fee, the mass would be regarded of no value or efficacy. I remember that my washer woman once asked me to lend her two dollars. I asked her what she wanted with it. She told me that there was a particular mass to be said on that day, which relieved the souls in purgatory from ten thousand years of torment, and that she wished to secure the benefit of it for her mother. I asked her if she was fool enough to believe it. She an swered, Why, yes, sir, is it not true ? and with a countenance of as much surprise as if I had denied that the sun was shining. On a day of religious festival (the anniversary of St. Francisco), I have seen, stuck up on the door of the church of San Francisco one of the largest and most magnificent in Mexico, a small advertisement, of which the following was the substance : " < His Holiness the Pope (and certain bishops which were named) have granted thirty-two thousand three hundred years, ten days, and six hours of indulgence* for this mass. " I do not remember exactly the number of years, days, and hours, but I positively assert that it specified the number of each, and I believe that I have stated them cor rectly. The manifest object of this minute particularity is to secure the more effectual belief in the imposture. By thus giving to it the air of a business transaction, a sort of contract between the devotee and the Almighty, by his authorised agent and vicegerent on earth, the Pope, is established a contract the more binding in its character because the receipt of the consideration is acknowledged. I tremble at the apparent blasphemy of even describing such things. " Mr. Brantz Mayer s;ives a literal copy of an advertisement which was stuck up in the beautiful church of Gaudeloupe, on the festival of Nuestra Senora de Guadeloupe, of which the following is a translation : * An indulgence is defined : A remission of the punishment due for sins ; a plenary indulgence, is a remission of the whole punishment ; a particular indulgence, a remission of a part only. G56 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " The faithful are reminded that the most illustrious Bishops of Puebla and Tara- zora have granted an indulgence of eighty days for every quarter of an hour which the said images are exposed, and five hundred clays for each Ave Maria which is recited be fore either of them. Lastly, the most excellent Fr. Jose Miria de Jesus Belaumzaron, for himself, and for the most illustrious the present Bishops of Puebla, Michoacan, Jolisci, and Durango, has granted an indulgence of two hundred days for every word of the appointed prayers to our most exalted lady, for every step taken in her house, for every reverence performed, and for every word of the mass which may be uttered by the priest or the hearers ; as many more days of indulgence are granted for every quarter of an hour in which these images are exposed, in the balconies, windows, or doors, for public adoration. " We have not made these extracts, from the most recent works, with a view of reflecting on the Catholic religion ; but in order to exhibit the oppressive and ruinous character and privileges of the church establishment. Hereafter we will show that in Catholic Brazil no such abuses exist in regard to church reve nues. CHAPTER XXXIII. ARMY AND NAVY. THE will of the army, has actually formed what may be termed the only public opinion in Mexico : for the military commander who has been the most fortunate in obtaining the control over a major part of the army, has been the most successful in carrying out a pronunciamunto, and in overturning the govern ment of the day. The constitution or formation of this army is described by all authorities, and especially by the late American minister, Mr. Thompson, in no favourable character. This army has, to a great degree, been formed and is recruited by sending forth armed detachments into the mountains and wilds to capture the aborigines. These are actually brought in chains to some military head-quarters. Mr. Thompson says : "Droves of miserable and more than half-naked wretches are seen chained together and marching through the streets to the barracks, where they are scoured and then dressed in a uniform made of linen cloth or of serge, and are occasionally drilled -which drilling consists mainly in teaching them to march in column through the streets. Their military bands are good, and the men learn to march indifferently well but only in differently well they put their feet down as if they were feeling for the place, an*d do not step with that jaunty, erect, and graceful air which is so beautiful in well-drilled troops. As to the wheelings of well-trained troops, like the opening and shutting of a gate, or the prompt and exact execution of other evolutions, they know nothing about them. There is not one in ten of these soldiers who has ever seen a gun, nor one in a hundred who has ever fired one before he was brought into the barracks. It is in this way that the ranks of the army are generally filled up in particular emergencies the prisons are thrown open, which always contain more prisoners than the army numbers, and these felons become soldiers, and some of them officers. Their arms, too, are gene rally worthless English muskets which have been condemned and thrown aside, and are purchased for almost nothing and sold to the Mexican government. Their powder, too, is equally bad ; in the last battle between Santa Anna and Bustamente, which lasted the whole day, not one cannon-ball in a thousand reached the enemy they generally fell MEXICAN ARMY. about half-way between the opposing armies. I do not think that the Mexican* -u.- deficient in courage; or it might be more properly said that they are indifferent to danger or the preservation of a life which is really so worthless to the most of them. But with the disadvantages to which I have adverted, the reader will not be surprised that in all the conflicts with our people, in which they have been more or less engaged for the last thirty years, they have always been defeated." A Mexican officer, in admitting that cavalry alone were not able to break a well-formed square of infantry, asserted that in this respect the Mexican cavalry had in this the advantage over all others; that the cavalry armed with lassoes rode up and threw them over the men forming the squares, and pulled them out, and thus made the breach. " The Mexican army," says Mr. Thompson, "and more particularly their cavalry, may do very well to fight each other, but in any conflict with our own or European troops, it would not be a battle but a massacre. What then must be the murderous inequality between a corps of American cavalry and an equal number of Mexicans? The American corps, from the superior size of their horses, would cover twice as much ground, and the obstruction offered by the Mexicans on their small and scrawny ponies would scarcely cause their horses to stumble in riding over them ; to say nothing of the greater inequality of the men themselves, five to one at least in individual combats, and more than twice that in a battle. The infantry would be found even more impotent." Mr. Thompson observes that there are in Mexico "more than two hundred generals, most of them without commands. Every officer who commands a regiment has the title of general, and is distinguished from generals who have no commands by the addition of * general effective. The rate of pay is not very different from that of our own army. Each officer and soldier, however, is his own commissary, no rations being issued ; and they are well satisfied if they receive enough of their pay to procure their scanty rations, which was very rarely the case, except with Santa Anna s favourite troops, whom he always kept about his person, and this made it their interest to sustain him. In one of the last conversations which I had with him, I told him that the army would remain faithful to him just so long as he could pay them and no longer, and that I did not see how it was possible for him to pay them much longer. "The result proved the truth of both predictions, and that, I have no doubt, was the cause of the revolution which overthrew him. Shortly before I left Mexico, an officer in the army came to the city and settled his accounts with the war department, and re ceived a certificate that twenty-five hundred dollars were due to him ; after hawking it about amongst the brokers, he sold the claim for a hundred and twenty-five dollars, which was five cents on the dollar." He considers that the Mexican men (Indians in particular) have no more physical strength than the women of the United States. They are of diminutive stature, unaccustomed to exercise or labour. Marauding bands of Comanches penetrate several hundred miles into Mexico, levy black mail, carry off horses, cattle, and captives. He says "that there are not at this time (1846) less than 5000 Mexicans slaves of the Comanches, and of all our western tribes are the most cowardly. The Delawares frequently whip them Jive to one ! "That which is in all respects the greatest nuisance and the most insuperable barrier to the prosperity of Mexico is the army. They will tell you there that it amounts to fifty thousand men, but they have never had half the number. I have no doubt that the accounts at the department of war exhibit nearly the number stated, but a large proportion of them are men of straw fictitious names fraudulently inserted for the benefit of the officers who pay them. They are paid every day, or rather that is the law, but the pay is just as fictitious as the muster-rolls." VOL. I. 4 P 658 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Mr. Brantz Mayer gives the following statement of the army of Mexico: " I may state that the forces have been considerably augmented and in all probability amount to 40,000 men. In 1840 the Mexican army was composed of ARMY AND NAVY. Per Month. ARMY AND NAVY. Per Month. Fourteen generals of division. . . Twenty-six generals of brigade . ARTILLERY. Three brigades (on foot) One brigade (mounted) Five separate companies ENGINEER CORPS. One director-general Three colonels Six lieutenant-colonels One adjutant Fourteen captains Sixteen lieutenants Ten sub-lieutenants ne battalion. SAPPERS. PLANA MAYER DEL EJERCITO. This was composed of the general-in- chief and a number of colonels, lieu tenant-colonels, captains, &c. &c. PERMANENT INFANTRY. Eight regiments of two battalions each, each battalion of eight companies, each company of 112 men, officers included or in all 14,336 persons; each soldier is paid dollars cts. 500 00 375 00 235 00 141 00 104 00 84 00 62 00 39 00 11 93f ACTIVE INFANTRY. Nine regiments. This body differs from the preceding, or permanent infantry, in being liable to service only when required by government ; or, in other words, it is a sort of national militia, well drilled. Total number, 16,128. PERMANENT CAVALRY. Eight regiments, each regiment composed of two squadrons, each squadron of two companies. Each regiment composed, in all, of 676 men ; or the eight, of 4,056, at Thirty-five separate companies in various places throughout the Republic. ACTIVE CAVALRY. Six regiments of four squadrons, each squadron of two companies. NAVY. The navy of Mexico consists at present of three steam-frigates, two brigs, three schooners, and two gunboats. dollars cts. 12 50 CHAPTER XXXIV. MINES AND MINERALS OF MEXICO. WITH regard to the capabilities and resources of Mexico, the precious metals have at all periods, since the first conquest of the country by Cortez, been the objects of primary avidity with the Spanish rulers and people. They con sidered gold and silver as the standard of the value of these vast regions ; and, they disregarded their really far richer powers of production, those of agriculture. The latter was only attended to with reluctance, and merely from necessity to obtain food. With the exception of the silver and gold mines, the mineralogy of Mexico has been nearly altogether neglected. Tin, lead, and the finest copper are found in large quantities, but very little of any of these are wrought. Under the Spanish government of Spain, it is remarked in Thompson s Alcedo (1814) "The mines of Nueva Espana are, at this moment, the most productive of any that were ever worked in any country, at any period of history ; and yet the whole number of persons employed in working these mines under ground, does not ex ceed 30,000, or one two-hundredth part of the whole population of the kingdom. Some of the occupations connected with mining are more laborious, and less favourable to health, than the employments of agriculture; but the choice of such occupations is vo luntary, for, in Mexico at least, the labour of the miner is perfectly free, his wages are high, in proportion to the unwholesomeness, disagreeableness, and severity of his work; and he is secure from bad usage, as he is at liberty to quit his master and employment when he pleases, and may hire himself, if he chooses, at another mine. The mita MINES AND MINERALS OF MEXICO. G59 tanda, or forced labour of the Indians, has been abolished in Mexico for at least fort years." According to Von Humboldt, "The circumstances of the principal Mexican mines are favourable to the health and accommodation of the miners: instead of beino- si tuated in barren mountains, adjoining to the limits of perpetual snow, like the mines of Potosi, Pasco, and Chota, in Peru, the richest and most abundant mines of Nueva Es- pana are not more than 1700 or 2000 metres above the level of the sea, in the midst of cultivated fields, cities, and villages; affording, in abundance, all that can be wanted for the use of the mine or convenience of the miner. It is accordingly found, that the mortality in the mining districts of Mexico, is not greater than in other parts of the kingdom. An examination of the parish registers of Guanaxuato and Zacatecas, which are the seats of the two principal mines of Nueva Espana, has convinced Mr. Humboldt of this truth ; he found, that in Guanaxuata the number of births from 1797 to 1802 was, to the number of deaths, as 201 to 100." [This statement is, with due deference for Von Humboldt, in our opinion, problematical.] Alcedo continues " But, if the labour of the mines is not that scourge of humanity, which well-meaning but ill-informed writers have imagined, there can be no doubt of the propriety of stating the increased productiveness of the mines as one of the symptoms of the growing prosperity of the country. An increase of the produce of the precious metals tends, no doubt, to a depreciation of their value; but this objection, which has been urged in Europe, against the further working of the American mines, would apply, with equal force, against the extension of any branch of agriculture or manufactures: every increase of supply tends to diminish the value of the article produced ; but the natural corrective of this evil, when it becomes one, is the reduction of profit to the grower or manufacturer, who will abandon his trade or occupation as soon as he finds that he can no longer carry it on with advantage. But so far is the trade of mining from having arrived at this state in America, that at no period since the discovery of that continent, have there been so many opulent individuals engaged in mining, or such quantities of the precious metals extracted annually from the mines. In the kingdom of Nueva Espana, in particular, the improvement of the mines has been rapid and con siderable, as will appear from the following table, which gives the average of the annual coinage of Mexico, during successive periods, from 1732 to near the present time, ex tracted from the registers of the mint." AVERAGE of the annual Coinage of Mexico. YEARS. Silver. Gold. TOTAL. dollars. 8 998 209 1-5 dollars. 434 050 2 5 dollars. 9 432 259 3 5 1 1 566 030 455 109 9-10 12 021 139 9-10 11 971 835 2 5 462 773 1 2 11 777 909 1-3 761 553 1-3 12539462 1 3 17 551,906 3-12 835,586 18387492 3-tl 1772 to iJ- eleven year . 19491 309 9-10 644 040 3-5 20 135340 1-2 23,428,680 884,262 24,312,942 From 1795 to 1804, ten years 21,084,787 3-5 "The first six rows of figues in the preceding table, are calculated from data fur nished by the Mercurio Peruano, vol. x. p. 133: the seventh is extracted from the same work, vol. xi. p. 13 ; and the last calculated from a statement furnished by Espi- nosa, director of the caxa de consolidation, or sinking fund at Madrid. As very little bullion was exported from Mexico, the amount of the coinage is, in general, very nearly equal to the amount of the produce of the mines ; occasionally, however, it is less. Jn 1790, 1,500,000 dollars were remitted, in bullion, to the king from Vera.Cruz. " The silver mines of Nueva Espana, the most productive of any that have ever been known, are remarkable for the poverty of the mineral they contain. A quintal, or 1600 ounces of silver ore, affords, at a medium, not more than three or four ounces of pure silver: the same quantity of mineral, in the silver-mines of Marienberg in Saxony, yields from ten to fifteen ounces. It is not, therefore, the richness of the ore, but its 660 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, abundance, and the facility of working it, which render the mines of Nueva Espana so much superior to those of Europe. " The mines of Guanaxuato, infinitely richer than those of Potosi ever were, afforded, from 1796 to 1803, near 40,000,000 of dollars in gold and silver, or very near 5,000,000 of dollars annually ; that is, somewhat less than one-fourth of the whole quantity of gold and silver from Nueva Espana; yet these mines, productive as they were, did not employ more than 5000 workmen of every description. The labour of the mines is perfectly free in Mexico, and no species of labour is so well paid ; a miner earns from twenty-five to thirty francs a week, that is, from five to five dollars and a half; while the wages of the common labourer are not more than a dollar and a half. The tenateros, or persons who carry the ore on their backs from the place where it is dug out of the mine, to the place where it is collected in heaps, receive six francs for a day s work of six hours. No slaves, criminals, or forced labourers, are ever employed in the Mexican mines." Alcedo. Von Humboldt points out many defects and imperfections in working the mines of Nueva Espana. " More than three-fourths of the silver obtained from America, is extracted from the ore by means of quicksilver : the loss of quicksilver in this operation, Mr. Humboldt estimates has been about 16,000 quintals a year, and in the whole of America, about 25,000 quintals are annually expended ; the cost of which, in the colonies, is 6,200,000 livres. The greater part of this quicksilver has been furnished by the mine of Almaderi in Spain, and the residue was obtained from Istria in Carniola; in 1802, Almaden alone supplied more than 20,000 quintals. Huencavelica in Peru, which in the sixteenth cen tury afforded for some years more than 10,000 quintals of quicksilver in a year, did not yield, in 1814, quite 4000. Humboldt seems to be of opinion that there are mines of cinnabar in America, sufficient for the purpose; he enumerates several in Nueva Es pana and Nueva Granada, as well as in Peru. u It is the supply of mercury that determines the productiveness of the silver-mines ; for such is the abundance of the ore both in Mexico and Peru, that the only limit to the quantity of silver obtained from those kingdoms, is the want of mercury for amalga mation. The sale of quicksilver in the Spanish colonies has been a royal monopoly, and the distribution of it among the miners a source of influence, and possibly of profit, to the servants of the crown. Gulvez, to whom America is indebted for a system of free trade, reduced the price of quicksilver from eighty-two to forty-one dollars the quin tal, and thereby contributed most essentially to the subsequent prosperity and increase of the mines." Alcedo. " The annual produce of the mines of Nueva Espana, as calculated from the amount of the royal duties, up to 1812, and therefore considerably under the truth, amounted to 7000 Spanish marks of pure gold, and 2,250,000 dollars of pure silver; the value, in dollars, of both is 22,170,740 ; the gold being estimated at 145 -f* s dollars, and the silver at 9-j* ff dollars, the Spanish mark; besides this we must add for contraband 829,260 dollars, and the total produce will then be 23,000,000. TABLE of the Coinage of Mexico, from the earliest Periods to the present Day. Y EARS. Amount. YEARS. Amount. The mint of the city of Mexico was es dollars. dollars. 1 841 457 875 tablished in 1535, but there are no re 12 040 000 turns for the first 155 years until 1690 l.S 55 12 000 000 Jf we take the average of the coinage jg36 J8 J7 155 000 000 1838 to 1843 (averaging 12 000 000) From 1690 to 1803, inclusive.. 1 353 452 020 1803 to 1821, 261 354 0^2 1822 5 543 254 Ouannjuato, from 1812 to 1826 .... 1823 3 567 821 Zacatecas 1810 to 1826 1824 Guadalaxara 18T> to 1826 1825 6 036 878 Durango 1811 to 1826 1825 to 1831 (on an average 3,000,000 per annum) 15 000000 Chihuahua 1811 to 1814 Sombrerete 1810 to 1811 3,603,660 1831 13 000 000 1832 12 500 000 1833 12 soo oOO 60 000 000 1,841,457,875 Total 2,062,597,948 AGRICULTURE OF MEXICO. 661 This amount is less than it has been made by several otlior writers. S:e also " General Account of Precious Metals, and of the Coinage of Mexico and of South America." COMPARISON of the Coinage of Gold and Silver in the Mints of the Mexican Republic, in the Years 1844 and 1845, forwarded by the British Consul. MINTS OF Years. GOLD. SILVER. TOTAL. Value. increase. Decrease. Value. Increase. Decrease. Value. Increase. Decrease. 1844 1845 1844 1845 J8-J4 1845 1844 1845 1844 1845 1844 1845 1844 1845 1844 1845 dollars. 32,17-2 4(V60 441,840 345,172 46,528 43,732 105,840 128,000 5,368 7,84S 95,004 dollars. 8,688 22160 2480 dollars. 96,668 2,796 dollars. 1,688,156 2,184,303 4,429,353 4,435,576 4,193,900 4,040,530 223,652 600,608 315,224 410,000 889,43! 1,194,917 850,031 803,437 338,124 dollars. 496,147 6223 370 956 94770 305 478 dollars. 153 70 146 594 dollars. 1,720,328 2,2-25,163 4,429,353 4,435,576 4,635,740 4,385,702 270,180 644,340 421,064 538,000 889,439 1 I94,917 955,399 811,285 433,128 906,833 dollars. 504,835 6,223 374,160 116,936 305,478 473,705 dollars. 250,038 144,114 C " t Guadulupe, of Calvo. . Total ft44 dolla .. | 1,781,337 394,152 rs. . d. ,631 ,816 ,185 = 248,537 6 3 Total coinage, in in Increase, in 1845 . 845 15,141 : 1,387 CHAPTER XXXV. AGRICULTURE OF MEXICO. IT will appear, from the miscellaneous descriptive sketches which we have given of Mexico and nearly all accounts corroborate the fact, that agriculture is in a most rude and most backward condition throughout nearly all Mexico. Prohibition of foreign agricultural products has been persevered in, but hus bandry has not improved. Cotton-wool is prohibited : the climate and soil is favourable to its culture, but enough is not produced to supply the demand for the miserable cotton factories of the country ; although cotton-wool sells for treble price at which it could be imported from the United States of America. One cause of slovenly agriculture, and cf the indolence of the rural population, is the facility of obtaining sufficient food from the natural products of the soil.* * In his account of the agriculture of Mexico, Von Humboldt enters into many curious and interesting details concerning the origin, natural history, and cultivation of the different vegetable productions of that country. Of all productions cultivated for the use of man, none affords so much food from the same nuantitv of land as the plantain or banana tree : a field of 100 square metres in plantain trees affords 4000 Ibs. weight of food ; the same field in wheat will produce about thirty Ibs. ; and in potatoes ninety Ibs. The quantity of food from the plantain tree is, according to Von Humboldt, to the quantity of food from wheat as 133 to one, and to the quantity from potatoes as forty-four to one ; the quantities of nourishment, however, are not proportioned to the weights, for the fruit 662 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. We believe that the mines of precious metals are to some extent another cause : high authorities deny this. The assertion that the backwardness of agriculture in Spanish America has been owing to its mines of gold and silver, has been refuted by Humboldt ; he admits, " that in some districts, as in Choco and other parts of New Grenada, the people leave their fields uncultivated, while they misspend their time in searching for gold dust in the beds of rivers. It is also true, that in Cuba, Caracas, and Guatemala, where there are no mines, many highly cultivated tracts of country are to be found ; but, on the other hand, the agriculture of Peru is not inferior to that of Cumana or Guayana ; and in Mexico, the best cultivated district is the territory extending from Salamanca to Guanaxuato and Leon, in the midst of the most productive mine of the world. So far from the mining being prejudicial to agriculture, no sooner is a mine discovered and wrought, than cultivation is seen in its neighbourhood ; towns and villages are built ; provisions are wanted for the workmen, and subsistence for the cattle employed in the mine : whatever the surrounding country can be made to produce, is raised fiom it in abundance. A flourishing agriculture is established, which not unfrequently survives the prosperity of the mines, to which it was indebted for its origin; the husbandman re mains and cultivates his fields, after the miner, who had at first set him to work, is gone to another district, in search of a more abundant or less exhausted vein. The Indians, in particular, who prefer a mountainous situation to living on the plains, seldom quit the farms they have established, though the mines are abandoned, which were, perhaps, their original inducement for settling there. Indian villages and farms are continually found in the valleys, and amidst the precipices of the highest mountains." Hum boldt. Alcedo. Notwithstanding the authority of M. Von Humboldt, it is considered that, generally speaking, agriculture is in a very backward condition. (See Mayer, Gilliam, and other recent authorities.)* PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF CULTURE. The same soil and climate which produces the plantain tree, yields the farina of the cassava root, called manioc, which is made into bread ; and which the natives call pan de tierra caliente. The flour of manioc, when dried and toasted, is secure from the depredations of worms and other insects : it contains, besides of the plantain tree contains a greater portion of mucillaginous juice than the seeds of the cerealia. An arpent, covered with plantain trees, will maintain fifty persons : the same quantity of ground sown with wheat, will not, he contends, support two individuals. - The plantain tree does not thrive where the medium temperature is below 24 deg. (centign. therm., or 75 2 deg. F.), but there are 60,000 square leagues of the Mexican territory in that situation. The fruit of the plantain tree is farinaceous, but contains a small portion of vegetable gluten, and a great quantity of saccharine matter. Mr. Humboldt remarks, that in all tropical countries, saccharine matter is considered to be eminently nutritious. * " Mexico," says Chevalier, " is a country so rich that famine scarcely visits even the most indolent. In the tierras calientes, and even on the plateau, the natives are content to dwell with their families in a cabin of bamboo trellis-work, so slight as scarcely to hide them from the stran ger s gaze, and to sleep either on mere mats or at best on beds made of leaves and brushwood. Their dress consists simply of a pair of drawers, or petticoat, and a serape (a dyed woollen gar ment) which serves for a cloak by day and a counterpane by night. Each has his horse, a sorry beast, which feeds at large in the open country; and a whole family of Indians is amply supplied with food by bananas, chili, and maize, raised almost without labour, in a small inclosure round the hut. Labour, indeed, occupies but a trifling portion of the Indian s time, which is chiefly spent in drinking pulque, sleep, or singing to his wretched mandolin hymns in honor of Notre Dame de Gaudaloupe, and occasionally carrying votive cliaplets to deck the altar of his village church. Thus he passes his life in a dreamy indifference, and utterly careless of the ever-reviving emeutes by which the peace of Mexico is disturbed. The assassinations and robberies which the almost impotent government allows to be committed with impunity on the public roads, and even in sight of the capital, are to him only matter for conversation the theme of a tale or ditty. And why should lie trouble himself about it ? Having nothing in the world but the dress in which he stands, his lance, spurs, and guitar, he has no fear of thieves ; nor will the poniard of the assassin touch him, if he himself, drunk with pulque orchingarito, do not use his own." AGRICULTURE OF MEXICO. farinaceous fecula, a saccharine matter and a viscous substance resembling caoutchouc The cassava root is not cultivated in New Spain at a greater height than 600or 800 metres above the level of the sea; its poisonous juice becomes harmless by boiling, and separating the scum that rises to the top, and is then used by the natives for seasoning their foo f. The original inhabitants of Hayti, after the conquest of their country by the Spaniards! used to poison themselves with this juice, and for that purpose assembled in parties of fifty or more to take it together. MAIZE is the chief food of the inhabitants of Mexico: it is cultivated from the coast to the height of ^800 metres above the sea ; in very fertile lands, and in very good years, it gives a return of 800 to one ; but the average return for the intra-tropical part of the country is not more than 150 for one ; in very hot and moist districts two or three crops are obtained in the year, but in most parts of the country only one is grown. No crop is more uncertain than maize, and as it is seldom equally good j n every part of the kingdom, the transport of maize comes to be the principal branch of internal commerce; a general failure of the crop would be followed by scarcity, or even famine. The an nual produce of maize was estimated by Humboldt at 17,000,000 of fanegas annually. It may be preserved for three years at Mexico, and in colder climates for six or seven years. The Indians prepare a fermented liquor from maize, and before the arrival of the Spaniards, they extracted sugar from the stalks. WHEAT. None of the cerealia of the old continent were known in America when it was first discovered. Wheat is not cultivated in the intra-tropical part of Mexico, at a lower elevation than 800 or 900 metres above the level of the sea, and in very small quantity at a less height than 1200 or 1300. At a greater elevation than 3500 or 4000 metres, neither wheat nor rye come to maturity. The Mexican wheat is of excellent quality, and the medium return wherever grown is from twenty-two to twenty-five for one : in some places it gives from thirty to forty for one. Much wheat has been exported from Vera Cruz to Cuba : barley and rye thrive very well in parts of Mexico ; oats are very little cultivated ; the potato is a great object of culture in the high and cold parts of the country : rice is but little attended to, though well adapted for the marshy lands along the sea coast. VINEYARDS. The Spanish government has always discouraged in its colonies the cul tivation of the vine, the olive, the mulberry tree, and the plants yielding hemp and flax. While Humboldt was in Mexico, an order came from Madrid to grub up all the stocks of vines in the north part of the country, where they had been cultivated with so much success as to call forth the complaints of "the wine merchants of Cadiz. There was then but one olive plantation in Mexico ; it belonged to the archbishop of Mexico ; tobacco was also subjected, ami continues to be subjected to monopoly. In 1764, a royal monopoly was established, and no tobacco was allowed to be planted, except in particular districts, and none sold, except to the king s officers. Parties of soldiers have been regularly employed to go about the country in search of tobacco-fields, and impose fines on the owner of prohibited culture, and destroy the plantation : this odious monopoly yielded to the King of Spain, in Mexico alone, a revenue of more than 20,000,000 of livres an nually. AGAVE, OR MAGUEY. The plantations of the maguey de pulque extend wherever the Aztec language is spoken. On the Mexican plain the maguey is scarcely cultivated to the north of Salamanca. The finest cultivations are in the valley of Toluca and on the plains of Cholula. The agaves are there planted in rows at a distance of fifteen decimetres, or fifty- eight inches, from one another. The plants only begin to yield the juice or sap, when the hampe is on the point of effioresence. The cultivator goes daily through his gave plantations to mark those plants which approach efflorescence. On the situation, on the soil, and on the temperature of the climate, depend the early or later periods of efflorescence. Near Cholula, and between Toluca and Cacanu- macan, a maguey of eight years old gives signs of development of its hampe. They then begin to collect the juice, of which the pulque is made. They cut the corason or bundle of central leaves, and enlarge insensibly the incision, and cover it with lateral 664 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. leaves, which they raise up by drawing them close, and tying them to the extremities. In this incision the vessels appear to deposit all the juice which would have formed the colossal hampe loaded with flowers. " This is a true vegetable spring, which keeps running for two or three months, and from which the Indian draws three or four times a day. We may judge of the quickness or slowne?s of the motion of the juice by the quantity of honey ex tracted from the maguey at different times of the day. A foot commonly yields, in twenty-four hours, four cubic decimetres, or 200 cubic inches (242 cubic inches English), equal to eight quartillos. Of this total quantity they obtain three quartillos at sun rise, two at mid-day, and three at six in the evening. A very vigorous plant sometimes yields fifteen quartillos, or 375 cubic inches (454 cubic inches English) per day, for from four to five months, which amounts to the enormous volume of more than 1100 cubic decimetres, or 67,130 cubic inches. This abundance of juice produced by a maguey of scarcely a metre and a half in height, or 4 T 9 Q - feet, is so much the more aston ishing, as the agave plantations are in the most arid grounds, and frequently on banks of rocks hardly covered with vegetable earth. The value of a maguey plant near its efflorescence is at Pachuca five piastres, or I/, ^s. 4d. In a barren soil the Indian cal culates the produce of each maguey at 150 bottles, and the value of the pulque fur nished in a day at from ten to twelve sols. The produce is unequal, like that of the vine, which varies very much in its quantity of grapes. " The cultivation of the agave has real advantages over the cultivation of maize, grain, and potatoes. This plant, with firm and vigorous leaves, is neither affected by drought nor hail, nor the excessive cold which prevails in winter on the higher Cordilleras of Mexico. The stalk perishes after efflorescence. If we deprive it of the central leaves, it withers, after the juice which nature appears to have destined to the increase of the hampe is entirely exhausted. An infinity of shoots then spring from the root of the decayed plant; for no plant multiplies with greater facility. An arpent of ground con tains from 1200 to 1300 maguey plants. If the field is of old cultivation, we may cal culate that a twelfth or fourteenth of these plants yields honey annually. A proprietor who plants from 30,000 to 40,000 maguey is sure to establish the fortune of his chil dren ; but it requires patience and courage to follow a species of cultivation which only begins to grow lucrative at the end of fifteen years. In a good soil the agave enters on its efflorescence at the end of five years; and in a poor soil no harvest can be expected in less than eighteen years. Although the rapidity of the vegetation is of the utmost consequence for the Mexican cultivators, they never attempt artificially to accelerate the development of the hampe by mutilating the roots or watering them with warm water. It has been discovered that by these means, which weaken the plant, -the confluence of juice towards the centre is sensibly diminished. A maguey plant is destroyed, if, misled by false appearances, the Indian makes the incision long before the flowers would have maturely developed themselves." Thompson s Alcedo. " The juice of the agave is of a very agreeable sour taste. It easily ferments, on ac count of the sugar and mucilage which it contains. To accelerate the fermentation, they add a little old and acid pulque. The operation is terminated in three or four days. The vinous beverage, which resembles cider, has an odour of putrid meat extremely disagree able; but the Europeans who have been able to get over the aversion which this foetid odour inspires, prefer the pulque to every other liquor. They consider it as stomachic, strengthening, and especially as very nutritive ; and it is recommended to lean persons. Whites also who have been known, like the Mexican Indians, totally to have abstained from water, beer, and wine, and to have drunk no other liquor than the juice of the agave. Connoisseurs speak with enthusiasm of the pulque prepared in the village of Hocotitlan, situated to the north of Toluca, at the foot of a mountain almost as elevated as the Nevado of this name. They affirm that the excellent quality of this pulque does not altogether depend on the art with which the liquor is prepared, but also on a taste of the soil com municated to the juice, according to the fields in which the plant is cultivated. There are plantations of maguey near Hocotitlan (haciendas de pulque} which bring in annually more than 40,000 livres, or 1666/. sterling." Alcedo. Humboldt. A strong spirit is distilled from the pulque, called mexical, or aguardiente AGRICULTURE OF MEXICO. de maguey. The sugar-cane of a particular variety, with a violet-stalk orieinallv from the coast of Africa (cano de Guinea), is preferred in the province of Carar for the fabrication of rum to the sugar-cane of Otaheite. The Spanish gover ment, and particularly the real hacienda, prohibited the distillation of mexical, as p^u dicial to the Spanish brandy trade. An enormous quantity, however, of this maeuev spirit was clandestinely manufactured in the intendances of Valladolid, Mexico and Durango, and especially in Leon. The fibre of the maguey is formed into flax, and of it is also made the papyrus (ci/pe- rus papyrus of the Egyptians). The paper on which the ancient Mexicans painted their hieroglyphical figures was made of the fibres of agave leaves, cleansed in water, and disposed in layers like the fibres of the Egyptian cyperus, and the mulberry (brouson- netia) of the South Sea Islands. Humboldt brought to Europe several fragments of Aztec manuscripts written on maguey paper, so varied in thickness that some resembled pasteboard, others Chinese paper. These fragments were interesting as the Mexican hieroglyphics deposited at Vienna, Rome, and Veletri, are on Mexican stag-skins. The thread of maguey flax is called plte-thread. The Mexicans cultivate all the garden-stuffs and fruit-trees of Europe.* The Aztecs and some other nations of Americans cultivated onions (in Mexican xonacatl). haricots (in Mexican uyacotli, in the Peruvian or Quichua language purutu), and gourds (in Peruvian capallu). Cortes, speaking of the eatables which were daily sold in the market of the ancient Tenochtitlan, ex- pressly says, that every kind of garden-stuff (legume) was to be found there, particularly onions, leeks, garlic, garden and water-cresses (mastuerzo y berro), borrage, sorrel, and artichokes (cardo y tagarninas). It would appear that no species of cabbage or turnip (brassica et raphanus) was cultivated in America. Great numbers of farinaceous roots were also cultivated in Mexico and Peru. The central table-land of Yutos produces in great abundance cherries, prunes, peaches, apricots, figs, grapes, melons, apples, and pears. In the environs of Mex ico the villages and gardens yield in the months of June, July, and August fruit of most exquisite flavour, although the trees are in general very ill taken care of. In * Mr. Waddy Thomson, alluding to fruits and vegetables, says " The apples and peaches of Mexico are not good, the latter decidedly inferior. The pears are very fine. They have one species of this fruit which is decidedly the best that I have ever seen ; it is nearly the size of a goose-egg, and its flavour as delicious as that of the famous Philadelphia pear. All the fruits of the tropics the orange, pine-apple, banana, mango, cherimoya, and last and least in size, but most exquisite in flavour, the tuna are produced in Mexico to great perfection. It is the produce ot one of the infinite varieties of cactus, of which I have seen twenty different varieties growing on an acre of land. One of these varieties runs up to the height of thirty or forty feet, in the form of a beautifully fluted column, and is used to enclose gardens, by planting close together. That which produces the tuna grows to the height of thirty feet, and covers an area of twenty feet in circumference, with the leaves (if leaves they may be called) dropping over each other like the shingles of a house. These leaves are exactly like those of the prickly pear on our mountains, only larger, generally of twelve or eighteen inches in breadth. The fruit is about the size, and very much the shape, of a duck s egg. The combined flavours of a water melon, a cucumber, and a lump of sugar-candy, will give some idea of this delicious and refreshing fruit, as it melts in the mouth. The cherimoya is a large fruit, and is altogether delicious. The idea which occurs to every one on eating it for the first time is, that it is a vegetable custard. I scarcely ever offered it to an Ame rican who did not make that comparison, thinking that he had said an original and smart thing ; but I had heard it before at least a hundred times. They have a fruit very much like what we call the May-apple. VOL. I. 4 Q 666 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Mexico, Peru, and New Granada are found both the fruits of temperate Europe, and ananas, different species of passiflora and tacsoriia, sapotes, mameis, goyavas, anonas, chilimoyas, and other rich productions of the torrid zone. The eccle siastics, and especially the missionaries, contributed greatly to the early intro duction of European fruits and vegetables. The gardens of the convents and of the secular priests were, in fact, nurseries, from which the recently imported vegetables were diffused over the country. Bees -wax is an article produced in great quantities. In the churches wax candles are perpetually burning, and are also used in processions. Sugar was formerly an important article of production. The cane is cul tivated in many districts. But, although it has been proved that it can be produced cheaper than by slave labour in Cuba, yet no great efforts are made to cultivate the sugar cane as an important branch of industry. It succeeds very well in most of the countries south of twenty-eight degrees. The most productive plantations are on the declivities of the table land, and in the lower plains, to the height of 5400 feet above the sea ; but in many places well sheltered the sugar cane grows at an elevation of nearly 7000 feet. These plan tations are most numerous in the valley of the Rio Santiago, and on the plains towards the Pacific. Their produce is very considerable, but nearly the whole of the sugar is consumed in the country. From Vera Cruz there was exported annually more than half a million of arrobas of sugar, and M. Humboldt estimated the domestic consumption in Mexico at more than twice as much. Cuba, he says, in 1803 exported 2,576,000 arrobas of sugar, and used for her internal consumption 440,000 more. The export of sugar from the Havannah, from 1801 to 1810 inclusive, averaged 2,850,000 arrobas, or about 644,000 cwt. a year. Cotton, indigo, coffee, and cacao, have never been cultivated to any great extent in New Spain; though the Mexicans, like all other Spaniards, are great consumers of chocolate. Humboldt ascertained the quantity of cacao exported annually from the Spanish settlements, from 1799 to 1803, to be as follows ; from Venezuela and Maracaybo, 145,000 fanegas ; from Cumana, 18,000 ; from New Barcelona, 5000 ; and from Guyaquil, 600,000; total, 228,000. But he omitted the delicate cacao of Guatemala. The vanilla sent to Europe was nearly all from the provinces of Oaxaca and Vera Cruz. Great care is required in drying this plant. Cochineal was formerly a production cul tivated only in Mexico. Oaxaca furnished annually 32,000 arrobas of cochineal, valued at 2,400,000 dollars. Very little silk is produced in Mexico ; a company has lately been formed in order to cultivate the mulberry and breed silk-worms. The annual produce of agriculture of New Spain was valued by Hum boldt at 29,000,000 of dollars. This, like nearly all other estimates respecting this country, must be considered vague. AGRICULTURE OF MEXICO. Of the obstacles to the improvement of agriculture, the excessive dryness of the climate is in many parts almost insuperable. Even the want of moisture in the ground, is usually attributed to the Spaniards, who cut down the forests in the interior of the country, and exposed the soil to the stronger action of the rays of the sun, which caused extraordinary evaporation. The extensive landed properties possessed by a few persons, held under all the strictness of Spanish entails, and the extensive tracts of country possessed in common, and therefore ill-cultivated and neglected, have been, and to a great degree continue to be, notwithstanding the rights of primogeniture have been abolished, the great impediments, coupled with indolence, to the successful cultivation of the soil. Mr. Thompson informs us, "The immense estates of which I have spoken, of eighty and a hundred leagues square, with eighty or a hundred thousand cattle, and fifteen or twenty thousand mules and horses, yield very little profit. Perhaps not one acre out of ten thousand on these estates is cultivated. The grass is green all the year round, and their horses and cattle receive and seem to require no other food ; they multiply as the birds do, and with little more profit to the proprietors of the estates. Now and then, the government purchases five hundred or a thousand horses for the army, but, with this exception, there are very few occasions when they can be sold. The average price for droves of unbroken horses is eight or ten dollars a head, and mules the same. The mules are generally small, but by no means too small for any service, nor smaller than those frequently used in this country. I have seen mules, however, in Mexico, as large as any I have ever seen else where. The most of these are brought from California, and other departments north of Mexico ; a pair of these large mules will sell for a thousand dollars, and that sum has frequently been paid for one fine saddle mule. " In the villages the houses are generally small filthy hovels of ten or twelve feet square, built of unburnt bricks, with a small enclosure, in which the chili (red pepper), and a small patch of Indian corn for tortillas is cultivated. A Mexican village very closely resembles an American Indian village, with the difference that the Mexican hovels are built of brick instead of being log-cabins. The same idleness, filth, and squalid poverty are apparent. "The road, for its entire extent from Vera Cruz to Jalapa, passes through the lands of General Santa Anna, which extend an immense distance on both sides of it : much of this land is of good quality, and would produce cotton and sugar most profitably. Very little of it is in cultivation, with the trifling exception of the chili and corn patches. General Santa Anna owns immense herds of cattle, some forty or fifty thousand head, which graze upon it. He also permits others to graze their cattle upon his lands for a rent which they pay him ; I believe, forty dollars per annum for a hundred head. "The system of agriculture in Mexico is, like every thing else, so wretchedly bad, that it is impossible to form any accurate opinion of the productiveness of the soil, the more especially as, on the whole route from Vera Cruz to Mexico, with the exception of a very few places, and for very short distances, there are no trees nor other natural growth but a few scrubby bushes, some palms, and the almost innumerable varieties of the cactus. The whole country is of manifestly volcanic formation, at least the upper strata. I have never been at any place where some species of lava was not presented, and in infinite varieties, some having very much the resemblance of cinders just taken from an iron furnace ; others so entirely petrified, as to have little of the appearance of lava, except by their porousness. The soil is generally, I think, not very rich. In many places, such as the plain of which I have been speaking, the land is very good ; nowhere, however, to be compared with our richest oak and hickory lands. The plough in universal use is that used two thousand years ago; neither more nor less than a wooden 668 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. wedge, without a particle of iron attached to it. The hoe is a wooden staff, with an iron spike in the end. What is still more remarkable, the only animal used in plough ing is the ox ; a planter, with twenty thousand horses and mules (by no means an unusual number), will only use his oxen in the plough. If you ask why this is, the only answer I can give is, that the Spaniard never changes his habits, nor any thing else but his government. All the passion for change which exists in other men, with him is concentrated in political changes. " It is this peculiar characteristic which has tended more than any and every other cause to produce the present degraded condition of Spain. * As you approach the city of Puebla, there are farms of considerable extent on both sides of the road. The grains chiefly cultivated are wheat, barley, and Indian corn. The wheat is used for bread by the better classes, and I have never seen better bread anywhere. The Indian corn is used chiefly, I believe entirely, by the Mexicans in making tortillas. There is not a corn-mill in Mexico. The tortilla is the bread, and the only bread of the great mass of the people. The grain is softened by soaking it in water, it is then ground on a smooth stone, with a long roller made also of stone ; and after mixing the due proportion which is always a very large proportion of chili and some lime, it is spread out in a thin layer, and cooked as we do the hoe cake. Corn is not used at all as food for horses ; the only grain used for that purpose is barley, and the only fodder is wheat straw an article generally regarded by us as of little or no value for food. In this, I am satisfied that we are mistaken. I had a very large pair of American horses, and I was at first afraid that, however well the barley and wheat straw might agree with the Mexican horses, it was not substantial enough for mine. But I found that they became so fat upon it that I was obliged to curtail their allowance." The wages of labour in New Spain are stated in Thompson s Alcedo to be 2-J reals de plata a day, on the coast, and two reals de plata, or one-fourth of a dollar, on the table-land. This is only a vague estimate. Mr. Thompson con siders the condition of the labourer as worse than that of the slave in the United States.* The average price of maize on the table-land, where it is the prin- * The late minister of the United States at Mexico tells us : " There are a good many negroes in Vera Cruz; more probably than in any other part of Mexico. I did not see half-a-dozen negroes in the city of Mexico, in a residence there of two years, and very few mulattoes. It is a very great mistake to suppose they enjoy any thing like social equality even with the Indian popula tion ; and although there are no political distinctions, the aristocracy of colour is quite as great in Mexico as it is in this country ; and the pure Castilian is quite as proud that he is a man without a cross, as was old Leatherstocking, even if that cross should have been with the Indian race, however remote. The negro in Mexico, as everywhere else, is looked upon as belonging to a class a little lower than the lowest, .the same lazy, filthy, and vicious creatures that they inevitably become where they are not held in bondage. Bondage or barbarism seems to be their destiny a destiny from which the Ethiopian race has furnished no exception in any country for a period of time long enough to constitute an epoch. The only idea of the free negro of liberty in Mexico, or elsewhere, is exemption from labour, and the privilege to be idle, vicious, and dishonest ; as to the mere sentiments of liberty, and the elevating consciousness of equality, they are incapable of the former; and, for the latter, no such equality ever did or ever will exist. There is a line which cannot be passed by any degree of talent, virtue, or accomplishment. The greater the degree of these, which, in rare individual instances, may exist, and the nearer their possessors may approach this impassable barrier, they are only the more miserable. This may be called prejudice, but it is a prejudice which exists wherever the Caucasian race is found ; and nowhere is it stronger than in Mexico. The negro is regarded and treated there as belonging to a degraded caste equally as in the United States, much more so than in South Carolina, and in quite as great a degree as in Boston or Philadelphia. " Servitude. Whilst upon this subject it may not be inappropriate to allude to the system of servitude which prevails in Mexico a system immeasurably worse for the slave, in every aspect, than the institution of slavery in the United States. The owners of the estates (haciendas) receive labourers into their service. These labourers are ignorant, destitute, half-naked Indians ; certain wages are agreed upon, which the employer pays in food, raiment, and such articles as are abso lutely necessary ; an account is kept of all there things, and neither the labourer nor his family can AGRICULTURE OF MEXICO. CO .) cipal food of the people, was estimated by Humboldt at five livres the fanega. The fanega is somewhat more than a bushel and a half. The ordinary price paid for wheat upon the farm, in New Spain, is about four or five dollars the carga or mule load, which weighs 150 kilograms ; but the expense of carriage raises it in the city of Mexico to nine or ten dollars j the extreme prices being eight and fifteen. Mr. Ward states the prices more precisely, and says wheat is nearly twice as dear in the city of Mexico as it is in Paris ; but wheat is not so much an article of the first necessity in Mexico as in France. PRICES of Provisions, &c., to Housekeepers in the City of Mexico, as stated by Mr. Mayer. P R V I S I N S, &c. Quantities and Prices. P R V I S 1 N S, &c. Quantities and Prices. MEATS. Beef 12 cents per 20 ounces. 1 4 . 18 50 ll>. 37| pair, dlr. 50 for each. 50 25 per pair. 62 ceats per Ib. 12 cents per dozen. 25 12| each (small), m to 25 cents each. 25 cents per pint. 5 to 6 dlrs. per carga of 400 Ibs. 3dlrs. 12 cents per Ib. 6 2| dozen. 12| quart. i*i 31* Ib. 12i dozen. G for four small loaves, sixteen ounces in all. 6? cents per 1G ounces. 50 Ib. 2 to 3 dollars per Ib. 25 to 37 cents per Ib. 185 cents per Ib. 12* 12J cents each, ft? to 12J cents each. 6? cents for four. 6i six. Fruits (con tinued.) 6| cents for four. 25 per Ih. 6J for forty. 6i to 12J cents each. 6 cents for four. 12i per dozen. 6i Mutton Hams Ducks Melons Turkeys Fowls . Tunas FISH. Peseao-blaiico, from the lake VEGETABLES, TEA, COFFEE, &c. Pi , for eight. 6* , four. 6? cents per quart. t: 1 , 3 quarts. 6i , barrel. I8f , quart. 25 6i , 3 pints. 6i , quart. 6i , f>i cents for Clbs. 4 to 6 dollars per month. DRINKS. Milk . .. Pulque Mescal Peas . Chicha Orgeat Barley Rice . ..... FUEL. Radishes Beans (frijole**) . . * SERVANTS. Cook Krpftd 15 8 10 3 4 Tea 3 4 RENTS. They vary according to situation, but they are very high throughout the capital ; 500 dollars, 250 dollars, and even highe rates, are given for th very best. (white) *. . FRUITS. ever leave the estate until all arrearages are paid. These, of course, he has no means of paying but by the proceeds of his labour, which being barely sufficient for his subsistence, he never can get free; and he is not only a slave for life, but his children after him, unless the employer chooses to release him from his service, which he often finds it convenient to do when the labourer becomes old or diseased. Whatever may be the theoretical protection from corporal punishment which the law affords him, the Mexican slave is, practically, no better off in this respect than is the African slave in this country. All the labourers in Mexico are Indians ; all the large proprietors Spaniards, or of mixed blood. I say all; there may be a few exceptions, but they are very few of either.^ So of the army; the higher officers are all white men, or of mixed blood, the soldiers all Indians. G70 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER XXXVI. MANUFACTURES. SPAIN prohibited, but was unable altogether to prevent manufacturing in dustry in her colonies. The great extent, and populousness, of her foreign possessions, the remoteness of the principal settlements from the coast, the difficulty of transporting bulky commodities over the interior of America, the want of industry and commercial enterprise in her subjects at home, the almost exclusive attention of her government to the acquisition of the precious metals, and the Spanish indifference, and ignorant contempt, for other sources of opulence, all contributed to bring forward some fabrics in Mexico. Spain, it is true, recognised the existence of a few branches of manufacturing industry in her colonies, but the policy was to sacrifice those at any time to the real, or supposed, interests of the mother country. About the middle ef the eighteenth century an extensive plan for the establishment of European manufactures at Quito was pro posed to the Spanish ministry, and undertaken with their consent and apparent approbation, but was defeated by secret instructions given to their agents in America; and in 1801 the manufactory of Indian chintz in Mexico was prohibited, lest it should interfere with the cotton manufactures of the peninsula. It must not, however, be forgotten that this was also the avowed policy of England ; and that even Lord Chatham was its champion.* But neither the governments of England, nor of Spain, could prevent the colonies from manufacturing certain necessary articles. The chief manufactures of Mexico under the Spanish government up to 1807 were woollens, cottons, gold and silver lace, hats, leather, soap, and earthenware; but the total value of the goods which they produced, according to Humboldt, was not more than 7,000,000 or 8,000,000 of dollars annually. Some trifling fabrics of silk were introduced since that time ; and the manufactures increased considerably in consequence of the war with England and the interruption of * Lord Chatham declared that he would not, if he could prevent them, allow the colonies to manufacture a horse-shoe nail. Mr. Thompson says, " The mechanical arts are in a low condition. Most of the articles of every description which are used there are brought from other countries, with the exception of plate, saddles, and a few others. Large quantities of plate are manufac tured both for churches and individuals. I never saw a handsome piece, however, which was made there. They say that the saddlers of no other country can make a Mexican saddle. I do not think any decent saddler would if he could. There are two articles, however, which I believe have never been manufactured in any other country the reboso (a long shawl worn by the women), and the scrape, which is used all the year round by the men. The reboso is made either of cotton or silk, and sometimes one-half of each. Those made of cotton are most esteemed, and sell for the highest price. They sell for from twenty to fifty and a hundred dollars. If they could be made as other similar fabrics are, by European skill and machinery, they would not cost ten dollars. The serape is nothing more than a blanket, the warp of cotton and the filling of wool, with all the fantastical figures woven upon it which characterise the Indian taste for wampum and beads. They sell at from three dollars to three hundred. In summer or winter nearly every Indian you meet has one thrown over his shoulders, and in the rainy season no man rides five miles without one." MANUFACTURES OF MEXICO. G71 foreign commerce. Tobacco and gunpowder were royal manufactures and mono- polies ; and the former brought to the crown a clear revenue of 4,000,000 of dollars annually. Mexican artizans were said, by Von Humboldt, to be remarkably skilful in works of plate and jewellery; and, like some of the eastern nations, they had a singular turn for imitation; that very good carriages were made at Mexico, though the best coaches came from England. Mr. Thompson denies that they are skilful plate workers. There were carriage-roads established by Spain from Mexico to most of the principal towns of the kingdom ; but the transport of commodities has been chiefly effected, as in Old Spain, on the backs of mules. The new road from Perote to Vera Cruz was compared by Humboldt to the roads of the Simplon and Mont Cenis. It was going since then to ruin ; but is in better condition, since the enterprising Americans have established diligences, driven also by Americans, between Vera Cruz and the city of Mexico. Of the present state of manufactures in Mexico, Mr. Mayer gives the following statement : "A favourite mode," he says, "of raising loans in Mexico, for the benefit of go vernment, has been that of granting permits to merchants (chiefly Englishmen) to intro duce cotton twist into the republic. This is a prohibited article prohibited for the purpose of cherishing the manufacturing establishments of the country. That these have progressed to a very considerable extent, and have entirely outstripped the pro duction of the cotton planters of Mexico, will be seen by the annexed table, which 1 have obtained from the most authentic sources : STATISTICS of Mexican Manufactures. DEPARTMENTS. Factories. Spindles Established. Spindles in Erection. TOTAL. number. number. number. Dumber. Fuebla* 21 35 672 47 912 Vera Cruz Guadalaxara 7 5 17,860 11 312 5,200 6 500 23,060 17 812 2 7620 7 620 Durango 4 2 520 2 520 1 1 200 1 200 1 1 000 1 000 Total 53 107,340 23,940 131,280 * Mr. Thompson says, " Puebla is the Lowell of Mexico. The principal cotton manu factories are located there, and some of them in very successful operation, which can be said of very few others. The English and other foreign merchants had, in 1842, either by the force of argument or some more potential influence, induced the President to consent to the admission, on more favourable terms, of coarse cotton goods ; but the united and violent opposition of the manufacturers of Peubla defeated the arrangement. I said that very few of these establishments in Mexico were prosperous, or ever have been, although the price of an article of cotton goods is in Mexico thirty cents a yard, which sells in the United States for six cents. This results from many causes, which appear insuperable. The first of these is the high price of the raw material, which ranges from forty to fifty cents per pound, and in such articles as coarse cottons, the raw material constitutes the chief element of value. The importation of raw cotton is absolutely prohibited, and the tariff policy in Mexico, as in all other countries, rests upon a combination of different interests which are benefited by it ; and although neither the manufacturers nor the cotton growers constitute a numerous class in Mexico, yet their combined influence, with the aid of the catch-words National independence, home industry, &c., which have had so much power in a much more enlightened country than Mexico, are all-sufficient to sustain the prohibitory system by which a Mexican pays for one shirt a sum that would buy him live in any other 672 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " It must be remarked, that there are three manufacturing establishments in the de partment of Durango, the number of spindles in which, are not included in the preceding table, because the Junta de Industria had not received very definite information respect ing them. They may, however, be calculated at about 4000, which, added to the 131,280, will give a grand total of 135,000, at least. The number of looms, also, in the republic is not presented, because data have been furnished only in relation to those moved by machinery. An immense number of hand-looms are in constant occupation throughout the republic. COTTON FACTORIES. Quantity. Ibs. 39,755 35,780 Amount, dollars. 39,358 48,037 14,440,800 COTTON FACTORIES. Quantity. Ibs. 24,707,332 22,317,600 Amount. The cotton factories of the Republic consume, daily, with the 107,340 spindlfH, in actual operation IV. The 131,280 spindles, working day and night, will coRnume Produce in thread .... dollars. 24,549,360 Produce in manufactured value, as Which produce in spun thread, at the rate of one-third of a Ib. for V. The 131,280 spindles will occupy looms. 8,/53 14,880 Which, converted into niantas and reboro.s, have a value of II. The same factories, after the 23,940 spindles in erection are in opeia- 48,622 43,700 Do. do. (working day and night) Operatives employed, by dav number. 17,000 29,000 Do. do. day and night. VI. It will require for the 131,280 spindles Each. spindle will produce of thread. Which, converted as aforesaid, will quintos of cotton. 145,666 50,000 95,G66 III. The consumption of cotton, in the year, of 300 working days, with 131,280 spindles, will be 14,586,666 13,138,000 The produce of the country, at the Leaving a deficit of *But if the spindles work day and niiht, they will require Produce of the country, as above Leaving a deficit of quintals. 247,973 50,000 The produce in thread The produce in manufactured value, as above 197.973J * At the town of Lowell, alone, they make nearly 1,250,000 yards of cotton cloth per week, employ about 9000 operatives (6375 females), and use 433,000 Ibs. of raw cotton per week. The annual amount of raw cotton used, is 22,568,000 Ibs. ; enough to load fifty ships, of 350 tuns each ; and of cotton manufactured, 70,275,910 yards : 100 Ibs. of cotton will produce eighty-nine yards of cloth. " It is true, that many persons have been induced by this condition of the market, and the prohibition of importing the raw material, to commence plantations of cotton ; but we doubt whether the habits of the agricultural population will permit their prosperity. They dislike to adventure in new branches of industry. ]f their ancestors wrought on cotton plantations, they are content to continue in the same employment; but it will be difficult to train the new labourer to the newer cultivation. They adhere too closely to traditional occupations, and I have heard of some most signal failures, which have forced persons to abandon their establishments, after a considerable outlay of money in land and implements. "The cotton crop of Mexico has been very variable in value. At Tepic, on the west coast, it has been as low as fifteen dollars the quintal ; at Vera Cruz, on the east coast, twenty-two dollars and thirty-four dollars ; while at Puebla, and in the capital, it has risen to forty dollars, and even forty- eight dollars. " In spite of all the efforts of English capitalists and diplomacy, the government has steadily persevered in fostering the manufactures of the republic, except by the occasional allowances of the importation of twist. The administration of Santa Anna, however, has been energetic, I am informed, both in its opposition to the introduction of this article, country. Another immense disadvantage of the Mexican manufacturer is, that all his machinery is transported by land at enormous cost and when any portion of it gets out of order, the difficulty and delay of repairing it, and the consequent loss are incalculable. However tempting to such an investment may be the high prices of the manufactured articles, those high prices a\e equally tempting to smuggling in a country with 10,000 miles of frontier and sea-board. There is, perhaps, no other country where the receipts of the custom-house are so little to be relied on as to the amount of importations, and where smuggling is carried to so great an extent ; even where goods are regularly imported, innumerable frauds are practised both by and upon the custom house officers." COMMERCE OF MEXICO. ,;;.; and in its effects to suppress the smuggling of English and American fabrics. The m :imi > facturers, therefore, regard their establishments as perfectly safe, and their future success as certain." The average price of manias (cotton cloth), of one vara width, in 1842, was about twenty-five cents the vara : and of tivist, No. 12 to 22, about seventy-five cents the pound. It was estimated, that if cotton fell in consequence of importations b <in allowed, or a large crop, to twenty-five dollars the quintal, these articles would be n-1 duced to eighteen and three-quarters cents the vara for the first, and to fifty cents the pound for the second. This condition of the market would prevent all importations from abroad, even aided by smuggling.* "An intelligent merchant of the city of Mexico, who has resided long in the country, and has an extensive acquaintance in the republic, informs me that there are about 5000 hand-looms throughout the departments, which will work up all the spun yarn into manias and rebosos as fast as it can be made. Many of these looms are entirely em ployed in the manufacture of the common rebosos the consumption of which is so great among the poorer classes. The value of these looms is estimated at between 6,000,000 dollars and 7,000,OOU dollars. The number of persons employed, in every way in manu factures, cannot be much short of 30,000. " The power made use of for the movement of the factories is water ; which is abundant for that purpose, all over the country, proceeding from small streams falling from the mountains into the neighbouring plains or barrancas. Owing to the scarcity of wood, and the costliness of its transportation, steam cannot be advantageously applied. u There are several manufactories of cotton balls, or thread, in Mexico, but they are not of very great importance. <* Paper factories are working with considerable success. There are two near the capital, one at Puebla, and one in Guadalaxara. Their productions are very good, but by no means adequate to the consumption of the country. The quantity of this article used for cigarritos, or paper cigars,, is inconceivable. The best coarse wrapping or enve lope paper, I have ever seen, is made in Mexico from the leaves of the Agave Americana, the plant which yields " pulque." It has almost the toughness and tenacity of iron. " Both at Puebla and Mexico there are several glass factories, making large quantities of the material for windows and common tumblers. Their produce is, nevertheless, insuf ficient for the wants of the country. * " I have before remarked that enough cotton is not raised to supply the very limited demand of the Mexican manufacturers. The most of this is produced in the districts which lie upon the Pacific Ocean, but the climate of nearly all Mexico is suited to the growth of cotton. I can see no reason why it is not produced in much larger quantities, bearing, as it does, so enormous a price, except the characteristic indolence of the people. I have no data from which to form even a conjecture of the number of yards of coarse cottons which are annually manufactured in Mexico. It is estimated that 8,000,000 of dollars are invested in these manufactories. From that fact those skilled in such matters maybe able to form some estimate of the quantity manufactured. It would be well, however, in making such an estimate to consider that the same machinery could be put up in this country at one-third of what it has cost in Mexico, and that an establishment in which the managers and operatives were Americans would probably make at least five yards for one. With the exception of a few of the manufactories in Puebla the business of manufac turing cotton has not been profitable in Mexico. One or two Americans have gone there and at tempted it, but their experiments have ended in bankruptcy. A more striking proof of the uncon querable repugnance of the Mexican to labour cannot be given than the fact that short staple cotton sells there at from forty to forty-five cents per pound, while they have lands and climate as well adapted to its culture as ours, and these lands dirt cheap ; yet they never make enough for their own small consumption. The importation of cotton is positively forbidden by law ; but this law is often relaxed, by selling the privilege to mercantile companies to import a certain number of bales. If such prices could be obtained at home, our northern people would discover some plan of raising it profitably in hot-houses. Although the whole road from the city of Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico passes through a country inexpressibly picturesque and beautiful, yet the ignorant, idle, and degraded population, the total absence of cultivation and improvement, and a general appearance of wildness and desolation, produced in me feelings partaking of gloom and melancholy. Neither in going nor returning did I see one human being, man, woman, or child, engaged at work of any sort. The great mass of the population doze out their lives with no higher thoughts or purposes than the beasts which perish around them." VOL. I. 4 R G74 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " Woollen blankets, and some very coarse woollen cloths or baizes, are also manufac tured in the republic. The blankets are often of beautiful texture, and woven, with the gayest colours and patterns, into a garment that frequently costs a fashionable cavalier from two to five hundred dollars. As this is as indispensable an article for the comfort of a le"pero as of a gentleman, and as necessary for a man as a reboso is for a woman, you may readily imagine how great is the consumption. "Such is a sketch of this branch of industry, to which the government and people seem to have devoted themselves with a hearty will. We have dwelt at considerable length upon it, as evincing an energy and temper not usually attributed to Mexicans, and for the purpose of exhibiting a phase of character at once creditable to their resolution and manifesting a degree of independence and thriftiness worthy of imitation." Several failures have occurred in the cotton factories of Mexico. The pro hibitory system is persevered in ; and the prices of cotton cloths, especially, are enormously high. Mr. Thompson has a far less favourable opinion than Mr. Mayer of the manufactures of this republic. CHAPTER XXXVII. COMMERCE OF MEXICO UNDER THE SPANISH GOVERNMENT. THE commerce of New Spain with the mother country was carried onalmost entirely through Vera Cruz. In time of peace,, Mr. Humboldt estimated the annual value of the exports, in that commerce, at 22,000,000 of dollars, and the annual value of the imports at 15,000,000 dollars. His statement of the arti cles are as follows : EXPORTS. Dollars. IMPORTS. Dollars. Gold and silver, in coin, bullion, and plate .. Cochineal 17,000,000 2,400,000 Bale goods, including woollens, cottons, linens, 9,200,000 Sugar 1,300,000 300 000 Paper 1,000,000 280 000 1 000 000 100000 Quicksilver . . 650 000 80,000 Iron, manufactured and unmanufactured.... COO 000 90000 Steel 200 000 Vauilla 60,000 Wine 700 000 Jalap m 60 000 300 000 50000 40,000 14 600 000 30,000 21,790,000 This statement, however, must be considered as a mere approximation, which Humboldt, founded on the average of several years of peace, and therefore more applicable to the period antecedent to 1796, when the war with England broke out. Humboldt does not include, in this estimate, the contraband trade on the sea coast, and he has also omitted the indigo imported from Guatemala, and the cacao of Guayaquil, though exported from Vera Cruz, because these articles were not the produce of that kingdom. The difficulty of intercourse at times was so great, that from Acapulco to Lima the passage was sometimes longer than from Lima to Cadiz. Mexico and Peru, though at no great distance, were therefore incapable of maintaining any considerable commerce with each other. The old Acapulco Manilla ship arrived COMMERCE OF MEXICO. 75 once a year at Acapulco with a cargo of Indian goods, valued at 1,200 000 or 1,300,000 dollars, and carried back silver in exchange, with a very small quantity of American produce, and some European goods. The last jfota, under the old system, sailed from Vera Cruz in 1778, and ex- ported the produce of the four preceding years, which amounted in value to Dollars. The exports of produce in 178790, the four first years after the new system was completely established, were valued at 11,394,664 Difference of the four years 8,924,642 The export of 1802 was not, probably, a fair comparison, as that was the first year of peace after the termination of a long war, in which the direct commerce with Spain had been in a great measure suspended. In 1803, the value of exports was more than double that of four years under the old system, and nearly equal to the exports of two years immediately after the introduction of a more open trade. This open trade must not be considered either a free trade, or a trade with a foreign country. It meant, in fact, an open trade with Spain. The trade with foreign countries was really open only after 1808, and it is now nearly closed by a prohibitory tariff. Humboldt gives the following estimate of the total amount, including the contraband : Dollars. Annual value of importation of goods ........................................ 20,000,000 - exportation of produce .............................................. 6,000,000 Balance to be discharged in money ......................................... 14,000,000 Annual produce of the mines .................................. v 23,000,000 Export of money on account of the crown, and of private indi viduals residing in Spain ....................................... 8,000,009 Export to discharge the balance of trade ......................... 14,000,000 Money added to the circulation of the colony ..................... 1,000,000 - 23,000,000 According to Humboldt, the dollars imported into Nueva Espana and Guatemala, in 1803, amounted to 22,000,000; and the exports consisted of pro duce to the value of 9,000,000 dollars, besides 22,500,000 dollars in specie. The commerce of Mexico has been diminishing for the last eighteen years. This is attributable to the continual revolutionary disturbances of the country, the decrease of the wealth of the people, and the pecuniary embarrassments to which most of the inhabitants have been subjected, by the non-payment of go vernment loans, and of unfortunate investments. In 1832 and 1833, the revenue of the custom house amounted to about 12,000,000 per annum. In 1839, on account of the French blockade, it fell to nearly 3,000,000; in 1840, it rose again to 7,000,000; and, in the following year, fell to little more than 5,000,000 which sum may be divided among the different ports as follows, to wit: . Guyamas ................................ 55,814 Monterrey ............................... 96,853 Acapulco ................................ 7 >182 SanBlaa ............ . ................... 208,84,> 676 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. This corresponds to about 12,300,000 dollars value of importation annually divided (according to an estimate), in the following manner: Dollars. From England 4,500,000 France 3,000,000 Hamburg 1,500,000 China 1,000,000 United States 800,000 Spain 500,000 Genoa and other ports 1,000,000 12,300,000 The expense to the government, for the collection of this revenue, was 348,290 dollars. These statements are exclusive of the contraband trade from the United States by Santa Fe, and by the English and Americans by the sea- coasts. The exports from the whole republic (chiefly its own productions), may be rated as follows, viz. : EXPORTS. Amount. dollars. 4 000 000 \ ty y9 Mazatlan and San Bias 2,500 000 Precious metals. 5 000 000 1 Silver through Tampico 7 000 000 1 000 000 500,000 Total 20,000,000 From this estimate, about 18,500,000 dollars in the precious metals, are exported annually from Mexico. The mines produce near 22,000,000 of silver, of which, it is calculated, that 12,000,000 are coined in the seven mints of the republic per annum. There is a difference of about 8,000,000 dollars between he imports and exports, a large portion : all which is estimated to be covered by smuggling. The following comparative estimate of the exports and imports of the United States and of Mexico, for the years 1841 and 1842, cannot fail to be in teresting in this connexion, especially when the comparative extent of territory and population is taken into consideration : EXPORTS. Amount. Amount. dollars. dollars. 20 000 000 18 500 000 1 500 000 Excess of imports over the industrial exports, exclusive 10 500 000 99 357 329 104 117 969 Difference .... 4,760,640 9 805 235 2 740 4ft6 677 297 C 381 4V2 Total.... 9,805,235 104 117 969] Deduct exports of the precious metals 9 805 235 9-1,312,734 COMMERCE OF MEXICO. The United States exported 94,312,734 dollars value, representing her in dustry (exclusive of gold and silver), while Mexico, with a territory nearly as large, exported but 1,500,000 dollars. In addition to this, it must be recollected, that but 2,746,846 dollars of the precious metals were the product of the United States, while at least 15,000,000 dollars were the product of the Mexican mines ; leaving an excess of nearly 3,000,000 above the total annual coinage of the nation. dollars. Whole value of export?, say for 8,000,000 inhabitants . . 20,000,000 17,000,000 104,117,969 This will give the ratio of about 6 dollars 12^ cents for each person in the United States, and 2 dollars 50 cents for each person in Mexico. The contraband trade of Mexico has been carried on there with the utmost audacity; statistical returns must therefore be imperfect. TRADE OF THE SEA PORTS. We have observed that there are no great navigable rivers, and few good harbours. Not a mile of any Mexican river is navigated by steamboats. Probably not 600 miles of all the rivers in the empire could be navigated by the smallest steam vessels nor is there a railroad in Mexico. It is asserted that there is not one in any country in which the Spanish language was spoken. We believe not one in 1846. Nearly all European trade passes through Vera Cruz and Tampico. The backs of mules are the means of transport. PORT OF VERA CRUZ. This port is far from being a good harbour. It is rather a roadstead. The little island of St. Juan de Ulloa, which is entirely covered with the immense fortress, is 500 or 600 yards from the mole of Vera Cruz, between which points all the commercial shipping anchors. It frequently occurs that violent north winds (called " los nortes," or northers) drive the ves sels on shore, and even seriously damage the mole. The anchorage is bad. There is a brilliant revolving light, eighty feet above the level of the sea, on the north-west point of the island. Foreign ships of war anchor about three miles below, near the island of Sacrificios. A very narrow channel affords the only passage for ships of war, which must consequently pass immediately under the guns of the fort. The fortress of St. Juan de Ulloa has always been considered as one of the strongest in the world. When it was blown up in 1839, by the French, its garrison was wretched. Even then it would not have been so readily taken had it not been for the accidental explosion of the powder magazine. It is at present, August, 1846, blockaded by the United States. Mr. Thompson says, " Vera Cruz is much more effectually protected than by all her fortifications, by the northers and vomito (the yellow fever). The former have been the terror of all seamen since the discovery of the country. The latter prevails on all the Atlantic coast of Mexico during the"\vhole year, and with the greatest malignancy, for two-thirds of the year; and it so happens, that the few months of comparative exemption from the ravages of the yellow fever are precisely those when the northers prevail with the most destructive violence. " I can see no advantage which could be gained by getting possession of Vera Cruz G78 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. which would be at all commensurate with the loss of life, from disease alone, in retain ing; it. It is not the only port which Mexico possesses; and if it were, there is no country in the world which would be so little injured by cutting off all its foreign com merce,* for there is no single want of civilised man which Mexico is not capable of fur nishing. The town, it is true, might be destroyed, and heavy losses and much individual suffering be caused, but these are amongst the painful and deplorable consequences, not the legitimate objects of honourable war." The present city of Vera Cruz is not the same which was built by Cortez in 1519, and which was the first European settlement in America. The Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, the rich town of the true cross, is distant about six miles from the present city. Vera Cruz is described as rather a neatly built town, with broad and tolerably clean streets. Mr. Thompson, who gives the last account of it, says, It would no doubt be as healthy as any other place in the same latitude and climate, if it were not for some large swamps in the rear of the city. The vomito is by no means the only, nor do I think it the most fatal of the diseases which prevail there. The bills of mortality in some years exhibit a great number of deaths from some other diseases, whilst in other years much the greatest number die of vomito." COMMERCE of the Port of Vera Cruz. NATIONS. ONE YEAR, From the 1st of January to the 31st of December, 1841. SIX MONTHS, From the 1st of January, 1842 to the 1st of July. Entries. Departures. Entries. Departures. number. 39 45 31 36 5 5 3 4 2 4 5 37 number. 37 42 33 35 5 4 3 4 2 5 5 43 number. 19 26 13 12 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 20 number. 19 21 17 15 4 2 3 26 French .. Total 216 218 102 109 Passengers in 1841 1109 Immigrants 459 Increase of population 614 GROSS Return of British and Foreign Trade at the Port of Vera Cruz, during the Year 1845. A R H I V E D. D E P A R T E ] 0. NATIONS. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes in Pounds Ster ling. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes in Pounds Ster ling. English number. number. number. number. number. number. 164 1 1 480 35 7 ^15 French 17 3 764 241 Spanish 16 2 216 g 1 015 Q 1 016 62 Danish 5 793 3 542 27 3 542 27 2 376 2 366 1 110 1 Total 268 30 416 ~ T REMARKS. The value of foreign importations cannot be obtained at the custom-house, where no account of them is kept : nor are foreign merchants at all disposed to give any such information. COMMERCE OF MEXICO. The PORT OF TAMPICO has a bar at both the entrance of Boca del Rio and Brazo de Santiago, and they only admit small brigs and lesser vessels ; but the rivers which flow into the lagoon are to some extent navigable. It is quite or nearly as unhealthy as Yera Cruz. FOREIGN Trade of Tampico, from the 1st of January to the 31st of December, 1841. ARC I V E D D E P . 1 RT E I ). NATIONS. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Value of Invoice in Pounds Ster ling. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Value of Invoice in Pounds Ster ling. United States British men of- war and number. 24 19 number. 2572 number. 168 49,025 8-2 66735 number. 24 19 number. 2437 number. 155 4 119,840 5- Z 1 120 397 British merchantmen. 9 18 1041 864 70 120 215,900 14 800 8 18 595 885 62 123 4,800 3 960 4 592 42 83 000 3 462 32 35 000 French G 690 65 G4 300 10 1290 110 40000 9 1004 89 26 000 1 786 70 2 000 1 110 9 6000 1 110 9 600 1 62 5 1,200 1 62 5 Total 91 6935 568 526,960 8-2 91 6983 566 1,326,597 5-2 N.B. The pound sterling is valued at five dollars. FOREIGN Trade with Tampico, from the 1st of January to the 31st of June, 1842. ARK I V E D D E P j L R T E I ). NATIONS. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. number. 15 number. 1277 number. 91 dollars. 43 320 number. 13 number. 1092 number. 83 dollars. 171 980 British men-of-war and 14 269,953 14 2,45,240 British merchantmen. 8 20 1270 976 62 142 310,000 58 000 5 17 687 983 39 119 7,125 8250 2 260 19 105,000 2 260 19 5,000 French 4 497 35 200,000 5 541 44 175,000 2 194 22 45,000 4 402 37 4,000 1 136 7 25,000 1 136 7 3.000 1 57 10 6,000 1 57 10 4,000 > i ) ... Total... 67 4667 338 1,062,245 62 4158 358 3,223,505 N.B. The importation iu British vessels and royal mail-steamers, is entirely quicksilver. GROSS Return of British and Foreign Trade at the Port of Tampico, during the Year ending the 31st of December, 1844. A R R I V E D. D E P j 1 RT E I >. NATIONS. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. British number. 9 number. 923 number. 70 dollars. 198,000 number. 8 number. 829 number. 70 dollars. 2,910 (Of the country in which the consul resides.) 14 1582 135 84,000 14 1582 135 25,000* 15 1626 104 21,000 15 1362 99 24,000t Bremen. 1 160 10 5,000 1 160 10 500 Total 39 4291 319 208,000 38 3933 314 52,410 * Chiefly specie. t Including specie. The PORT OF MATAMOROS is formed by the Rio Bravo del Norte, and is forty miles distant from the town, where the custom-house is. There are two harbours, viz., the 680 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS- Brazo de Santiago, and the Boca del Rio ; which latter is about nine miles to the south ward of the former. Both are obstructed by a bar ; that of the Brazo having usually from eight to ten feet water over it ; and that of the Boca del Hio, from four to six feet. These bars are impassable during any strong wind. The anchorage in both harbours is fair, in three to five fathoms ; but there is no perfect security for vessels during the gales so frequent in August and September. Vessels cannot come up the river to the town. In the Brazo, they unload by means of lighters ; and in the Boca del Rio, they discharge on the banks of the river. The tide rises and falls but a few inches. There is no lighthouse, and the coast is very flat. The best indication to an arriving vessel of her proximity to the port, is the discolouration of the water caused by the river, and which extends to some distance at sea. On the arrival of a vessel off either harbour, the pilot goes out to her, if the bar be not too rough. A custom-house officer receives all the papers, giving to the captain a receipt for the same. The whole trade of Matamoras in 1841, was carried on in vessels from the United States Vessels, 32; tonnage, 2345. EXPORTS to the United States. ARTICLES. Value. dlrs. cts. 352,766 87 Hides 117334 00 Wool 15943 00 800 00 Total 486,834 87 IMPORTS from the United States. COUNTRIES. Silks. Woollens. Cottons. Linens. Ironware and ma chinery. Paper. Jewelry. Sundries. TOTAL. dollars. dollars. dollars. 2051 dollars. 40947 dollars. dollars. dollars. dollars. 246 dollars. 43 244 1040 25 046 146 980 23 768 3 921 3 140 903 195 8 060 8060 United States 2340 4 148 25,640 31 480 15,120 270 1680 452 6,6140 5 334 106,900 52 301 6 597 13 245 13 245 * * Total value.... 3380 29,194 205,451 71,312 19,311 1680 452 96,165 426,945 GROSS Return of the Trade of the Port of Matamoros during the Year ending the 31st of December, 1844. A R Pi 1 V E D D E P j 5i R T E 1 ). NATION. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes in Pounds Ster ling. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes in Founds Ster ling. number. 18 number. 933 number. 104 j> 13 264 number. 17 number. 835 number. i)5 10915 French I 1 10 g 5 400 1 110 8 3 380 Hanseatic I 83 7 6 000 83 United States. 13 928 84 40 650 l| 849 77 49 675 Total 33 2054 203 65,314 30 1877 187 63,970 IMPORTS. Flour, spirits, groceries, and dry goods, from New Orleans and England. EXPORTS. S pecie 37, 1 42 49,041 hides, value 17,066 277,H>0 Urn. wool 3,326 COMMERCE OF MEXICO. G8J RETURN of the Royal Mail Company s Ships which arrived ami departed from T-m during the Year ending the 31st of December, 1S44. NAME. ARRIVED. DEPARTED. Date. Where from. Cargoes. Date. Where to. Specie shippnl 200,000 81,000 16,600 9,000 232,000 1 i,r,oo 7,600 300,000 8,000 6,000 Forth January 20. February 18. March 19. April 1C. May 16. June 15. August 14. September 18. October 22. November 17. December 18. Southampton, do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. Quicksilver, the total value of which taken from the Consignees was 154,000 January 30. February 21. March 22. April 24. May 24. June 21. August 2G. September 26. October 20, November 22. December 23. Southampton, do. do do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. Dee Tweed Teviot Medway Trent Avon Forth Dee Total value .... .... 154,000 .... .... 930,700 " Exchange of Money, Weights, and Measures. 1 dollar =. 8 rials, 1 rial = 2 medios. " The currency of the place, " dinero provisional" although it consists precisely of the same denominations, is worth 2J per cent less than the new Mexican dollar, which is the only coin exported or received at the Custom-house. That is to say, 2^ per cent is the premium paid on the spot, in exchanging one for the other. But the difference be tween the intrinsic value of the two coins is, I understand, much greater. 1 quintal = 4 arrobas = 100 Ibs. Spanish ; 100 Spanish Ibs. == 101.75 Ibs. Eng lish. 1 vara=z36 inches, 108 varas = 100 English yards. Pilotage. At the Boca del Rio, five dollars per foot draught of water. At the Brazo de Santiago, three dollars per foot draught of water. A bill of health is always required. Charges and Dues for Lights, Buoys, Quays, Wharfs, &c. None. PORTS OF THE PACIFIC. AcAPULCO, or Los REYESES situated on the coast of the South Sea. Its inhabit ants formerly consisted of nearly 400 families of Chinese, mulattoes, and negroes. The greater part of the town is on the sea shore. The air is extremely hot and moist, independent of its being in the torrid zone, it is entirely shut out from the north winds, being surrounded by lofty serrania. These circumstances render it very unhealthy, especially in the wet season, on account of the damps and sea- winds blowing from the south-east to the great detriment of the inhabitants and merchants who come to trade here ; this being the principal cause why scarcely any Spanish families ever resided here. Owing to the barren state of the land it is forced to seek its necessary supplies from the Indian settlements. The only commerce which it can be said to have ever had was a fair, held on the arrival of the galleons formerly from China ; and when those departed there were no other means for the people of maintaining a trade. At the distance of a musket-shot, and on a promontory running far into the sea, is situate the castle and royal fort of San Diego, mounted with artillery. The port is safe, and so spacious that 500 ships can lay at anchor in it with ease. It is surrounded by lofty rising grounds. Its principal mouth is on the south side, formed by an VOL. i. 4 s 682 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. island of an oblong figure, and somewhat inclining to the south-west. The same island forms also another mouth, which they call chica, or little. The canals on either side of the island are twenty-five fathoms deep. The chief trade of Acapulco was its commerce with Manilla. Lat., according to Humboldt, 16 deg. 50 min. 29 sec. ; long, by ditto, 99 deg. 46 min. Lat. } according to the Spaniards, 16 deg. 50 min. 30 sec. ; long, by ditto, 100 deg. Both longitudes being measured from the meridian of Greenwich. The Ports of SAN BLAS and MAZATLAN are the other principal ports; as harbours, neither are good. We have already given all the information we could obtain relative to the ports and trade of San Francisco and California. GROSS Return of British and Foreign Trade at the principal Ports within the Consulate of San Bias during the Year ending the 31st of December, 1845. PORT of San Bias. NATION. ARRIVED. DEPARTED. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. British number. 4 1 4 4 1 4 2 1 1 1 2 29 number. 1125 101 61 382 1115 940 175 500 390 220 206 225 210 700 210 62 GO number. 59 8 8 8 59 51 11 37 24 12 14 14 16 32 14 dollars. 135,000 110,000 PORT OF MA 274,000 118,000 72,500 123,000 60,000 24,000 30,000 202,000 40,000 1,188,500 237,700 number. 1 1 ZATLAN. 4 5 2 2 1 2 number. 1125 101 <il 382 11G5 1310 421 128 390 220 806 225 210 700 6G44 number. 59 8 8 8 68 69 22 9 24 14 14 16 32 3G3 dollars. 44,000 8,000 7,000 381,500 160,600 250,000 3,^00 84,000 34,500 300,000 50,000 Danish American British American Chilian Bremen Danish.... Ecuador Spanish Swedish Total.. . . 367 27 1,323,100 264,620 Or at the exchange of 48d. per dollar STATEMENT of all Port Dues and other Charges on Foreign Shipping at the principal Ports of the Mexican Republic. PORTS. Tonnage Duty. Water Dues. Pilotage. Ballast Charge. Bill of Health. Fee to Cap tain of the Port. Stamps. Vera Cru/ dollars, ji dollars. dollars. 38i each dollars. 55 per barge dollars. dollars. dollars. li per ton. 2 per 9 feet measure ship. 1 per ton. load of 25 tons. 10 10 10 S If ment. gratification 6 g San Bias A to pilot 1(J| 16, and for Mazatlau \. U .... .... .... shifting their ship each time, 4 REMARKS. Whether a ship takes a pilot or not, the pilotage money is exacted on foreign shipping. The charge for ballast is exorbitant, and presses severely on owners of foreign vessels. The supply for ballast is a monopoly in the hands of barge pro prietors. No foreign ship is allowed to convey its own ballast from the beach, which is all sand, and superabundant. Could the Mexican government be prevailed on to permit COMMERCE OF MEXICO. G83 each ship to ballast with its own boats, it would have the effect of reducing the prire of ballast, and would prove a great relief to British ship owners. Vouchers are not given in all cases. Vouchers are here given only on water dues, pilotage, and bill of health ; the exceptions being on tonnage duty, fees to captain of the port, and stamps. There are no lights on the coast in this vicinity. Any assistance afforded to vessels in distress is an enormous and extra charge, at the will or caprice of the solitary pilot establishment at the bar, which is not under the control of the government. Vouchers are given by the custom-house on payment of the tonnage duty, and for the captain of the port for fees levied by him. The dues here specified are exacted on all foreign vessels whatever, and under every circumstance, whether loaded or in ballast, when calling for orders or for supplies. Every vessel letting go her anchor in the harbours or roadstead, even if there is no cargo on board, is subject to these dues ; and if loaded the cargo must all be discharged, whether destined for that port, or any other place whatever. There are no light-houses, buoys, or moorings, nor any establishment of pilots on the west coast of Mexico; nor are any services rendered or advantages existing which would warrant the exorbitant tonnage dues and charges exacted. No advantages are enjoyed by foreign vessels from which British vessels are ex cluded. Mexican vessels employed in the coasting trade are exempted from all the charges specified in this statement. No foreign vessels are permitted to carry on the coasting trade. BRITISH CONSULATE, Mexico, 30th of May, 1845. No country imposes such enormous charges on shipping as Mexico. For instance : CHARGES on British Shipping by the Authorities of Tampico. Example : Brig Tom- linson, 125 Tons Register. dollars, cents. s s. d. PILOTAGE. 125 at 4 25 13 ., 4 3 12 To the pilot 6 50 i, 4 1 G 149 50 4 29 18 TONNAGE DUTY. 135 tons, Mexican measurement, no 202 50 ,, 4 40 10 352 ,, 4 70 8 BILL OF HEALTH. 10 4 200 Captain of the port fees, no voucher. 10 ,. 4 200 8 50 4 1 14 330 50 4 76 2 Tampico, the 28th of November, 1844. JAMES WILLIAM GLASS, (Consul). G84 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER XXXVIII. TREATIES OF AMITY, COMMERCE, AND NAVIGATION, BETWEEN THE GOVERN MENT OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE GOVERNMENTS OF THE SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Treaty with the United States of Mexico. ARTICLE I. There shall be perpetual amity between the dominions and subjects of his Ma jesty, the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the United States of Mexico, and their citizens. ARTICLE II. There shall be, between all the territories of his Britannic Majesty in Europe and the territories of Mexico, a reciprocal freedom of commerce. The inhabitants of the two countries respectively, shall have liberty freely and securely to come, with their ships and cargoes to all places, ports, and rivers in the territories aforesaid, saving only such particular ports to which other foreigners shall not be permitted to come, to enter into the same, and to remain and reside in any part of the said territories respectively ; also to hire and occupy houses and warehouses for the purposes of their commerce ; and, generally, the merchants and traders of each nation, respectively, shall enjoy the most complete protection and security for their commerce. In like manner, the respective ships of war, and post-office packets of the two countries, shall have liberty freely and securely to come to all harbours, rivers, and places, saving only such par ticular ports (if any) to which other foreign ships of war and packets shall not be permitted to come, to enter into the same, to anchor, and to remain there and refit ; subject always to the laws and statues of the two countries, respectively. By the right of entering the places, ports, and rivers mentioned in this article, the privilege of carrying on the coasting trade is not understood, in which national vessels only are permitted to engage. ARTICLE III. His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, engages further, that the inhabitants of Mexico shall have the like l-iberty of commerce and na vigation stipulated for in the preceding article, in all his dominions situated out of Europe, to the full extent in which the same is permitted at present, or shall be permitted hereafter, to any other nation. ARTICLE IV. No higher or other duties shall be imposed on the importation into the domi nions of his Britannic Majesty, of any article of the growth, produce, or manufacture of Mexico, and no other or higher duties shall be imposed on the importation into the territories of Mexico, of any articles of the growth, produce, or manufacture of his Britannic Majesty s dominions, than are or shall be payable on the like articles, being the growth, produce, or manufacture of any foreign country ; nor shall any other or higher duties or charges be imposed in the territories or dominions of either of the contracting parties, on the exportation of any articles to the territories of the other, than such as are or may be payable on the exportation of the like articles to any other foreign country; nor shall any prohibition be imposed upon the exportation of any articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of his Britannic Majesty s dominions, or of the said terri tories of Mexico, to or from the said dominions of his Britannic Majesty, or to or from the said territories of Mexico, which shall not equally extend to all other nations. ARTICLE V. No higher or other duties or charges on account of tonnage, light or harbour dues, pilotage, salvage in case of damage or shipwreck, or any other local charges, shall be im posed, in any of the ports of Mexico, on British vessels, than those payable, in the same ports, by Mexican vessels ; nor, in the ports of his Britannic Majesty s territories, on Mexican vessels, than shall be payable, in the same ports, on British vessels. ARTICLE VI. The same duties shall be paid on the importation into the territories of Mexico, of any article the growth, produce, or manufacture of his Britannic Majesty s dominions, whether such importation shall be in Mexican or in British vessels ; and the same duties shall be paid on the importation into the dominions of his Britannic Majesty, of any article the growth, produce, or manufacture of Mexico, whether such importation shall be in British or in Mexican vessels. The same duties shall be paid, and the same bounties and drawbacks allowed, on the exportation to Mexico of any articles of the growth, produce, or manufacture of his Britannic Majesty s do minions, whether such exportation shall be in Mexican or in British vessels ; and the same duties shall be paid, and the same bounties and drawbacks allowed, on the exportation of any articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of Mexico, to his Britannic Majesty s dominions, whether such exportation shall be in British or in Mexican vessels. ARTICLE VII. In order to avoid any misunderstanding with respect to the regulations which may respectively constitute a British or Mexican vessel, it is hereby agreed that all vessels built in the dominions of his Britanru c Majesty, or vessels which shall have been captured from an enemy by his Britannic Majesty s shjps of war, or by subjects of his said Majesty, furnished with letters of mark by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, and regularly condemned in one of his said TREATIES OF COMMERCE. G85 Majesty s prize courts as a lawful prize, or vvhich shall have been condemned in any comm-t.-i.t court for the breach of the laws made for the prevention of the slave-trade, and owned oanatod and registered according to the laws of Great Britain, shall be considered as British v< that all vessels built in the territories of Mexico, or captured from the enemy by the si-ip s , Mexico, and condemned under similar circumstances, and which shall be owned by any citizen or citizens thereof, and whereof the master and three-fourths of the mariners are citizens of Mexico excepting where the laws provide for any extreme cases, shall be considered as Mexican vessels. And it is further agreed, that every vessel, qualified to trade as above described, under the provisions of this treaty, shall be furnished with a register, passport, or sea-letter, under the signa ture of the proper person authorised to grant the same, according to the laws of the respective countries (the form of which shall be communicated), certifying the name, occupation, and resi dence of the owner or owners, in the dominions of his Britannic Majesty, or in the territories of Mexico, as the case may be ; and that he, or they, is, or are, the sole owner or owners, in the pro portion to be specified ; together with the name, burden, and description of the vessel, as to build and measurement, and the several particulars constituting the national character of the vessel, as the case may be. ARTICLE VIII. All merchants, commanders of ships, and others, the subjects of his Britannic Majesty, shall have full liberty, in all the territories of Mexico, to manage their own affairs them selves, or to commit them to the management of whomsoever they please, as broker, factor, agent, or interpreter ; nor shall they be obliged to employ any other persons for those purposes than those employed by Mexicans, nor to pay them any other salary or remuneration than such as is paid, in like cases, by Mexican citizens ; and absolute freedom shall be allowed, in all cases, to the buyer and seller, to bargain and fix the price of any goods, wares, or merchandise, imported into, or exported from Mexico, as they shall see good, observing the laws and established customs of the country. The same privileges shall be enjoyed in the dominions of his Britannic Majesty, by the citizens of Mexico, under the same conditions. The citizens and subjects of the contracting parties, in the territories of each other, shall re ceive and enjoy full and perfect protection for their persons and property, and shall have free and open access to the courts of justice in the said countries, respectively, for the prosecution and de fence of their just rights ; and they shall be at liberty to employ, in all causes, the advocates, at torneys, or agents of whatever description, whom they may think proper; and they shall enjoy, in this respect, the same rights and privileges therein, as native citizens. ARTICLE IX. In whatever relates to the succession to personal estates, by will or otherwise, and the disposal of personal property of every sort and denomination, by sale, donation, exchange, or testament, or in any other manner whatsoever, as also the administration of justice, the sub jects and citizens of the two contracting parties shall enjoy, in their respective dominions and ter ritories, the same privileges, liberties, and rights, as native subjects ; and shall not be charged, in any of these respects, with any higher imposts or duties than those which are paid, or may be paid, by the native subjects, or citizens of the power in whose dominions or territories they may be re sident. ARTICLE X. In all that relates to the police of the ports, the lading and unlading of ships, the safety of merchandise, goods, and effects, the subjects of his Britannic Majesty, and the citi zens of Mexico, respectively, shall be subject to the local laws and regulations of the dominions and territories in which they may reside. They shall be exempted from all compulsory military service, whether by sea or land. No forced loans shall be levied upon them ; nor shall their pro perty be subject to any other charges, requisitions, or taxes, than such as are paid by the native subjects or citizens of the contracting parties in their respective dominions. ARTICLE XI. It shall be free for each of the two contracting parties to appoint consuls for the protection of trade, to reside in the dominions and territories of the other party : but, before any consul shall act as such, he shall, in the usual form, be approved and admitted by the govern ment to which he is sent; and either of the contracting parties may except from the residence of consuls such particular places as either of them may judge fit to be excepted. The Mexican dip lomatic agents and consuls shall enjoy, in the dominions of his Britannic Majesty, whatever privileges, exceptions, and immunities arc or shall be granted to agents of the same rank belonging to the most favoured nation : and, in like manner, the diplomatic agents and consuls of his Britan nic Majesty in the Mexican territories shall enjoy, according to the strictest reciprocity, whatever privileges, exceptions, and immunities are or may be granted to the Mexican diplomatic agents and consuls in the dominions of his Britannic Majesty. ARTICLE XII. For the better security of commerce between the subjects of his Britannic Majesty and the citizens of the Mexican states, it is agreed that if, at any time, any interruption of friendly intercourse, or any rupture should unfortunately take place between the two contract ing parties, the merchants residing upon the coasts shall be allowed six months, and those of the interior a whole year, to wind up their accounts, and dispose of their property ; and that a safe conduct shall be given them to embark at the port which they shall themselves select. All who are established in the respective dominions and territories of the two contracting parties, u 086 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the exercise of any trade or special emploj ment, shall have the privilege of remaining and con tinuing such trade and employment therein, without any manner of interruption, in full enjoy ment of their liberty and property, as long as they behave peaceably, and commit no offence against the laws ; and their goods and effects, of whatever description they may be, shall not be liable to seizure or sequestration, or to any other charges or demands than those which may be made upon the like effects or property, belonging to the native subjects or citizens of the respec tive dominions or territories in which such subjects or citizens may reside. In the same case, debts between individuals, public funds, and the shares of companies, shall never be confiscated, sequestered, or detained. ARTICLE XIII. The subjects of his Britannic Majesty, residing in the Mexican territories, shall enjoy, in their houses, persons and properties, the protection of the government ; and, con tinuing in possession of what they now enjoy, they shall not be disturbed, molested, or annoyed in any manner, on account of their religion, provided they respect that of the nation in which they reside, as well as the constitution, laws, and customs of the country. They shall continue to enjoy, to the full, the privilege already granted to them of burying, in the places already assigned for that purpose, such subjects of his Britannic Majesty as may die within the Mexican territo ries ; nor shall the funerals and sepulchres of the dead be disturbed in any way, or upon any ac count. The citizens of Mexico shall enjoy, in all the dominions of his Britannic Majesty, the same protection, and shall be allowed the free exercise of their religion, in public or private, either within their own houses, or in the chapels and places of worship set apart for that pur pose. ARTICLE XIV. The subjects of his Britannic Majesty shall, on no account or pretext what soever, be disturbed or molested in the peaceable possession and exercise of whatever rights, pri vileges, and immunities they have at any time enjoyed within the limits described and laid down in a convention, signed between his said Majesty and the King of Spain, on the 14th of July, 1786; whether such rights, privileges, and immunities shall be derived from the stipulations of the said convention, or from any other concession which may at any time have been made by the King of Spain, or his predecessors, to British subjects and settlers residing and following their lawful oc cupations within the limits aforesaid : the two contracting parties reserving, however, for some more fitting opportunity the further arrangements on this article. ARTICLE XV. The government of Mexico engages to co-operate with his Britannic Majesty for the total abolition of the slave-trade, and to prohibit all persons inhabiting within the territories of Mexico, in the most effectual manner, from taking any share in such trade. ARTICLE XVI. The two contracting parties reserve to themselves the right of treating and agreeing hereafter, from time to time, upon such other articles as may appear to them to contribute still further to the improvement of their mutual intercourse, and the advancement of the general interests of their respective subjects and citizens ; and such articles as may be so agreed upon, shall, when duly ratified, be regarded as forming a part of the present treaty, and shall have the same force as those now contained in it. ARTICLE XVII. The present treaty shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at London, within the space of six months, or sooner if possible. In witness whereof the respective plenipotentiaries have signed the same, and have affixed thereto their respective seals. Done at London, the twenty-sixth day of December, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and twenty-six. (L.S.) WILLIAM HUSKISSON. (L.S.) JAMES J. MORIER Additional Articles. ARTICLE I. Whereas, in the present state of Mexican shipping, it would not be possible for Mexico to receive the full advantage of the reciprocity established by the Articles V., VI., VII. of the Treaty signed this day, if that part of the Vllth Article which stipulates that, in order to be considered as a Mexican ship, a ship shall actually have been built in Mexico, should be strictly and literally observed, and immediately brought into operation it is agreed that, for the space of ten years, to be reckoned from the date of the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty, any ships, wheresoever built, being bow fide the property of, and wholly owned by one or more citizens of Mexico, and whereof the master and three-fourths of the mariners, at least, are also natural born citizens of Mexico, or persons domiciliated in Mexico, by act of the government, as lawful sulyects of Mexico, to be certified according to the laws of that country, shall be considered as Mexican ships ; his Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland re serving to himself the right, at the end of the said term of ten years, to claim the principle of reciprocal restriction stipulated for in the Article VII. above referred to, if the interests of British navigation shall be found to be prejudiced by the present exception to that reciprocity, in favour of Mexican shipping. ARTICLE II. It is further agreed that, for the like term of ten years, the stipulations contained TREATIES OF COMMERCE. ^nn 1 ^ 1 f . th * P rese , n V rea ty Sha11 b / sus P endcd J a " d > Hen thereof, it is hereby until the expiration of the said term of ten years, British ships entering into th. . from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or any of his Britmte Majesty s dominions and all articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United Kin- dom, or of any of the said dominions, imported in such ships, shall pay no other or higher dull," than are or may hereafter be payable, in the said ports, by the ships, and the like goods, the growth produce, or manufacture of the most favoured nation : and, reciprocally, it is agreed that Mexican ships entering into the ports of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or any otlu-r ot his Britannic Majesty s dominions, from any port of the states of Mexico, and all articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of the said states, imported in such ships, shall pay no other or higher duties than are or may hereafter be payable, in the said ports, by the ships and the like goods, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the most favoured nation ; and that no higher duties shall be paid, or bounties or drawbacks allowed, on the exportation of any article the growth, produce, or manufacture of the dominions of either country, in the ships of the other, than upon the exportation of the like articles in the ships of any other foreign country. It being understood that, at the end of the said term of ten years, the stipulations of the said Vth and Vlth Articles shall, from thenceforward, be in full force between the two countries. The present additional articles shall have the same force and validity as if they were inserted, word for word, in the treaty signed this day. They shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at the same time. Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, between His Majesty and the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata. Signed at Buenos Ayres, February 2, 1825. ARTICLE I. There shall be perpetual amity between the dominions and subjects of his Ma jesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata and their inhabitants. ARTICLE II. There shall be, between all the territories of his Britannic Majesty in Europe, and the territories of the United Provinces of Rio dela Plata, a reciprocal freedom of commerce. The inhabitants of the two countries, respectively, shall have liberty freely and securely to come, with their ships and cargoes, to all such places, ports, and rivers, in the territories aforesaid, to which other foreigners are or may be permitted to come, to enter into the same, and to remain and reside in any part of the said territories respectively; also to hire and occupy houses and warehouses for the purposes of their commerce ; and, generally, the merchants and traders of each nation, respectively, shall enjoy the most complete protection and security for their com merce , subject always to the laws and statutes of the two countries respectively. ARTICLE III. Same as third article in Mexican treaty. ARTICLE V. No higher or other duties or charges on account of tonnage, light, or harbour dues, pilotage, salvage in case of damage or shipwreck, or any other local charges, shall be im posed, in any of the ports of the said United Provinces, on British vessels of the burthen of above 120 tons, than those payable in the same ports by vessels of the said United Provinces of the same burthen ; nor in the ports of any of his Britannic Majesty s territories, on the vessels of the United Provinces of above 120 tons, than shall be payable in the same ports on British vessels of the same burthen. ARTICLE VI. Same as in Mexican treaty. ARTICLE VII. In order to avoid any misunderstanding with respect to the regulations which may respectively constitute a British vessel or a vessel of the said United Provinces, it is hereby agreed that all vessels built in the dominions of his Britannic Majesty, and owned, navigated, and registered according to the laws of Great Britain, shall be considered as British vessels ; and that all vessels built in the territories of the said United Provinces, properly registered and owned by the citizens thereof, or any of them, and whereof the master and three-fourths of the mariners, at least, are citizens of the said United Provinces, shall be considered as vessels of the said United Provinces. ARTICLE VIII. All merchants, commanders of ships, and others the subjects of his Britannic Majesty, shall have the same liberty in all the territories of the said United Provinces as the natives thereof, to manage their own affairs themselves, or to commit them to the management of whomsoever they please as broker, factor, agent, or interpreter ; nor shall they be obliged to employ any other persons for those purposes, nor to pay them any salary or remuneration unless they shall "choose to employ them; and absolute freedom shall be allowed, in all cases, to the buyer and seller to bargain and fix the price of any goods, wares, or merchandise imported into, or exported from, the said United Provinces, as they shall see good. ARTICLE IX. In whatever relates to the lading and unlading of ships, the safety of merchandise, goods, and effects, the disposal of property of every sort and denomination, by sale, donation, or exchange, or in any other manner whatsoever, as also the administration of justice, the subjects and citizens of the two contracting parties shall enjoy, in their respective dominions, the same 688 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. privileges, liberties, and rights as the most favoured nation, and shall not be charged, in any of these respects, with any higher duties or imposts than those which are paid, or may be paid by the native subjects or citizens of the power in whose dominions they may be resident. They shall be exempted from all compulsory military service whatsoever, whether by sea or land, and from all forced loans or military exactions or requisitions ; neither shall they be compelled to pay any ordinary taxes under any pretext whatsoever, greater than those that are paid by native subjects or citizens. ARTICLE X. It shall be free for each of the two contracting parties to appoint consuls for the protection of trade, to reside in the dominions and territories of the other party ; but before any consul shall act as such he shall, in the usual form, be approved and admitted by the government to which he is sent ; and either of the contracting parties may except from the residence of consuls such particular places as either of them may judge fit to be so excepted. ARTICLE XL For the better security of commerce between the subjects of his Britannic Majesty and the inhabitants of the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, it is agreed that if at any time any interruption of friendly commercial intercourse, or any rupture should unfortunately take place between the two contracting parties, the subjects or citizens of either of the two con tracting parties residing within the dominions of the other shall have the privilege of remaining and continuing their trade therein, without any manner of interruption, so long as they behave peaceably and commit no offence against the laws ; and their effects and property, whether in trusted to individuals or to the state, shall not be liable to seizure or sequestration, or to any other demands than those which may be made upon the like effects or property belonging to the native inhabitants of the state in which such subjects or citizens may reside. ARTICLE XII. The subjects of his Britannic Majesty residing in the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata shall not be disturbed, persecuted, or annoyed on account of their religion, but they shall have perfect liberty of conscience therein, and to celebrate divine service either within their own private houses or in their own particular churches or chapels, which they shall be at liberty to build and maintain in convenient places, approved of by the government of the said United Provinces : liberty shall also be granted to bury the subjects of his Britannic Majesty who may die in the territories of the said United Provinces in their own burial places, which, in the same manner, they may freely establish and maintain. In the like manner, the citizens of the said United Provinces shall enjoy, within all the dominions of his Britannic Majesty, a perfect and unrestrained liberty of conscience, arid of exercising their religion publicly or privately, within their own dwelling-houses or in the chapels and places of worship appointed for that purpose, agreeably to the system of toleration established in the dominions of his said majesty. ARTICLE XIII. Same as ninth article in Mexican treaty, ARTICLE XIV. His Britannic Majesty being extremely desirous of totally abolishing the slave trade, the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata enga ge to co-operate with his Britannic Majesty for the completion of so beneficent a work, and to prohibit all persons inhabiting within the said United Provinces, or subject to their jurisdiction, in the most effectual manner and by the most solemn laws from taking any share in such trade. Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, between Great Britain and Colombia. Signed at Bogota, 18th April, 1825. ARTICLE I. There shall be perpetual, firm, and sincere amity between the dominions and subjects of his Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, his heirs and successors, and the state and people of Colombia. ARTICLE II. There shall be between all the territories of his Britannic Majesty in Europe and the territories of Colombia a reciprocal freedom of commerce. The subjects and citizens of the two countries, respectively, shall have liberty freely and securely to come, with their ships and cargoes, to all such places, ports, and rivers, in the territories aforesaid, to which other foreigners arc or may be permitted to come, to enter into the same, and to remain and reside in any part of the said territories respectively ; also to hire and occupy houses and warehouses for the purposes of their commerce ; and, generally, the merchants and traders of each nation respectively shall enjoy the most complete protection and security for their commerce, subject always to the laws and statutes of the two countries respectively. ARTICLES III. IV. V. and VI. Same as in Mexican treaty. ARTICLE VII. In order to avoid any misunderstanding with respect to the regulations which may respectively constitute a British or a Colombian vessel, it is hereby agreed that all vessels built in the dominions of his Britannic Majesty and owned by British subjects, or by any of them, and whereof the master and three-fourths of the mariners, at least, are British subjects, excepting where the laws provide for any extreme case, shall be considered as British vessels ; and that all vessels built in the territories of Columbia, and owned by the citizens thereof, or any of them, and whereof the master and three-fourths of the mariners, at least, are Colombian citizens, excepting where the laws provide for any extreme cases, shall be considered as Colombian vessels. ARTICLES VIII., IX., X., XL, and XIL Same as in treaty with Buenos Ayres, TREATIES OF CO.MMEUCi:. ARTICLE XIII.-.Tlie government of Colombia engages to co-opcrati- w,th hi, li r ii-,,,,r,r Majesty for the total abolition of the slave trade, and to prohibit all persons inhabiting within the territories of Columbia, in the most effectual manner, from taking any share in such trade ARTICLE XIV. And forasmuch as it would be convenient and useful for the purpose of facilitating the mutual good understanding between the two contracting parties, and for avoidi,,- all difficulties henceforward, that other articles should be proposed and added to the treaty, which articles, both from a want of due time for their consideration, as well as from the pressure of circumstances, cannot at present be drawn up with required perfection, it ha, hn-ii and is agreed, on the part of both powers, that they will, with the least possible delay, come forward to treat and agree upon such articles as may be wanting to this treaty and ilrcnn ,| mutually beneficial, and which articles, when they shall be agreed upon and shall be duly ratifu-d, shall form part of the present treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation. Additional Article. Whereas in the present state of the Colombian shipping, it would not be possible for Colombia to take advantage of the reciprocity established by Articles V., VI., and VII. of the treaty signed this day, if that part should be carried into immediate effect which stipulates that in order to be considered a Colombian ship astiip shall actually have been built in Colombia it is agreed that for the space of seven years, to be reckoned from the date of the ratification of this treaty, any ships, wheresoever built, being bonafidc the property of any of the citizens of Colombia, and whereof the master and three-fourths of the mariners, at least, are also Colombian citizens excepting where the laws provide for any extreme cases, shall be considered as Colombian ships ; his Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland reserving to himself the right, at the end of the said term of seven years, to claim the principle of reciprocal restriction stipulated for in article VII. above referred to, if the Interests of British navigation shall be found to be prejudiced by the present exception to that reciprocity, in favour of Colombian shipping. The present additional article shall have the same force and validity as if it were inserted, word for word, in the treaty signed this day. It shall be ratified, and the ratification shall be exchanged at the same time. In witness whereof, the respective plenipotentiaries have signed the same, and have affixed thereto the seals of their arms. Convention between His Majesty and the State of Venezuela. Signed at London, 29tk October, 1834. Whereas a treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, consisting of fifteen articles, was con cluded between his Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the state of Colombia, which said treaty, together with an additional article thereto, was signed at Bogota, on the 18th day of April, 1825 ; and whereas, after reciting that extensive commercial intercourse having been established for a series of years befween the dominions of his Britannic Majesty in Europe and the several provinces and countries of America which (then united) con stituted the state of Colombia, it seemed good for the security as well as encouragement of such commercial intercourse, and for the maintenance of good understanding between his said Britannic Majesty and the said state, that the relations then subsisting between them should be regnlarly acknowledged and confirmed by the signature of a treaty of amity, Commerce, and navigation ; ,^ij was therein Britannic Majesty in Europe ^^ *^~ ~ - said treaty, the provinces of Venezuela were united with, and formed a component part of, tl state of Colombia, but have since that time finally and entirely separated themselves therefrom, and from all other countries or provinces then or now united therewith, and have become a separate and independent state under a distinct government : and whereas it is desirable that t commercial relations or intercourse now or lately subsisting between the territories of his B: Majesty in Europe and the territories of the state of Venezuela respectively should continue and be carried on in the same manner, and under the same regulations and conditions as are ex pressed and specified in the aforesaid treaty between his said majesty and the state of Colombia, and that his majesty should acknowledge the independence of the said state of Venezuela ; it has been accordingly agreed to conclude a convention for the purposes aforesaid. ARTICLE I.-His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire and a the state of Venezuela, the independence of which state is hereby acknowledged ^ogn^ declared by his said majesty, mutually agree to adopt and confirm, as effectually as i the s. were inserted word for word therein, the several articles and provisions of the aforesaid tre. VOL. I. 4 T knowled^ed and confirmed by the signature of a treaty of amity, commerce, and navi is in and bv the said treaty declared and agreed that, under certain regulations and conditions erein specified, there should be reciprocal freedom of commerce between the territories of his ritannic Maiestv in Europe and the territories of Colombia : and whereas at the signing of the 690 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. eluded between his said Majesty and the state of Colombia, together with the aforesaid additional article thereto ; and that all the matters and things contained in such treaty and additional article shall, mutatis mutandis, from and after the conclusion of the present convention, be applied to the high contracting parties, their subjects and citizens, as effectually as if they were recited word for word herein ; confirming and approving hereby all matters and things done or to oc done by their respective subjects and citizens, under the aforesaid treaty, and in execution thereof. ARTICLE II. The high contracting parties further mutually agree to adopt and confirm, as part of the present convention, as effectually as if the same were inserted word for word herein, the declaration explanatory of that part of the Vllth article of the aforesaid treaty concluded between his Britannic Majesty and the state of Colombia, wherein it was defined what ships should be considered as entitled to the privileges of British and Colombian ships, which declara tion was signed at London on the 7th day of November, 1825, by the Right Honourable George Canning, then his Britannic Majesty s Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, on behalf of his said majesty, and by Senor Manuel Jose" Hurtado, plenipotentiary of the state of Colombia, on behalf of the said state ; and that the said declaration, and the several provisions therein con tained shall, from and after the ratification of the present convention, mutatis mutandis, be applied to his said majesty and his subjects, and to the said state of Venezuela and its citizens, as effectu- allv as if the same were inserted word for word herein. PERU. Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, between his Britannic Majesty and the Peru-Bolivian Confederation. Signed at Lima, June 5, 1837. ARTICLE I. Extensive commercial intercourse having been established for some time between the dominions of his Britannic Majesty and the States which compose the Peru-Bolivian Confe deration, it seems good for the security as well as the encouragement of such commercial inter course, and for the maintenance of good understanding between his Britannic Majesty and the said Confederation, that the relation: now subsisting between them should be regularly acknow ledged and confirmed by the signature of a treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation. ARTICLES II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII. Same as in Mexican treaty. ARTICLE IX. In whatever relates to the police of the ports, the lading and unlading of ships, the safety of merchandise, goods, and effects, the succession to personal estates by will or other wise, and the disposal of personal property of every sort and denomination, by sale, donation, ex change, or testament, or in any other manner whatsoever, as also the administration of justice, the subjects and citizens of the two contracting parties shall enjoy, in their respective dominions and territories, the same privileges, liberties, and rights as native subjects ; and shall not be charged, in any of these respects, with any higher imposts or duties than those which are paid, or may be paid, by the native subjects or citizens of the power in whose dominions or territories they may be resident ; subject of course to the local laws and regulations of such dominions or ter ritories. In the event of any subject or citizen of either of the two contracting parties dying without will or testament, in the dominions or territories of the said contracting parties, the consul-general or consul of the said nation, or, in his absence, his representative, shall have the right to nomi nate curators, to take charge of the property of tire deceased, so far as the laws of each country will permit, for the benefit of his lawful heirs and creditors, without interference, giving convenient notice thereof to the authorities of the countries. ARTICLE X. The subjects of his Britannic Majesty residing in the Peru-Bolivian Confedera tion, and the natives and citizens of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation residing in the dominions of his Britannic Majesty, shall be exempted from all compulsory military service whatsoever, whether by sea or land, and from all forced loans, or military exactions or requisitions ; neither shall they be compelled under any pretext whatsoever, to pay any other ordinary charges, requisi tions, or taxes greater than those that are paid by native subjects or citizens of the territories of the contracting parties, respectively. ARTICLES XI. and XII. Same as in Mexican treaty. ARTICLE XIII. The subjects of his Britannic Majesty, and the citizens of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, respectively, shall enjoy in their houses, persons, and properties, the protection of the government, and continue in possession of the privileges which they now enjoy. And the subjects of his Britannic Majesty residing in the territories of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, shall furthermore enjoy the most perfect and entire security of conscience, without being annoyed, prevented, or disturbed on account of their religious belief. Neither shall they be annoyed, mo- TREATIES OF COMMERCE. Icstqd, or disturbed in the proper exercise of their religion, provided that this tik.- nl-i houses, and with a decorum due to divine worship, with due re nect to th \ l " pnvate torn, of the country. In the like manner, the JKSrf^TR^*^ enjoy, withm all the dominions of his Britannic Majesty, a perfect and unrJu, ,]. conscience, and of exercising their religion publicly o/ privately, within the r o houses or m the chapels and places of worship appointed for that purpose, aL^to*? tern of toleration established to the dominions of his said Majesty. Liberty shall also be g anted to bury the subjects or citizens of either of the two contracting parties, who may die in f e do minions or territories of the other, in burial places of their own, which, in the same manner the! may freely establish and maintain ; nor shall the funerals or sepulchres of the dead be disti in any way, or upon any account. ARTICLES XIV., XV., XVI. Same as in Mexican treaty. Additional Articles. ARTICLE L -Whereas, in the present state of Peru-Bolivian shipping, it would not be possible for the said Confederation to receive the full advantage of the reciprocity established bv the Ar ticles V., VI., and VII., of the treaty signed this day, if that part of the Vllth Article which stipulates that, in order to be considered as a Peru-Bolivian ship, a ship shall actually have been b-iilt in the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, should be strictly and literary observed, and imme diately brought into operation ; it is agreed that, for the space of fifteen years, to be reckoned from the date of the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty, any ships, wheresoever built being bonafide the property of, and wholly owned by, one or more citizens of the Peru- Bolivian Confederation, arid whereof the master and three-fourths of the mariners at least are also natural born citizens of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, or persons domiciliated in the Peru-Bolivian Confederation by act of the government, as lawful subjects of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, to be certified according to the laws of that country, shall be considered as Peru-Bolivian ships his Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland reserving to himself the right, at the end of the said term of fifteen years, to claim the principle of reciprocal restric tion stipulated for in the Article VII. above referred to, if the interests of British navigation shall be found to be prejudiced by the present exception to that reciprocity, in favour of Peru-Bolivian shipping. ARTICLE II. It is further agreed that, for the like term of fifteen years, the stipulations con tained in the Articles V. and VI. of the present treaty shall be suspended ; and, in lieu thereof, it is hereby agreed, that until the expiration of the said term of fifteen years, British ships en tering into the ports of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or any other of his Britannic Majesty s dominions, and all articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United Kingdom, or of any of the said dominions, im ported in such ships, shall pay no other or higher duties than are or may hereafter be payable in the said ports by the ships, and the like goods, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the most favoured nation ; and, reciprocally, it is agreed that Peru-Bolivian ships entering into the ports of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or any other of his Britannic Majesty s do minions, from any port of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, and all articles, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the said Confederation, imported in such ships, shall pay no other or higher duties than are or may hereafter be payable in the said ports, by the ships and the like goods, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the most favoured nation ; and that no higher duties shall be paid, or bounties or drawbacks allowed, on the exportation of any article, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the dominions of either country, in the ships of the other, than upon the expor tation of the like articles in the ships of any other foreign country. It being understood that, at the end of the said term of fifteen years, the stipulations of the said Vth and Vlth Articles shall, from thenceforward, be in full force between the two countries. The present additional articles shall have the same force and validity as if they were inserted, word for word, in the Treaty signed this day. They shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at the same time. Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, between his Majesty and the Republic of Bolivia. Signed at Sucre, September 29, 1840. ARTICLES I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., IX., X. Same as in Mexican and Peru- Bolivian Treaty. ARTICLES XI. and XII. Same as in Mexican Treaty. ARTICLES XIII. and XIV. Same as in Peru-Bolivian Treat). ARTICLES XV. and XVI. Same as in Mexican Treaty. C02 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Additional Articles. ARTICLE I. Whereas, in the present state of Bolivian shipping, it would not be possible for the said republic to receive the full advantage of the reciprocity established by the Articles V., VI., and VII. of the Treaty signed this day, if that part of the Vllth Article, which stipulates that, in order to be considered as a Bolivian ship, a ship shall actually have been built in the re public of Bolivia, should be strictly and literary observed, and immediately brought into opera tion ; it is agreed that, for the space of fifteen years, to be reckoned from the date of the ex change of the ratifications of this Treaty, any ships, wheresoever built, being bond fide the pro perty of, and wholly owned by, one or more citizens of the republic of Bolivia, and whereof the master and three-fourths of the mariners, at least, are also natural born citizens of the republic of Bolivia, or persons domiciliated in the republic of Bolivia by act of the government, as lawful subjects of the republic of Bolivia, to be certified according to the laws of that country, shall be considered as Bolivian ships ; her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland reserving to herself the right, at the end of the said term of fifteen years, to claim the principle of reciprocal restriction stipulated for in the Article VII. above referred to, if the interests of British navigation shall be found to be prejudiced by the present exception to that re ciprocity, in favour of Bolivian shipping. ARTICLE II. It is further agreed that, for the like term of fifteen years, the stipulations con tained in the Articles V. and VI. of the present Treaty shall be suspended ; and, in lieu thereof, it is hereby agreed, that until the expiration of the said term of fifteen years, British ships enter ing into the ports of the republic of Bolivia from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire land, or any other of her Britannic Majesty s dominions, and all articles, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the United Kingdom, or of any of the said dominions, imported in such ships, shall pay no other or higher duties than are or may hereafter be payable, in the said ports by the ships, and the like goods, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the most favoured nation ; and, reciprocally, it is agreed that Bolivian ships entering into the ports of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or any other of her Britannic Majesty s dominions, from any port of the republic of Bolivia, and all articles the growth, produce, or manufacture of the said republic, imported in such ships, shall pay no other or higher duties than are or may hereafter be payable in the said ports, by the ships and the like goods, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the most fa voured nation ; and that no higher duties shall be paid, or bounties and drawbacks allowed on the exportation of any article, the growth, produce, or manufacture of the dominions of either country, in the ships of the other, than upon the exportation of the like articles in the ships of any other foreign country. It being understood that, at the end of the said term of fifteen years, the stipulations of the said Vth and Vlth Articles shall, from thenceforward, be in full force between the two countries. ARTICLE III. If in the drawing up of this Treaty in the Spanish language, an involuntary error has been made in the translation, the English text is to be adhered to. The present additional articles shall have the same force and validity as if they were inserted, word for word, in the Treaty signed this day. They shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at the same time. Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation between her Majesty and the Oriental Re public of the Uruguay. Signed at London, August 26, 1842. ARTICLES I. and II. Same as in Mexican Treaty. ARTICLE III. There shall be reciprocal liberty of commerce and navigation between and amongst the subjects and citizens of the two high contracting parties ; and the subjects and citizens of the two countries, respectively, shall not pay in the ports, harbours, roads, cities, towns, or places whatsoever in either country, any other or higher duties, taxes, or imposts, under whatso ever names designated or included, than those which are there paid by the subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation ; and the subjects and citizens of each of the high contracting parties shall enjoy the same rights, privileges, liberties, favours, immunities, and exemptions, in matters of commerce and navigation, that are granted, or may hereafter Be granted, in either country, to the subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation. No duty of customs or other impost shall be charged upon any goods the produce of one country, upon importation by sea or by land from such country into the other, higher than the duty or impost charged upon goods of the same kind, the produce of, or imported from, any other country. And her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, do hereby bind and engage themselves not to grant any favour, privilege, or immunity in matters of commerce and navigation, to the subjects or citizens of any other State, which shall not be also and at the same time extended to the subjects or citizens of the other high contracting party ; gratuitously, if the concession in favour of that TREATIES OF COMMERCE, other State shall have been gratuitous ; and on giving as nearly as possible the same com,,. or equivalent, in case the concession shall have been conditional. ARTICLES IV., V., VI. Same as in Mexican Treaty. ARTICLE VII. The subjects of her Britannic Majesty shall have full liberty, in all the tcrri tones of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, to manage their own affairs themselves, or to COB mit them to the management of whomsoever they please, as broker, factor, agent, or interpreter and they shall not be obliged to employ any other persons in those capacities, tlian those em ployed by the citizens of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay ; and they shall not be restrained in their choice of persons to act in such capacities, nor be obliged to pay them any other salary or remuneration than such as is paid in like cases by the citizens of the said republic; and ab~J- lute freedom shall be allowed in all cases to the buyer and seller to bargain and fix the price of any goods, wares, or merchandise imported into and exported from the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, as they shall see fit, provided they observe the laws and established customs of the country. The same privileges shall be enjoyed in the dominions of her Britannic Majesty by the citizens of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, under the same conditions. The subjects and citizens of each of the contracting parties, respectively, shall, in the terri tories of the other, receive and enjoy full and perfect protection for their persons and property, and shall have free and open access to the courts of justice in the said countries, respectively, for the prosecution and defence of their just rights ; and they shall be at liberty to employ, in all causes, the advocates, attorneys, or agents of whatever description, whom they may think proper ; and they shall enjoy, in this respect, the same rights and privileges therein, as native citizens. ARTICLE VIII. In whatever relates to the police of ports, the lading and unlading of ships, the safety of merchandise, goods, and effects, the succession to personal estates by will or other wise, and the disposal of personal property, of every sort and denomination, by sale, donation, exchange, or in any other manner whatsoever ; and to the administration of justice ; the subjects and citizens of each of the two contracting parties shall enjoy, in the dominions and territories of the other, the same privileges, liberties, and rights, as native subjects or citizens ; and they shall not be charged, in any of these respects, with any higher imposts or duties than those which are or may be paid by natives ; conforming of course to the local laws and regulations of such dominions or territories. And it is further agreed, that the subjects and citizens of the two contracting parties shall have and enjoy, in all the dominions or territories of each other, the most full and perfect liberty to devise or dispose of their property and effects of every kind and denomination, and wheresoever situate, by will or testament, to such person or persons, and in such proportions as their own free will may dictate. If any subject or citizen of either of the two contracting parties should die without will or testament in the dominions or territories of the other, the consul-general or consul, or, in his ab sence, the representative of such consul-general or consul, shall have the right to nominate curators to take charge of the property of the deceased, so far as the laws of the country will permit, for the benefit of the lawful heirs and creditors of the deceased, without being interfered with by the authorities of the country, but giving to those authorities due and proper notice. ARTICLE IX. The subjects of her Britannic Majesty residing in the territories of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, and the citizens of the said Republic residing in the dominions of her Britannic Majesty, shall be exempted from all compulsory military service whatsoever, either by sea or land, and from all forced loans or military exactions o r requisitions. Neither shall they be compelled, under any pretext whatsoever, to pay any charges, requisitions, or taxes, greater than those which are or may be paid by native subjects or citizens of the terri tories in which they reside. ARTICLE X.lt shall be free for each of the two contracting parties to appoint consuls lor t protection of trade, to reside in the dominions and territories of the other party ; but no consul shall act as such, until he shall, in the usual form, be approved and admitted by the government to which he is sent ; and either of the contracting parties may except from the residence of con suls such particular places as they may judge fit to be excepted. The diplomatic agents and con suls of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, in the dominions of her Britannic Majesty, shall enjoy whatever privileges, exemptions, and immunities, are or may there be granted to agents the same rank belonging to the most favoured nation ; and in like manner, the diplomatic a; and consuls of her Britannic Majesty in the territories of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, shall enjoy, according to the strictest reciprocity, whatever privileges, exemptions, and immunities, are or may there be granted to the diplomatic agents and consuls of the most favoured ^ARTICLE XL Same as Article XII. in Mexican Treaty. ARTICLE XIL-Same as Article XIII. in Peru-Bolivian Treaty. thereof ARTICLE XIII. The present Treaty shall be in force for the term of ten years from the date reof ; and further, until the end of twelve months after either of the high contracting parties 694 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. shall have given notice to the other of its intention to terminate the same : each of the high con tracting parlies reserving to itself the right of giving such notice to the other at the end of the said term of ten years, or at any subsequent time. And it is hereby agreed between them, that at the expiration of twelve months after such no tice shall have been received by either party from the other, this Treaty, and all the provisions thereof, shall altogether cease and determine. ADDITIONAL ARTICLE. Whereas by Article IX. of the Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Na vigation, concluded and signed this day between her Britannic Majesty and the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, it is stipulated that the subjects of her Britannic Majesty, residing in the said Re public, shall not be compelled, under any pretext whatsoever, to pay any charges, requisitions, or taxes, greater than those which are or may be paid by native citizens ; and whereas, by a law of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, a foreigner pays for the licence to open a shop, or other estab lishment included in the provisions of the said law, a sum greater than that which is paid by a na tive citizen ; her Britannic Majesty engages, notwithstanding the provisions of the above-men tioned Article, not to insist upon the abolition of this distinction, so long as it exists impartially with regard to the subjects or citizens of every other foreign nation. And his Excellency the President of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay engages, on his part, that if at any future time, the amount payable by British subjects for such licence should be increased, a corresponding increase shall at the same time be made in the sum payable by native citizens of the Republic ; so that the proportion between the sum payable by British subjects and the sum payable by citizens of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, respectively, shall never be altered to the prejudice of British subjects. The present additional article shall have the same force and validity as if it were inserted, word for word, in the Treaty signed this day. It shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at the same time. SECOND ADDITIONAL ARTICLE. Whereas a strict and immediate execution of that part of Article VI. of the Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, signed at London on the 26th of August, 1842, between her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, which stipulates that a ship must have been actually built within the territory of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay, to be considered a ship of that Republic, would, in the present state of Uruguay shipping, deprive the Republic of the full advantage of the reciprocity intended to be established by the Treaty; it is agreed that, for the space of seven years from the date of the exchange of the ratifications of the said Treaty, any ships, wheresoever built, being owned, navigated, and registered in conformity with the pro visions of Article VI. of the Treaty, shall be considered as ships of the Oriental Republic of the Uruguay : her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland reserving to herself the right to claim, at the end of the ?aid term of seven years, the strict enforcement of all the stipulations contained in the said article of the Treaty, relative to the conditions which are to determine the national character of vessels of the Oriental Republic of the Uru guay. The present additional article shall have the same force and validity as if it had been inserted, word for word, in the aforesaid Treaty of the 26th of August, 1842. It shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at the same time and place as those of the Treaty. BRAZIL. The Commercial Treaty with Brazil has expired in accordance with a notice given two years previously to that effect. -No new Treaty has as yet been negociated in consequence of exclud ing, by a prohibitory duty, sugar, the produce of Brazil by the British sugar duties acts of 1842, 1843, 1844, 1845. CUSTOMS TARIFF. CHAPTER XXXIX. CUSTOMS TARIFF OF THE SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. THE commercial regulations and custom-house prohibitions and duties of the Spanish American Republics have been characterised by barbarous restrictions and by ignorance of all sound principles of commerce and finance. The most absurd restrictions even upon internal traffic, and the most preposterous attempts to protect national industry, have been adopted since the independence of those states, and as suddenly and ca priciously altered in form. These regulations, and prohibitions, and duties have, like the revolutions of those unfortunate countries, been suddenly and capriciously changed by every new ruler, but always to the great injury of trade and commerce. Though the latest tables of duties which we have obtained may, in a very short period, be altered, we believe the changes will not, for some time, materially alter the amount of duty, nor the restrictions on trade. MEXICO. General Commercial Regulations for the Maritime and Frontier Custom-houses, ac cording to the Laws of the 27th of August, 1845. ARTICLE I. Every vessel of whatever nation, not at war with Mexico, shall be ad mitted into such ports of the latter as are open to foreign commerce ; and in the act of arriving, the captain, or supercargo, and the crew, as well as the vessel and the cargo, shall be subjected to the regulations prescribed in this decree ; to the payment of duties, and to the penalties established by it, or to the measures in force at the time of arriving. Vessels shall therefore be considered as arrived for all the uses of this tariff immediately on casting anchor in the waters of the port. ARTICLE II. Vessels proceeding from a foreign port, not excepting national vessels, shall bring no more merchandise than is destined for the Mexican port to which they are bound. The breach of this article shall be punished by confiscating the vessel and the merchandise not destined to the same port. ARTICLE III. The following ports are open to foreign commerce : Sisal. In the Mexican Gulf Campeachy. Santa Juan Bautista de Tabasco. Vera Cruz. Santa Anna de Taumalipas. Matamoros. Matagorda. Velasco LGalveston f Acapulco. In the Pacific X San Bias. ^Mazatlan. In the Gulf of California . . . Guaimas. In the Sea of Upper California . Monterey. Section I. ARTICLE IV. National vessels, conveying foreign or native goods, produce, or other effects from one port to another, or others in the republic, shall be free from tonnage duties. ARTICLE V. The following effects shall be free of all duties in whatever vessel they may be imported, viz. : }. Card-wire. 2. Exotic or dissected animals. 3. Quicksilver. 4. Mineral coal, until the mines of the republic supply it 696 SPANISH AMERICAN REIUBLICS. 5. Mineralogical and geological collections. 6. Objects of natural history. 7. Designs and models cf machines, edifices, monuments, and shipping. 8. Bricks and earth for foundry furnaces. 9. Printing types. 10. Printed books, stitched and manuscript, or printed music, not including in this ex emption books and other prints used for infant schools, or for devotion, and bound or half-bound books. 11. Topographical and geographical maps and charts. 12. Machines, apparatus, and instruments for scientific purposes. 13. Machines and apparatus for agriculture, mining, and the arts, except stills that are not of new invention. (In this and the preceding classification machines are un derstood to be such works as are composed of various pieces, with the object of putting into play mechanical power ; and apparatus such works as are composed of various pieces adapted for experiments in physic?, and the chemical affinities of bodies, solid, liquid, gaseous, or imponderable; things that can be sold se parately, such as pig iron, oil, broad cloth, plush, skins, &c., though coming as connected with machinery, shall be subject to the payment of duties.) 14. Ancient and modern coins of all metals, and facsimiles of them in compositions or pasteboard. 15. Ship masts. 16. Exotic plants and their seeds. 17. New vessels of all kinds, destined to become naturalised. 18. Linen rags. 19. Printing ink. ARTICLE VII. Such articles as are declared free of importation duties, shall also be free of all other duties in their transit through the country. ARTICLE VIII. Although the effects enumerated in the 5th article shall be free of all duties, they must be entered in the general manifest of the vessel, and bring parti cular invoices with them made in conformity with what is prescribed in Article XXVIII. Goods arriving in the republic without said documents, and having a consignee, he shall pay only a fine of fifty dollars, but should there be no consignee to take charge of them immediately, the fine shall be levied on said effects, which in this case shall be 100 dollars, and the surplus effects shall be delivered to the respective consuls, that they may hold them at the disposal of whoever may have a right to them. Section II. Prohibitions. ARTICLE IX. The importation of the following effects is prohibited under the pe nalty of confiscation, and other penalties imposed by this tariff : 1. Brandy distilled from sugar-cane, and any other not from the grape, except gin and rum imported in bottles and jars. 2. Starch. 3. Aniseed, cumin, and caraway-seed. 4. Capers. 5. Sugar of all kinds. 6. Rice. 7. Raw Cotton. 8. Indigo. 9. Brass and copper wire of all kinds. 10. Fire-arms, and other arms of all kind. 11. Sulphur. 12. Boots and half-boots of leather or cloth, with soles for men, women, and children. 13. Buttons of every metal, which are engraved or stamped on the obverse or reverse with the national or Spanish arms. 14. Coffee. 15. Manufactured wax. 16. Cast nails of all sizes. 17. Copper in pigs, and manufactured into utensils for domestic use. CUSTOMS TARIFF. 18. Cumin. 19. Tortoiseshell and horn, manufactured into articles of the latter material only 20. Epaulettes of all kinds and metals for military insignia. 21. Cordovan leather of all kinds and qualities. 22. Tin in blocks. 23. All kinds of prints, miniatures, pictures, and figures that are obscene, and in general every article of workmanship that is obscene, and contrary to religion and good morals. 24. Artificial flowers. 25. All kinds of galloons made of metals or other materials. 26. Chamois leather of all kinds. 27. Woollen cloths of the poorest and coarsest kinds, called "gerga" and "gergue- tilla." 28. Wheat flour, except for Yucatan. 29. Every kind, number, and colour of cotton yarn. 30. Every kind, number, and colour of cotton thread. 31. Thread of cotton and linen mixed. 32. Soap of all kinds. 33. Children s toys. 34. Common earthenware, glazed or not glazed, printed or plain. 35. Books, pamphlets, and manuscripts prohibited by competent authority. 36. Blank books, ruled or not ruled, and invoices, bills of exchange, bills of lading, and forms of custom-house documents, whether printed, engraved or lithographed. 37. Hog s lard. 38. Molasses. 39. Timber of all kinds, excepting for ship masts, fine wood for veneers, and that per mitted in Tampico and Matamoros by the decree of the 3rd of June, 1840, sub ject to the duties assigned to it. 40. Munitions of war, whether of lead, or any other metal. 41. Playing cards of all kinds. 42. Gold leaf or tinsel. 43. Broad cloth, not of the first quality. 44. Parchments, except for drawing. 45. Lead in the rough or refined. 46. Gunpowder, except for sporting. 47. Ploughshares of the same form as that used in the country. 48. " Rebosos" (cotton scarfs of the country) of all kinds, and all printed or clouded cloths, imitating them. 49. All kinds of ready-made clothing, including vestments and clerical ornaments. (The following articles excepted : Bands and sashes, with or without fringe. Covered buttons of all kinds. Leather shirts. Stocking web, shirts and drawers, whether of silk, cotton, or wool. Silk scarfs. Netted, or elastic caps, whether of silk, cotton, or wool. Gloves. Stockings, hats, and suspenders. Handkerchiefs. Shawls, with and without linings.) 50. Common salt. 51. Saltpetre. 52. Blankets and coverlets of cotton or woollen, or of a mixture of both. ~ 53. Sayal" (a fabric made of wool and hair) and sayalete (a coarse woollen stuff call* in some places taminy). 54. Tallow in the rough and refined. 55. Tobacco of all kinds and in every form. It can only be imported by the director of the tobacco monopoly, but private licences for cigars and rappee will be grant VOL. I. 4 U G98 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. by the government, in which case the duties will be paid at three dollars 56. PlahTa^ribbed cloths, bleached, and unbleached, made of cotton alone or mixed, that do not exceed thirty threads weft and warp on a quarter inch. 57. Unbleached, twilled, and satin-faced cloths, made of cotton only or mixed, which do not exceed thirty threads weft and warp on a quarter inch. 58. Plain coloured cloths of fast colours made of cotton only, or mixed, which do not exceed twenty-five threads weft and warp on a quarter inch. (When in this and other parts of the tariff colours are alluded to, it must be understood that the definition includes not only the colours which resist the action of water, soap, and lio-ht but also those which do not resist them, but always retain enough colour to prevent them being used to the prejudice of the bleached and unbleached cottons manufactured in the country.) 59. Plain coloured cloths of fugitive colours, made of cotton only, or mixed, which do not exceed thirty threads under the quarter inch of weft and warp. 60. Salt pork cured or pressed and the offal of pigs. (In this prohibition are not included sausages and smoked hams.) 61. Wheat and all other grain. 62. Shoes and slippers. With respect to manufactured articles of iron and steel, the following are exempted from the said prohibition, and they shall pay the corresponding duties : Awl blades. Fish hooks. Barrel hoop and hoop- iron. Gimlets. Braces and bracebits. Gravers. Knives proper to the frts. Strings for musical instruments. Hand vices. Hooks for dentists. Files. Saws. Screws. ARTICLE X. The law of the 29th of March, 1827, remains in force, inasmuch as the powers given by it to the states legislatures for fixing the periods for allowing the impor tation, are exercised by the "juntas" of the departments. ARTICLE XL The importation of wheat into the state of Chiapas is permitted in such cases as the "junta" of the department shall determine. Section III. Of Duties on a Valuation to bejfixed according to the prices of the Articles within the Republic. ARTICLE XII. All goods, produce, and effects included in this tariff shall pay the rates designated in it. The goods which exceed a vara in width shall be reduced to square measure, and the rate shall be collected on each square vara; but cloths under a vara wide, which are joined together by a seam or list, are not to be passed as a single piece, otherwise it will be held as a fraud. Those which are not specified in this tariff, shall pay an ad valorem duty of thirty percent. ARTICLE XIII. The vessels, barrels, or bottles, which contain liquids, and the common wrappers of piece goods, including up to ten varas of inside wrapper, whether of linen, woollen, or cotton stuff not prohibited, will be exempt from duties, but if they ex ceed this length the whole shall pay duty according to this tariff, and should they be of a prohibited kind, they shall be confiscated. CUSTOMS TARIFF. SECTION IV. Specific duties imposed according to fixed valuations on the basis of thirty per cent. These valuations are those which the goods are worth in Mexico, without any reference to the invoice prices. The folllowing ARTICLES. Weight, Measure, or Num ber. Mexican Aloney. British Money. Import Duty. ARTICLES. Weight, Measure, or Num ber. Mexican Money. Britfch Money. Import Duty. Import Duty. Import Duty. Oil, linseed Ib. 100 Ibs. do. do. do. do. Ib. do. 100 Ibs. do. Ib. 100 Ibs. Ib. dozen do. 100 Ibs. do. dozen each Ib. 100 Ibs. Ib. 100 Ibs. do. Ib. 100 Ibs. do. do. do. do. do. do. quintal do. do. 100 Iba. dlrs. cts. 12 5 2 00 16 00 18 00 12 00 16 12 6 00 4 00 12| 4 CO 14 75 1 00 4 00 8 00 3 33 1 33 1 00 22 00 20 00 8 00 4 00 50 8 00 25 00 50 00 16 00 25 00 12 50 23 00 1 50 3 00 4 50 8 00 s. d. 006 1 10 084 368 3 15 2 10 008 006 1 5 16 8 6 16 8 007 3 1 042 16 8 1 13 4 13 11 057 042 4 11 8 434 1 13 4 16 8 2 1 1 13 4 542 10 8 4 368 584 2 14 2 3 15 10 063 12 6 IS 9 1 13 4 Fine wood for veneers 1000 .-<]. ft do. thousand 100 Ibs. quintal do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. 100 Ibs. do. do. Ib. do. 100 Ibs. each do. do. do. do. do. 100 Ibs. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. dlrs. cts. 30 00 10 00 2 00 8 00 12 00 16 00 16 00 24 00 24 00 6 00 16 00 7 00 3 00 3 00 8 00 4 00 5 00 50 75 15 00 25 00 100 00 50 00 150 00 300 00 100 00 6 00 10 00 10 00 3 00 2 50 3 25 2 25 3 00 | *. d. 6,50 2 1 8 084 1 13 4 2 10 308 368 500 500 1 5 368 1 i 2 12 6 12 6 1 13 4 16 8 1 10 2 1 3 1J 326 542 20 16 8 10 8 4 31 5 62 10 20 16 8 1 5 2 1 8 2 1 8 13 4 o in 5 13 6i 9 4i 12 6 olive Building-timber, admitted at Tampico and Matamoros by the decree of the 3rd of June 1840 gteel Gin Brandy from grape, pure or mixed, without allowance Shingles for roofing-, by virtue of the same decree Butter, the weight of vessel included Scented waters, of any herb, flower, or wood, including Common writing-paper Letter-paper Drawing-paper of all tizes, and ruled music-paper Ruled paper for accounts, and other uses, and paper gilt and adorned on the White lead Shelled almonds, sweet and bitter Cod-fish, and any other dried Paper-hangings Whalebone, in the rough or Common glass bottles(euipty) Sand-paper of all qualities. . Guayaquil, Para, or Island Raisins, figs, and all other Cocoa of any other kind Paint-boxes, with paints in phials, or cakes of from twelve to forty-eight, and without any other addition with paints in flasks, or cakes, with other articles. Cinnamon and cassia of all Pepper, fine and common... Cheeses of all kinds, the weight of the wrappeisj included Anchovies, salmon, tunny,! and any other sea -fish in pickle, salted, dried, or in oil, the weight of the vessel Bees - wax., bleached and un bleached Tea, black. green i Virgin-wax Beer and cider, in quart bottles, without allowance Furniture, old and new, all Carriages or open chariots, Beer and cider, in barrel, without allowing for leak age four wheels small carriages, two Cloves Eatables, not prohibited, such as hams and sausages, the latter called " chorizos," "chorizones," and "butti- coaches, landaus, two stages and omnibus* ... Gla*s or crystal, formed intoj pieces of all kinds, colours, and sizes, except window- glass, and plate-glasse?, without allowance for; breakage, gross weight.... Glassware ot all other kinds, as window and plate Window-glasses, of all num bers and colours, without any allowance for break- Preserves for eating, includ ing weight of vessel con- Sweetmeats, ditto, ditto Pickles in vinegar and salt. . . Fruits preserved in brandy or other liquors, weight of Iron of all kinds, not manu- White wines of all kinds, in barrel, without allowance ~- in plates, wrought and cast, and hoop-iron Tin-plates of all kinds and do. in bottle, do. do. . Red do. in barrels, do. do. . do. in bottle, do. do. . Books or pamphlets of first lessons or of devotion scribed by the police. 700 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. ARTICLES of Flax, Hemp, Tow, and Grass. Weight, Mexican Money. British Money. Weight, Measure, Mexican Money. British Money. ARTICLES. Measure, or Num ber. Import Duty. Import Duty. ARTICLES. or Num ber. Import Duty. Import Duty. quintal dlrs. cts. 2 00 s. d. 084 Bleached and unbleached, dlrs. cts. *. d. Flax. .........;.. do. 3 00 12 6 more than thirty-six Carpeting of hemp or tow alone, at and under a vara wide vara 12| Gi threads to the quarter inch Plain cloths, made of the last-mentioned materials, vara 09 4 Sheetings of flax or hemp, or imitations of them, at and 07 003-^ painted, striped, or shaded, at and under a vara do. 09 4 Socks and half-stockings of dozen 75 3 H Bleached, unbleached, or coloured cloths figured, Tapes of all kinds and colours Gloves of all sizes and colours Linen-thread of all kinds, number?, and colours Twine of all kinds Ib. dozen Ib. 100 Ibs. GO 75 75 4 00 026 3 i| 3 1| 16 8 twilled or damasked, at and under a vara wide .... Bleached, unbleached, and coloured cloths, embroi dered, or with open work, do. 11 006 JJ leached, unbleached, and at and under a vara do. 13 009 hemp-tow, at and under a vara wide vara 06 003 Men s and women s stockings of all kinds and colours. . . dozen 1 50 063 Bleached and unbleached plain cloths, of flax, flax- tow, or grass, at and under a vara wide do. 08 004 Children s do. do. Plain, white, or coloured handkerchiefs, at and under a vara wide do. do. 50 1 50 2 1 063 Note 1. Handkerchiefs exceeding a vara square shall be reduced to square measure for calculating the corres ponding duty. Note 2. If any of the cloths included in the foregoing classification have a mixture of cotton in them, they shall pay the same duty annexed to cottons of a similar quality. If the mixture be of a material different from cotton, such as metal or silk, the same rate of duty shall be imposed as on a similar quality which has no mixture. ARTICLES of Wool, Hair, Feathers, and Furs. ARTICLES. Weight, Measure, or Num ber. Mexican Money. British Money. ARTICLES. Weight, Measure, or Num ber. Mexican Money. British Money. Import Duty. Import Duty. Import Duty. Import Duty. Wool,raw 100 Ibs. vara dozen each vara Ib. dozen do. dlrs. cts. 4 00 75 75 50 75 60 3 00 75 s. d. 16 8 3 1| 3 1| 2 1 3 If 026 12 6 3 H Men s and women sstockings of all kinds aud colours... Children s do. do. Plain and fancy broad-cloths of all colours, a vara wide. Handkerchief9,plain,wrought and twilled, of all colours, !at and under a vara wide, exclusive of the fringe White and coloured plain cloths, at and under a vara dozen do. vara do. do. do. dlrs. cts. 1 50 50 1 00 20 12* 16 s. d. 063 2 1 042 10 6J 74 Floor-carpets and " tripe" of all kinds, at and under a vara wide Socks and half-stockings of Stocking-webs, shirt, and drawers Twilled cassimere of all kinds and colours, at and under a vara Worsted-thread of all kinds Netted caps Cloths of all colours, worked damasked, crossed, striped, and twilled, at and under Cloves of all si/es and co lours Note 1. Handkerchiefs which exceed a square vara, shall be squared, and pay duties accordingly. Note 2. Ihe cloths, included in this classification, having any mixture of cotton, shall pay, in ad( ....nsxed to them, fifteen per cent of the same rate. If the mixture be of ar netal or silk, they shall pay the rate annexed to a similar quality not mixed. ARTICLE XVI. Silks. addition to the rate Mexican British Mexican British Weight, Money. Money. Weight, Money. Money. ARTICLES. or Num ARTICLES. or Num ber. Import Import ber. Import Import Duty. Duty. Duty. Duty. Blond, and other lace and netting of all kinds and colours, plain and embroi dlrs. cts. s. d. Untwisted silk, or "quifia," of all qualities and colours Thrown silk, sewing silk, and Ib. dlrs. cts. 2 00 s. d. 084 dered Ib 12 00 Vi* >11 f r pmlirnidprinp 1 Umbrellas and parasols of all of all qualities and colours do. 3 00 12 6 sizes Unmanufactured silk of all fabrics, composed of silk Ib. 1 00 042 do. 3 00 12 6 Note. The cloths, and Other merchandise indudp.d in this rlaasifiratinn. hnvinp a mixture of anv ntVipr material CUSTOMS TARIFF. COTTON Manufactures, 701 ARTICLES. Weight, Measure, or Num ber. Mexican Money. British Money. . ARTICLES. * - W.-iiM.f. Measure, or Num- her. .. Mexican Money. "~ Hritiih Money. Import Duty. Import Duty. Import Duty. Import Duty. Socks and half-stockings.... Stocking-web, shirts, aud drawers dozen each Ib. dozen do. vara do. do. do. do. do. Ib. dlrs. cts. 80 50 75 3 00 75 15 15 15 15 10 10 50 s. d. 034 2 1 3 1 12 G 3 1 7| 7J 7J 007* 005 5 2 1 Men s and women s stock ings of all qualities and dozen do. do. do. each do. do. do. Ib. :ir.-. i :-. I 50 50 o 1*1 12| 09 11 14 16 2 00 j. d. 003 . - I OJ GJ 4J . 007 008 084 White aud coloured tapes. . . Children s d o Gloves ot all sizes aud co- Muslins, linos, gauzes, ami other white and coloured cotton cloths of an open texture, fancy and plain, without regard to the number of threads, at and under a vara wide. . . . Bleached and unbleached cloths, ribbed and plain, exceeding thirty threads weft and warp on the quarter inch, at aud under a vara wide Printed, striped, and checked handkerchiefs, of fast co lours, from twenty-six threads on the quarter inch, at and under a vara wide.. Unbleached, twilled, or satin cloths, exceeding thirty threads weft and warp on the quarter inch, at and under a vara wide Plain cloths, unbleached or striped, of fugitive colours, exceeding thirty threads Plain white handkerchief*, with white or coloured borders, exceeding thirty threads on the quarter inch, at and under a vara wide White, twilled, or satin cloths with or without embossing, raised face, or cut like velvet, at and under a vara White handkerchiefs, twilled or with raised stripes or checks, at and under a Plain cloths, printed or dyed striped or shaded, of fasl colours, from twenty-six threads weft and warp on the quarter inch, at and do. with borders or cor ners embroidered, or with open work, at and under a vara wide White and coloured muslin handkerchiefs, without re gard to number of threads, at and under a vara wide. Lace of cotton, including boxes &c Twilled, and all other cloths not plain, printed and dyed Thread, cotton, or of cotton and wool, including the Note 1. All handkerchiefs which exceeds a square vara, shall be subject to pay duties, according to their kind, for the number of square varas they contain. Note 2. All the cloths included in this classification, although they may have a mixture of flax, hemp, grass, or tow, or any of them, shall pay the rate and duty as pure cotton, according to the description of cloth they are. ARTICLE XVIII. The weights and measures referred to in this tariff, and which shall regulate the collection of duties, are those of established usage in this Republic. The measures, therefore, are: The vara, of three feet long. The foot, of twelve inches. The inch 9 of twelve lines. The weights are, The quintal, of four arrobas, is equal to 101 Ibs. 7 ounces, averdupois. The arroba, of twenty-five pounds. The pound, of sixteen ounces, is equal to 1 Ib. 4 drains nearly, averdupois. The ounce, of sixteen drachms. The drachm, of thirty-six grains. The moneys named for the payment of duties are, The dollar, of eight silver rials, in value equal to about 4s. Id. sterling. The cents, one hundred to each dollar. Dry Measure. The cahiz contains 12 fanegas; and the fanega, 12 celemines. The latter has many sub-divisions. The fanega is of the capacity of 3439 cubic inches, English, and is equal to 1.599 bushel. Liquid Measure. The mozo of wine contains 16 arrobas, or cantaros; an arroba, 8 azumbras, or 32 quartillos. A botta contains 30 arrobas. The arroba measures 9 cubic inches, English, and is equal to 4.245 gallons. The arroba of oil is equal 1 3.33 gallons. 702 SPANISH AMERICAN HEPUBUCS. Long Measure. -The foot is divided into 12 pulgadas, and is equal to 11.128 inches, English. The palmo measures 9 pulgadas, or 8 inches ; the vara, 4 palrnos, or 33.384 inches. Section V. Of the Formalities required to be observed previous to the departure of the Vessel from the Port of Shipment. ARTICLE XXVII. These formalities shall be observed : 1st. By the shippers of goods to the Republic. 2nd. By the captains and supercargoes of the vessels which bring the said goods. 3rd. By the consuls, vice-consuls, or merchants, who certify the invoices of the shippers and the vessels manifests in the mode expressed in the proper place. Of the Shippers and Consignees of Goods. ARTICLE XXVIII. Any individual sending from a foreign country merchandise to the Mexican Republic, shall make one or more invoices (according as it suits him) of all the merchandise which he ships to each consignee. This invoice must contain the following particulars: 1st. The name of the vessel and captain, and the port of Mexico to which the vessel is bound, together with the name of the party to whom the articles con tained in said invoice are consigned. 2nd. The particulars in writing and cypher of the contents of all bales, cases, barrels, packs, or bundles in which each kind of merchandise comes. 3rd. The marks and numbers of each package. 4th. The name of the merchandise, and the particulars, in writing and cypher, of the quantity, weight, length, and breadth appertaining to the said merchandise, agreeably to what this tariff requires for the regulation of the payment of duties, it being understood that the width shall be expressed in the same kind of measure as the length. The liquids and commodities, whose duties are regulated according to this tariff by weight, the invoices must specify in the kind of weight that is in use at the port from whence the vessel comes, and must give all particulars as to what it is. 5th. The signature of the owner or shipper. 6th. The shipper shall present to the Mexican consul, or vice-consul, residing at his port, three copies of the invoice, and this officer shall certify each one in the manner required in the thirty-fifth article, and then deliver to the said shipper one of the copies to be sent to his consignee by said vessel. Should there be no Mexican consul or vice-consul in the port, these invoices shall be presented to the consul or vice-consul of any other nation at peace with Mexico ; but should there be no such consul or vice-consul there, then said invoices may be certified by two merchants of known reputation resident in the port. The form of the certificate will be, in all cases, that prescribed by the thirty-fifth article. ARTICLE XXIX. For the neglect of any one of these six requisites the collector shall impose the penalties hereinafter expressed, and exact them from the consignee. 1st. For the omission of each one of the requisites, 1, 2, and 3, a fine not under five, and not above twenty-five dollars. 2nd. Omitting to explain in writing and cypher what is required in 4, will incur a penalty similar to the one stated in the preceding paragraph; but if the invoice do not specify the quantity, weight, or measure of the goods, the whole of that part of the cargo not so specified shall be examined, and the duties on this part shall be charged twenty-five per cent more than that fixed in this tariff. 3rd. When the signature of the shipper is wanting in the invoices, the omission shall be punished by a fine of from five to twenty-five dollars ; but should the signature be wanting in one or two copies, which in all other respects agree with the one signed, no penalty shall be incurred ; and if they should not agree the aforesaid fine will be levied, and the duties shall be rated according to the invoice which will yield the greatest amount of them. 4th. In case the consular certificate, or that of two merchants where there are no CUSTOMS 1 TARIFF. consuls, be wanting, the goods thus uncertified shall he placed in deposit i one month; during this time, should the consignee present certified invoices tl.p goods shall be despatched, without exacting any fine, but being longer in deposit without the required certificate being presented, they shall be confiscated. Where the certificate has been granted in any consulate, and the seal omitted a fine shall be imposed of from ten to fifty dollars ; but should this happen with respect to one or two of the copies, or that they be not certified at all, the penalty will be the same as that expressed in the preceding paragraph. Great care is required in packing separately all articles liable to quick ignition by friction. ARTICLE XXX. All interpolations, corrections, scratchings, and erasures in the body of invoices are prohibited under a penalty of from fifty to two hundred dollars. Should any alteration be necessary, it shall be placed at the foot, and before the consular certifi cate, specifying clearly what is the alteration in the part or parts of said invoice, but with out touching in any way the original writing, only in this way or in that expressed in Article XLL, can be admitted any alteration, otherwise the penalty imposed by this article shall be incurred. ARTICLE XXXI. Should the vessel have proceeded from two or more foreign port?, and have brought cargoes from each, she must bring invoices from each one of the goods taken on board at each place with the same number of copies and other requisites indi cated in the preceding articles, and similar to those she brings from the first port of her sailing. Of Captains of Vessels. ARTICLE XXXII. The duties of captains of vessels, spoken of in this tariff belong equally to supercargoes, when there are any. ARTICLE XXXIII. The captain of every vessel laden with any kind whatever of mer chandise from a foreign port, must make a general manifest of them in triplicate, at the port of shipment, and this document shall specify : 1st. The vessel s name and nation, the measurement of her tonnage in writing and cypher, the captain s name, the port of her departure, and the Mexican port to which she is bound. 2nd. The shippers names and those of the consignees to whom the cargo is to be delivered. 3rd. The bales, cases, barrels, packs or packages of every kind, with their corre sponding marks and numbers, the number of which shall be written in letters and cyphers, and each kind specified, whether they be bales or cases, &c. 4th. The general denomination of the merchandise shall be stated as it appears in the bills of lading. 5th. The date and signature of the captain. 6th. The captain shall present to the Mexican consul or vice-consul residing in the port from whence he sails, three copies of the manifest, in order that in each one may be written the certificate expressed in the thirty-fourth Article. Should there be no consuls or vice-consuls there, the provision stated in the sixth para graph of the twentieth Article shall be observed. ARTICLE XXXIV. For the omission of any of the first five conditions aforesaid, the captain shall be fined from five to twenty-five dollars, to be regulated by the collector. ARTICLE XXXV. In case the certificate alluded to in the sixth condition be omitted in the three copies of the manifest, the vessel, and all that belongs to it will be confiscated but the cargo will not be subject to this penalty provided its respective invoices and cer tificates are in order. ARTICLE XXXVL The omission of the certificate, seal, or captain s signature, an any one of the three copies of the manifest shall be liable to similar fines as the omissioi of a similar nature in the shipper s invoices. ARTICLE XXXVII. It will be the captain s duty to avoid the defects in h spoken of in Article XXX., and in case there be any, to have them rectified in t same manner as is stated in the said article, under the penalty of 200 do! infraction. 704 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. ARTICLE XXXVIIL The captain is equally obliged to present certified manifests of any cargo he may receive at ports where he may stop at, after his first sailing, as well as to have invoices made out agreeably to Article XXX., under the penalty of losing his vessel, and all that belongs to her, for such omission. Of Consuls and Consular Certificates. ARTICLE XXXIX. The consuls and vice-consuls of the republic resident in foreign countries, are required under the strictest penalty of the law punctually to observe all the provisions of this tariff that relate to themselves. At the same time, the republic expects all consuls, vice-consuls, and merchants of friendly nations, to proceed agreeably to these instructions, in the exercise of that protection which in their official capacity it is their duty to extend to the fair trader, and thus protect the captains of vessels and shippers of goods from the injuries to which they would be exposed by any deviation from the forms prescribed in this tariff for their guidance. ARTICLE XL. As soon as any captain or super-cargo of a vessel presents the consul with the manifest in triplicate, of the cargo destined to any Mexican port, or when any merchant delivers him his invoices in triplicate, he shall intimate to them that if any alteration is necessary, it must be done immediately without losing sight of the pro vision relative to alterations contained in Articles XXX. and XXXVII. ; for when once the certificate is added, no alteration whatever shall be admitted. ARTICLE XLI. By virtue of what is provided in Article XXX., no consul, vice- consul, or merchant, shall certify any manifest or invoice brought to them with inter polations, corrections, scratchings, or erasures ; in such case they shall be returned to the owner to be written out afresh ; but if it should happen that the sailing of the vessel does not allow time for this, the consular certificate may be added, provided said defects are described in it, whether they occur in manifests or invoices ; such defects being interpo lations, corrections, scratchings, or erasures. The fees of office in such case, will be double what is commonly paid for a certificate. When any manifest or invoice has not passed these forms, the fine imposed by the Articles XXX. and XXXVII. will be incurred by the captain or consignee. ARTICLE XLVIII. Before certifying the manifests of the captains and the invoices of shippers, the consul or vice-consul shall ask if they are aware of the kind of goods, pro duce, and other merchandise prohibited from entering the republic, and of the penalties imposed by this tariff on those who trade in such merchandise. If they reply in the affirmative, their documents shall be certified ; if the contrary, they shall be made aware of them before the certificates are granted. Section VI. Of the Arrival of Vessels at the Ports of the Republic. ARTICLE XLIX. All foreign vessels arriving at the ports of the republic, shall pay a tonnage duty of twelve rials per ton, and national vessels arriving direct from foreign ports shall be subject also to the same. The anchorage dues in respect to both are abolished. ARTICLE L. When a vessel, after her total discharge, is permitted, agreeably to Article CV., to go from one port to another in the republic, in order to ship merchan dise of the country, tonnage duties shall not again be exacted, but in order to enjoy this privilege, it must be understood that she comes direct from a national port, otherwise she shall pay the usual dues. ARTICLE LI. The captains or supercargoes of vessels proceeding from a foreign port, on arrival in the waters of a Mexican port, shall not allow any person whatever to come on board until they have been visited by the quarantine officers, and those of the custom-house, whose boats shall carry the national flag. The violation of these pro visions shall subject the captain or supercargo to a fine of fifty dollars. An equal fine shall be exacted from any person not belonging to the vessel, who shall either speak or board her before the visit of the aforesaid officers. The non-payment of the fine shall be remedied by confining the defaulters, who shall also suffer for breaking the quarantine regulations. ARTICLE LII. Whether the vessel be in the act of sailing or anchored, as soon CUSTOMS TARIFF. as a revenue officer, or some one authorised by the collector of the custom think proper to appoint such, shall go on board ; the captain or supen in the same moment to either one or other of the aforesa d officers h addressed to the collector agreeably to Article XXXVIII. ; should he K* out being able to produce justifiable proof of some extraordinary accident bavin curred during the voyage, he shall be subjected to a fine of 200 dollar* beside* pensesof making new copies of the manifest taken from the third copy which with him as required by the same Article XXXV1IL, and from the invoices by the consignees, which copies shall be authorised by the collector and comptroll the custom-house. If the lost manifest be that which the captain should brinjr with him, and its absence be not accounted for from a similar cause, he shall be fined fifty dollars ; but shon sealed packet inclosing the two copies of manifest of invoices, together with his own manifest be wanting, and their absence not be honestly accounted for, the vessel and all that belongs to her shall be confiscated, but not the cargo ; if, however, the consignee of any part of it do not present his invoices as required by Article XXXVIII., then this part also shall be confiscated. As a general rule, the non-delivery of the three copi< > ( f the ship s manifest, or that of the invoices without a sufficient cause being shown before a revenue law-court, shall be punished with the confiscation of the vessel and that part of the cargo involved in it. Of all which, advice shall be given by the first post to the principal office of customs and direct taxes. ARTICLE LIII. At the same time that the captain or supercargo delivers the packet treated of in the foregoing article, to the revenue officer or the agent from the custom-house, he shall also deliver to them a note signed by him, stating the trunks, va- lisses, and any other baggage belonging to his passengers, expressing the names of those to whom they belong. Said note shall also contain the stock on hand of provisions he- longing to the vessel. The non-delivery of this note shall subject the captain to a fine of fifty dollars. ARTICLE LIV. Should the stock of provisions appear to the collector of the cus tom-house excessive in the extreme, he shall have power to order it to be deposited in the custom-house stores, directing the vessel to be supplied with what may be necessary for its consumption, and allowing the remainder to be embarked only when there be no risk of fraud. ARTICLE LV. The captain or supercargo having omitted to deliver a note stat ing the baggage and the surplus stock of provisions, it shall be supplied by the revenue or custom-house agents, forming one by taking the particulars as given by the passengers in respect to their luggage ; and by taking an inventory of the stock of provisions at the same time if possible, either before or after the vessel has finished her discharge. The officer who does this, shall add his signature, and it shall be at the option of the collector to fix the time for doing it. ARTICLE LVI. Should the vessel have suffered stress of weather during her voyage, causing part of the cargo to be thrown overboard, or having been forced to put into port, and obliged to sell some part of the cargo to meet expenses, then the captain or supercargo shall present a declaration in writing of the circumstances, and deliver the same to the revenue officer, or to the agent of the custom-house, with the sealed packet containing the manifest and invoices. ARTICLE LVII. As soon as the collector receives this declaration, he shall com municate it to the mercantile tribunal, which shall immediately proceed to obtain proofs of the alleged facts. If the case be of goods thrown overboard, it will be necessary to prove it not only by the affirmation of the passengers and crew, but also by the entry of it in the log-book. Similar evidence will be required of the sales made at the port which the vessel may have been forced to put into, and besides a certificate shall be legalised by a public authority at said port. ARTICLE LVIII. On the facts as stated having been proved, no dutie exacted on the merchandise thrown overboard or sold. ARTICLE LIX. The principal revenue officer or the custom-house officer having ;r< ceived the sealed packet, and the statement as required by Articles XLI V. ai 4 X VOL. I. 703 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the captain or supercargo ought to deliver to one of the two, said officer shall give the captain or supercargo the proper receipt, which shall in every case be a printed form, bearing the custom-house seal. This being done, he shall immediately proceed to seal the hatches and other parts of the hold of the vessel. No guard shall remain on board, excepting when the collector so orders it, which order must be in writing. ARTICLE LX. Due vigilance shall be used by the revenue officers both by land and water, in order to prevent communication with the vessel, or fraudulent extraction of the cargo. ARTICLE LXI. The principal revenue officer, or the custom-house agent, on landing shall immediately deliver into the hands of the collector the sealed packet containing the manifest and invoices, as well as the list of luggage and stock of provisions, and without any delay the collector shall put into the post-office the packet for the Minister of Fi nance, in order that it may be forwarded by the first mail, or by an express, should there be one. After this the collector shall compare the documents, and finding them in order, shall sign them. ARTICLE LXII. Within twelve business hours from casting anchor, the captain or supercargo shall deliver to the collector and comptroller, or to the person who acts for them, the third copy of his general manifest, as required by Article XXXVIII. He shall make oath in the manner he holds most solemn and in due form before said officers, that all the merchandise on freight and for sale, forming the vessel s cargo, is contained in the manifest, and in the list of luggage and stock of provisions presented by him. Should he refuse to make oath, the collector shall direct the captain of the port to detain the vessel until the custom-house be satisfied that there is no fraud. ARTICLE LXIII. Within twelve business hours after the delivery of the correspond ence, the consignees shall present their copies of invoices belonging to the cargo, making oath to eachVith their signatures affixed, that they are correct and in order according to the best of their knowledge and belief, taking into account the corrections which may have been made. Should the consignee refuse to make oath in the manner aforesaid, the mer chandise contained in his invoices shall be examined piece by piece, and with the greatest scrutiny. ARTICLE LXIV. The consignee named in the invoice of the shipper of the goods may refuse to receive them, provided he renounce his right during the twelve business hours granted for presenting the invoices, and provided also he present them at the time of formally refusing the consignment. ARTICLE LXV. The time fixed in the preceding article having elapsed without either refusing to receive the goods or presenting the corresponding invoices, it shall be understood that the consignment is accepted. ARTICLE LXVI. Should there be several consignees in common, the refusal must be signed by all. But if they are named in order, 1, 2, 3, &c., the refusal of the last in order is equivalent to that of all those who precede. ARTICLE LXVII. If the shipper of the goods, whose consignment is refused, be a citi zen of the republic, the collector shall inform the mercantile tribunal of it, and it shall name two respectable merchants as consignees. ARTICLE LXVIII. If one of these refuse, and the other consent,this one alone shall be the consignee. The refusal of these consignees officially named must be made within two business days after the date of their nomination, otherwise it shall be understood that they have accepted the consignment. ARTICLE LXIX. Should both the persons thus appointed refuse, the tribunal shall inform the collector, who shall order the goods to be sold at public auction to the best bidder. From the produce of the sale, the duties shall be deducted, and the balance placed in deposit with the mercantile tribunal on account of the owner. ARTICLE LXX. Should the shipper of the goods whose consignment has been re fused be a foreigner, the collector shall make an official communication to the consul or vice-consul belonging to the same nation, advising him of it, in order that within the time limited by Article LX., he may state whether or not he will take charge of the goods ; after this limited time expires, he shall be considered the consignee. CUSTOMS TARIFF. 707 ARTICLE LXXL The consul or vice-consul having declined the chanre the shall be disposed of as directed in Articles LXVII., LXVIII., and LXIX. ARTICLE LXXIL Any vessel anchoring in a Mexican port, whose object is neither to receive or discharge cargo, but merely to repair damages, or take in provisions for the crew, shall be permitted to remain during the time necessary for this object, but on con- dition that all the papers belonging to the cargo be exhibited, and that she be subjc all the regulations arid precautions established for all other vessels arriving at and destined for these ports. If any transshipment of goods take place without the permission given by the collector to store them during the time of careening, and it be discovered, the vessel shall be dealt with in the manner prescribed in Articles CXX., CXXL, and CXXIL, according to the kind of the goods. When the damage is of such a kind as to prevent the vessel continuing her voyage, the collector shall inform the government, in order that it may determine what ought to be done. ARTICLE LXXIII. The captain or supercargo, during the twelve business hours allowed him for presenting his manifest, and the consignees, during the twelve hours allowed them for their invoices, may correct at the foot of them any of the defects tine- able by Articles XXVIII., XXXIV., and XXXVI., of this tariff, but no defects can be reformed which incur the penalty of confiscation, nor that of 25 per cent augmen tation in the duties, as spoken of in the 2nd part of Article XXVIII., nor in respect to the omissions treated of in Article LXXXIV, because these penalties falling on breaches of the law which cannot be attributed to forgetfulness, or involuntary negligence, do not merit indulgence ; the aforesaid reforms shall free those who were liable to the corre sponding tines. Section IX. Of Exportation. ARTICLE CX. Foreign vessels shall not be allowed to carry on the coasting- trade, or of " Echelle," in the ports of the republic, but after concluding their discharge in any of them, and having cleared, they may go directly to those open to the coasting or other trade, in order to load dyewood, or any other national produce that is exempted by law from duties of exportation, provided always that they have a certificate in due form from the respective custom-houses of having there paid the tonnage duties. ARTICLE CXI. In order to enjoy the privilege granted in the preceding article, all foreign vessels must submit to the visit of the officers of health and search belonging to the port at which they arrive; and should they carry money to make purchases, they must have also a certificate in due form from the respective custom-houses, expressing in figures and writing the amount embarked, and that the export duties appointed by this tariff have been paid. ARTICLE CXII. All goods, produce, and national commodities shall be free ot all duties on exportation, neither shall they be liable to duties of any kind whatever in their transit through the interior of the country or coastwise, excepting the following, which they shall pay to the national revenue : Gold in coin . 3 P er ccnt " Gold bullion (quintado) . Silver in coin . Wrought silver (quintado) Virgin silver, accompanied with certificate of having paid " quin to" duty ... . ARTICLE CXIII.-The exportation of gold and silver in bars or ingots, ir dust, Mexican monuments and antiquities, and the seed of the cochineal ,s prc under penalty of confiscation ; but this prohibition shall not extend to small qua of the mineral ores and dust intended for specimens as curiosities ; but a permit the government for their exportation will always be requn ARTICLE CX1V The permission to export gold and silver bullion at the por Guata and Marian ^^ be continued? under the conditions and ormaht.es pr, scribed in the decrees of the 10th November 1841, and 16th February, 1 exported paying 1 1 percent and silver 9^ percent on ^^*~ more for each of duty imposed by the 2nd article of the decree of the 708 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. this year, when not sent to the mint to be coined. The collection of these duties hereby authorised is exempt from the term of credit allowed by the 101st article. ARTICLE CXV. Articles subject to export duty, shipped clandestinely to evade the payment of duty shall be confiscated, if so discovered : should the goods be beyond seizure a fine equal to the amount of them valued at the market price shall be levied. Should the article have been embarked and the vessel still in port, the respective tribu nals shall cause it to be landed, or, in case of resistance, shall proceed against the cap tain or supercargo of the vessel, imposing penalties on them equal to the degree and circumstances of the offence. ARTICLE CXVL The exportation of goods not liable to duty being effected, with out attending to the formalities prescribed, shall be punished with a fine equal to 10 per cent of their value, taken at the market price of the goods. Section X. Of other Cases wherein fines or penalties shall be incurred. ARTICLE CXVII. Besides the cases specified already in the respective articles of this tariff for levying penalties, there are others which incur them, should the following pro visions be infringed : ARTICLE CXVIII. If any foreign vessel, of whatever burden or form, or wherever she may have come from, be found loading or unloading goods of any kind at any coast, river, harbour, bay, or other place not pointed out by this tariff as a port for foreign vessels, she shall for this alone be confiscated, together with the cargo and all that be longs to her. The commander of said vessel shall be fined from 500 to 3000 dollars, according to the value of the cargo, and shall be condemned besides to from six months to five years of labour and banishment. All those who knowingly aid or protect the loading of said vessels, or the carriage of goods by land introduced into or carried out of places described in this article, shall suffer the following fines and punishments, viz.; the owner, or his deputy, of the carts, beasts of burden, and every thing used in the trans port of the effects, and the persons who receive the goods, as well as he who delivers, deposits, takes charge of, or conceals them, shall all undergo the same penalties and punishments as the captain or supercargo of the vessel, and the other shall be punished by paying a tenth-part of the fine, and suffering a tenth of the -punishment imposed on the principals. National vessels shall be liable to the same penalties on coming from a foreign port and entering any of those not open to foreign commerce, if found shipping any effects whatever for a foreign country, and when they are found loading or unloading any kind of goods whatever at ports or places not open to foreign commerce, or to the coasting trade. ARTICLE CXX. All merchandise found in ports open to foreign commerce, or the coasting trade, which has been introduced, or be in the act of being introduced, without being subjected to the forms prescribed in this decree, and without observing any of the instructions or regulations issued by the government, shall be confiscated, together with all the boats, canoes, and vessels of every class. ARTICLE CXXI. Should said merchandise be prohibited, there shall be imposed besides the fines in Article XCVII. ; ARTICLE CXXII. Should they be goods of which the government has a monopoly, the importers and exporters who introduce them in another port or coast of the republic, together with him who delivers and receives them, shall suffer, besides the confiscation of the goods, vessels, cars, beasts for riding or of burden, with their harnesses, equip ments, and arms, a tine of double the value of the monopolised goods, rated at the price of the monopoly at the respective places, and in default of payment shall be con demned to banishment for the term of from two to eight years. ARTICLE CXXIII. Should false money, whatever the metal may be, be found, besides the confiscation of every thing mentioned in the preceding article, and besides a fine equal to what the false money would represent if legal, the offender shall be punished with all the penalties inflicted by the law on coiners ; should the offender be unable to pay the fine, the metal shall be melted, and held, together with all the property that may have been recovered, for the benefit of the informer, and those who seized it. CUSTOMS TARIFF. 799 Passports. The master of any vessel coming from a foreign port, shall immedhtely on his arrival in any of the ports of the Republic, declare in writing t,, the chief of the maritime custom-house, the number of passengers he has on board, the country to which they belong, their trade or occupation, and the place where they embarked. The penalty for neglect to comply with this regulation, or the making a false statement, is dollars, and an additional fine of twenty dollars for each passenger omitted in the report. The vessel may be detained until the penalty be paid. Seamen, whose names are entered on the roll, are not considered as passengers. Every foreigner shall, before he disembarks, declare his name, age, stature, place of birth, from whence he came, his destination, the object of his voyage, and his profession, which, when executed by the head of a family, will be sufficient for the women ami children thereof. The declaration above must be in writing, and signed by the person making the same. This formality being complied with, the collector shall give to the foreigner a permit to disembark, subject, however, to the following rules: 1. That no Spaniard, or subject of the Spanish government, shall enter the Republic. 2. That any foreigner provided with a passport from the general government may disembark. 3. That the citizens of the new States of America, and the subjects of nations who may have agents officially accredited to the Republic, may also land, having passports granted, or examined by any Mexican agent at the place of embarkation, or on security of their consul in the port where they may arrive, or on that of any Mexican citizen. The subjects of nations who are not comprehended in the foregoing paragraph, shall only be permitted to land with a passport of the General government, or with one granted or examined by any Mexican agent residing in a foreign country. The foreigner to whom such permit is granted, must, within twenty-fours of hay in- landed, present himself to the civil authority of the port. Any foreigner permitted to introduce himself into the Republic as aforesaid, shall, within one month thereafter, solicit of the Supreme government, a cnrta d> (card of safety), to remain in, and pass through the same for the period of one year ; in order to obtain which, a certificate will be required from the officially accredited agent of the applicant, stating that he is a subject or citizen of the nation he represent- also his occupation or profession. * Every foreigner, whatever his passport may be, must present himself to the civil authority of the place where he may have resided more than eight days ; an !. whenever he may change his place of residence ; non-compliance with that provisi subjects the party to a fine of twenty dollars. Foreigners introduced and established agreeably to the regulations herein prose shall be under the protection of the laws, and enjoy the same civil righl ceded by said laws to Mexican citizens, with the exception ot acqun which can only be held by citizens.* r , Any foreigner who shall disembark and introduce himsel ,nlo the territory of he republic contrary to the provisions of this decree, shall be expelled therefrom. A, a, any foreigner who shall be adjudged guilty of having used, for the purpi* Inflation, any document belonging to another, or for having suppress of the statements required, or for having counterfeited or altered any passpor foreigner wishing to leave the republic, must make application for the proper passpoitheAoIhe Genfral government O r the civil authority . the stat, m .-Inch h, may be. * This exception does not extend to lands my hold shares. Aliens may purchase and ^^^r^ By the Sooia&n law. federal territory, or of the state governments for state y. J may also hold land, but one-fourth part of the colonists must be JKx.u, 710 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. TARIFF OF YUCATAN. This state having declared its independence the following tariff regulations were adopted by the late Congress. The ports open to foreign commerce, are Campeachy and Sisal. For exportation only, the ports of Laguna and Bacalar are designated. The tonnage duty on foreign vessels, from foreign ports, is fixed at one dollar fifty cents per ton, according to her register. Vessels arriving in distress to be subject to charge, except that of their anchorage duty. The officers, crew, and passengers of all vessels arriving in the port of Yucatan, are forbidden to land without a permit from the visiting health officer, under a penalty of 200 dollars. The duties on importations, which shall not exceed 200 dollars, to be paid in cash ; if exceeding that sum, to be paid by three instalments in the course of ninety days. The duties onexported articles to be paid on the clearance of the vessel. Prohibited Articles. The importation of the following articles is prohibited, under the penalty of confiscation, viz. : cotton, indigo, rice, sugar, trunks, hogs, chocolate, cover lids, sacks, obscene pictures, beans, copper pans, grain, meal, yarn, soap (except scented), lard, molasses and honey, combs, skins (except morocco leather, clothing), salt, tallow, and candles, saddles, straw hats, tobacco, beef, shoes. Articles Duty Free. Live animals for improving breeds, newly-invented carriages, wooden houses; instruments of agriculture, of science, or of the arts; types for printing; books in sheets or bound ; hops, sugar machinery; specie ; iron and steel, for machinery ; maps, exotic plants, leeches, seeds, turning machinery. Export Duty.A\\ articles are free of duty for exportation, except the following : Gold, in bars, or coin, one percent; silver, two per cent; logwood, eight per cent. Every captain and supercargo is permitted to export 100 dollars worth of articles, free of duty, on account of the expenses of the vessel. General Import Duty. Flour, forty per cent ad valorem ; olive, linseed, and whale oil, twenty ; steel, twenty-nine ; brandy, forty ; codfish, twenty; empty bottles, twenty ; cotton goods, fifteen ; iron chains, fifteen ; beef and pork in barrels, twenty; Cashmere goods, twenty; wax, forty; beer and porter in bottles, fifty; nails, fifteen; sheet copper, fifty; glassware, twenty; knives and forks, twenty; linen goods, fifteen; drugs, forty ; biandy fruits, twenty; sewing thread, twenty ; hams, twenty ; liquors, forty ; listadees, twenty; apples, twenty ; mustard, twenty; muslins, twenty ; paper, twenty; perfumery, forty; cheese, twenty; cutlery, twenty; watches, six; clocks, twenty; vinegar, forty; wines, forty. CHAPTER XL. YUCATAN. YUCATAN, though noticed under the head of Mexico as one of the states of that republic, may now be considered as entirely separated from those which had joined that, at all times, loosely-bound confederacy. The state of Yucatan attained independence of Spain at the same time as Mexico. It had previously, under Spain, an administration unconnected either YUCATAN. 7 1 1 with Mexico or Guatemala. The last account of Yucatan, upon which we can place any reliance, is found in Mr. Stephens s very interesting work ; which , however, is chiefly devoted to illustrate the wonderful ruins which he has explored in this Peninsula and in Central America. His descriptions of the soil and climate are brief, and confined to the localities which he visited. We deduce from the information which he gives, that Yucatan is a country remarkable for bad roads, or rather the general want of roads, a soil, in which stony and not very fertile districts, prevail ; rich vegetation where there is moisture, on those soils of which fertility is the character ; a general want of water ; few good harbours ; a hot climate; occasional forests, with wild beasts and reptiles; pastures, with herds of cattle ; ranches and haciendas; towns and villages with cathedrals and churches; a population ignorant and superstitious, yet towards him kindly disposed; with industry in a very backward state; with little trade, and few, or only rude, manufactures. But that Yucatan, notwithstanding a hot, and in many parts an unhealthy climate, and other disadvantages, is still capable of being important as a productive country, and of maintaining a large population.* In alluding to the political state of Yucatan, Mr. Stephen says Separated fuom Spain, in an evil hour Yucatan sent commissioners to Mexico, to deliberate upon forming a government, and on the return of these com missioners, and on their report, she gave up her independent position, and entered into the Mexican confederation as one of the states of that republic. Ever since, she has been suffering from this unhappy connexion, and a short time before our former visit, a revolution broke out all over the country, in the successful progress of which, during that visit, the last Mexican garrison was driven out of Yucatan. The state assumed the right of sovereignty, asserting independent powers, at the same time not disconnecting itself entirely from Mexico, but declaring itself still a component part of that republic, upon cei conditions. The declaration of its independence was still a moot question. assembly had passed a bill to that effect, but the senate had not yet acted upon it, and its fate in that body was considered doubtful. In the mean time a . sioner had been sent to Texas, and two days after our arrival at Menda, T xan schooner of war, San Antonio, arrived at Sisal, bringing a J-^ Yucatan to pay 8000 dollars per month, toward the support of the the Texan vessels to remain upon the coast of Yucatan and protect by Mexico. This proposition was accepted immediate^, and f . for further co-operation, in procuring a recognition of their mutual independence. . This co.espo.ds nearly with the sketch of Yucatan .hid, we have taken fro. * See pp. 322 and 323. 712 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS.. " Thus, while shrinking from an open declaration of independence, Yucatan was widening the breach, and committing an offence which Mexico could never forgive, by an alliance with a people whom that government, or rather Santa Anna, regarded as the worst of rebels, and whom he was bent upon exerting the whole power of the country in an effort to reconquer. Such was the disjointed and false position in which Yucatan stood at the time of our presentation to the governor, Don Santiago Mendez. He was about fifty years of age, tall and thin, with a fine intellectual face, and of very gentlemanly appearance and deportment. " Our visit to him was made at his private residence, which was one befitting his station as a private gentleman, and not unworthy of his public character. His reception-room was in the sala, or parlour, of his house, in the centre of which, after the fashion of Merida, three or four large chairs, covered with morocco, were placed facing each other. " Free from internal wars, and saved by her geographical position from the sanguinary conflicts common in the other Mexican states, Yucatan has had no school for soldiers; there are no military chieftains, and no prepossessions for military glory. Don Santiago Mendez was a merchant, until within a few years, at the head of a respectable commercial house in Campeachy. He was so respected for uprightness and integrity, that, -in the unsettled state of affairs, he was agreed on, by the two opposite parties, as the best persorHn the state to place at the head of the government. From a quiet life and occu pations he found himself all at once in the front rank of a wide-spread rebellion. An invasion from Mexico was constantly apprehended, and should it prove suc cessful, while others would escape by reason of their insignificance, his head would be sure to fall. The two great parties, one in favour of keeping open the door of reconciliation with Mexico, and the other for immediate and absolute separation, were both urging him to carry out their views. The governor shrank from the hazard of extremes, was vacillating, undecided, and unequal to the emergency. In the mean time, the enthusiasm which led to the revolution, and which might have achieved independence, was wearing away." From this sketch and from other information, which may be relied upon, the condition of the people of this Spanish republic, for self-government, does not encourage the hope of secure and peaceful administration. The government of Yucatan has, since the deposition of Santa Anna, acted independently of Mexico. A separate customs tariff has been published and acted upon, and whatever may hereafter be the destiny of this state, which, with an area of about 50,000 square miles, and a population variously estimated at from 450,000 to nearly 600,000 inhabitants, we need scarcely expect, nor can we desire, its re-annexation to the government of Mexico, which has hitherto ex hibited so remarkable an incapacity for wise, or for efficient, administration. Since the commencement of the present war, between the United States of North Ame rica and Mexico, Yucatan has proclaimed its neutrality and independence. YUCATAN. TABLE of Statistics of Yucatan, obtained by Mr. DISTRICTS. PRINCIPAL PLACES. 1 Parishes. Villages annexed. Distance from the Capital. fl 1 ; PRODUCTIONS. Capita .. Merida . No. 4 2 3 11 16 9 8 6 8 7 6 7 2 3 2 91 No 5 8 17 27 7 5 11 7 15 16 18 1 6 leag. 3G 37 36 15 25 17 26 14 39 22 41 SO 42 88 No. 37,801 19,600 10,567 63,164 . 78,846 60,776 42,188 54,447 41.726 66,680 49,443 37,168 4,364 8,183 3,986 Horned cattle, homes, mule, tallow, jerked beef, leather, Halt, gypsum, hemp (raw and manufactured), straw hats, cuitar. cigars, and extract of logwood. Salt, logwood, rice, sugar, and marble of ! good quality. Logwood, timber, rice, and fish oil. Cotton, sugar, starch, gum-copal, tobacco cochineal, saffron, vanilla, cottou-fahricn) yarns, &c., wax, honey, castor-oil, horned cattle, hogn, and skins. Horned cattle, horses, mules, tallow, jerked beef, castor-oil, hides, wax, honey, timber, indigo, hemp (raw and manufactured}, straw-cigars, barilla, and salt. Horned cattle, horses, mules, hogs, nbeop, skins, sugar, molasses, timber, ri< .-, to- baeoo (in the leaf and manufactured , spirits, arrow-root, straw-hate, cotton- lace, ochre, flints, and grind-stone*. Horned cattle, horse*, mule*, hogs, sheep, skins, tallow, dried beef, hemp (raw and manufactured), and cotton-lace. Cattle, horses, mules, skins, tallow, dried beef, logwood, tobacco, sugar, and rum. Horned cattle, horses, mules, oil of palma Cristi, tobacco, hemp, and fine straw- hats. Sugar, molasses, rum, tobacco of good quality, rice, laces, pepper, gum copal, sarsaparilla, hats, hammocks, ebony, ba rilla, gypsum, and skins. Horaed cattle, horses, mules, hogs, skins, tallow, and dried beef. Tortoise-shell, skins, timber, logwood. India- rubber, incense, tobacco, achiote (a sub stitute for saffron, and a very rich dye), starch from the yuca, cotton, wax, honey, molasses, sugar, rum, castor-oil, salt, amber, vanilla, hogs, and cochineal. Logwood. Timber, rice, logwood, and salt. Logwood, valuable timber, sugar of in ferior quality, tobacco of the best de scription, rum, a fine species of hemp (known under the name of pita, resin. India-rubber, gum copal, pimento, sarsa parilla, vanilla, and gypsum. City of Campeachy Village of Lerma Valladolid City of Valladolid The Upper Highlands.. . The Lower Hghlands... The Upper Royal Road. The Lower Royal Road. The Upper " Beneficios" The Lower " Beneficios" Tizimin City of Tekax . . Village of Teabo Town of Jeguelchakan.. Village of Maxcanu Village of Ichmul. Village of Tizhnin Seiba- Plaza Village of Seiba-Plaza... Total 15 143 .. |578,939 POPULATION OF YUCATAN. STATEMENT showing the Number of Inhabitants in the Five Departments into which the State is divided, distinguishing the Sexes ; taken from the Census made by Order of the Government, of the 8th of April, 1841.* DEPARTMENTS. Men. Women. GRAND TOTAL. number. 48,606 number. 58,663 number. 107,269 32,915 37,933 70,848 58,127 64,697 12-.M 11 45,353 46,926 92,279 Campeachy 39,017 40,639 79,656 Total 224,018 248,858 472,876 I The best information goes to show that the population of the state cannot fall short of 600,000 souls. * This is is probably not very exact, because, having continually the may be fixed at 525,000 souls. 4 Y 714 SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER XLI. AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND MANUFACTURES OF YUCATAN. MAIZE, or Indian corn, beans, pumpkins, squashes and camotes, a kind of potato, are the chief productions raised by the Maya or Indian population. Sugar-cane and hemp is cultivated on the haciendas. Horses, mules, cattle, hogs, and poultry, are reared ; the two latter chiefly by the Indians. Generally the state of agriculture and the implements are rude. Wax and honey is one of the rarest products, and on the road from Sisal to Merida, he met large carts drawn by mules, five abreast, with high wheels ten or twelve feet apart, and loaded with hemp, bagging, wax, honey, and ox and deer-skins. The debris of the ruined cities are found to fertilise the soil and the ground around. Uxmal is consequently considered excellent for milpas, or maize-fields. Legally there is no slavery in Yucatan. No man can either buy or sell another man ; but the poor thriftless Indians are generally compelled to attach themselves for necessaries to some hacienda, and for the mere privilege of using the water. Mr. Stephens informs us that " They come under certain obligations of service to the master, which place him in a lordly position, and this state of things growing out of the natural condition of the coun try, exists, I believe, nowhere in Spanish America except in Yucatan. Each hacienda has its major-domo, who attends to all the details of the management of the estate, and, in the absence of the master, is his viceroy, and has the same powers over the tenants. At this hacienda the major-domo was a young Mestitzo, and had fallen into his place in an easy and natural way by marrying his predecessor s daughter, who had just enough white blood to elevate the dulness of the Indian face into one of softness and sweetness; and yet it struck me that he thought quite as much of the place he got with her as of herself." The attachment of the Indians to their home is said to be very great ; circum stances and habit bind the Indian and his wife together. He is seldom harsh to her, if she is guilty of any great offence he brings her to the alcalde, who orders her to be whipped. He then goes quietly home with her. They share their labours and pleasures together, and with all their children attend village feasts. THE MANUFACTURES OF YUCATAN are so very unimportant, that we car) give no account of them further than that a few rude articles are made in the: towns and haciendas; that some coarse cutlery, and some coarse earthenware and articles of leather and wood are made in the country. At the hacienda o Tankache, amidst a logwood country, the proprietor has erected machinery fo; extracting the dye. TRADE. Of the trade we can say little, there being no accounts that we car discover kept of it. The logwood-trade and the turtle-fishery, and a few othe: articles, form the exports, and the imports of manufactured goods are subjecte* to the new tariff, which we have translated and introduced in the preceding SKETCHES OF YUCATAN. 7 \ ; } pages. Smuggling, chiefly by vessels from the United States, and from th* British West Indies, is extensively carried on. TURTLE FISHING. There are three kinds of turtle which inhabit these seas ; the cahuamo, the eggs of which serve for food, and which is useful besides only for its oil ; the tortuga, of which the meat as well as the eggs is eaten, also produces oil, and the shell is worth two reals the pound; and the kare, of which the shell is worth ten dollars a pound. Mr. Stephens observes, " I would not make any man unhappy, but the fishermen say that the turtle which forms the delight of the gourmand is of the commonest kind, not worth killing for the sake of the shell, and therefore sent away alive. The kare he has never tasted. It is killed for the sake of the shell, and eaten by the luxurious fishermen on the spot. I im mediately negotiated with the patron for the purchase of the shell. The outer scales of the back, eight in number, are all that is valuable. Their weight is estimated at four pounds, and the price in Campeachy, he said, was ten dollars a pound. "The arbor in which we lived was no protection, and we were obliged to go inside the hut, which was snug and comfortable, the oil-jars being arranged under the eaves, with turtle-shells tied up carefully in bundles, and on the rafters hung strings of eggs; while nets, old sails, blocks, and other characteristic furniture of a fisherman s hut, filled up the corners. It was no hardship to be obliged to pass the afternoon among these fishermen, for their hardy, independent occupation gave manliness to their character and freedom to their speech and manners." THE TOWN OF LAGUNA stands on the island of Carmen, which is about twenty miles long, and which, with another island about twelve miles in length, separates the Lake of Terminos from the Gulf of Mexico. This port is the depot of the great logwood country in the interior, and ten to twelve vessels are usually there loading cargoes for Europe and the United States. The town is well built, and said to be thriving; but its commerce has been greatly restricted by the oppressive regulations of the central government of Mexico ; but having made a pronunciamiento, arid disarmed and driven out the Mexican garrison, it is now considered independent, subject only to the state government of Yucatan. SISAL. This place has a roadstead which forms the port of Merida. Silan, Campeachy, and a few other places are frequented by the traders. CHAPTER XLII. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF YUCATAN. YUCATAN appears to be, in many respects, less improved than Mexico, and far less romantic in its scenery than Central America. The inhabitants described by Mr. Stephens as kindly disposed; and he says, on leavm for the ruins of Mayapan, 716 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " A friend accompanied us beyond the suburbs and put us into a straight road, which led, without turning;, to the end of our day s journey : instead of the ominous warnings we were accustomed to receive in Central America, his parting words were, that there was no danger of robbers, or of any other interruptions." He observes that no map of Yucatan, to be depended on, has ever been : constructed. At the distance of a league from Merida, he passed a fine cattle hacienda, and the following sketches are illustrative of the country. " We reached Timucui, a small village five leagues from Merida. This village consisted of a few Indian huts, built around a large open square, and on one i side was a sort of shed for a casa real. It had no church or cura, and already we experienced a difficulty which we did not expect to encounter so soon. The population consisted entirely of Indians, who, in general, throughout the country speak nothing but the Maya ; there was not a white man in the place, nor any one who could speak in any tongue we could comprehend. Fortunately, a muleteer from the interior, on his way to Merida, had stopped to bait his mules under the shade of a large tree, and was swinging in a hammock in the casa real. He was surprised at our undertaking, alone, a journey into the interior, seeing that we were brought to a stand at the first village from the capital; but finding us somewhat rational in other respects, he assisted us in procuring ramon, leaves and water, for the horses. His life had been passed in driving mules from a region of country called the Sierra, to the capital ; but he had heard strange stories about foreign countries, and among others, that, in El Norte, a man could earn a dollar a day by his labour ; but he was comforted when he learned that a real in his country was worth more to him than a dollar would be in ours ; and as he interpreted to his nearly-naked companions, crouching in the shade, nothing touched them so nearly as the idea of cold and frost, and spending a great portion of the day s earnings for fuel to keep them from freezing. At three o clock we left the hamlet, and at a little after four we saw the towers of the church of Tekoh. In the suburbs of this village we passed the Campo Santo, 8 large enclosure with high stone walls, over the gateway of which, and in niches along the top of the wall, was a row of human skulls. Inside the enclosure, ai the farthest extremity, was a pile of skulls and bones, which, according to custom of the Indians, observed from time immemorial, had been dug up frorr the graves and thrown into this shallow pit, a grim and ghastly charnel-house. " The village consisted of a long, straight street, with houses or huts al most hidden by foliage, and inhabited exclusively by Indians. We rode up tc the plaza without meeting a single person. At one side of the plaza, on a higl stone platform, stood a gigantic church, with two lofty towers, and in fron on each side was a broad flight of stone steps. Crossing the plaza, we saw ai Indian woman, to whom we uttered the word convento, and, following the direc tion of her hand, rode up to the house of the cura. It was in the rear of th SKETCHES OF YUCATAN. ; j - church, and inclosed by a large wall. The gate was closed, but we opened it without knocking. The convent stood on the same platform with the church and had a high flight of stone steps. A number of Indian servants ran out to the corridor to stare at such strange-looking persons, and we understood that the padre was not at home; but we were too well pleased with the appearance of things to think of going elsewhere. We tied our horses in the yard, ascended the steps, and strolled through the corridor of the convent and along the platform of the church, overlooking the village." On Mr. Stephens return he found the cura waiting to receive him. His curacy consisted of nearly 2000 souls, and, except his assistant, there was not a white man among this population. The convent was a large stone building, with walls several feet thick, and in size corresponded with the church. Being so near Merida, it was well sup plied with useful articles ; among other things, the cura had a small collection of books, which, in Yucatan, constituted a library. Mr. Stephens says; " He relieved us of great difficulty, arising from the want of an interpreter, and, sending for the Indian alcaldes, made immediate arrange ments to forward our luggage, and to accompany us himself the next day to the ruins of Mayapan. We had again made a beginning with the padres, and this beginning, in heartiness of welcome, and goodness of cheer, corresponded with all that we had before received at their hands. We had the choice of cot or hammock for the night, and at breakfast a group of Indian musicians were seated under the corridor, who continued making a noise, which they called la musica, till we mounted to depart. " The cura accompanied us, mounted on one of the best horses we had seen in the country ; and as it was a rare thing for him to absent himself a day from his parochial duties, he set out as for a holiday excursion, worrying our poor nags, as well as ourselves, to keep up with him. " The royal road, the Camino real, itself, like most of the others which bore that name, would not be considered in other countries, as indicating a very advanced state of internal improvement, but the one into which we now struck was much rougher and more stony, entirely new, and in some places still un finished. It had been but lately opened, and the reason of its being opened at all, illustrates one striking feature in the character of the Indians. The village to which it leads was under the pastoral charge of our friendly companion, and was formerly reached by a road, or rather path, so circuitous and difficult, that, on account of his other duties, he was obliged to give notice that he would be compelled to give it up. To prevent this calamity, all the Indians, in a body, turned out and made this new road, being a straight cut through the woods, two leagues in length/ This padre took a lively interest in the zeal of Mr. Stephens for exploring 718 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the antiquities of the country, and told him that this particular region abounded with traces of ancient inhabitants. The hacienda, or rather rancho, of San Joaquim, on which the ruins of Mayapan lie, is ten leagues south from Merida. It forms part of the great hacienda of Xanchakan, the property of Don Jose Maria Meneses, the venerable cura of San Cristoval, formerly provesor of the Church of Yucatan. Mr. Stephens had made his acquaintance at the house of Senor Rejon, secretary of state, and Don Jose sent instructions to his major domo, to place at his com mand all the disposable force of the hacienda. Mr. Stephens says;" In half an hour we came into a clear and open country, and at ten we entered the Camino real, for Jalacho, a broad and open road, passable for calesas. Up to this time we had not seen a single habitation, or met a human being, and now the road was literally thronged with people moving on to the fair, \vith whose clean garments my mud-stained clothes contrasted very unfavourably. There were Indians, Mestizoes, and white people, on horseback, muleback, and on foot, men, women, and children, many carrying on their backs things to sell in petaquillas, or long baskets of straw ; whole families, sometimes half a village moving in company; and I fell in behind a woman perched on a loaded horse with a child in her arms, and a little fellow behind, his legs stretched out nearly straight, to span the horse s flanks, and both arms clasping her substantial body to keep himself from slipping off. We passed parties sitting in the shade to rest or eat, and females lying down by the roadside without any fear of molestation from the rest." The villages visited by Mr. Stephens, were, he says, like all the others, <c con spicuous for a large plaza, and church with two towers. Fairs are held in the country, the principal one at Yzamal, the next to it at Jalacho, on the road from Campeachy to Merida. Gambling is carried on at these fairs. Among the haciendas that of Xanchakan is one of the finest in Yucatan, containing nearly 700 souls the house is perhaps the best in the country, and being within one day s ride of the capital, and accessible by a calesa, it is a favourite residence of its proprietor. Its cattle-yard, great tanks of water, and other accessories, were all upon a large and substantial scale. On the arrival of the cura the bell of the hacienda church was (i tolled to announce his arrival to the sick, to those who wished to confess, marry, or be baptised." Among other matters observed, " a dance of Indians was got up. 5 On another occasion he witnessed the flogging of an In dian belonging to the hacienda. At the fair of Jalacho there were bull-fights and balls, horses, cotton, looking-glasses, songs, trays, baskets, and eatables, were among the articles bought and sold. A line of diligences, imported from the United States, had been established between Campeachy and Merida. He complains much of the almost invisible SKETCHES OF YUCATAN. 71*J insects called garrapatas, which he designates the scourge of Yucatan. There is great scarcity of water throughout the country. The custody of the wells forms an important part of the administration of the village government, at the head of which is an alcalde, elected, and usually changed,, annually. He oWrved that there was in the population an excess of females over males. The priests, although they never marry, have children, whom they call nieces or nepln "At the ball," says Mr. Stephens, " one of the most personally attractive and lady-looking women was the amiga of a married man whose wife had left him; the best dressed and most distinguished young lady was the daughter of the padre, who, strictly speaking, never should have had any daughters ; and hus bands without wives, and wives without husbands, were mingling unrestrained among each other. 5 On another occasion, a beautiful young woman, whom Mr. Stephens had supposed to be a Senorita, was a compremitada^ or compagnora, or to speak precisely, she was the compagnora of the padre, who sat on the other side. " The padres generally throughout Yucatan, to relieve the tedium of convent life, have compagnoras, called permanas politicas, or sisters-in-law. " Many of the white people could not speak Spanish, and the conversation was almost exclusively the Maya language." The padrecito was the best dancer at the ball, which was given in honour of a saint. The Casa real, is a public building provided by the government in every village and town, for the audienzia and other municipal officers, and " like the Cabeldo of Central America, is intended to contain apartments for strangers."- These are generally miserable buildings. Mr. Stephens says he could not move without paying money for every thing. The prevailing storm of the country is called El Norte. Throughout Yuca tan, el campo, or the country, is considered unhealthy during the rainy season, and the proprietors of haciendas generally confined themselves t and villages. At one rancho of Maya Indians, near the village of Nohcacal, consisting about lOOlabradores, they worked, lived, and enjoyed their property m commo and always continued among each other within the rancho: rearing hogs, cultivating milpa, or maize fields, was their chief occupation, their own The products shared hy all. Their food cooked m one hut ; family sending for its portion. Each memher of which contnbutes .hog. They want no converts. No stranger is allowed to enter 1 munity. Each member marries within the rancho, and none ever rnarned of it. At another rancho, within the rude fence, inclosing the alcalde, there were dogs, hogs, turkeys, and fowls , winch on Dangers ap proaching, barked, grunted, gobbled, and cackled. The yard was shaded orange trees loaded with ripe and unusually large firm 720 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. There are four species of maguey or aloe, viz., the maguey which yields the pulque ; the henneker, the fibres of which constitute the Sisal hemp ; the sa- lula, with which the Indian women wean their children, by placing the leaves, the taste of which is disagreeable and bitter, over the breast ; and the petal, which has large leaves, and of which fine white hemp is made. SUGAR CULTIVATION might be carried on to great advantage in many parts of Yucatan : especially along the sea coast, where there is now not a settle ment below Ascension round to Sisal. From Campeachy to Tabasco, he considers the whole line of coast admirably adapted for cultivating sugar-canes. Next, in respect to labour, that of the Indians, is said to be quite equal to that of Negroes, and Indians for labour may, says Mr. Stephens, " be procured at a real per day, which is less than the interest upon the cost of a negro, and less than the cost of maintaining him, if he cost nothing/ At a distance of a league from the ha cienda of Jalasac, which is in the interior country and estimated at twenty-two leagues nearly due south from the Port of Campeachy, " the road ran through a plaza, or square, with large seybo trees in the centre, and neat white houses on all the sides, and before the door of one of these we saw a horse and cart, an evidence of civilisation we had not seen till that time in all the country." This was Senor Trego s sugar hacienda. " He had large sugar works, and a distillery for the manufacture of habanera ; and in the yard of the latter was a collection of enormous black hogs taking a siesta in a pool of mud, most of them with their snouts barely above water a sublime spectacle for one interested in their lard and tallow." There was a well dug 600 feet in the yard, but not deep enough for water. Near Tekax (one of the few places in Yutacan bearing the name of city), Mr. Stephens travelled on a Camino real, and met heavy lumbering vehicles, drawn by oxen and horses, carrying sugar from the haciendas. On journeying from Chemax to Yalohao on-the-Sea, about twenty-four leagues, the road was lonely, rugged, and mostly a complete crust of stone. Yalohao, which has a small settlement of huts was formerly a resort of pirates, afterwards the haunt of smugglers. When at Chicken, examining the extraordinary ruins of that place, he found the danger apprehended from the rainy season, was coming to pass, "and under an anticipation of a failure of the next crop, corn had risen from two reals to one dollar the load. The distress occasioned in this country by the failure of the corn crop cannot well be imagined. In 1836 this calamity occurred, and from the same cause that threatened to produce it now. Along the coast a supply was furnished from the United States, but it would not bear the expense of transportation into the interior, and in this region corn rose to four dollars a load, which put the staff of life completely beyond the reach of the Indians. Famine ensued, and the poor Indians died of starvation. At the time of our SKETCHES OF YUCATAN. 7 > ] arrival, the criados, or servants of the hacienda, always improvident, tad con sumed their small stock, and, with no hope from their milpas, with the permis sion of the master, were about moving away to regions where the pressure would be less severe. Our arrival, as the major-domo told us, arrested this movement; instead of our being obliged to hunt them up, the poor Indians crowded round the door of our hut, begging employment and scrambling for the reales which Albino distributed among them ; but all the relief we could afford them was of short duration, and it may not be amiss to mention that at the moment of writing the calamity apprehended has come to pass ; the ports of Yucatan are thrown open, and that country in which, but a few short months since, we were moving so quietly, and experiencing continual acts of kindness, is now groaning under famine, superadded to the horrors of war." VALLADOLID. He entered this place near the great church with its convent and cloisters attached, and a square in front ; which, as he rode across it, sounded hollow under his horses* feet, and underneath was an immense senote. He passed up the Calle de Sisal, a long street with straggling houses on each side, and was directed to the house of Don Pedro Baranda, one of the largest and best in the place. This town was founded at an early period after the conquest. It contains about 15,000 inhabitants, and is distinguished as the residence of the vicar- general of the church of Yucatan. <c It was built," says Mr. Stephens, in a style commensurate with the lofty pretensions of the conquerors, and like other cities of Spanish America bears the marks of ancient grandeur, but is now going to decay. The roads leading to it and the very streets are overgrown with bushes. The parochial church still stands, the principal object in the Plaza, and the churches of San Servacia, San Juan de Dios, Santa Lucia, Santa Anna, La Virgin de la Candelaria, and the Church of Sisal, the largest buildings in the city, are all more or less dilapidated The same melancholy tokens are visible in the private houses. In the prin cipal street stand large buildings, roofless, without window or doors, and witl grass and bushes growing from crevices in the walls ; while here and there, a: in mockery of human pride, a tottering front has blazoned upon it the . arms of some proud Castilian, distinguished among the daring sol conquest, whose race is now entirely unknown. A COTTON FACTORY.-- Among these time-shattered building, m Valla stood one of striking contrast, remarkable for its neat, compact, and b appearance, and in that country it seemed a phenomenon. It was a cotton ; belonging to Don Pedro Baranda, thefirst established m theMexican repu for that reason, as emblematic of the dawn of a great manufacturing sys the < Aurora de la Industria Yucateca, and what gave ,t a greater in j n ou eyes, it was under the direction of that young countryman and fellow-c 4 z VOL. I. 722 SPAMSEI AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Juan Burgue, or Mr. John Burke, to whom I before referred, as the first stranger who visited the ruins of Chichen. It seemed strange to meet in this unknown, half-Spanish, half-Indian town, a citizen of New York. It was seven years the day of our arrival since he came to Valladolid. He had almost lost the facility of expressing himself in his native tongue, but in dress, manner, appearance, and feelings he was unchanged, and different from all around him ; and it was gra tifying to us to know that throughout that neighbourhood it was no small recom mendation to be the countryman of ( the engineer. "Retired from office, and unable to endure idleness, the spontaneous growth of cotton around Valladolid induced Don Pedro to undertake the establishment of a cotton-factory. He had great difficulties to contend with, and these began with the erection of the building. He had no architect to consult, and planned and constructed it himself. Twice the arches gave way, and the whole building came down. The machinery was imported from the United States, accompanied by four engineers, two of whom died in the country. In 1835, when Mr. Burke arrived, the factory had yielded but seventy pieces of cotton, and eighteen yards had cost 8,000 dollars. At this time the office of acting governor of the state devolved upon him, but by a political revolution he was deposed ; and while his workmen were celebrating the Grito de Dolores, which announced the outbreak of the Mexican revolution, they were arrested and thrown into prison, and the factory was stopped for six months. It was afterwards stopped twice by a failure of the cotton crop, and once by famine ; and all the time he had to struggle against the introduction of smuggled goods from Belize, but in spite of all impediments it had gone on, and was then in successful operation. " In walking about the yard, Don Pedro led us to the wood pile, and showed us that the logs were all split into four pieces. This wood is brought by the Indians in back-loads at a medio per load, and Don Pedro told us that at first he had requested the Indians not to split the logs as he would rather have them entire, but they had been used to do so, and could not alter their habits. Yet these same Indians, by discipline and instruction, had become adequate to all the business of the factory." The city of Valladolid had formerly much notoriety, from its credulous in habitants believing it was the residence of a Demomo Parlero, or a "talking devil," who talked, laughed, played the guitar, threw stones into garrets, and eggs at young women, and played the most mischievous tricks, without allowing him self to be seen. More recently it claims the honour of being the place at which the first blow was struck in the revolution against the dominion of Mexico, and also as being the residence of its conductor, General Juan. TEKAX stands at the foot of the sierra. "Riding up the street," Mr. Ste phens says, "we had in full view the church of La Hermita, with a broad flight of stone steps scaling the side of the mountain. The streets were wide, the houses large and in fine order, and one had three stories with balconies over- SKETCHES OF YUCATAN. hanging the street; and there was an appearance of life and business which coming as we did from Indian ranchos, and so long away from any thing that looked like a city and the comforts and elegances of living, was really excitin- We stopped in the Plaza, which, with its great church and buildings around it, was the finest we had seen in the country, and all the people ran out to the corridors to gaze at us. It was an unprecedented thing for strangers to pass through this place. European saddles, holsters, and arms were strange, and including Albino, we made the cabalistic number of three, which got up the late revolution. MBRIDA. The population of this city, the capital of Yucatan, Mr. Stephens estimates at about 23,000. It stands on a great plain of limestone rock, and the temperature and climate are described as uniform. The houses are low, but said to be well built, with balconies ; the streets clean, and many of the inhabitants well dressed, and the ladies drive about in caleches. It has also an hotel. The distinguishing features of Merida, as of all the cities of Spanish- America, are its churches ; the principal of which are the great cathedral ; the parish church and convent of San Cristoval ; the church of the Jesuits ; the church and convent of the Mejorada ; the chapels of San Juan Bantista ; of our Lady of Candelaria ; of the Santa Lucia, and the Virgin ; and the Convent de las Monjas, or the nunnery with its church and enclosures occupying two whole squares, all interesting in their history. It has a public walk, or alameda, bull-fights, horse races, and various amusements as theatrical concerts, proces sions, festivities, grand masses, and cock-fights, all considered as amusements. They have various balls or dances by day as well as by night. ROADS. Mr. Stephens informs us that "the whole triangular region from Valladolid to the Bay of Ascension, on one side, and the post of Yalahao, on the other, is not traversed by a single road, and the rancho of Molas is the only settlement along the coast. It is a region entirely un known, no white man ever enters it. Ruined cities no doubt exist; and young Molas told us of a large building, many leagues in the interior, known to an old Indian, covered with paintings in bright and vivid colours, and the subjects of which were still perfect. With difficulty we contrived to see this Indian, but he was extremely uncommunicative ; said it was many years since he saw the building; that he had come upon it in the dry season while hunting, and should not be able to find it again. It is my belief that within this region, cities, like those we have seen in ruins, were kept up and occupied fora long time, perhaps one or two centuries, after the conquest; and that down to a comparatively late period, Indians were living in them, the same as before the discovery of America. In fact, I conceive it to be not impossible that within this secluded region may exist at this day, unknown to white men, a living aboriginal city, occupied by relics of the ancient race, who still worship in 724 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the temples of their fathers. We had now finished our voyage along the coast, and the end which we had in view was fully accomplished. We had seen, aban doned and in ruins, the same buildings which the Spaniards saw entire and inhabited by Indians, and we had identified them beyond question as the works of the same people who created the great ruined cities over which, when we began our journey, hung a veil of seemingly impenetrable mystery. At that time we believed the discovery and comparison of these remains to be the surest, if not the only, means of removing this veil ; and though other proofs had accumulated upon us, these were not, on that account, the less interesting." In the Lake of Peten there are numerous islands. On the largest, at one time, stood the royal city of the ancient province of Itza, which was conquered by the Spaniards, accompanied by an extraordinary slaughter of the inhabitants. West of Peten, and extending to the Spanish towns of Central America, is the region of the Lancandores, on which it is said the foot of a white man never trod. Mr. Stephens observes ; Cf The condition of Yucatan, in regard to medical aid, is deplorable. The curas attend to the sick ; but except at Merida and Campeachy, there are no regular educated physicians or surgeons." AGUADOS. These are generally large ponds covered with greenish water plants. They are considered as artificial by Mr. Stephens; and all considered them as the work of the Antiguos. This was proved by the cleansing of an aguado by Seiior Trego, in 1836 ; by the procuring of from 1000 to 1500 Indian labradores, or labourers. On cleaning out the mud, he found an artificial bottom of flat stones, overlapped, and the interstices between them rendered tight by ^clay. Near the centre of the bottom were four wells, about five feet in diameter, faced with smooth stone; and along the margin, 400 cussimbus, or pits, into which the water filtered, and, with the wells, intended to furnish a supply of water when the aguado should be dry. The aguado fills in the rainy season. On the occurrence of a recent dry season, Senor Trego said all the country around was destitute of water; and families came to establish themselves for the time on the banks of this aguado. Other aguados have been cleared out, and found to have been artificial. SENOTES.- The senates differ from the aguados materially ; the former are im mense circular excavations, from sixty to two hundred feet in diameter, with broken rocky, perpendicular sides ; from fifty to one hundred feet deep, and having at the bottom a great body of water, of unknown depth, always about the same level, supposed to be supplied by subterraneous rivers. There are two great senotes around the ruins of Chicken, which possibly might have been the cause of founding that ancient city. RUINS OF YUCATAN. With reference to those remarkable ruins, of which Mr. Stephens gives such an interesting description, he says, My opinion on this question has been fully and freely expressed, that they are not the works of people who have passed away, and whose history is lost, but of the SKETCHES OF YUCATAN. same races who inhabited the country at the time of the Spanish conquest, or of some not very distant progenitors. Some were probably in r but, in general, I believe that they were occupied by the Indians at the time of the Spanish invasion. The grounds of this belief are interspersed throughout these pages ; they are interwoven with so many facts and circum stances, that I do not recapitulate them ; and in conclusion, I shall only refer briefly to those arguments which I consider the strongest that are urged against this belief. " The first is the entire absence of all traditions. But, I would ask, may not this be accounted for by the unparalleled circumstances which attended the conquest and subjugation of Spanish America ? Every captain, or discoverer, on first planting the royal standard on the shores of a new country, made pro clamation, according to a form drawn up by the most eminent divines and lawyers in Spain, the most extraordinary that ever appeared in the history of mankind; entreating and requiring the inhabitants to acknowledge and obey the church as the superior and guide of the universe, the holy father, called the pope, and his majesty as king and sovereign lord of these islands, and of the terra firma ; and concluding, but if you will not comply, or maliciously delay to obey my injunction, then, with the help of God, I will enter your country by force; I will carry on war against you with the utmost violence; I will subject you to the yoke of obedience, to the church and king; I will take your wives and children, and make them slaves, and sell or dispose of them according to his majesty s pleasure ; I will seize your goods, and do you all the mischief in my power, as rebellious subjects, who will not acknowledge or submit to their lawful sovereign; and I protest, that all the bloodshed and calamities which shall follow are to be imputed to you, and not to his majesty, or to me, or the gentlemen who serve under me/ " The conquest and subjugation of the country were carried out in the un scrupulous spirit of this proclamation. The pages of the historians are dyed with blood ; and, sailing on the crimson stream with, as master-pilot at the helm, appears the leading, stern, and steady policy of the Spaniards, surer and more fatal than the sword, to subvert all the institutions of the natives, and to break up and utterly destroy all the rites, customs, and associations that might keep alive the memory of their fathers and their ancient condition. " The graves cry out for the old historians, and the mouldering skeletons o cities confirm Herrera s account of Yucatan, that < there were so many and such stately stone-buildings, that it was amazing; and the greatest wonder was, that, having no use of any metal, they were able to raise such structures, whi seem to have been temples, for their houses were all of timber, and And again, he says, that for the space of twenty years there was s throughout the country, and the people multiplied so much, that men whole province looked like one town. " 726 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER XLIII. BRITISH HONDURAS, OR BELIZE. THE British district of Belize extends along the eastern coast of Yucatan, between 15 deg. 54 rain, and 18 deg. BO mm. north latitude, and 88 deg. and 90 deg. west longitude. It is separated from Yucatan by the Rio Hondo, and its southern boundary is formed by the river Sarstoon, which falls into the Gulf of Honduras, not more than twenty miles west of the mouth of the Rio Dulce. Belize is in length about 175 miles from north to south, and 110 miles from east to west, and occupies an area of about 16,400 square miles. It is termed British Honduras, but it is geographically a part of the Peninsula of Yucatan. About three years after the conquest of Jamaica in 1656, the English frequented Yucatan to cut and carry away logwood ; and the British settlements in that country were originally settled with the free consent of the aboriginal and inde pendent possessors of the country. The English maintained their settlements as regular occupants, under the government of Jamaica, in the year 1669. The English first visited, to cut logwood, the uninhabited coasts of Yucatan about 1662, and the privileges, of cutting logwood were stipulated for with Spain in the treaty of 1670, usually called the American treaty. Two years afterwards these stipulations were violated. The first settlements were made near Cape Catoche, then at the Laguna de Terminos in Campeachy. The Spaniards in 1672, captured all English vessels which they found carrying logwood. In 1680. the English were expelled by a Spanish force from the Laguna de Ter minos. In consequence of the king s command, Sir Thomas Lynch, governor of Ja maica, transmitted to King Charles II., in 16?!, a report on the British settle ments and trade in Yucatan, in which he states, " That the English had done every act that constituted a right of possession in the first settlers; and that the Spanish American treaty in 1670, had removed all possible doubts, by establishing the possidetis uti, with full rights of sovereignty, in all places held prior to that time/ In regard to trade, " he stated its importance to be such, as annually increased his majesty s customs, and the national commerce, more than any other of his majesty s colonies." In 1672, Sir Thomas Modyford, the succeeding governor of Jamaica, addressed the lords of the privy council upon the same subject; in which he also vindicated the British right to the country, and submitted to their obser vation a proclamation, which he had issued for the regulation and security of the settlement ; upon which he received their lordships approbation of what he had done.* * See Report, made by the Board of Trade and Plantations, in the year 1717. This report states at great length the extent of the trade and of the British settlements in Yucatan. This year 15UITISH HONDURAS. 707 The Board of Trade s report states the great importance of the trade to our navigation, and to the North American colonies: that the settlements appear the Board a possession granted by the American treaty (as the treaty of L870 with Spain was called); that the Spaniards had not at that time made any plaints against them ; and that the trade will employ more than 100 sail of ships annually, and bring in more to his majesty s customs than any colony he hath. The Board also entered fully into all the natural resources of the district. This settlement continued from 1717? uniformly in the full right, property, and possession, not only of the east shore of Yucatan, but of its rivers and of its wood- trade ; and maintained the free and independent sovereignty of Great Britain over the same, in the form of a British settlement, under the government, control, and direction, of his majesty?s governor of Jamaica, until the peace of Paris, 1763. At this time, his majesty, by the 17th article of that treaty,* voluntarily relin quished the sovereignty of these settlements in favour of the King of Spain ; who, by the same article, " plighted his royal promise and good faith, to protect his majesty s subjects in the full enjoyment and continuation of their rights, in carry ing on the said wood-trade." In this situation his majesty s subjects continued to occupy and possess the country, until September, 17/9 ; when, in breach of this, and former articles of treaty, the subjects and forces of his Catholic Majesty surprised, robbed, and pillaged the whole British settlers of their property, and seized on the persons of all of them, on whom they could lay hold, blindfolded some, put others in irons ; carried or made them walk to Merida, and then sent them as prisoners to the Havanna, where they were confined until about the month of July, 1782, when they were permitted to return to Jamaica. We scarcely can find any case of greater injustice, than the neglect on the part of those who negotiated the treaty of peace of 1783, of not adjusting the (1717) the first armed ship sent by the South Sea Company, the Royal Prince, was laden with British manufactures, and sailed for Vera Cruz. The Spanish ambassador, the Marauii teleone, protested against the British settlements at the Isle of Triste, Laguna de 1 Campeacny, declaring, that if in the course of eight months they do not leave II shall be treated as pirates. By the 17th article of that treaty, it was stipulated between the two sovereigns a . < : His Z Britannic Majesty shall cause to be demolished all the fortifications which his subjects shall have erected in the Bay of Honduras, and other places of the territory of bpa.n m that par of the world, four months after the ratification ot the present treaty : And his Catholic Maj shall not permit his Britannic Majesty s subjects, or their workmen, to be disturbed c under any pretence whatsoever, in the said places in their occupation of cutting, loading, and ca - being demoted) his. Catholic the Bitish subject during their residence h, ^gg-**- % j SSSSs^^ the subjects interested in the commerce of I ucatan. 728 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. equitable claims of British subjects, for the atrocious destruction to the value, at least, of 100,000/, sterling of British property in Yucatan. The neglect was so shameful, that ministers would not even allow the petitions to be received in parliament. Such were the rights of colonists, to petition for the redress of grievances, in the reign of George III. How far Yucatan can pretend to any right over Belize, or Central America to the Mosquito Shore, is a question for public jurists to decide we deny any such right ; Spain has relinquished all sovereignty, and Great Britain is the only European power which has ever occupied Belize and the Mosquito Shore ; that too, not by conquest, but with the original consent of the primitive occupants. The right to Belize by occupation, arid possession is, therefore, undoubtedly vested in the British crown.* * The sixth Article of the Treaty of Versailles, September 3, 1783, is as follows : "The intention of the two High Contracting Parties being to prevent, as much as possible all the causes of complaint and misunderstanding heretofore occasioned by the cutting of wood for dyeing, or logwood ; and several English settlements having been formed and extended, under that pretence, upon the Spanish continent, it is expressly agreed, that his Britannic Majesty s subjects shall have the right of cutting, loading, and carrying away logwood, in the district lying between the rivers Wallis or Belize, and Rio Hondo, taking the course of the said two rivers for unalterable boundaries, so as that the navigation of them be common to both nations, to wit, by the river Wallis or Belize, from the sea, ascending as far as opposite to a lake or inlet which runs into the land and forms an isthmus, or neck, with another similar inlet, which comes from the side of Rio Nuevo, or New River ; so that the line of separation shall pass straight across the said isthmus, and meet another lake formed by the water of Rio Nuevo, or New River, at its current. The said line shall continue with the course of Rio Nuevo, descending as far as opposite to a river, the source of which is marked in the map, between Rio Nuevo and Rio Hondo, and which empties itself into Rio Hondo ; which river shall also serve as a common boundary as far as its junction with Rio Hondo, and from thence descending by Rio Hondo to the sea, as the whole is marked on the map which the plenipotentiaries of the two crowns have thought proper to make use of, for ascertaining the points agreed upon, to the end that a good correspondence may reign between the two nations, and that the English workmen, cutters, and labourers, may not trespass from an uncertainty of the boundaries. The respective commissaries shall fix upon convenient places, in the territory above marked out, in order that his Britannic Majesty s subjects, employed in the felling of logwood, may, without interruption, build therein houses and magazines necessary for themselves, their families, and their effects ; and his Catholic Majesty assures to them the en joyment of all that is expressed in the present Article ; provided that these stipulations shall not be considered as derogating in any wise from his rights of sovereignty. Therefore all the English who may be dispersed in any other parts, whether on the Spanish continent, or in any of the islands whatsoever, dependent on the aforesaid Spanish continent, and for whatever reason it might be, without exception, shall retire within the district which has been above described, in the space of eighteen months, to be computed from the exchange of the ratifications ; and for this purpose orders shall be issued on the part of his Britannic Majesty ; and on that of his Catholic Majesty, his governors shall be ordered to grant to the English, dispersed, every convenience possible for their removing to the settlement agreed upon by the present Article, or for their retiring wherever they shall think proper. It is likewise stipulated, that if any fortifications should actually have been heretofore erected within the limits marked out, his Britannic Majesty shall cause them all to be demolished, and he will order his subjects not to build any new ones. The English inhabit ants, who shall settle there for the cutting of logwood, shall be permitted to enjoy a free fishery for their subsistence, on the coasts of the district above agreed on, or of the islands situated oppo site thereto, without being in any wise disturbed on that account ; provided they do not establish themselves in any manner on the said islands. " Immediately after the exchange of the ratifications, the two High Contracting Parties shall name commissaries to treat concerning new arrangements of commerce between the two nations, on the basis of reciprocity and mutual convenience ; which arrangements shall be settled and con cluded within the space of two years, to be computed from the 1st of January, 1784. " Done at Versailles, the 3rd of September, 1783." British Declaration. " The new state in which commerce may perhaps be found, in all parts of the world, will demand revisions and exnlarmtions of tho subsisting treaties : hut an entire ,-ihro- BRITISH HONDURAS. The shores of British Honduras are lined with numerous islands, or oori] km They are covered with cocoa-nut trees and bushes, and resorted to by t men to take turtle. The largest are Ambergrease Key, towards the north, and Turned opposite the town of Belize. These two keys consist of clusters of * small islands divided by narrow creeks and lagoons. A smaller key, calh George s, is resorted to by the merchants of Belize, who have dwellin^houi it. The shores of the continent are rocky, but low, except towards the south, gation of those treaties, in whatever period it might be, would throw commerce into such o fusion as would be of infinite prejudice to it. " In some of the treaties of this sort, there are not only Articles which relate merely to com merce, but many others which ensure reciprocally, to the respective subjects, privileges fecilitiei for conducting their affairs, personal protections, and other advantages, which are not, and mHr not to be of a changeable nature, such as the regulations relating merely to the value of goods and merchandise, variable from circumstances of every kind. " VVhen, therefore, the state of the trade between the two nations shall be treated upon it is requisite to be understood that the alterations which may be made in the subsisting treaties are to extend only to arrangements merely commercial ; and that the privileges and advantages mutual and particular, be not only preserved on each side, but even augmented, if it can be done. " In this view, his Majesty has consented to the appointment of commissaries, on each side, who shall treat solely upon this object." Spanish Counter-Declaration. The Catholic King, in proposing new arrangements of com merce, has had no other design than to remedy, by the rules of reciprocity and mutual con venience, whatever may be defective in preceding treaties of commerce. The King of (Jn-ut Britain may judge from thence, that the intention of his Catholic Majesty is not in any mar cancel all the stipulations contained in the above-mentioned treaties : he declares, on the contrary, from henceforth, that he is disposed to maintain all the privileges, facilities, and advantages, expressed in the old treaties, as far as they shall be reciprocal, or compensated by equivalent advantages. It is to attain this end, desired on each side, that commissaries are to be named to treat upon the state of trade between the two nations, and that a considerable space of time is to be allowed for completing their work. His Catholic Majesty hopes that this object will be pursued with the same good faith, and with the same spirit of conciliation, which have presided over the discussion of all the other points included in the definitive treaty ; and his said Majesty is equally confident that the respective commissaries will employ the utmost diligence for the completion of this important work. The following Articles of Convention between Great Britain and Spain, signed at London, the 14//< of July 1786, relate Co the extension of the limits of Belize. I. His Britannic Majesty s subjects, and the other colonists who have hitherto enjoyed the protection of England, shall evacuate the country of the Mosquitos, as well as the continent in general, and the islands adjacent, without exception, situated beyond the line hereinafter described, as what ought to be the frontier of the extent of territory granted by his Catholic Majesty to the English, for the uses specified in the 3rd article of the present Convention, and in addition to the country already granted to them in virtue of the stipulations agreed upon by the commissaries of the two crowns in 1 783. II The Catholic King, to prove, on his side, to the King of Great Britain, the si his sentiments of friendship towards his said Majesty and the British nation, will grant to the English more extensive limits than those specified in the last treaty of peace : and the said limits of the lands added by the present convention shall for the future be understood in tl 3 TrirEnalish line, beginning from the sea, shall take the centre of the river Sibun or Jabon, and continue up to the source of the said river : from thence it shall cross in a straight line tl intermediate land, till it intersects the river Wallis ; and by the centre of the same river, the s line shall descend to the point where it will meet the line a ready settled and marked ou by tl commissaries of the two crowns in 1783: which limits, following the continuation of the sa.d line, shall be observed as formerly stipulated by the definitive treaty. III. Although no other advantages have hitherto been in question except that of cut VOL. I. 730 BRITISH HONDURAS. where they are rather high and intersected by deep ravines. The river Belize flows down from an unexplored region. The low country near the sea is, in many parts, swampy, and partially covered with stagnant waters, nearly the whole year round and during the rains it is completely covered. The higher grounds further inland obiect of utility or of commerce, whether for food or for manufactures ; but it is expressly agreed that this stipulation is never to be used as a pretext for establishing in that country any plantation of sugar, coffee, cocoa, or other like articles ; or any fabric or manufacture by means of mills or othermachines whatsoever, (this restriction, however, does not regard the use of saw mills, for cuttin^ or otherwise preparing the wood,) since all the lands in question being indisputably acknowledged to belong of right to the crown of Spain, no settlements of that kind, or the popu lation which would follow, could be allowed. The English shall be permitted to transport and convey all such wood, and other produce of the place, in its natural and uncultivated state, down the rivers to the sea, but without ever going beyond the limits which are prescribed to them by the stipulations above granted, and without thereby taking an opportunity of ascending the said rivers, beyond their bounds, into the countries belonging to Spain. IV. The English shall be permitted to occupy the small island known by the names of Casina, St George s Key, or Cayo Casina, in consideration of the circumstance of that part of the coasts opposite^ the said island being looked upon as subject to dangerous disorders; but this per mission is only to be made use of for purposes of real utility : and as great abuses, no less contrary to the intentions of the British government, than to the essential interest of Spain, might arise from this permission, it is here stipulated, as an indispensable condition, that no fortification, or work of defence whatever, shall at any time be erected there, nor any body of troops posted, nor any piece of artillery kept there ; and in order to verify with good faith the accomplishment of this condition sine qua non (which might be infringed by individuals, without the knowledge of the British government), a Spanish officer or commissary, accompanied by an English commissary or officer, duly authorised, shall be admitted, twice a year, to examine into the real situation of things. y. The English nation shall enjoy the liberty of refitting their merchant-ships in the southern triangle, included between the point of Cayo Casina, and the cluster of small islands, which are situated opposite that part of the coast occupied by the cutters, at the distance of eight leagues from the River VVallis, seven from Cayo Casina, and three from the river Sibun, a place which has always been found well adapted to that purpose. For which end the edifices and storehouses, absolutely necessary for that service, shall be allowed to be built ; but in this concession is also included the express condition of not erecting fortifications there at any time, or stationing troops, or constructing any military works ; and in like manner it shall not be permitted to station any ships of war there, or to construct an arsenal, or other building, the object of which might be the formation of a naval establishment. VI. It is also stipulated, that the English may freely and peaceably catch fish on the coast of the country assigned to them by the last treaty of peace, as also of that which is added to them by the present convention; but without going beyond their boundaries, and confining themselves within the distance specified in the preceding article. VII. All the restrictions specified in the last treaty of 1783, for the entire preservation of the right of the Spanish sovereignty over the country, in which is granted to the English only the pri vilege of making use of the wood of the different kinds, the fruits and other produce in their natural state, are here confirmed ; and the same restrictions shall also be observed with respect to the new grant. In consequence, the inhabitants of those countries shall employ themselves simply in the cutting and transporting of the said wood, and in the gathering and transporting of the fruits, with out meditating any more extensive settlements, or the formation of any system of government, either military or civil, further than such regulation as their Britannic and Catholic Majesties may hereafter judge proper to establish, for maintaining peace and good order amongst their respective subjects. VIII. As it is generally allowed that the woods and forests are preserved, and even multiply, by regular and methodical cuttings, the English shall observe this maxim, as far as possible ; but i notwithstanding all their precautions, it should happen in course of time that they were in want of dyeing wood, or mahogany, with which the Spanish possessions might be provided, the Spanish government shall make no difficulty to furnish a supply to the English at a fair and reasonable price. IX. Every possible precaution shall be observed to prevent smuggling ; and the English shall take care to conform to the regulations which the Spanish government shall think proper to establish amongst their own subjects, in all communications which they may have with the latter; on condition, nevertheless, that the English shall be left in the peaceable enjoyment of the several advantages inserted in their favour in the last treaty, or stipulated by the present convention. BRITISH HONDURAS. have a sandy soil, and are chiefly overgrown with different kinds of pine l,i,l, supphes excellent timber. The valleys, which intersect the high lands, have a vcrv fertile soil, and are covered with various species of tropical trees. South of the river Belize, the low country is thickly wooded, but it does not extend more tl, an from three to six miles inland, behind which mountains arise. The country comprising the mountain slopes and valleys, and the interior country, is covered with forests, and the soil is said to be very fertile. The rivers are navigable from twenty to thirty miles from their mouths, but higher up they are interrupted by rapids and falls. Mahogany, dye-wood, and timber are floated down by these rivers. The most remarkable of which are, the Rio Hondo, the New River, the Belize, and the Siboon. On the banks of the latter there are extensive forests of mahogany. The Belize probably winds for more than 150 miles in its length. The Hondo is the most navigable river. The climate is a compound of heat and moisture, yet Belize is considered more healthy than most of the West India islands. The mean annual tempera ture is 80deg., but it is seldom oppressive, as from the beginning of July to the beginning of April, the air is refreshed by sea-breezes. From April to July is the dry season, during which the heat is excessive, but it is from time to time tempered by thunder-storms. During the remainder of the year rains are frequent, especially in July, August, and September. In the beginning of October the north winds commence, and generally continue with little variation to February or March, when the weather becomes extremely variable. The soil is remarkably fertile. Sugar, coffee, cotton, and indigo might all be extensively raised, but their culture has been nearly altogether neg lected. Arrow-root and rice are grown to a small extent. Cochineal is brought in and exported. Plantains, yams, mandioca, and maize, are grown for food. The most common fruits are oranges, lemons, limes, shaddocks, mangoes, guavas, cashew-nuts, tamarinds, avocado-pears, pomegranates, wild plums, and grapes. A few garden vegetables are cultivated. In the forests many varieties of trees abound, as cabbage-trees, cedars, pines, iron-wood, silk-cotton trees, log-wood, fustic, and brasiletto; and the most important of all, the mahogany tree. Sarsaparilla is collected in the southern districts. The wild ani mals are ounces, panthers, tapirs, deer, antelopes, peccaries and warrees XT. Their Britannic and Catholic Majesties, in order to remove every kind of doubt with regard to the true construction of the present convention, think it necessary to declare that the conditions of the said convention ought to be observed according to their sincere intention to insure and im prove the harmony and good understanding which so happily subsist at present between their sa Majesties. In this view his Britannic Majesty engages to give the most positive orders for the evac of the countries above mentioned, by all his subjects of whatever denomination ; but if, cp to such declaration, there should still remain any persons so daring as to presume, by retiring into the interior country, to endeavour to obstruct the evacuation already agreed upon, h: Majesty, so far from affording them the least succour, or even protection, will disavow them in tji most solemn manner, as he will equally do those who may hereafter attempt to sett) territory belonging to the Spanish dominion. 732 BRITISH HONDURAS. (animals of the hog kind), cavies, agoutis, armadilloes, opossums and racoons ; mon keys are numerous, and some of them are eaten. Manatis and alligators are met with in the lagoons along the coast. Among the numerous birds are turkeys, spoon-birds, toucans, Muscovy ducks, two species of macaws, and many kinds of parrots, pelicans, and humming-birds. Fish are plentiful and of various kinds ; some are very large. Fish and turtle are used as substitutes for meat. Lobsters and shell-fish are abundant and excellent. Cattle, sheep, and goats are kept, but not sufficient for the consumption. Cattle are imported from Truxillo and Omoa. Gold has been found in one of the streams of the Belize. POPULATION. The number of the inhabitants is stated in the superintendent s returns for 1845, at 240 white males, 159 white females total whites, 399 ; co loured males 6755, coloured females 2655 total coloured, 10,410. Total popula tion, 10,709. This population is chiefly composed of negroes, who were first brought to the country as slaves, but many of them obtained their liberty long ago, and worked at daily wages. There seem to be no aboriginal tribes within the territories of Belize, except some Caribes, who have fled into it as a place of refuge. The white inhabitants are exclusively occupied in com merce, and the negroes in cutting mahogany and dye-woods, and in fishing. A few of them cultivate small patches of ground. BELIZE, the only town, is built on both sides of the mouth of the river of the same name, and the stream is crossed- by a wooden bridge. It consists of a long street running along the sea-shore, from which three or four smaller streets branch off. The houses are constructed of wood, and are raised eight or ten feet from the ground on pillars of mahogany ; they are well built, spacious and conve nient. In front of the town there is excellent anchorage for vessels of moderate size, and the surface of the sea is rarely agitated by winds, as it is protected by the numerous keys from the heavy swells of the open sea. Mr. Stephens says, " on approaching the town from the sea, we saw Belize appearing (if there be no sin in comparing it with cities consecrated by time, and venerable associations) like Venice and Alexandria rising out of the water a range of white houses extended a mile along the shore, terminated at one end by the government-house, and at the other by barracks, and intersected by the river Belize, the bridge across which formed a picturesque object; while the fort on a little island at the mouth of the river, the spire of a Gothic church behind the government-house, and groves of cocoa-nut trees, gave it an appearance of actual beauty. Four ships, three brigs, sundry schooners, bungoes, canoes and a steam-boat, were riding at anchor in the harbour ; along side the vessels were rafts of mahogany ; far out a negro was paddling a log of the same costly timber, and the government dons which boarded us when we came to anchor, was made of the trunk of a mahogany tree." There was no hotel in the place. A mulatto lady afforded board but no bed rooms. An unoccupied house was offered to Mr. Stephens to sleep in : which BRITISH HONDURAS. was rendered unnecessary by the hospitality of Governor Macdonald, who lodged them hospitably under his roof. The town seemed one almost entirely inhabited by blacks. The bridge, the market-place, the streets, and stores, were thn, with them ; and Mr. Stephens " found himself in the capital of a negro republic." He describes them as a fine-looking race, tall, straight, and athletic, and well dressed : the men in white cotton shirts and trousers, with straw hats ; the wo men in white frocks, and short sleeves, and broad red borders, and adorned with large red ear-rings and necklaces. He breakfasted at the house of a merchant, where the latter sat at one side of the table, his wife at the other. Opposite a British officer sat a mulatto, and Mr. Stephens himself, an American citizen, " sat between two coloured gentlemen." Colour, he found, was " mere matter of taste, and that the great work of practical amalgamation had been going on quietly for generations." Belize, it is asserted, owes its origin to a bold Scotch buccaneer, of the name of Wallace, who used to resort for refuge behind the keys and reefs which pro tect Belize from the ocean. He formed an alliance with the aborigines of the Mosquito shore, and with the English who came down on the coast to cut ma hogany ; he held the Spaniards in defiance. Central America claims Belize as well as the Mosquito shore. England holds, and will probably continue to pos sess the first. The aborigines, who have the only good tenure to the soil, ktve never been dispossessed of the latter. There are schools in which the inhabit ants, of all shades of colours, are instructed in Belize. The government Pit-pan, a boat in which Mr. Stephens made an excursion, is the same fashioned vessel, he says, " as those by which the rivers of America were navigated before the arrival of the Spaniards. European ingenuity has not contrived a better, though it has, perhaps, beautified the Indian model. Ours was forty feet long and six feet wide in the centre, running to a point at both ends, and made of the trunk of a mahogany-tree. Ten feet from the stern, and running forward, was a light wooden top, supported by fanciful stancheons, with curtains for protection against sun and rain, it had large cushioned seats and was fitted up as neatly as the gondolas of Venice. It was manned by eight negro sc diers, two on a seat with paddles six feet long, and two stood up behind as , men-a few touches of the paddles gave brisk way to the pit-pan, and we pas* pidly the whole length of the river. The citizens stopped to gaze, and the idle negroe turned to the bridge to cheer us. Before the cheering of the negroes died away, w were in as perfect a solitude as if we were removed thousands of miles from hum: habitations. The Belize river, running from sources yet but little known to man, was then in its fulness. On each side was a dense unbroken fores banks were overflowed ; the trees seemed to grow out of the water, their branches spreading across so as almost to shut out the light of the sun and reflect water as in a mirror. The sources of the river were occupied by the abc owners, wild and free as Cortez had found them." 734 BRITISH HONDURAS. Mr. Stephens left Belize on his expedition to explore the rivers of Central America in a steamboat, well provided by Colonel Macdonald. The coast, as they proceeded south, assumed an appearance of grandeur and beauty which realised his ideas of tropical regions. There was a dense forest to the water s edge beyond were lofty mountains, covered to the summits with perpetual green : some detached, others rising in ranges until enveloped in the clouds. PUENTA GORDA. They entered Puenta Gorda, a settlement of Caribs, about 150 miles south of Belize. No steamboat had ever entered it before. Cotton, rice, the cohoon, banana, cocoa-nut, pine-apple, orange, lemon, plantain, and other fruits, were growing with such luxuriance, that he actually found their fra grance at first oppressive. A pad re, who was on board, performed the ceremonies of "wholesale baptisms and marriages." There were in the settlement about 500 inhabitants formerly natives of the sea-coast below Truxillo, but having taken part against Morazan, they fled to this place. At Puenta Gorda, as being within the limit of British authority, they formed the settlement. They lived apart, however, as an unconquered tribe of Caribs, though they had been, as far as ceremonies were concerned, professors of the Roman Ca tholic religion. The visit of a padre was, however, a rare occurrence. From this place the steamboat steered for the Golfo Dulce; an amphitheatre extends along and back from the coast through which the narrow river Dulce flows; the banks, before approaching its entrance, are about thirty feet above the water, and are rich and luxuriant. The fertile territory of Belize requires only the application of labour and capital to render it a most productive sugar-growing country, and many other valuable products, exclusive of mahogany, might be drawn from its soil and its forests. We are informed that labourers would be induced to migrate from Yucatan to British Honduras for moderate wages. During the year 1845, in consequence of the duty on mahogany in England being reduced to a nominal amount, the trade was greatly increased. The government is administered by a superintendent, an executive council assembly and an assembly, called a public meeting. There is a chief justice, colo nial secretary, provost marshal, and other officers. (For the statistics of the colony, see British Possessions in America.} CHAPTER XLIV. THE MAHOGANY TREE OF HONDURAS. MAHOGANY-TREE (Sivietinia Mahogani). There are rather more different qualities, than varieties, of this beautiful tree in America and the West Indies. That of Cuba and Hayti, usually called Spanish mahogany, and that of the same kind, now scarce, which grows in Jamaica, is the most beautiful in its shades, colours and variegations. Honduras and Yucatan now supply the larger quan- THE MAHOGANY-TREE OF HONDURAS. 735 titles ; and although not so close grained and beautiful as the former, yet furnishes a most useful wood, and it has lately been extensively used for ship-building. It is superior, also, to the other for the tenacity with which glue binds it to other woods and even to veneers of Cuba orHayti mahogany, worms do not destroy it in the water. We find generally in many accounts written of the operations of bringing mahogany to market the most inaccurate descriptions. The following account 001* densed from an article written at Belize and published in the Honduras Almanac, has been examined by a gentleman who was a resident, and connected with the business. We, therefore, may consider it accurate. The mahogany-tree of Honduras is probably the most magnificent and splen did of all trees ; the largest oak, usually called the King of the Forest, would dwindle to insignificance in the comparison. The enormous size and height of the trunk; the vast spread of its branches, the space of ground occupied by its roots, are all remarkable. " It becomes almost impossible to give the more minute circumstances attending the growth of this valuable and much-used tree, as its progress to maturity is scarcely per ceptible within the life of man ; but as far as our limited observation will allow us to form an opinion, not less than an average period of 200 years can be allowed as the time of its coming to full growth or tit for cutting. " Various and differing are the conjectures relative to the first use, discovery, and introduction to Britain of this beautiful wood, nor is it within the limits of such a sketch as this to remark upon their accuracy; we therefore reject all accounts that appear spe culative, and confine ourselves to such as are authenticated. Its first discovery was, therefore, by the carpenter on board of one of Sir Walter Raleigh s vessels, when he put into some harbour in the island of Trinidad in the year 1595, who, having occasion to go on shore to cut some pieces of timber, required for work to be done on the ship that he belonged to, brought on board a quantity of this wood, which, on being worked from the raw state, exhibited, to the astonishment of all who saw it, that beautiful natural variety of appearance which no ingenuity of art can equal. " The first use to which mahogany was applied in England arose from a circumstance purely accidental, and was appropriated to the making of a box for holding candles. Dr. Gibbons, an eminent physician, in the latter end of the seventeenth or beginning of the eighteenth century, had a brother a West India captain, who brought over some planks of this wood as ballast, but was not aware of its value. As the doctor was then buildino- a house in King-street, Covent-garden, his brother thought they might be of serviced him ; but the carpenters finding the wood too hard for their tools, they were laid aside as useless. Soon after Mrs. Gibbons wanting a candle-box, the doctor called on his cabinet-maker, to make him one of some wood that lay in his garden. Walla the cabinet-maker, on cutting it up also complained that it was too hard; t said that he must get stronger tools. The candle-box was however, made, and highly approved of, insomuch that the doctor then insisted on having a bureau made same wood, which was accordingly done, when the fine colour, tw^J**** were so pleasing that it became an object of cariosity, and he invited all come to see it among them was the Duchess of Buckingham. Her grace beggec some of the same wood !om Dr. Gibbons, and employed Wallaston to -ake her a bureau also, on which the fame of mahogany became general. Thus, from a circumst, self so trivial has emanated a most extensive branch f. B " 1 VTTpl na cutting and preparing of the mahogany is a matter which has been hitherl noticed by all historians, we trust that a brief narrative may be here accepta readers." Honduras Almanac. 736 BRITISH HONDURAS. The season for cutting the mahogany usually commences about the month of August. The gangs of labourers employed consist of from twenty to fifty each. " They have a conductor, who is styled the captain. Each gang has also one person belonging to it, termed the huntsman he is generally selected from the most intelligent of his fellows, and his chief occupation is to search the woods, or, as it is called in this country, the bush, to find labour for the whole. Accordingly, about the beginning of August, the huntsman is despatched on his important mission, and if his owner be em ployed on his own ground, that is seldom a work of much delay or difficulty. He cuts his way through the thickest of the woods to some elevated situation, and climbs the tallest "trees he finds, from which he minutely surveys the surrounding country. At this season the leaves of the mahogany-tree are invariably of a yellow reddish hue, and an eye accustomed to this kind of exercise can, at a great distance discern the places where the wood is most abundant. He now descends, and to such places his steps are directed, and, without compass, or other guide than what observation has imprinted on his recol lection, he never fails to reach the exact spot to which he aims. On some occasions no ordinary stratagem is necessary to be resorted to by the huntsman to prevent others from availing themselves of the advantage of his discoveries ; for if his steps be traced by those who may be engaged in the same pursuit, which is a very common thing, all his ingenuity must be exerted to beguile them from the true scent. In this, however, he is not always successful, being followed by those who are entirely aware of all the arts he may use, and whose eyes are so quick that the lightest turn of a leaf or the faintest impression of the foot, is unerringly perceived even the dried leaves which may be strewed upon the ground often help to conduct to the secret spot, and it consequently happens that per sons so engaged must frequently undergo the disappointment of finding an advantage they had promised to themselves seized on by others. The hidden treasure being, how ever, discovered, the next operation is the felling of a sufficient number of trees to em ploy the gang during the season. The tree is commonly cut about ten or twelve feet from the ground, a stage being erected for the axe-man employed in levelling it; this, to an observer, would appear a labour of much danger, but an accident rarely happens to the people engaged in it. The trunk of the tree, from the dimensions of the wood it furnishes, is deemed the most valuable; but for purposes of an ornamental kind, the limbs, or branches, are generally preferred, the grain of them being much closer and the veins more rich and variegated." A sufficient number of trees being felled to occupy the gang during the season, they commence opening roads to the nearest river, which operation amounts to two-thirds of the labour and expense of bringing the mahogany to a place of ship ment. Each mahogany station forms in itself a small village, on the bank of a river, the choice of situation being always regulated by the proximity of such river to the mahogany intended to be cut. In the construction and arrangement of the habitations much taste is often displayed, and it is curious to remark the different modes peculiar to the several nations or tribes of Africa, contrasted with the improvement introduced by Euro pean experience in the construction of the houses, among which the proprietor s residence, with storehouses, cattle-sheds, &c., are conspicuous those of the different labourers are usually of more humble appearance, but all built of the same wood, which the site affords in abundance. : < We have frequently seen houses of the kind completed in a single day, and with no other implement than the axe ; consequently every workman is capable of performing the labour required to build his own dwelling. After completing this establishment, a main road is opened from it, in as near a direction as possible to the centre of the body of trees so felled, into which branch or wing roads are afterwards introduced. The around MAHOGANY-TREE OF THE HONDURAS. through which the roads are to run being yet a mass of dense forest, both of I , ,|, ln , and underwood, they commence by clearing away the latter description will, cut) which, although in appearance a slender instrument, yet from the dexterity with whit- is used, answers the purpose admirably. This labour is usually performed by task-work of 100 yards each man per day, which expert workmen will complete in six hours. The underwood being removed, the larger trees are then cut down by the axe, as even with the ground as possible, the task being also at this work 100 yards per day to each labourer, although this is more difficult and laborious, from the number of hard woods growing here, which, on failure of the axe, are removed by the application of fire. The trunks of these trees, although many of them valuable for different purposes, such as bullet-tree, ironwood, redwood, sapodilla, &c., are thrown away as useless, unless they happen to be adjacent to some creek or small river which may intersect the road ; in that case they are applied to the constructing of bridges across the same, which are frequently of considerable size, and require great labour to make them of sufficient strength to bear such immense loads as are brought over them." The distance of road to be cut each season depends on the situation of the mahogany-trees. If they are much dispersed, miles of road, and many bridges, are made to a single tree, that may yield but one log. The roads, cleared of all brushwood, require hoes, pickaxes, and sledge-hammers, to level down the hillocks and break the rocks, and loosen the stumps which would impede the wheeled trucks on which the logs are carried. The roads being formed generally by the month of December; the cross-cutting, as it is called, commences; that is dividing crosswise, by means of saws, each tree into logs, according to their length. Some trees are but long enough for one log, others will admit of four or five being cut from the same trunk. The rule for dividing the trees into logs, is to equalise the loads the oxen have to draw. This, however, does not altogether obviate irregularity of weight, and extra oxen are kept in readiness to add to the usual number, according to the weight of the log. Owing to the very great dif ference of diameter and length of the mahogany-trees, the logs taken from one tree may not measure more than 300 cubic feet, while those from the next may be as many thousands; the largest log ever cut in Honduras was in length seventeen feet; breadth, fifty-seven inches ; depth, sixty-four inches ; measuring 428 cubic feet, or 10.28th tons, of forty cubic feet, and 5168 superficial feet, of one inch thick ; weighing about fifteen tons. " The sawino- being completed, the logs are separated one from the other, and placed in whatever position will admit of the largest square being formed, according to the shape which the end of each log presents, and is then reduced by means ot the axe, from the round or natural form, into the square; although some of the smaller logs are brought out in the round, yet, with the larger description, the making them square essential, not only to lessen their weight, but also to prevent their rolling on the truck carriage." In the month of March, all the preparation before described is, or ought t completed-this is the dry season, or time for drawing the logs from the place of their growth to the river. This can only be carried on in the months of Apnl and May the ground for all the rest of the year being too soft for heavily-laden truck to pass over it without sinking. The rains usually terminate in February, the ground is so saturated with water that the roads are seldom fit for n 1st of April. 5 B 738 BRITISH HONDURAS. "The mahogany cutter s harvest may be at this time said to commence, as the result of his season s work depends upon a continuance of the dry weather, for a single shower of rain would materially injure his roads. The number of trucks worked is proportioned to the strength of the gang, and the distance generally from six to ten miles. We will, for example, take a gang of forty men, capable of working six trucks, each of which requires seven pair of oxen and two drivers, sixteen to cut food for the cattle, and twelve to load or put the logs on the carriages; which latter usually take up a temporary residence some where near the main body of the wood, it being too far to go and return each day to the river-side, or chief establishment. From the intense heat of the sun, the cattle would be unable to work during its influence ; consequently, they are obliged to use the night-time in lieu of the day, the sultry effects of which it becomes requisite to avoid. The loaders, as before mentioned, being now at their station in the forest, the trucks set off from the barquadier about six o clock in the evening, and arrive at their different places of loading about eleven or twelve o clock at night. The loaders, being at this time asleep, are warned of the approach of the trucks by the cracking of the whips carried by the cattle- drivers, which are heard at a considerable distance ; they arise and commence placing the logs upon the trucks, which is done by means of a temporary platform laid from the edge ofthe truck to a sufficient distance upon the ground, so as to make an inclined plane, upon which the log is gradually pushed up from each end alternately. Having com pleted their work of loading all the trucks, which may be done in three hours, they again retire to rest till about nine o clock next morning. The drivers now set out on their re turn, but their progress is considerably retarded by the lading; and although well pro vided with torchlight, they are frequently impeded by small stumps that remain in the road, and which would be easily avoided in daylight ; they, however, are in general all out at the river side by eleven o clock next morning, when, after throwing the logs into the river having previously marked them on each end with the owner s initials the cattle are fed, the drivers breakfast and retire to rest until about sunset, when they feed the cattle a second time, and yoke in again. Nothing can present a more extraordinary appearance than this process of trucking, or drawing down the mahogany to the river. The six trucks will occupy an extent of road of a quarter of a mile ; the great number of oxen the drivers half-naked (clothes being inconvenient from the heat of the weather and clouds of dust) and each bearing a torch light the wildness of the forest scenery the rattling of chains the sound of the whip echoing through the woods then all this activity and exertion so ill corresponding with the silent hour of midnight makes it wear more the appearance of some theatrical exhibition than what it really is, the pursuit of industry which has fallen to the lot of the Honduras woodcutter. " About the end of May the periodical rains again commence. The torrents of water discharged from the clouds are so great as to render the roads impassable in the course of a few hours, when all trucking ceases the cattle are turned into the pasture and the trucks, gear, and tools, &c., are housed. "The rain now pours down incessantly till about the middle of June, when the rivers swell to an immense height ; the logs then float down a distance of 200 miles, being fol lowed by the gang in pitpans(akind of flat-bottomed canoe) to disengage them from the branches of the overhanging trees, until they are stopped by a boom placed in some situa tion convenient to the mouth of the river. Each gang then separates its own cutting, by the marks on the ends of the logs, and forms them into large rafts, in which state they are brought down to the wharfs of the proprietors, where they are taken out of the water and undergo a second process of the axe to make the surface smooth ; the ends, which fre quently get split and rent, by being dashed against rocks in the river by the force of the current are also sawed off, when they are ready for shipping. " The average expense of mahogany cutting is usually estimated at 100/. Honduras currency, or about 70/. sterling, each labourer per annum, independent of the capital sunk in the purchase of the works, cattle, trucks, gear, craft, tools, &c." (See account of the mahogany and Honduras trade, under the head of British Possessions in America.) The LOGWOOD-TREE (Haemaloxylon Capechianum, Lin.) This is also a THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. 739 magnificent tree, but far inferior to the mahogany-tree ; yet it is a valuable tree in commerce, and the early history of resorting to Campeachy and Honduras to cut it, by adventurers from Jamaica, and by others who were little superior to pirates, is remarkable for daring intrepidity. It is said to thrive best in a wet clayey soil. The wood is so heavy as to sink in water. It is hard, very compact, and, although it takes a fine polish, is chiefly valuable on account of its colouring matter. In his work on Permanent Colours, Bancroft remarks : " Logwood seems to have been first brought to England soon after the accession of Queen Elizabeth ; but the various and beautiful colours dyed from it proved so fugacious, that a general outcry against its use was soon raised ; and an act of parliament was passed in the twenty-third year of her reign, which prohibited its use as a dye under severe penalties, and not only authorised but directed the burning of it, in whatever hands it might be found within the realm; and though this wood was afterwards some times clandestinely used (under the feigned name of blackwood), it continued subject to this prohibition for nearly 100 years, or until the passing of the act 13 and 14 Charles II.; the preamble of which declares, that the ingenious industry of modern times hath taught the dyers of England the art of fixing colours made of logwood, alias blackwood, so as that, by experience, they are found as lasting as the colours made with any other sort of dyeing wood whatever ; and on this ground it repeals so much of the statute of Elizabeth as related to logwood, and gives permission to import and use it for dyeing. Probablj the solicitude of the dyers to obtain this permission, induced them to pretend that their industry had done much more than it really had, in fixing the colours of logwood ; most of which, even at this time, are notoriously deficient in regard to their durability." (See Trade of Honduras, under the head of British Possessions.) CHAPTER XLV. THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. HONDURAS, with the exception of British Honduras, is situated to the south of the Gulf of Dolce and of the Bay of Honduras. The Mosquito territory extending along from its eastern boundary to the sea. Although part of Spanish Honduras has been long resorted to by the English, we really know little of this country at the present time. According to Juarras, Honduras and the Mosquito territories together, are 399 miles long, and about 150 wide, area 48,500 square miles. He says, "The climate of this country is good. The air, excepting on the eastern shore and near the morasses, being pure and wholesome. The soil in most parts is exceeding fer tile, abundantly producing corn, vegetables, and fruits. They have a threefold crop of maize in the year, and the vines produce grapes twice m the same period. The pasture: are excellent/and the country furnishes all kinds of provisions: but for want o tion and settlements, the greater part of it is in a state of nature. It has many gooc and serviceable small rivers, and is well watered. I; has sever tent, in which are gold and silver mines, and the face of the country **3"^? sifted into valleys, plains, and eminences, overspread in most parts with thi. Honey, wool, cotton, wax, mahogany, and logwood, with other -^ dyeing drugs are chief products; the latter forming an immense part of its exports, am chief importance is derived." 740 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. Spanish Honduras has detached itself from the other republics of Central America, and hostilities have been maintained almost without interruption between this wild country and the state of Guatemala the latter being under the sway of a young uneducated Indian of the name of Carera. The sketches by Mr. Ro berts, of Central America (published in 1827), are more explicit with regard to the Atlantic coast of Honduras and of the Mosquito shore, than any descriptions we have since been able to procure. The MOSQUITO TERRITORY has never been subjugated, nor occupied by Spain, and all that Juarras, in his work on Guatemala, says, is scarcely more than alluding to the Mosquito country under the names laid down in his map. Between the provinces of Nicaragua and Comayagua, lie those of Taguzgalpa and Toloo-alpa, inhabited by unconverted Indians of various nations, differing in language, manners, and customs, and in a state of warfare with each other. They are but ob scurely known by the name of Xicaques, Moscos, and Sambos. The English, who had a small fort and a few huts on the banks of the river Tinto, used to trade with these In dians, but have been obliged to abandon the post. These two provinces extend along; the coast on the Atlantic, from the river Aguan to that of St. Juan, which space takes in the three prominent points, Capes Camaron, Gracios a Dios, and Puenta Gorda." Nothing can be more imperfect than this description, by an author who puts himself forth as the geographer and historian of his native country. According to the boundaries laid down in 1777 " The Mosquito Shore, in America, extends from the northern branch of the Desa- guaders (evidently the San Juan), in 10 des?. 21 min. to Cape Gracios a Dios, in 15 deg. north latitude, and from Cape Gracios a Dios, in 82 deg. 40 min. to Cape Castile, or Cape Honduras, in 86 deg. west longitude from Greenwich."* This boundary is far more limited than that claimed by the Mosquito kings. After the English were compelled to leave this territory in 1?S7> in conse quence of the articles quoted from the treaty of 1783. We find the following remarks among the representations made to the government on the case of those settlers. " In every society of men, from the most rude and simple associations, up to the most perfect and refined state of civilisation, there is a natural public interest ; which, by being attended to, secures and promotes its felicity ; but by being neglected, produces misery and distress. * Mr. Roberts, in his interesting sketches of the Mosquito Shore, says, " Returning (in 1818) from the coast of San Bias, we passed Porto Bello, and proceeded to Chiriqui Lagoon, which, although far to the southward, is considered part of the Mosquito Shore, under the juris diction of the Mosquito King, who annually sends his admiral to collect tribute from the natives. Costa Rico extends to Puenta Gorda, which is a short distance to the northward of the Rico San Juan, and may be considered the boundary of the real and nominal Spanish possessions on that part of the coast. At Puenta Gorda, the Mosquito Shore Proper may be said to commence ; and we have met with the small independent tribe of Indians called Kanias. From thence to Cape Gracios a Dios, where the Mosquito king principally resides, the coast lies nearly north and south, a distance of about 220 miles. From Cape Gracios a Dios, nearly north-west, and by west to the river Polock, the distance is about 100 miles. From Little Roman River (within a few miles of Cape Honduras), it stretches to the west about ninety miles, forming a sea-board or line of coast of about 410 miles in extent, upon which the Spaniards have never been able to form any effective settlement. p. 54. THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. 7 i 1 " This natural public interest may be more distinctly perceived and more universally attended to, in the first small and rude associations of men, than in extensive and civili/ed nations ; where improvement and art have divided men into various classes m.d i which give rise to various pursuits, counteracting each other, and often oppov general interest of the whole. " The Mosquito Indians fall under the first of these descriptions; insomuch, that their natural public and private interest is, and uniformly has been, one and the same. It consists in the unrestrained freedom of all the natural enjoyments of life. They range the woods, paddle on the wave, hunt, and fish, as inclination or necessity directs ; and as extreme fatigue affords them the sweets of repose, so the enjoyment of repose, stimulates to labour, activity, and enterprise. A most salubrious climate, blesses them with every production, by sea and land ; and the pure gratification of natural unim paired appetites, gives them, perhaps, a superior degree of pleasure and of happinett, to that which is enjoyed by the enlightened nations of Europe, who hold them in con tempt. " Such was the situation of this innocent but high-spirited people, when the Spanish invasions took place in America; as well as when the English adventurers first became acquainted with them, in the beginning of the last century. Their love of liberty, added to their natural bravery, impelled them to maintain, in sovereign independency, the possession of their mountains, valleys, woods, lakes, and rivers; against the superiorart, arms, and even cruelties of Spain. One common interest united them with their new friends, the English, as having one and the same common enemy (the Spaniard), who aimed at engrossing the whole possession of the new world, in exclusion of all other nations. The view of the Indians, in this political connexion, was protection ; on our part, an im pregnable barrier presented itself in that portion of the world against the power of Spain, as well as the means of forming important commercial settlement in one of tlu finest countries on the globe." Spain has certainly never conquered the aboriginal occupiers of this country, and the inhabitants of this coast are, at this day, perfectly independent. The following sketches upon the authority of the records of the Board of Trade and Plantations, will illustrate the British connexion with a territory, whose prince and people continue to look up to England for protection. Some time after the conquest of Jamaica by the expedition sent forth by Oliver Cromwell, in 1656, the Mosquito king, with the concurrence of his chiefs and people, placed themselves under the protection of Charles the Second; and the governor of Jamaica, in the name of his sovereign, accepted this union, ai promised them the royal protection. They continued faithful to the pact, and whenever the British crown declared war against Spain, they readily acted i with both vigour and success against the common enemy * i-ujsi, ; the uniformly stea y f n th P r to son the strongest ana cieurtM. mcua ui nation, who have invariably transmit .ed iom mi . h sentimcnts an d conduct of the their independency of Spam and lto 22dMnS*S|WiWi race, in retaliation of the enor- ir.ost implacable hatred and reven ,e lo ^y d conauestand domination in America. This chain mous cruelties universally attending tl rs 4 ^^ which either reduced them as a of living testimony, unbroken by the J h to receive in the remotest degree Spanish people under the power of Spaing Constrained 1 1 a prO of of their real and perfect E2 ^. 6^JJ. mflm tmt(>s amonssl records of any nation more enlightened could : the history, exploit, and conduct of that very extraordinary class of men, k, 742 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. able that whenever peace was restored between England and Spain, the natives of the Mosquito nation permitted the Spaniards to come into their country with confidence and security, to trade with the subjects of Great Britain. A long time, however, had elapsed before any regular British settlement was established on the Mosquito Shore ; but many individual adventurers passed, from time to time, from Jamaica to that coast, and traded with the natives for tortoiseshell, sarsaparilla, and deer-skins ; and, under their protection, bartered British com modities for Spanish gold. This transient commerce on the Mosquito coast, and the logwood-trade carried on by the British settlement in the province of Yucatan, on the western parts of the Bay of Honduras, Spain thought proper so unjustly to interrupt, by capturing the ships of British subjects in that part of the world, as to cause the war of 1739, which continued to the peace of 1748. Prior to this period, the governor of Jamaica had appointed justices of peace on the Mosquito Shore, with authority (besides the discharge of the ordinary duties belonging to their functions as justices), to decide commercial questions of con tracts and of debts. During the war, the importance of that country was so fully understood, that the British government determined to hold it under the immediate sovereignty of Great Britain. The king appointed a superintendent to preside over the settlements on the Mosquito coast, and to cultivate and preserve the friendship of the aboriginal inhabitants ; and also to promote the interests and extend the] commerce of his majesty s subjects residing there. Captain Robert Hodgson, the first superintendent, proceeded, in 1749, with the command of one hundred men, drafted from the troops at Jamaica, and took possession of the principal station at Black River, on the Mosquito coast, where he erected a fort, mounted it with cannon, hoisted the royal flag, and kept up a garrison ; thus making a formal publication to all the world, and to the crown of Spain, that the independent country of the Mosquito coast was under the direct sovereignty and protection of Great Britain.* and distinguished by the appellation of the buccaneers of America, corroborate and confirm, in the strongest manner, this living testimony of the Indian independency throughout their ter ritories of the Mosquito Shore. For those buccaneers attacked the Spaniards in every part of their conquests in Mexico, Fern, and Chili ; but the Mosquito Shore they not only never at tacked, but associated the Mosquito Indians as fellow adventurers in their Spanish expeditions into the South Seas ; and in their repeated retreats from thence to the North Sea, over the Isthmus, they directed their course towards Wank s River, which brought them into the territories of the Mosquito Shore, and afforded them always the warmest protection of the Mosquito Indians, as being Spain s most implacable enemies." * The following minutes of the Council of State at Jamaica, reported to the lieutenant- governor, were by him transmitted to the Board of Trade and Plantations in 1773: " The committee of the board to whom your honour was pleased to refer sundry papers, letters, and examinations respecting the Mosquito Shore, and the disturbances at present subsisting among the British settlers thereon, have taken the same into their most serious and dispassionate deliberation, and now attend your honour with their report. " We find the number of inhabitants in 1770 to have been between 200 and 300 whites, about 200 persons of mixed blood, and about 900 slaves. The Mosquito Indians, so justly remarkable for their fixed hereditary hatred of the Spaniards and attachment to us, were formerly very nume- THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. ;.j > war of 17 M < e war o 1756, the Mosquito Shore continued to be a military, federal, protected pro- vmce of Great Bntam. In the treaty of peace concluded m 1763, the 17th Article had no connexion whatever with the Mosquito Shore; but the mi,, of the day seem to have but little understood the history and importance of that country. In the negotiation they were imposed upon by the court of )f Spam, and gave orders, in 1764, for demolishing the fort at Black River, and withdrawing the garrison to Jamaica. They were soon afterwards convinced of the impolicy of this decision, and approved of the conduct of Superintendent Otway, in refusing the Spaniards admission into the country. Future adminis trations continued to support the settlements, and to maintain the sovereignty of the crown over the Mosquito territory in such a manner as to silence the pre tensions of Spain to any dominion over it. From the first establishment of a superintendent on the coast, and of a garrison at Black River, the colony increased in population and prosperity, notwithstand ing the various secret attempts of the Spaniards to oppress the Indians and the settlements during his administration. The settlers perceived, from the royal instructions given to the superintendents, that although the British government rous, but they were much reduced some years ago by the small-pox : their present number is from 7000 to 10,000. " An administration of justice by magistrates appointed by the governor of Jamaica and courts of quarter-session, have been settled there for many years, and a commission of super- intendency, amenable to the control and examination of the governor and council of Jamaica, has been granted by the crown. "The native Indians of this country have never been conquered by, nor ever submitted to the Spanish government. The Spaniards never had any settlement amongst them. During the course of 150 years, they have maintained a strict and uninterrupted alliance with the subjects of Great Britain. They made a free and formal cession of the dominion of their country to his Majesty s predecessors, acknowledging the King of Great Britain for their sovereign long before the American treaty concluded at Madrid in 1670 ; and, consequently, our right was declared by the seventh article of that treaty. This cession of the Indians to the British crown has been fre quently and very formally repeated, particularly by the Mosquito king to the Duke of Albemarle, when governor of Jamaica ; and this accumulation of British right was not impaired by the last treaty of peace. These appear to us to be truths equally certain and notorious ; and after this it is difficult to guess what can be said to invalidate his majesty s rights and acknowledged title to the sovereignty of the Mosquito Shore. " The climate, as we are well informed, is milder than in any of the West India islands, and the air more salubrious ; the lands are everywhere well watered, and everywhere fertile. The soil, indeed, is said to be rich in an uncommon degree. The necessaries, and even the luxuries of life, present themselves on all sides : the rivers, lagoons, and sea, abound with excellent fish ; and the coasts afford the greatest number of the finest turtle, both for food and for the shell, of any country of equal extent in the known world. The cotton-tree, the cacao, or the chocolate-nut, arid venelloes, flourish spontaneously all over the country ; indigo, too, is a native, and appears to be of the same sort with that of the neighbouring province of Guatemala, which is accounted the best of any. The sugar-cane arrives here to as great perfection, as in any of the islands ; and of mahogany and sarsaparilla, the quantity exported annually is so great, as to render the s merit already an object of no small importance to the commerce of Great Britain ; no less than 800,000 superficial feet of the former of these articles, and of the latter 200,000 Ibs., exclusive of 10,000 Ibs. of tortoiseshell, having been shipped to England in 1769. The banks of I and lagoons are equally well adapted to the growth of logwood, as any part of the neig province of Honduras; and we have reason to think, from the nature of this plant, tli course of twenty or thirty years, a sufficient quantity may be raised in this country tc Europe." 744 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. declined to erect, immediately, the country into a British province, it was considered very desirous to encourage and promote its commerce, and they naturally concluded that, the sooner they were able to bring its trade into a conspicuous point of view, the sooner they would render it expedient for his majesty s ministers to establish a provincial government. With this view, the settlers and traders began to pur chase lands from the Indians, to plant sugar-canes, and cultivate cotton, cacao, and other articles. Eight of the principal settlers purchased a tract of land, said to contain a gold mine, lying on the banks of Polloy River, and extending in length about seventy miles, and thirty miles in breadth, on each side of it, known by the name of Alberapoyer. Their motive, in acquiring this large tract of country, was to associate purchasers with themselves from Great Britain, to work the mine, improve the estate, and raise the importance of the colony. To accomplish which, they gave full powers to one of their number, Lieutenant-Colonel Lawrie, the last superintendent of the Mosquito Shore, who was then going to London on his private affairs. This purchase was made in May and June, 1771. Colonel Lawrie, on his arrival in London, and previous to his enlarging the number of the proprietors of the estate, brought the subject fully before Lord Hillsborough, his majesty s secretary of state, and presented a memorial to him, on the month of November following ; requesting to know what support might be expected from government, on carrying the plan into execu tion. His lordship approved of the plan, and assured him protection. This assurance of public support enabled him to accomplish his object in April, 1772, by a deed of demise and declaration of trust, for dividing the estate into two-and-twenty shares ; and the new proprietors, to exclude every idea of fraud or imposition in acquiring so large a property, obliged the original proprietors to obtain a renewal and confirmation of their first grant, by the most approved mode of lease and release ; and to enter the deeds in the records of the settlement at Black River, all which was accomplished in the course of that year. Such was the notoriety of this purchase, and such the approbation of government, in carrying it into execution. In January, 17?5, an embassy arrived in London, consisting of young George, son of the Mosquito King, Isaac his brother, Captain Smee and Captain Richards, two Mosquito chiefs.* This embassy, amongst other objects of utility, had in * It is the custom of the Mosquito Indians to assume British names, Thus, the Mosquito king called himself George, after his majesty. His son, also, was named Young George, and was sent to England to be educated. Isaac, the Indian king s brother, likewise assumed the title of Duke of York; and the names Isaac, Smee, and Richards, were assumed from par ticular British subjects whom they esteemed. This custom is continued at the present day. Jeremy, a king of the Mosquito country, visited Jamaica in the reign of Charles II. He had previously executed a deed, placing himself under the protection and homage of England. He then proceeded to England, and was graciously received by the king. The successor of Jeremy was called Edward, who with his successors, George I. and George II. all visited Jamaica, and went through the ceremonv of homage and claiming protection. This continued until 1787. THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. - , j view the rectifying of a flagrant crane, which had been then often ships carrying off free Indians, belonging to the back Inc selling them for slaves in North America. Governn %ir. 4- A f cut aiicnoGcl to their com. plaints. A new system of administration was formed bv T n l n August, which Governor Sir Basil Keith put in execution in JS^M Ihis system consisted of a Council of Government, of which the M tendent was president ; of a Court of Common Pleas ; and of a Bench of Justice of Peace. Appeals were to lay from the Justices of Peace to the Court of Coin mon Pleas; from the Court of Common Pleas to the Council of Government - and from the Council of Government to the Governor arid Council of Jamaica Superintendent Hodgson was ordered home to London, and Sir Basil Keith appointed John Ferguson, Esq. to act as superintendent, pro tempore. In the month of May, 1776, Mr. Hodgson was dismissed, and Colonel Lawrie appointed to succeed him. Superintendent Lawrie set out immediately for Jamaica, received Sir Basil Keith s commission, as commander-in-chief of his Majesty s subjects on the Mosquito Shore, and proceeded immediately to the principal settlement at Black River.* He found the Indians and settlers greatly dis tressed by the Spanish capture of the Morning Star, while lying at anchor off Black River in April preceding ; and by the recent desertions of their negroes, encou raged by the conduct of the Spaniards towards the Indians and the settle ment. In 1777, some of the principal settlers sent to England an assortment of sugars, rum, indigo, bark, sarsaparilla, tortoise-shell, &c., in two vessels, the Neptune and the Hope ; the first in October, 1777, the other about January, 1778. The sugars in both, Young George, the Prince, and the other three chiefs, having finished their embassy, took their passage on board the Morning Star, Captain Millar, bound from London to the Mosquito Shore, about the month of January, 1776. Two Spanish guarda costas were there fitted out, to in tercept her. Fortunately for the Prince and his companions, the vessel put in at Cape C.racios a Dios, where they were landed; but on the Morning Star proceeding to her destination at Black Kiver, the two cruisers fell in with and captured her when lying at anchor, in the roadstead. * Governor Sir Basil Keith, of Jamaica, agreeably to a plan transmitted to him, from his Ma jesty s government, by the Earl of Dartmouth, issued a series of instructions on the 29th of December following, consisting of twenty-one articles, for the Reformation and Improvement of the Civil Police and Government of the Settlement established on the Mosquito Shore, which were carried into full execution in the month of January, 1776 : and that in the Royal Instruc tions accompanying his Majesty s appointment of Superintendent Lawrie, on the 17th of Mav. 1776, the superintendent is not only directed (as all furmer superintendents had been), " To pro mote the prosperity of the settlement, to improve the commercial advantages which might be derived from it;" but he is further made acquainted with his Majesty s pleasure, " That he should forthwith transmit to Lord George Germaine (as secretary of state), through the hands of the Governor of Jamaica, an accurate account of the settlement intrusted to his care ; specifying its ex tent, the number of its inhabitants, the nature and amount of its then trade, and what further commercial advantages it was capable of affording" Under this national unlimited encouragement of trade and commerce, the Alberapoyer estate, the sugar, coffee, cacao, and cotton plantations, as well as the provision grounds the woodlands, and every other species of landed property, forming the claims, had been and were openly, freely, and honestly purchased of the Indians, by his Majesty s subjects ; and remained protected and secured to them, at the conclusion of the treaty of peace, in September, 1783. Case of the Bri tish Subjects expelled from the Mosquito Shore. VOL. I. 5 C 740 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. and the sugars only, were refused admission at the customhouse ; which obliged them to go to a foreign market. The objection to admitting the sugars, was a clause in the 6th of George III., c. 52, which declares " that sugars imported from British Plantations on the continent of America, shall be deemed French sugars] and pay duties accordingly.* The navigation on the coast had become insecure by the piratical capture of the Morning Star. In July and August following, the sudden desertion of a body of negroes, and the appearance of disaffection amongst those who remained, made it necessary to proclaim martial law, which diverted the attention of the settlers from all kinds of business. In the Spring of 1777, a conspiracy between the Spanish Governor of Panama, an Indian governor, and an English trader, was carried on against the colony. The correspondence was detected and transmitted by the super intendent to the Secretary of State at London. Two Spanish guarda costas seized a vessel belonging to Jamaica at Pearl Quay Lagoon ; they made prize of ano ther belonging to Captain John Campbell, at Bluefields ; burnt there a third on the stocks ; and having landed on the corn islands, they carried away a very considerable quantity of goods. In addition to these distresses, the Indians and the settlers were kept in constant alarm this year and a great part of the next* by advices, from time to time, of a Spanish armament against the Coast, and of their raising fortifications about the entrance of the river San Juan. Those circumstances were all communicated by the superintendent to the Governor of Jamaica, and the Secretary of State at London ; and at the special instance of the Council of Government on the Shore, the superintendent requested to be furnished with a blockhouse, arms, ammunition, a few of the cannon formerly taken from the Shore, and a free company of a hundred, or even fifty men ; not as soldiers, but volunteers, for the preservation of their negroes, and for defend ing the roadstead. In return to this application, Lord George Germaine trans mitted a despatch to the Governor of Jamaica, on the 4th of June, 1?77 5 severely rebuking the superintendent for having made the request ; " as being in direct contradiction to the seventeenth article of the Treaty of Paris." Yet had he not made it, the superintendent must have been guilty of a most criminal neglect ; and acted in direct contradiction to his lordship s official instructions, even as his * On the question being referred to the Lords of Trade, they gave a cautious opinion, as fol lows : "Tuesday, April 27th, 1779. " Agreeable to the resolution of the 20th instant, their lordships having again resumed the consideration of the memorial of the inhabitants of tiie Mosquito Shore, and having also read and considered a second memorial of the said inhabitants upon the like subject, referred by Sir Grey Cooper, under the direction of the Lords of the Treasury ; and likewise a letter from Mr. Jackson, stating his opinion upon the Act mentioned in the said memorials, they were of opinion that, though the Mosquito Shore is indisputably part of the great American continent, it cannot be considered as one, or any part of one of the British Colonies or Plantations thereupon, in the sense or spirit of the Act of the sixth of his present Majesty, but superintended dependency on the Island of Jamaica ; and therefore, that the produce of the Shore should not be made subject to the restrictions of the clause in question." THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. 747 lordship stated them in the very same dispatch; which directed him, " to apply himself to establish good order among the inhabitants, to promote the prosperity of the settlements, to improve the commercial advantages which may be derived from them, and to cultivate a strict union and friendship with the Indians in those parts." The conduct of the superintendent was never after called in question. In ] 779* one Terry, a man of great daring, formerly a British subject, but then a renegade in the pay of Spain, attempted, in a Spanish vessel of war, filled with presents, and occupying the southern parts of the coast, to induce the Indian chiefs to depose George the King, and place his cousin, Prince Eugene, in his stead ; who was to acknowledge the protecting sovereignty of Spain, and drive the British colonists out of the country. The Governor of Jamaica, early in the Spring of 1780, ordered an attack to be made from Jamaica upon Lake Nicaragua, and directed that the superin tendent, with his people from the Mosquito Shore, should form part of this expedition. Being consequently left in a defenceless condition, the settle ment at Black River was put to flight, in the month of April following, by a body of Spaniards from Truxillo ; who, after destroying a number of sugar and provision plantations, returned to their former station ; whilst the Negroes, left to themselves, seized on the town of Black River Bank, and declared they would be free. To suppress the revolt, Major Richard Hoare, Captain Farrall, and Captain O Brian, who had been expelled from Yucatan, and then resided on the Island of Roattan, assembling a body of men under their command, consisting of the people of their own settlement, and a collection of fugitive settlers from the shore. With this armament, they proceeded to Black River, where they opened a conference with the insurgent negroes, and granted freedom to a few of the ringleaders, the rest submitted to pardon. Soon after this, Superintendent Lawrie returned to Black River with the remains of the settlers, from the abortive expedition against Lake Nicaragua, much reduced and in a precarious state of health. The Mosquito Shore was so far neglected by government that only twenty-one regular soldiers were at Black River Bank on the 5th of March, 1782 ; when it was invested by sea, by three schooners, two sloops, two gallics, and pettyauger*. The Spanish forces advanced on the 15th, from the southward, by Black River, with 1350 foot, 100 horse, and 350 Indian pioneers ; on the 29th, from t westward, with 1000 men; and on the 30th a line-of-battle ship and a frigate came to anchor off Fort Balling, and under a heavy fire landed 500 men. oppose this force, the superintendent had twenty-one soldiers, the sett negroes, and some hundreds of Indians all ill-supplied with arms, without am munition, and without provisions. He skirmished with the enemy, and ma, tained his post until the 31st of March. On the 30th the guns of Fort Balling 748 THE MOSQUITO TERRITOKY. were spiked, and a retreat effected to the Bank, where Cnptain Douglas of the militia, who commanded it, was captured by the Spaniards. Agreeably to the Governor of Jamaica s orders, when in the face of a much superior enemy, a council of war was held on the 31st, in pursuance of which a general retreat was finally effected, attended with great suffering from scarcity of food, want of clothing, and from sickness, to Cape Gracios a Dios. The settlers having thus been driven from Black River, assembled at Cape Gracios a Dios, expecting assistance from Jamaica ; and the victory over the French obtained by Admiral Rodney, in the month of April, enabled the governor and admiral at Jamaica, to turn their attention to the Shore. A small squadron, with a detachment of 130 of the Loyal American Rangers, furnished with arms, stores, provisions, and presents for the Indians, was fitted out and sailed from Port Royal on the 7th, and arrived at the Cape on the 17th of August, to assist the settlers and the natives to expel the Spaniards from Black River Bank. Here they found Superintendent Lawrie at the head of 800 settlers (Indians and negroes), determined, although in weak health, to proceed in four days to the attack of Black River. The reinforce ment gave the greatest animation to the expedition, until they learned that Robert Hodgson, their former superintendent, who had been much disliked, was ap pointed to command them, as a provincial colonel. But the settlers and the Indians detesting him, and dreading the exercise of his authority, unanimously refused to be commanded by him. The settlers and Indians, in concurrence with the superintendent, conferred the command on Captain Despard, a provincial colonel, though a junior officer. Major Lawrie, the superintendent and com- mander-in- chief, willingly accompanied the expedition as a volunteer. The armament proceeded from the Cape on the 26th of August; landed at Plantain River on the 28th, where they were joined by a number of free men and negroes, in that neighbourhood ; and by Captain John Campbell, who with about 150 volunteer negroes, had attacked and carried Fort Dalling from a like number of the enemy. On the 29th the whole body, consisting of about 1000 men (of which there were only 80 regular troops), advanced to the Bluff, at the mouth of Black River; and on the 30th they encamped on the banks of the lagoon, opposite the town. Here the enemy opened a conference with Colonel Despard, which ended in a capitulation ; by which the town surrendered on the 31st of August, with 715 regulars, and their officers, as prisoners of war. All the western boundaries of the Shore were soon after recovered, after having been five months in possession of the Spaniards. After the most deliberate discussion of the subject, it was determined by the British Government to retain the Mosquito Shore under British protection and sovereignty. With this object, in view, the sixth article of the definitive treaty with Spain, concluded in September 17S3, restricts the evacuation of his Majesty s THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. subjects to be only "from any other parts (than those expressly given to them by the said article) whether on the Spanish continent, or in any of the islands what- soever, dependent on the Spanish* continent." From September, 1?85, until July 1786, the respective claims of England and Spain to the Mosquito territories were discussed, and on the 12th of July, 1786 it was announced that the territory was to be delivered up to the Crown of Spain! This abandonment of the country and its inhabitants was considered at the time by the British people a most profligate surrender. It was with the most painful reluctance, and only in obedience to positive orders, that the British settlers slowly and discontentedly left their plantations. Many of the Creoles and people of colour, as well as some of the Europeans, pre ferred remaining at all hazards. For a long period they, or their descendants, resided unmolested, and comparatively comfortable, in their old possessions, par ticularly at Bluefields, Pearl Kay Lagoon, and other places on the coast, which were by them, and their Indian friends, considered English settlements. The actual number of persons, exclusive of the aborigines, under the British jurisdiction in the year 1757, according to the account of their superintendent, Colonel Hodgson, was about 1100 souls; and in the year 1770, Mr. Edwards estimated the number at 1400. The greater part of them were settled at Black River, Cape River, and Brancmans : the former place, where the British had erected a small fort, was the only one of the deserted settlements which the Spa niards dared even attempt to take into their possession ; but they were immediately driven from it by the Indian general, Robinson. The remainder of the British, at Cape Gracios a Dios, Sandy Bay, Pearl Kay Lagoon, the Corn Islands, Blue- fields, Punta Gordo, Brewers Lagoon, Plantain River, Miztisoe Creek, and other parts of the coast, as far southward as Chiriqui Lagoon, were never molested. They owned twelve merchant vessels, several of them in the European trade, the others constantly trading to Jamaica and the United States; and their exports of mahogany, sarsaparilla, tortoise-shell and mules ; together with specie, indigo, cocoa, hides, and tallow got in barter with the Spaniards, were very considerable, and daily increasing. Of the great national advantages of this country there is now no reason to doubt. The ill-judged plans of a remarkably brave and gallant man, General Sir Gregor Mac Gregor, and the imprudent administration of those who seconded his attempts, gave rise to gross misrepresentations of the Mosquito country. There is sufficient proof that several parts of it are decidedly more salubrious * The dispute between the two crowns, immediately previous to adjusting the treaty of Sep tember 1783 was whether the term Spanish, or the term American continent, should be used in this article ; and it was agreed in favour of the first. Now the Mosquito Shore was no part of the Spanish continent ; but a part of the American continent possessed by the Mosquito Indians, as independently of the crown of Spain, as any of the other parts of America, possessed by other independent states and powers. Therefore the evacuation comprehended in th relation whatever to that country. 750 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. than any one of our settlements in the West Indies. It is well known, that if men are located in low marshy ground, in the neighbourhood of stagnant water, the consequences are injurious to them in every country, but more especially in a hot climate: but in dry situations similar to the Valiente and Bluefields settle ments, where the waters quickly run off, Europeans, generally speaking, enjoy an almost uninterrupted state of health, and live to a good old age. In such situations, the general mass of European cultivato/s could, with safety, perform more than double the work done by the Valientes, or any other tribe of Indians. Many of the dry savannahs, and fine ridges, are equally healthy ; but it is in the interior, on the banks of the rivers, that agriculturists should form settlements ; and many thousands could find such situations in the hilly country behind the Kharib- bee settlements, without putting any of the native residents to inconvenience. According to Mr. Roberts 44 The mosquitoes, sandflies, and other insects; the poisonous reptiles, and wild beasts, of which so much is said in England, are, as regards the situations alluded to, mere bugbears to frighten children ; the former are only troublesome on the low sandy beaches and swamps, some settlements being entirely clear of them ; and the latter sel dom come near the habitations of men, or do any harm. It has been asserted, and I am more inclined to confirm than deny it, that nearly the whole line of coast from Cape Hon duras to to the River San Juan, is free from those violent hurricanes which sometimes rage with such destructive fury in the West India Islands ; and it has also been affirmed, that the same tract of country is not subject to those dreadful earthquakes which have so often shaken, and at one time or other, almost entirely destroyed the Spanish American towns towards the Pacific Ocean; spreading death and dismay amongst the wretched inhabitants." The Mosquito country affords almost inexhaustible supplies of cedar, maho gany, santa maria wood, rosewood, and many other exceedingly valuable timbers may be obtained on the coast, and on the banks of all the rivers in the interior: dye- woods, gums, drugs, and medicinal plants of various descriptions, are plentifully dispersed all over the country. On the savannahs are reared considerable num bers of cattle ; and innumerable herds could be pastured on the plains close to the shore, as well as in the interior. The soil is well adapted to the cultivation of sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, indigo, and all the other productions of a tropical climate ; rice and Indian corn might be produced, to supply the whole of our West India possessions. Such are the resources of a country which has been shamefully neglected though not altogether abandoned by England. If we examine all the circumstances, bearing upon the claims of right to pos session and occupancy ; and if we consider that Spain has lost all dominion on the continent of America, we are reasonably led to the conclusion that the Mos quito Territory is still an independent country, and one over which Spain never had the least control or occupation. It is evident that none of the anarchical states of Central America have any right by occupation, or by recognition, to the Mosquito country. If we contend that the country is independent, a question arises as to how far its king or rulers, and more than all its inhabitants, are under THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. ; - j the protection or sovereignty of England. The English from Jamaica, and all who speak the English language, who have frequented it since 1787, found the same favour among the people as formerly; the Spanish races continue to be, as formerly, detested and held as enemies. Mr. Roberta s accounts of the coast, as well as all the more recent information we have received, are perfectly conclusive as to the accuracy of these facts. The misfortune has been that the Mosquito kings themselves, and the Zamboes, the people who possessed most authority, have manifested but little wisdom or justice in the country. When Mr. Roberts visited Cape Gracios a Dios, the Mosquito king was a young man, who had been semi-educated at Jamaica. The father of this kinu old King George, was of the mixed, or negro and Indian breed ; and said to be of a cruel, barbarous, and vindictive character. He enslaved great numbers of the Blanco, Woolwa, and Cookra tribes; and, like all the Mosquito chiefs, had a great number of wives, or concubines, whom he often flogged so severely that some of them died in consequence. The murder of one of these women, under circumstances of remarkable barbarity, created a riot, during which the king was fired upon, and killed, by his own people. He left two sons, George Frederick, who succeeded him, and a half-brother, Robert, both then very young. A trader from the Bay of Honduras, contrived to get these children into his vessel, and persuaded the chiefs that they might derive great benefits by having their future king educated " English fashion," so that he might understand something of the laws, manners, and customs of their friends the English. They were allowed to depart; and the chiefs forming a sort of regency, the three principal ones agreed to retain the country for the eldest son, dividing it, in the mean time^ into three governments. The first, from Roman River to Patook, including the tribes of Kharibees, Foyers, Mosquito men, and some negroes, formerly attached to the British settlements, was confided to a chief named General Robinson. The second, from Caratasca, or Croata, to Sandy Bay and Duckwarra, which included all the Mosquito men proper, or mixed breed of Zamboes and Indians was left under the rule of a chief, the brother of the late king, under the title of Admiral. The third, from Brancmans to Great River (Rio Grande) was under the charge of Don Carlos, and styled "the Governor." This division included the tribes of Tongulas, Towcas, Wool was, Cookras, &c. These chiefs appointed head men within their respective districts, subordinate to their authority. The small settlements of Zamboes, at Pearl Kay Lagoon and Bluefields, were allowed to choose their own head-men. The princes were sent from Honduras to Jamaica: where the Duke of Man chester is said to have shown some attention to Prince George. After the routine of a very imperfect education, he was sent to Belize, where the principal Mo quite chiefs were instructed to meet him, and the ceremony of his coronation was 752 THE MOSQUITO T URITORY. performed. The young chief was escorted to church by the British superinten dent, by the regular troops, militia, and principal people of the settlement. The rector put the crown (a present from the British to one of his ancestors) on his head ; and he was formally invested with the sword, rake, and spurs ; a royal salute was fired, and he was styled King of the Mosquito Shore and Nation. Medals and dresses were presented to the chiefs, who, with the young king, were sent to the Mosquito coast in a British sloop of war. They were accidentally landed at General Robinson s residence, between Black River and Brewers Lagoon ; and the king commenced his reign by grossly insulting and quarrelling with this general, his most powerful chief. At Cape Gracios a Dios the king was received by all the members of his family, who principally resided at an extensive pine savannah called the Ridge, about forty miles from the Cape, at a short distance from the bank of the great Cape River. The king was naturally of a generous disposition, and not destitute of ability ; and it was regretted that he had not received an European, rather than an extremely loose West Indian education : by the former he would have had a fair chance of acquiring correct habits, and some idea of the importance of order and good government; whereas, by the latter, he became possessed of very little really useful information. It amounted to little more than engrafting, as it were, the bad qualities of the European and Creole, upon the vicious propensities of the Zambo, and the capricious disposition of the Indian, by which his life was embit tered, and his ultimate destruction caused. He was, it is said, assassinated in 1824 Colonel George Woodbine, of San Andres, at the request of the chiefs, sat as chairman in the investigation which took place. Some of those concerned in the murder were put to death. Robert, his half-brother, succeeded him, and had a brief reign. The next king, George Frederick, descended from a more ancient branch of the family, was succeeded by his brother, the late King Robert Charles Frederick, and with the rule, or rather misrule, of this sovereign are associated some of the most profligate circumstances in the Mosquito Territory. The late king was notoriously addicted to drunkenness. Several of the British subjects settled at different parts of the coast acquired a complete in fluence over his sottish majesty. There was, in fact, a family compact in the Mos quito Territory, differing, it is true, in its morality, and in the nature of its bonds, but as firmly united as that which existed in Canada. In the Mosquito Shore plurality of mistresses was considered no disgrace. It was no uncommon circum stance for a British subject to have one or more of these native women at dif ferent parts of the coast. They acquired an influence through them, both over the inhabitants, and over a king of intemperate habits; and before the death of Robert Charles Frederick, grants were obtained from him by certain British sub jects of about two-thirds of the whole territory. These grants, authenticated copies of which we have examined, were drawn up in the usual technical style of THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. phraseology, and conferred on the grantees little less than absolute over the extensive regions which they comprised. They were extorted fron^ta king when in a state of mind incapable of judging right from wron-. They arc signed, George Frederick, his mark ; the mark being a sort of scratch. Th, not knowing how to write. As a British agent has usually been residing on the Mosquito Territory, in order to maintain the long existing connexion with England, these grants appear to have been made during the absence, and without the knowledge of such agent. On Mr. Walker, who had been previously colonial secretary at Belize, being sent as British agent to the Mosquito coast in 1844, these grants became one of the objects of his solicitude, and he soon discovered that they were obtained irre gularly, and could not be maintained. An attempt was made to sell one of the largest grants, as the foundation of a large colony, to a Prussian company, under the patronage of the prince royal, but the tenures being considered utterly worth less, and disavowed by the British government as the guardian of the young king, the projected colony was at once abandoned. George Frederick left as heirs two sons, George Augustus Frederick, and William Henry Clarence, and a sister. They and the dowager queen Joanna, were left, we believe, under the will of the late queen, to the care of Colonel Macdonald, late her majesty s superintendent at Belize. The two sons have been educated with some care. Clarence is now (1846) in Europe with Colonel Macdonald ; and it was considered that he was intellectually, and in regard to health, better adapted to succeed to the crown than Prince George. During the minority of the latter the country was under the administration of sectional governors or superintendents. It having been decided that Prince George should be crowned as usual at Beloze, the necessary preparations were made. The regalia, consisting of a silver gilt crown, a sword, and sceptre, all of moderate value, and given formerly to one of the kings by the British govern ment, were brought from the usual place of security, the dwelling of the chief at Vankes River. On the 17th of April the British sloop of war Hyacinth arrived at Bluefields* for the purpose of carrying the young king, George Augustus Frederick, to Belize, to be crowned according to ancient usage, which was performed by the commissary of the Bishop of Jamaica on the 7th of May, 1845, in St. John s Church, Belize, in the presence of the superintendent, Colonel Fancourt, Mr. Walker, British agent at Bluefields, and several chiefs. The young king was treated with great attention by Colonel Fancourt. It appears, from the last information which we have obtained, that considerable progress in the way of improvement has been made during the last four years, but we must admit that the manners and customs of the inhabitants still require thorough regeneration. In order to bring forward the productive elements of the country a great addition to the population and / n 754 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. capital are necessary. With these elements the Mosquito Territory would become a wealthy and important country. This will appear evident from the following descriptive sketches. The British government has appointed the resident agent to reside at Blue- fields River. Without directly interfering in the affairs of the government, he offers to king and chiefs counsel and advice, and maintains the alliance and pro tection of England. The Governor of Jamaica has always, and up to the present time., been charged with the superintendence of all communications with the Mosquito Shore. CHAPTER XLVI. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF THE MOSQUITO SHORE. THE territory of the Mosquito country, as hitherto claimed by the kings, extends from Cape Honduras south to King Buppa, or landing-place, near the Escuda de Verngua, and comprises the sea-coast of the following provinces, viz., PROVINCE OF HONDURAS, including Cape Honduras, Roman River, Black River, Potook River, Cape Gracias a Dios, and Wava River. PROVINCE OF NICARAGUA, including Bluefields River, San Juan River, and Vankes River. COSTA RICA, including Salt River, &c. VERAGUA, including Bocca de Toro, Boc.ca de Chiriqui, Escuda de Veragua. The government of Grenada claims the Bocca de Torro, Bocca de Chiriqui, and the Escuda de Veragua. Central America also claims a part, but the Spaniards never appear to have occupied them. It is stated (August, 1845), that the New Grenadian islands of Providence and San Andreas are almost entirely peopled by persons of English extraction, and by negroes speaking the English language, and that a great many of the latter are slaves, many of whom will probably escape to the Mosquito Shore if they can. From the Rio San Juan to Puenta Gorda, a distance of about thirty-four miles^ the coasts form a bay, into which falls the Corn River (Rio Trigo), Indian River, and some other streams, and Gundolore Bay, which has ancorage in four or five fathoms water. From the neighbourhood of San Juan to Bluefields River, the country has always been occupied by the Rama Indians, said now to be much diminished in number. They are subject to the Mosquito king. Bluefields is a magnificent river, navigable, it is said, for more than eighty miles through a fertile country, and passing through mountain ridges a short distance from the sea. Its entrance may be readily known by a remarkably high barren islet, about four miles off its entrance. The bay is shallow, but there is good an- THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. 755 chorage under Point Gorda, about four miles further to the northward, a j,i which may be distinguished by its having several small islands and keys in jfa vicinity. From San Juan River to Puenta Gorda, the forests abound in vanilla of the finest quality. This vine climbs and twines up to the top of the highest trees. The leaves bear some resemblance to those of the vine ; the flowers are white with some red and yellow ; the pods grow in bunches not unlike the plan tain. The pods are at first green, then grow yellow, and finally brown. Care must be taken not to allow the pods to remain upon the stalks too long before they are pulled, as, in that case, they exude a black fragrant balsam, which carries off both the perfume and delicate flavour for which they alone are valued. Vanilla is also found on most parts of the Mosquito Shore, and in the neighbourhood of Bocca del Toro and Chiriqui Lagoons. It requires heat, moisture, and shade, to bring it to perfection, and imparts, in the opinion of those who use it, a most delicious flavour to coffee, chocolate, &c., forming an important article of commerce, especially among the Spaniards. In the neighbourhood of the Lagoons and the above places, a very fragrant bean, resembling, if not in reality, the true Tonquin bean, is also found. The Rama Indians have always paid an annual tax to the Mosquito king in tortoise-shell, canoes, hammocks, and cotton lines. They are considered mild and inoffensive, and have had little intercourse with other Indians ; they are expert in the management of canoes and boats, and will effect a landing where the best European boats would meet certain destruction : their canoes and dories are much broader, shallower, much more buoyant, and better adapted for landing in a heavy surf, or for crossing the bars of rivers, than those generally used on the coast. The Ramas, when engaged by the English settlers, have always proved very faithful servants. The Indians assert, that the Bluefieids River flows through a country rather level, of great fertility, and abounding in mahogany, locust, santa maria, and many other trees. The small keys and islets, which lay off" this part of the coast, and that of Bluefieids, are frequented by the Indians during the season, for catching hawks- bill turtle. BLUEFIELDS, which is now the residence of the king, and the capital, is to derive its name from a celebrated English Captain of Buccaniers in the seven- teenth century. Mr. Roberts, who was intimately acquainted with the coasts, says, " For trading vessels of an easy draught of water, the upper lagoon is i perhaps ^supe rior to any other harbour on the Mosquito Shore bemg completely sheltered I iron all winds. There are two entrances ; that to the southward, through Hone . difficult, and dangerous even for small craft; the bar be.ng ^"^ YT^ ft si n ers, and having only four to 6ve feet water ;-but the principal and only one for sh ps is to the northward/close to the Bluff, a high rocky eminence W^^^J fortified, completely commanding the entrance, upon the bar o _ wh.ch ,e endra. aero to Deer lsland, there is never less, but sometimes more, than: fifte en feet a e r. A passin- this bar, there is from four to six fathoms water. Close t 756 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. deep, but it gradually shallows to three, and three and a half fathoms, which is the ge neral depth throughout the upper and lower lagoons. There are many banks, and shoals, about the entrances, but none of them dangerously situated for shipping; many of them are dry at low water, and abundance ot fine oysters can then easily be procured. The Lower Lagoon is full of small kays, or islets, and is from fifteen to twenty miles in length, having sufficient depth of water for vessels of considerable burden, but the channels are intricate, and only known to the settlers at Bluefields. The Upper Lagoon, which is a continuation of the Lower, is not more than a mile broad at its entrance, but its width further up, increases to five or six miles; and, into it, the great river of Nueva Segovia of the Spaniards, and several smaller ones, empty themselves. 44 The lands bordering on all these rivers are extremely rich and fertile, capable of growing cotton, cocoa, coffee, sugar, and all the different kinds of produce raised in the BritishWest Indies. The forests abound in cedar of the largest description, mahogany, and many other valuable woods. The pine Savannahs, bordering on Bluefields, and Pearl Kay Lagoons can furnish an inexhaustible supply of the very finest pitch-pine tim ber, some of it fit for the largest masts." The British superintendent who resided at this place during the latter period of the time when the English had settlements on the Mosquito Shore, had exten sive mahogany works on the banks of the principal river, and a very considerable trade was carried on with the Spaniards and Creoles in the interior. This was the state of things when the unaccountable policy of the British Government compelled the settlers to abandon that country in the year 1786. Several of the slaves and people who were established in the interior, refused to leave the place. These people and their descendants, called Zamboes, were settled at the southernmost extremity of the harbour, about nine miles from its principal entrance, and they have increased considerably in numbers after that time. When visited by Mr. Roberts, he says, " They lived without fear of molestation from the Indians, none of whom reside within many miles of them ; and, although it is not acknowledged as such by the Bri tish government, it rnay be truly considered a British settlement. It is principally under the influence of two intelligent young men, who claim affinity to the late superin tendent." The river of Bluefields rises in the country possessed by the Spanish race within fifty or sixty miles of the South Sea, and flows a course of several hundred miles. The Cookra and Woolvva tribes of Indians, who are settled on its banks, at a considerable distance in the interior, are described as a quiet peaceable race, and always on good terms with the Ramas, and with the people at Bluefields La goons. They have been often enslaved, or murdered, by the Indians resident about Great River. Bluefields, with its excellent harbour, protected by a rocky, bluff point, ca pable of being made almost impregnable, is in an excellent situation for opening a communication across the country to the Lakes of Nicaragua, and possesses many other advantages as a maritime and commercial station. It would become, under a wise government, a place of considerable importance. It is annually fre quented by British, United States, and some Columbian trading vessels, bringing variously assorted merchandise in exchange for tortoise-shells, vanilla, sarsapu- I illa, &c. THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. The British agent alluding in 1845 to the best situations for agriculture says " The most advantageous points for Europeans to settle, HIV said to be BliH Pearl Kay Lagoon, and St. John s. Bluefields for its salubrity and luxuriant Kay for its pasturage ; and St. John s for its harbour and prospects of trade. Blue however, may be considered the bes, as the title to land is there perfectly clear. The late king, in 1841, gave to its inhabitants a grant of 22,000 acres of land for their own use, and towards the endowment of a church, school, and hospital. It is compc. high lands, forming a large accumulation of hills, the bases of nearly all being irr, by numerous creeks of delicious fresh water, and the principal of which, Gun-bout Creek, is capable at all times of the year of turning mills. It abounds with various kinds of ex cellent timber. It would be highly desirable, and in fact essential, that persons settling should be persons acquainted with tropical agriculture, and who should make it subserve to such, viz. : the raising of coffee, sugar, and cotton. Not one inch of ground is unfit for cultivation." He recommends that only small allotments ought to he granted to settlers, except to persons who could bring free African labourers, or Mill Coolies, with them. Mr. Walker, in the latter part of 1845, was engaged in completing a sur vey of the town lands, and assisting the magistrate in allocating the different lots in accordance with the late king s grant arid wishes. There is no minister of religion at Bluefields. There is a large court-house and an hospital. An English school-master has been lately established there, PEARL KAY LAGOON is about thirty miles from Bluefields, a headland named False Bluefields, is the only high land on the coast until Branckman s Bluff, or Monte Gordo; it consists of three or four moderately high hills, of red, stiff clay, rising almost perpendicularly from the beach. They extend along the shore for nearly two miles, with a gentle slope at each end, terminating in a savannah. About half a mile to the southward of the Bluff there is good anchorage ; at one time there was a small British settlement near it. Mr. Roberts says, "The entrance to Pearl Kay Lagoon is little more than a quarter of a mile in width, and is at the bottom or south end of the bay, over a bar, on which there is about ten feet water. The safest anchorage for vessels is under the north side, off which there are discover, upon them, or on the reefs by which they Lagoon there are abundance of good oysters, on banks, many of which are dry a water. These oysters are in bunches of about eight or ten in each bunch; they are rather larger than the mangrove oyster, but of a different kind from those ,n tl Lagoon, some of them from one to three , some instances, they are used fo and considerable streams fall into it, the r miles in circumference and, in some instances, they are used for raising ground pro- l oi wh.cli 758 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. rum would be a more profitable article, he, about eight years ago, commenced its dis tillation ; and, when I left the coast, he was in the habit of retailing twenty or thirty puncheons annually, at an immense profit. A Mr. Goffe, whose settlement was at Jupiter s Head, or Old Bank, a few miles from Wawashaan, and near the Lagoon, turned his attention more to the raising of stock, and cultivation of ground provisions. He had a great number of bullocks, hogs, goats, and poultry of all kinds ; with abundance of yams, cassava, plantains, and Indian corn, which he sells to the traders, settlers, and occasional visitors. Mr. Ellis may, however, be said to be the only planter on the whole coast, according to the West Indian acceptation of the term ; but there are many situa tions which, in point of soil, and other local advantages, are far preferable to the one he occupies." There are a few settlements of Mosquito Indians, and Zamboes, on the bor ders of the Lagoon ; but the principal settlement is at a place about six miles to the southward of the entrance, and being composed of people similar to those at Bluefields, it was also considered an English settlement. The people were principally Creoles, Mulattoes, and Zamboes from Jamaica, San Andres, and the Corn Islands; many of them married Indian women, and live com fortably. Their place of residence, consisting of thirty or forty houses, was called English Bank, and faces the shore of the Lagoon. The population, said to be above 150 or 200, lived in neat, compact houses of one story high, the sides for the most part made of clay, beaten down hard into a frame work of lath and hardwood posts, and roofed with a durable kind of palm leaf. Mr. Roberts says that the Jamaica traders established stores for the sale of goods among them, and they were supplied from the United States; the agents in charge of these stores resided constantly at English Bank, and were visited by different tribes of Indians, and by Mosquito men from all parts of the coast, bringing tortoise-shell, gum copal, caoutchouc,. &c. ; skins, paddles, canoes, and various articles to barter for duck, check, cutlass-blades, and other goods adapted for the Indian trade. The inhabitants employed themselves in catching turtle during the season, and in raising provisions, and in hunting and fishing during the remainder of the year. They maintained a friendly correspondence with the unmixed Indians ; were, in general, fair and honourable in their dealings with them and with each other, and were very hospitable to Europeans or other strangers who come amongst them. The same authority tells us, "I never knew an instance of a marriage being celebrated among them, according to the prescribed forms of the English, or of any other church ; these engagements are mere tacit agreements, which are sometimes, although rarely, broken by mutual consent. The children here, and at Bluefields, are in general baptised by the captains of trading vessels from Jamaica, who, on their annual return to the coast, perform this ceremony with any thing but reverence on all who have been born during their absence ; and many of them are indebted to these men for more than baptism. In proof of this, I could enumerate more than a dozen of acknowledged children of only two of these captains, who seem to have adopted, without scruple, the Indian idea of polygamy in its fullest extent. By this licentious and immoral conduct they have, however, so identified them selves with the natives, and with some of the principal people on the coast, as to obtain a sort of monopoly in the sale of goods, which it would be difficult for any stranger, not possessed of an intimate knowledge of the Indian character, to shake; they have THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. - also so insinuated themselves into the good graces of tho lpn,i; no on the coast is hailed with joy by all cfassejas the t E> llvTl ing, and licentiousness. Notwithstanding that they live i, fixed laws or religious restraint, thev, in absence oflh trader LTrT^ ! , that would not lose by comparison with any During the time previous to 1786 that the British were fixed on this part of the Mosquito Shore, under the superintendency of Colonel Hodgson, many persons be- came settlers there. The climate of the country around Pearl Kay Lagoon is salu brious, and, on the whole, with common care and industry, the necessaries, and many of the luxuries of life may be easily procured. The country and Lagoon abounds in all kinds of game and fish peculiar to the country and coast. The Mosquito men, Ramas, and other Indians, hire themselves to the settlers at Bluefields and at Pearl Kay Lagoon, as hunters and fishermen. The Ramas or other pure Indians are always preferred to the mixed breeds. They were well known to the old buccaneers, who had always some of them attached to their expeditions, even as far as the South Sea. PEARL KAY LAGOON is of considerable magnitude, one part of it reaching to within eight miles of Great River, or Rio Grande ; its greatest winding length from north-east to south-west cannot be far short of sixty miles, or its breadth from sixteen to twenty. The Indians, in bad weather, instead of keeping along the sea-coast, enter Pearl Kay Lagoon by hauling their canoes over the narrow neck of land between it and Bluefields Lagoon, and, at the upper end of it, they have another haulover of about two hundred yards into the ocean. On many parts of the banks of the Lagoon indigo is said to grow spontane ously, but the richest land is generally to be found on the high ground, and on the banks of rivers more remote from the coast. Rio GRANDE enters the oceaa about thirty miles to the northward of the entrance to Pearl Kay Lagoon. Being exposed to north-east winds, its mouth is extremely dangerous, and there is not more than four or five feet water over its bar. It is said to be navigable for boats nearly two hundred miles. There are several small islands inside the bar, but none off its entrance. The settlements of Indians on its banks are subject to the Mosquito king, to whom they pay tribute, but like every other tribe of unmixed Indians, have only submitted to the authority of the Zamboes from motives of safety and of greater detestation of tin- Spaniards. Their headmen have always considerable influence over them, and the other Indians adjoining on the Prinzapulko and Rio Grande settlements. One headman is named by the Mosquito kings "governor," another "ad miral/ 5 and the headman at Prinzapulko "captain." Mr. Roberts visited the Governor Drummer s settlement, situated about eight miles from the mouth of the river, on one of its branches, close to an extensive pine savannah. "This house," he says, " is a large building divided into three apartments ; close to 7GO T1IK MOSQUITO TERRITORV. it stood a shed for cooking and other dorm-iie purposes. It is situated on a risin- ground, at a short distance from the river, and surrounded by twenty or thirty oilier houses of .smaller dimensions. J found it tolerably well-furnished with tables, benches stools, crockery ware, glass, &c. ; and every thing in and about it wore the appearance of a comparatively \veil-n -^ulated and comfortable abode. Its owner received rnc with the ..test cordiality, and lending to make inquiries among his people, soon gave me to understand that I could procure six such canoes as I wanted here and at a little dis tance ; and also that he could procure me a quantity of tortoise-shell in short, to use his own words, thai. I ^hould |>e treated true Kn-lish gentleman fashion. " J- or all this kindness 1 was in some measure indebted to a few gallons of rum which I had bionj. ht, and it was intimated that I had better rest from the fatigues of the voyage, and leave; business until next day. In the meantime, the goods and rum were carefully removed from the dory to an apartment in the house ; and in a short time a M -past was served consisting of fish, flesh, fowl, and fiuit, which, if properly cooked, would not have disgraced the table of an alderman. Toward sunset, innumerable flights of macaws and parrots were seen coming from all quarters, to roost in the tall pine-trees near the houses, and the continued noise made at this time and at their de parture in the morning gave no bad idea of an English rookery : they are fond of har bouring near the Indians, who never molest them. Several horses were grazing in the savannah, but no black cattle these are kept, as I afterwards learnt, in the interior, at the provision grounds. " On my return to the house, I found the principal people of the settlement waiting for me; and as I knew they had adopted the ideas of the Mosquito men, who judge of a trader by his liberality in supplying them with their favourite beverage, I requested Drummer to use my rum bottles as if they were his own ; and, in consequence, all were soon in a state of intoxication. "Early in the morning I called up Nelson, one of Drummer s sons, to join me in a ride through part of the savannah. Jle soon caught a couple of horses which seemed accustomed to be mounted, but i or a bridle we had only a small piece of rope ; and a thick mat made of dried plantain leave:--, without the appendage of stirrups, served for a saddle." This people, though unmixed, had all English names. The. neighbouring savannah was intersected by numerous paths, mostly of a fine, sandy nature, in various directions leading to the hunting and provision grounds of the inha bitants under Governor Drummer and the admiral, each of whom had several wives at their different plantations. The soil of the savannah is sandy or gravelly, iti parts without vegetation. All the pine savannahs in the neighbourhood of the sea, on the Mosquito coast, are described as sandy, and, comparatively speaking, barren ; while the soil of the interior savannahs is fertile. This is similar to the; pine savannahs of North Carolina. The inhabitants of the coast are consequently obliged to have their provision grounds and plantain walks on the banks of rivers or streams several miles up from the sea. Cassava thrives here on a sandy soil, and is grown close to the coast settlements. The country of the Valientes, Tnibces, and Ramas on the; South coast is described as decidedly superior to thai occupied near the sea by the Mosquito men. Mr. Roberts observed the tracks of several deer on the sandy paths; and the in some places shone like filings of steel. The governor assured him that m one part of this extensive savannah, about thirty miles from his settlement, natural iron could be procured in considerable quantity, but he saw no specimen of the metal. TIIF. MOSQUITO iTKitirm ;,;| u Tho^overuor," he says, * had provided :in exeellent breakfast , l.ui eomplamed thai last night s dehaneh had spoiled his head; a common expression .! the M..*ipnu, , m n, who, unlike the Indians to the southward, have no objection to spud tin . ever they can by any means procure nun." He observes that the whole of the Indians <>! these settlement-, uisti .it.,* the Mosquito chiefs, used formerly to invade the tribes of Conkras, \V.. and Toacas, bordering on the Spanish territory, for the purpose of rapt mm- and selling them for slaves to the settlers, and chief men on ditlcient parts of the Mosquito Shore. These tribes, in consequence, have withdrawn them into the interior, and hold very little intercourse with the Indians on the The Cookras, much diminished in numbers, are now seldom seen, the Wool \\a- have also retreated back to the upper branches of the rivers Nuevo Segovia, K Grande, and other places, at a distance from the Coast Indians and Mosquito men. Drummer, who was the governor of Rio Grande during Mr. Roberts visit, (( had, in his early years, been an intolerable scourge to these inland tribes and to the Woolwas in particular, some hundreds of whom had been, from Ant to last, captured by him and his parties and sold as slaves. His method was to steal upon, and, if possible, in the absence of the males, surprise the temporary settlements or residences of the small roving parties moving about the heads d the rivers, seize the women and children, and effect his retreat, if possible, \\nli out fighting. In some instances, these kidnappers have gone as far ba< the settlements of the Spaniards and Spanish Creoles, whose wives and children they have not hesitated to carry oft and appropriate to their own use." " I repeat," says Mr. Roberts, "that it is more to the diabolical instigation ,.f the Mosquito chiefs, than any cruelty of disposition on the part of the pur.- Indians, that these inhuman outrages are committed against those, who would otherwise DC COntH in every sense of the word their brethren ; but, as the influenced the Mosquitc is daily decreasing, these cruel proceedings will gradually cease." The I rinzapulko River, about thirty miles distant from Rio Grande, is a ma jestic stream, but has, like Rio Grande, a dangerous bar, with only about foul feet water over it. The Indians, settled on its left bank, about seven miles up from the sea, and on the banks of a small lake about ten miles distant from this station, are the same race of people as those at Great River ; but, unlike them, the c here, have found it their interest to encourage and protect, rather than op,n l.he Woolwas and tribes of the interior; and they carry on some tnd< buying canoes, dories, and p.tpuns, which these tribes bring douu the nver roughly formed or blocked out, and they are afterwards neatK tot] decorated for sale. , f "" lull of water and partly loaded." VOL. 1. 762 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. During his visit the headman at Prinzapulko had great influence with the Indians of the interior. Brown, an intelligent native, had also been very instru mental in encouraging the country Indians to bring their rough dories and other articles to Prinzapulko for sale. In exchange for their rough canoes and such other articles as they brought for sale, they received old axes, adzes, beads, look ing-glasses, and some other articles. Brown, the Indian above-mentioned, accompanied Mr. Roberts on several trading voyages, and he always found him faithful and trustworthy, in situations of the most trying nature. Having bought from Tarra, the headman, three dories, and a small quantity of tortoise-shell, he returned to Great River (Rio Grande), and from thence, after having agreed at both places to become the purchaser of their next season s collection of tortoise-shell, he removed with the vessels he had purchased, and a young Woolwa, whom he had redeemed, and who appeared pleased at getting out of the hands of his captors, to Pearl Kay Lagoon. At Prinzapulko he met Admiral Earnee, one of the three principal chiefs of the Mosquito Shore, who had been as far to the southward as Bocca del Toro collecting the king s tribute. He was a complete black, or negro, without the least appearance of Indian blood; but, when sober, a sensible, shrewd, and intelligent man, a descendant from some of the Zambo negroes, who were formerly wrecked on this coast. Preparations had been made for the arrival of this negro chief, and about twenty-five people, his attendants, who were amply supplied with provisions, and feasted at the king s house. The tribute was also in readiness, the principal part in tortoise-shell; a single back of shell being demanded from every canoe employed in turtleing during the season. The same value in dories, hammocks, or coarse cotton-cloth of the country being exacted from those canoes employed in any other manner. The principal settlements of the Zamboes and their immediate allies, formed a chain of hamlets, at certain distances, from one end of the Mosquito Shore proper , to the other ; and, in each of these, a house called the King s, was erected by the joint labour of the community, and appropriated for the reception of the king, or his officers, when they visit the settlement. In it, also, the headman of the settlement, or one of the three principal chiefs who govern the coast, decided controversies, and frame laws and regulations, which were afterwards to be sanc tioned by the king before being carried into effect. Some of these houses are described as of considerable size, and built with care and solidity. On sailing along the coast, advantage is taken of the lagoons and land breeze, which generally begins to blow off the shore about sunset, and continues until about ten o clock next morning. Mr. Roberts, on leaving Prinzapulko in com pany with the admiral, says : " Finding a dangerous sea running on the bar, Earnee, myself, and some of his THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. 763 attendants, landed at the mouth of the river, and proceeded along the coast ov Tongula Lagoon, leaving the rest of the people in the dories, to endeavour to ke passage by sea. We crossed the river leading to the lagoon, and continued our jour ev until the sea breeze should begin to blow down the coast ; and we remained at one c king ; s houses, erected for the convenience of travellers, at a small distance from sea-bank, about half-way between Prinzapulko and Wava Lagoon, near a hauhver o about five hundred yards in length, into the Ton-da Lagoon, where the canoes joined us. There are a few Mosquito men and Tongula Indians settled at this place- but no white people, nor their descendants, we were plentifully supplied with provisions and other refreshments by the natives. The admiral, myself, and a few others, continued our journey along the beach as before; and, about midnight, we arrived on the banks of the Wava River, leading to a considerable lagoon of the same name, but the bar is both shallow and dangerous : a heavy sea falls on the coast, rendering the approach to it very unsafe, there being several shoals and small kays, either very inaccurately laid down, or not at all noticed in the charts." There are Indians settled on the banks of a large river which flows into the Wava Lagoon : its source is said to be upwards of 150 miles in the interior. Brancman s Bluff commands a most extensive view of low savannah land, covered with coarse long grass, and occasional pine ridges, with remarkably large and high pine timber. This is the character of most of the savannah land, on the coast of the Mosquito Shore ; the only exception being that some of the very low land is covered with water, during the rainy season, producing only rank coarse grass and mohoe shrubs. The interior country behind Brancman s abounds in deer. It is remarked, " that from the last quarter s ebb to the first quarter s flood, these deer are fond of grazing on the coast, a little above high-watermark." North of the Bluff the land trends to the westward. There is only one river of any magnitude between Brancman s and Duckwarra. Sandy Bay is distant about thirty miles from Cape Gracios a Dios. At the southernmost part of Sandy Bay there is an entrance to a small lagoon, on the borders of which is a principal settlement of the Mosquito Indians, where the former kings used frequently to reside ; it is close to the Lagoon, about eight miles from its entrance, and in the vicinity of a grass and pine savannah. The lagoon has a communication with Wano or Warner s Sound, but no river of any con sequence falls into either. A ROYAL ORGY. When Mr. Roberts arrived, the admiral was met and wel comed by the principal people ; English colours were hoisted as the signal of festivity; a canoe arrived from the Cape, with information that the king was on his way to visit the settlement, and " having met the admiral, preparations were making for a grand feast and mishlaw drink." The whole population were soon busily employed collecting pine-apples, plantains, bananas, and cassava for their favourite liquor. The expressed juice of the pine-apple is alone an agree beverage. The mishlaw from the plantain and banana is said to be both agree able and nutritive ; that from the cassava and maize is intoxicating, and Roberts was disgusted at its preparation : 764 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. " The root of the cassava, after being mashed, and peeled, is boiled to the same con sistence, as when to be used for food. On its being taken from the fire, the water is poured off, and the roots allowed to cool. The pots were then surrounded by all the women, old and young, who, being provided with large wooden bowls, commenced an attack upon the cassava, which they chewed to a consistence of thick paste, and then put their mouthfuls into the bowls before them, until these vessels were filled ; the bowls were then carried to the king s house, and the contents tumbled into a new canoe which had been hauled up from the landing-place, and put there for that purpose, there being no cask in the settlement sufficiently capacious. The masticating process, which was continued with much perseverance, until the joint produce of the wooden bowls, from every house in the settlement, had filled the canoe about one-third. Other cassava was then taken, and bruised in a kind of large wooden mortar, with a wooden pestle, to a consistence of dough, which was afterwards diluted with cold water, to which was added, a quantity of Indian corn, partly boiled and masticated in the same manner as the cassava ; the whole was then poured into the canoe, which was afterwards filled with water, and frequently stirred with a paddle, until, in a few hours, it was in a high, and abominable state of fermentation. The canoe would contain about three puncheons, and there was nearly the same quantity prepared at two or three houses of the chief men, in the neighbourhood ; besides the simply expressed juice of the pine-apple, and the plantain and banana mishlaw, being the ripe fruit roasted, bruised, and mixed with water." There was also a present to the king, of about twenty gallons of rum, and a quantity brought by the admiral and his party, and a small quantity presented by Mr. Roberts. Earnee had invited the headmen and old people of Duckwarra, Wano Sound, and the neighbouring country and lagoons, " to meet the king, receive an account of the state of the different tributary settlements, which he had been visiting, transact public business, and get drunk/ The king s house, Earnee s, that of a Zambo chief designated General Blyatt, with a few others, were tolerably large and tolerably well furnished with benches, tables, plates, glasses, basins, knives and forks, and other articles. A hammock was hung up in the admiral s house for each of his guests, and, after a great deal of conversation about the state of the country, the customs, strength, and trade of the different settlements, and the general policy of the Mosquito men, they retired to rest. " Early in the morning," says Mr. Roberts, " I was awakened by the noise of the drum; the natives were in a state of bustle and activity, preparing for the drinking- match and the reception of the king. He arrived in a large canoe, with ten people, escorted by the same number in two smaller ones. At the landing-place he was met by Admiral Earnee and General Blyatt, with some of the chief men of the neighbouring settlements ; the two former dressed in uniforms, with gold epaulettes. There was little form or ceremony used in their reception of the king; ; a shake of the hand, and How do you do, king ? in English, being the only salutation from all classes. The king had returned four years previously from Jamaica, where he was semi-educated. "He was then a young man, about twenty- four years of age, of a bright copper colour, with long curly hair hanging in ringlets down the sides of his face; his hands and feet small, a dark expressive eye, and very white teeth. He was an active and handsome figure, with the appearance of greater agility than strength. In other respects he was wild as the deer on his savannahs. " During the day, Indians arrived from various parts of the coast and interior. At the meeting which took place in the king s house, various matters relative to the govern ment of the neighbouring settlements, disputes, and other public business, were discussed ; but the king, who reigned but governed not, left every thing to the discretion of Earnee, Blyatt, and a few others. He seemed to take little interest or trouble, further than to THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. 7G5 sanction the resolutions passed, so that they might be promulgated us //- / order Such was the expression ; and that order is invariably obeyed and carried effect. During the time the council was sitting, no women were admitted ; a few onU were afterwards permitted to enter, during the drinking-match, to take care of their husbands when reduced to a state of insensibility by intoxication. " The discussion in the king s house being ended, the feasting began. Two men were stationed by the side of the canoe, who filled the mishlaw drink into calabashes, which were then carried to the company by boys. As the men became exhilarated, they began to dance, in imitation of country dances and Scotch reels, learned from the former English settlers ; but they soon became too much intoxicated to preserve order. Every one, including the king and his select friends at the admiral s house, gave way, without restraint, to the pleasures of drinking; and, during the evening, the huiif* Andrew, chief man at Duckwarra, arrived, bringing one of his majesty s favourite wives. This chief was a short stout man, of unmixed Indian blood, very lively and quick in his molions, disguising, under an appearance of levity, much cunning and shrewdness; he spoke tolerably good English; and soon, by his ridiculous stories regarding the Jamaica traders, and by his satirical and witty remarks upon some of the old Mosquito men present, kept the company in a roar of laughter. The king observed to me, in the course of the evening, that I must not be surprised to see him act in the manner he was doing, as it was his wish, by indulging the natives, to induce them to adopt gradually, and by degrees, the English customs and mode of living ; arid he requested me to observe how far he had succeeded, pointing out to me that all present had thrown aside the pulpera, the common Indian dress, and wore jackets and trousers, with good hats. Some of them had coats, with other articles to correspond ; and, as I have often repeated, they prided themselves upon being true English gentleman fashion. 1 " His majesty paid more attention to the women than to the chiefs; and said that the ladies here could dance fully as well as any of those at the former English settle ments, proposed that I should join him, the admiral, and uncle Andrew, in a dance, and he would send for the women to join us. I of course readily assented to this proposal ; and the females having arrived, we commenced dancing, to the sound of a drum, our only music. " Blyatt had orders to keep the party in the king s house from interrupting us, but our music being full as noisy as theirs/ and the secret of the women s arrival having transpired, our house was soon surrounded by a crowd, who pressed so much, that became insufferably warm, and we were obliged to stop the dance; at which circum- stance many of the Indians expressed such disappointment, that the king goc naturedly proposed to renew the dance in the open air. The other party joining us with their music, we were soon all jumbled together, king, admiral, general, Mosquitc men and women, in one mass of confusion and revelry. Before the chiefs became totally intoxicated, they ordered the women home to their houses, to prevent their b unable to take care of their husbands. The drinking was earned on severance during the night by old and young. The drums were beat and fired, some of thL loaded with powder to the very muzzle, until nearly all the as, a state of beastly drunkenness, and taken care of by the women, * ,11. llpr1 imnn for that ourpose. At intervals, however, as the men recovered, occasionally called upon for that purpose the whole liquors were consumed, ana homes, many complaining, with great reason that their he is however to their credit, that, during the whole of th.s debauch, slightest quarrel." , When such were the habits of Mosquito royalty, and such the standard morals, we may be justified in our opinion that society, which has j both, demands thorough reformation. 766 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. The English drum is the principal musical instrument of the Mosquito men, who beat it with as much dexterity as the most practised European drummer. It came into use when the British forces were formerly on the Mosquito Shore, and has been a great favourite ever since, each settlement having one. They had also a rude pipe or flute, rather longer than a common flute, but much thicker, made of hollow bamboo, one end shaped like a flageolet, with hole and mouthpiece, and four finger-holes. It produced a dull monotonous tone, with very little variation. Two of these instruments were played together; the performers dancing a sort o minuet, in which they advance and recede, with the most grotesque gesticulations. One of their favourite dances was a kind of repre sentation of an Indian courtship. One of three principal chiefs of the Mosquito Shore, called Governor de menti, would not come to this feast. The cause was that his late brother, com monly called Don Carlos (a name rather suspicious), had been, some time before, put to death by the king s people, on the presumption that he was too much attached to the Spaniards of Grenada and Nicaragua, with whom he had opened an intercourse, and had received from them considerable presents of cattle, c. He was an Indian of pure blood, and considerable ability the only man of that description, with the exception of his brother Clementi, who held any situation of consequence under the Mosquito king s government; he possessed great influence among the Indians, including the different tribes of Woolwas and Cookras. His immediate government extended from Sandy Bay to Pearl Kay Lagoon, and it was feared that in time he would become too powerful for the Mosquito men. Most treacherously and summarily they murdered him. Since then, his brother Clementi never visited the king, nor any of the settle ments of the real Mosquito men. Robert, the king s brother, went some time before on a visit to Clementi, who received and treated them with great hospi tality ; but a negro belonging to the king, at a feast made in honour of Robert, grossly insulted Clementi by forcibly breaking up some of his repositories, and insisted upon carrying off certain articles. Robert declined to interfere, and Clementi shot the negro dead upon the spot. The king, not daring openly to attack the governor, endeavoured to revenge himself by seizing and driving away the cattle, whenever he had occasion for them ; but to prevent this annoyance, Clementi, voluntarily, destroyed or drove them away out of the king s reach. During the time of Mr. Roberts visit he informs us that * The king, previous to his return to the Cape, was desirous of conciliating Clementi. The king had other reasons for coming to friendly terms with him : he was aware that he had once grossly insulted Earnee, his best friend, and the only chief, since the death of * General Robinson, capable of governing the country, by forcibly using freedoms, during Earnee s absence, with one of his favourite wives ; and that, in consequence, h arnee had some time ago, formed an allianqe with Clementi, by marrying dementi s youngest sister, and might, in the event of a quarrel, join the governor." THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. 7( ,7 Mr. Roberts was requested by the king to accompany Illyatt, with about twenty people, to dementi, with a king s letter, and to read to Clcmenti, in presence of Blyatt, who was to explain that "the paper which spoke, was the king s own self order, and must be obeyed." The Indians, on their long journeys, generally travel until ten o clock in the morniu-, they then rest until two or three o clock in the afternoon ; then they continue their journey until daylight fails them. At the different halting places, they sleep upon a few pulm leaves on the ground, slightly covered with a light blanket, and I generally rose refresh..-.!, and never experienced any bad effects from this method of bivouacking; before goi- rest, a fire is kindled, and the necessary provisions cooked. In travelling, they only w.ir the pulpera, but they carry with them, and put on a suit of their best clothes, at a short distance from the house of the person they mean to visit." On arriving at a savannah, through which there was a good path to the governor s house, about a mile distant, the party dressed themselves, Blyatt, Mr. Roberts, and one or two others, mounted horses, which had been sent for our accommodation ; they fell into Indian marching order, one before another, and with a flag and drum preceding them until they approached the governor s house, before which about twenty men, women, and many children were assembled. This residence was situated on a rising ground, commanding an extensive view of the savannah, on which there were several fine horses feeding, but no black cattle, although there was pasturage for many thousands. The governor was sitting in his house, dressed in state, and rose to welcome Mr. Roberts and Blyatt, but took no notice of those who accompanied them. " The appearance and demeanour of this old chief struck me very forcibly ; and im pressed upon my mind that I had, before me, a true descendant and representative of the ancient Indian Caziques. He was a tall, stout man, apparently about sixty years of age, with an Indian countenance, peculiarly expressive of thoughtful dignity; I could not help thinking, that he looked as if he felt degraded by the yoke of the Mosquito men, that he had been born to command, and still felt conscious, like old Crozimbo, that he was not the least among his countrymen/ He was dressed in an old Spanish uniform, of blue cloth with red collar and facings, decorated with a great profusion of tarnished gold lace, an old embroidered white satin vest, ornamented with spangles, and having large pocket holds with flaps ; a pair of old white kerseymere breeches, white cotton stockings, shoes, with silver buckles, and a laro-e gold-headed cane, similar to those used by the^superior Corregidores and Alcaldes of the South American provinces, completed his dress." This ancient suit of clothes descended to him from his unfortunate brother. The dignified appearance and manners of this chief, contrasted strongly with the coarse brutality of the Mosquito men, and impressed on the mind of Mr. Roberts the conviction, that the domination of the Zamboes had materially retarded the pros perity of the genuine Indians, dementi ordered refreshments, and provided plentifully, in a separate house, for those who came : allowing none but the pn cipal men to sit at his own table. After dinner, the king s letter was read, the governor expressed satisfact; a tall young pine tree was cut, the English flag hoisted upon it in front of house, and the governor seemed to feel, that he was treated with proper respect and reinstated in his rights and privileges. He pointed out two or three India who he conceived had disputed his authority, or injured him ; they were i 768 THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. diately secured by Blyatt s people, and tied up ; but instead of being flogged in the usual way, the stripes were laid on a dried bull s hide, instead of the backs of the offenders. To have undergone this nominal punishment was considered by the free Indians a very serious degradation. The land at this place was a low savannah covered partially with patches of large pine trees. The chief provision grounds of the governor s people was at a place called the Hills, from which circumstance they are known all over the coast by the name of hill people. The land at the hills, and to the westward, is extremely fertile and well cultivated, supplying the people at Sandy Bay, Cape Gracios a Dios, and other places on the coast with the greater part of their bananas, plan tains, &c. Clementi claimed the whole of the land, extensive savannah, and fine ridges, from hence to the coast, including the hills arid interior country. He possessed the confidence of a numerous race of pure Indians. The party returned through the same low tracts which they had recently traveUed over : "A great part of this coast," says Mr. Roberts, " is during the rainy season, over flowed, and it is possible for a canoe to pass at that season, by inland navigation, from Para Lagoon, to Wava River ; this is the case, generally speaking, with all the low savannah land, from Pearl Kay Lagoon to the Cape, and from thence to Plantain River." At Duckwarra they were hospitably entertained by the king s uncle, Andrew: this jovial old man pressed them to remain some days with him and his friends, Rowla and Tarra, two of the chiefs. He was particularly well pleased with the appearance of the people at Andrew s settlement; they were a fine looking race ; the men active, and good strikers of fish, and the women and girls were very handsome. At Cape Gracios a Dios he found only a few houses, and these, with the excep tion of the king^s and of one of his chief s, an old merchant s, they were mere huts. The soil in the neighbourhood of the Cape is sterile, produces a coarse grass, and a few patches of cassava. The inhabitants depend on the hill country for food. There is pasturage, no grain, and good water is scarce. For a commercial place, and for grazing, it has advantages. It has an excellent harbour, secure from all winds, although in some parts open to the south, which seldom blows. It is capable of containing a large fleet in three to five fathoms water, with good holding ground, abounding in fish of various kinds ; and frequented, at certain seasons, by innumerable flocks of teal and widgeon. It is at no great distance from the Mosquito Keys, whence can be procured, at all seasons, inexhaustible supplies of the finest green turtle. The Cape would probably be entirely de serted, if the vessels which call there were not induced to do so by the abundant supplies of turtle and tortoise-shell, and for the purpose of communicating with the king. Mr. Gunter, the celebrated London confectioner, has lately (1844) es tablished a manufactory on the Mosquito Shore for preserving turtle. THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. The Great Cape or Vankes, or Wanks River, is said to have its Bounce ,n the mountainous country, from which, near the Pacific, the Bluefields River originates The Buccaneers, 158 years ago, in 1688, forced their way from the Gulf of Fonseca on the Pacific, across the mountains, to the Spanish town of Nueva Segovia and from thence, after crossing a formidable pass, and defeating the Spaniard arrived at the river Vankes, which they descended on small rafts or ;,//,/,-, tween the shallows and cataracts; and, after crossing which, they made their way down to the Atlantic. They described its upper parts as being situated amongst rocky and precipitous mountains, with numerous falls ; that its course is over* a channel of prodigious rocks; and that it runs with great rapidity until within about sixty leagues of the sea. The length of its course is said to be 250 to 300 miles ; and it passes through some of the richest land, and most romantic scenery in Central America. Within forty or fifty miles of its mouth the land becomes low, poorer, and sandy, with occasional ridges of pitch-pine, and some tracts of fertile mould ; but, although the savannahs are fit for pasturage, and would sup port numerous herds, cattle is scarce. The Cape River enters the ocean some distance to the northward of the bay, or harbour, and there is a shallow, canal-like communication, from the uppermost part of the latter, into the river, passable by canoes ; and which might easily be enlarged so as to enable small vessels to avoid the dangerous bar of the river on which there is seldom more than four or five feet water. If commercial establishments were formed at the Cape, vessels might lie in safety at the upper end of the harbour all the year round ; and if sufficient encouragement were given, the valuable products of the interior would be collected, brought down the river, and, by the communication alluded to, into the bay, and shipped at all sea sons of the year. The-Zamboes are rather fishers, than cultivators of the soil; and, although they have, after many struggles, attained the ascendency, they are by no means so estimable in a moral point of view, being treacherous, superstitious, and much more inclined to every species of debauchery, than the pure Indian, who, in general, adheres strictly to the truth. With few exceptions, the Zambo will not hesitate to violate every honest principle to accomplish the particular object which he may have in view. They are, however, hospitable, and have hitherto, on every emergency, cordially agreed with their neighbours in hatred to the Spaniards, and joined in defence of their liberties, whenever they considered themselves in danger. Their negro ancestors are said, by Mr. Bryant Edwards and others, to have been Africans from the Zambo country; some hundreds of whom were wrecked on this coast in a Dutch vessel, and that having by this means recovered their liberty, they travelled northwards, towards Cape Gracios a Dios ;* * This must have occurred a considerable time before 1688, for they were then settled in the country, who, according to the account of the Buccaneers, were descended from slaves who escaped from a Spanish ship wrecked on the coast. VOL. I. ^ F 770 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and,, after several rencontres with the natives, came to a friendly understanding with them, had wives and ground allotted; and have at length, by intermar riages, become in some measure an Indian people; who, were they under prudent and active chiefs, are, by their nature and disposition, well calculated to maintain their ascendency. The Kharibees;* are darker in complexion, and superior in in dustry, to both the former classes ; and, if they continue to increase with the same rapidity as at present, may, ultimately, form the majority at least in the country north of the Cape. In sailing along the coast for Cape Gracios a Dios, False Cape is passed, situated about twenty-five miles distant from Great Cape River. The river Croatch, a short distance from False Cape, is of considerable size, with from nine to ten feet water over the bar the land, on its banks, is fertile, although not much ele vated, producing plantains, and other provisions, with which its inhabitants, who are Zamboes, supply those at the Cape. Kukari is situated in a fertile savannah, having opposite to it a haulover from Caratasca Lagoon to the sea. From Kukari, there is another haulover, into a small stream, leading to Cara tasca Lagoon. The entrance to this lagoon (the Bahia de Cartago of the Spaniards), may, on sailing down the coast, be easily found ; for, although the land on each side is remarkably low, the entrance to it is wide, and there are few conspicuous cocoa-nut trees at Croata, near to it; being the only cocoa-nut trees on the shore to the eastward of Patook River. It is of very considerable extent, varying in breadth, and having, in some places, the appearance of several lagoons running into each other, in various directions, for the most part, parallel to the coast, but nowhere exceeding twelve miles in breadth. One of these extends to within a very short distance of the River Patook, and communicates with it by a small inlet. It abounds in various sorts of fish of the finest description, particu larly mullet, calapaner, snoak, cavallee, and also manatie ; and, it is the resort of of ducks, widgeon, teal, and various aquatic birds. The Zamboes have settle ments on its western borders, and quiet and peaceable unmixed Indians reside in the interior, or on the banks of the rivers which empty themselves into it. The land in the vicinity consists almost entirely of extensive and beautiful sa vannahs, covered with rich pasturage, and abounding in deer and game. Black cattle were formerly numerous, but the Mosquito men have not been provident enough to keep up the breed, selling all they could lay hold of, to the traders, who visit the lagoon, for the purpose of carrying them off. There are few pine trees at Croata, but on the opposite, or land side, there are ridges containing timber as large as any on the coast : behind these ridges, to the westward, the savannahs are bounded by gently rising hills, the summits of which are covered with luxu- * We write the word not according to the European mode, but as it is universally pronounced on the coast. THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. 771 riant vegetation. On the banks of the streams in the interior, there is both ma hogany and cedar of the finest quality and largest size. Pimento and many valuable plants are indigenous. Croata or Grata, is about three miles distant from the entrance to the lagoon. When Mr. Roberts visited this place, he says, " We were received by Morton and his son Washington with the greater cordiality ; the former had recently succeeded to the authority and title of the late Captain Putts well known at the Bay of Honduras as the chief of this settlement. Here we were hos pitably entertained, the king (who was there at the same time), and his people bumg, from the following circumstance, kept in a constant state of excitement. A pipe of white wine had been discovered on the beach, and rolled to Morton s residence; he and his neighbours opened the cask, and continued drinking for several days, unremittingly, until it was finished. The men were, however, surprised to find that the women continued to be tipsy ; they had also found a cask and concealed it in the bushes, for their own private use. This was soon discovered, and Morton, in rebuking them said, that, for woman to get drunk was not English lady fashion. This cask was also brought to the settlement, and the men recommenced drinking until all were completely satiated. The remainder, about half a pipe, was presented to us ; and our party, after drinking as much as they could, carried off part of it as a sea stock." To the north of this place canoes may sail inside the lagoon as far as Taba- counta, a small stream running from a branch of the lagoon into the ocean, about five miles from Patook. This stream has only three or four feet water at its entrance ; and, in the best weather, it can only be entered by small canoes. The Patook River has a strong current setting out of it ; the bar, on which there is generally eight or ten feet of water, shifts in the rainy season, or d uring heavy gales, and occasionally leaves a sufficient depth for vessels of considerable bur den. The tides, which seldom or never rise exceeding a few feet, ebb and flow into it for some miles ; it is of considerable magnitude, being augmented by se veral tributary streams, the chief of which is the Rio Barba of the Spaniards ; it has an inferior mouth, beside that already mentioned, falling into Brewer s Lagoon. It rises in a ridge of mountains, which separate it from the Great Cape River, and its course is estimated to be upwards of 150 miles. Some dangerous shoals lay off the principal entrance; and from Patook Point, which is on the eastern side, a shallow reef extends nearly two miles. The land in the interior o the Patook is very fertile, and provisions are plentiful. The inhabitants are negroes descended from slaves formerly belonging to a merchant who was* at Black River. These negroes and their descendants have established themselves here in the same manner as those at Bluefields and Pearl Kay Lagoon. rear some black cattle, horses, pigs, poultry, &c. They cultivated tobacco and a little rice, which they barter with their neighbours the Khanb Mr. Roberts says, 772 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. it was made known and recovered by the present king;. Jack informed me, that he had frequently ascended the river as far as the back settlements of the Spaniards, with whom he occasionally bartered a few trifling articles brought to him by the Kharibees ; that at one part of its course it has forced its way through a ridge of small hills, one of which was excavated by the stream, and completely arched, so that his dorie passed under neath, as if through a cavern, for a distance of nearly 500 yards. It is frequented by the largest alligators I have ever seen, but they seldom do mischief. Its banks are ex tremely fertile, and produce the banana and plantain in great perfection a sure cri terion of the excellence of the soil." The natives of this settlement possessed at that time a considerable number of horses, the breed of which had been obtained from Caratasca. It is said that being little used, and there being no sale, they multiplied so rapidly, that in the neighbouring savannahs hundreds were then to be found in a state of nature. O C5 About four miles below the settlement of Patook, is a village of the Kharibees who have spread themselves from Truxillo along the shore. The Kharib men wear shirts and trousers; the women generally go almost completely naked, having merely two small square pieces of red calico not larger than a common pocket handkerchief : one of these suspended before, the other behind, and secured to the shape with small strings of silk grass ; their manners are, how ever, modest and diffident ; and the girls whenever observed, ran off to conceal themselves. Brewer s Lagoon has a tolerably wide entrance, but it will not admit ves sels drawing more than nine feet water. Three or four miles from the entrance is a small island, of moderate height, about two miles in circumference, fertile and formerly fortified by the English, who used to raise live stock and provisions upon it. It is overrun with trees, mangrove, and mohoe bushes ; and some of the guns left by the British are said to remain where they were originally placed. It is stated that it could be fortified at very little expense, and would form a good station either for commerce or for settlers. The lagoon abounds in banks of very fine oysters, with fish and fowl in abundance. The country to the westward is diversified by gently rising hills, valleys, and savannahs; and the soil, generally speaking, is excellent. About two miles from the mouth of the lagoon is Plantain River; a small stream, with a dangerous bar, passable only by canoes. On the banks of this river was the residence of a famous chief, " General" Robinson.* Black River Lagoon is about fourteen or sixteen miles long, and about half as broad; it contains several small islands, some of which were occupied for raising pro visions and cattle, when the British held possession of Black River. On its * The present commandant at Black River Gener.il Lowrie Robinson, is said to be, with some treachery of disposition, a perfect specimen of the Indians of the country, who have received a partial education, lie was educated at Belize, and is the son of the late General Robinson, who combined extreme loyalty to his own king and affection for the British commandant. He drove the last Spaniard from Black River, and he enjoyed, in the latter part of his life, the confidence of Sir George Arthur, the then British superintendent at Belize. The present General Robinson was devoted to the late king, but he has since been intriguing with the authorities of the state of Honduras. The chief at Gracios a Dios is called Wellington. THE MOSQUITO TEKRITORY. ; 7 -; er borders are extensive savannahs and pine ridges, from whence the former settl used to draw considerable quantities of tar, pitch, and turpentine: the ruin, of the old works are still visible; and, from their appearance, must have been v, rv extensive. Immense quantities of pigeons, teal, Muscovy ducks, and other bi,-,"l frequent the lagoon. There is a natural canal of moderate width about tl,,- fc ,] miles in length, and the water of considerable depth, connecting the lagoon with Black River. The point on which the British had formerly a small fort for the protection of the settlement was a place which was well chosen. The fort had been surrounded by a ditch, and could still, it is said, at a trifling expense, be made tenable. A new settlement was found about thirty years ago on the banks of a branch of the river, about three miles from its entrance. The situation was low and ill chosen a few houses had been put up on the site of part of the former town by the settlers. When visited by Mr. Roberts, they consisted of a Colonel Gor don of the independent service, Captain Murray and his wife, Captain Hosmore and his son, with three or four other white people. " Colonel Gordon and his party had been settled some time previous to the arrival of the others ; they had cleared a considerable quantity of land, and had already raised one crop, of about 500 bushels of Indian corn, with which Gordon had gone to Truxillo; having formed a contract with the commandant of that place to take all that he could raise. The quality appeared equal, if not superior, to any raised in the southern states of the union. Mr. Warren, an American, had been left in charge of the colonel s planta tion ; good crops, and a ready demand for their produce, seemed to be anticipated by all parties. Young Hosmore, and another Englishman, had been up the river, on a visit to the Poyer Indians, whose first regular settlements are about forty miles from its entrance, and are extended, as high as the Spanish Embarcadero, about Hfty miles further up. When there, they, by way of ascertaining how far the extensive trade formerly carried on could be revived, despatched an Indian to the Spanish town of Man to, or Olancho el Viejo; he was well received, and brought back letters from several padres, inviting youn<r Hos more to proceed to Manto, and sending mules to bring him, and the few goods he had, to that place. He immediately paid them a visit, was kindly received, and made pro posals for a supply of dry goods, for which they offered specie, cattle, sarsaparilla, &c. They also tendered him, in the meantime, mules and cattle to assist in the formation of the settlement ; declaring that the withdrawing of the British from Black River had so injured their trade and former prosperity, that they would, willingly, use every exertion to open a communication with any new settlers. Having no means of conveying the mules, &c., down the river, Hosmore was obliged to decline the offer. He made cautious inqui ries regarding the mines in this part of the country, and procured some specimens of silver and gold ore, the former of which appeared equal to the Plata de Mina, that I had seen in the Pacific : the situation of several mines was known to some of the former set tlers, and a regular survey was once attempted by a Colonel Despard, but being at an improper season of the year, it failed." Hosmore stopped on his way down the river to examine two mineral springs, one hot, the other cold, close to each other, situated at the base of an extensive ridge of mountains, extending through the country, in a westerly direction; connecting those which form the barrier between the Spaniards of Nicaragua, and the various unconquered Indians to the northward and eastward. The highest part of these ridges appeared to him by the course of the rivers to be about the 774 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. upper part of the Poyer country; and as the eastern side, in possession of the Spaniards, was known to be full of gold and silver ores, he considered that the Indian side is equally rich in these minerals. In passing up and down the river, he had landed at the ruins of some ot the former English plantations, where he found sugar-cane, plantains, bananas, pine-apples, coffee bushes, &c. vegetating in a state of wild luxuriance. Mr. Hosmore s father had trans planted from thence several hundred coffee plants; but owing to their removal from a rich to a poor soil, the favourable result of his experiment was doubted. Peas, beans, cabbage; .and some other vegetables, were grown ; and the new settlers found no difficulty in procuring provisions. Fish, waterfowl, and game, were abundant. These, and trading conveniences, induced them to settle at this place in preference to ascending higher up, where the soil is fertile. The remains of the former church, hospital, and ruins of several houses, all built of brick made in the country several sawpits, and other indications of the indus try of the former settlers were visible. When the new settlers arrived, they found a very old man of the name of Austin, who had been a resident during its former prosperity. He was nearly ninety years of age, and, after a variety of adventures, had found his way back to the old place, that he might spend his last days there, and be buried by. the side of his former associates. By his directions the remains of the burial- ground had been searched, for the gravestone of one of his oldest companions; he cleared away the weeds and brushwood, and daily visited the spot until his death, which took place some weeks after the arrival of the new settlers, who buried him by the side of his ancient comrade. Kharibee Settlements. One of the principal Kharibee settlements was estab lished about twelve miles from Black River. The Kharibs live on fowls, fruit, bread, and other provisions. The method of preparing Kharib bread, a consider able quantity of which is sent to Belize, and other places for sale, is as follows : having selected from the plantations some of the largest and finest cassava roots, they are carefully skinned and washed ; then grated upon large tin-graters, supplied by the traders; the substance is then washed in clean water, which is frequently shifted and run off, to free the cassava, which assumes a brownish colour, from a strong acid liquor, said to be poisonous; the whole mass, when sufficiently whitened, is put into a long bag or basket generally made of the spathes of a par ticular sort of tree ; this basket is placed in a perpendicular position, between two posts; and, by the application of a lever, every drop of moisture is pressed out; the farinaceous substance is then dried in the sun, and either kept for use as a substitute ma<le for flour, or into round cakes of eighteen or twenty inches in dia meter, and about a quarter of an inch in thickness, toasted upon thin iron plates, over a clear fire of wood-ashes. When properly prepared, these cakes will keep for months, and when new, taste agreeably, and form a nutritious food. The flour is THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. 77:, also used in hot water as gruel, made more or less thick, seasoned with salt Chili pepper, or sometimes eaten with sugar-cane syrup. These Kharibees are descendants of the aborigines found by the Spaniards on the Leeward Islands. Having become troublesome to the government of St. Vin cent s, they were banished from that island, and came to Roatan, or Ruatan, an island in the Gulf of Honduras, with means presented to them to form a settle ment there : they were supplied with clothing, and a large vessel containing provisions, agricultural implements, and other stores, was placed in a secure harbour of the island, entirely at the disposal of their chiefs. From grief in exile they became improvident, and suffered the store-ship to sink at her anchors, with the greater part of every thing that was provided for their future success. The Spaniards from Truxillo invited many of them to that place, and they built a village to the westward of the town. Many of them entered the Spanish service, under subalterns appointed from their own tribe; and until lately they formed the majority of the population of Truxillo. Some of them, however, emigrated from Truxillo, and from Roatan, to the Mosquito Shore, where they formed two principal settlements; one near the Great Rocks, about twenty miles to the westward of Black River, the other near Cape Cameron. The Mosquito king having given them encouragement, they ex tended a chain of small settlements as far as Patook. But by the oppressive conduct of the chief, General Robinson, and his successor Barras. they retired for security, and concentrated their dwellings to the northward of Black River, where they rapidly increased in numbers, and soon defied their enemies. Their houses are built more neatly than those of the Mosquito men, and have an air of greater comfort and independence. Each house has a small plantation attached to it, kept in neat order. They assisted the few settlers at Black River in erecting houses and clearing ground. Louis, one of their headmen, informed Mr. Roberts, " That they never interfered with the Indians by intermarriages or otherwise ; and whatever their ancestors of St. Vincent s may have been, they were now honest and industrious. They are not so expert as the Indians at striking fish, or with the bow and arrow ; but with the cutlass they are equal to the Valientes; and with muskets, of which every Kharibee has one, they excel all the Mosquito men and Indians. Their settlements are, in general, close to the sea-shore; they cultivate rice, cassava, sugar-cane, &c., and have abundance of hogs, ducks, turkeys, and other small stock, which, with considerable quantities of the bread already mentioned, they convey for sale to Truxillo and Belize. At the latter place they hire themselves, for several months at a time, to the mahogany and logwood cutters of the bay, and work with the regular woodmen." Their ancestors were the last descendants of the race which occupied many of the islands on the Carribean Sea when discovered by Columbus. They are in general of a dark red colour, approaching to, and often not easily distinguishable from black ; this colour arises from their ancestors having intermarried or crossed with the negroes of St. Vincent. They have the 776 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. short curly hair of the negro, but are remarkably clear-skinned, well made, ac tive, and vigorous. " Their features," says Mr. Roberts, " are agreeable, particu larly those of the young people ; and I never could perceive any of that malform ation of the head mentioned by some writers in their description of the Kharibees of the Orinoco. These latter, however, together with several other tribes inhabiting the banks of that river, the Canra and Cumana, who are said to be marked not only by that peculiarity, but also by superior size, and strength, were a different people, generally at war with the red men of St. Vincent s, and the other Leeward Islands." The country behind the Kharib settlements is fertile, hilly, and well watered by several rivers and streams, on the banks of which are abundance of the finest mahogany, dyewoods, sarsaparilla, and other natural productions of the soil. The Foyer Hills, or the Sierra de la Cruz, ap proaches close to the sea-coast. ROATAN or RUATAN ISLAND is about thirty miles long, and eight or nine in breadth ; the land is moderately high, covered with wood, except at the west end, where there are some savannahs on which mules and other cattle used to be raised. This beautiful island has an excellent harbour, easily defended ; it was once in possession of the English, who erected batteries which completely commanded this harbour, and marked out a space at its end for the erection of a town. The woods are said still to abound in deer, wild hogs, gibeonites, pigeons, parrots and other birds, many of them excellent food, and the whole coast swarms with fish, and with both green and hawksbill turtle. The English withdrew their troops from it at the time they abandoned the Mosquito Shore. From Roatan Utila Island is visible. The soil of all these islands is de scribed as rich, and well adapted for the cultivation of cotton, coffee, &c. ; and the birds, fishes, and natural productions of each are similar. Innumerable flocks of parrots and pigeons fly about. Cocoa nuts are also very plentiful. The Corn Islands, which lie off the Mosquito Shore, are subject to the king. It is evident, from the foregoing sketches, that the Mosquito Territory com prises a most important portion of America. What its future destiny may be will, whether for good or for evil, altogether depend upon the policy that may be adopted in its administration. Some progress in the way of improvement has certainly been effected since the residence of Mr. Walker, in 1844, at Bluefields. British subjects have settled in various parts. None of the grants, irregularly obtained from the old king, can be considered legal. They never will be acknow ledged by the present king, by the chiefs, nor by the people of the country, nor will they ever be countenanced by the British government. From the reports which we have received from this territory during. the years 1844, 5, and 6, it appears Mr. Walker, the resident agent, employs much of his time in endeavouring to improve the morale, and condition of the Creoles to wean THE MOSQUITO TERRITORY. ~ ~ 7 the native population from their unsettled and wandering habits, and to unite all harmoniously together. The conduct and appearance of the inhabitants is improved. Instead of taking the law in their own hands in cases of private quarrels, they frequently apply to the constituted authorities. There is a small body of militia organised at Bluefields, amounting to eighty or a hundred, who are regularly drilled. In 1841, great cruelties had been practised by the Creoles towards the Ra- mah and the Woolva Indians, especially on the part of the former, as employers, and the latter, as labourers the agent proposed that the latter should be em ployed in improving bridges, roads, &c., and on the 20th of August, 1845, the commissioners of the regency of the Mosquito kingdom, caused a proclamation to be issued, forbidding any person to compel the services of relations of deceased natives, who died in debt, and establishing a register-office in Bluefields, where all persons are to bring their native servants, in order that their tenure of service may be explained and registered, and that the native population may be protected and not compelled to do service unless proper contracts have been made. These regulations to take effect from the 1st of January, 1846. There was no clergyman in the Mosquito Territory in 1845, at Bluefields. The construction of a church (for which the agent has some funds), a lock-up house and a house for strangers like the casa real in every puebla of the Spanish re public, are all considered by him immediately necessary. The various Indians passing to and from the turtle fishery, if they have not friends in the place, sleep in open boat-houses. With chiefs to superintend these works, the agent conceives such buildings the best way to expend the bounty provided for the Indians by the British government. He says that the inhabitants are beginning to refer their complaints to the regular authorities, instead of proceeding, as formerly, to acts of personal violence ; the serve in the militia, and are ready to contribute their assistance to the con struction of public works. But the Creoles and Zamboes are generally addicted to idleness and the few Spaniards who are found in different parts, are of very suspicious character. TRADE AND NAVIGATION. The trade is chiefly an irregular coasting trade, and an account of it cannot be accurately ascertained. In 1844, a proclamation was issued by the Mosquito government, in accordance with the approbation of the British agent, by which it is provided, 1. That a tonnage duty of a quarter of a dollar per register ton shall be levie on all decked vessels, Spanish barques, and other large boats carrying chandise for the purpose of trade on the coasts and in the ports of the I territory and its islands. VOL. I. 5 G 778 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Vessels not breaking bulk and not landing any part of their cargoes, may remain forty-eight hours without payment of such duty. 2. That Bluefields shall be a free warehoufiing port for goods to be deposited in the general warehouse until reshipped. 3. On payment of said tonnage duty vessels may trade in any Mosquito port for three months. After the 1st of January, 1845, all turtling vessels to have licences, for which sixteen dollars per annum to be charged. Each turtling vessel without such licence to be fined fifty dollars and the seizure of the turtle and shell found on board. 5. The destroying of turtle eggs strictly forbidden, under a fine of five dollars for each offence. 6. Licence must be obtained for selling spirits ; for each licence ten dollars to be paid. Penalty, ten dollars, and seizure of liquors. The charge payable to the crown for cutting mahogany is two dollars each tree. Poll taxes were previously levied throughout the whole country, abolished in 1844, by proclamation. An ensign and standard for the Mosquito nation were sent to the country from England. The return of trade of Bluefields for 1844, included no duties of British entry, while the return for 1845, shows imports to the amount of 2708Z. sterling, and exports, the produce of the country, to the amount of J5QL sterling. Foreign imports also to have increased to 1428Z. sterling. But these statements embrace only a part of the trade, having little of the import trade. GROSS Return of British and Foreign Trade at the Ports of Bluefields and Corn Island. A R R I V E D. ] ) E P A R T E D NATIONS. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes in Pounds Sterling. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes in Pounds Sterling. AT BLUEPIELBS. British.... number. 15 tons. number. number. tons. 206 number. 71 750 American 2 173 2 173 12 800 Columbian* 7 108 00 1460 7 108 32 1260 Total 24 111 487 1 IK 2810 115 AT CORN ISLAND. 2 nio 1250 3 Total 5 of4 Grand Total 29 851 | 143 6522 29 851 143 4190 * The Columbian vessels entered in this return are owned by Creoles of this kingdom and one American, who ue the Columbian flag for trading within tlie limits of the Republic of New Granada. BOOK VI. CENTRAL AMERICA; OB, GUATEMALA. CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION CONFIGURATION CLIMATE POPULATION MINE RALS FORESTS WILD ANIMALS LAKES AND RIVERS. CENTRAL AMERICA, Guatemala, or Guatimala, extends from about 8 deg to 18 deg. north latitude, and between 82 deg. 30 min. and 94 deg. west longi tude, between Cape Gracios a Dios, on the Caribbean Sea, and Point Cosiguina, in the Pacific Ocean. The area, estimated by Humboldt in 1822, was about 125,550 square miles. This calculation was made according to the then existing charts, which were discovered afterwards, by the surveys directed by the British Admiralty, to have laid down the east coast south of Cape Gracios a Dios more than thirty miles too far east. The area, therefore, may be more properly estimated at about 120,000 square miles: nearly equal to that of the United Kingdom. This area includes the Mosquito Territory, which we have described in the last book. On the north it is bounded by the States of Mexico and Belize, on the south eastern by New Granada, on the east by the Atlantic, and on the west by the Pacific. This extensive region is remarkably irregular in its configuration. Moun tains, elevated plains, ravines, lakes, rivers, bays, harbours, lagoons, forests, and low lands, are its predominating features. There are numerous fertile valleys, and the plateaux or table-lands, which are, however, but imperfectly known, are described as generally fertile. The mountain elevations rise from 5000 to 13,000 feet above the sea. Many of them if not the whole, are of volcanic formation. The country has been frequently disturbed by earthquakes. Its soil, its climate, and its productions, are as varied as its configuration. Its lowlands, both on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, are considered remarkably unhealthy. Climate. The whole of Central America is situated between the tropics; b the temperature and salubrity of its climate are as variable as are the diversities 780 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. of its abrupt elevations, mountains, plateaux, ravines, sands, low districts, lakes, and forests. It freezes sometimes during the night on the highest part of the table lands, in November, December, and January. At the city of Guatemala, situated in the mean height of the table land (4961 feet above the sea), the dry season begins towards the close of the month of October, and lasts till the end of May : during which time only a few showers occasionally fall. In the beginning of June thunder storms become frequent, and are followed by heavy rains. From six o clock in the morning till three or four o clock in the afternoon, the sky is generally without clouds, and the air clear and refreshing. About the middle of October the north winds blow, and the rains cease. The absence of either the windy or rainy sea sons is accompanied by thunder; and, it is said, with slight shocks of earthquake. In March and April the thermometer sometimes rises to 86 deg. It generally ranges between 74 deg. and 82 deg. in the middle of the day. In December and January, when the north winds sometimes blow with great force, the thermometer varies between 68 deg. and 72 deg. During the summer heat it rises at about seven o clock in the morning to between 60 deg. and 67 deg., and in the evening at the same hour, to 67 deg. and 68 deg ; in winter it falls in the morning to 60 deg. and 58 deg., and sometimes even to 56 deg., but in the evening only to be tween 60 deg. and 64 deg. Towards the end of the dry season the trees sh< their leaves, and in many places vegetation appears suspended. The region ii which the capital stands, is considered healthy ; goitres are frequent in high and mountain districts, especially among the mixed races. On the sea-coast of the Pacific, the seasons correspond with those of the tabl lands, but the temperature is much hotter. It is said that the Pacific shores ai healthy, although they are almost entirely covered with woods. This salubrity i; however, not without exceptional districts. The climate of the low eastern coasts is remarkably hot, and the season irregular. Below the table land it rains for a longer period than on the westei shores, but the rains are not generally heavy. The rains and hot temperatui render the climate in many parts unhealthy. POPULATION. The inhabitants of Central America comprise three classes whites, or Creoles of Spanish race, mestizos, or the offspring of whites an< Indians, and aboriginal natives. There are but few negroes or Zamboes. I] the department of Guatemala the Indian inhabitants are said to constitut the great majority of the people: in Costa Rica those of European n predominate; and in the three other departments the mestizos, mixed wit a few mulattoes prevail. Haefkens estimates the whole population at one mil lion and a half, which he distributed as follows, viz.; of European races, 125,000; mixed races, 500,000 ; Indians 875,000; total 1,500,000. But it is doubtful whether any approximate estimate can be formed. Many parts, as the CENTRAL AMERICA. 781 inland parts of the Mosquito Territory, the region bounding Yucatan, and part of Honduras, are very little known. The whites have monopolised nearly all the offices and dignities in the state, except under Carera, the present Indian ruler of the province of Guate mala. The handicraftsmen, shopkeepers, and small tradesmen generally, are chiefly of mixed races. The aborigines are the piincipal inhabitants of the table lands. MINERALS. Gold, silver, and iron mines are worked; lead and mercury have been found. The most important gold and silver mines are those of Costa Rica, at Del Aquacate, and in Honduras, in Mount Merendon, between Chiqui- mula and the northern shores, and at Del Corpus and Tabanco. The iron mines are situated near Santa Anna, in Salvador 75 3 000 tons were said to have been produced annually ; but these mines are nearly altogether, like most branches of industry, now neglected. This has been the natural consequence of the many revolutions and distractions which have disturbed the peace of the country. In Honduras, jasper and marble are worked. Brimstone is collected near the volcano of Quezaltenango. There are many salt springs, and salt is collected oil the banks of some lagoons, as well as on the shore of the Pacific, in such quantities so as to constitute an article of commerce. FORESTS. Dense forests of gigantic trees cover a great part of Central Ame rica. Among the most valuable products of these forests are mahogany, pimento, sarsaparilla, vanilla, and the black or Peruvian Balsam; the latter, only found in the district of Salvador, besides other drugs and gums ; also the Brazil or Nica ragua wood, and many other beautiful and useful woods. ^ The low country between the Pacific and the table lands and mountains, varies in breadth from thirty to fifty miles. A forest which covers all the plain, is re markable for magnificent trees ; some of them from thirty to thirty-five feet in circumference, and eighty or ninety feet in height: numerous creepers wind round their trunks to the height of forty or fifty feet. These forests consist chiefly of ma hogany, cedar, Brazil, guaiacum, Santa Maria, and other useful woods : var la, sarsaparilla, and other medicinal plants abound. WILD ANiMALS.-The wild animals, reptiles, and birds common t( South America are found in Central America. Fish abound in the rivers an. lakes, and along the shores of the east and west coasts. Alligators merous in the Usumasinta and numerous rivers. LAKEs.-Exclusive of the Great Lake of Nicaragua, there are many other chiefly near the Pacific, and there are several lagoons, with sheltered entrant on the shores of the Caribbean Sea. Caratasca Lagoon is forty miles more than ten broad. These lagoons are all separated from the sea and sandy ridges. The Lake of Nicaragua is described by Juarros as- 782 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. "Being more than 180 miles long from west to east, and nearly 100 broad from north to south, having almost everywhere a depth of ten fathoms, with a muddy bot tom, except along the shore, where there is clean sand. The city of Nicaragua is sup plied with water from the lake, which also furnishes an inexhaustible abundance of fine fish. It is rendered extremely picturesque, by the numerous small islands with which the surface is studded ; these are all uncultivated, except Ometep, which is inhabited. On this there is a lofty mountain of a conical shape, that is an active volcano, and fre quently emits both flames and smoke. The lake itself is liable to tempestuous agita tions, when the waves rise with violence, as they do in the open sea, under the impetus of a heavy gale. Although a great number of rivers fall into this basin, and the River St. Juan is the only visible outlet, yet it is remarked as an extraordinary phenomenon, that there is no indication at any time of increase or decrease of the waters. On the north, the district of Matagalpa, and many large farms for breeding cattle, border the lake; on the south are the city of Granada, and the town of Nicaragua; on the east the River St. Juan communicates with the Atlantic; and on the west is the Lake of Managua, or Leon, which extends upwards of fifty miles in length, by nearly thirty in breadth, and is connected by a canal with the Nicaragua." These two lakes are described by Juarros as much larger than they are by recent accounts. (See account of the Peninsula of Nicaragua hereafter.) The Lake of Atitlan, according to Juarros, is one of the most remarkable in the kingdom. It is about twenty-four miles from east to west, and ten from north to south, entirely surrounded by rocks and mountains. There is little gradation of depth from its shores, and the bottom has not been found with a line of 300 fathoms. It receives several rivers, and all the waters that descend from the mountains, but there is no known channel by which this great body is carried off. The only fish caught in it are crabs, and a species of very small fish. These are in such countless myriads, that the inhabitants of the surrounding villages carry on a considerable fishing for them. From the ignorance which still prevails in regard to the geography and geology of this district, it is probable that Juarros 5 account of its fathomless depth, and the absence of any visible outlet, are mere assumptions. Mr. Stephens denies the assertion of the coldness of its water. The south and mountain regions of it are subject to showers and squalls; and this was also observed by Mr, Stephens. " At that hour of the day, as we understood to be the case always at that season of the year, heavy clouds were hanging over the mountains and volcanoes, and the lake was violently agitated by a strong southwest wind ; as our guide said, < la laguna es muy brava: " The configuration of the country succeeding Lake Atitlan, is of the most varied and romantic character. A lofty table of land and mountains almost sur round this lake. "From a height of 3000 or 4000 feet," Mr. Stephens says, we looked down upon irtace shining like a sheet of molten silver, enclosed by rocks and mountains of every rm some barren, and some covered with verdure, rising from 500 to 5000 feet in lit. Opposite, down on the borders of the lake, and apparently inaccessible by i ana vv the town of Santiago Atitlan, between two immense volcanoes 8000 or 10,000 high. Farther on was another volcano, and further still another, more lofty than all, with its summit buried in clouds. We stopped and watched the fleecy clouds of CENTRAL AMERICA. 7 go * the sides * Along the slopes leading down to the lake, the temperature grows hotter as the path descends. Mr. Stephens describes it as a tropical garden. Above, on the plateau, the climate was more like that of Central Europe than that of the tropics. Between the forest trees and the lake there flourished : Sapotes, jacotes, aguacates, manzanas, pine-apples, oranges, and lemons ; the best fruits of Central America grew m profusion, and aloes grew thirty to thirty-five fe high, and twelve and fourteen inches thick, cultivated in rows, to be used for thatchin- miserable Indian huts. We came down to the lake at some hot springs, so near the cold 6 " WaVGS ^ Ver ^ 8pring the f rmer belng V6ry ^ t>and the latter The celebrated Lake Itza, or Peten, lies between Verapaz, Chiapa, and Yucatan. It is described, by Juarros, as of an oblong figure und about twenty- six leagues in circumference : in some parts there are thirty fathoms depth, and in others still more ; the water is pure, and abounds with excellent fish. The | Peten, or Great Island, is about two leagues from the shore, and was the chief place of the Itzax Indians ; it is steep and lofty, and on the summit there is a plain nearly a quarter of a league in diameter, where the Indians and their king, i Canek, resided. In 1698 a garrison was established in this place. Four other smaller islands lie at short distances from the principal one. All these five islands, the whole of the eastern side of the lake, and the neighbouring range of mountains, were formerly thickly peopled by the Itzax nations. The Lake of Guixa, near the boundary-line between the States of Salvador and Guatemala, is more than twenty miles long, and three broad in the widest part: it abounds with fish, and forms the source of the L empa. It is said to be connected with another lake, that of Metapa, by a subterraneous channel. Rivers. The rivers of Central America are numerous ; but rapid, and of com paratively inferior magnitude. Those flowing into the Pacific have rarely their sources more than sixty miles from the sea. The Lempa rises on the western ! extremity of the table-land, and flows from west to east, receiving in its course a river from the Lake of Guixa, and a small stream which passes the town of St. Salvador. The Lempa thence flows south, and rapidly to the Pacific. It is said not to be navigable, and has a bar at its mouth. The Rio Choluteca which falls into the Bay of Conchagua draining a narrow valley, is next in size to the Lempa. The Patook flows into the Caribbean Sea, and is said to bring down gold with its stream from the hills. There are rapids called Los Chiflones, from which to its mouth the river is said to be navigable for large river barges, and still higher for canoes. The Rio Tinto flows for about 200 miles, and falls into the sea east of Cape Cameron, but its course is little known. The Rio Wanks, or Rio de Segovia, rises towards the southern extremity of 784 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the table-land, and flows into the sea near Cape Gracios a Dios, but the greater part of its course lies in the plain of Mosquitos. Bluefields River appears to rise on the southern extremity of the table-land, and falls into Mosquito Bay near 12 deg. north latitude. (See account of the Mosquito Shore.) Along the high coast, between Cape Cameron and the bottom of the Bay of Honduras, there are several smaller rivers : the Rio de Lean, Rio Ullua, and Cha- malecon, are navigable to some extent for small river barges or piraguas, and the first and last for small schooners. The river Michatoyat flows from the Lake of Amatitan,and forms at its mouth the harbour of Istapa or Independencia in the Pacific. The Motagua, the largest river that falls into the Bay of Honduras, rises at the foot of the western slope of the table-land, about 15 deg. north latitude, and flows east, forming numerous rapids and cataracts, as it descends from the high lands. At Gualan, about 100 miles from its mouth, it becomes navigable for flat river boats. A surf breaks over its bar, as it flows into the Golfo Dulce. The beautiful scenery of this river is enthusiastically described by Mr. Stephens. The Polochic rises on the eastern table-land, becomes navigable immediately after its descent at the Embarcadero de Teleman, and is said to be at all seasons deep enough for vessels drawing several feet of water (?) but the bar at its mouth has only from three to four feet of water. This river also flows into the Golfo Dulce. The USUMASINTA is considered the largest river of Central America. Its prin cipal branch, rises in the table-land, not far from the Motagua. After a course of nearly 100 miles it is joined on the right by the Rio de la Pasion, which rises further east, and about seventy miles from the Gulf of Honduras. From this junction the Usumasinta flows about fifty miles more through the table-land, from which it descends by cataracts. Some miles below which, near a small stream, are the unaccounted-for ruins of Palenque, in the republic of Chiapa, through which country the Usumasinta runs more than 150 miles. In this part of its course it is joined by two tributaries, the Tulija and Tabasco. Below the cataracts it is navigable for boats of considerable burden. It falls under the name of Rio Tabasco, into the Bay of Campeachy, where its principal branch forms the port of Victoria. The bar at its mouth is passed over by vessels which sail up to St. Juan Batista. Another branch falls into the Lago de Ter- minos. Mr. Stephens, in his work on Yucatan gives some interesting sketches of the Usumasinta. From the ruins of Palenque he returned to the In dian village of Palenque, eight miles from these ruins, and on the bank of the Chacomel, a tributary of the Usumasinta. From this village he en tered a beautiful plain, ornamented with trees : this plain, traversed by streams, extended to the Gulf of Mexico. On the borders of a wood-land, he observed CENTRAL AMERICA. 7s:, singular trees, with a tall trunk, the bark very smooth, and the branches fes tooned with bird-nests. The birds were called the jagua, and he the padre they nestled in this tree to prevent serpents getting at tl,, young birds. He then travelled by a muddy road through a picturesque country t Payas, a village on the Usumasinta. The whole of the great plain downwards to the gulf he describes as intersected with creeks and rivers. Some of them dry in summer, and on the rising of the waters, overflowing their banks. At this place the principal food of the people was young alligators, killed when about a foot and a half long. He says, " They tasted better than the fish, and were the best food possible for our canoe voyaging." " At seven o clock we went down to the shore to embark. The boatmen whom the justice had consulted, and for whom he had been so tenacious, were his honour himself and another man, who we thought was hired as the cheapest help he could find in the village. The canoe was about forty feet long, with a toldo or awning of about twelve feet at the stern, and covered with matting. All the space before this was required by the boatmen to work the canoe, and, with all our luggage under the awning, we had but narrow quarters. The seeming lake on which we started, was merely a large inun dated plain, covered with water to the depth of three or four feet; and the justice in the stern, and his assistant before, walking in the bottom of the canoe, with poles against their shoulders, sent her across. At eight we entered a narrow, muddy creek, not & wider than a canal, but very deep, and with the current against us. The setting pole could not touch the bottom, but it was forked at one end, and keeping close to the bank, the bogador or rower fixed it against the branches of overhanging trees, and pushed, while the justice, whose pole had a rude hook, fastened it to other branches forward, and pulled. In this way, with no view but that of the wooded banks, we worked slowly along the muddy stream. In turning a short bend, suddenly we saw on the banks eight or ten alligators, some of them twenty feet long, huge, hideous monsters, appropriate in habitants of such a stream, and, considering the frailty of our little vessel, not very attrac tive neighbours. As we approached, they plunged heavily into the water, sometimes rose in the middle of the stream, and swam across or disappeared. At half-past twelve we entered the Rio Chico, or Little River, varying from two to five hundred feet in width, deep, muddy, and very sluggish, with wooded banks of impenetrable thickness. At six o clock we entered the great Usumasinta, five or six hundred yards across, one of the noblest rivers in Central America, rising among the mountains of Peten, and emptying into the Lake of Terminos." The three republics or states of Chiapos, Tobasco, and Yucatan, bound each other at the junction of the Usumasinta and the Rio Chico. After leaving the flooded country below Playas, they ascended the River Chico. Crossing the point of the junction, after ascending the current of the Rio Chico, they turned into the descending flood of the Usumasinta. " At this time," says Mr. Stephens, "away from the wooded banks, with the setting poles at rest, and floating quietly on the bosom of the noble Usumasinta, our situation was pleasant and exciting. A strong wind sweeping down the river drove away the Moschetoes, and there were no gathering clouds to indicate ram. We had expected to come to for the night, but the evening was so clear that we determined to continue. Unfortunately, we were obliged to leave the Usumasinta, and about an hour after dark turned to the north into the Rio Palisada. The Usumasinta in its stately course receives many, and sends off other tributaries to find their way by other channels to the Leaving the broad expanse of the Usumasinta, with its comparative light, the Rio VOL. I. 5 H 786 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Palisada narrow, and with a dark line of forest on each side, had an aspect fearfully ominous of Moschetoes. Unfortunately, at the very beginning we brushed against the bank, and took on board enough to show us the blood-thirsty character of the natives (Moschetoes). Of course, that night afforded us little sleep. At daylight we were still dropping down the river. This was the region of the great logwood country. We met a large buncro with two masts moving against, the stream, set up by hauling and pushing on the branches of trees, on her way for a cargo. As we advanced, the banks of the river in some, places were cleared and cultivated, and had whitewashed houses, and small sugar-mills turned by oxen, and canoes were lying on the water; altogether, the scene was pretty, but with the richness of the soil suggesting the idea how beautiful this country might be made. At two o clock we reached the Palisada, situated on the left bank of the river, on a luxuriant plain, elevated some fifteen or twenty feet. Several bungoes lay along the bank, and in front was a long street with large and well-built houses. This, our first point, was in the state of Yucatan, then in revolution against the government of Mexico. Our descent of the river had been watched from the bank, and before we landed we were hailed, asked for our passports, and directed to present ourselves immediately to the alcalde (Don Francisco)." Palisada made its pronunciamiento but two weeks before, the central offi cers had turned out, and the present alcalde was hardly warm in his place. The change, however, had been effected with a spirit of moderation and for bearance, and without bloodshed. Don Francisco, with a liberality unusual, spoke of his immediate predecessor as an upright but misguided man, who was not persecuted, but then living in the place unmolested. The liberals, however, did not expect the same treatment at the hands of the centralists. An invasion had been apprehended from Tobasco. Don Francisco had his silver and valuables packed up, and kept his burigo before the door to save his effects and family, and the place was alive with patriots brushing up arms and preparing for war. This Don Francisco is described as a rich man ; had a hacienda of 30,000 head of cattle, logwood plantations, and bungoes, and was rated at 200,000 dollars. He received Mr. Stephens most hospitably; dinner was served in a style unusual in Yucatan. He had two sons, whom he intended to send to the United States to be educated. ** For the first time," says Mr. Stephens, " in a long while, we had bread made of flour from New York, and the barrel head had a Rochester brand. Don Francisco had never travelled further than Tobasco and Campeachy, but he was well acquainted with Europe and the United States, geographically and politically; indeed, he was one of the most agreeable companions and best-informed men we met in that country. We remained with him all the afternoon, and towards evening moved our chairs outside in front of the house, which at evening was the regular gathering-place of the family. The bank of the river was a promenade for the people of the town, who stopped to exchange greet ings with Don Francisco and his wife ; a vacant chair was always at hand, and from time to time one took a seat with us. When the vesper-bell struck, conversation ceased, all rose from their seats, made a short prayer, and when it was over, turned to each other with a buenos noces, reseated themselves and renewed the conversation. There was always something imposing in the sound of the vesper-bell, presenting the idea of an im mense multitude of people at the same moment offering up a prayer." On leaving this hospitable Don, Mr. Stephens embarked on board a bungo for Laguna. This craft was about fifteen tons, flat-bottomed, with two masts and CENTRAL AMERICA. sails, and loaded with logwood. This deck was covered with manges hfa and other fruits and vegetables. An awning was formed by stretchL over the deck. On leaving the town, they passed an island about four leagues in length, and a large farming establishment, with canoes lying opposite, in which all intercourse appears to be confined. The rivers and flooded country being the only high roads Below this farm no habitations appeared. The Usumasinta was deep, the banks densely wooded, and overhung with broad-spreading branches of the most luxuriant vegetation. Alligators seemed to be the possessors of these waters. " Some lay basking in the sun on mud-banks, like logs of drift-wood, and in ma places the river was dotted with their heads. The Spanish historian says that they swir with their heads above the water, gaping at whatsoever they see, and swallow whether stick, stone, or living creature, which is the true reason of their swallowin* stones and not to sink to the bottom as some say, for they have no need to do so, nor do they like it, being extraordinary swimmers; for the tail serves instead of a rudder, the head is the prow, and the paws the oars, being so swift as to catch any other fish as it swims A hundredweight and a half of fresh fish has been found in the maw of an alligator, besides what was digested ; in another was an Indian woman whole, with her clothes, whom he had swallowed the day before; and another with a pair of gold bracelets, with pearls and enamel gone off, and part of the pearls dissolved, but the gold entire." Mr. Stephens was informed by Don Francisco, that on the previous year a man had had his leg bitten off by an alligator, and was drowned. The Patron of the bungo told him that at the end of the last dry season upwards of 200 had been counted in the bed of a pond. Bungo men attacked them with clubs, sharp pickets, and machetes, and killed upwards of sixty. "The river itself," says Mr. Stephens, as they floated downwards; "discoloured with muddy banks, and a fiery sun beating upon it was ugly enough ; but these huge and ugly monsters, neither fish nor flesh made it absolutely hideous. The boatmen called them enemigos de los Christianas. We brought out our guns and made indiscriminate war. One monster, twenty-five to thirty feet long, lay on the arm of a gigantic tree, which projected forty or fifty feet, the lower part covered with water, but the whole of the alligator was visible. I hit him just under the white line, he fell off with a tremendous convulsion, reddening the water with a circle of blood, and turned over on his back dead. A boatman, and one of the Petan lads got into a canoe to bring him alongside. " Our track down the river will be remembered as a desolation and a scourge. Old alligators, by dying injunction, will teach the rising generation to keep the head under water when the bungoes are coming. We killed, perhaps, twenty, and others are proba bly sitting on the banks with our bullets in their bodies wondering how they came there. With rifles we could have killed at least a hundred." The following appears to be descriptive of a phenomena characteristic of the climate : " At three o clock the regular afternoon storm came on, beginning with a tremendous sweep of wind up the river, which turned the bungo round, drove its broadside up the stream, and before we, could come to at the bank we had a deluge of rain. At length we made fast, secured the hatch over the place prepared for us, and crawled under. It was so low that we could not sit up, and lying down there was about a foot of room above us. On our arrival at the Palisada we considered ourselves fortunate in finding a bungo ready, although she had already on board a full load of logwood from stem to stern." 788 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. In the evening the rain ceased, and afterwards the wind and the clouds rolled away, the sun shone forth, and Mr. Stephens says, "But for the abominable insects (moschetoes), our float down the wild and desolate river would have been an event to live in memory ; as it was, not one of us attempted to sleep ; and I verily believe a man could not have passed an entire night on the banks and lived." Next morning they entered the Bocca Chico, or little mouth, one of the branches of the Delta of the Usumasinta. The banks were overhung with the branches of magnificent trees. In a few hours the stream floated them into the Lake, or Laguna, de Terminos. " Once more in salt water," says Mr. Stephens, " and stretching out under full sail, on the right we saw only an expanse of water : on the left was a border of trees, with naked rocks, which seemed leaping out of the water; and in face, but a little to the left and barely visible, a long line of trees marking the island of Carmen, on which stood the town of Laguna, our port of destination." The passage from the river to the lake is described as shallow, narrow, and intersected by sand-bars and reefs. Soon after passing these dangers they came in sight of the vessels anchored at Laguna. A calm followed. The heat on the lake was indescribably oppressive. A sudden storm of lightning, thunder, wind, and a deluge of rain followed about three o clock. In about an hour this awful phenomena passed away. It being quite calm, the bungo was then towed towards the town ; a squall, with a flood of rain, broke suddenly over them before reaching the harbour ; a surf broke over the beach, and after the squall ceased, they were landed in a boat belonging to one of the many vessels at anchor. In the town they found stores, cafes,barbers shops, and depots of logwood. CHAPTER II. HARBOURS AND TOWNS OF CENTRAL AMERICA. THIS region has some excellent deep harbours, and several good ones for small vessels. The Gulf of Honduras is situated between the northern Mosquito Shore and the Peninsula of Yucatan. At the bottom of the Gulf is the Bay of Honduras. Motagua and several lesser rivers flow into this bay; which also contains the ports of Omoa and of Yzabal (the latter within the Golfo Dulce). Within this bay are smaller bays, of which that of San Thomas is spacious and deep. The communication from Yucatan or Belize is long and tedious, as vessels have to beat against the trade wind. To obviate this delay, a steamboat should be estab- CENTRAL AMERICA. 7 VI lished to run from Belize to the different ports of Honduras and the Mos Territory. The Golfo Duke, is a lagoon about thirty miles long. The shores are wooded. The Rio Dulce, which flows from the lagoon into the Bay of Honduras, is a! twenty miles in length, including the smaller lagoon, or Golfetta, which is about ten miles long. The entrance to the Gulf of Dulce is described as follows in Mr. Stephens work on Central America : A narrow opening in a rampart of mountain wooe dus on, and in a few moments we entered the Rio Dulce. On each side, rising perpendicularly, from 300 to 400 feet was a wall of living green. Trees grew from the water s edge, with dense, unbroken foliage to the top ; not a spot of barrenness was to be seen ; and on both sides, from the tops of the highest trees long tendrils descended to the water, as if to drink and carry life to the trunks that bore them. It was, as its name imports, a Rio Dulce, a fairy scene of Titan land, combining exquisite beauty with colossal grandeur. As we ad vanced the passage turned, and in a few minutes we lost sight of the sea, and were en closed on all sides by a forest wall ; but the river, although showing us no passage, still invited us onward. Could this be the portal to a land of volcanoes and earthquakes, torn and distracted by civil war ? For some time we looked in vain for a single barren spot; at length we saw a naked wall of perpendicular rock, but out of the crevices, and appa rently out of the rock itself, grew shrubs and trees. Sometimes we were so inclosed, that it seemed as if the boat must drive in among the trees. Occasionally, in an angle of the turns, the wall sunk, and the sun struck in with scorching force, but in a moment we were again in the deepest shade. From the fanciful accounts we had heard, we ex pected to see monkeys gambolling among the trees, and parrots flying over our heads ; but all was as quiet as if man had never been there before. The pelican, the stillest of birds, was the only living thing we saw, and the only sound was the unnatural bluster of our steam engine. The wild defile that leads to the excavated city of Petra is not more noiseless or more extraordinary, but strangely contrasting in its sterile desolation, while here all is luxuriant, romantic, and beautiful. " For nine miles the passage continued thus one scene of unvarying beauty, when suddenly the narrow river expanded into a large lake, encompassed by mountains, and studded with islands, which the setting sun illuminated with gorgeous splendour. We remained on deck till a late hour, and awoke the next morning in the harbour of YzabaL A single schooner of about forty tons, showed the low state of her commerce. We landed before seven o clock in the morning, and even then it was hot. There were no idlers on the bank, and the custom-house officer was the only person to receive us. The town of Yzabel stands on the gentle sloping banks of the Golfo Dulce, with high mountains rising in the background. A street runs from the water to a sort of square: with the exception of two or three wooden-framed houses, the other habitations were huts. Under a large shed were bales of merchandise mules, muleteers, and Indians, for carrying merchandise across the Mico Moun tain. The arrival of the priest was announced by ringing the church bells, and, ir his canonicals, he soon proceeded to the church and celebrated mass In fron the church was planted a large wooden cross. The floor was hard earth covered with leaves; the walls were decorated with branches and flowers; on the i were the Virgin and some saints. For a considerable time mass had not performed, and Spaniards, Mestizoes, and Indians, thronged to the devot 790 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. SAN JUAN DEL NORTE, in Nicaragua, 11 cleg. N. latitude, and 83 deg. 48 min. W. long., situated on the western mouth of the Rio de San Juan, has a good harbour, very little frequented, and with few inhabitants. Hides and some Indigo are brought down the River San Juan from the country and towns round the Lake of Nicaragua, of which see account of the Harbour and River San Juan, included in the description hereafter of the isthmus of Nicaragua and of Panama. OMOA is situated on a small bay, forming a good harbour, by which mos t of the European goods destined for Guatemala and St. Salvador are imported. It is an unhealthy place, and chiefly inhabited by a few mulattoes. The inland towns of COMAYAGUA and TEGUCIGALPA are situated in the pro vince of Honduras, in which is also situated TRUXILLO, an open bay, with anchorage in a roadstead. Mahogany is cut in the neighbourhood, and is almost the only article of export. The town, with the adjacent hamlets, contains about 4000 inhabitants. NEW GUATEMALA, the capital of the state, is situated on an undulating plain, 4961 feet above the sea In the tierra templada, or temperate region, the climate is very much like that of Italy, but not so cold in winter. The houses, constructed with the apprehension of earthquakes, though capacious, are only one story high, with thick walls, and with gardens attached., The streets are broad, straight, cross each other at right angles, and are partly paved. The public buildings are, a university, five convents, four nunneries, a cathedral, and about twenty churches, the treasury, the mint, and other government offices : most of them exhibit a secular style of architecture. The great hos pital, called San Juan de Dios, can receive 400 patients. Water is brought, by an aqueduct, from a spring about five miles from the town, and conducted into twelve public reservoirs, from which it is distributed to the private houses. The population of New Guatemala, including some adjacent places, is estimated at above 40,000 souls. The Plaza is a square of 150 yards on each side, paved, and with a colonnade along three sides : on one of the sides stands the old vice-regal palace and hall of the audiencia ; on another are the Cabildo and some other state buildings. On the third side stands the custom-house and palace of the ci-devant Marquisate of Aycinena. The fourth side is occupied by the cathedral, a superb edifice, with the archbishop s palace on one side, and a college on the other. In the centre there is a large stone fountain. A market is held in the Plaza. The houses of New Guatemala, though low, cover an extensive surface. The house occupied by the American charge d affaires, Mr. De Witt, is described as on the same plan as that of the houses generally, the entrance of which is by a large double door, then through a passage paved with small black and white stones, into a patio or court paved in like manner, around the sides of which are CENTRAL AMERICA. 791 wide corridors, paved with square red bricks. These corridors arc bordered with various flowers. In front, facing the street, and adjoining the entrance, there is an ante-room having a large window with a balcony ; then a */. with two windows. A door opens from this room into the comedar or salle d This is the dining-room, and has two windows facing the corridor : adjo this room there is a bed-room, and then another bed-room with doors and windows also facing the corridor. In the centre and fronting the back part of the court are rooms for servants, and in the corners of the building a kitchen and stable are concealed. The plan of all the houses in Guatemala is the same ; others are much larger ; that of the Aycinena family, for example, covered a square of 200 feet long on each side. The city of Guatemala is renowned for its religious observances. At matins and vespers the churches are all open, and the inhabitants especially all the women are constant in their devotions. Each house has its image of the Virgin, the Saviour, or some saint. The processions in honour of the Virgin, and other religious processions, are frequent. All the streets through which the processions pass are strewed with pine leaves, and adorned with arches decorated with evergreens and flowers. From the long balconies and windows are displayed curtains of crimson silk and flags with various devices. At the corners are erected altars, within huge arbours of evergreens, and on these altars pictures and silver ornaments, bor rowed from the churches, are conspicuous, and surmounted with flowers. The plain, or the valley of Guatemala is pre-eminent for the variety and brilliancy of its floral kingdom. These flowers are in profusion devoted to the embellish ment of the religious processions. Of the surrounding country, and the cities of New and Old Guatemala, Mr. Stephens says " Late in the afternoon, as I was ascending a small eminence, two immense volcanoes stood up before me, seeming to scorn the earth and towering to the heavens. They were the great volcanoes of Agua and Fuego, forty miles distant, and nearly fifteen thousand feet high, wonderfully grand and beautiful. In a few moments the great plain of Guatemala appeared in view, surrounded by mountains, and in the centre of it the city, a mere speck on the vast expanse, with churches, and convents, and numerous turrets, cupolas, and steeples, and still as if the spirit of peace rested upon it, with no storied associations, but bvits own beauty creating an impression on the mind of the traveller which can never be effaced. I dismounted and tied up my mule. As yet the sun lighted up the roofs and domes of the city, giving a reflection so dazzling that I could only look at them hv ,tPalth. Rv desrees its disc touched the top of the Volcano del Agua ; slowly the A by stealth. By degrees its disc touched the top . whole orb sank behind it, illuminating the background with an atmosphere fiery red. rich golden cloud rolled up its side and rested on the top, and while I gazed the golden hues disappeared, and the glory of the scene was gone. As yet I did not know where to stop ; there^was no hotel in Guat Old Guatemala (La Antigua) is situated in a narrow valley between the two volcanoes called Del Agua (of water) and Del Fuego (off re), 5817 feet above the sea. It was the capital of the country until 1773, when it was destroyed by 792 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. repeated earthquakes. New Guatemala was founded in 1776, and the seat of government transferred to it. A considerable number of inhabitants, however, remained at Old Guatemala, the population of which is now said to exceed 15,000. Their attachment to this town is so remarkable that the inhabitants are called " The Incorrigible*" A great part of the town is filled with ruins, but it still contains some large buildings. It has also some rude cotton-manufactories. Few places in the world are more picturesque than the country about Old Guate mala. The volcano del Agua is 12,620 feet above the sea, and the volcano del Fuego still higher. The first vomits water, the second fire. Mr. Stephens says of this city* " On each side were the ruins of churches, convents, and private residences, large and costly, some lying in masses, some with fronts still standing, richly ornamented with stucco, cracked and yawning, roofless, without doors or windows, and trees growing inside above the walls. Many of the houses have been repaired, the city is partly re-peopled, and presents a strange appearance of ruin and recovery. The inhabitants, like the dwellers over the buried Herculaneum, seemed to entertain no fears of renewed disaster. The great volcanoes of Agua and Fuego look down upon it. In the centre of the Plaza there is a large stone fountain, and it is surrounded by magnificent buildings. The former palace of the captain -general, displaying the armorial bearings granted by the Emperor Charles V., to the loyal and noble city, and surmounted by a statue of St. James on horseback, armed and brandishing a sword, and the roofless and dilapidated cathedral, a vast edifice, 300 feet long, 120 broad, nearly seventy high, and lighted by fifty windows, are monuments which tell us that La Antigua was one of the most superb cities of America, and to which Alvarado gave the name of * the City of St. James of Gentlemen " About four o clock in the afternoon of the 29th of July, 1773, the foundations of the city began to tremble, and in a few minutes a most terrible earthquake damaged a great portion of the city. On the 7th of September following, another laid prostrate most of the buildings which were previously disturbed, and on the 13th of December, the ancient city of Guatemala was, by a tremendous earth quake, rendered uninhabitable. TOTONICAPAN is estimated to contain 12,000 inhabitants, nearly all abori gines; they manufacture some earthenware, wooden utensils, woollen cloths, and a few other articles. QUEZALTENANGO has an estimated population of about 14,000 inhabitants, with some woollen and cotton manufactures. In its neighbourhood is a volcano and a hot spring, the waters of which are thrown out forming &jet cFeau, rising td the height of twenty or thirty feet. Of this town Mr. Stephens says, " As we approached Quezaltenango seven towering churches showed that the religion so hastily adopted had not died away. In a few minutes we entered the city. The streets were handsomely paved, and the houses picturesque in architecture; the Cabildo had two stories and a corridor. The cathedral, with its facade richly decorated, was grand and imposing. The Plaza was paved with stone, having a fine fountain in the centre, and commanding a magnificent view of the volcano and mountains around." COBAN, the capital of Vera Paz, is situated in an undulating and luxuriant CENTRAL AMERICA. 793 valley, and is supposed to contain about 14,000 inhabitants, nearly ,11 tf whom are aborigines; and said to be much more wealthy and orderly than i any other part of the country. The valley is described as exceedingly fertile ai.rl covered with plantations of sugar-cane, bananas, pimento-trees, and various kinds of fruit-trees. SALAMA contains about 5000 inhabitants, is situated on the road between Guatemala and the Embarcadero de Telemanori the Polochic. GUALAN, on the Rio Motagua, is the place where the goods which ascend the river are unladen, and those intended for exportation are laden. Of the country around Gualan, Mr. Stephens says " They next day travelled for some distance along the banks of the Motagua, almost as beautiful by morning as by evening light. The scenery was grand, but the land wild and uncultivated, without fences, enclosures, or habitations a few cattle were wanderino- wild over the great expanse. We met a few Indians with their machees, going to their" morning s work, and a man riding a mule, with a woman before him, his arm encirclino- her waist. " For an hour longer we continued on the ridge of the mountain, then entered a more woody country, and in half an hour came to a large gate, which stood directly across the road like a toll-bar. It was the first token we had seen of individual or territorial boun dary, and in other countries would have formed a fitting entrance to a princely estate ; for the massive frame, with all its posts and supporters, was of solid mahogany. The heat was now intense. We emerged into an open plain, on which the sun beat with almost intolerable power; and crossing the plain at about three o clock, entered Gualan. There was not a breath of air ; the houses and the earth seemed to throw out heat. "Towards evening we strolled through the town. It stands upon a table of breccia rock, at the junction of two noble rivers, and is encircled by a belt of mountains. One principal street, the houses of one story, with piazzas in front, terminates in a plaza or public square, at the head of which stands a large church with a Gothic door; and before it, at a distance of ten or twelve yards, was a cross about twenty feet high. The popu lation is about 10,000, chiefly Mestitzoes. Leaving the plaza, we walked down to the Motagua, on the bank a boat was in process of construction, about fifty feet long and ten wide, entirely of mahogany. Near to it a party of men and women were fording the stream, carrying their clothes above their heads, and around a point three women were bathing. There are no ancient associations connected with this place, but the wildness of the scene, the clouds, the tints of the # sky, and the setting sun reflected upon the mountains were beautiful. At dark we returned to the house. Except for the compa nionship of some thousands of ants, which blackened the candles, and covered every thing perishable, we had a room to ourselves. Early in the morning we were served with chocolate and a small roll of sweet bread. Toward evening the whole town was in com motion, preparatory to the great fte of Santa Lucia. Early next morning, the firing of muskets, petards, and rockets, announced the arrival of this lady, one of the holiest saints of the calendar, and, next to San Antonio, the most renowned for working miracles/ TORTILLAS. On entering another house, he found "the whole family engaged in making tortillas. This is the bread of Central and of all Spanish America, and the only species to be found except in the principal towns. At one end of the cucinera was an elevation, on which stood a comal, or griddle, resting on three stones, with a fire blazing under it. The daughter-in-law had before her an earthen vessel containing Indian corn soaked in lime-water to remove the husk, and placing a handful on an oblong stone, curving inward, mashed it with a stone roller into a thick paste The girls took it as it was mashed, and patting it with their hands into flat cake*, laid them on the gr.ddl bake. This is repeated for every meal, and a great part of the business o consists in making tortillas. REALEJO, on the Pacific, is capacious, has safe anchorage, and exports VOL. I. 5 I 794 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. produce of the country, chiefly mahogany, cedar, and Nicaragua-wood, to Peru, Chile, &c. The harbour, according to Juarros, is capable of containing 1000 ships. The village at this port has two or three streets, with low straggling houses, behind which there is a forest. It was founded by a few of the com panions of Alvarado. Afterwards its situation near the sea exposed it to the devastations of the old buccaneers ; and in consequence, the inhabitants retired to the interior, and built Leon. LEON is the capital of the state of Nicaragua ; it was formerly a place of import ance, with a population of 32,000 souls ; but has been since greatly reduced by anarchy and other distracting circumstances. It is situated on a plain about forty miles from Realejo, ten from the sea, and fifteen from the Lake of Managua. It has a university, cathedral, and eight large churches, and other public insti tutions. It carries on some trade through Realejo. The houses are described by Mr. Roberts as very similar to those of Guatemala, none being above two stories high. The population in 1820 was about 14,000. Plain of Leon. This plain is bounded on the Pacific side by a low ridge, and on the right by high mountains, part of the chain of the Cordilleras. Mr. i Stephens says : " Before us at a great distance, rising above the level of the plain, we saw the spires of the Cathedral of Leon. This magnificent plain, in richness of soil is not surpassed by any land in the world, lay as desolate as when the Spaniards first traversed it. The dry season was near its close ; for four months there had been no rain, and the dust hung around us in thick clouds, hot and fine as the sands of Egypt. Leon had an appearance of old and aristocratic respectability, which no other city in Central America possessed. The houses were large, and many of the fronts were full of stucco ornaments ; the plaza was spacious, and the squares of the churches and the churches themselves magnificent. It was under Spain, a bishop s see, and distinguished for the costliness of its churches and convents, its seats of learning, and its men of science, to the time of its revolution. " In walking through its streets," observes Mr. Stephens, u I saw palaces in which nobles had lived dismantled and roofless, and occupied by half-starved wretches, pictures of misery and want, and on one side an immense field of ruins covering half the city. I must confess that I felt a degree, of uneasiness in walking the streets of Leon that I never felt in any city in the East. My change of dress did not make my presence more acceptable, and the eagle on my hat attracted particular attention. At every corner was a group of scoundrels, who stared at me as if disposed to pick a quarrel. With some my official character made me an object of suspicion, for in their disgraceful fights they thought that the eyes of the whole world were upon them, and that England, France, and the United States were secretly contending for the possession of their interesting country." SEBA is a small port on the Bay of Conchagua, by which the produce of the mines of Tabanco used to be exported. VALLADOLID DE COMAYAGUA, the capital of the state of Honduras, is situated nearly in its centre, between two rivers, in a fine valley, with about 3000 inhabitants. It has the reputation of being an unhealthy place. TEGUCIGALPA is situated on the high table-land of Honduras, estimated po pulation 8000 to 10,000 inhabitants. In its neighbourhood are mines of gold, silver, copper, and iron. CENTRAL AMERICA. The harbour of CONCHAGUA, situated on the gulf of the same name, is , port. Between the Gulf of Conchagua and the port of Acapulco there is no o harbour on the coast of the Pacific, and trading vessels are obliged to am open roadsteads. The roadstead of Libertad is the place goods destined for St Salvador are unladen, that of Acajutla is the port of Sonzonate. ST. SALVADOR, of the Federal District, contains above 16,000 inhabitants. They are said to be industrious, and manufacture iron and cotton. It is situated near a stream, between hills. The Federal District lies around the town in a circle, with a radius of about eleven miles, except towards the Pacific, where it extends to the roadstead of Libertad, about twenty-six miles distant. The vol cano of St. Salvador is within the Federal District. ST. VICENTE, contains about 8000 inhabitants. In its neighbourhood are plantations of indigo and tobacco, the latter on the declivity of the volcano of St. Vicente. ST. MIGUEL, said to have a population of 8000 inhabitants, is noted for its fairs, the most important of which is held in the month of November, after the indigo crop that article being raised in great quantities in its neighbourhood. The town is considered unhealthy. SACATECOLUCA is situated in the low country which borders the Pacific, with 8000 inhabitants. A considerable quantity of indigo is raised in the neigh bourhood. SONZONATE, situated on the] banks of the Rio Grande, about twelve miles from the roadstead of Acajutla, is estimated as having about 10,000 inhabitants, who make and export fancy shell-work. The surrounding country is one of the richest districts of the state of St. Salvador. From the Plaza the streets cross at right angles. The houses are only one story high, but generally large. The best houses are deserted in consequence of anarchy having driven their owners into exile. For the seven superb churches there was lately but one priest. In its neighbourhood sugar is grown for home consumption, and some is also exported to Peru from Acajutla. The volcano of Izalco is in the neighbourhood. AGUACHAPA has a population estimated at 8000 inhabitants Sugar is cul tivated near it. SANTA ANNA, estimated population, 10,000 inhabitants. There are plan tations of indigo and sugar-canes in the neighbourhood. The best sugar in the country is made here, and in the adjacent mountains iron-mines are worked. METAPA, near the Lake of Metapa, estimated population 8000 inhabitants. There are iron-mines in the neighbourhood. MANAGUA, near Lake Managua, has about 13,000 inhabitants, chiefly whites. MASAYA, a neatly-built town, near the Lake of Nicaragua, is stated to have a population of about 13,000 inhabitants, chiefly Indians, who trade in the produce of the country and other articles. 796 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. GRANADA, with about 14,000 inhabitants, is situated on the borders of the Lake of Nicaragua. It is the principal place from which the produce of the country is sent to the harbour, of San Juan del Norte, by the craft which navigate the lake and river. NICARAGUA, about three miles from the lake, is said to contain from 10,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, and, with the district of St. George, from 20,000 to 22,000. It is situated in a fertile district, where great quantities of cacao are raised. On the table-land of Nicaragua, is the little town of New Segovia, in the neighbourhood of which excellent tobacco is grown. COMITAN, the frontier town of Chiapas, contains a population of about ten thousand. The landed proprietors of the surrounding country, as in other parts of Central America, have houses in this town and visit their haciendas occa sionally. Comitan is notorious for its smuggling trade. Most of the European goods used in this part of Central America are smuggled in from Belize and Guatemala. With regard to the population of any of the towns of Central America we consider the foregoing estimates as exceedingly vague. CHAPTER HI. ROUTE OVER THE MOUNTAINS FROM THE GULF OF DULCE TO GUATEMALA. ALTHOUGH Central America has been traversed and possessed, since the year 1513, that is 333 years, by the Spanish-European race, the route from the eastern to the western coast, may be considered as one disgraceful to the most barbarous of nations. The route from the Golfo Dulce on the east to the city of Guatemala near the western shores of America has been passed over for more than two hundred years, yet no road, properly speaking, has been constructed for carriages ; and goods, provisions, and not unfrequently travellers, continue to be carried on menYshoulders, or on the backs of animals. All descriptions that we have read, or heard, of the interior means of com munication agree in denouncing the badness, or rather the absence of roads. The journey of Mr. Stephens from the Golfo Dulce fully confirms these statements. He tells us that: "At daylight the muleteers commenced loading for the passage of the * mountain: at seven o clock the whole caravan, consisting of nearly one hundred mules and twenty or thirty muleteers, was fairly under way. Our immediate party consisted of five mules two for Mr. Catherwood and myself, one for Augustin, and two for luggage ; besides which we had four Indian carriers. A padre was carried on the back of an Indian who was relieved when exhausted by another Indian. " Passing a few straggling houses, which constituted the suburbs of the town, we CENTRAL AMERICA. 797 entered upon a marshy plain sprinkled with shrubs and small trees, and in a few nutes were m an unbroken forest. At every step the mules sank Jo their fetloc mud and very soon we came to great puddles and mudholes, which reminded me of t c breaking up of winter and the solitary horsepath in one of our primeval forests at boo* As we advanced, the shade of the trees became thicker, the holes larger and deeoe roots rising two or three feet above the ground crossed the path inever Y directioi gave the barometer to the muleteer, and had as much as I could do to keep myself ir the saddle. All conversation was at an end, and we kept as close as we could to the track of the muleteer ; when he descended into a mudhole and crawled out the entire legs of the mule were blue with mud, we followed, and came out as blue as he "The caravan of mules, which had started before us, was but a short distance ahead and in a little while we heard ringing through the woods the loud shout of the mule teers and the sharp crack of the whip. We overtook them at the bank of a stream" which broke rapidly over a stony bed. The whole caravan was moving up the bed of the stream ; the water was darkened by the shade of the overhanging trees ; the muleteers without shirts, and with their large trousers rolled up to the thighs and down from the waistband, were scattered among the mules: one was chasing a stray beast; a second darting at one whose load was slipping off; a third lifting up one that had fallen ; another, with his foot braced against a mule s side, straining at the girth; all shouting] cursing, and lashing : the whole a mass of inextricable confusion, and presenting a scene almost terrific. The branches of the trees met over our heads, and the bed of the stream was so broken and stony that the mules constantly stumbled and fell. " The ascent began precipitously, and by an extraordinary passage. It was a narrow gulley, worn by the tracks of mules and the washing of mountain torrents so deep that the sides were higher than our heads, and so narrow that we could barely pass through without touching. Our whole caravan moved singly through these muddy de files, the muleteers scattered among them and on the bank above, extricating the mules as they stuck fast, raising them as they fell, arranging their cargoes, cursing, shout ing, and lashing them on. If one stopped, all behind were blocked up, unable to turn, my sudden start pressed us against the sides of the gulley, and there was no small dan- er of getting a leg crushed. Emerging from this defile, we came again among deep ludholes and projecting roots of trees, with the additional difficulty of a steep ascent, "he trees, too, were larger, and their roots higher and extending farther ; and above all, the mahogany-tree threw out its giant roots, high at the trunk and tapering, not round like the roots of other trees, but straight, with sharp edges, traversing rocks and the )ts of other trees. " It was the last of the rainy season ; the heavy rains from which we had suffered sea had deluged the mountains ; and it was in the worst state to be passable, for >metimes it is not passable at all. For the last few days there had been no rain ; but ire had hardly congratulated ourselves upon our good fortune in having a clear day, rtien the forest became darker and the rain poured. The woods were of impenetrable thickness ; and there was no view except that of the detestable path before us. For five long hours we were dragged through mudholes, squeezed in gulleys, knocked against :rees, and tumbled over roots; every step required care and great physical exertion ; and ibove all, I felt that our inglorious epitaph might be tossed over the head of a mule, lined by the trunk of a mahogany-tree, and buried in the mud of the Mico Moun- n. We attempted to walk, but the rocks and roots were so slippery, the mudholes . deep, and the ascents and descents so steep, that it was impossible to continue iiiles were only half loaded, and even then several broke down the lash could not >ve them, and scarcely one passed over without a fall. The descent was as bad as the ascent ; and instead of stopping to let the mules ithe, as they had done on ascending, the muleteers seemed anxious to determine in >w short a time they could tumble them down the mountain In one of the muddies ies we were shut up by the falling of a mule before, and the crowding upon us of Jhind; and at the first convenient place we stopped until the whole caravan had passed. 798 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. This is the great high road to the city of Guatemala, which has always been a place of dis tinction in Spanish America. Almost all the travel and merchandise from Europe passes over it ; and our guide said, the reason it was so bad was because it was traversed by so many mules. In some countries this would be a reason for making it better ; but it was pleasant to find that the people to whom I was accredited, were relieved from one of the sources of contention at home, and did not trouble themselves with the complicated questions attendant upon internal improvements.* " In two hours we reached a wild river or mountain torrent, foaming and breaking over its rocky bed, and shaded by large trees. It was called El Arroyo del Muerto, or Stream of the Dead. " With ten hours of the hardest riding I ever went through, we had only made twelve miles." He then travelled onward, and reached a beautiful table-land, where he met an encampment of muleteers on their way to Yzabel. Bales of indigo, which formed their cargoes, were piled up like a wall around them ; their mules were browsing near them, and they had lighted fires to cook their suppers. He descended with the caravan from the table-land to a plain thickly wooded, and then through a grove of beautiful wild palm trees. He observes., " From the top of a tall naked stem grew branches twenty or thirty feet long, spread ing from the trunk, and falling outward with a graceful bend, like enormous plumes of feathers, the trees stood so close that the bending branches met, and formed arches in some parts as regular as if constructed by art." Before dark he reached the rancho of Micho, a small house constructed of poles, plastered together with mud, a larger house connected by a shed, thatched with branches for the express use of travellers. Here they hung their hammocks and slept. There were groups of muleteers bivouacked on the ground. Next day the route was over a mountainous country, with little wood. When he reached the rancho of El Pozo they began to find that a scarcity of food was to be endured. From El Pozo, they travelled along the ridge of a high mountain, which was ornamented with pine-trees, green hill sides, and cattle grazing on them. In the evening they descended by wild and difficult paths to the River Motagua, which was rolling majestically down a great deep valley. High mountains arose on each side, and before and behind. With some difficulty they crossed this river in a canoe, and the mules were by beating made to swim over. At the rancho they could get nothing to eat. Fatigued and heated, the travellers bathed in the Motagua. Men, women, and children at this place were almost naked. They next day proceeded up along the banks of the river, and then up the spur of a mountain. The country was wild, uncultivated, and uninhabited. At length they arrived at an Indian rancho, where they procured hot tortillas ; after which they travelled on, passing through thick woods, forded a wild stream, in company with a drove of pigs, reached a cochineal plantation, and, crossing an open plain, reached Gualan, where they found accommodation and food. * Since that time the constituent assembly of Guatemala has imposed a tax of one dollar upon every bale of merchandise that passes over the mountain, for the improvement of the road. CENTRAL AMERICA. From Gualan up to San Pablo on the south side of the Motagua Riv,r, th, country exhibits great beauty and natural luxuriance ; the path ascei. ^ mountain, then descends to the river, and then ascends to San Pablo, whence it descends to the Plain of Zacapa crossing which, and fording a stream, the route ascends to Zacapa a town with a huge church. From this place to Chimalapa the road is more level ; and thence to the town of Guasloya the country is remark ably picturesque. The latter town stands overlooking a fertile valley in which are large milfras, or maize-fields. The route then passes through a wild ravine. Another long steep ascent leads over heights to the village of El Puerta, beyond which, after crossing a bridge over a torrent, another mountain-range is crossed commanding splendid views, and, on descending, an uncultivated country pre vails to the cattle hacienda of San Jose. From this place the path leads over a table-land to an eminence, on the top of which the great Plain of Guatemala and the volcanoes of Agua and Fuego burst into the magnificent landscape. On the other side of this height there is a vast ravine to pass, beyond which the tra veller enters the city of Guatemala. CHAPTER IV. MISCELLANEOUS SKETCHES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. WE find no complete description of Central America. Juarras, although born and brought up in the country, says almost nothing of the eastern coast, or of the Mosquito Shore. It is remarkable that some of the most accurate descriptions of some parts of Central America, especially of the Rio Vankes or Segovia, are found in the journals of the old buccaneers. Of recent travellers, Mr. Stephens alone has best described the routes along which he travelled, and the places, things, and people which he saw. Juarras, in some of his descriptions of the Province and Lake of Nicaragua, is inaccurate from evident ignorance. Some of Dampier s descriptions are still accurate. Central America is a country of such great extent, varied configuration, lux uriant fertility, and abundant natural resources, that, with the advantages of its many excellent harbours, and of its geographical position, it must become one of i the most important in America, in connexion with the maritime and commercial ; spirit of the age, and with the events that have occurred, and those now in pro gress, towards inevitably great changes in the condition of Mexico and of this region. Central America cannot remain much longer an unproductive and bar barous country. We may at present apply to its rulers and possessors the remark made by Montesquieu on Constantinople, the condition of which he ascribed to " God permitting that Turks should exist on the earth ; a people the most fit to possess uselessly a great empire." To complete the best account we can of this country, we have condensed 800 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the following miscellaneous sketches, and those in the succeeding chapters, from the accounts of Dupais, Kingsborough, Roberts, Waldeck 4 , Del Rio, Captain Belcher, Baily, Rouchaud, Dumatry, also from a work on Mexico and Guatemala published in Boston, and those subsequently of Mr. Stephens. The localities of the places described will be more easily discovered by a reference to the best modern maps of Central America. On the party, with which Mr. Stephens travelled, leaving Gualan, the Mota- gua River flowed down on the right, and beyond it rose the mountains of Vera Paz, 6000 to 8000 feet high. They ascended amidst flowers, shrubs, and bushes decked in purple and red ; and " on the sides of the mountain and in the ravines leading down to the river, in the wildest positions, were large trees so covered with red that they seemed a single flower." As they descended, the river was rolling swiftly, and in some places breaking into rapids. They reached the village of San Pablo, " situated on a lofty table-land, looking down upon the river and having its view bounded by the mountains of Vera Paz/ The church stood at the entrance of the village. They turned the mules loose to graze, and took their meals in the porch. It was a beautiful posi tion, and two waterfalls shone like streaks of silver on the distant mountain-side. At Zacapa, they saw, for the first time, a school-house. It was a respectable- looking building, with columns in front, and against the wall hung a large card, headed, " 1st Decurion (a student who has the care of ten other students), 2nd Decurion, monitor, &c. " Interior regulation for the good government of the School of First Letters of this town, which ought to be observed strictly by all the boys composing it, &c." With a long list of complicated articles declaring the " rewards and punish ments." The school, for the government of which these regulations were intended, consisted of five boys, two besides the decurions and monitor. It was nearly noon, and the master, who was the clerk of the alcalde, had not made his appearance. The only books were a Catholic prayer-book, and a translation of Montesquieu s " Spirit of Laws." In an hour afterwards they forded the Motagua, still abroad, deep, and rapid stream. They then entered on the plain of Zacapa, cultivated for corn and cochineal, and divided by fences of brush and cactus. Beyond this the country became broken, arid, and barren. Soon after, they commenced ascending a steep mountain, and in two hours reached the top, 3000 or 4000 feet high, and looking back, had a fine view of the plain and town of Zacapa. He says, " Crossing the ridge, we reached a bold precipitous spur, and very soon saw before us another extensive plain, and afar off, the town of Chiquimula, with its giant church. On each side were immense ravines, and the opposite heights were covered with pale and rose-coloured mimosa. We descended by a long and zigzag path, and reached the plain, on which were growing corn, cochineal, and plantain. Once more fording a CENTRAL AMERICA. * Head of the In the centre of the plaza a fountain, shaded by palm-trees, was surrounded by women filling their water-jars. Facing the Plaza were the church and cabeldo. " On one corner," says Mr. Stephens, was a house, to which we were attracted bv the appearance of a woman at the door. I may call her a lady, for she wore not open behind, and shoes and stockings, and had a face of uncommon interest, dark and with finely-pencilled eyebrows. To heighten the effect of her appearance she eave us a gracious welcome to her house, and in a few minutes the shed was lumbered with our multitarous luggage. The number of ruined churches in Central America is remarkable, as bearing on the declining condition of the country. Many of the churches, and even of theold Spanish towns, seem destined to be overgrown with forest trees in the same man ner as Bupais, Waldeck, and Stephens have found the ruined temples of Central America and Yucatan. Walking down to the edge of the table of land, Mr. Stephens saw what had attracted his attention at a great distance a large church in ruins. It was seventy- five feet in front, and two hundred and fifty feet in depth, and the walls were ten feet thick. The facade was adorned with ornaments and figures of saints larger than life. The roof had fallen. The inside was filled with masses of stone and mortar, and a thick growth of trees. " It was built by the Spaniards on the site of the old Indian village, but having been twice shattered by earthquakes, the inhabitants had deserted, and built the town where it now stands. The ruined village was now occupied as a campo santo or burial-place ; inside the church were the graves of the principal inhabitants, and in the niches of the wall were the bones of priests and monks, with their names written under them. Outside were the graves of the common people, untended and uncared for, with the barrow of laced sticks which had carried the body to the grave laid upon the top, and slightly covered with earth. The bodies had decayed, the dirt fallen in, and the graves were yawning. Around this scene of desolation and death, nature was rioting in beauty ; the ground was covered with flowers, and parrots on every bush and tree, and flying in flocks over our heads, wanton in gaiety of colours, with senseless chattering disturbed the stillness of the grave." On returning to the town he found about twelve hundred soldiers, of ferocious and banditti like character, parading in the plaza. " Convicts were peeping through the gratings of the prison, and walking in chains on the plaza. Officers were mounted on prancing mules or very small horses, almost hidden in saddle cloth and armour. In the village of San Estevan, on the route to the ruins of Copan, amid a miserable collection of thatched huts, stood a gigantic church, like that at Chi- quimula, in ruins. This district had a little before been scourged by civil war. From the top of the mountain, where he had, at a great distance, a view of the town of Chiquimula, he beheld rising above a few thatched huts, another gigantic and roofless church. On heights apparently inaccessible, the wild hut of the Indian appeared, with his milpa or patch of Indian corn. " Clouds gathered around the mountains, and for an hour we rode in the rain; when VOL. i. 5 K 802 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the sun broke through, we saw the mountain tops still towering above us, and on our right far below us, a deep valley. We descended, and found it narrower and more beau tiful than any we had yet seen," bounded by ranges of mountains several thousand feet high, and having on its left a range of extraordinary beauty, with a red soil of sandstone, without any brush of underwood, "and covered with gigantic pines. In front, rising above the miserable huts of the village, and seeming to bestride the valley, was the pijrantic church of St. John the Hermit, reminding me of the church of St. John in the Wilder ness of Judea, but the situation was even more beautiful. At four o clock we saw, on a high table on the left, the village of Jocotan, with another gigantic church. " At six o clock we rose upon a beautiful table land, on which stood another gigan tic church. It was the seventh we had seen that day, and coming upon them in a region of desolation, and by mountain paths which human hands had never attempted to im prove, their colossal grandeur and costliness were startling, and gave evidence of a retrograding and expiring people. This stood in a more desolate place than any we had yet seen. The grass was green, the sod unbroken even by a mule path, not a hu man beino- was in si^ht, and even the gratings of the prison had no one looking through them." A Hacienda. The hacienda of San Antonio was situated in a wildly beauti ful country. It consisted of a clearing for a cow-yard and a milpa, or plantation, of maize; tobacco and plantains were also cultivated. " The house," says Mr. Stephens, " was built of poles plastered with mud, and against the wall, in front of the door, was a figure of the Saviour on the cross, on a white cotton cloth, hung round with votive offerings. A naked child, which the mo ther carried in her arms, was called Maria de los Angelos. While supper was in pre paration, the master of the house arrived, a swarthy grim-looking fellow, with a broad- brimmed sombrero and huge whiskers, and mounted on a powerful young horse, which he was just breaking to the mountain roads ; when he knew that we were strangers asking hospitality, his harsh features relaxed, and he repeated the welcome the woman had iriven us. "They asked us about our wives, and we learned that our simple-minded host had two, one of them lived at Hocotan, and that he passed a week alternately with each. He assisted us in swinging our hammocks, and about nine o clock we drove out the dogs and pigs, lighted cigars, and went to bed. Including servants, women, and children, we numbered eleven in the room. All around were little balls of fire, shining and disap pearing with the puffs of the cigars. One by one these went out, and we fell asleep. A Thunder-storm. "The road lav through a thick forest: very soon the clouds became blacker than ever. On the left was a range of naked mountains, the old stone quarries of Copan, along which the thunder rolled fearfully, and the lightning wrote angry inscriptions on its sides. An English tourist in the United States admits the superiority of our thunder and lightning. I am pertinacious on all points of national honour, but concede this in favour of the tropics. The rain fell as if flood-gates were opened from above; and while my mule was slipping and sliding through the mud I lost my road." The River Copan. Mr. Stephens says, the Guadalquiver cannot be more beautiful than this river. Ascending an eminence afterwards, he saw a large field with stone fences and bars, and cattle-yard. It seemed to resemble a Westchester farm in new England. He entered by a gate, and rode up through a fine park to a long, low, substantial-looking hacienda. It belonged to a Don Clementino. " The family consisted of a widow with a large family of children, the principal of whom was Don Clementino a young man of twenty-one, and a sister of about sixteen or seventeen, a beautiful fair-haired girl." CENTRAL AMERICA. K( ( ,, There was at the time a party of young people in holiday dresses, mules with fanciful saddles, were tied to the post of the piazza. The Don was dress. white jacket and trousers, braided and embroidered, white-cotton cap covered b a steeple-crowned glazed hat, with a silver cord as a band, and a silver ball with a pointed bit of steel as a cockade, and red and yellow stripes under the bnm This young Don was the beau ideal of impudence and ignorance. After asking very silly questions of Mr. Stephens, he picked up a guitar, danced off to his own music, and sat down on the earthen floor of the piazza to play cards. Preparations were, at the same time, going on fora wedding, to be celebrated at a house two leagues distant, a little before dark. The young men and girls were dressed for the visit. All were mounted, and "for the first time" says Mr. Stephens, " I admired exceedingly the fashion of the country in riding. My admiration was called forth by the sister of Don Clemen- lino and the happy young gallant who accompanied her. Both rode the same mule and on the same saddle. She sat sideways before him ; his right arm encircled her waist- at starting the mule was restive, and he was obliged, from necessity, to support her in her seat, to draw her close to himself; her ear invited a whisper, and when she turned her face towards him her lips almost touched his." Don Clementino had " a fine mule gaily caparisoned, swung a large basket-hilled sword through a strap in the saddle, buckled on a pair of enormous spurs, and mount ing, wound hispoucha around his waist, so that the hilt of the sword appeared about six inches above it; giving the animal a sharp thrust with his spurs, he drove her up the steps, through the piazza, and down the other side, he started to overtake the others." The supper consisted of fried beans, fried eggs, and tortillas. The beans and eggs were served on heavy silver dishes, and the tortillas were laid in a pile by his side. There were no plate, knife, fork, or spoon. Mr. Stephens slept in an outbuilding constructed of small poles and thatched, and for the whole paid eighteen cents and three-quarters. He gave a pair of earings to a woman whom he supposed to be a servant, but whom he found was only a visiter. At this, though a private residence, he paid as almost everywhere else, for every thing. The Don afterwards persuaded Mr. Stephens to buy his mule, and mounted on which he ascended the great Sierra, which divides the streams running into the Atlantic from those that flow into the Pacific Ocean. The scenery was wild and grand, but it rained heavily. When descending, the clouds cleared off, and an al most boundless plain opened to view, extending from the foot of the sierra; afar off, standing alone in the wilderness, rose the great church Esquipulas. On entering the town in the evening, he rode up to the convent. " The whole household of the cura, turned out to assist, and in a few minutes the mules were munching corn in the yard, while I was installed in the seat of honour in the rvent. It was by far the largest and best building in the place. this cura was a young delicate man under thirty. He was dressed in a long, 3lack bombazet robe, drawn tight around the neck, with a cross and rosary sus- oended. His name was Jesus Maria Guttierrez. The matin bell called the people to mass. Groups of Indian women knelt 804 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. around the altar, with white mantillas flowing down from over their heads, and without shoes or stockings. Here is the great church of the pilgrimage, the holy place of Central America. Every year, on the 15th of January, pilgrims visit it. They come even from Peru and Mexico ; the latter being a journey not exceeded in hardship by the pilgrimage to Mecca. As in the East, "it is not forbidden to trade during the pilgrimage," and when there are no wars to make the roads unsafe, eighty thousand people have assembled among the mountains to barter and pay homage to " our Lord of Esquipulas." "The town of Esquipulas contains a population of about 1500 Indians. There was one street nearly a mile long, with mud houses on each side; but most of the houses were shut, being occupied only during the time of the fair. At the head of this street, on elevated ground, stood the great church. " Ascending by a flight of massive stone steps in front of the church, we reached a noble platform a hundred and fifty feet broad, and paved with bricks a foot square. The view from this platform of the great plain and the high mountains around was mag nificent ; and the church, rising in solitary grandeur in a region of wildness and desola tion, seemed almost the work of enchantment. The facade was rich with stucco ornaments and figures of saints larger than life ; at each angle was a high tower, and over the dome a spire, rearing aloft in the air the crown of that once proud power which wrested the greatest part of America from its rightful owners, ruled it for three centuries with a rod of iron, and now has not within it a foot of land or a subject to boast of. " We entered the church by a lofty portal, rich in sculptured ornaments. Inside was a nave with two aisles, separated by rows of pilasters nine feet square, and a lofty dome guarded by angels with expanded wings. On the walls were pictures, some drawn by artists of Guatemala and others that had been brought from Spain, and the recesses were filled with statues, some of which were admirably well executed. The pulpit was covered with gold-leaf, and the altar protected by an iron railing with a silver balus trade, ornamented with six silver pillars about two feet high, and two angels standing as guardians on the steps. In front of the altar, in a rich shrine, is an image of the Saviour on the cross, our Lord of Esquipulas/ to whom the church is consecrated, famed for its power of working miracles. Every year thousands of devotees ascend the steps of his temple on their knees, or laden with a heavy cross, who are not permitted to touch the sacred image, but go away contented in obtaining a piece of riband stamped with the words, Dulce nombre de jesus. " On leaving Esquipulas the road ascends the mountain of Quezaltepeque, the brows of which are thickly wooded, muddy, and full of gullies. The route on the heights commands a splendid view of the plain of Esquipulas, with the great sierra behind, covered with lofty pines, the great church, and the village of Quezaltepeqne. The descent on the opposite side is very precipitous, with mud-holes and deep gulleys. A narrow path leads along the very edge of the precipice, part of the way on a narrow overhanging ledge, and in other places by a path constructed on the face of the rock to the bottom of the ravine. The ravine ^at the bottom extends between precipitous walls of dark limestone, deep, narrow, and remarkably savage in aspect, with a stream rolling through it over rocks. From this wild pass to the richuelo of San Jacinto, there is no cultivation, and the whole country remains in primeval wildness. CENTRAL AMERICA. On leaving San Jacinto, where he was most hospitably treated by the padre Mr. Stephens remarks, . was rich * for eightcents; On the following day, having lodged in a place filled with negroes, child.. ,, and flies, he travelled onwards, and had on his right the Montagua River and the mountains of Vera Paz. The road was level; it was excessively hot; and late in the afternoon, he came upon a table-land covered with trees, bearing a flower, looking like apple-trees in blossom, and cactus or tunos, with branches from three to fifteen feet long. He rode into Chimalapa, a long straggling village with a large church, but no cura, and he proceeded to the Cabildo, or the town-house, which was also used as a sort of caravansary for travellers; a remnant of oriental usages introduced from Spain, into her former American possessions. Next day he travelled onwards, and at the foot of a high mountain, a cluster of cocoa-nut-trees, glittered in the sunbeams like plates of silver, and concealed Guastatoya, a town beautifully situated, overlooking a valley, waving with In dian corn. Here, at the house of the brother of Donna Bartola, his hostess of Guelan, he had a good supper of eggs, frijoles, chocolate, and tortillas. Leaving Guastatoya, he rode for some distance through a cultivated country, with the fields divided by fences. Next day, as he travelled onwards, the country presented magnificent views. He saw, at a great distance below the heights, in an amphitheatre of mountains, the village of El Puente, the ground around which was white and trodden hard by caravans of mules. On descending to the village, he crossed a bridge, sup ported by a stone arch, thrown across a ravine with a cataract foaming through it. This point was completely encircled by mountains, " wild to sublimity, and reminding him of some of the finest parts of Switzerland." He then says, " We passed a village of huts, situated on the ridge of the mountains, * "The Padre of San Jacinto appears to have heena man above six feet, broad-shouldered, and with a protuberance in front that required support to keep it from falling. His dress consisted of a shirt and pair of pantaloons, with button-holes begging for employment ; but he had a he-art as big as his body, and as open as his wearing apparel ; and when I told him that I had ridden from Esquipulas that day, he said I must remain a week to recruit ; as to going the next day he would not hear of it ; and, in fact, very soon I found that it was impossible without other aid, for my abominable muleteer filled up the measure of his iniquities by falling ill with a violent fever. " The padre insisted on my taking his own cahe, which was unusually neat, and had a mos quito-netting. It was my best bed since I left Colonel M Donald s at Belize. Before I was up he stood over me with a flask of agua ardiente ; soon after came chocolate, with a roll of sweet bread ; and finding that it was impossible to get away that day, I became a willing victim to his hospitality. At nine o clock we had breakfast ; at twelve, fruit ; at two, dinner; at five, choco late and "sweet bread ; and at eight, supper ; with constant intermediate invitations to aqua ardiente, which the padre, with his hand on that prominent part of his own body, said was good for the stomach. In every thing, except good feeling, he was the complete i Cura of Esquipulas. 806 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. commanding on both sides a view of an extensive valley 4000 or 5000 feet below us. Continuing on this magnificent ridge, we descended upon a table of rich land, and saw a gate opening into grounds which reminded me of park scenery in England; undulating, and ornamented with trees. In the midst of this stood the hacienda of San Jose, a long, low, stone building, with a corridor in front; it was one of those which, when least ex pected, touch a tender chord, call up cherished associations, make a traveller feel as though he could linger around it for ever, and particularly welcome to us, as we. had not breakfasted. " It was a hacienda de ganados, or cattle hacienda, and had hundreds of cattle roam ing over it; but all that it could give us to eat was eggs, tortillas, and beans, softened in hot water ; the last being about equal to a basket of fresh chips. The road from this place lay over a table of land, green and rich as an European lawn, ornamented with trees, and with features of scenery peculiarly English; muleteers, who had left the city at midnight, were lying under the shade of the trees, their saddles and cargoes piled over each other, and their mules pasturing near. Along the table-land, there were ruins of huts, and if adorned instead of being deformed by the hand of man, this would be a region of poetic beauty. Indians, men and women, with loads on their backs ; each party carried a bundle of rockets. They were all returning from the capitol, as they proudly call Guatemala to their villages among the mountains. Two days before, the Indian chief, Carrera, had re-entered the city with his soldiers." After giving some account of the new capital of Central America, Mr. Stephens, on the l?th of December, set out on an excursion to La Antigua Guatemala and the Pacific Ocean, accompanied by a young man, who wished to ascend the vol cano de Agua. He says : " As we continued, the mountains turned to the left, and on the other side of the stream were a few openings cultivated with cochineal, into the very hollow of the base. Again the road turned and then ran straight, making a vista of more than a mile between the mountains, at the end of which was the Antigua (Guatemala) -, standing in a delight ful valley, shut in by mountains and hills that always retain their verdure, watered by two rivers that supply numerous fountains, with a climate in which heat or cold never predominates; yet this city, surrounded by more natural beauty than any location I ever saw, has, perhaps, undergone more calamities than any city that was ever built. We passed the gate and rode through the suburbs, in the opening of the valley. On one side of which was a new house that reminded me of an Italian villa." A large cochineal plantation extended to the base of the mountain. He crossed a stream bearing the poetical name of El Rio Pensativo, on the other side was a fine fountain, and at the corner of the street was the ruined church of San Domingo. "The route from Old Guatemala towards the Pacific was," says Mr. Stephens, " level and wooded. We passed a trapiche, or sugar-mill, worked by oxen, and before daylight reached the village of Masagua, four leagues distant, built in a clearing cut out of the woods, at the entrance of which we stopped under a grove of orange-trees, and by the light of the moon, filled our pockets and alforgas with the shining fruit. Daylight broke upon us in a forest of gigantic trees, from seventy-five to a hundred feet high, and from twenty to twenty-five feet in circumference, with creepers winding around their trunks and hanging from the branches. The road was merely a path through the forest, formed by cutting away shrubs and branches. The freshness of the morning was de lightful. We had descended from the table-land, called the tierras templadas, and were now in the tierras calientes ; but at nine o clock the glare and heat of the sun did not penetrate the thick shade of the woods. In some places the branches of the trees, trimmed by the machete of a passing muleteer, and hung with a grapery of vines and creepers, bearing red and purple flowers, formed, for a long distance, natural arches more beautiful than any ever fashioned by man, and there were parrots and other birds, of beautiful plumage flying among the trees; among them, guacamayas, or great macaws. CENTRAL AMERICA. s() - clad in red, yellow, and green. There were also vultures and scorpions across the road and up the trees, innumerable iguanas or lizards roT i c h o tl "" feet long. The road was a mere track among the trees Mulete* from the port to the capital, were met twice ; "otherwise Jhe rout was ES&F* *"* Twelve miles from Old Guatemala, Mr. Stephens stopped at the hacienda of Naranjo, occupied by a major-domo, who looked after the cattle of the proprietor roaming wild in the woods: the house stood in the midst of a clearing, built of poles, with a cattle-yard in front. He spied a cow with a calf, which was a sign of milk." The major-domo, with a lazo, caught the calf first, and then the cow, and hauled her up by the horns to a post. "The hut," he observes, had but one guacal, or drinking-shell, made of a gourd and it was so small that we sat down by the cow so as not to lose much time. We had bread, chocolate, and sausages, and after a ride of twenty-four miles made a glorious breakfast; but we exhausted the poor cow, and I was ashamed to look the calf in the face." The great plain over which he travelled, as far as Overo, about forty miles, was densely wooded and uncultivated, the soil rich and capable of maintaining, with little labour, thousands of inhabitants. Passing by Overo the country was more open. The River Michatoyat, whence the path first meets the waters of the Pacific, is the outlet of the Lake of Amatitlan, and is said to be navigable from the Falls of San Pedro Martyr, seventy miles from its mouth ; but there were no boats upon it, and its banks are still in a wilderness state. The crossing place was at the old mouth of the river. IZTAKA. The port at the mouth of this river is an open roadstead, without bay, headland, rock, or reef, or any mark whatever to distinguish it from the adjacent shores. fc There is no light at night, and vessels at sea take their bearings from the great volcanoes of the Antigua; more than sixty miles inland. A buoy was anchored outside of the breakers, with a cable attached, and under the sheds were three large launches for embarking and disembarking the cargoes of the few vessels which resort to this place." At the time of Mr. Stephens visit, a ship from Bordeaux lay off, more than a mile from the shore. Her boat had some time before landed the supercargo and passengers, since which she had had no communication with the land. Behind the sandbar were a few Indian huts and Indians nearly naked. Generally the sea is, as its name imports, pacific, and the waves roll calmly to the shore ; but in the smoothest times there is a breaker, and to pass this, as a part of the fixtures of the port, an anchor is dropped outside with a buoy attached, and a long cable passing from the buoy is secured on the shore. It was from this place that Alvarado fitted out his arma ment and embarked with his followers to dispute with Pizarro the riches of Peru. Around the base of the volcano do Agua, are cultivated fields and a belt of forest and verdure extends to the top. Opposite there is another volcano with its slopes wooded with magnificent trees. Between the two there is a convent of Douii- 808 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. nican friars, and a beautiful valley in which there are hot springs, smoking for more than a mile along the road, near which the nopals, or cochineal plantations, commence. On both sides are high clay walls, and Mr. Stephens says these nopals are more extensive than those of the Antigua, and more valuable, as though only twenty-five miles from it, the climate is so different that they produce two crops in each season. Here was one of the largest cochineal plantations, which contained 400,000 plants. It was in charge of a citizen of the United States, from Rheinbeck Landing, on the Hudson River, where his father then kept a store. He had been a clerk in New York, and then in Mexico. Induced by a large offer, and a strong disposition to ramble and see the country, he accepted a proposal from another American, who exhibited wild beasts, to accompany him. " His business was to go on before the caravan, hire a place, give notice, and make preparations for the exhibition of the animals. In this capacity he had travelled all over Mexico, and from thence to Guatemala. It was seven years since he left home, and since parting with his American employer, he had not spoken a word of his own language, and as he spoke it now it was more than half Spanish." The road from this place to New Guatemala leads across a plain with high, nearly precipitous, and verdant elevations on the left, for about a league, where the ascent is by a steep height to the table-land of Guatemala. This road Mr. Stephens considered at the time the most delightful ride he had had in the country. Mr. Stephens visited the Lake of Amititlan ; it was dark when he reached the top of the high range of mountains which bounds this lake. " Looking down," he says, " it seemed like a gathering of fog in the bottom of a deep valley. The descent was by a rough zigzag path on the side of a mountain, very steep, and in the extreme darkness, difficult and dangerous. We felt happy when we reached the bank of the lake, though still a little above it. The mountains rose round it like a wall, and cast over it a gloom deeper than the shade of night. We rode for some distance with the lake on our left, and a high and perpendicular mountain-side on our right. A cold wind had succeeded the intense heat of the day, and when we reached Amatitlan, I was perfectly chilled." He afterwards embarked in a goelette brig, the only vessel on the Pacific, which carried the Central American flag. This vessel was built in England for a cutter, and called the Britannia. He knew not by what means this craft reached the Pacific, where she was "bought by the state of San Salvador, when at war with Guatemala, and called by that state s Indian name of Cuscatlan. Afterwards, she was sold to an Englishman, who called her Eugenia, and by him to Captain D Yriarte, who called her La Cosmopolita." Sailing along the coast, they passed the volcanoes of San Salvador, San Vin- cente, San Miguel, Tolega, Momotombo, Managua, Nindiri, Nasaya, and Nica ragua, forming an uninterrupted chain. Mr. Stephens remarks, u This coast has well been described as bristling with volcanic cones. For two days we lay with sails flapping in sight of Cape Blanco, the upper head land of the Gulf of Nicoya. On the afternoon of the 31st we entered the gulf. In a line with a point of the cape was an island of rock, with high, bare, and precipitous sides, and the top covered with verdure. It was about sunset ; for nearly an hour the CENTRAL AMEKIPA. g () g "t ...... 9 Pacific, W ith the H, l^f T 6 S6t Up n P ilGS With a tile roof > and ^ar it were three or fou thatched huts and two canoes. We anchored in front of the houses, and appare u without exciting the attention of a soul on shore." He says that, "All the ports of Central America on the Pacific are unhealtliv-lmt this was considered deadly. I had entered, without apprehension, cities w h , Pg S ^"^ "" * ^^ ^^ ^ WaS a death - liljc stillness * From Caldera the country inland is level, rich, and uncultivated, with here and there a wretched cattle hacienda, the owners of which live in the towns. Herds are stationed on the estates, from time to time, to gather and number the cattle, which roam wild in the woods. One hacienda, called San Felippe, belonged to a Welchman engaged in mining. It was in a large clearing, and a fine situa tion, with neat buildings and good fences. At the hacienda of San Mateo, situated in the bocca of the mountain of Aguacate, the route to the high grounds is steep, wild, and rugged. " As we toiled up the ravine," says Mr. Stephens, " we heard before us a loud noise that sounded like distant thunder, but regular and continued, and becoming louder as we ^advanced ; and at length we came out on a small clearing, and saw on the side of the"mountain a neat frame building of two stories, with a light and graceful balcony in front, and alongside was the thundering machine which had startled us by its noise. Strangers from the other side of the Atlantic were piercing the sides of the mountain, and pounding its stones into dust in search for gold. The whole range, the very ground which our horses spurned with their hoofs, contained that treasure for which man forsakes kindred and country. u The superintendent was a German from Friesburg. His house was furnished with chairs, sofa, and books, and had in my eyes a delightful appearance ; but the view with out was more so, The stream which turned the immense pounding machine had made the spot, from time immemorial, a descansadera, or resting-place for muleteers. All around were mountains, and directly in front, one rose to a great height, receding and covered to the top with trees." This German had been superintendent of the Quelrada del Ingenio for about three years. " The company which he represented was called the Anglo Costa Rican economical Mining Company. It had been in operation three years without losing any thing, which was considered t doing so well that it had increased its capital and was about conti nuing on a larger scale. The machine, which had just been set up, was a new Ger man patent, called a machine for extracting gold by the Zillentlial Patent Stlf-tn-tiny Cold Amalgamation Process (1 believe that Ihave omitted nothing), and its great value was, that it required no preliminary process; but by one continued and simple operation extracted the gold from the stone. It was an immense wheel of cast-iron, by which the stone, as it came from the mountain, was pounded into powder; this passed into troughs rilled with water, and from them into a reservoir containing vases, where the gold de tached itself from the other particles, and combined with the quicksilver with which the vases were provided." VOL. I. 5 L S10 SPAWSII \MVKh" v\ i;rrrr>i :> - There were several mines under his ohar-v rvallio was the h: .logists who have visited \V, - -^ America have assorted that immense wealth lies buried in the mountain of Apiaeate : and that its localitievS .dent. The lodes, or mineral ^ l HW uor;h and south, in strata oC grec wphyry, and basaltic .d *?tWftabout threefeetin width. In s .vs. sido outs, or later -s are made 1 ivm oast to west, and -.nk until (.hey strike (ho vein. ^ vos, as we continued ascending:. -..-and and tvaut.lV... if .idonly f:v >x I tlM r.i -,(ie. the Olllfc N , N .>. and. silting: like a bird ,vw0;*rftAfi ; and here on thv ^ N . ^ :. in the ^st beautiful spots that ever men chose for their abodes, \v : t ho ie sea, lighted up the surUoe of the water, an/. .the icerie I ever ; . . the love. . 5 . nly it became dark, and very soon the darkest night I ever knew cam I descended, the woods wore so thick that even in the daytime thc\ : the .-s the road was cut through steep hills higher than our heads, and N foliage. Hezoos (the guide) was before me with a I ui a white dog running by his side, but I could not see the outline of his ;.,> :\v,d was steep but pwd. and I did not pretend to direct the mule. In one of the darkest passages Hezoos stopped, and, with a voice that made the woods ; cried out, * a lion, a lion. t was startled, but he dismounted and lighted a cigar. This was cool. I thought; he relieved me by telling me that the lion was a different animal from the roarer of the African desert, small, frighted by a shout, and only ate children." As he advanced inland, the Cv league before entering Alaguela, the road was lined on both sides with houses 300 or 400 \ aids apart built of whitewashed adobes, and the fronts of MM ornamented with painting. Several had chalked in red, on each side the door, the figure of a soldier, with his musket shouldered and bayonet fixed, "luge *s life and stiff as a martinet." The rows of trees on both sides of the road Hits bearing beautiful (lowers, which. in some places, " completely embowered the houses*** In the fields the growing of sugar-canes was the chief culture ; every house had attached a small trapickt) or sugar-mill. Then tit fbtr cities in Costa Rica, all of which lie within the space of fifteen leagues; yet each has a different climate and different produc tions, Including the suburbs, jlfogtre/n contains a population of about 10,000, The Plaza was beautifully situated, and the church, the cabildo, the houses fronting it were handsome. The lat . with broad pimfcs tnd large windows, having wooden balconies. * It was Sunday," says Mr. Stephens. and the inhabitants, cleanly dressed, **re I ..ag on the piazras, or with doors wide open, roelininjr in h.. s - or on hi^h-backed >ettoes inside. The woolen imi* uresscv. like ladies, and more were handsome, all white; a respect ab; .. s _ . .. - .-f one of the v ailed out Amuro. * friend. and asked vs who we were, whence we came, and ;-.\- c\ . :. ;v\^ .v-.-ending us : . all alone we: in the same ftiwdly spirit. Water was carried, from a great d:> the te -Tien. vs N a large town has grown up and been contim s > element < A. r th : ir descendant . now. , - , fi , wind, he says was abort " "",.", Dr or m imodrad fti datp w.th sHps^SiS:: 3tBS?Kr^f*t . walked along 1 of a, loamy, hk* Manauga is described as beautifully situated on the bank* of the lake. Meant f,f Intercourse. On an ox-waggon, with the luggage and a slock of cor and grans for the mules during the intended voyage, they reached Kim -on, most respectable-looking towns in Nicaragua. The house of the ownW of was one of the largest in the place, and furnished with two mahogany sofas, m>*A* \ rank* cabinet-maker in Lima, two looking-frlasse* with gilt frames, a French clock, gilt with cane- bottoms and two Boston rocking-chairs, which had ma/Je th* MajSea round Cape Morn." From this place he started for the port of Naguiscolo, seven Vifiai diataart, through a forest. He overtook the bungo men, nearly naked, moving in single file, with the pilot at their head, and each carrying on his back an open network containing tortillas and provisions for the voyage. When be arrived a he found only a single but, at which a woman was washing corn, with a "f>Vfd child blotched with sores. "In front was a large muddy plain, through the certre of which ran a straight cot called a canal, with an embankment on one side dry, the mod bak< . -\ bleached by the sun. In this ditch lay several bungoes high and dry, adding to the ugliness of the picture. " The bungo in which we started was about forty feet long, dog out of the tror a guanaoaste-tree, about five feet wide and nearly as deep, with the bottom round, ami a tddo, or awning, round like the top of a market- wa? von, made of matting aod bvJF* hides, covered ten feet of the stern. Beyond were six seats acroo the aides of the bungo for the oarsmen. The whole front was flCflHify for the men, and in reality I bad * One historian, speaking of Nicaragua, says, ** Thereat* the chief of which is Masaya, where the native*, at certain times, mfhrtd op i/.f.o it, thinking by their lives to appease the fire, that it mi^ isot destrov the country ; went to it very cheerful." And in another place he says, " / r>r*e leagues nom the city of Maaaya, being a burning mountain, the mouth of it being half a teasrn* in compass, and the deothwithts) it 250 fathoms. There are no trees nor gram, btit birds boild without any dirtnrimnee from the is*. re is another mouth like that of a well about a bowshot over, the dmtanc* from which to the fire is about 150 fathoms, always boiling up, and that mast tA fire often rises and gyve* a great o that it can be seen at a considerable distance. It move* fam one side to the other, and some times roars so loud that it is dreadful, yet never casts npany thing hot swoke and isane, Tne - never ceasing at the bottom, nor its filing, isaaj^n^r tne same to be gold, F. Btise de .ta, of the order of St. Dominick, and two otter .Spaniard were letdown into the fine mort in two basket*, with a bucket made of one piece of iron, and a long chain to draw up some fiery matter and know whether it was metal. The chain rasi I -SO mthoms, aad as soon as tt cm to the fire the bucket melted, with some links ofthe chain in avervhort time, and d^r.^wi nVy could not know what was below. Tney by there that night without any was* of I and came out again in their baskets sufficiently frighted." This account b evidently much exaggerated. 812 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. only the part occupied by the awning where, with the mules as tenants in common, there were too many of us." The sun was scorching, and under the awning the heat was insufferable. Fol lowing the coast at eleven o clock they were opposite the volcano of Coseguina, a long dark mountain promontory, with another lidge running below it, and then an extensive plain covered with lava to the sea. " Before we reached the volcano of Coseguina,* with its field of lava and its desolate shore, not a living being was in sight except my sleeping boatmen. " Towards evening my men all woke; the wind was fair, but they took things quietly, and after supper hoisted sail. About twelve o clock, by an amicable arrangement, I stretched myself on the pilot s bench under the tiller, and when I woke we had passed the volcano of Tigris, and were in an archipelago of islands more beautiful than the islands of Greece. The wind died away, and the boatmen, after plying a little while with the oars, again let fall the big stone and went to sleep. Outside the awning the heat of the sun was withering, under it the closeness was suffocating, and my poor mules had had no water since their embarkation. Fortunately, before they got tired we had a breeze, and at about four o clock in the afternoon the big stone was dropped in the harbour of La Union, in front of the town. One ship was lying at anchor, a whaler from Chili, which had put in in distress and been condemned." From this place he travelled to St. Miguel, and stopped on his way at the village of San Aiejo, where the people were in a state of excitement from the report of an invasion from Honduras. * The eruption of this volcano on the 20th of January, 1835, was one of the most awful in the history of volcanic eruptions. It greatly alarmed the people of Guatemala, 400 miles off; at Kingston, Jamaica, 800 miles distant, the reports heard were so distinct as to be considered guns of distress fired by ships at sea. "The face of nature was changed; the cone of the volcano was gone; a mountain and field of. lava ran down to the sea ; a forest, old as creation, had entirely disappeared, and two islands were formed in the sea; shoals were discovered, in one of which a large tree was fixed upside down; one river was complely choked up, and another formed, running in an opposite direction ; seven men in the employ of my bungo proprietor ran down to the water, pushed off in a bungo, and were never heard of more ; wild beasts, howling, left their caves in the mountains, and ounces, leopards, and snakes fled for shelter to the abodes of man." A Mr. Savage, who was on that day on the side of the volcano of San Miguel, distant 120 miles, looking for cattle, saw at eight o clock a dense cloud rising in th south in a pyramidal form, and heard a noise which soundedlike the roaring of the sea. Soon after, there appeared amidst the clouds, bright, rose-coloured, forked lightning. " These appearances," says Mr. Stephens, " increased so far that his men became frightened, and said it was a ruina, and that the end of the world was nigh. Very soon he himself was satisfied that it was the eruption of a volcano. He returned to the town of San Miguel, and in riding felt three severe shocks of earthquake. The inhabitants were distracted with terror. Birds flew wildly through the streets, and blinded by the dust, fell dead on the ground. At four o clock it was so dark that, as Mr. Savage says, he held up his hand before his eyes, and could not see it. Nobody moved without a candle which gave a dim and misty light, extending only a few feet. At this time the church was full, and could not contain half the people who wished to enter. The figure of the Virgin was brought out into the plaza and borne through the streets, followed by the inhabitants, with candles and torches, in penitential procession, crying upon the Lord to pardon their sins. Bells tolled, and during the procession there was another earthquake, so violent and long that it threw to the ground many people walk ing in the procession. The darkness continued till eleven o clock the next day, when the sun was partially visible, but dim and hazy, and without any brightness. The dust on the ground was four inches thick, and branches of trees broke with its weight, and people were so disfigured by it that they could not be recognised. At this time Mr. Savage set out for his hacienda at Sonzonate. He slept at the first village, and at two or three o clock in the morning was roused by a report like the breaking of most ter rific thunder, or the firing of thousands of cannon. This was the report which startled the people of Guatemala, when the commandant sallied out, supposing that the quartel was attacked, and which was heard at Kingston in Jamaica. It was accompanied by a most violent earthquake. CENTRAL AMERICA. Riding up the principal street in San Salvador, he passed a "larj;c climvli with its front fallen, and saw paintings on the walls, and an altar forty feet in -),. with columns, images sculptured and gilded, exposed to the open air." The state of San Salvador he considers the richest in Central America, extend ing 180 miles along the shores of the Pacific, producing tobacco, the best in and richest balsam in the world. In travelling over it, he says, " We had mountains and rivers, valleys and immense ravines, and the three great volcanoes of San Miguel, San Vincente, and San Salvador, one or other of which was almost constantly in sight. The whole surface is volcanic; for miles the road lay our beds of decomposed lava, inducing the belief that here the whole shore of the Pacific is an immense arch over subterraneous fires. From the time of the independence this state stood foremost in the maintenance of liberal principles, and throughout, it exhibits an appearance of improvement, a freedom from bigotry and fanaticism, and a development of physical and moral energy not found in any other. The San Salvadoreans are the only men who speak of sustaining the integrity of the Republic as a point of national honour." The Lempa was then a gigantic river rolling on to the Pacific. Three months before, he had seen it a a little stream among the mountains of Esquipu- las." He was overtaken by a Don Carlos Rivas, "a leading liberal from Hon duras, flying for life before partisan soldiers of his own state" " We descended to the bank of the river, and followed it through a wild forest, which had been swept by a tornado, the trees still lying as they fell. At the crossing-place, the valley of the river was half a mile wide; but being the dry season, on this side there was a broad beach of sand and stones." After crossing the Lempa, he says, " We slept upon our luggage on the bank of the river, and before daylight were again in the saddle. Crossing a beautiful plain, running to the base of the volcano of San Vincente, we left our animals at a hut, and walked some distance to a stream in a deep ravine, which we followed upward to its source, coming from the very base of the vol cano. The water was warm, and had a taste of vitriol, and the banks were incrusted with white vitriol and flour of sulphur. At a distance of one or two hundred yards it formed a basin, where the water was hotter than the highest grade of my Reaumur s thermometer. In several places we heard subterranean noises, and towards the end cf the ravine, on the slope of one side, was an orifice about thirty feet in diameter, from which, with a terrific noise, boiling water was spouted into the air. This is called ] Infiernillo, or the Infernal Regions. " We arrived at Cojutepeque, until within two days the temporary capital, be situated at the foot of a small extinct volcano. Its green and verdant sides, broken only by a winding path, and on the top a fortress, which Morazan had bu.lt rallying-place." Mr. Stephens entered by a fine gate, and through suburbs teeming with fruit and flower trees, the meanness of the houses was hardly noticed. Advancing, he saw heaps of rubbish, and large houses with their fronts cracked and falling, marks of the earthquake, which had broken it up as the seat of government, and almost depopulated the city. On leaving San Salvador at three o clock the next morning, a stream o rolling down the volcano of Izalco, bright, but paler by the moonlight. On the right, after passing an Indian village, they looked down t dicular side to a plain 2000 feet below; and in front, on another part of the i was 816 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. up to a recollection of their fathers, and it was rumoured that their eyes rolled strangely upon the white men as tlie enemies of their race." Here, for the first time, he saw fields of wheat and peach trees. The country was poetically called Europa ; and though the Volcano de Agua still reared in full sight its stupendous head, it resembled the finest part of England on a mag nificent scale. But he says, " it was not like travelling in England." The road then led over a magnificent table-land, in some parts, and for a con siderable distance, lined on each side with trees. In the afternoon they reached the brink of an immense precipice, in which, at a great distance, he saw " the molina or wheat-mill, looking like a New England factory." At Patzum, a large Indian village, they turned off to the right from the high road to Mexico by a by-path ; the country was beautiful, and in parts well cul tivated. This great table-land was elevated from 5000 to 6000 feet. He passed two mounds, such as are seen in the United States. Immense barrancas, or abrupt ravines, were also passed. Where these occur, the table-land is, according to Mr. Stephens, "level to the very edge where the earth seemed to have broken off and sunk, 5 and he looked down into a frightful abyss 2000 or 3000 feet deep. Gigantic trees at the bottom of the immense cavity looked like shrubs. For some distance before reaching the Indian village of Tecpan Guatemala, the road was shaded by trees and shrubs, the aloes were thirty feet high. The long street by which he entered was paved with stones from the ruins of the old city, and filled with drunken Indians. At the head of this street was zjine plaza, with a large cabildo, and twenty Indian alguazils under the corridor, with wands of office, in full suits of blue cloth, the trousers open at the knees, and with a cloak with a hood like the Arab burnouse. The church, one of the most magnificent in the country, was the second built after the conquest. The faade was 200 feet, very lofty, with turrets and spires, gorgeously ornamented with figures. On its high platform were Indians in pic turesque costume. This city of Patinamit belonged to the ancient kingdom of Kachiquel. It was also called Tecpan Guatemala, which according to Vasques, means " the Royal House of Guatemala," from which he infers that it was the capital of the Kachiquel kings. Fuentes is of opinion that Tecpan Guatemala was the fortress or arsenal of the kingdom, and that Guatemala was the kingly residence. A solitary Indian hut now occupies the site of the ancient city. Each year, however, on Good Friday, a grand procession of the whole neighbouring Indian population is made to it from Tecpan Guatemala. Near Patzum, as the road leads over high, level table-land, there is a great abrupt laranca, or ravine, 3000 feet deep. Descending from the plain, about 500 mules were passed loaded with wheat for the mills, and merchandise for Guatemala. The sides of the ravines were of an immense heigh f . In one place they rode along a perpendicular wall of lime-stone ROUTE FROM GUATEMALA TO PALENQUE. 817 rock, smoking with spontaneous combustion. They travelled over a lofty table land bordering the left of Atitlan ; and descended, at first by a steep pitch, and then gently for about three miles along the precipitous border of the lake, leaving on the right the cami/io real, and the village of San Andres, and suddenly reached the brink of the table-land, 2000 feet high. At the foot was a rich plain running down to the water. In the plain, " buried in foliage, with the spire of the church barely visible, stood the town of Panajachel." The magnificent landscape com prehended " all the requisites of the grand and beautiful ; gigantic mountains a valley of poetic softness, lake and volcanoes, and from the height on which they stood, a waterfall marked a silver line down its sides. A party of Indian men and women were moving in single file from the foot of the mountain towards the village, and looked like children. The descent was steep and perpendicular, and, reaching the plain, the view of the mountain walls was sublime." On reaching Tolola, a number of drunken Indians stood in a line, and took off their old petates (straw hats) with both hands. It was Sunday, and the bells of the church were ringing for vespers, rockets were firing, and a procession headed by fiddlers with their violins, was parading round the plaza the figure of a saint on horseback, dressed like a harlequin. Opposite the cabildo, the alcalde, with a crowd of mestitzoes, was fighting cocks. Tololo stands on the lofty borders of the Lake of Atitlan, and a hundred yards from it the whole water was visible. Mr. Stephens says, " I tied my horse to the whipping-post, and thanks to Carrera s passport, the alcalde sent off for sacate, had a room swept out in the cabildo, and offered to send us supper from his own house. He was about ten days in office, having been appointed since Carrera s last invasion." Formerly, this place was the residence of the youngest branch of the reign ing house of Kachiquel. At Santa Thomas, a crowd of Indians was gathered in the plaza, well dressed in brown cloth, and with long black hair, without hats. The entire population was Indian. There was not a single white man in the place, nor one who could speak Spanish, except an old mestitzo, who was the secretary of the alcalde. Mr. Stephens 5 party rode up to the cabildo, and tied the mules before the pn "Groups of villanous faces were fixed in the bars of the windows. We called for the alcalde, presented Carrera s passport, and demanded sacate, eggs, and ourselves, and a guide to Quiche. While these were got, the alcalde. : J^ ^ many alguazils as could find a place, seated themselves silently on a bench occup,e Ascending to the plain of Quiche, they came in view of the anc.ent capit Utatlan, the royal residence of the native sovereigns of Quiche, and sumptuous city discovered by the Spaniards in Central America, worthy the abode of kings. .. VOL. I. 818 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. in, and we spurred our mules up the steps, rode through the corridor into a large apart ment, and sent the mules down another flight of steps into a yard enclosed by a high stone fence." This convent was the first erected in the country by the Dominican friars before the death of Alvarado. Its original massive stone walls, corridors, pave ments, and paved court, are still in such condition that it may serve what many of the religious edifices were constructed to answer a monastery or a fortress. Mr. Stephens found its interior desolate, or filled with rubbish ; one section was used for keeping fodder, sacate, another was for a kind of granary, and in a third, the fowls of the village roosted. They arrived at Quezaltenango the day before Good Friday ; the streets and plaza were crowded with people in their best attire, the Indians wearing large black cloaks, with broad brimmed felt sombreros, and the women a white frock, covering the head except an oblong opening for the face : some wore a sort of turban of red cord plaited with the hair. He met afterwards crowds of Indians staggering drunk after holiday fetes. He regretted not being able to explore the neighbouring country, for there was no place he had visited, except ruined cities, so unique and interesting, and which deserved to be so thoroughly explored, as Quezaltenango. A month, at least, might be satisfactorily and profitably employed in examining the many cu rious objects in the country around. For botanical researches it is the richest district in Central America. But he had no time even for rest. Travelling northwards until he ascended the summit of the mountain range, he says, " We were almost on a level with the tops of the volcanoes. As we ascended the temperature grew colder, and we were compelled to put on our ponchas. At half-past two we reached the top of the Sierra Madre, the dividing line of the waters, being twelve miles from Gueguetenango, and in our devious course making the second time that we had crossed the Sierra. The ridge of the mountain was a long level table about half a mile wide, with rugged sides rising on the right to a terrific peak. Riding aboul half an hour on this table, by the side of a stream of clear and cold water, which pass( on, carrying its tribute to the Pacific Ocean, we reached a miserable rancho, in front of which the arriero proposed to encamp, as he said it was impossible to reach the next village. At a distance it was a glorious idea that of sleeping on the top of the Sierra Madre, and the scene was wild enough for the most romantic imagination ; but not being provided against cold, we would have gladly exchanged it for an Indian vil lage." On arriving at the Rio Lagertere, the boundary between Guatemala am Mexico, he describes the scene as wild and of surpassing beauty, with its banl " shaded by some of the noblest trees of the tropical forests, water as clear crystal, and fish a foot long, playing in it as gently as if there were no fish-hool No soldiers were visible, all was as desolate as if no human being had ever crosse( the boundary before/ On entering Mexico, he observes, Since we left Giiista, we had not seen a human being ; the country was still deso late and dreary ; there was not a breath of air ; hills, mountains, and plains were all barren and stony ; but as the sun pressed above its horizon, its beams gladdened this scene of ROUTE FROM GUATEMALA TO PALENQUE. ,s 1 \\ At Comitan, the whole community, not excepting the revenue officers are engaged directly or otherwise in smuggling, and its effect upon public morals wa, deplorable. The place itself was, however, so ill supplied, that when he sent for a washerwoman, there was no soap in the town," and when he wanted the mules shod, " there was only iron enough to shoe one/ * After passing through Ocosingo, the country was found to be as wild as be- fore the Spanish conquest, and without a habitation, until they reached Palenque. :f The road was through a forest so overgrown with brush and underwood, as to* be impenetrable, and the branches were trimmed barely high enough to admit a man s travelling under them on foot, so that on the backs of our mules we were constantly obliged to bend our bodies, and even to dismount. In some places, for a great distance around, the woods seemed killed by the heat, the foliage withered, the leaves dry and crisp, as if burned by the sun ; and a tornado had swept the country." As they approached near to Palenque, they came into " a region of fine pas ture-grounds, and saw herds of cattle. The grass showed the effect of early rains, and the picturesque appearance of the country reminded me of many a scene at home ; but there was a tree of singular beauty (the palm) that was a stranger, having a high, naked trunk, and spreading top, with leaves of vivid green, co vered with yellow flowers/ He left Palenque for Yucatan. Mr. Stephens and Mr. Catherwood remained for some time at Palenque. His detailed account of those remarkable ruins is exceedingly interesting. In a sketch hereafter of the ruins of Central America, we allude to his description, though briefly. There are two routes, the one by Tobasco, the other by the Laguna de Terminos to Campeachy. Tobasco and Campeachy were at the time both besieged by the Liberals or Revolutionists. Leaving the village of Palenque, they " entered immediately upon a beauti ful plain, picturesque, ornamented with trees, and extending five or six days journey to the Gulf of Mexico. The road was very muddy, but open to the sun in the morning, was not so bad as we feared, on the borders of a piece of wood land were singular trees, with a tall trunk, the bark very smooth, and the branches festooned with hanging birds -nests." They afterwards proceeded by the Usamasinto to the Laguna de Terminos. * Mr. Stephens says, " We were advised, after we had set out, that it was proper to have our :iorses shod, but there was no good blacksmith, except at Quezaltenango ; and as we that place during a fiesta, he would not work. In crossing long ranges of stony mou 3ne of them suffered except Mr. Catherwood s riding mule, and her hoofs were worn d with the flesh." 820 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER VI. ISTHMUS OF PANAMA AND OF NICARAGUA. IF there shall ever be an intelligent, wise, just, and permanent government in a country which possesses, with but few real disadvantages, so many of the great resources and powers of production as are composed within the boundary of Cen tral America; then the excavation of a ship canal, and the construction of a railroad across the isthmus, either of Panama or Nicaragua, will be found works of the greatest importance; and, according to all the information which we have been ena bled to obtain, very far from being formidable undertakings. At present the moral difficulties, arising from absence of confidence, which experience has destroyed in the government of any Spanish republic, are alone sufficient to deter prudent men from embarking in undertakings which, in the United Kingdom and in the United States, would be accomplished with little comparative hazard. The whole isthmus of Central America embraces two, first, the Isthmus of Panama, the other the Isthmus of Nicaragua. To which we add the Mexican Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The Andes of South America, though apparently and long considered as extend ing into Mexico without any break or pass, actually disappear at the Isthmus of Panama, between the mouth of the Rio Atrato and the bay of St. Miguel, where a plain extends nearly from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This plain, which is about 140 miles long, from east to west, terminates on the shores of the Carib bean Sea, at the western extremity of the Bay of Mandingo, or St. Bias, and near the city of Panama on the Pacific. It is for the most part level, not much elevated above the sea, except in one part, where the summit, which, according to the report of the French engineer, M. Garella, is 177 English feet. It is nearly covered with a forest of magnificent wood, and numerous small rivers flowing through it, fall either into the Bay of Darien, or into that of Panama. The Chepo River is said to rise near the south-east extremity of the isthmus, under the name of Canada, and flows westward for many miles, and then to the south, and enters the Gulf of Panama, about twenty-five miles east of Panama. It is navigable from the sea to this bend, and a little higher up the small town of Chepo is situated on its banks. Opposite Mandingo Bay, on the Atlantic, the isthmus is a little less than twenty miles across in a direct line. But at the bottom of the Bay of Mandingo, two parallel ridges, which extend south-west and north east, spread over the isthmus between that bay and Porto de Naos : stretching about seventy miles along the north coast. The summits of this ridge rise to above 1000 feet. Between the Rio Chagres on the Atlantic, and the Bay of Chorrea on the Pacific, the hills are divided from each other by plains. ISTHMUS OF PANAMA AND OF NICARAGUA. 821 Among the rivers which drain the two last-mentioned districts, the Rio Chagres rises east of Port Velo, among the mountains behind the Bav of M dingo. It flows westward through the centre of the isthmus between the above two parallel ridges. The Pequeni from the south-east is large and broad, and falls into the Chagres. Both streams rush rapidly forward to their junction, several miles below which, at Cruces, it flows at the rate of from about two to three miles and a half an hour; near its embouchure its rate is from one to two miles per hour. After entering the plain, twenty- four miles above the port of Chagres, it receives the Trinidad, which rises near the south coast and the town of Chorrea. The Trinidad is navigated by canoes up to Capua ; it has no falls or other obstacles to navigation. The Rio Caymito enters the Bay of Panama about ten miles west of the town of Chorrea ; is very deep towards its mouth, and one branch of it con tinues navigable to the town of Chorrea ; but the tide runs very strong in and out of the river, which is not impeded by a bar at its mouth, and the anchorage is much exposed. The Gulf or Bay of Panama is about 132 miles broad at its mouth, and ex tends inwards for about 100 miles. Off the north-eastern shore there rises a number of rocky islands, Islas de la Perlas, among which a quantity of pearls are annually fished. Some rocky islands off its north - western coast form the Port of Panama. In this bay the average rise and fall of the tide two days after full moon is about twenty-one feet ; on the opposite side of the isthmus, off Chagres, its rise is only a little more than one foot. The high-water mark in the Atlantic being about thirteen feet lower than on the Pacih c coast The whole Isthmus of Panama to the boundary of Costa Rica is claimed as within the limits of the government of New Grenada : a government the sta bility and wisdom of which has not hitherto inspired such confidence in Europe, or in the United States of North America, as would justify an outlay, on the part of capitalists, in order to execute a great public work, which would other wise be profitable to the undertakers, and of general benefit to the nations of the world. (See observations hereafter on the constructing of a Canal from the Atlantic to the Pacific.) The region from Punta Mala, on the western side of the Gulf of Panama, extending north-west between the Atlantic and Pacific for more than 400 miles, appears an uninterrupted chain of rocky mountains ascending into the plateau of Veragua. This plateau is estimated as rising 2000 to 3000 feet above the ocean, with peaks rising to 8000 feet or more. The most elevated peak appears to be the Silla de Veragua, not far from Veragua. These rocky mountains ap proach near to the shores of the Pacific, a belt of low-lands extends along the Atlantic. The shores of the lagoon of Chiriqui are low and closely wooded. N > x ^ tVWw ^WR Wp , W ^f*t I I > >> 4M|%^^ IH%0lw^ t^ iV^sV ^S>i^^Jl^^ ^^^r%<^ . ^tv>H i I v^>^: -rftnnfiiMh - ^ ^ ^^^^m^i ^^^^1 ^s ^^*, M v -, . f to ****>, *> ,+ t Ut frtt* //< ffcMl ffmulfry fat fate* qmHtity, \ **** ** *# fpfitfH^ SPHIw v/VJ f// wM^ w- ^ vwp wMM^ *,ln*A \t**+, ** tkt t^y "* IMft, ^ */* 4*A is /#**+* m * I* Ay, ike %**<# ./," ^ . --- v . dfr^ 4MT *f wf*#* fc* . . "- . t 824 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, ear-rings principally supplied by the Jamaica traders the nose jewels seem to be of their own manufacture, being a thick ring of gold in the form of an obtuse triangle, about three-quarters of an inch in circumference. On their necks they wore fine seed beads of lively colours, and necklaces of red coral. Some of those worn by the chiefmen s wives would have weighed several pounds. Their hair, which is very long and black, was fastened on the top of the head with a sort of bodkin made of tortoiseshell. Their complexions were much clearer than that of the men. Over the head was thrown a piece of blue bafta or salempore, covering the back, breasts, and one side of the face. The deportment of these women was modest, diffident, and amiable. Their husbands being jealous of strangers, is one reason, according to Mr. Roberts, for refusing to allow Europeans to settle on the mainland. " Their trading intercourse," he says, "is always carried on at one of the numerous keys or islands on the coast, selected at the time for that purpose. Perhaps this custom may, in some measure, be owing to the necessity which they are under of guarding with great vigilance against their neighbours the Spaniards, to whom they bear the most inveterate enmity. No Spanish vessel ever fell into their power, whose crew was permitted to escape, when any of them have the misfortune to suffer shipwreck on this part of the coast the massacre of the crew is, under every circumstance, the inevitable consequence." During one of his subsequent trading voyages to this quarter, a fine Spanish copper-bottomed schooner, of about 120 tons burden, laden with wine, rice, maize, sugar, bricks, and jerked beef, ran aground during the night on a reef of rocks, a little to the north-east of the great Playone River. " The crew, knowing the inevitable consequence of being discovered in the morning, took to their boats during the night, and reached Porto Bello. The vessel being strong and substantially built, beat fairly over the reef, without suffering much damage. The Indians, immediately on discovering the accident, boarded and plundered her, cutting away the masts, bowsprit, &c., for the mere purpose of securing the iron works, by rendering her useless. They regretted that the crew had made their escape. The hull of the vessel was afterwards removed to Needle Key, and I used it as a hulk, by which to heave down a vessel under my command. 3 The forests of San Bias produce some very valuable woods, amongst which may be enumerated fustic, cedar, iron wood, ebony, brazilletto, lancewood, spars, and a variety of hard woods, well adapted for the use of cabinet-makers. The interior abounds in game of various descriptions, amongst which are the tapir, or mountain cow, the waree, peccary, gibeonite, Indian coney, antelope, armadillo, and others ; also currassow, guam, coquericot, partridge, and a great variety of other birds. No rivers or coast in the world can produce a greater variety of excellent fish, or finer turtle ; and the quantity seems inexhaustible. Cocoa-nut trees are never cut down or destroyed by the Indians of San Bias, and are so abundant on SAN BLAS INDIANS. all the keys, that the fruit is esteemed of little value, except on account of the oil, which the natives extract and use for dressing their hair, burnin* i n lamp and other purposes. The inhabitants of this part of the coast are careful to preserve the hawksbill turtle as much as they can. They never destroy its eggs, and have a cruel method of taking the shell from its back, without killing the animal, as is done by the other tribes. They collect a quantity of dry grass, or leaves, with which they cover the turtle s back, and then setting the stuff on fire, the heat causes the shell on the back to separate at the joints. A knife is then insinuated horizon tally, and the pieces are peeled from the back, care being taken not to injure the shell by too much heat, nor to force it off till the heat has prepared it for separa tion. The turtle is held down by an Indian during this operation, and afterwards let loose. Great numbers of them, reduced to this helpless state, fall a prey to the numerous sharks on the coast. There have been many instances of turtle being afterwards caught which had undergone the process, and the shell sub sequently formed has, instead of thirteen pieces, the usual number, been in one piece only. Traders, who are not judges of fustic, may be cheated, by having a spurious, or bastard wood without dye, imposed upon them. Traders are also accused of deteriorating the quality of the wood, by immersing it, during their stay, in salt water, to increase its weight. These practices, together with the circumstance that a great quantity of inferior wood is cut in low, swampy places, has depre ciated the character of that which is collected here. The natives are excellent hunters and fishers. One of their modes of fish ing is singular. The water on their coasts being very clear, they can easily see the fish basking, or swimming near the surface, or in the shallow places ; and they kill considerable numbers, by following them in canoes, and shooting them with arrows. The women and children plant and cultivate Indian corn, cassava, plantain, and other provisions, the men cut down the wood, prepare it for sale or other purposes, and clear the ground for plantations. They are not so much addicted to spirituous liquors as some of the other Indians of the coast ; and they drink chicka, which they make from Indian corn, cassava, and plan tains, in preference to rum. They in general have one wife ; some, who can maintain them, have four or five. Their houses are constructed at a short dis tance from each other. Each wife has a separate house or hut. The husband usually takes up his residence with the eldest, who considers it her duty to set the others a good example, and maintain a friendly understanding, by directing their attention to the comfort and convenience of the husband. Sometimes, but not often, they all live in one house, except during an advanced state of preg- VOL. I. 826 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. nancy, confinement, or suckling their children, at which season they invariably live separately. The men of greatest consequence, next to the principal chiefs, are the Sookeah-men, who are both doctors and priests. They are supposed, by the more ignorant natives, to hold communication with an invisible spirit, and to be empowered, through his means, to foretel events. They have acquired a know ledge of the medicinal virtues of some plants, and are thereby enabled to cure wounds, and also some of the local diseases. They are deep, shrewd, and com paratively intelligent men, and, having once acquired an ascendancy among their own tribe, their fame soon extends to others. It is asserted that they have been known to dance, in a state of nudity, in the middle of a large fire, the flames having little or no effect on their body. The effects of the fire is supposed to be resisted by some antidote, extracted from vegetable substances, the preparation of which is only known to the superior sookeahs. Their knowledge has not extended to diseases introduced by Europeans, many of the natives having been carried off by the small-pox, measles, and other com plaints for which they know no cure, and by which their numbers have been greatly diminished. On the first appearance of the measles or small -pox, which have proved as destructive to these Indians as the plague has been to the inhabitants of other quarters of the globe, they abandon their settlements, and fly to some of the numerous keys on the coast for the benefit of the air; on one of these the infected are carefully secluded until they -are free from disease; death generally puts an end to their sufferings. The Mosquito Shore men have repeatedly attempted to acquire authority over the San Bias Indians, and much blood, in consequence, was formerly shed. The last expedition against the latter took place about forty-five years ago. The Mosquito-men, about 300 in number, were nearly all cut off in the different engagements that took place. The country of the San Bias Indians is naturally so strong, and the lagoons and harbours so very intricate, that contrabandists, privateers, or pirates, if on friendly terms with the Indians, can always find shelter; and in consequence of the impolitic duties and prohibitions of the New Granadian government, the trade to Carthagena, Porto Bello, &c., may be superseded by the contrabandists. CHRICO MOLA. On Mr. Roberts arriving at Chiriqui Lagoon, he ascended the River Chrico Mola, about twenty-five miles, to the principal settlement of the Valiente Indians ; a station said to be exceedingly healthy, for the recovery of his health. He found that the river has two mouths, formed by a small island at its entrance; the one to the westward is broadest, having only about two feet water CHR1CO MOLA. on the bar; the other three feet. After passing these entrances, it is of con siderable depth up to the first rapid, a distance of about twelve miles. At this rapid the land rises high on each side, arid, up to the settlement, the river is so full of falls, rocks, and rapids, that it would be totally impossibi persons unaccustomed to such places to ascend even in the lightest canoes. The Indians are obliged in the ascent, frequently to lay aside their paddles and DM poles and at some places even to haul their canoes over the rapids, which the force of the current renders no easy task the smooth rocks and rounded stones making it difficult to find a secure footing. Between these rapids, however, there are many smooth and deep parts of the river, some of them about a mile in length, and the banks are covered by a variety of majestic trees and shrubs of the most lively colours. Above is the first Valiente Settlement. The houses are situated at a small distance from the river. He soon received visits from several families, sometimes from ten to twentv in a group, each person bringing from fifty to eighty pounds of sarsaparilla, in large bags made of silk grass, having a large band of the same material fastened across its mouth. These bags, when filled, appeared like baskets, of which the band formed the handle ; and they were suspended on the back of the Indian by this band across the forehead : women and children were laden in a similar way. They also brought him abundance of fowls, some fine hogs, and a great many extremely neat bags, or purses, of various sizes, made of silk grass, and dyed of various bright colours, some of the threads nearly as fine as lace. Scarlet, blue, yellow, and purple, were the most predominant colours ; and, when newly dyed, they appeared very bright, but did not stand the rain or wea ther ; these Indians possess some very valuable dyes, but do not know how to fix the colours. They also brought him some small lines from twenty to thirty fathoms in length, made of the interwoven fibres of cotton and silk grass. These they are in the habit of bartering with the fishing Indians of the coast, who use them as lines for catching turtle, &c. He gave in barter for these articles fish hooks, glass-beads, small Dutch looking-glasses, seamen s knives, and other articles of little value. The Indians inhabiting the coast assume a superiority over these " Monta- nios" or Hill people. He found the natives of the interior, harmless, inoffensive, honest in their dealings, and satisfied with whatever was given them in exchange for the commodities they brought. Many of the people, who then and subsequently visited him, came, as he was told, from the low country, bordering on the Pacific Oceao ; having crossed the mountains about thirty miles above this village. These mountains are of considerable elevation, covered with wood to the summits, and form the natural 828 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. boundary between the Valientes, and those Indians who occasionally trade with the Spaniards. Sarsaparilla was one of the principal articles of trade with these people ; the kind which is collected in the savannahs is more esteemed than that which is brought from the mountains. After he had resided some time at Chrico Mola, the Indians from the south side of the mountains frequently brought him Spanish money and pieces of silver, for the purchase of iron pots, cutlass blades, earthenware, and dry goods. Many of these Indians had incurred the jealousy of the Valientes, who dislike any intercourse with the Spaniards. Their quarrels on this subject have often ended in bloodshed, and the Valientes seldom approach, or trust themselves within reach of the Spanish territory. From his first arrival at Chrico Mola, he gradually acquired bodily strength, and he followed the example of the inhabitants, old and young, by daily bathing in the river, which is here as clear as crystal, and pleasantly cool. Alli gators do not ascend higher than the first fall,^ so that there is no danger from them. In less than six weeks he had purchased upwards of 5000 Ibs. weight of sar- saparilla. Having heard that the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans could be seen at the same time from the summit of a mountain about thirty miles from Chrico Mola, he proceeded to it, accompanied by an Indian. The way was nearly free from under wood, or any difficult impediment, except ravines, which are, in some places, wide, and the bottoms and sides partly composed of large masses of rock. On gaining the summit of the mountain, which did not terminate in any peak or cone, but was rather the continuation of a chain, or ridge of mountains, which rose higher than any of those in the immediate neighbourhood. About 500 yards across this summit, the descent, towards the Pacific was rather abrupt; and more precipitous than on the Atlantic side. Mountains still higher appeared to the eastward in the direction of Panama and Chagres. To the north-west, an immense and continued unbroken chain of mountains presented themselves as far as the eye could reach ; and, here and there, various high iso lated peaks, having the appearance of volcanoes, sprung up from the chain. He had a clear and distinct view of both seas; many of the islands in the Bocco del Toro and Chiriqui Lagoons on the Atlantic side, were distinctly seen, but he could not perceive Quibo, nor any of the islands on the Pacific, which he thought would, if correctly laid down in the charts, have been visible. The immense forests of stately trees which vegetate on the sides of all rivers in this country, and clothe most of the mountains to their very summits, effectually prevented his tracing the course of these rivers. The country, from the spot on which he VALIENTES INDIANS obtained this magnificent view, presented, as it were, a map of an ion* mountain forest. When one of the Valientes Indians dies, the body is buried under the fl of the house occupied by the family; the only exceptions to this rule are, wh.-n an Indian has been poisoned by a serpent, or slain in a quarrel with one of his own tribe : in either case they are interred under a house in their provision-ground, and their implements of war, and other moveables, are buried with them ; their canoe also is generally split in two, and laid over the grave. Even the plantain- walks and provisions on the grounds, ^immediately belonging to persons so killed are destroyed. On the death of a relation, they manifest extraordinary grief; the women beat their bosoms, tear their hair, cut their flesh, and exhibit the most extravagant sorrow. The son, if there be one, succeeds to his father s house and women. The moveables, such as canoes, hunting and fishing-imple ments, arms, trinkets, &c., are divided amongst all the children. If there be no children, the eldest brother succeeds to every thing. The women have little choice in marriage : that affair being always decided by their father, or nearest male relations. Children, of both sexes, are early taught to swim ; one of their chief pastimes is in the water, to which they resort as soon as they can walk. As they grow older they are instructed to use the bow and arrow and spear; and they acquire dex terity by practising with blunt instruments upon the fowls, dogs, or other domestic animals or birds. As they acquire strength, the boys are taken to fish or spear turtle: on these expeditions they are sometimes absent, with the men, three weeks or a month ; and, on returning, always divide part of the produce among their neighbours. The girls accompany their mothers to the provision-grounds ; carry light burdens of wood, plantains, cassava, and other articles; grind corn, wash and prepare cotton and silk grass, and attend to other domestic duties. They, as well as the boys, bathe frequently during the day ; but, from the age of six years, at which time they are generally betrothed, these ablutions are made separately, and with their mothers, who after that period seldom allow their daughters to be out of their sight until marriage, which generally takes place at the age of ten or twelve years. When a Valiente Indian considers himself affronted or injured by one of own tribe, he deliberately sharpens his moscheat, or cutlass; and, taking a friend with him, goes to the house of his adversary, whom he challenges to fair combat. The challenge is frequently accepted on the spot, and the duel never one, or sometimes both, are killed or maimed. Thpy are dexterous in the use of the cutlass, both in attack and defence ; it is rare to find a Valiente without deep scars on his body, particularly about t head. If the challenged party puts off the quarrel it is generally made up by 830 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the intervention of friends. Few of them can use fire-arms with effect, but they are expert with the bow and arrow, and are good and dexterous spearmen. They are in general courageous, possess a keen sense of honour, and continue to merit the appellation given to them by their first discoverers, of "Indies Bravos" or " Valientes." They are a taller race than those of San Bias, and may, from their intercourse with Europeans and other traders, be considered more civilised than most of the other tribes inhabiting this part of Terra Firma. Their hatred to the Spaniards, and partiality to the English, are remarkable j and, in point of honesty, they are far superior to the Mosquito-men, to whose king they, however, have paid a sort of tribute, or acknowledgment, annually, which they consider in the light of a gratuity, according to ancient custom, rather than an acknow ledgment as subjects. On more than one occasion they have refused to pay this tribute, and about fifty years ago, a dispute took place on the subject, and the Mosquito king s uncle, with the whole of the chiefs and people who then accompanied him, to the number of about fifty men, were sacrificed. No Sookeah-man, or priest of any kind, lived amongst them during the years that Mr. Roberts visited or resided in their country. Marriage, baptism, and other ceremonies, commonly considered religious, were performed by the elders of the settlement. They are not, however, without ideas of a future state, and an over ruling Providence; and to any wonderful or providential escape from danger, or unaccountable preservation, they sometimes give the name of " God business, 53 They have also some faint idea of spirits, and of another world, where they expect to find good hunting-ground, with game and provisions. Their houses are built generally near the banks of a river. In constructing them three or sometimes four hardwood posts are driven into the ground, at equal distances, the intended length of the house, to these is secured the roof-tree. Small posts are driven, into the earth along each side, ten or twelve feet apart ; long poles or rafters are then laid upon these from the roof-tree and along the sides ,* the roof is covered with a species of durable palm, and the sides are co vered in the same way. Sometimes the roof descends to within five feet of the ground, and the sides behind left open, without any wall. In this case they sleep on a kind of elevated platform, constructed by four posts being driven into the ground at equal distanced, so as to form a square frame; a broad plank of cedar-wood forms the bottom. This bed is generally large enough for the husband and two or three wives. When the family is numerous, several of these bed-places are erected round the inside of the house, on a level with the eaves lower side of the roof. A log of wood, notched, serves for steps to this sleeping berth. The plantain walks of the Valientes are extensive ; and, at Chrico Mola, ex tended several miles along the banks of the river. These walks are never ex- VAL1ENTE8 INDIANS. 831 hausted, as on some parts of the Mosquito Shore; a continual succession of suckers or young plants, are always found springing round the foot of the original pla.-t and such is the luxuriance of their growth, that they are frequently thinned or transplanted. Cassava and Indian corn are cultivated further in the interior- for subsistence, they principally depend upon the plantain, banana, and cassava . Their method of preparing ground for a maize crop, is simple. The man who wishes the work done invites his neighbours to a chichee drink. It is then agreed by the guest to clear a piece of land. On the day appointed every man comes with his axe or moscheat, the trees and bushes are soon levelled, and the grain is loosely scattered on the ground amongst the fallen trees. This is generally done a few days before the commencement of the rainy season. The fallen branches screen the shoots from the sun, and in about five months the ears, having overtopped this covering, is ready for gathering. After the grain has been collected, the wood is set on fire ; and, with the dry stalks of the maize, burns so thoroughly as to leave merely ashes, and the stumps of the trees. The ground is then considered sufficiently cleared for agricultural purpose. The cocoa-tree grows amid every banana or plantain walk. The soil on the borders of the Chrico Mola, and other rivers emptying themselves into Chiriqui Lagoon, is well adapted to its growth ; and it arrives at perfection in four or five years, with little trouble to the cultivators. The soil about Chrico Mola is remarkably fertile ; and yields in great perfec tion almost all the fruits common in South America, among which the mammee, sapodilla, cocoa-nut, orange grape-tree, locust, soupa (which in season is pre ferred to the plantain, banana, and cassava) ; and a variety of other delicious fruits. The soupa, a species of palm with the trunk armed with prickles or thorns, is from fifty to sixty feet high : on the top, the leaves branch out like those of the cocoa-tree they are pinnated thin undulated and frizzled toward the points. It bears several clusters of fruit, each cluster consisting of from eighty to a hundred fruit. The fruit is first green, then yellow like an apple, and grow red as they ripen. They are the size of a hen s egg, and sometimes without any kernel ; the fruit is farinaceous, and an excellent substitute for bread or vegetables. The wood of the tree is extremely hard, heavy, and close-grained; it is used for bows, staves for striking turtle, and for spear shafts. The stem is so prickly that the fruit is gathered by means of long bamboos. Nature has supplied the Valientes abundantly with the mere necessaries of life ; their plantations are managed with very little labour, and their woods contain abundance of game : their rivers abound in the finest fish, and their lagoons fre quented by the best turtle, and fish and fowl. Formerly the clothing of these Indians was made of a sort of bark, prepared by being soaked in running water, 830 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the intervention of friends. Few of them can use fire-arms with effect, but they are expert with the bow and arrow, and are good and dexterous spearmen. They are in general courageous, possess a keen sense of honour, and continue to merit the appellation given to them by their first discoverers, of "Indies Bravos" or " Valientes." They are a taller race than those of San Bias, and may, from their intercourse with Europeans and other traders, be considered more civilised than most of the other tribes inhabiting this part of Terra Firma. Their hatred to the Spaniards, and partiality to the English, are remarkable ; and, in point of honesty, they are far superior to the Mosquito-men, to whose king they, however, have paid a sort of tribute, or acknowledgment, annually, which they consider in the light of a gratuity, according to ancient custom, rather than an acknow ledgment as subjects. On more than one occasion they have refused to pay this tribute, and about fifty years ago, a dispute took place on the subject, and the Mosquito king s uncle, with the whole of the chiefs and people who then accompanied him, to the number of about fifty men, were sacrificed. No Sookeah-man, or priest of any kind, lived amongst them during the years that Mr. Roberts visited or resided in their country. Marriage, baptism, and other ceremonies, commonly considered religious, were performed by the elders of the settlement. They are not, however, without ideas of a future state, and an over ruling Providence; and to any wonderful or providential escape from danger, or unaccountable preservation, they sometimes give the name of " God business. 55 They have also some faint idea of spirits, and of another world, where they expect to find good hunting-ground, with game and provisions. Their houses are built generally near the banks of a river. In constructing them three or sometimes four hardwood posts are driven into the ground, at equal distances, the intended length of the house, to these is secured the roof-tree. Small posts are driven, into the earth along each side, ten or twelve feet apart; long poles or rafters are then laid upon these from the roof-tree and along the sides ; the roof is covered with a species of durable palm, and the sides are co vered in the same way. Sometimes the roof descends to within five feet of the ground, and the sides behind left open, without any wall. In this case they sleep on a kind of elevated platform, constructed by four posts being driven into the ground at equal distance^ so as to form a square frame; a broad plank of cedar-wood forms the bottom. This bed is generally large enough for the husband and two or three wives. When the family is numerous, several of these bed-places are erected round the inside of the house, on a level with the eaves lower side of the roof. A log of wood, notched, serves for steps to this sleeping berth. The plantain walks of the Valientes are extensive ; and, at Chrico Mola, ex tended several miles along the banks of the river. These walks are never ex- VAL1ENTES INDIANS. hausted, as on some parts of the Mosquito Shore; a continual succession of suckers or young plants, are always found springing round the foot of the oriinnal pl-u-t and such is the luxuriance of their growth, that they are frequently thinned or transplanted. Cassava and Indian corn are cultivated further in the interior; for subsistence, they principally depend upon the plantain, banana, and cassava . Their method of preparing ground for a maize crop, is simple. The man who wishes the work done invites his neighbours to a chichee drink. It is then agreed by the guest to clear a piece of land. On the day appointed every man comes with his axe or moscheat, the trees and bushes are soon levelled, and the grain is loosely scattered on the ground amongst the fallen trees. This is generally done a few days before the commencement of the rainy season. The fallen branches screen the shoots from the sun, and in about five months the ears, having overtopped this covering, is ready for gathering. After the grain has been collected, the wood is set on fire ; and, with the dry stalks of the maize, burns so thoroughly as to leave merely ashes, and the stumps of the trees. The ground is then considered sufficiently cleared for agricultural purpose. The cocoa-tree grows amid every banana or plantain walk. The soil on the borders of the Chrico Mola, and other rivers emptying themselves into Chiriqui Lagoon, is well adapted to its growth ; and it arrives at perfection in four or five years, with little trouble to the cultivators. The soil about Chrico Mola is remarkably fertile ; and yields in great perfec tion almost all the fruits common in South America, among which the mammee, sapodilla, cocoa-nut, orange grape-tree, locust, soupa (which in season is pre ferred to the plantain, banana, and cassava) ; and a variety of other delicious fruits. The soupa, a species of palm with the trunk armed with prickles or thorns, is from fifty to sixty feet high: on the top, the leaves branch out like those of the cocoa-tree they are pinnated thin undulated and frizzled toward the points. It bears several clusters of fruit, each cluster consisting of from eighty to a hundred fruit. The fruit is first green, then yellow like an apple, and grow red as they ripen. They are the size of a hen s egg, and sometimes without any kernel ; the fruit is farinaceous, and an excellent substitute for bread or vegetables. The wood of the tree is extremely hard, heavy, and close-grained; it is used for bows, staves for striking turtle, and for spear shafts. The stem is so prickly that the fruit is gathered by means of long bamboos. Nature has supplied the Valientes abundantly with the mere necessaries of life ; their plantations are managed with very little labour, and their woods contain abundance of game : their rivers abound in the finest fish, and their lagoons fre quented by the best turtle, and fish and fowl. Formerly the clothing of these Indians was made of a sort of bark, prepared by being soaked in running water, 832 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and afterwards beaten with a smooth heavy club into a cloth resembling chamois leather. This was formed into a square piece, six or seven feet long, and about five feet wide, with a hole cut in the centre to admit the head. Now they are often dressed in a complete European suit ; or, in their own words, "true English gen tleman fashion." The wet season is not, with them, considered an unhealthy period. It is one of rest and enjoyment, during which they form parties for drinking weak prepa rations of cocoa, of which they take immense quantities. Their method of pre paring it is simple : it is bruised, or crushed, between two stones to a consist ence of paste, then diluted with warm water ; and, in this state served in cala bashes, containing each about a quart ; some Indians drink eight or ten quarts at a sitting, which brings on a state of sleepy insensibility. At these convi vialities they tell long stories, or make harangues, in a singing monotonous tone of voice, to which all listen without interrupting the speaker, however improbable the tale may be. They sometimes from drinking chichee, a sort of wine, made from the fruit of a species of palm-tree, become madly intoxicated. This is rare amongst the Valientes and San Bias men. These drinking orgies are only indulged in on some particular occasions, such as previous to setting off for the turtle- fishing, gathering a maize harvest, a wedding, or the birth of a child. Mr. Roberts says, "There may be many places on the coast better situated for trade ; but, for a healthy residence, or permanent settlement of Europeans, 1 would prefer Chrico Mola River to any other I have seen. Domestic animals increase very fast when the least care is taken of them ; a few hop:s, which I procured for breeding, as also a quantity of tame fowls, increased so rapidly, that in the end I was at a loss what to do with them until the month of May, when the traders should arrive to take them, and some cows and calves off my hands. " Mosquitoes, sand-flies, and other insects, which on the coast are so very troublesome and tormenting, are here scarcely known ; and, during the whole time of my residence, I slept without being under the necessity of using mosquito curtains. Serpents, or other poisonous reptiles are equally rare, and it is still rarer that any injury is sustained from them." CHIRIQUI LAGOON has three entrances, one from the eastward round Valiente or Valencia Point ; the other from the north-west, by the Sapadilla keys ; and a third by the Bocca del Toro Lagoon. The first and second entrances command a sufficient draught of water for ships of the largest class ; and the lagoon is capa ble of containing the whole British Navy secure from all winds. There are several shoals of soft white coral in the lagoon, but all distinctly visible when the sun shines ; and the water being, in general, smooth, a vigilant look out is all the pilotage requisite. At the eastern entrance is Paterson s Key, opposite to which, at the northern end of a sandy beach, and not far from the entrance of the harbour, is a cascade, falling from a rock of the height of about five feet PROVISION ISLAND. 833 from the ground, forming a most convenient watering-place, as a seventy-four gun ship may lay close to it. It is superior to Water Key, which, together with Tigers Island, Provision Island, and many other places on this coas! ceived its name from the old Buccaneers. The entrance to Bocca del Toro La goon, or Bahia del Amirante from the north-west, is narrow, yet sufficient for a vessel to work in or out; and, it has about three fathoms water in the channel ; the other entrance, from Provision Island, is also a good channel, of considerable depth: the best entrances into Chiriqui Lagoon are those from the eastward. PROVISION ISLAND has for many years been occupied by fishermen, from San Andres, and the^Corn Islands, who resorted to it to barter tortoise-shell and other produce with the traders. Mr. Roberts made many excursions to the various islands and keys in these lagoons, and found plenty of quams, curassowos, pigeons, monkeys, deer, and a variety of other game on all of them. They also produce vanilla. On some of these islands he found a small species of tiger, but not at all dangerous ; the climate is considered healthy, the lagoons, notwithstanding the very heavy rains during the season, being at all times open to the sea breeze. Between Pro vision Island and a small island opposite to it, their is a deep Bight, called Nancy s Cove, completely sheltered from all winds, and in which the water is smooth. From this place to the north-west entrance of the port of Bocca del Toro, is about six miles ; and the whole length of both lagoons cannot be less than ninety to a hundred miles. The buccaneers and free-traders used occasionally to conceal their vessels in these lagoons, by hauling them into creeks or intricate passages, under the over hanging branches of the trees, and then by lowering the topmasts, and fixing green boughs to the yards and masts, so disguised their appearance, that it was almost impossible to discover the vessel. Even when a discovery>as made, no moderate force dared venture to attack an enemy, who, under cover of the bushes, and assisted by their Indian allies, could beat off their assailants without exposing them selves to a single shot. The banks of many of the rivers falling into these lagoons, are now t destitute of inhabitants; although, at one period, the country contained a nume rous population of various tribes: some of them, from the apparent rema, of their ancient settlements, of considerably antiquity. The Tirribees, and Blancos were once numerous, but in consequence of their wars, a, the introduction of European diseases, they are now almost extinct. During one of the turtle-fishing seasons, Mr. Roberts fitted out a large canoe, loaded her with goods to the value of about 300/., and taking two stout lads assist him, he visited several places on the coast of the Province of Veragv calling at Cocoa Plum Point, and the small island Escuda Veragua, off the river VOL. I. 834 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. of that name both places much frequented for turtle. From thence he went over to the entrance of the Rio del Oro, the last Spanish settlement on the coast in the above-named province, where he found a party of four people stationed for the purpose of apprising the Spanish merchants at La Concepcion, a town in the interior, of the arrival of any trading vessel on the coast. Here, from two Spanish Creoles, he procured, in payment of goods, several ounces of gold dust. At the river Belen, or Belem, in the year 1502, Columbus was prevented, by the bravery of the natives, and turbulent disposition of his followers, from establishing a colony. This river is large, and wide at its entrance ; but being open to the north west, it has a bar with no more than four feet water over it at its mouth. The country on each side of the river appeared to be very fertile, and abounding in provisions and natural products of the soil. Coclee River is of a similar cha racter. The whole of the coast, from Chiriqui to Chagres, is destitute of harbours for large vessels : the mouths of the rivers being completely exposed to the heavy seas which roll in from the north, north-west, and north-east, are completely barred up, and have only a very few feet water over their entrances. From the Tiribee River to Monkey Point (Punta Chica) the last headland in the province of Veragua, the distance is not more than eight or ten miles ; it is easily known by a remarkably bluff rocky islet, distant only a few yards from the mainland. The islet itself is perforated in a remarkable manner through the middle in the shape of a high imperfect arch, under which there is room for a large boat to pass. The Rio Culebras, or Snake River, is considered the boundary between the province of Veragua and Costa Rica ; and, to the northward of this river, the Blancas, who are believed to be the fairest Indians in South America, sometimes repair, in large parties, for the purposes of hunting and fishing. They are a mild race, extremely shy, and obliged to be constantly on their guard against their enemies, the Tiribees and others. Between Matina and Monkey Point, the country, which is thinly inhabited, presents a beautiful appearance of hill and vale, well watered, but destitute of good harbours and headlands. The following are the names of rivers and places in this tract, viz., Rio Quemado, Point Caneta, De las Doraces, De Dios, Banana, Blanco Point, San Antonio, Lime Bight, Grape Key, Salt Creek, and the small open roadstead of El Portete. Salt Creek is about twelve miles from Matina, which, with the small harbour of El Portete, may be called the sea-port of Cartago ; the bay opposite to Matina River being nothing more than a wild open roadstead, where it is almost im- TURTLE FISHING. possible to land in an European boat : Salt Creek may be distinguished small islands lying off the point of land at the south end of the bay, from which it is not more than five or six miles distant. This is the principal resort of tlic contraband traders, when their cargoes cannot be landed at Matina River. That river has its source more than eighty miles in the interior ; and it is joined, at about thirty miles from its mouth, by a tributary river, where there was a fort, named Castillo de Austria ; from whence, for about eight leagues, there was a road to an Embarcadero, or carrying-place, about twelve miles from Salt ( During the last ten years of Spanish rule, the citizens of the United States regularly, but clandestinely, visited this port every season ; one house in New York sent annually three or four fast sailing- schooners to an agent at Salt Creek, who disposed of the cargo, and collected the proceeds, during the time schooners were running down the coast, trading with the Indians for tortoise-shell, copal, and other gums, sarsaparilla, tassao, &c. This may still be considered very much the character of the trade carried on. The city of CARTAGO, the capital of the province of Costa Rica ; had an esti mated population, in 1823, of 37,716 souls; but, about two years after that period, it was nearly destroyed by a tremendous earthquake, which shook the whole Isth mus of Darien. The mountain of Cartago is an active volcano, situated far back in the interior ; it frequently emits fire and smoke, and is an excellent landmark to navigators being seen, in sailing along the coast, at an immense distance. From Matina, in proceeding north along the shore, are the rivers Vasquez and Azuelos ; and to the northward of these, the Bocca de la Portuga, or Turtle Bight at this place the finest turtle are killed annually, merely for the sake of their manteca or fat, which is melted into oil, and used by the Indians and others as a substitute for butter. Most of the fishermen, on their return from the south wards towards home, stop at this place for the purpose of procuring this oil and turtles eggs, which latter are dried in the sun to preserve them ; and in this way many thousands of turtles have been annually destroyed or prevented from coming to maturity. During the months of April, May, June, and July, the green turtle comes in from various keys, and places a great many leagues distant, to several parts of the Mosquito Shore, especially to the sandy beaches in the vicinity of Turtle Bogue, to deposit their eggs. At this season the sea is covered with what the fishermen call thimbles a small blubber fish, in shape not unlike a tailor s thimble; these, and a sort of grass growing at the bottom of the sea, is their principal food. The turtle has large lungs, and cannot sink deeper in the water than five or six fathoms, being obliged to comefrequently to the surface for air. The male and female remain together about nine days, during which time the female feeds and keeps in good condition ; but when they separate the 836 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. male is totally exhausted, and unfit for use as food. Some time after, the female crawls up the sandy beaches, and prepares to lay her eggs ; she makes a circle in the sand, then digs a hole, about two feet deep, in which she deposits from sixty to eighty, covers them up, and goes off, generally before daybreak. About the fifteenth night afterwards she returns, and deposits the same number near the same spot. The young turtle are hatched in about thirty-two days, and immediately find their way into the sea. Both the hawksbill and loggerhead turtle keep the same season ; but, if a trunk turtle, which is of immense size, and remarkably fat, is found dead on the beach, neither kind will lay their eggs within a mile of the place, for which reason trunk turtle is never killed. The handle of the spear with which the Indians strike turtle is made of very hard wood ; the head is a triangular-shaped piece of notched iron, with a sharp point ; a piece of iron is joined to this, which slips into a groove at the top of the spear handle, and has a line attached to it which passes through eyes fastened in the shaft of the spear, to which a float is fastened. The Indian, when near enough, raises the spear over his shoulder, and throws with such skill, that it takes a circular direction in the air, and lights, with its point downwards, on the back of the turtle, penetrating through the shell, and the point becoming detached from the handle, remains fastened in the animal s body ; the float shows on the surface of the water which way the turtle moves ; it is then soon brought up, and secured by means of the line attached to the spear-head. The turtle has many enemies which destroy both itself and its eggs; such as the racoon, squash, fox, &c. The congar, or American lion, and a species of black tiger, will also watch the turtle when coming to lay its eggs, seize and haul it into the woods, and there devour it. Pursuing the voyage from Turtle Bogue, we come to the Rio Colorado. Its entrance is wide, but there is too little water on the bar to admit ships of any size, though sufficiently deep inside. It takes its name from the muddiness of its waters, which discolour the sea to a considerable distance ; and, in the rainy season, its entrance may be easily found on the coast, by this discolo:ation, and by the ex tensive green downs to the south. A communication between it and the great River de San Juan (running out of the Lake of Nicaragua), takes place at a distance of about thirty miles from its mouth, by the branch Serapini. Its course in the interior is nearly parallel to the River San Juan, and is said to be joined by many streams having their sources in the mountains to the southward of the Lake of Nicaragua. It enters the ocean about ten miles from the harbour of San Juan ; but, in most charts, it is erro neously laid down at a much greater distance to the southward. The harbour of SAN JUAN DE NICARAGUA is the best for large vessels, on the whole range of coast between the Bocca del Toro, and Cape Gracios a Dios to which latter it is also superior in not being exposed to southerly winds- THE PLATEAU OF COSTA RICA. 837 or There is a sufficient depth of water, and room, at the upper part, for fifteen twenty ships of the largest class, besides smaller vessels; which, when there, would be completely land-locked. Many of the fishermen and Indians , on their return from the southern fish ing grounds, call in this neighbourhood, for the purpose of taking manatees in the river, and in a creek at the upper end of the harbour. Many of these fishermen remain to cure the meat, on the sandy point at the entrance of the harbour, without being molested by the Spaniards. This animal may be con sidered the connecting link between quadrupeds and fishes ; it has the forefeet, of the former, with the tail of the latter spreading out in a horizontal direction like a large fan. Beneath the skin, which is hard and thick, there is a deep layer of sweet fat. The meat in its thickest parts is streaked in alternate layers of fat and lean, and is excellent food. Persons afflicted with scorbutic, or scrofulous complaints, are soon cured by using it freely ; the blood is said to become puri fied, and the virulence of the complaint, thrown to the surface of the body, quickly disappears. The manatee is extremely acute in its sense of hearing, and immerges in the water on the slightest noise ; it feeds on shoots of grass growing on the banks of the rivers, and will rise nearly two-thirds of its length out of the water to reach food. It is found only in the solitary, and least frequented creeks and rivers; the male and female are generally together; their usual length is from eight to twelve feet, and it weighs from 500 to 800 Ibs. : some of them are, however, much larger, weighing from 1200 even to 1500 Ibs. The Indians gene rally creep up to them early in the morning, when they are feeding, and kill them with a harpoon ; but if the least noise is made, they immediately sink and escape. Between the Rio de San Juan and Point de Gorda, a distance of between thirty and forty miles, the coast forms a large bay, into which flows the Rio Trigo (Corn River), Indian River, and several smaller streams, some of which, in most of the charts, are erroneously laid down as having communication, in the interior, with the River San Juan by Indian River. Mr. Roberts says, "I never could trace the report to any authentic source; neither in the passage up and down the Rio San Juan, could I discover such a communication Corn River and Point de Gorda, is Grindstone Bay, with anchorage in from four five fathoms water. At a short distance from the coast the country here nsi siderably; and from the neighbourhood of San Juan to Bluefields, it oenpwlj the Rama Indians, whose principal settlement is at Rama River, Gorda, a noble stream, which is said to have a course of about eighty miles, wards, from the interior, through a fertile country^and passing between two tainous ridges at a short distance from the sea-shore. The plateau of Costa Rica extends between 9 deg. 20 rain, and 1 north latitude. The elevation of the plateau is estimated at more than 20( above the sea. In winter the mercury in Fahrenheit sinks to the freezing po; High peaks rise in the plateau to more than 10,000 feet above the : them are or have been volcanoes. 838 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Towards the Pacific and the Gulf of Nicoya the descent is gradual from the table lands. The descent towards the east coast is abrupt, and terminates about twenty miles from the sea : the intermediate district being occupied by a low and level country, covered with forests, and subject to inundations. The nume rous rivers which descend from the eastern side of the table-land of Costa Ricaand Veragua bring down during the rains more water than can be carried off by the rivers. The whole plain, with the exception of a few spots, is consequently laid under water, to a depth varying from five to thirty feet. Through this plain, and parallel to the coast, the Canal de la Baya is said to be navigable to a great extent, the places where it is interrupted by shallows not being numerous. The greatest part of the eastern plain of Costa Rica is occupied by native tribes. On the Pacific the Gulf of Nicoya has a broad open entrance, growing nar rower further inland. It is about seventy miles long, contains good harbours, and several islands, near which pearls are fished, and a shell-fish found which yields a bright red dye. The PLAIN OF NICARAGUA extends north of the table-land of Costa Rica : to wards the Mosquito coast, and is nearly a flat; to the west it is more undulated. A continuous range of hills, connected with the north-western part of the table land of Costa Rica, traverses the plain in a north-west and south-east direction towards the Pacific. Where these hills approach the Lake of Nicaragua there are several volcanoes. Farther to the north-west between the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua and the Pacific, the hills are low, and disappear opposite the north-western extremity of the Lake of Managua: they are succeeded by a low and level plain, about ten or twelve miles wide. On the north volcanoes rise behind the Bay of Conchagua. The northern part of the Plain of Nicaragua is little known. North-west from Nicaragua is the Lake Managua. In the middle of this lake stands the conical-formed island of Monotombito. On the north-western shores of Managua rises the volcano of Monotombo, which usually sends forth smoke. The Plain of Nicaragua is hot throughout the year. It is covered with large forests of remarkable luxuriance. Scarcely a day passes without rain, especially near the shores of the Atlantic, where the rain often descends in torrents. In the volcanic country, the climate is less wet and more healthy. Cacao, indigo, rice, Indian corn, bananas, and cotton, are cultivated in this plain. Mahogany, cedar, and pine abound in the forests. East from Lake Nicaragua are extensive pastures, on which multitudes of cattle, horses, and mules are reared, a considerable number of which are sent to the northern countries, as well as hide, and cheese of an indifferent kind. On the western coast, pearls and mother-of-pearl shells are taken. PROJECTS OF CANALS. CHAPTER VII. OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CANAL BETWEEN THE ATLAMK AND PACIFIC OCEANS. As far back as the final conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards, the un.ting of the waters of the Atlantic with those of the Pacific, was projected. Cortez first suggested the bold plan, which political and moral difficulties, more than phy sical obstacles, have, hitherto, prevented even the attempt at execution. Three parts of the great Isthmus have each of them had their advocates as superior to the other two. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, or the narrowest part of Mexico, that of Panama, and that of Nicaragua. A survey of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec was executed in the years 1842 and 1843, under the direction of the engineer, Signor Gaetano Moro. A long report was drawn up by him in which he states that, "On accepting the direction of the scientific commission with which 1 have had the honour to be intrusted, one of the first points to which 1 directed my attention was the investigation of all the former data upon the subject. With the celebrated Hernando Cortes originated the idea of a communication by this isthmus between the two oceans. Nevertheless I am not of opinion that Cortes con templated the opening- of a canal, for although it is observed in the work of Lorenzana, that Cortes had studied mathematics, and that for more than a century the construction of locks had been practised in Italy, still their use was but of limited application, and on so small a scale that it is not probable they had much engaged the attention of Cortes." With respect to the Tehuantepec scheme, much stress is laid on the naviga tion of its chief river : " Towards the end of the seventeenth century, Dampier, speaking of the Coatza- coalcos, said This is one of the principal rivers of this coast ; it is not half the breadth of the Tabasco river, but deeper. Its bar is less dangerous than any on this coast, there being fourteen feet of water, and but little sea : within the bar there is much greater depth, and a bed of soft oasie ground. * * * * This river hath its rise near the South Sea, and is navigable a great way into land, especially with boats or small craft. " The oldest amongst the documents of most importance is the narrative of a voyage of discovery which the engineer, Don Augustin Cramer, governor of the castle of San Juan de Ulua, performed in 1774, by order of the viceroy, Don Antonio Maria Bucareli. " After his arrival at the isthmus, by the Gulf of Mexico, he observes :- of the river Coatzacoalcos has on it, at half-tide, twenty-four palms of water, excepting a very small portion of its length, on which there are only eighteen palms. " Signor Moro proceeds and says " These soundings correspond with those taken on the first survey, and afterwards by me ; for which reason, and as frequent soundings taken by the present pilots during the last thirteen years agree with them, it may be inferred, that the said bar is permanently in the same state, or that if any variation occurs it is so inconsiderable that it has escaped notice. " After passing the bar the river is six to eight fathoms deep. 1 840 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Cramer continues his narrative, briefly describing, but with admirable exact- ness, the course of the river up to Mai Paso, and demonstrates the facilities which the country presents for making a good road from this point to Tehuan- tepec, concluding with the following observations: "The river courses, with the mountain chain interrupted between Santa Maria Petapaand San Miguel Chimalapa, arid the evenness of the grounds, plainly indicate that it would not be a work of great difficulty, nor excessively costly, to effect a commu nication between the two seas across this isthmus. In the supposition that the waters of the rivers Almoloya and Citune were held back, a canal might be opened to join them with those of the San Miguel or Chicapa, the course of which into the Pacific Ocean, by the bar of San Francisco, passes by the Venta de Chicapa, and from this spot forwards there are no further difficulties, because it is one perfect plain as far as Tehuantepec." It was with reference to these results that Baron de Humboldt, after having very properly asserted that until then " the topography of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec was quite unknown in Europe," adds, " we cannot doubt that this point of the globe deserves no less attention than the Lake of Nicaragua." In 1820, Robinson, speaking upon the same subject, writes, " We will now proceed to examine another (route for a canal) which, although it be deficient in some of the natural advantages of Costa Rica, still possesses others of so important a character as to render it almost doubtful to us at which of the two places the desired communication ought first to be opened." And, speaking of the Coatzacoalcos, he adds, " it is the only port in the Mexican gulf where vessels of war, and others of a large size, can enter, and is far superior either to Pensacola or Espiritu Santo. There are at all seasons on the bar, at the mouth of that port, twenty-two feet water." In the year 1824, the state of Vera Cruz and the federal governments ap pointed each a commission to survey the isthmus: the former chose Don Tadeo Ortiz, and the latter selected Colonel Don Juan de Orbegozo of the general staff. The attention of Ortiz was specially directed to colonisation, and the cul tivation of these fertile districts, upon which he enlarges with much enthusiasm. He also proposed to render the Coatzacoalcos navigable to the confluence of the Malatengo ; and further to construct a road from this point to the Pacific, passing through the Portillp de Tarifa, the Venta de Chicapa, arid the lagoons. The bar of the Coatzacoalcos is said by him " to be permanent and constant, form- ing two canals or channels; that to the left or the west has on it in the rainy season (that is, from the beginning of June to the end of February) three and a half fathoms of water, or twenty-one feet, these being increased to twenty-three at high tides. That on the right or to the east, has two and a half fathoms, or fifteen feet, and both during the dry season lessen three or four feet, the principal channel maintaining itself at not less than eighteen feet, except perhaps under extraordinary circumstances. When a vessel would effect an entrance, with a view only to greater security, the fifteen feet channel should be preferred, because it has less current in it, and is probably wider, and because, when the sea-breeze blows hard, the currents are rapid in the great channel set ting from east to west, and without taking a pilot it would be difficult, if not dangerous, to be entered by vessels of great draft of water. " Since the direction of the channels is from north to south, we are of opinion that vessels can enter with the wind from north, north-east, and the easterly and southerly monsoons, by keeping to the wind- The prevailing winds offer no difficulty v/ith the same precaution, only attending to the currents, which as before said, run with rapidity from the east to the west, and might cause vessels to be stranded. However, there are pro- PROJECTS OF CANALS. bably some periodical variations to the phenomena, which mariners would be the most competent to appreciate for their guidance. " The departure of vessels by both channels cannot of course take place with the above winds, but easily with those from the south and west, and off the land. Tlie latter of which almost every day prevails, at least during the rainy season, from alter midnight till eight or nine in the morning, when the sea-breezes commence, on which account vessels should proceed to sea after five o clock, A.M., until seven, but not later than eight, which is allowing sufficient time for vessels to be beyond the danger of drifting into the danger ous iron-bound bay, which is formed by the ridge of San Martin, running out to a pro montory." These difficulties for the entrance and exit of vessels, would be obviated by steam-tugs at the mouth of the harbour. The survey of Senor Orbegozo was made contemporaneously with that of Senor Ortiz, but he admits that he was in want of many things, and that on this account the results of his rapid examination must be defective under the un favourable circumstances in which he was placed. Senor Orbegozo found, as well as Senor Ortiz, that it would be both easy and advantageous to render the Coatzacoalcos navigable as far as the confluence with the Alaman (or Malatengo) ; and from this point he proposes a carriage-road to be made as far as the lagoons, passing by the Chivela instead of by the Portillo de Tarifa, as proposed by Ortiz. Signor Moro and his assistants, well provided with proper instruments, ar rived atTehuantepec on the 28th of May, 1842. The journey from Mexico had occupied nearly a month, and the roads were so bad that almost all the instru ments had been more or less injured. " In the description of the Coatzacoalcos, given by Captain Robles, I have not found any thing that does not agree with my own observations and notes, excepting the width of 700 metres attributed to the river near its mouth, where it is widest. Judging mention it that the report of our operations may be as correct and accurate as pos The following report is literally the same as that which was forwarded by Captain Robles after his exploration : The river Coatzacoalcos, according to the report of Captain Robles, takes its rise in the unexplored part of the Sierra Madre, and the highest point in its course visited by Signor Moro, was at its confluence with the Chimalapilla, from whence he examined it to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico, situated in 17 deg. 8 min. 30 sec. north latitude, and 94 deg. 17 min. west longitude from Greenwic The Chimalapilla flows into the Coatzacoalcos on its right bank, seven kilc metres, about four miles and one-third English, to the south-south-east of the village of Santa Maria Chimalapa. At this confluence it is 1 396 feet above the level of the sea. * The metre is equal to 3 feet, 3,371 inches. The kilometre is equal to 1093, 6389 yards. 1 English mile is equal to 1609 3-10 French metres. 1 English mile is equal to 1760 English yards. VOL. I. 842 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. On the same side, and at a short distance below the Chimalapilla, is the con fluence of the River del Final, so called because it flows through mountains on which pine-trees were cut by the Spanish government and sent to the Havannah for the masts of large ships. This part of the Coatzacoalcos is still called the River del Corte (of the cutting). As far as the confluence with the River del Milagro, which joins on the left at two kilometres and a half to the west-north-west of Santa Maria, the Coatzacoalcos flows through a deep ravine, with a descent of forty metres in the space of nineteen kilometres, that is 0.21 metres in every 100 metres. " The mountains which border the channel are at first very high and precipitous, but gradually lowering and softening in their character as the mouth of the Milagro is approached, they then appear only as hills of moderate elevation, and the river has changed from being a rapid torrent, in which the rafts could with difficulty float, into a quiet stream, with only occasional rapids of small extent. The rocks on the banks of the river are of sandstone, calcareous spar, and slate, although this last but rarely occurs. The limestone is excavated by the river, which appears to pass under the ruins of a bridge." On small patches, on the borders of the river, the Indians of Santa Maria plant maize, tobacco, and cocoa ; some of these tracts of land are only accessible on rafts, and others only by craggy pathways. Beyond the confluence of the Milagro, the river previously running from east to west, flows towards the south-west as far as the junction of the Escolapa. From the Malatengo to the mouth of the Sarabia, the depth is generally from one-and-a-half to two-and-a-half metres, and sometimes even five metres deep, or from about five to sixteen feet. Mai Paso has a strong rapid a little below it formed of various ridges of cal careous spar and granite, and for a distance of about 180 metres, or about 200 yards. After the junction of the Sarabia the hills are inconsiderable, and nearly dis appear a little below the River Jumuapa (or de la Puerta) ; the rapids are less frequent, and the last, called the Suchil, occurs before reaching the mouth of the River Jaltepec. The rivers Sarabia, Jumuapa, and Jaltepec, flow into the Coatzacoalcos from the left bank, and the Chalchijapa the right hand. The course of the Coatzacoalcos from the confluence of the Malatengo to that of the Jumuapa is from south to north ; then from north-west until it meets the Jaltepec ; and thence to the bar about north-east. The whole length of the Coatzacoalcos, from the mouth of the Malatengo to the Sarabia is thirty-five kilometres ; from the Sarabia to the Jumuapa, twenty-seven kilometres ; from the Jumuapa to the Chalchijapa, thirty-six kilometres ; and to the Horqueta, sixty-five kilometres more, being a distance of 163 kilometres, or about 110 English miles between the Malatengo and the Horqueta. PROJECTS OF CANALS. The banks, after leaving the hills, are not steep, and generally from three to five metres high : they are occasionally covered by the floods. At some few places, the cerritos, or hillocks, are from twelve to twenty metres high, and are formed of clay. Where these low and sloping banks occur, the river spreads laterally, and the slowness of the current, after the confluence of the Jaltepec is scarcely apparent, the depth of the stream does not therefore increase; and during the dry season, the shoals are covered only by half a metre, about twenty inches, of water. These shoals are formed of sand and gravel. Those of any extent are, the one commencing below Tecolotepec, which occupies the greater part of the bend of Cascajal; that between the River Naranjo and the brook Churriagao; that of Cuapinoloya, between the island of this name and one a little lower ddwn ; and lastly, that of Horqueta, obstructing the entrance of the two branches of the river which divide at this point. These branches unite after having formed the Island of Tacamichapa. The one to the west is longer and narrower than that to the east called Apotzongo- The length of the first is fifty-five kilometres ; its width between ninety metres and 100 metres, or about twenty metres to thirty metres less than the river was before its separation, and the depth is above four metres. Several streams fall into it. In the west there occurs the Paso de la Cienaga, which is only two leagues distant from the village of Jaltipan ; and in this same branch is the pass of Blancos, at a distance of twenty-one kilometres from the town of Aca- yucam, the capital of the district. The Apotzongo, or largest branch, is forty kilometres long, and on its right bank, twenty-nine kilometres from Horqueta, is the village of San Miguel de los Almagres (or Hidalgo-titlan), the first inhabited place met with coming down the river. Below this point the water is constantly six metres to seven metres deep ; but a little above Los Almagres, between the strands of Mistari-grande and Gaviota, it is interrupted by a large shoal. Below the re-junction, the Coatzacoalcos receives from the right the streamlet Ishuatepec, the stream of Otapa, and the River Coachapa, the mouth of which is sixteen kilometres from the lower errd of the Island of Tacamichapa. The source of this river is unknown, and the district it traverses is a desert; it has been ascended in canoes for twelve days, which is the same time as that occupied in going up from the bar of the Coatzacoalcos to the pass of Sarabia, and schooners have also sailed up it to a sugar plantation twelve kilometres above the entrance. Three leagues higher up, it receives the river Coachapa, into which flow the waters that leave the Coatzacoalcos at Cascajal. The stream Otapa flows from some small lagoons which yield salt. Seven kilometres below the confluence of the Coachapa, and on the opposite 844 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. shore, is the village of LaFabrica, or Milan-titlan ; and at seven kilometres more below this, the River Uspanapan joins the Coatzacoalcos from the right. Half-way, between the River Coachapa and Mina-titlan, on the left bank in front of an islet, are the creeks Tacojalpa, Ojozapa, and Cuamecatan, a place where the pine logs for the arsenal at the Havannah were formerly brought for exportation. Of the villages founded by Don Tadeo Ortiz, only Mina-titlan and Hidalgo- titlan now exist. The Uspanapan is the most considerable tributary of the Coatzacoalcos ; its course is broad, flowing through an uninhabited country; its sources are unknown, but generally supposed to come from a range of mountains, often visible to the south-east from the upper part of the Coatzacoalcos. This range has the repu tation of being rich in gold and silver minerals, and has been explored by expe ditions, which ascended the river in canoes for sixteen to eighteen days, and some are said to have done this even for twenty-six days. On the banks of this river, at thirty-eight kilometres from its mouth, a Mr. Baldwin of Mina-titlan built a schooner a few years since. Below the Uspanapan, near Paso Nuevo, the high road runs, leading to Tobasco. At sixteen and a half kilometres below Uspanapan, and eight and a half kilometres from the bar, from the left, the confluence River Tierra Nueva, or the Calzades, flows in, and is the channel by which the Coatzacoalcos unites with the River Huasuntan, which empties itself into the sea by the Barrilla, not passable for vessels of any size. The banks of the river here are very low, frequently flooded, and there are many creeks. The depth of the Coatzacoalcos, from the junction of the branches which form the Island of Tacamichapa to the mouth of the Coachapa, is eight metres, rather more than four and a quarter fathoms; and from this to the bar, not less than ten. metres to twelve metres, or four-and-a-half fathoms to six-and-a-half fathoms. Its breadth, where narrowest, is from 120 metres to 150 metres ; and in some places below the mouth of Tierra Nueva, it is nearly 7000 metres. As far as the Island of Tacamichapa, a distance of fifty-five kilometres (thirteen Mexican leagues nearly, or rather more than thirty-four English miles), or at least up to the confluence of the Coachapa, the Coatzacoalcos is navigable in all seasons and for every class of ships, forming a convenient as well as a most secure harbour. Schooners might ascend as far as Horqueta by the Mistan branch and to Hidalgo-titlan, and higher by that of Apotzongo. From the battery on the left entrance of the river, the channel is to be seen through the breakers on the bar, which is said never to vary its position. Signer Moro says : " We know well that there is a sufficient depth of water for large ships (since but PROJECTS OF CANALS. 845 a few years ago two large French vessels with colonists had entered the channel), we examined it ourselves in an open boat, going out to the distance of 3000 metres, where we found fifteen metres water with a rapidly increasing depth. The shallowest water we found on the bar was 6.2 metres, and we were not certain that we had gone over the deepest part of it.* A North American pilot, who resides in the establbhment of Mr. Baldwin, assured us that he had many times crossed the bar, and that he had never found less water upon it than twenty-one English feet, equivalent to 6.4 metres. This account nearly agrees with our own observation, and confirms the old opinion that the bar does not shift, a circumstance easily explained, since the current of the river is slow, and the tides are almost imperceptible at its mouth." In the vast forests which cover the shores of this river and its tributaries, excellent ship-building timber, as well as dye-woods, are to be found in profusion; the principal trees seen are the tall pine trees of the Sierra de Chimalapa ; the large cedars along the river, especially above the stream of the Perlas; superb mahogany, and other hard and close-grained trees, such asjavicues, huayacanes, macayosy and paques, from the latter of which crooked timbers were cut in the time of the Spanish government for vessels of the largest burden. The abundance of durable ship-timber which grows on the borders of the river, the convenience and security of the port, the facility of defending its entrance by batteries, all combine to render the Coatzacoalcos the fittest place in the Gulf of Mexico for the establishment of a depot. These advantages were suggested to the Spanish government by the engineer Cramer, in the year 1774. In 1778, another engineer, Don Miguel del Corral, submitted to the viceroy a plan for the construction of an arsenal, with two slips for vessels of every size, and a fort to defend the entrance of the river. M. Moro says, "The various plans which I am about to submit, are formed on the supposition of Coatzacoalcos being rendered navigable as far as its confluence with the Malatengo, and and the Bocca barra of San Francisco fitted for the admission of large vessels. Both these ends are, in my opinion, attainable without having to overcome extraordinary difficulties." Of the five projects of Signer Garay and of Signor Moro, the last is that which they decide as the best. After having conveyed by a trench to the imme diate neighbourhood of Tarifa, as a summit level, the waters of the Ostuta and Chicapa, the next consideration would be to take advantage of the beds of the rivers, which from that point flow toward both oceans. The stream of Tarifa, and the rivers Chichihua and Malatengo, might be rendered navigable, or followed on the one side, and on the other the Monetza and the Chicapa. The commissioners say they do not pretend to have indicated the only means of effecting the desired canal transit, much less do they flatter themselves of having proposed the best, and only hope to have been the mea the practicability of the undertaking." as we had intended." 846 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " ESTIMATE OF EXPENSE. Dutens, speaking of the Caledonian Canal, which he visited before its completion, observes, that in a great undertaking of this kind it is im possible to pre-estimate the cost of every part. "If in Europe, where it is comparatively easy to obtain correct data in these matters, it is considered venturesome to name beforehand a sum as the probable cost of an under taking of this nature, it must necessarily be more difficult to do so in the present case, from the want of the requisite particulars. However, by making use of proper investi gations, and tending to over-estimate the expense rather than to diminish it, I trust to come near the truth ; nor is it possible to expect more in our present disadvantageous position. " It would be an error to suppose that every portion of the work must, in our case, cost more than it would in Europe. The prodigious quantity of timber of the best quality which the projector is authorised to use at pleasure, in virtue of the grant made to him by government, and which lies profusely in every part through which the canal would pass ; the excellent kinds of building stone, the lime, bitumen, clay, and all other necessary materials, which nature seems to have taken pleasure in scattering in the most convenient spots ; and, lastly, the ground and the waters, the acquisition of which occa sions often considerable expenditure, and which, in our case, if it did occasion any at all, would be so trifling as not even to be worth mentioning, are all advantages in favour of our undertaking, and which very few of the same kind in Europe could easily command. "The canal, which I have taken as a model, is the Caledonian, the dimensions of which appear to me sufficient. To alter them much would occasion a considerable increase in the expenditure, perhaps without a suitable compensation, whilst the alteration required in the dimensions of some of its parts for the admission of steamers destined to a transatlantic navigation, would not make it much more expensive. " Each lock of the Caledonian canal cost, upon an average, 200,000 francs, and therefore the whole tv/enty-seven amounted to five millions and a half. "Selecting the proper ground, the declivity of the proposed canal is : From the table-land of Tarifa to the Pacific . . . . 200 metres. From the same point to the month of the Malatengo . .160 "Giving to it a number of locks proportionate to that of the Caledonian canal, there would be required : On the side of the Pacific , . .; . 89 locks On the side of the Atlantic . . . . 72 ,, Total number of locks. . . .161 But he reduces this number to 150. "The longitude of our canal would be eighty kilometres, or nearly forty-nine miles and three-quarters. "The trench, intended to convey to Tarifa the united waters of the Ostuta and the Chicapa, would be about twenty-five kilometres in length, or about sixteen miles and an eighth, and we will give to the section of its excavations forty square metres of surface. We will take ten francs as the cost of excavating a cubic metre of ground according to what is actually paid in Mexico and the United States for a similar work in soils analo gous to that of the isthmus. "The trench necessary to join the Ostuta to the Chicapa might be five kilometres in length at the utmost, and allowing for unforeseen obstacles in this part of the country on account of the nature of its rocks, we will suppose it to cost three millions of francs. " Lastly, let us apply four millions more to regulate the course of the Coatzacoalcos and to excavate the lakes and the Bocabarra. "Then, summing up the preceding calculations, the total amount of the work will be found to consist of the following sums : PROJECTS OF CANALS. Cost of 1 50 locks at 200,000 francs ... 30 000 000 francs 80 kilometres of canal at 475,000 francs . . 38,000,000 25 kilometres of trench, at ten francs per cubic metre 10,000,000 5 kilometres of trench at fifteen francs . . 3,000,000 Regulation of the Coatzacoalcos, lakes, and Bocabarra 4, 000,000 ," Total cost . . 85,000,000 Or sterling . . 3,400,000 Other estimates have since been made, which calculated the expense at 20,000,0007. sterling. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCH OF THE ISTHMUS OF TEHUANTEPEC. Robinson, who examined the locality, says "If, on a topographical survey of the isthmus, it shall be found practicable to cut a canal, there is no place where such an undertaking could be accomplished with such ease, as in the province of Oajaca. In its boundaries are comprehended a great part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Its salubrity is unequalled on the American con tinent; even its shores on the Pacific Ocean appear exempted from the usual diseases which afflict the inhabitants of the Atlantic and South Sea coasts. * The population of Tehuantepec are among the most active and healthy race of Indians we have ever seen, and the cutting of a canal through such parts of the isthmus, as an accurate survey shall show to be fittest for that purpose, could be performed with the greatest facility by the inhabitants of Oajaca." Mr, Michel Chevalier, who lately visited America, speaking of the isthmus, in one of his recent publications (Revue des Deux Mondes, January 1st, 1844), says : " The exploration of General Orbegozo, confirmed the presence of a magnificent vegetation in the isthmus, which proves the fertility of its soil. Even previous to the voyage of Humboldt, the beautiful forests of Tarifa had attracted the attention of the court of Spain. The fertility of the extensive plain of Tehuantepec was also ascer tained, no less than the healthfulness of the country at some distance from the sea. Be sides it being well known that the isthmus was once densely populated, there seems to be no reason why it could not be so again." During the long sojourn of the commission, under Signer Moro, in the isthmus, they, with their numerous attendants, had often to undergo severe toils, and were frequently exposed to the inclemencies of the Weather, but none of them experienced any illness. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is comprised within the Mexican Republic, and forms part of the departments of Oajaca and Vera Cruz. According to the official reports, published by the Mexican government December, 1 basis for the elections, the former department contained a population o inhabitants, and the latter 250,380. The boundaries of these two districts are not yet definitely settled. This undefined boundary is a natural consequence of the unsettled state . the country. The coasts of the isthmus are the only inhabited portions, and are separated from each other by an immense forest. The southern division in the department of Oajaca, or Oxaca, is naturally 848 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. divided into two sections. The first occupies the plain which extends from the Pacific Ocean to the foot of the Sierra, and the second comprises the Sierra. Politically, the southern districts of the isthmus constitute the greater part of Tehuantepec, and comprise twenty-four municipalities ; the town of Tehu- antepec, which the Spaniards called also Guadalcazar, is the head of the district, and the residence of a prefect, a judge, a military commander, and a parish priest. Juchitan and Petapa are the heads of two sub-districts with their respective sub-prefects. Ecclesiastically this division is dependant on the Bishop of Oajaca, and in addition to the parish of Tehuantepec has five rectories. The whole of the southern territory of the isthmus is estimated to contain about 31,000 inhabitants. This population is composed of Europeans, Huaves, Zapotecos, Mijes Soques, and Zamboes. The Europeans) constitute an insignificant number of the population. The Huaves are in all little more than three thousand, and occupy the four villages of the coast called San Mateo, Santa Maria, San Dionisio, and San Francisco. These natives differ materially in their aspect from the other inhabitants of the isthmus. They are robust and well-formed ; some among them are intelli gent, but the majority are grossly ignorant. The Huaves of both sexes are generally in a state of almost complete nudity. Their industry consists of little else than fishing : with the produce of their fisheries, however, they carry on some trade. Not possessing vessels to venture into deep water, they only frequent shallow places such as marshes, and the margin of the lakes and of the sea. Although the Huaves are chiefly fishermen, very few among them know how to swim. The Zapotecos constitute the greater part of the southern population of the isthmus, almost exclusively, sixteen villages out of twenty-four. According to a manuscript obtained by the secretary of the commission, " Montezuma, Emperor of Mexico, after subjugating the Huaves, proceeded to the conquest of Guatemala, but whilst he struggled with the difficulties of the war, Cosijoesa, King of Teozapotlan and of the Zapotec nation, assisted by the King of Misteca, drove the Mexicans away, took possession of Tehuantepec, and maintained the Huaves in subjection. " Although Cosijopi did not offer any resistance to the Spaniards, the Zapo tecos opposed their progress towards the interior. Cortes, speaking in one of his letters of two provinces which he intended to conquer, says : "The people of one of them are called Zapotecos, and that of the other Mijes, which provinces are so rugged that they cannot be traversed even on foot, since J have PROJECTS OF CANALS. TEHUANTEPEC. * J ! The Zapotecos are said to maintain the fame for valour which they have always enjoyed. The natives of Tehuantepec are in civilisation superior to those of any other part of the republic. Moro says he found them intelligent, industrious, docile, and joyous. " In point of personal appearance the Tehuantepecans are vigorous, and of a pleasing aspect and I may say, that of the Indians with whom I am acquainted they are perhapt the only people who possess what may be called z fair sex. " It appears evident to me that these qualities are not inherent to the Zapotec race- but a consequence of their admixture with the Europeans; tor I have observed that the Zapotecos, who inhabit the mountains, and the valley of Oajaca, are similar to t he- natives of the rest of the republic, and bear no resemblance whatever to those of Tehuantepec, among whom there are many with light hair, and a complexion compara tively fair. " It is well known that Cortes had collected a great number of Spaniards in the Isthmus, which was his favourite spot. The women of Tehuantepec enjoy some celebrity in the republic for their charms; and the predilection which they show towards the Europeans, together with a rather over degree of sociability, render this supposition very probable. While speaking of the women of this part of the isthmus I will add, that they are also noted for their graceful carriage, and the regularity of their features : their gala-dress is picturesque, rich, and elegant, as well as the head-dress which they gene rally wear." The Zapotecos have some branches of industry. In Tehuantepec there are bakers, carpenters, smiths, tinkers, silversmiths, tanners, shoemakers, saddlers, and as the secretary of the commission observes, " every family, whatever may be their circumstances, manufacture the soap necessary for home consumption." The clothes woven by the women from wild silk and cotton are really admirable, particularly considering the very imperfect instruments which they possess for the purpose. The Mijes were formerly a powerful nation : they still occupy the land from the Sierra, north of Tehuantepec, to the district of Chiapas. In the isthmus they inhabit the village of Guichicovi, and a small portion of the Sierra is never visited. Physically and morally speaking, they are a degraded race, of repulsive aspect, and grossly ignorant. They, however, grow plantains, maize, beans, and sugar cane, from the latter of which they extract an impure kind of sugar, which they supply to the southern division of the isthmus. The ambition of the Mijes of Guichicovi is that of possessing the greatest possible number of mules, of which they make no use, not even for the carriage of goods, which they prefer carrying on their own backs. The Mijes are idolaters, and pollute the altars of the Catholic churches svitl the blood of birds, which they offer as victims to other deities. Their numbe is about 5000. The Soques came originally from Chiapas. They inhabit in the i VOL. I. 850 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. villages of San Miguel and Santa Maria Chimalapa. They are distinguished from the other inhabitants of these regions by their repulsive features. In point of morality the Soques appear somewhat more rational than the Mijes, and they are naturally kind and obliging. The Soques cultivate maize for their own consumption, a small quantity of tobacco, and two plants of the bromelias, from which they extract the iztle and the pita, the fibres of which they bleach, weave, and dye of different colours. Their spun threads, and the hammocks which they weave with them, constitute their chief industry. The inhabitants of Santa Maria extract also some annotto, and supply the southern part of the isthmus with a delicious orange, which grows abundantly. The Zamboes, a half-caste between the Indian and the Negro, chiefly inhabit the estates of the Marquisate del Valle. They are also mixed with the Zapotecos in the villages of Zanetapec, Niltepec, Petapa, Barrio, and Santo Domingo. The Zamboes are descended from African slaves, brought to the Marquesanas estates by the successors of Cortes, and to the Frailescas possessed by the Domi nican friars in the territory of Zanatepec. They are robust and industrious, labourers in the fields, and applying themselves to the cultivation of wheat, in digo, and cochineal. Neither the Zamboes nor the other natives of these districts are remarkable for sobriety. The climate of that portion of Tehuantepec, which in this part of the isthmus extends from the shores of the Pacific to the foot of the Sierra, is generally warm and dry, a circumstance to which is attributed its salubrity. The climate of the elevated section of the isthmus is so different from that of the plains, that when the thermometer stands in the latter place at 30 deg., it scarcely rises to 13 deg. at Chivela or Tarifa. In all the heights surrounding these estates, we find the pine ocote, which indicates a temperate climate. The summits of the Sierra Madre are generally enveloped in clouds, which coming from the Atlantic, there discharge their waters on the heights. This ac counts for the rivers of the isthmus having an almost constant body of water during the greater part of the year. At Guichicovi and Santa Maria Chimalapa it rains almost incessantly. MINERALS. Iron is found in abundance in many parts of the isthmus, and that of Tarifa appears to be of excellent quality. As regards the precious metals, for which the department of Oajaca was formerly famous, there is a tradition still prevalent, that the mountains of Mijes and the upper Uspanapan contain rich gold and silver mines. VEGETABLES. The mangrove tree (Rhizophora mangel) is not so common on the coasts of the isthmus as on others of Mexico. In the southern division, it is found in the neighbourhood of San Francisco and of the Morro. In the Peninsula of San Mateo and Santa Maria, the most remarkable trees PROJECTS OF CANALS. TEIIUANTEPEC. are the tamarind, palm,, and cocoa-nut, besides which there is generally a luxuriant vegetation. The land to the north of the lower eastern lagoon, in which the grounds of the Huaves of San Dionisio and San Francisco are situated, appear clothed with ;t vegetation, somewhat resembling that of the parks in Europe. The flown- m some of these localities are of splendid brilliancy. Between the coast and the Sierra the plain is partly covered with acacias. On approaching the Sierra the vegetation is more vigorous, and the Brazil wood tree (Ccesalpinia crista) becomes very common. The granadillo, the ma hogany tree (Svictenia mahogani), the copalchi (Croton cascarilla), and the dra gon tree (Pterocarpus draco), make their appearance as well as many other shrubs that yield resins and balsams, to which the natives ascribe marvellous virtues. There are also the fustic (Morus tinctorid), and according to Don Tadeo Ortiz, the log- wood (Hcematuxilon campechianum), as well as a considerable number of other trees, both picturesque and useful for the hardness and durability of their wood. Both the soil and the climate are favourable to the cultivation of indigo and the sugar-cane, and those tracks of land which are protected from the winds pro duce cotton of excellent quality. The table land and hills between Tarifa and the Barrio appear covered with grass which affords excellent pasturage for cattle. The valleys abound with palm- trees, and there grows the ocote pine (Pinus religiosa ?} which has some affinity with the pinus picea. The latter is also found on the summits of the hills between the above places and Santa Maria Chimalapa, alternately with the tropical plants which grow in the lower portions of the ground. The luxuriance of the vegetation in the latter places exhibits a multitude of plants; however, the guayacan (Diospuros lotus), the cedar, the mahogany, the rosewood, the gateado, and the ebony, are there abundant. The amber-tree (Liquidambar stymciflua), from which is extracted the resin of the same name, and the tree yielding the Peru balsam (Myroxulon peruiferum),d producing a <rum very similar to the true amber, grow also in this district. Two Muds of vine, bearing good grapes, the plantain, the orange-tree, t species spontaneous cocoa (Theobroma cacao], and the sapo-tatr, kinds abound. Several kinds of indigo/eras : the bixa orellana, from which the annotto tracted, the sarsaparilla (Smila* ^aparilla), the ginger (Amonum r two kinds of vanilla, are very common. The table-land of Cerro Atravesado is covered with excellent pas* and a splendid wood of pine ocotes. the .nost e,ev at ed portion of t,,e c.ain fusely covered with majestic oak-trees. 852 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. "To the rightof the upper Coatzacoalcos, or riverDelCorte,are found in abundance various kinds of pines, and among them it would appear is the Pinusabies, which the Spanish govern ment used to send to the dock-yard at the Havannah for the construction of ship-masts. Ac cording to Don Tadeo Ortiz, many of these trees are from two to four metres in diameter, and of a prodigious height; they are found at the very banks of the river. The plains watered by the rivers Malatengo, Chichihua, and Almoloya (the latter of which takes in its lower course the name of Guelaguesa) are noted in the isthmus for their delightful aspect. When speaking of the exploration of these rivers I have alluded to this fact, and therefore I will now only add, that the vegetation in them is similar, and perhaps even more luxuriant than that of the low grounds on the road to Santa Maria. The soil and climate are likewise peculiarly adapted to the growth of maize, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, rice, and the sugar-cane. 44 On the road from Boca de Monte to the Mai Paso, the vegetation begins to assume an aspect peculiar to the plains of the Coatzacoalcos. The laurus sassafras, the fern tree, an infinite variety of palms, and the plants of the tropical regions already alluded to, united and interwoven with passion flowers, and innumerable filamentous reeds; or richly enve loped and crowned by a multitude of exquisitely beautiful orquidacise, formed an admirable and sublime spectacle. But the peculiar characteristic of these shrubberies is, that the plants concealed in the midst of this luxuriant vegetation appear desirous to reach as soon as possible, an elevation where they may enjoy the rays of the sun, thus acquiring an ex traordinary height, and their stems being remarkably straight." WILD ANIMALS. Sigor Monro informs us, that in every estate of this isthmus a tigrero (tiger-man) is kept, who with a numerous pack of hounds is exclusively engaged in destroying wild beasts, which cause serious damage among the herds of cattle, notwithstanding the immense number of deer, hares, and rabbits on which they could and do also prey. As soon as the dogs discover one of these animals they set off in pursuit, and soon compel him to climb a tree for protection, where he is quickly despatched by the tigrero s rifle. The wild beast most common in the isthmus is that which is improperly called a tiger by the inhabitants, it being in reality the ounce (Felis undo) ; after this comes the American lion or puma (Felis discolor) they are both numerous, but, it is said, never attack man. The ocellots, or small tiger (Leopardus pardalis\ the wild cat, and the American fox (Vulpes fulvus), and martens are also numerous. The most remarkable animal, in proportion to its size, is the tapir (Tapirus terrestris), which abound in great numbers in the upper course of the rivers Chicapa and Ostuta, as well as all the wild parts of the Sierra. The flesh has an agreeable taste. In the Upper Ostuta there are considerable herds of wild cattle, the progeny of those which escaped into the woods from the old estates called Frailescas. There are two kinds of hog common ; one called the wild boar, bears no re semblance to the wild boar of Europe; the other the peccari, Dicotyles tayacu of zoology. The male has on the back a gland that contains a foetid humour, but its flesh, especially that of the female, is delicious food. In the woods, multitudes of monkeys, of the genera Lagothrix and Ateles. Deer, rabbits, and hares are said to be innumerable. Of the feathered tribe, the crax alector, improperly called pheasant, the wild turkey ( Meleagris gallo pavo), the chachalaca (Ortalida garrula\ parrots of beau- PROJECTS OF CANALS. TEHUANTEPEC. 853 tiful plumage, the partridge, the quail, the wild pigeon, and ducks of various kinds abound. Among the reptiles are the guana, the flesh of which is considered by the natives delicate food. There are also the most dangerous kinds of serpents, surh as the rattle-snake (Crotaltu horridus), the coral coloured, and many others. The lagoons, the rivers and the sea, contain a great variety and abundance of fish, and tortoises and turtles of various kinds. The divers of other coasts are in the habit of coming to the neighbourhood of the Morro inquest of tortoise-shell, coral, and pearl. The natives find also near the Morro a kind of purple shell-fish, from which they extract a substance much in use among them as a dye. The alligator inhabits the lakes near the coast. The most remarkable products of insects are the honey and wax which the bees supply, and enormous bags of raw silk suspended by small worms from the branches of trees, which the women of Tehuantepec turn to useful account. A road from the coast of the Pacific to the navigable portion of the Coatza- coalcos, opening a communication between the two seas, has been twice established. This took place first at the time of the conquest, and the second towards the end of the eighteenth century. At present scarcely any vestige remains of those roads, and the isthmus remains chiefly an unproductive waste. AGRICULTURE. " The estates," says Senor Garay, " which more particu larly deserve attention, both for their extent and for the improvement of which they are susceptible, are those called Haciendas Marquesanas, from being entailed in favour of Hernan Cortes, Marquis del Valle, whose descendants enjoyed them up to a late period." These estates are situated between the Barrio de la Soledad and the course of the rivers Malatengo and Chichihua, the stream of Zopiluapa, and the River del Cazadero. At present they belong to Messrs. Guergue and Maqueo, merchants of Oajaca, the former a Spaniard and the latter an Italian. The produce most cultivated is maize for making tortillas ; but the wantii roads to facilitate its carriage makes the inhabitants grow only as much as they require for their own consumption, which is insignificant, as the woe rivers furnish them with an abundance of provisions. Some attention is also paid to the cultivation of the sugar cane, sugar factory in the neighbourhood of Chihuitan, belonging to Messrs. I and Olivier Gourjon, the former a German and the latter a Frenchman that these are not the o,,.y p.antatioas of su g a,ca U e existi,,, 854 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. in the isthmus, and that the Indians of Guichicovi especially manufacture an impure sugar, used for the confection of brandy. This spirit is chiefly distilled at Tehuaiuepec, Juchitan, and Itztaltepec. Senor Garay estimates at 40,000 francs the total value of the brandy consumed in the southern part of the isthmus, to which he thinks ought to be added 30 ,000 francs for the mescal, a kind of brandy extracted in those places from the leaves of the American agave/ The most important agricultural produce in this part of the country is indigo. The secretary of the commission under Signor Moro remarks " It is cf such excellent quality as to be in request in all parts of the republic, and it is also exported abroad. An average crop will produce about 60,000 kilogrammes, representing a value of 600,000 francs. Its cultivation demands scarcely any attention, as the plant continues to be productive for the long period of three years. It has been often calculated that the expense of the cultivation of indigo in fruitful years, before it acquires its perfect growth, does not exceed 3.75 francs per kilogramme, whilst its value is never less than ten francs. The settlements where this important cultivation is most flourishing are Juchitan, Itztaltepec, San Geronimo, Chihuitan, and generally throughout the whole districts of Tehuantepec." The cochineal insect of these parts is the best in quality of any known, but its cultivation is almost entirely abandoned. Gum is so abundant, that according to Senor Garay, the neighbourhood of Juchitan alone will furnish 300,000 kilo grammes. CATTLE. Formerly numerous herds of cattle grazed in the southern division of the isthmus. Don Tadeo Ortiz says, that in the Frailescas estates alone there were more than 30,000 head of horned cattle, besides a considerable quantity of horses. At present there are not more than 1500 of the former, and only a few hundreds of the latter. According to the memoranda of the secretary of "the commission, the number of horses and mules may be estimated at 25,000, and that of the sheep at 1500. No use whatever is made of the hides. FISHERIES. The shrimp and dry fish prepared by the Huaves in the four villages of the coast, besides providing for the consumption of the inhabitants of the country, are carried in rather large quantities to Oajaca. SALT PITS. The secretary of the commission says "That salt pits are so numerous, that it would be difficult to determine the quantity of salt they yield ; but from a proximate calculation, made with the assistance of some well-informed persons, their produce may be estimated during the period when they were worked on account of the government at 35,000 kilogrammes ; and it may be asserted with truth, that the whole of their produce was not turned to account, since it is no ex aggeration to say that from Huamelula to Tonala the entire intervening space is one con tinued salt mine. This salt is highly esteemed in various parts of the republic, both for its purity and its whiteness. The principal consumption takes place in the departments of Chiapas and Oajaca, the annual produce derived from it being about 200,000 francs. This salt was sold at the public administration of Tehuantepec at six francs per kilo gramme, and somewhat less when sold in the works themselves. Its cost to the govern ment was not more than one franc twenty-five cents for every 100 kilogrammes ; since being of spontaneous formation, and not requiring any operation whatever, the expense was limited to the mere carriage from the works to the place of deposit." MANUFACTURES. As to manufactures, the inhabitants confine themselves PROJECTS OF CANALS. TEHUANTEPEC. 855 chiefly to leather-dressing and harness-making. At Tehuantepec and Juclntan doe-skins are prepared of any colour required, and \vith considerable skill. Other kinds of skin are also tanned there, and the sole-leather and dressed ox-hides of Tehuantepec are esteemed. Shoes and saddles manufactured of them are occa sionally sent to Guatemala and the interior of the republic. They also make cotton stuff of considerable fineness, considering the imperfection of the looms employed for its manufacture. SKETCH OF THE NORTHERN DIVISION OF THE ISTHMUS WITHIN THE DEPART MENT OF VERA CRUZ. This portion of the isthmus was formerly one of the most densely populated of the Mexican empire. The topographical knowledge of this division, which is nearly covered with forests of almost impenetrable thickness, is very limited. Don Tadeo Ortiz, comparing the Coatzacoalcos with the rivers Mississippi, Bravo, Panuco, Papaloapan (now Alvarado), Tabasco, Magdalena, and Orinoco, asserts that the waters of the Coatzacoalcos are always clear " even in the greatest floods/ to which ought to be added the additional advantage of there being no logs of timber to obstruct its course, although it runs through a con tinuous forest, this circumstance being undoubtedly owing to the gentle current, and the tenacity of its banks. The river next the Coatzacoalcos in importance is the Uspanapan, which Ortiz says "runs through a pleasant and picturesque region of temperate cli mate, and once thickly populated. 5 This region, he thinks, is that which Cortes and Clavijero called Chimatlan and Quiexula. " It is very probable/* says Ortiz, "that this district which is now deserted, may afford a short and regular transit to the beautiful plains in the centre of the isthmus, as the conquerors penetrated through it into Upper Tabasco and Guate mala." Besides the Uspanapan, the rivers Coahuapa, Coachapa, San Antonio, 1 cochapa, and Zanapa, water also the plains lying on the right of the Coatzacoalcos all of them are more or less navigable, and the latter discharges itself into Atlantic, about forty kilometres, or about thirty miles, eastward of the of the Coatzacoalcos. The territory west of the Coatzacoalcos is also intersected by rivers, am which the Jaltepec and the San Juan are the largest. The former, before jo,r the Coatzacoalcos, flows through a country remarkable for its magmficent veg tion ; and Ortiz is of opinion that a great portion of its course might be navig for steamers. The latter falls into the Atlantic by Alvarado, and the Acayu. follow its course, when going to Vera Cruz, between which port and the coalcos it is asserted that a canal communication might very easily be establ 856 SPANISH AMERICAN EEPUBLICS. In the district of Acayuca there are sixteen municipalities. The town of Acayuca, situated at about l7deg. 50 min. 30 sec. north lati tude, and 5 min. 45 sec. east of the meridian of Juchitan, is the head of the dis trict of the same name. INHABITANTS. The population of this district is estimated at about 21,000 inhabitants, divided into Europeans, Indians, and Mestizos. The Europeans, who are few in number, and chiefly engaged in commerce, and the administration of public affairs. The Indians constitute more than three-fourths of the whole population, and apply themselves to agriculture. These Indians are almost all Mexicans, and very ignorant and superstitious. Their manners and customs are somewhat loose; they are little inclined to work. They have not the disagreeable features of the Mijes and Soques, and are not to be compared to the Zapotecos ; the excessive use of strong spirits, as well as the habit acquired from childhood of eating earth, deforms them, and imparts to them a sickly complexion. Jaltipan is celebrated among the Indian villages of this territory, for having been the birth-place of Malinche (Dona Marina), who so greatly assisted Cortes Signer Moro says, " The women of this village are famed, and not undeservedly, as the handsomest throughout the district; but in common with the rest of their sex in the isthmus they cannot boast of very strict ideas of propriety. It is also said that the male population, instead of watching them with a jealous eye, carry their ideas of hospitality to a very peculiar length. " A singular circumstance, deserving the attention of the ethnologist, is the existence of a race of dumb people, of which there are numerous families in Jaltipan. However strange this may appear it is nevertheless certain, and the Rancho de los mudos (settle ment of the dumb), established a few years since near the lower part of the island of Tacamichapa, owes its designation to the fact that the individuals are all dumb who inhabit the three or four houses which form the settlement." The Mestizos are in general more rational and industrious than the Indians; but, like them, indulge in intemperate habits, and are much more turbulent. The number of Mestizos exceeds that of the Europeans. CLIMATE. The climate of this part is damp, but its temperature being gene rally low, it is said by Moro to be by no means unhealthy, as its position would lead one to suppose. The centigrade thermometer does not reach in these regions more than 30 deg. ; the most prevalent diseases are intermittent fevers, but no instances have hitherto been known of the yellow fever, endemic in other countries. " About the year 1 830, three expeditions of Europeans were sent to the Coatza- coalcos for the purpose of colonisation. By a most unaccountable want of foresight, the unfortunate colonists were abandoned from the moment of their arrival, and were left without provisions, without shelter against the inclemencies of the season, and with out assistance of any kind. Although every thing seemed calculated to favour the development and progress of an epidemic, no disease of this kind appeared among them, for those who died perished more from misery and famine than from any other cause. PROJECTS OF CANALS. "By means of considerable felling of timber and the cultivation of th, r, climate of this portion of the isthmus would no doubt be considerably improved a it would remove the rlonds of msppt u7V>;^u r,* ~ ; . " u > a MiNERALs.Moro relates that in a statistical account of Don Jose M m;i Iglesias, mention is made of two mineral veins in the neighbourhood of the village of Joteapa, which were denounced in 1597 as being of silver, but the exact nature of which in reality is not known. It is stated in the same work that the calcareous rocks found in several parts of this territory might furni>h excellent building materials; that in the settlement of Los Quemadus then is beautiful alabaster; and near Jaltipan, gypsum of excellent quality. Lastly, it is stated that .in the villages of Sayultepec and Moloacan there are fountai petroleum ; in the last-mentioned place and Almagres, springs of sulphureous water; and in the village of Chinameca, a fountain of mineral waters, without mentioning its qualities. " I have been fortunate enough to be the first to find in the Mexican republic mines of coals of a superior quality, which I have already legally denounced, and the circumstance of their being situated in the neighbourhood of a great river, would render the conveyance of their produce very easy. I have seen no indication in the Isthmus of the existence of this valuable fossil." VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. All the plants of the southern division of the Isthmus, are also found in the northern. The luxuriance and majestic appear ance of the forests of the Coatzacoalcos are beyond all description, and Don Tadeo Ortiz says, they exhibit " a truly monstrous vegetation, of which ocular inspection alone can give an adequate idea." " These forests might furnish all the mahogany and other fine woods required iu the United States and throughout Europe, at prices considerably less than those of other parts of America, where these woods are certainly neither so abundant nor of the gigantic size of three metres in width, and from fifteen to twenty in height." Don Jose Maria Iglesias, speaking on the same subject, says, " They abound (the forests) with the finest and most precious woods, but especially mahogany and cedar, which, without hyperbole, might well supply the whole of Europe." Don Pedro de Garay says, in his memoir, " There are seen on every side dye-woods and timber, which will in time acquire their true value, and will exceed, without doubt, the cost of any speculation." On the high lands of almost all the rivers, and especially the Jaltepec and Uspanapan, the pine is found in the upper part of their course ; below which the oak, and in the lower part, the most precious woods. Among those used in con- struction, the cedar, the sapota, the oak, the yellow-wood, the ebony, thejavic ue, macayo, and, above all, ihepaqui (iron-wood), which, from its extreme hardness, is also called quiebra hacha (break-axe). Along the whole coast of the Atlantic, the tree yielding the pepper known by the name of myrtle (my rtus pimento) is found growing luxuriantly. VOL. i. 5 B 858 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. In various parts the siphonia cahuca flourishes, from which caoutchouc, or India-rubber, is obtained. In many parts the cassia is very common. Fruit trees, the sapotas of various kinds, the lemon, the orange, and the wild chocolate tree, as well as two kinds of vine are abundant. The vanilla, the indigo plant, and the sarsaparilla, are also very plentiful. ANIMALS. The number of wild animals which infest these territories is in credible, particularly in the neighbourhood of the settlement of Teposapa. Ac cording to Senor Iglesias, they are of the same kind as in the southern division^ Some are peculiar to the woods of the Coatzacoalcos, among which are some noc turnal species and the stentor ursinus. Along the course of the Coatzacoalcos, its banks are alive with the so- called pheasants, the wild turkeys, the pigeons, partridges, ducks, and many other fowl, the flesh of which is wholesome and delicious food. The multitude of parrots which inhabit the woods is astonishing. Toucans, including the ramphastos and the pteroglossus, and other birds, are numerous, some of them being remarkable for the beauty of their plumage, and others for their song. The waters abound in excellent fish. In the lower part of the Coatzacoatcos the manatus, or manate, is frequently found. A peculiar kind of fresh water tortoise deposits on the banks of these rivers great quantities of eggs quite dif ferent from those of the sea tortoise, and very similar to those of the hen both in appearance and taste. The coasts of the Atlantic next to the Isthmus are celebrated for abundance of tortoise, the fishery of which for shells gives employment to the inhabitants of Campeachy. The guanas, the flesh of which is a delicious morsel to the natives, differ in the southern and northern divisions. In the former they inhabit the dry and barren spots, and are of a dusky-brown colour, whilst those of the Coatzacoalcos are of a light green, variegated in the males with red spots. Venomous reptiles are also abundant. In the oak thickets of this district there are in vast quantities bags of wild silk, and wax and honey in abundance. There is no manufacturing industry of consequence. Agriculture has made some progress of late years, and several of the inhabitants have applied them selves to the cultivation of cotton and tobacco. The cotton grown appears to be of excellent quality, and also the tobacco, which is especially cultivated in the territory of Jaltipan. The grains most gene rally sown are maize, beans, and rice, but only in sufficient quantity for home consumption. The soil is so fruitful that both Don Tadeo Ortiz and Don Jose Maria PROJECTS OF CANALS. 359 Iglesias assert, that the efforts of the cultivator are in some places rewarded with five annual crops of maize. Senor Ortiz, speaking with enthusiasm of this fertility, says "That which most particularly characterises this privilege! re-ion, however is the singular fact that one single sowing of rice will yield successively two large crops with- out the slightest additional labour, as I had an opportunity of observing in the rancho di- Gavilanes, situated in the strand between the rivers Coatzacoalcos and Toneladas." The sugar-cane, coffee, and cocoa, prosper, and are cultivated in the i bourhood of all the settlements, although in very limited quantities. On the Coatzacoalcos, the only plantation of any importance is one of coffee and cocoa which an European settler established a few years ago, near Hidalgotitlan on the banks of this river, opposite to this village. The iztle is chiefly cultivated at Jaltipari, Soconusco, Tejistepec, Oteapa, Ishuatlan, and Moloacan. In 1831, Senor Iglesias numbered 1221 iztle plan tations, the value of the produce of which, generally sent to Vera Cruz, he estimated at upwards of 100,000 francs. In Mina-titlan there was then a brandy distillery, the most considerable in the district, but almost everywhere, and even in the ranchos or small settle ments, this pernicious liquor is distilled by means of a still of baked earth. As regards mechanical arts, it may be said that none exist in this district. ALTITUDES by Trigonometrical Measurements. NAMES OF PLACES. Heights above the Level of the Sea. NAMES OF PLACES. Heights above the Level of the Sea. metres. 274 5 metres. 371 Top of the cupola of the church of Juchitan 35 8 18 Estate of Tarifa (the place of the habita tions, which is presumed to be the Monapostiac Daniguibixo 111 218 298 416 del Convento Paso Partida 206 5 416 446 4GC, East Peak of Cerro Prieto Guievixia Massahua (the middle summit) East summit of Huacamaya Cerro de Laollaga 460 598 687 775 1243 Masahuita East summit of Massahua Guiexila Peak of the Cerro Atravesado The highest peak beyond it I > 6% 1152 15*9 2343 BAROMETRICAL Altitudes across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. NAMES OF PLACES. Heights above the Level of the Sea. NAMES OF PLACES. Height* above the Level of the Sea. Utnalalang metres. 220 Source of the stream Monetza me" 250 296 The River Chicapa, at the Ultimo Rancho 210 Venta de Chicapa (house at the estate).. 24 The River Chicapa, near the Rancho of 83 Santo Domiugo (the town-bouse) t The River Coatzacoalcos, at the con fluence of the Chimalapilla 119 El Barrio (the town-house) 860 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. TOWNS and Villages in the Southern Division of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with the Number of Inhabitants, from the Account furnished to Don Pedro de Garay by the Prefect of that District. NAMES OP PLACES. Inhabitants. NAMES OF PLACES. Inhabitants. Santa Catalina. Mistequilla Tlacotepec Santo Domingo Chihuitan San Ger6nimo number. 8,934 247 282 152 532 805 1,546 504 4,567 185 1,500 148 888 Niltepec Tapanatepec San Miguel Chimalapa number. 20,290 287 336 626 341 318 524 Espinal San Mateo del mar Santa Maria del mar San Dioni.sio del mar Carried forward Santa Maria Petapa Barrio de la Soledad San Juan Guichicovi Total 1,447 626 999 5,000 71 30,845 20,290 Note. In the census of the above places, the number of inhabitants ot the haciendas (estates) and ranches PRINCIPAL Haciendas and Ranches of the Southern Division of the Isthmus of Tehuan tepec, and of the Number of Horned Cattle in each, from the most authentic Information which Don Pedro de Garay was able to obtain. NAMES OF PLACES. Horned Cattle. NAMES OF PLACES. Horned Cattle. number. number. 7335 Mai Paso 250 Chicapa.,1 1000 10,000 Zuleta... 300 Chivela... 1 1000 Trapiche de San Pablo 125 Espinal 3 ooO 300 200 60 Los Cerrillos 400 50 700 Rio Grande 800 80 Trapiche de Santa Cruz 150 Frailescas Santa Barbara 1,480 100 1100 100 2000 Comitancillo . 120 200 12 620 7355 Total... 44.135 TOWNS and Villages of the Northern Division of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Number of Inhabitants and Head of Cattle in each, according to the Statistics of the State of Vera Cruz, in 1831. NAMES OF PLACES. Inhabitants. Oxen. Horses. Mules. number. 1,902 number. 267 number. 249 number. 50 1,206 2,132 88 659 1 611 46 Jaltipan . 1,302 88 238 1 595 303 52 1,665 16 40 736 55 773 779 3679 906 857 147 33 San Cristobal Ishuatlan 497 500 21 624 400 ? ? ? 300 ? 1 Total 17,038 5000 1728 95 PROJECTS OF CANALS. HACIENDAS and Rancherias in the Northern Division of the Isth-n nd Head of Cattle, 861 NAMES OF PLACES. Inhabitants. Oxen. Home*. Rancheria de Michapa number. Dumber. Lumln-r. numUr. 100 35 j Guellepam.. j Rancherias <! Jalapa V Cosaguilapa. j (. Lechonal.... J 450 20 210 de San Juan Baptista Nopalapam... 2 de Cuatotolapam 71G 180 287 285 . de Corral Viejo. . 81 204 Hacienda de Solcuautla 123 de Santa Catalina de los Ortizes \ 133 1,300 3CO 18 254 l Camabuacapa "j Rancherias s Correa > , (. CasasViejas.. J 165 49 513 73 9 4CO 90 8 1 2 400 10 Total 3973 62,143 8938 499 There is little doubt, from all that can be judged of the foregoing data, that a canal across this isthmus might be constructed, though with considerable diffi culty in overcoming the natural obstacles which are to be removed. Opening BO rich a country would assuredly pay those who had capital and skill to accom plish the undertaking. But the moral and political obstacles never will be over come while the Spanish race possesses the country. Is there any other race whom the Deity has allowed to exist, except, probably, the Turks and Africans, who would have so thoroughly neglected a territory surpassed by no other on the surface of the globe ? PROJECTED CANAL ACROSS THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA. From Chagres to the Bay of Panama, the insalubrity of the climate is urged as a fatal objection to the construction of a navigable canal. There are only two seasons the dry season, or summer ; and the rainy season, or winter. The first begins with the last part of December, and lasts till April; the second follows in April, and continues until December. In those parts which are most advantageously situated, as in the city of Panama and its neighbourhood, rain begins to fall in April, and May and June are rainy months. In July, August, September, and October, it rains incessantly. In November rain seldom falls, except during night ; the weather usually clears up in December. Rain scarcely ever occurs during the months of January, February, and ] Lightning and thunder-storms are frequent during the rainy season. In t early part of the summer the thermometer rises to 90 deg., and even to 93 dcg, and the weather is very sultry during the day. The land-winds at night 862 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. cool, and blow from the mountains which occupy the middle of the isth mus. In the rainy season the thermometer stands at night at 82 deg.., and in the day it rises to 87 deg. The city of Panama is considered an exception to the urihealthiness of the isthmus. Luxuriant fertility is the characteristic of this part of Central America. The caoutchouc-tree, the palo de vaca (the milk-tree), vanilla, the styrax officinalis of Linnaeus, and many valuable woods and plants are abundant. Rice and Indian corn are grown ; the sugar-cane, coffee, and cacao, are cultivated for domestic consumption. Of the live stock, the horned called are esteemed; the horses are small and hardy. Mules, goats, pigs, and poultry are reared. Wild deer, monkeys, the guana, rabbits, and hogs are eaten. The tiger-cat, puma, and bear are found. Wild turkeys, pheasants, pigeons, and ducks are met with. Fish is plentiful ; hundreds of young sharks, the young shovel-nosed, are daily sold at Panama for food. Materials for building are abundant. Charcoal is ex ported. Panama has some excellent deep harbours^ and several good ones for small vessels. PORTO BELLO (Puerto Veld), in 9 deg. 34 min. north latitude, and 77 deg. 54 min. west longitude, is a good port, surrounded by high mountains. The town stretches into the bay, forming scarcely more than one street. Formerly it was a populous trading place. From the unhealthiness of the climate, it has been nearly abandoned by the few inhabitants, who have survived its vomito and fevers. LIMONES BAY, or Puerto de Naos (Navy Bay), west of Porto Bello, affords good anchorage. The Rio Chagres approaches within two and a half miles of bay, and as the intervening tract is quite level a canal has been suggested, as easily practicable. CHAGRES, at the mouth of the Rio Chagres, has a harbour for vessels draw ing no more than ten to twelve feet water. A bar or ledge of rocks extends across its entrance. It is said to be very unhealthy. .From this harbour, which has a village of miserable houses, some trade is carried on across the shores to and from Panama. The distance is travelled over in about eighteen hours. PANAMA, in 8 deg. 58 min. N. lat., and 79 deg. 30 min. W, lat., is built on a neck and point of land which extends into the bay. It is well built of stone, the houses have patios or courts. It has a cathedral, several convents, a college, and some other public buildings. The harbour is protected by a number of islands, and there is good anchorage within them. The trade consists in the exportation of the produce of the country to Lima and Guayaquil ; and by way of Jamaica gold and silver is frequently sent from Panama to Europe. The population, PROJECTS OF CANALS. XT,. } which consists almost entirely of a mixed race, is estimated at nearly 200,000. There is no town of any importance in the interior: east of Porto Hdl Panama, the country is very thinly inhabited. Cruces, on the Chagres, with about 2000 inhabitants, who live in miserable huts, is the entrepot where goods are put on board of boats to be brought down to Chagres : from Panama to Cruces they are conveyed on mules. Farther west is Chorera, on the river of that name, which it is said contains about 4000 inhabitants, and carries on some trade ; and Nata Los Santos, each inhabited by about 4000 persons, and situated on the best-cultivated part of the Isthmus of Panama. Steam packets are now established between Panama, and several ports south, to those of Chili. On the Pacific the harbour of Punta de Arenas is situated on the eastern shores of the Gulf of Nicoya, and has good anchorage for vessels drawing no more than nine or ten feet of water : it is the harbour of San Jose, the present capital of Costa Rica, which is about seventy-three miles distant, and exports, through Punta de Arenas, sugar, timber, and some maize to Peru and Chile. M. Michel Chevalier, while examining the circumstances which ought to be kept in view in selecting the most appropriate place for an oceanic communication, observes, that one of the most important is its salubrity. He says : " However great might be the saving of time effected by steering- through the Isthmus, it would always be shunned by vessels if it were to prove a charnel-house." Signer Moro says : " The climate of the Isthmus of Panama is acknowledged to be dangerous, a fact confirmed by the accounts of Humboldt and other writers. The fear of its unhealthiness was one of the causes that prevented the assembling of Congress there, after the eman cipation of the states of Spanish America had been convened, in order to establish a system of general policy suited to the interests of the American nations. The same fear prevented the engineers, Lloyd and Falmarc, remaining in the Isthmus a sufficient time to complete the labours of the exploration, which they undertook in 1827 and 1828, by order of General Bolivar, and in a succeeding expedition Lloyd lost his life. To tin: grievous cause is likewise to be ascribed the paucity of population and the want of the necessary means of existence in that Isthmus, and as the climate does not permit the in crease of the former, there is no possibility of augmenting the latter. "The Isthmus of Panama is again being explored, but it has been lately estimate* that even should the work be at all practicable, its accomplishment would require the united efforts of the principal nations of the world, and an expenditure of at 200,000,000 francs." According to the surveys of M. Garella, by order of the French government, a canal through the Isthmus of Panama presents great difficulties. The length of the proposed canal through Panama would be only about thirty miles, and the utmost height to be attained, according to M. Garella, only 177 feet; but it asserted that there is no means of boring water to the summit level, certainly, if true, a great obstacle. M. Garella proposes to make a tunnel tl cost of which would be 2,000,000/. sterling. Other authorities, especially Mr. Wheelwright, assert that the country from Chagres to the Pacific is nearly level ; 864 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and we are not disposed to condemn the project of a canal over this Isthmus until we have far more complete surveys than we yet possess. It is certain that since Mr. Wheelwright and the British company have estab lished steamboats between Panama and various ports of the Pacific, that the greatest advantages to trade and commerce have been the result. In connexion with the establishment of these steamboats, we have been furnished with calcu lations and statements, which we have condensed as follows : TABLE of Distances and Hours steaming from Panama to the following Ports, viz. : PORTS. Miles. Hours. PORTS. Miles. Hours. No. 435 No. 48 fvia Mazat- No. No. the Gulf of Papagayo Realejo 590 680 65 30 7/5.30 From Panama to San Francisco-^ Ian ^direct 3456 3200 384 355.30 847 94 fvia Mazat- 937 104 Port Bodega < Ian 3514 390.30 * ztapa 1095 121.30 3258 362 1210 134.30 f Hudson Bay ^ 1495 166 | Company s | via Maz.at- 1810 201 n ,, J Settlement ^ Ian 4034 448 San Bias * - 1962 218 | at Colombia (direct 3570 385.30 2091 232 ^ River ) 2448 272 Woahoo, Sandwich Islands 4620 513 Rio Gila, where it joins 2793 310 St. Peter and St. Paul, Kamschatka, via Woahoo 7380 820 fvia Mazatlan. 3016 335 Jedo, in Japan, via Woa- 7950 883 2760 306 30 9540 1060 - Mo"<-y{!r. ; ! n :: 3376 3120 375 346.30 From the discovery of the Pacific down to the independence of the Spanish Ame rican provinces in 1824, Panama was the highway between Spain and her posses sions, along the west coast of America. Vasco Nunes de Balbao,in 1513, crossed the Isthmus with troops, from Santa Maria del Darien to the Gulf of San Miguel. In 1524, the city of Panama had a governor. It became the seat of a royal u Au- diencia," and until the discontinuance of the Spanish galleons, it was the depot of the merchandise sent from Spain for the southern coast of New Granada and Peru and the northern ports of Central America. During the war of independence in Peru, troops from Spain were sent up the Chagres to Panama, and from thence by transports to Peru. The buccaneers, as early as the reign of Queen Elizabeth, frequently passed over this route ; and until the trade with the Pacific, by Cape Horn, was opened by British ships, the Spanish colonists on the Pacific coasts were clandestinely supplied through Jamaica, by way of Panama. The canoes on the Chagres are described as large enough to carry eighty bales of merchandise. With respect to the length of voyage and distance round Cape Horn, and by way of transit through the isthmus, we have some curious statements. It is said that a fast-sailing schooner, of the class known under the designation of " Clipper" took thirty-two days in sailing from Panama to San Bias, a voyage which, by a steamer proceeding direct, might be performed in eight or nine days. The extreme difficulty of sailing to the westward from Panama Bay, arises from PROJECTS OF CANALS. 865 calms, squalls from all directions, and the struggle of opposing winds and cur rents. The same "clipper," sailing often at eleven and eleven-and-a-half knots per hour, took twelve days on her voyage from Valparaiso, in sailing from the equator to Panama. If a canal be impracticable across the short distance over the Isthmus of Ta- nama, a railroad would undoubtedly be a work of neither great difficulty nor ex pense, even according to Mr. GarehVs report. We fear, however, that the great obstacle will be found in the moral and political difficulties. One writer says " If ever it should be ceded to another power, the nation holding it will acquire an immense influence and power over the communication of the world (supposing the above improvements in steam), with a territory well-wooded, well-watered, fertile in the ex treme, rich in gold and pearl fisheries, capable of supporting a numerous population, and not, by any means, generally unhealthy ; while the inhabitants will acquire that wealth and prosperity which the advantages of their situation secure to them." The passages in merchant vessels to and from England direct by Cape Horn, average Days. For Valparaiso 100 Lima 110 ,, Guayaquil 120 The passage by Panama may be performed by steam To Valparaiso 43 Lima Guayaquil , , , , 32 From Valparaiso to Lima Lima to Payta or Guayaquil 11 5 Payta to Panama Making in the whole ... , 48 To Lima by Cape Horn 110 T>i flWPTirfi of time in favour of the route by Panama 73 The transit from Panama to Chagres is easy, being only twenty-one miles by land, and the remainder by a river, safe and navigable for boats and canoes. This was the route by which the several towns and provinces on the ] Ocean made their communications with Europe, before the separation of the Colonies from Spain; but the frequent revolutions which have taken place South America, and the consequent poverty and want of enterprise in the Spai population, have disturbed periodical communications between tl COMPARATIVE Table of Distances. . PLACES. By Cape of Good Hope. By Cape Horn. By Panama Canal. FROM FALMOUTH. Singapore miles. 14,420 miles. 26,616 13 830 miles. 16,578 13,828 Port Jackson 13,433 23,156 11,612 25,950 9,400 26,200 10,936 - . VOL. I. 8G6 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CANAL ROUTE BY THE ISTHMUS OF NICARAGUA. Surveys and projects have been made, in order to construct a navigable canal from the harbour of San Juan, already described, to the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua, and thence by a short cut to the Pacific. If England, France, and the United States, were to enter into a contract with any de facto govern ment of the country, whatever government succeeded would be then compelled to observe the stipulations of such treaty. Until then we can hold out no security whatever for executing a work which would be immediately under taken by the capitalists of Europe and America. If there were no moral, social, or political obstacles, there is no doubt that the natural obstructions might, with comparatively little difficulty, be overcome. Mr. Baily, an English engineer, surveyed the route in 1837-8 ; a survey of the river was made by Mr. Lawrence, of her Majesty s ship Thunderer, in 1840, and a report was also made by a Captain A. G., quoted in an able work on the subject, privately printed, by Prince Napoleon Louis Bonaparte, whom the government of Nicaragua, in December, 1845, offered to place at the head of the executive direction of an undertaking to construct the projected canal. Mr. Stephens did not visit the River San Juan, but he did visit both the lakes of Nicaragua and Leon, or Managua, and the port of Realejo. He describes the Lake of Leon, or Managua, as not so vast or broad as the Lake of Nicaragua, but that it is a noble sheet of water, and in full view of the volcano of Momotombo. The shore presented the animated spectacle of women filling their water-jars, men bathing, horses and mules drinking, and in one place was a range of fisher men s huts ; on the edge of the water stakes were set up in a triangular form, and women, with small hand-nets, were catching fish, which they threw into hollow places, dug, or rather scraped, in the hand. The fish were called sar- dinitos, and at the door of the huts the men were building fires to cook them. " The beauty of this scene was enhanced by the reflection that it underwent no change. Here was perpetual summer ; no winter ever came to drive the ii habitants shivering to their fires ; but still it may be questioned whether, witl the same scenery and climate, wants few and easily supplied, luxuriating in th< open air, and by the side of this lovely lake, even the descendants of the Angle Saxon race would not lose their energy and industry. 5 This lake empties itself into the Lake of Nicaragua by means of the Riv< Tipitapa, a communication between the two seas has been suggested, by means of a canal from it to the Pacific, at the port of Realejo.* The ground is perfectly " The harbour of Realejo, on the Pacific, was surveyed by Captain Sir Edward Belcher ii 1838. ^ Of this harbour he says " Cardon, at the mouth of the port of Realejo, is situated in 12 deg. 28 min. north, andabou 87 deg. 12 min. west. It has two entrances, both of which are safe, under proper precaution, i all weather. The depth varies from two to seven fathoms, and good and safe anchorage extent for several miles ; the rise and fall of tide is eleven feet, full and change three hours six minutes. Docks or slips, therefore, may easily be constructed, and timber is readily to be procured of any dimensions; wood, water, and immediate necessaries and luxuries, are plentiful and cheap. The PROJECTS OF CANALS level, and the port is perhaps the best in Spanish America ; but the distan. sixty miles, and there are other difficulties which seemed to him insuperable. There is not a single stream on the contemplated line of canal from this lake to the Pacific, and it would be necessary for this lake to furnish the whole supply of water for communication with both oceans. Of the harbour of Realejo,Mr. Stephens observes " Rested and refreshed I walked down to the shore. Our encampment was about the centre of the harbour, which was the finest I saw in the Pacific. It is not lar<;e, but beautifully protected, being almost in the form of the letter U. The arms are high and parallel, running nearly north and south, and terminating in high perpendicufar bluffs. As I afterwards learned from Mr. Baily, the water is deep, and under either bluff, according to the wind, vessels of the largest class can ride with perfect safety. Supposing this to be correct, there is but one objection to this harbour, which I derive from Captain D Yriaste, with whom I made the voyage from Zonzonate to Caldera. He has been nine years navigating the coast of the Pacific, from Peru to the Gulf of California, and has made valuable notes, which he intends publishing in France, and he told me that during the summer months, from November to May, the strong north winds which sweep over the Lake of Nicaragua, pass with such violence through the Gulf of Papajayo, that during the prevalence of these winds it is almost impossible for a vessel to enter the port of San Juan. Whether this is true to the extent that Captain Yriaste supposes, and if true, how far steam-tugs would answer to bring vessels in against such a wind, is for others to determine. But at the moment there seemed more palpable difficulties. "The harbour was perfectly desolate, for years not a vessel had entered it; primeval trees grew around it, for miles there was not a habitation ; I walked the shore alone. Since Mr. Baily left, not a person had visited it; and probably the only thing that keeps it alive, even in memory, is the theorising of scientific men, or the occasional visit of some Nicaragua fisherman, who, too lazy to work, seeks his food in the sea. It seemed pre posterous to consider it the focus of a great commercial enterprise ; to imagine that a city was to rise up out of the forest, the desolate harbour to be filled with ships, and become a great portal for the thoroughfare of natives. But the scene was magnificent. The sun was setting, and the high western headland threw a deep shade over the water. It was, perhaps, the last time in my life that I should see the Pacific, and in spite of fever and ague tendencies, I bathed once more in the great ocean. " At seven o clock we started, recrossed the stream, at which we had procured water, and returned to the first station of Mr. Baily. It was on the river San Juan, a mile and abaft from the sea. The river here had sufficient depth of water for large vessels, and from this point Mr. Baily commenced his survey to the Lake of Nicaragua. " My guide cleared a path for me with his machete ; and working our way across the plain, we entered a valley, which ran in a great ravine called Quebrada Grande, between the mountain ranges of Zebadea and El Platina. " Up to this place manifestly there could be no difficulty in cutting a canal, beyon the line of survey follows the small stream of El Cacao for another league, when it crossed the mountain, but there was such a rank growth of young trees, that it was impossib. continue without sending men forward to clear the way. We therefore left the line < the canal, and crossing the valley to the right, reached the foot of the mountain over which the road to Nicaragua passes. " The side of the mountain was very steep, and besides large trees, was full. thorn bushes, and licks. 1 was obliged to dismount and lead my macko ; the < of my guide glistened with perspiration, and it was almost a climb till we reached tli -Coming out into the road the change was beautiful. It was about ten feet wide straight, and shaded by the noblest trees in the Nicaragua forests reached the bocca of the mountain, where Nicolas was waiting with the i village of Realejo is about nine miles from the sea, and its population is principal occupation of the working males is on the water, loading a custom-house and officers under a collector, comptroller, and captai the World, vol. ii., p. 307. 868 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. shade of a large tree, which threw its branches fifty feet from its trunk, and seemed reared by a beneficent hand for the shelter of a weary traveller. Soon we reached another station of Mr. Baily. Looking back I saw the two great mountain ranges, standing like giant portals, and could but think what a magnificent spectacle it would be to see a ship with all its spars and rigging, cross the plain, pass through the great door, and move on to the Pacific. Beyond, the whole plain was on fire ; the long grass, scorched by the summer s sun, crackled, flashed, and burned like powder. The road was a sheet of flame, and when the fire had passed the earth was black and hot. 4< Off from the road, on the edge of the woods, and near the River Las Lakas, was another station of Mr. Baily. From that place the line runs direct over a plain till it strikes the same river near the Lake of Nicaragua. I attempted to follow the lines again, but was prevented by the growth of underwood. * Beautiful as the whole country had been, 1 found nothing equal to the two hours before entering Nicaragua. The fields were covered with high grass, studded with noble trees, and bordered at a distance by a dark forest, while in front, high and towering, of a conical form, rose the beautiful volcano of the island. Herds of cattle gave it a home like appearance. " The whole of the next morning I devoted to making inquiries on the subject of the canal route. More is known of it in the United States than at Nicaragua. I did not find one man who had been to the port of San Juan, or even who knew Mr. Baily s terminating point on the Lake of Nicaragua. I was obliged to send for my old guide, and after a noonday dinner started for the lake. The town consisted of a large collec tion of straggling houses, without a single object of interest. Though the richest state in the confederacy in natural gifts, the population is the most miserable. " Before reaching the lake we heard the waves breaking upon the shore like the waves of the sea, and when we emerged from the woods the view before us was grand. On one side no land was visible; a strong north-wind was sweeping over the lake, and its surface was violently agitated ; the waves rolled and broke upon the shore with solemn majesty ; and opposite, in the centre of the lake, were the islands of Isola and Madeira, with giant volcanoes rising as if to scale the heavens. The great volcano of Omotopeque reminded me of Mount Etna, rising like the pride of Sicily from the water s edge, a smooth, unbroken cone, to the height of nearly 6000 feet. " Mr. Baily is a half-pay officer in the British navy. Two years before he was employed by the government of Central America to make a survey of this canal route, and he had completed all except the survey of an unimportant part of the River San Juan, when the revolution broke out. The states declared their independence of the general government, and disclaimed all liability for its debts. Mr. Baily had given his time and labour, and when I saw him had sent his son to make a last appeal to the shadow of the federal government; but before he reached the capital this government was utterly annihilated, and Mr. Baily remains with no reward for his arduous services but the satisfaction of having been a pioneer in a noble work. On my arrival at Grenada he laid before me all his maps and drawings, with liberty to make what use of them I pleased." The River San Juan, according to Mr. Baily, is, with its windings, ninety English miles long. Mr.G. Lawrance, mate and assistant-surveyor of hermajesty j surveying vessel Thunderer makes it 104 miles. The Lake of Nicaragua is ninety geographical miles long; the river of Tipitapa, joining the Lake of Nicaragua tc that of Leon, is twenty miles; the Lake of Leon, or Managua, is thirty- five miles; and the isthmus between the Lake of Leon, and the port of Realejo, is twenty- nine miles across; total length of projected canal 278 miles, or, according to Mr. Baily, 264 miles : eighty-two miles of which require deepening, or locks, am other canal work. Mr. Baily calculates the Lake of Nicaragua to be 128 feet three inches above the level of the Pacific Ocean, at low water and full moon. PROJECTS OF CANALS. The Lake of Managua is twenty-eight feet eight inches above the level of that of Nicaragua. The most elevated summit to be traversed, between the Lake Managua and Realejo, is fifty-five feet six inches above the level of the lake. Total height of the summit level, 212 feet five inches. M. Garella makes the difference of level between high water in the Pacific and low water in the Atlantic nineteen feet and a half, which will make the summit level above the Pacific 231 feet eleven inches. " TPIE RIVER SAN JUAN," says Mr. Baily, " flows from the Lake of Nicaragua at its south-eastern extremity, at the place where formerly stood the fort of St. Charles, now completely destroyed. Here is the only discharge for the waters of both the lakes, The whole length of the river, pursuing all its windings from St. Charles down to the port of San Juan del Norte, is ninety miles (others say 104 miles) ; it forms a magnifi cent stream, somewhat irregular in its breadth, which varies from 100 to 200 yards, studded with small islands, forming for the most part a channel on each side of them. The depth of the water varies from one-and-a-half to seven, eight, and nine fathoms. In the mid-stream the depth is generally from three to five fathoms, but during the rainy season, namely, from May to November, the depth is considerably increased ; for, ac cording to observations made at the ruined fort near Grenada, in calm weather, in Octo ber, 1838, when the rainy season had just terminated, and again in May, 1839, before the rains had commenced, when the lake was at the lowest, the difference of height be tween these extremes was found to be six feet six inches. In November, 1839, at which time the rains had ceased, the same observations were made, and the result was that the waters had risen fourteen inches less than in the previous year. "The banks of the river, particularly the right, are fringed with wood of all sizes and descriptions, with a dense undergrowth, forming, altogether, a forest nearly impene trable; consequently there are no inhabitants, nor is the land cultivated, although of prodigious fertility. The immediate shores are undulating, being in some parts not more than a few feet, and in others between twenty and thirty feet above the surface of the water. " Two large rivers, the San Carlos and Sarapiqui, besides many small streams, dis charge into the San Juan." Captain A. G , quoted by Prince Napoleon Louis, says, there are large rivers, which have their source in the mountains bordering the country of the Mosquitos, which discharge from the left bank into the San Juan. " From the gentle declivity of the River San Juan, the current is not strong, being at the rate of a mile or a mile-and-a-half per hour, except in the times f freshes, whea it is accelerated variously, according to circumstances. It is navigated all the year round by boats of eight or ten tons burden, called bongos, and which are gene manned by ten or twelve men, besides the patron. They can carry about 1C of indigo, or 500 hides, or a proportionate quantity of Brazilian timber. The obstacles which now prevent the advantageous navigation of the River San Juan are, rapids; secondly, the drainage occasioned by its influx into another r.ver calle .he Colorado, seventeen miles above the port of San Juan; and lastly, 1 he lab y""^ of small islands, which extend ten or twelve miles from the opening of the River to the mouth of the River San Juan. It is generally believed tnat at some ler epoch, the Spaniards purposely enlarged the opening ot tins branch wuh the exhausting the main river/at that part, to such an extent as to render the river cable to navigation, hoping thereby to protect the towu^of Grenada from ternalat- tacks. In the present advanced stage of the science ot civil g^^lTgf would be easily surmounted. The rapids are four m number ; called del tillo Viejo, de L Bate, and de Mackuca, *~*^^ i nh miles, but there is clear water-way from one to the otner, n 870 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. three to six fathoms ; the longest of these rapids is not more than one mile. The rocks by which they are occasioned are all placed transversely to the current, leaving a narrow channel on each side, and showing their ragged and sharpened edges above the surface of the water during the dry season. " The breadth of the river from this point is between 100 and 120 yards; the current rushes with violence, and dashes with great force against and between the projecting points. The bongos, however, make the passage without hazard, and we have never heard of the occurrence of an accident. " The Colorado diverges from the San Juan in 10 deg. 50 min. north latitude, and after running in a south-westerly direction, falls into the sea in 10 deg. 46 min., forming a dangerous bar. This river abstracts from the main stream a considerable quantity of water, the opening from the San Juan being 1200 feet wide, and having in the deepest part nine feet of water at the lowest state of the river. From measurements of this sec tion, carefully taken at two different periods, in May when at the minimum, and in July when much increased by freshes, it appears from calculation, that at the first period the loss of water from the river was 28,178 cubic yards per minute, and at the latter obser vation, as much as 85,840 cubic yards. The main current being thus suddenly weak ened, the motion of the water becomes sluggish, and the natural effect is, that deposits of sand and mud are formed, which gradually augment where the movement of the water is feeble; trunks of trees and other floating bodies grounding on these, small islets are formed by successive aggregations, which soon become covered with rank grass, reeds, and other herbaceous plants of rapid growth; a great number of these mounds have been thus raised, and the progress of formation is continually going on. The usual methods of clearing the beds of rivers could here be applied with facility and good effect, as the accumulations are nothing more than silt and sand with occasional logs buried underneath. A dam across the Colorado branch, constructed on such of the well-known plans as might be judged the most efficient, would be indispensable. Then the reforced body of water, aided, if necessary, by the resources of art, would, by the momentum of its increased velocity, soon clear a channel to the depth that should be deemed requi site: other parts of the river where such operations might be wanted, could be improved by nearly similar methods, as the bottom is everywhere composed of mud and sand, ex cept about the rapids, where it is of rock or loose stones. THE LAKE OF NICARAGUA OR GRENADA. Mr. Baily says, " The Lake of Grenada is ninety geographical miles long, its greatest breadth is forty, and the mean twenty miles ; the depth of water is variable, being in some places close to the shore, and in others half a mile from it, two fathoms, increasing gradually to eight, ten, twelve, and fifteen fathoms, the bottom usually mud. [Mr. A. G sounded in the middle of the lake forty-five fathoms.] This basin is the receptacle of the waters from a tract of country six to ten leagues in breadth on each side of it, thrown in by numerous streams and rivers, none of them navigable except the river Frio, having its source far away in the mountains of Costa Rica, which discharges into the lake a large quantity of water near the spot where the river San Juan flows out of it. The embouchure is 200 yards wide, and nearly two fathoms deep. There are several islands and groups of islets in different parts of the lake, but none of them em barrass the navigation, nor is this anywhere incommoded by shoals or banks, other than the shallow water in shore ; and even this is but very trifling, or rather it is no impedi ment at all to the craft at present in use, the practice being to keep the shore close aboard for the purpose of choosing convenient stopping-places at the close of day, as they^scarcely ever continue their voyage during the night. " The district extending to the eastern coast is called Chontales. Its soil, although covered with trees, presents in different places excellent pasturage, divided into farms, on which the breeding of cattle is chiefly pursued. "The largest islands on the lake are Omotepe, Madera, and Zapatera. Taken to gether, the first two of these islands are twelve miles long. Zapatera is almost triangular, and five miles long. Sanate, Salentinane, and Zapote, are smaller, and uninhabited, but some of them, and the last in particular, are capable of cultivation. PROJECTS OF CANALS. S7 L " Near the town of Grenada there is the best anchorage for ships of the largrat dimensions." THE RIVER TIPITAPA. Mr. Baily says, "The Lake of Nicaragua is connected with that of Leon by means of the ri\r Panaloya (or Tipitapa), navigable for the boats employed in that country for twelve miles, as far as the place called Pasquiel, where the inhabitants go to cut and bring away Brazilian timber. The four miles which remain between that place and the Lak Leon, are not navigable by any kind of boat, whatever may be its construction, because, beyond Pasquiel, the channel is obstructed by a vein of rocks, which, when the river is swollen, are covered with water ; but in the dry season, the water sinks so low that it can only escape through gradually diminishing fissures in the rocks. At a distance of a mile bevond this first vein of rocks, we find another more solid, which, crossing the river at right angles, forms a cascade of thirteen feet descent. "The river Tipitapa, which discharges itself into the Lake of Nicaragua, is the only, outlet for the Lake Leon. The lands bordering this river are somewhat low, but fertile, having excellent pasturage ; as at Chontales, they are divided into grazing and breeding farms. All this country, covered with Brazilian timber, is scantily inhabited. The only village is that of Tipitapa, situated near the above-mentioned waterfall. It con tains a small church, and about 100 cottages. The river is crossed by a wooden bridge." Captain A. G is of opinion, that for the first twelve miles, it would only be necessary to have a lock to increase the depth of the river, Mr. Lawrance says, that the navigable part of the river has a depth of from three to eighteen feet, and that the fall at Pasquiel is thirteen feet high. He estimates the length of the river at twenty miles. According to Mr. Stephens, the whole fall of the river Tipitapa, which amounts to twenty-eight feet, is comprised within the first six miles from the Lake Leon. Mr. Rouhaud, who has assisted in the topogra phical discoveries in that country, told M. Michel Chevalier that the fall of twenty-eight feet was distributed as follows, viz., eighteen feet are precipitated by a cascade at Tipitapa, and the remaining ten feet and a half descend from Tipitapa to Nicaragua. THE LAKE OF LEON OR MANAGUA.-The Lake of Leon is from thirty-two thirty-five miles long, and sixteen miles at its greatest width. It receives fror the circumjacent lands, chiefly from the eastern coast, a number of small streams. According to Mr. Lawrance, it is not so deep as that of Nicaragua; but, a, ing to Captain A. G , it is still deeper. THE ISTHMUS BETWEEN THE LAKE LEON AND REALEJO.-M. Michel Her says, that the account of the celebrated navigator Dampier, who had war in those regions, induced a belief that throughout the different routes fror the Lake Leon to Realejo, and from the Lake of Nicaragua to the Gulf of Papagayo or to that of Nicaya, the land consists for the most part of level plains and that between the lake of Leon and the coast of Realejo, the soil is quit, Rouhaud has described in the same terms the country between the north-w ^ n part of the Lake of Leon, and the port of Realejo and of the tract of * nd^h extends between the same point and the port ofTamanndo Het nta ^ n teen feet or twenty-two feet to be the height of the bank above the 872 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the water. " Then comes," says he, " a small zone on a very slight and yet sensible declivity, by which we gently descend to the Pacific Ocean." M. Michel Chevalier says (page 96), " I see, however, in the description of Central America and Mexico, published in Boston in 1833, that the highest land between the Lake of Leon and the Pacific Ocean descends to be only fifty-one feet above the level of the lake. From the same lake to the River Tosta is but eleven miles ; and that river not more than three feet above the level of the lake, at the point where a junction might be effected. If fully established, this statement would be of great importance, for we can avoid any extraordinary cutting, and a fortiori a tunnel. A cutting of seventy-two feet maximum is nothing unusual in the operations of the engineers of the ponts and chaussees. By employing improved ma chinery and implements, which are now at the disposal of the engineer, we can execute deep cuttings at little expense, in the absence of rocky grounds. In the canal from Aries to Bone, for instance, the table-land of the Leque has been cut through to the ex tent of 2289 yards, the extreme depth being from forty-three to fifty-four yards. The expense has been less than 160,000/., notwithstanding its having been executed on the old system. Now-a-days, works of this nature are executed with powerful engines; manual labour is confined to mere digging and loading ; and upon the great northern railroad of France, a machine has been successfully and economically employed even for this last purpose." Sir Edward Belcher, R. N., who explored part of the country in 1838, says "At the term day, we pitched our observatory near the sea-margin, at the base of the volcano of Conseguina, or Quisiguina, and having completed the requisite observa tions, started with the Starling and boats to explore the Estero Real, which I had been given to understand was navigable for sixty miles ; in which case, from what I had seen of its course on my visit to the Viejo, it must nearly communicate with the Lake of Managua. ** After considerable labour, we succeeded in carrying the Starling thirty miles from its mouth, and could easily have gone further, had the wind permitted, but the prevailing strong winds rendered the toil of towing too heavy. " We ascended a small hill about a mile below our extreme position, from which angles were taken to all the commanding peaks. From that survey, added to what I remarked from the summit of the Viejo, I am satisfied that the stream could have been followed many miles higher; and I have not the slightest doubt that it is fed very near to the Lake of Managua. I saw the mountains beyond the lake on its eastern side, and no land higher than the intervening trees occurred. This, therefore, would be the most advantageous line for a canal, which, by entire lake navigation, might be connected with the interior of the states of San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and extended to the Atlantic. Thirty navigable miles for vessels drawing ten feet, we can vouch for, and the natives and residents assert sixty more. But steamers will be absolutely necessary to tow against the prevalent breezes." Voyage Round the World, Vol. I., pp. 236. He adds in the Appendix, that ; In the port of Realejo there is a river, the Donna Paula, which takes a course towards Leon, and is navigable within three leagues of that city. It has been suggested to carry a railroad from Leon to the Lake of Managua. As to any canal into the Pacific, unless behind Monotombo, Telica, and Viejo range, into the Estero Real, I see little feasibility in the scheme." Mr. Baily tells us, " In executing so stupendous an undertaking, salubrity of climate, and the means of feeding abundantly and economically so large a body of workmen as would be col lected, are subjects that cannot be passed over without notice. With regard to the first, the writer can aver that during four months that he was occupied between the Pacific and the Lake of Grenada, with a party of forty individuals, there was not a man pre- PROJECTS OF CANALS. vented by sickness from performing his daily labour, although continually stcepin^ at night in the open air. On the lake and in the river San Juan, with u large part! men maintained their health well, although exposed to frequent rains in the latter. But when at the port (del Norte), or near to it, sickness got among them, which was mainly attributable to the use or rather abuse of ardent spirits, and other ex- f rc "- quently indulged in at such places. This change, however, is not assignable solely t diligence in excesses, because San Juan is exposed to all the dangerous influences of climate and temperature peculiar to the Mosquito Shore, and all the coast from Cape Gracios a Dios to Carthagena and beyond it. " The population of the state of Nicaragua may be said not to extend, south only, much beyond the environs of the town of Nicaragua, so that the line of survc\ proaching it in no part nearer than four leagues, passed over a comparative wilder; and consequently all provisions were supplied from that place ; these are always to b. in abundance, and, should circumstances require it, they could be drawn from other pa IN of the state to almost any extent. The principal articles of consumption are meat (beef), maize, frijoles, rice, plantains, and fruits, which can be furnished at moderate prices; as for example meat at three and a half, four, or four and a half reals the arroba of twenty-five pounds (the real is equal to sixpence of English money) ; maize, varying according to seasons, six, eight, or ten, seldom twelve reals per fanega, which weighs about 260 pounds; frijoles and rice in similar proportions ; plantains, which are univer sally used, especially by the labouring classes, are so plentiful that a mule load of them (which is from two to three quintals), can be had throughout the year for two or two and a half reals; so that if a large number of workmen were to be collected in this direc tion, there would be found no difficulty in supplying them with all the ordinary neces saries of life. " The price paid for labour during the survey amounted to half a real a-day ; but this was higher than what is usually given for general field-work, in consideration of the men being taken to a distance from their families for an indefinite time. For work such as that in question, good native artisans would be scarce, but there would be no want of labouring hands, for the certainty and regularity of their pay would attract men, not only from all parts of this, but from the adjoining states of Costa Rica, Honduras, and Salvador also, while a judicious system of equitable regulations would insure their do cility and submissiveness. The barbarism that has been attributed to this population in the writings before alluded to, needs no other refutation than saying- that the imputation is unfounded ; nor is it, nor can it be a supposable fact that the peasantry of the one country should differ very much from that of the other adjoining to it, the same language, habits, and customs being common to both. " We now come to the communication with the Atlantic by means of the Lake Nicaragua and the River San Juan. The lake is ninety-five miles long ; in its broadest part about thirty, and averages, according to Mr. Baily s soundings, fi.teen fathoms , water. The length of the river, by measurement, with all its windings from the . of the lake to the sea, is seventy-nine miles. There are no cataracts or falls ; al structions are from rapids, and it is at all times navigable, both up and down, for pin dr ^ to fouffThoms! Here Commence the rapids of Toros, which extend one m e , -- water 5 T VOL. I. 874 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. from one to six fathoms, to the River Serapequea, the measurements of one fathom being about the points or bends, where there is an accumulation of sand and mud. It then continues seven miles clear, with water from two to five fathoms, to the Rio Colorado. The River Colorado runs out of the San Juan in another direction into the Atlantic. The loss to the latter, according to measurement taken in the month of May, 1839, was 28,178 cubic yards of water per minute, and in the month of July in the same year, during the rising of the waters, it was 85,840 yards per minute, which immense body might be saved to the San Juan by damming up the mouth of the River Colorado. From this point there are thirteen miles with soundings of from three to eight fathoms. The bottom is of sand and mud, and there are many small islands and aggregations of sand without trees, very easily cleared away. The last thirteen miles might be reduced to ten by restoring the river to its old channel, which has been filled up by collections, at points, of drifted matter. An old master of a piragua told Mr. B that within his memory trees grew half a mile back. The soundings were all taken with the plotting scale when the river was low, and the port of San Juan, though small, Mr. Baily con siders unexceptionable. "The whole length of the canal ; from the Lake of Nicaragua to the Pacific, is fifteen and two-third miles. According to the plan, in the first eight miles from the lake but one lock is necessary. In the next mile sixty-four feet of lockage are required. In the "next three miles there are about two of deep cutting and one of tunnel, and then a de scent of 200 feet in three miles by lockage to the Pacific. "Thus far of the canal across the Isthmus. The Lake of Nicaragua is navigable for ships of the largest class down to the mouth of the River San Juan. This river has an average fall of one and six-sevenths feet per mile to the Atlantic. If the bed of the river cannot be cleared out, a communication can be made either by lock and dam, or by a canal along the bank of the river. The latter would be more expensive, but on account of the heavy floods of the rainy season it is preferable. " I am authorised to state that the physical obstructions of the country present no im pediment to the accomplishment of this work. A canal large enough for the passage of boats of the usual size could be made at a trifling expense. A tunnel of the length required is not considered a great work in the United States. According to the plan of the Chesapeake and Ohio canal, a tunnel is contemplated upwards of four miles in length. The sole difficulty is the same which would exist in any route in any other region of country, viz., the great dimensions of the excavation required for a ship canal. " The data here given are of course insufficient for great accuracy, but I present a rough estimate of the cost of this work, furnished me with the plan. It is predicated upon the usual contract prices in the United States, and I think I am safe in saying that the cheapness of labour in Nicaragua will equalise any advantages and facilities that exist here. " The estimate is dollars. From the lake to east end of the tunnel . . . 8,000,000 to 10,000,000 Descent to the Pacific .... 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 From the lake to the Atlantic by canal along the bank of the river. ..... 10,000,000 to 12,000,000 20,000,000 to 25,000,000 which is but about the sum contemplated as the cost of our enlarged Erie canal." Mr. Stephens remarks "In regard to the advantages of this work I shall not go into any details. " I will remark, however, that en one point there exists a great and very general error. In the documents submitted to Congress before referred to, it is stated that * the trade of the United States and of Europe with China, Japan, and the Indian Archipelago, would be facilitated and increased by reason of shortening the distance, about four thousand miles ; but by measurement on the globe the distance from Europe to India and China PROJECTS OF CANALS. will not be shortened at all. This is so contrary to the general impression i some hesitation in making the assertion, but it is a point on which the ru-idi-r m himself by referring to the globe. The trade of Europe with India a, will n-jt necessarily pa through this channel from any saving of distance but i> versations with masters of vessels and other practical rhen, I am induced to belicvr t! reason of more favourable latitudes for winds and currents, it will be considered prefer 1 1 to the passage by the Cape of Good Hope. At all events all the trade of Europe wi t the western coast of the Pacific and the Polynesian Islands, and all her whale fUhin and all the trade of the United States with the Pacific, without the exception of a si vessel would pass through it; the amount of saving on which, in time, interest of money navigating expenses and insurance, by avoiding the stormy passage round Cape H^n/ I have no data for calculating. "On broad grounds, this work has been well characterised as the mMitiiM event in favour of the peaceful intercourse of nations which the physical circumstance! of the globe present to the enterprise of man. It will compose the distracted country of Central America, turn the sword which is now drenching it with blood into a prumng- hook ; remove the prejudices of the inhabitants by bringing them into close connexion \vith people of every nation ; furnish them with a motive and a reward for industry and inspire them with a taste for making money, which, after all, opprobrious as it is some times considered, does more to civilise and keep the world at peace than any other in fluence whatever. A great city will grow up in the heart of the country with streams issuing from it fertilising as they roll into the interior ; her magnificent mountains ami valleys now weeping in desolation and waste will smile and be glad. The commerce of the world will be changed ; the barren region of Terra del Fuego be forgotten ; Pata gonia become a land of fable, and Cape Horn live only in the recollection of sailors and insurers ; steamboats will go smoking along the rich coasts of Chili, Peru, Equ Grenada, Guatemala, California, our own Oregon Territory, and the Russian possessions on the borders of Behring s Straits. New markets will be opened for products of agri culture and manufactures, and the intercourse of communion of numerous and immense bodies of the human race will assimilate and improve the character of nations. The whole world is interested in this work. I would not speak of it with sectional or even national feeling ; but if Europe is indifferent, it would be glory surpassing the conquests of kingdoms to make this great enterprise ever attempted by human force entirely our own work. " I would have gone on immediately, but felt that I might exert myself too far, and break down at an awkward place. In the afternoon, in company with Mr. Baily and Mr. Wood, I walked down to the lake. At the foot of the street by which we entered, built out into the lake, was an old fort, dismantled and overgrown with bushes and trees, a relic of the daring Spaniards who first drove the Indians from the lake ; probably, the very fortress that Cordova built, and in its ruins beautifully picturesque. Under the walls, and within the shade of the fort and trees growing near it, the Indian women of Grenada were washing ; garments of every colour were hanging on the bushes to dry, and waving in the wind ; women were wading out with their water-jars, passing beyond the breakers to obtain it clear of sand, men were swimming and servants were brn horses and mules to drink, altogether presenting a beautifully animated picture, were no boats on the water, but about half-a-dozen piraguas, the largest of which was forty feet long and drew three feet of water, were lying on the shore." Travels m < , //- tral America, Mr. Baily s Report, $c. We have given the foregoing information, being the substance of all that is worth knowing of the materials within our power: not, however, with the ex pectation that any of the projects are to be soon undertaken, but with the view of showing the practicability of executing a canal across one of the projected lines. 876 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER VIII. ANCIENT RUINS OF CENTRAL AMERICA. THOSE remarkable ruins which have been discovered in Central America and Yucatan, are generally supposed to have been edifices constructed by races which ad become extinct before the discovery of America, and not by any of the nations that were found inhabiting those parts by the first Spanish con querors. The accounts given of the population of the countries subdued by Cortez, Alvarado, and other captains, and the researches made since the beginning of the present century, compel us to conclude that all the ruins discovered by M. Dupaix, Del Rio, M. Waldeck, and Mr. Stephens, were built by the nations con quered by the Spaniards, and that they were, in all probability, in a perfect state at the same period. M. Waldeck had preceded Mr. Stephens to Palenque and Uxmal, and his work was published in folio, with beautiful plates, in Paris, before the work of the latter made its appearance, but not before the drawings in Mr. Stephens work were completed. The similarity is so striking, that both must be correct; and without the plans and drawings, any description which we could give would be unsatisfactory. Antiquarians must refer, therefore, to the works of M. Du paix, M. Waldeck, and Mr. Stephens. In each of them there is much to in struct, and much for those to reflect upon who take an interest in the history and destiny of mankind. We have no doubt of those edifices having been constructed by the same races as the nations conquered by Cortez and Alvarado, notwithstanding the absence of tradition : for the destructive and withering policy of Spain exterminated, or barbarised, the conquered so effectually, as to annihilate even tradition. The ruins on the sea-coast of Yucatan, visited by Mr. Stephens, were seen and even described as majestic edifices by the Spanish navigators ; and from his observations on the ruins of Uxmal, in the interior, they were evidently con structed by the ancestors of the wretched remnants of the aborigines, still, in degradation, inhabiting the country of Yucatan. Near Cape Catoche, the ruins of an entire city have been unmasked. There are two pyramids on the banks of the Rio Lagertos, nearly concealed by the trees grown on them. Tumuli are found near Campeachy, in other parts of Yucatan; and near them articles of terra cotta, and human heads curiously wrought, are found. In other places, as at Champoton, ruins have been discovered nearly covered with a dense forest of ANCIENT RUINS OF CENTRAL AMERICA. -77 strong vegetation. The ruins of Cozumel, near the sea, arc of vast extent. Traces of many others have been discovered, but Yucatan is still but im perfectly explored. At Uxmal the examinations of Mr. Stephens and M. Waldeck have been published, and the plates, and descriptions, are very re markable. Of the ruins in Central America, those of Copan were the first visited by Mr. Stephens. COPAN is within that portion of the State of Honduras, which comprises one of the most fertile valleys or basins in Central America. It is still famed for the excellent quality of its tobacco. The ruins stand, or lie, on the left bank of an unnavigable river, the River Copan, a tributary of the Motagua. The ruins, as far as yet known, extend along the river more than two miles. One monument has been discovered on the opposite side, at about a mile from the river. It stands on the summit of a mountain 2000 feet high. The ruin near the river, which Mr. Stephens named the Temple, is, he says, " an oblong enclosure. The front or river wall extends on a right line north and south 624 feet, and it is from sixty to ninety feet in height. It is made of cut stones, from three to six feet in length, and a foot and a half in breadth. In many places the stones have been thrown down, by bushes growing out of the crevices ; and in one place there is a small opening, from which the ruins are sometimes called by the Indians Las Ventanas, or the windows. The other three sides consist of ranges of steps of pyramidal structure, rising from thirty to 140 feet in heighten the slope. The whole line of survey is 2866 feet, which, though gigantic, and extraordinary for a ruined structure of the aborigines, that the reader s imagination may not mislead him, I consider it necessary to say, is not so large as the base of the great Pyramid of Ghizeh. 5 Mr. Stephens has drawn a plan according to his survey, which illustrates ground-plan of this edifice, which is regularly laid out at right angles. In his description of these ruins, he says, " To beain on the right ; near the south-west corner of the river wall is a recess, which was probabfy once occupied by a colossal monument fronting the water. Beyond, are the remains of two small pyramidal structures, to the largest of which is attached a wa running along the west bank of the river; this appears to have been one of the pru wails of the city ; and between the two pyramids there seems to have been a gateway, or 878 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. pyramid, from the base to the top, and among them our attention was forcibly arrested by rows of death s heads, of gigantic proportions, still standing in their places about half way up the side of the pyramid : the effect was extraordinary. " Of the moral effect of the monuments themselves, standing, as they do, in the depths of a tropical forest, silent and solemn, strange in design, excellent in sculp ture, rich in ornament, different from the works of any other people, their uses and purposes, their whole history, so entirely unknown, with hieroglyphics explaining all, but perfectly unintelligible, I shall not pretend to convey any idea. The tone which pervades the ruins is that of deep solemnity. An imaginative mind might be in fected with superstitious feelings. From constantly calling them by that name in our intercourse with the Indians, we regarded these solemn memorials as * idols deified kings and heroes objects of adoration and ceremonial worship." Mr. Stephens was unable to discover on these monuments, or on the sculptured fragments, any delineations of human or other sacrifice, but he considered the large sculptured stone invariably found before each " idol," as having been used as a sacrificial altar. The form of sculpture most frequent was a deatlr s head, sometimes the principal and sometimes only an accessory ornament : whole rows of these heads on the outer wall, " adding gloom to the mystery of the place, keeping before the eyes of the living death and the grave, presenting the idea of a holy city the Mecca or Jerusalem of an unknown people." As to the age of these desolate ruins he offers no conjecture, nor does he con sider as data the accumulations of earth and the gigantic trees growing on the top of the ruins ; neither could he discover any tradition of its depopulation or its ruin. No trace was found as to whether the agents of destruction, or desolation, were the sword, or famine, or pestilence. "The trees, he says, " which shroud it may have sprung from the blood of its slaughtered inhabitants. One thing I believe, that its history is graven on its monuments. No Champollin has yet brought to them the energies of his inquiring mind. Who shall read them V He almost doubts that this is the place referred to by the Spanish historian as conquered by Hernandez de Chaves. He considers, however, that at that time its broken monuments, terraces, pyramidal structures, portals, walls, and sculptured figures, were entire, and they were all painted. The silence of the Spaniards may, however, be accounted for from the well- known fact that they were nearly all illiterate, and ignorant, adventurers thirsting chiefly for gold and the precious metals, and regardless of every other object. Even if reports were made by them, the government of Spain would have suppressed all information which would have attracted the attention of other European nations to America. RUINS OF Q.UIRIGUA. Mr. Catherwood, leaving the road and continuing through the forest toward the north-east for about three-quarters of an hour, reached the foot of a pyramidal structure, similar to those at Copan, with the steps in some places perfect. He ascended to the top (about twenty-five feet), and descending on the other side by steps, he discovered at a short distance from the pyramid a colossal head, six feet in diameter. It was nearly concealed by an ANCIENT RUINS OF CENTRAL AMERICA. enormous tree. Near it was a large altar. Both were within the same end., and so covered with moss that he fancied it impossible to make any thing ou t of it. To the north, about three or four hundred yards from the pyramid, h e found several monuments of the same general character with those at Copan, but i or three times as high. Mr. Stephens says, " Of one thing there is no doubt, a large city once stood there ; its name is lost history unknown ; and except for a notice taken from Mr. C. s notes, and inserted by the Senores Payes in a Guatemala paper after the visit, which found its way to this country and Europe, no account of its existence has ever before been published. For centuries it has lain as completely buried as if covered with the lava of Vesuvius. Every traveller from Yzabal to Guatemala has passed within three hours of it we ourselves had done the same and yet there it lay, like the rock-built city of Edom, unvisited, unsought, and utterly unknown.* RUINS OF PALENQUE. A short distance from the village of Palenque the River Chacamal separates it from the country of the unbaptised Indians, who at this place are called KHAKIBEES. The ruins of Palenque are distant about eight miles from the village, amid a desolate forest region. Mr. Stephens found the road was so bad that, in order to make explorations, it was necessary for him to remain at the ruins. He had great difficulty in procuring provisions. It is said of these ruins, that in 1750 a party of Spaniards penetrated to the country north of the district of Carmen, in Chiapa, when they suddenly dis covered in the midst of the forest wilderness, ancient stone edifices, the remains of a city, spread over a country of from eighteen to twenty-four miles in extent, and called by the Indians Casas de Piedras. On this story, Mr. Stephens remarks, From my knowledge of the country I am at a loss to conjecture why a party of Spaniards were travelling in that forest, or how they could have done so. I am inclined to believe rather that the existence of the ruins was discovered by the Indians, who had clearings in different parts of the forest for their corn-fields, or perhaps was known to them from time immemorial, and on their report the inhabitants were induced to visit them." The existence of such a city was entirely unknown in Europe ; there is no men tion of it in any book, until that published by Dupaix, of which Lord Kingsbo- rough s volumes, in regard to Palenque, is a transcript. Colonel Galindo s com munications to the Geographical Society of Paris, are incorporated in the works of Dupaix. M. Waldeck, with funds contributed by an association in Mexico, passed two years amidst these ruins. His drawings were taken away by the Mexican government, but he had retained copies. In regard to the extent of the ruins of Palenque, Mr. Stephens observes, The" Indians and the people of Palenque say, that they cover a space of sixty miles; in a series of well-written articles in our own country, they have been set down as ten times larger than New York; and lately I have seen an article in some of the 880 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. newspapers, referring to our expedition, which represents the city discovered by us, as having been three times as large as London ! " The Indians and people of Palenque really know nothing of the ruins personally, and the other accounts do not rest upon any sufficient, foundation. The whole country for miles around is covered by a dense forest of gigantic trees, with a growth of bush and underwood unknown in the wooded deserts of our own country, and impenetrable in any direction except by cutting a way by a machete. What lies buried in the forest it is impossible to say of my own knowledge : without a guide, we might have gone within a hundred feet of all the buildings without discovering one of them. " Captain Del Rio, the first explorer, with men and means at command, states in his report, that in the execution of his commission, he cut down and burnt all the woods : he does not say how far, but judging from the breaches and excavations made in the interior of the buildings, probably for miles around. Captain Dupaix, acting under a royal commission, and with all the resources such a commission would give, did not dis cover any more buildings than those mentioned by Del Rio, and we saw only the same : but having the benefit of them as guides, at least of Del Rio (for at that time we had not seen Dupaix s work), we of course saw things which escaped their observation, just as those who come after us will see what escaped ours." A description of the building or ruin which Mr. Stephens chose to live in, was called the palace. " It stands," he says, " on an artificial elevation of an oblong form, forty feet high, 310 feet front and rear, and 260 feet on each side. This elevation was formerly faced with stone, which has been thrown down by the growth of trees, and its form is hardly distinguishable. " The building stands with its face to the east, and measures 228 feet front, by 180 feet deep. Its height is not more than twenty-five feet, and all around it had a broad projecting cornice of stone. The front contains fourteen doorways, about nine feet wide each, and the intervening piers are between six and seven feet wide. On the left (in approaching the palace) eight of the piers have fallen down, as has also the corner on the right, and the terrace underneath is cumbered with the ruins. But six piers remain entire, and the rest of the fro nt is open. * Another portion was enclosed by a richly-ornamented border, about ten feet high and six wide, of which only a part now remains. The principal personage stands in an upright position and in profile, exhibiting an extraordinary facial angle of about forty- five degrees. The upper part of the head seemed to have been compressed and length ened, perhaps by the same process employed upon the heads of the Choctaw and Flat- head Indians of our own country. The head represents a different species from any now existing in that region of country ; and supposing the statues to be images of living personages, or the creations of artists according to their ideas of perfect figures, they indicate a race of people now lost and unknown. The head-dress is evidently a plume of feathers ; over the shoulders is a short covering, decorated with studs and a breast plate ; part of the ornament of the girdle is broken; the tunic is probably a leopard s skin ; and the whole dress, no doubt, exhibits the costume of this unknown people. He holds in his hand a staff or sceptre, and opposite his hands are the marks of three hiero glyphics, which have decayed or been broken off. At his feet are two naked figures, seatec cross-legged, and apparently suppliants. The hieroglyphics doubtless tell its story. Th( stucco is of admirable consistency, and hard as stone. It was painted, and in different places about it we discovered the remains of red, blue, yellow, black, and white. "The piers, which are still standing, contained other figures of the same gener character, but which, unfortunately, are more mutilated, and from the declivity of the terrace it was difficult to set up the camera lucida in such a position as to draw them. The piers which are fallen were no doubt enriched with the same ornaments. Each one had some specific meaning, and the whole, probably, presented some allegory or history and when entire and painted the effect in ascending the terrace must have been imposing and beautiful. ANCIENT RUINS OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 881 . He ascended a neighbouring mountain so steep that he was obliged to haul himself up by the branches. On the top was a high mound of stones, with a foundation-wall still remaining. Probably a tower or temple had stood there but the woods were so thick below that he could perceive no ruins. The hieroglyphics atPalenque are the same as those at Copan and Quimigua, and although those places are occupied by races of Indians speaking different languages and unintelligible to each other, there is no reason to doubt but that they originally used the same hieroglyphics, or written character. He says " re If . star <; ase or ^her visible communication between the lower and upper parts of this building (the temple), and the only way of reaching the latter was by climbing a tree, which grows close against the wall, and the branches of which spread over the roof The roof is inclined, and the sides are covered with stucco ornaments , which, from expo- sure to the elements and the assaults of trees and bushes, are faded and ruined so that it was impossible to draw them ; but enough remained to give the impression that when perfect and painted they must have been rich and imposing. A Ion"- the top was a range of pillars eighteen inches high and twelve apart, made of small pieces of stone laid in mortar and covered with stucco, crowning which is a layer of flat projecting stones, having somewhat the appearance of a low, open balustrade. " In front of this building, at the foot of a pyramidal structure, is a small stream, part of which supplies the aqueduct before referred to. Crossing this, we come upon a broken stone terrace, about sixty feet on the slope, with a level esplanade at the top, 110 feet in breadth, from which rises another pyramidal structure, now ruined and overgrown with trees; it is 134 feet high on the slope, and on its summit is a building like the first shrouded among trees. " This building is fifty feet front, thirty-one feet deep, and has three door-ways. The whole front was covered with stuccoed ornaments. The two outer piers contain hiero glyphics ; one of the inner piers is fallen, and the other is ornamented with a figure in bas-relief, but faded and ruined. "At about a mile and a half from the village, we came to a range of elevations extend ing to a great distance, and connected by a ditch, which had evidently formed the line of fortifications for the ruined city. They consisted of the remains of stone buildings, pro bably lowers, the stones well cut and laid together, and the mass of rubbish around abounded in flint arrow-heads. Within this line was an elevation which grew more im posing as we approached, square, with terraces, and having in the centre a tower, in all 120 feet high. We ascended by steps to three ranges of terraces, and on the top entered an area enclosed by stone walls, and covered with hard cement, in many places still per fect. Thence we ascended by stone steps to the top of the tower, the whole of which was formerly covered with stucco, and stood as a fortress at the entrance of the great city of Utatlan, the capital of the Quichi Indians. " This was the first appearance of strangers in Utatlan, the capital of the great Indian kingdom, the ruins of which were now under our eyes, once the most populous and opu lent city, out of the whole kingdom of Guatemala. " The padre asserted, that four days on the road to Mexico, on the other side of the great sierra, was a living city, large and populous, occupied by Indians precisely in the same state as before the discovery of America. He had heard of it many years before at the village of Chajul, and was told by the villagers that from the topmost ridge of the sierra this city was distinctly visible. He was then young, and with much labour climbed to the naked summit of the sierra, from which at a height of ten or twelve thousand feet, he looked over an immense plain extending to Yucatan and the Gulf of Mexico, and s at a great distance, a large city spread over a great space, and with turrets white glittering in the sun. The traditionary accounts of the Indians of Chajul is, that VOL. I. 5 U 882 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. man has ever reached this city; that the inhabitants speak the Maya language, are aware that a race of strangers has conquered the whole country around, and murder any white man who attempts to enter their territory. They have no coin or circulating medium ; no horses, cattle, mules, or domestic animals, except fowls, and the cocks they keep under ground to prevent their crowing being heard. " If he is right, a place is left where Indians and an Indian city exist as Cortez and Alvarado found them ; there are living men who can solve the mystery that hangs over the ruined cities of America ; perhaps, who can go to Cospan and read the inscriptions on its monuments. No subject more exciting and attractive presents itself to my mind, and the deep impression of that night will never be effaced. " Can it be true ? being now in my sober senses. I do verily believe there is much ground to suppose, that what the padre told us is authentic. That the region referred to does not acknowledge the government of Guatemala, has never been explored, and that no white man ever pretends to enter it I am satisfied. From other sources we heard that, from that sierra a large ruined city was visible, and we were told of another person who had climbed to the top of the sierra, but on account of the dense cloud resting upon it, had been unable to see any thing. At all events the belief at the village of Chajul is general, and a curiosity is roused that burns to be satisfied." CHAPTER IX. AGRICULTURE OF CENTRAL AMERICA. THE productions of the soil of Central America both agricultural and natural, are as varied as the climate. On the higher table-lands wheat, barley, and the rare fruits and vegetables of Europe are grown. Indian corn is also raised, as the principal article of food ; in some parts rice is grown. The common fruits and vegetables are apples, pears, peaches, apricots, grapes, and oranges ; melons, beans, kidney-beans, peas, barbanzas, or Spanish peas, lentils, potatoes, turnips, cabbages, and pumpkins. From the maguey, as in Mexico, a spirituous liquor is distilled. (See abstracts from the works of Mr. Stephens and Mr. Roberts.) In the lower plains and valleys the soil yields annually two crops of Indian corn ; sugar-cane, bananas, mandiocca, pine-apples, cocoa-nuts, sapotes, and sweet potatoes, are all cultivated, or grow naturally. Indigo, cochineal, tobacco, and cotton are cultivated. Indigo is chiefly grown between the table-land of Honduras and the Pacific, in the state of Salvador, in the neighbourhood of San Vicente and San Miguel. Cochineal is gathered on the table-land of Guatemala, which, and on the plains of Oaxaca, in Mexico, are the two places where the cochi neal insect is found most abundant. Tobacco has always been a government monopoly, and the culture has been consequently very limited. The cacao, once grown in Soconusco, was considered so far superior to all others that the Spanish court retained it for its exclusive use. The quantities of cacao now raised in all Central America is said not to be sufficient for the domestic consumption. Sugar, in small plantations, is raised in many parts, for home consumption ; small quantities of it are exported to Peru. Coffee is AGRICULTURE OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 883 said not to be used in the country by the Spanish or native race, and there are but a few coffee plantations, which yield enough for the use of foreign residents. The haciendas resemble those of Mexico, but vary according to their produc tion. Mr. Stephens says of one of these on which cochineal was produced, near Old Guatemala, " In the yard were four oxen grinding sugar-cane, and behind was the nopol, or cochineal plantation, one of the largest in the Antigua. The plant is a species of cactus set out in rows like Indian corn; and at the time I speak of, it was about tour feet hM/ On every leaf was pinned with a thorn a piece of cane, in the hollow of which were thirty or forty insects. These insects cannot move, but breed, and the young crawl out and fasten upon the leaf ; when they have once fixed they never move ; a light film gathers over them, and as they feed the leaves become mildewed and white. At the end of the dry season some of the leaves are cut off and hung up in a storehouse /or, seed, the in sects are brushed off from the rest and dried, and are then sent abroad to minister to the luxuries and elegances of civilised life, and enliven, with their bright colours, the salons of London, Paris, and St. Louis in Missouri. The crop is valuable, but uncertain, is an early rain may destroy it; and sometimes all the workmen of a hacienda are taken away for soldiers at the moment when they are most needed for its culture. The situation was ravishingly beautiful, at the base and under the shade of the Volcano de Agua, and the view was bounded on all sides by mountains of perpetual green ; the morning air was soft and balmy, but pure and refreshing ; with good government and laws, and one s friends around, I never saw a more beautiful spot on which man could desire to pass his allotted time on earth." When the country around Guatemala was taken possession of by the Spaniards, the lands around the capital were partitioned out among the Canonigos. Indians were allotted them as adscribti Glebae to cultivate the soil. A village was formed, and the name of the Canonigo given to it. A church was then erected, and near it a large house for the ecclesiastic. In this way many parts were at an early period cultivated. Another hacienda, at which Mr. Stephens stopped, was in a large clearing, surrounded with forest. It had a cosina and sheds, and a large sugar-mill. In the evening twenty or thirty workmen, principally Indians, came to the masters to give an account of their day s work, and receive orders for the next. The proprietors of this hacienda were two brothers. They gave him for supper, on a small table placed between his hammock and one of the beds, fried eggs, frijoles, or black-beans, and tortillas; but, as usual in the country, with out knife, fork, or spoon. The hacienda of a Dr. Drivon, about a league from Zonzonate, he describes as one of the finest haciendas in the country. The doctor had imported a large sugar-mill, and was preparing to manufacture sugar upon a larger scale than was known in any other part of the country. He came from the island of St. Lucia to this place, and he was well acquainted with Europe, and with all the West India Islands. A Mr. Bridges, an Englishman, from one of the West India Islands, who had been resident in Central America many years, was married to a lady of Leon, and, on account of the disordered state of government, lived on his hacienda; 884 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the soil of which was fertile. He informed Mr. Stephens, that fifty men on his grounds could manufacture sugar cheaper than two hundred in the West India Islands ; but that no reliance could be placed upon Indian labour. LIVE STOCK. Cattle in immense herds are reared on the pastures. In the plains of Honduras, and on the eastern districts of Nicaragua, there are cattle farms, on which are herds from 10,000 to 40,000 oxen, bulls, and cows. Horses and mules are bred for riding and for burden; but they are never shod, except a few for riding in the city of Guatemala. Sheep are reared on the upper plains, and swine are reared for the flesh. CHAPTER X. MANUFACTURES. MANUFACTURING industry is in the rudest state in Central America. Ordi nary articles are made of leather, cotton, wood, and metals. The wretched con dition of the country renders every investment of capital insecure, and consider ing the fertility of the land for producing raw materials for exportation, it would be unwise to attempt manufacturing articles which can be imported from other countries, at half the cost at which they could be produced in any part of Central America. On the way to Realejo, Mr. Stephens visited the maquina, or the only cotton factory in the country. It was established by a citizen of the United States. On the way to Realejo he visited a maquina, or cotton-factory, of which he had heard much on the road. It was the only one in the country, and owed its existence to the enterprise of a countryman, having been erected by a Mr. Hig- gins, who, disappointed in his efforts, and disgusted with the people, sold it to a Don Francisco and a Mr. Foster. Mr. Stephens says, " They were sanguine in their expectations of profit; for they supposed, that by fur nishing a market, the people would be induced to raise cotton enough for exportation to Europe. The resources of this distracted country are incalculable. Peace and industry would open fountains which would overflow with wealth ; and I have no doubt the in fluence of this single factory will be felt in quieting and enriching the whole district within its reach." Mr. Stephens has been no prophet in these remarks. If the country were inhabited by people from the United Kingdom, or from Massachusetts, his ex pectations would have been realised. TRADE AND NAVIGATION. Of the trade and navigation of this country, no statistical account can be obtained. Small vessels from the West Indies and the United States, and occa sionally from Europe, frequent the coasts, and carry on a trade, chiefly contra- NEW GRANADA. 885 band, in consequence of the pernicious system of high duties, which the govern ment of the day, in some mischievous form or other, has attempted to establish. Vessels from the western coasts of America also land various articles. ( Rica has separated from the other states. Salvador may also be said to act in dependently. Guatemala is still under the sway of the Indian Carrera. > ragua has its separate misrule, and Honduras has published its distinct administration, and customs laws. The tonnage duties for anchorage arc four reals, or about two shillings, per ton for native vessels, and double that amount for foreign vessels. These were the rates established in 1837 for all the other states. Export duties, as well as import, are also attempted to be levied, but at such irregular and changeable rates, that we have not been able to procure cor rect data to enable us to give tabular statements or tariff for any of the states of Central America. (See Statistics of the Spanish American Republics hereafter.) CHAPTER XL NEW GRANADA. THE republic of New Granada after its separation from the Confederation, which, under the name of Columbia, included Venezuela, Ecuador, arid >Vw Granada, comprises the north-western region of South America, and extend* from the boundary of Central America to that of the more recently constituted republic of Ecuador. New Granada may, therefore, be considered as extending north from near the equinoctial line, to nearly 12 deg. north latitude, and east to west from about 70 deg. to 83 deg. west longitude. The interior limits, as well as the country, may be considered, as very imperfectly defined. The area of New Granada is vaguely stated at 380,000 square miles; its greatest length, about 800 miles; the greatest breadth from the Rio Orinoco, between the mouths of the rivers Guaviare and Meta, to the Pacific, at about 600 miles. On the east it borders on the republic of Venezuela : on the north is the Gulf of Darien and the Caribbean Sea; and near the western limit of the republic, the Laguna de Chiriqui. The not well defined boundary of Central America sepa rates New Granada, or rather Veragua, by a line over the Isthmus of Panama, from the Caribbean Sea, a few miles west of the Laguna de Chiriqui, to Cape Boruca on the Pacific. The latter bounds New Granada south to Ecuador. The western and Central Andes, are the great mountain ranges which spread over the country between 5 deg. and 8 deg. N. latitude, east of the Rio Magdalen*. The basins of the rivers Magdalena, Cauca, Atrato, San Juan, and several other 886 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. rivers and streams, are comprised within New Granada. Along the shores of the Caribbean Sea, the lands are generally low, from the mouths of the Rio Magda- lena to the Rio Atrato. The isthmus of Panama and Veragua, though politically but loosely connected with the republic, are comprised within New Granada. About one-third of the Eastern Andes, or Great Cordillera, are also within this state. Of the great plains, termed the Llanos, a great portion belongs to New Granada. In the south-western parts are situated the mountain-region of Los Pastes, and the basin of the Rio Patia. These diversified regions vary greatly in climate, fertility, and productions. The region west of the lake of Maracaybo is said to be fertile, with a healthy climate, and either covered with forests, or spreading into prairies and pastures. It is very thinly settled. The paramos of the Andes are extensive table-lands, on the summits of the range, nearly without vegetation ; the lower districts are fertile, and the climate favourable to the cultivation of European grain and fruits : in the lower north-western districts, near the basins, all tropical plants thrive, and these districts are comparatively populous. The declivities of the Central Andes are said to be barren. The mountain region east of the Mag- dalena is arid, the soil rocky, and but little settled or cultivated. It is said to be rich in gold and silver. The lands along the Caribbean Sea are generally de scribed as fertile, the greater part as alluvial, and very unhealthy. Except along the banks of the Rio Magdalena, it is thinly settled. It is generally covered with forest, and produces all tropical plants. The eastern districts of the Isthmus of Panama and Veragua are covered with wood, fertile, un healthy, and thinly inhabited ; to the west of which prairies occur, and the up lands are fertile, more salubrious, and more populous. The region along the Pacific, west of the Andes and south of latitude 5 deg. N., is chiefly covered with dense forests, subject to incessant rains, excessive heat, and an intermitting climate. The mountain region of Los Pastes is in few parts fit for the cultiva tion of wheat or maize, but affords good pastures. In some of the valleys the grain crops of Europe will grow. The Llanos, north from the Rio Vichada, is similar to, and, in fact, a continuation of, the cattle plains of Caracas and Varinas, and affords pasture to numberless herds of cattle and horses. The southern Llanos are described as covered with forests, or intermingled with extensive swamps. They are inhabited by native tribes, and are considered very un healthy. RIVERS. Several tributaries of the Orinoco are navigable, but they are scarcely ever used. The Meta, and its tributary, the Cazanare, are navigated. The Magdalena, and its tributaries, the Rio Cesare, which flows from the lake ol Zapatosa, the Canaverales, the Sogamozo, and the Rio Negro, are navigated. These rivers flow into the Magdalena from the east. The Cauca, and the Atrato and its tributaries, are navigated. The Sinu is navigable as far as Lorica, the NEW GRANADA. Chagres up to Cruces, and the San Juan to Novita. The Rio Patia, for some distance, is navigated; small craft only are used, and even the Madgalena, th called the Danube of New Granada, is said to be interrupted by shallows, have, however, but a very imperfect knowledge of these rivers, as well as of New Granada generally. Numerous small and generally deep lakes occur on the slopes of the mountain ridges and on the paramos; large lakes are not numerous in the interior. The Lake of Zapatosa is scarcely known. North of the town of Bogota, a lake occupies the greater part of a plain about seventy miles long, and more than fifteen wide, but it is shallow, no part being more than six feet deep. The Lake Sebondoy, in the mountain region of Los Pastos, is considered as the source of the Rio Putumayo, an affluent of the Amazonas. Within the shores of the Caribbean Sea there are several lagoons, into which the sea flows. The Lagoon de Santa Marta, by means of which a water communication between Santa Marta and the Rio Magdalena is carried on ; and the Cienega de Tosca, north-east of Cartagena, (more than forty-five miles long), are the largest. CLIMATE. The paramos, the elevated table-land of Bogota, the vales of the Magdalena and Cauca, and low districts along the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific, the mountain regions have each its respective climate, and its variety of productions. European grains, potatoes, are cultivated on the table-land of Bogota, in the districts north, and along the western declivity of the Eastern Andes. In the basins of the great rivers, and on the low lands along the sea-coast, maize, plantains, many vegetables, and fruits, cotton, cacao, tobacco, and some sugar, are cultivated. The forests yield many useful woods; among others, the brasiletto and fustic, from the forests bordering the Sierra de Santa Marta. Ipecacuanha grows on the banks of the Rio Magdalena ; cin chona on the Sierra de Santa Marta, the Andes of Merida, Santa Fe, and Popayan ; the balsam of Tolu on the banks of the Rio Simi. The plains of Cazanare pasture immense herds of cattle, which yield supplies of jerked beef and hides. Pearls were formerly fished in the sea opposite the mouth of the Rio Hacha, and a small quantity are still procured in the Bay of Panama. MINERALS. Gold is found in the Central and Western Andes. In the vale of the Rio Cauca it is procured by washing the sand of rivers and some alluvial soils. In the mountain region of Antioquia it is got by mining ; it abounds still more in the countries along the Pacific, and occurs also in the Rio Zulia, and the Rio Hacha. Platinum is found along the Pacific, in the provinces of Choc6 and Barbacoas. Silver is discovered less abundantly, and only in a few places in the Central Andes, near the mountain-pass of Quindiu, and on the banks of the Rio Sirni. Iron ore and copper ore have been found in several places, especially n the mountains of Antioquia, but they are not worked ; tin and lead are also found ; 888 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. emeralds are abundant in a river north of the town of Bogota, but they are generally small; coal occurs in abundance on the plain of Bogota, and is also found on the banks of the Rio Sinii. According to Humboldt, a stratum of rock-salt traverses the Eastern Andes,, between 5 deg. and 6 deg. north latitude, from south west to north-east ; it is worked at its extremities, at Zipaquira, on the plain of Bogota, and at Chita, in the Llanos of Cazanare. INHABITANTS. The inhabitants of New Granada consist of the descendants of Spaniards, Indians, negroes, and the mixed races. The negroes and Zamboes were formerly numerous in the mining districts of Antioquia and along the Pacific^ but both races have been much reduced by the war of independence. At the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, an Indian tribe, the Muyscos, inhabiting the table-land of Bogota, and the adjacent countries, had attained a considerable degree of civilisation, and their descendants still inhabit the western declivity of the Eastern Andes, and the vale of the Upper Magdalena. The inhabitants of the mountain-region of Los Pastes are described as of Peruvian race. The Indians who have been baptised by the missionaries inhabit the north-eastern part of New Granada, between the Lake of Maracaybo and the town of Carta gena, and also the lower vale of the Cauca. In the upper vale of that river there are few or no Indians. The native tribes along the Pacific, do not appear to have much improved since the arrival of the Spaniards, those of the Isthmus of Panama, we have already described as independent, and in a state of hostility to the Spanish race. The Cattle Plains are mostly peopled by mixed races, especially Mestizos, and the Wooded Plains are in the possession of native tribes. POPULATION. According to a census published in 1827, the whole population amounted to 1,270,000 inhabitants. The number was some time after estimated at 1,360,000 inhabitants, distributed among the five PROVINCES as follows : PROVINCES. Area in Square Miles. Inhabitants. Inhabitants on a Square Mile. number. 25,000 number. 100000 number. 4 Magdalena 50900 250 000 5 83 000 450 000 51 1 52 800 370 000 less than 2 Cauca 68300 190 000 3 Total 380,000 1,360,000 The most populous districts are the central portions of Boyaca and Cun- dinamarca, and the province of Veragua ; the vale of the Rio Magdalena and the upper vale of the Rio Cauca are much less populous. The other parts are thinly inhabited, and with the exception of a few small native tribes, the Wooded Plains contain no inhabitants at all. The department of Istmo contains the provinces of Panamd and Veragua, already described. NEW GRANADA. The department of the Rio Magdalena comprehends the countries from the boundary of Venezuela westwards along the sea to the Gulf of Darieri and the basin of the Rio Atrato, and is divided into the provinces of Rio de la Hacha Santa Marta, Cartagena, and Mompox. It is only tolerably well settled aloJ the coast and along the course of the Rio Magdalena: in the other districts there- are scattered Indian families. Besides the Rio Magdalena and the Rio Cauca, the rivers Cesare and Canaverales, two affluents of the Magdalena, and the Rio Sinu flow through this department. The products are cotton, cacao, tobacco, ipecacuanha, cinchona from the Sierra de Marta, balsam of Tolu, and dye-woods. Some of the rivers deposit gold dust, but it is not collected. Car tagena, with an inlet thirty-three miles in length, is formed by the islands of Tierra Boinba and of Baru : has three entrances, Bocca Grande, Bocca Chica, and the Estero de Pasacaballos. The Bocca Chica, through which vessels usually enter, is between seventeen and eighteen feet deep, and admits large vessels ; it is twenty-eight miles below the town. Cartagena is well built and fortified. Its population is estimated at 18,000. The Estero de Pasacaballos is navigated by small vessels, but only for three months of the year. Baranca Nueva is situated where the Digue de Mahates enters the Magdalena, at which the goods brought from Cartagena are embarked on the Magdalena, and those which come down that river are disembarked. Santa Marta has a tolerably good harbour ; it exports a great quantity of dye-woods. By means of the Cienega de Santa Marta, and some other lakes which are united by natural channels, imported goods are forwarded to the Rio Magdalena: the population of Santa Marta is estimated at 8000. Cuidad de la Hacha is situated near the boundary of Vene zuela, and has a small harbour adapted for vessels of light burden. Mompox- on the banks of the Rio Magdalena, with a population of about 10,000, is the dep6t of the foreign goods destined for the basin of that river. Lorica stands on the banks of the Rio Sinu, at the place where it begins to be navigable ; it has 1000 inhabitants, and some trade. Ocana, not far from the mountains of that name, has 5000 inhabitants, and some inland trade, the goods are transported by the River Canaverales. The department of Boyaca comprises the Eastern Andes between the plain of Bogota, the boundary of Venezuela, and the Cattle Plains of Cazanare ; it is divided into the provinces of Pamplona, Socorro, Tunja, and Cazanare. The first three are situated along the mountain-regions, and are considered the best settled parts of New Granada. Wheat, cacao, cotton, coffee, tobacco, and indigo are collected and exported from the northern districts. At Chita there are mines of rock salt. On the Llanos are pastured the cattle, which are killed for jerked beef and ox-hides. The Rio Magdalena forms its western boundary, and the navigable streams of Sogamozo, Zulia, and Cazanare and Meta flow through this department. The inhabitants are chiefly whites or half-breeds : the number of 5 x VOL. I. 890 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. pure Indians is small. II Rosario de Ciicuta is situated on the banks of the Rio Zulia, a few miles above, where it becomes navigable, and near the boundary of Venezuela. It is the depot for the produce of the surrounding districts, which is shipped for Maracaybo to be exported. Its population is estimated at 5000 ; cacao is grown in the neighbourhood. Salazar de las Palmas is situated in the midst of plantations of cacao. Pamplona rises on a table-land, on the northern declivity of the Andes, 8000 feet above the sea-level. In the neighbourhood there are some mines of gold : estimated population 4000. La Grita, situated in a tolerably well cultivated district, has a trading intercourse with Maracaybo. Girona, near the banks of the Cafiaverales, carries on trade with Mompox: excellent tobacco is grown in the vicinity. Socorro, built on the declivity of a mountain, has about 12,000 inhabitants, and manufactures coarse cotton stuffs and straw-hats. Tunja, not far from the boundary of the department of Curidinamarca, is the capital of Boyaca, and contains about 7^00 inhabitants. On the Llanos of Cazanare are situated the villages of Cazanare, Pore, and Chita. The department of Cundinamarca comprehends the whole of the mountain- region of Antioquia, the upper vale of the Rio Magdalena, the Eastern Andes as far north as 5 deg. north latitude, and the Wooded Plains : it is divided into the provinces of Antioquia, Mariquita, Neyva, and Bogota. On the plain of Bogota, European wheat and other grains, and the aracacha root, are grown ; the other districts yield tropical grains and plants. The cacao of the upper vale of the Rio Magdalena, is of excellent quality. There are mines of gold and silver in the north districts, and salt and coal are found in the Andes. The Rio Grande, a tributary of the Magdalena, is navigable. Several streams flowing into the Orinoco and negro are also navigable, but they are little used. The inhabitants consist of whites, Indians, and mixed races, nearly in equal proportions. Antioquia, on the banks of the Rio Cauca, and in the neighbour hood of some mines, has about 4000 inhabitants. Santa Rosa, a small place, has gold mines. Madellin, the capital, is situated in a fertile valley. It is estimated to have 9000 inhabitants. Mariquita is a small town, near some gold mines. Honda is a trading-place, near the confluence of the Rio Guali with the Rio Magdalena. Ibague, situated at the point where the Pass of Quindu crosses the Central Andes, has about 5000 inhabitants. Excellent tobacco is cultivated near Ambalema. Neyva, on the Rio Magdalena, has about 3000 inhabitants, and is the commercial depot of the higher vale of the Rio Magdalena. Timana, near the source of the Rio Magdalena, yields excellent cacao. SANTA FE DE BOGOTA, the capital of New Granada, stands on the east side of the spacious and fertile plain of Bogota, 8958 feet above the sea, and 8280 feet above the surface of the Rio Magdalena at Honda. Behind the city the mountain rises nearly 2000 feet, almost perpendicular, and near the summit are i NEW GRANADA. 39 j situated the convents of Montserrat and Guadelupe. The town is re -uhrlv built, but the houses are low, on account of the frequent earthquakes." The palace of the former viceroys is inhabited by the president of the republic: the senate assembles in a wing of the convent of the Dominicans, and the chamber of representatives in a private residence. The cathedral was a superb edifice, but it was nearly ruined by an earthquake, in 182?. The University consists of three col- leges, all well situated and built. The population is estimated at between 30,000 and 40,000. This town owes its chief importance to its having been for a period the seat of government. In the mountains behind the town is the source of the Rio San Francisco, which flows through the city, and in the middle of the plain joins the Rio Bogota or Rio Funza, which, running southward, and turn ing to the south-west, descends from the plain by the cataract of Tequendama, and thence through a ravine nearly forty miles long. At the cataract the cleft between the rocks is only about thirty-six feet wide. The water descends in one unbroken mass, 900 feet, when the river is full, but in the dry season the fall is interrupted by two projecting rocks. Further to the east is the natural bridge of Icononzo or Pandi, which is formed by two large rocks that unite the opposite sides of a deep mountain ravine. The upper rock is 300 feet above the surface of the torrent, and the lower about 240 feet. North of the city is the Campo de Gigantes, on which gigantic fossil bones are said to be found. The Campo contains also a coal-field, and towards its northern border the rich salt miles of Zipaquira. Near Bogota is the small lake of Guatavita, 8700 feet above the sea. It was supposed that the ancient inhabitants threw immense golden treasures into this lake. An attempt was made to drain it lake, for the purpose of getting these treasures ; but the attempt did not succeed. On the descent from the plain of Bogota to the banks of the Rio Magdalen a stands the town of Guaduas in a fine valley, 3768 feet above the sea: estimated popu lation, 4000. In this valley sugar-canes and tropical fruits are cultivated. The department of Cauca comprehends the western section of New Granada, the vale of the Rio Atrato, the region along the Pacific, the upper vale of the Rio Cauca, and the mountain-region of Los Pastes. It is divided into the pro vinces of Choco, Buenaventura, Popayan, and Pasto; and is drained by the upper river Cauca, and the rivers Atrato, S. Juan, and Patia. The products an, chiefly gold and platinum near the coast of the Pacific, and in the vales of the rivers Atrato and Cauco, the cattle which pasture in the savannas of the Rio Cauca, and the cacao grown along the coasts of the Pacific. The vale of the Rio Cauca is inhabited chiefly by a white population ; the other districts, by Indians, intermixed with half-breeds, and a few negroes. The canal of Raspadura connects the upper courses of the rivers Atrato and S. Juan, and is navigable for canoes during four or five months in the year. Quibdo or Citara, 892 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. in the Rio Atrato, has some trade with Cartagena: the flat-bottomed boats used in the navigation of the river, traverse the sea between the mouth of the Atrato and Cartagena, and enter the latter port by the Estero de Pasacaballos : estimated population 3000. Novita, not far from the sources of the Rio S. Juan, at the western extremity of one of the passes over the Western Andes, has 2000 in habitants. Buenaventura, a good harbour on the Pacific, is only inhabited by a few mixed-breed families. A very difficult road leads from it over the Western Andes to the town of Cali, in the vale of the Rio Cauca. This town is well built, has some trade, and about 4000 inhabitants. In the same vale, further to the north, is Cartago, with about 3000 inhabitants. It is situated at the western extremity of the long mountain-pass of Q,uindiu. Popayan, the capital of the department, is in a small plain, at the southern extremity of the vale of the Cauca, not far from the snow-capped volcano of Purace and the Rio Venagre, or Vinegar River. It is well-built, and contains about 20,000 inhabitants. Almaguer, with about 4000 inhabitants, stands in a valley in the mountain- region of Los Pastes, 7440 feet above the sea. Pasto, built at the foot of a volcano, in a plain 8577 feet above the sea, is surrounded by woods and bogs. The great road which leads from Popayan to Quito, passes through Almaguer and Pasto. AGRICULTURE. We have very little information as to the agriculture of this state. All that we can place reliance upon will be found hereafter. (See Statistics of Spanish American Republics.) MANUFACTURES. The manufacturing industry of New Granada is limited to the making of coarse woollen and cotton stuffs, which are chiefly made by the lower classes for their own consumption. TRADE. The maritime commerce of New Granada is far from important, considering the natural resources of this state. A great part of the exportable produce of the most populous districts of the mountainous country of Boyaca, is sent by the Rio Zulia to the harbour of Maracaybo, Venezuela. The produce which is carried down the Magdalena is exported from Santa Marta and Carta gena; vessels of 100 to 120 tons ascend from Citarato Cartagena; in consequence of bad roads, goods are carried on mules and men s backs from the Upper Cauca across the Andes to Porto Buenaventura, on the Pacific. (See Statistics of the Spanish American Republics hereafter.) CHAPTER XII. VENEZUELA. THE Republic of Venezuela is a vast, fertile and splendid region. Magnifi cent rivers, luxuriant forests, high mountains, low alluvial districts and islands, VENEZUELA. and plains, are its most remarkable features. Our information respecting tins state is far more satisfactory than that which we have collected respecting mod of the other states of South America.* This state is bounded on the north by the Gulf of Paria and the ( bean Sea, on the east by British Guayana; on the south, along a not well- defined boundary line, by Brazil; and west by New Granada. The extent of Venezuela south to north, from the boundary of Brazil, in about 1 50 min. north latitude on the Rio Negro, to Point Chuspa, in about lo deg. 25 min; north latitude, is about 630 miles. The greatest extent from east to west from the Carlo Cayuno, at the mouth of the Orinoco, in about 60 deg. west longitude, to a point west of Lake Maracaybo, in about 73 deg. west, is estimated at about 840 miles. Its boundaries are very irregular in outline and its area is vaguely estimated at about 410,000 square miles. This country owes its name to the following circumstance. When the Spaniards discovered this country, they found a great number of Indian villages situated about the lake built on piles, which was the reason that they gave it the name of Venezuela, after Venezia, or Venice. This name soon extended to all the province ; of which Coro became the first capital. The town of Caraccas having been afterwards made the metropolis of all the countries that compose the captain-generalship, its dis trict took the name of the Province of Venezuela ; the country surrounding the lake was named the province of Maracaybo ; the other three continental pro vinces were termed Varinas, Guayana, and Cumana. The country known by the name of New Andalusia, as well as the Island of Margarita, formed part of the government of Cumana. The Island of Trinidad formed at one time a sixth province, or particular government, depending on that of Caraccas, before the English got possession of it in 1797. A captain-general, intendant, and an audiencia, or supreme tribunal of justice and finance, composed the superior government of those pro vinces. The provincial governors were directly subjected to the captain-general of Caraccas, in all affairs concerning the military and civil government ; also to the intendant, of whom they took the title of sub-delegates, for financial measures; and the royal audienca was a tribunal to which appeals were made, not only from the decisions of the provincial courts, but also to which individuals had the right of summoning such persons in office as they thought they had reason to complain of. There was a privilege of appeal from the decrees of audiencia, to the supreme council of the Indies, at Madrid. Venezuela includes the Paramos of Porquera, Menda, Niquitao, and Las Rosas, with the snow-clad Nevado de Mucuchies. The elevated part of paramos rise above the limit of vegetation. The valleys, declivities, and lands, are very fertile, and yield, in temperate elevations, the grams an. cuments. 894 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, Europe, and in the lower parts the tropical productions. Parts of Venezuela^ west of the Lake of Maracaybo, are covered with wood ; and extensive plains with out trees extend over other districts. The highlands of Venezuela, west of the Gulf of Triste, are arid from the want of rains. The higher parts are overgrown with the prickly pear, aloes, and dwarf cedar: the valleys, in which naturally valuable timber trees grow, yield under culture, excellent coffee. The remainder of this high mountain region, is fertile, especially in the valleys. About one-half of the low or alluvial grounds of the Orinoco lie within Venezuela. The eastern por tion, or the Llanos de Barcelona, or Llanos Altos, are scarcely ever inundated by the floods of the Orinoco, with the exception of narrow alluvial tracts along the banks, and the delta of the low district near the Gulf of Paria and the Rio Guarapiche. These low lands are either covered with wood, or occupied by swamps. The more elevated portion of these Llanos are in parts undulated ; in others, exten sive plains, interspersed with clumps of trees, predominate. The soil is fertile, and adapted for agricultural purposes. On the plains of Caraccas and Varinas, nume rous herds of cattle are pastured. These latter plains are inundated for nearly six months in the year, especially those on the lower river Apure. The great basin of the Rio Orinoco, is bounded by some portions of the Parime Mountains, which spread over Venezuela from the Andes of Bogota in a northern direction, then east to the coast opposite the north-west part of Trinidad. This region is little known, with the exception of the large fertile valley of the Rio Caroni. The mountain districts are generally covered with forest. South of the upper course of the Orinoco, where it runs from east to west, on both sides of the cafio of Cassiquiare and the River Guainia or Rio Negro, there are level, fertile plains, covered with trees, but owing to the rains and the unhealthiness of the climate, said to he very thinly inhabited. THE POPULATION consists of the whites, or descendants of Spaniards, estimated at about 250,000; the Indians, of pure blood, to 150,000; the negroes, who formerly exceeded 60,000 souls, but who have been greatly reduced by the war of independence; and mulattoes, mestizos, andZamboes. The Indian tribes that inhabit the mountains of Venezuela, and those within the valley of Rio Carony, have been visited ; and, as asserted, converted by the missionaries, and are now citizens of the republic ; but there are said to be many independent tribes the Guajiros, on the peninsula of the same name; the Cocinas, west of the Lake of Maracaybo; the Guaraons, inhabitants of the Delta of the Orinoco; and some of the tribes which wander over the Parime Mountains and the districts south of the Orinoco. The converted Indians attend to husbandly for their main tenance. M. Depons calculated the population in 1802 at 728,000 ; but MM. Lavaysse and Humboldt consider this calculation erroneous, and they estimate the population in 1SOO at 900,000, of whom 54,000 were slaves. According to the report of the minister of the interior for 1841, the popula tion is stated to amount to 887,168 ; but he does not consider this quite exact. VENEZUELA. 395 The citizens of the United States would people a thoroughly new country of equal extent, and riches as Venezuela, with an equal population in less than ten years. POLITICAL DIVISIONS According to the same report, and one of the secre tary of finance, in 1846, the republic is divided into thirteen provinces, viz., CARACCAS, which contains about half the population of the whole state ; CAHA- BOBO, BARQUISIMETO, TRUJILLO, MERIDA, BARINAS or VARINAS, CORO MARACAYBO, BARCELONA, GAUYANA, CUMANA, APURE, and MARGARITA. Each of these provinces have governors, or chief administrators, and other functionaries, and each sends two members to the senate. THE GOVERNMENT AND LAWS are lodged in a president and vice-president of the republic ; a senate of twenty-six members ; a chamber of representatives, at present consisting of fifty-nine members. (See Statistics of Venezuela hereafter.) DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES. According to M. Von Humboldt and other authorities, there are extensive steppes and deserts but otherwise this republic is watered, abundantly inun dated, and drained by rivers and streams. These appear to be well described by M. de Lavaysse. He says, " There are nearly 370 marine leagues from the Raudal (cataract) of the Guajaribos, east of the Esmeralda (the nearest point to its sources, which are unknown) to the mouths of the Orinoco. < The country is intersected in every direction by navigable rivers of various sizes. All those which are eastward of Cape de Paria, the Guarapiche, and the small rivers that flow into the Gulf of Paria excepted, are lost in the Orinoco. Many of its tributaries are more considerable than some distinguished rivers in Europe: the Rio Apure runs nearly 112 leagues, and is navigable for large ves sels for more than sixty leagues from its confluence with the Orinoco. In lati tude 7 deg. 32 min. north, it is 4632 fathoms in width, and is not impeded by islands.* " The Guarapiche presents a very remarkable phenomenon: this river has its source, like all those of New Andalusia, in that part of the Llanos which is de nominated Mesa (a platform or plain) de Amana, Mesa de Guanipa, Mesa de Tororo, &c. The mountains that separate the maritime range of Paria from the granitic and amphibolic mountains of the Lower Orinoco, form a ridge very little above the rest of the plain; but this elevation, which is called Mesa, is sufficient to determine the rivers to run northward towards the Gulf of Paria, and to the south into the Orinoco. The Guarapiche rises in the Mesa de Amana, i south-west of the village of Mathurin: it receives near St. Antonio the 1 * The leagues of Humboldt and other, are the .common French i league, of scarcely two and a half miles English-not the geographical league of twenty to a degree. 896 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Jorado, then the Rio Punceres, and at last the large river Arco, which is called Rio de San Bonifacio, near its source. The Governor Emparan had formed some very useful projects for colonial establishments on the fertile banks of the Arco and Guarapiche. The place where the Arco unites with the Guarapiche, at five leagues from its mouth, is called the Horquetta, a name given by the Spaniards to all junctions of rivers : at that point the Guarapiche has a depth of from forty to fifty fathoms. Previous to 1766, large vessels could have sailed up the Guarapiche to Mathurin : an earthquake has since raised its bed, and now the navigation of the Rio Arco is preferable. The latter is still sixteen fathoms deep as far as Port San Juan, at twnety-five leagues from the sea. I can venture to assert that there is no communication between the Guarapiche and Orinoco: I have never heard it mentioned in all the time I resided in that country, and in which I travelled through it in various directions." In the map of a work, otherwise estimable (Travels of M. Depons), there is laid down a pretended natural canal, called Morichal, forming a communica tion between those two rivers above Old Cayenne. M. de Humboldt, who na vigated that river, had no knowledge of such communication. The Guarapiche, notwithstanding its depth, and the great body of water it carries to the sea, is only, from its sources in the mountains to its mouth, thirty- three marine leagues in length. Maracaybo, and the other gulfs, or inlets from the sea, and the Lake Taca- rigua, are all remarkable. The Lake Tacarigua, to which the Spaniards have given the name of Valencia, is situated about fifty leagues west from Caraccas. fe It is elevated 1200 feet above the level of the sea, and has almost the shape of an oblong square : its length is thirteen leagues from east to west, and it is two leagues broad in almost its whole extent." " The contrast of the desert and barren mountains of Guigue, with the hills and valleys opposite, ornamented with the most beautiful tropical products, and even the fields of corn and fruit trees of Europe, and the vicinity of the little town of Valencia, agreeably reminds an European of the Lake of Geneva and Vevay. The mountains of Caraccas, it is true, have not the grand appearance of the Alps ; but then how much superior the rich, varied, and majestic vegetation which ornaments the borders of the Tacarigua is to the most beautiful natural productions of Europe ! I was there in company with a Dane (Mr. West), a man of talents. Whilst we were absorbed in the contemplation of that delight ful scene, the native of the north suddenly exclaimed : ( It is here that we should fix our residence for the remainder of our lives : I shall return to Santa Cruz, there collect my property, and come to these charming shores, which shall also be my tomb/ " Lavaysse. Several small rivers and streams flow into this lake, which has no outlet : by evaporation more water is exhaled from the lake than is carried to it, from which M. de Humboldt explains the formation of the small islands that have been formed in VENEZUELA. 897 the lake: at first they were only sand-banks, which by degrees became covered with vegetables. Another cause, similar to that which is observed at Trini dad, has contributed to the formation of these islands; the draining and cul tivation of the valleys of the adjacent Aragoa. " There is a prodigious difference between the quantity of slime carried off by the rains and torrents in a cultivated, or a savage country : it is known that in the latter the quantity of earth washed away is much less than in the former : if the mountains and valleys which surround the LakeTacarigua, had not lost their ancient trees and thick turf, perhaps it would have required a thousand years to have formed these small islands in its bed. From time to time new ones are seen to arise. The inhabitants of the neigh bourhood have given to them a name that justly characterises them : Las Aparecidas, the new-born islands. A great number of small crocodiles are seen in this lake, which never attack the persons who go there to bathe." Ibid. The shape of the Lake, or rather Gulf, of Maracaybo, is an oval sea, of about 100 miles in length, by seventy in breadth : this inlet is situated between the lowest part of the mountains of Santa Martha, and near the place where the chain begins, which is detached from the Andes de Bogota : " it communicates with a gulf of half its size, by a passage of about two leagues broad and eight long: thus this lake forms a little Mediterranean: it receives the tribute of more than twenty rivers, and a great number of rivulets that run down the two ridges of the mountains, between which it is situated. The most con siderable are the Subio and the Matacau ; for the Souba and the Cuervos, though wide at their mouths, are only creeks fed by torrents, into which the waters of the lake recoil during winter." The Souba is nearly eight leagues in length, and the Cuervos forms a curve of about fifteen leagues : both of those creeks which branch from Lake Mara caybo are navigable. It is between them and the mountains, that the Guahiros are settled ; warlike Indians who have never been subjected by the Spaniards They extend to the other side of the mountains, along the Rio de la Hache to the borders of the sea. Though the Lake of Maracaybo is connected, by the flowing and ebbing tide, with the sea, its waters are sweet and fit for .drinking ; but when the wind blows inwards, with violence, the sea water rushes into the lake, and its water becomes brackish until the wind changes. This lake is not subject to tern- pests ; yet when the north wind is strong, it produces a short and broken swell that sometimes does considerable injury to the smaller craft. The tide rises higher in this lake than on the adjacent coasts, where it is scarcely perceptible. Mr. Lavaysse says, "it is the same in the Gulf of Paria, and in that of Cariaco, because the tide and wind oppose the water there, which continually runs out. On the north-west shore of the Lake Maracaybo is an ex tensive mine of asphaltum, of the same nature as that in Trinidad. 3 VOL. I. 5 Y 898 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CARACCAS, the capital of the republic, and the seat of the legislature and go vernment, is situated in the fruitful valley of Arragon, connected with the vale of the river Tuy, 2822 feet above the sea-level. It is separated from its port La Guayra, which is about sixteen miles distant, by a mountain ridge, the highest part of which on the road is 5160 feet. In this ridge the Silla de Caraccas rises to a summit 8631 feet high. The town is regularly built on a declivity, and has wide streets, which cross at right angles. The climate is healthy. The cathedral was much damaged in 1826 by an earthquake; and the city suffered greatly from one also in 1812. Caraccas has a university, founded in 1778; about 50,000 inhabitants, about the same number as in 1810, when the province con tained 496,772 inhabitants, and carries on a considerable trade in the products of the adjacent fertile valleys. It has an archbishop. It was the residence of the captain-general, of the chief of the inquisition, and audienza, and the ruler of Spain, situated on an unequal surface, the consequent absence of regularity is gained in picturesque effect : many of the houses have ter raced roofs, others are covered with tiles ; several have only one story, the ground floor ; the rest have but one more : they are built either of brick or of earth, and covered with stucco, the architecture is sufficiently solid, handsome, and well adapted to the climate. Many have gardens in their rear. The town, in con sequence, is, in extent, equal to an European one, with more than 100,000 inhabitants. Four beautiful streams traverse it, and contribute to its coolness and cleanliness, and give it an animation not experienced in towns deprived of running water. M. Lavaysse says, " As in some towns of the Alps and Pyrenees, each householder in Caraccas has the invaluable advantage of having in his house a pipe of running and limpid water, which does not prevent all the squares, and almost all the streets from having public fountains. In general there is much luxury and gilding in the decorations of the houses of wealthy persons, and among all, more cleanliness and comfort than in Spain. This town does not possess any public edifice remarkable for its beauty and size, with the exception of the church of Alta Gracia, built at the expense of the people of colour in Caraccas and its vicinity. " It is divided into five parishes; that of the Cathedral, Alta Gracia, Saint Paolo, Saint Rosalia, and La Candelaria. Three other churches belong to confraternities: Saint Maurice, the Divina Pastora, and the Trinidad. They are solidly built, and richly ornamented in the interior. The cathedral is 250 feet long by seventy-five broad, and its walls are thirty-six feet high ; four ranges of stone columns, each containing six, support the roof; the only public clock in the town, was in thfc steeple of this church. " This town has five convents, of which three are for men, the Franciscans, Domini cans, and Brothers of the Order of Mercy. The church of the Dominicans has a very curious historical picture : it represents the Virgin Mary suckling a grey-bearded Saint Dominic. The following is the account of this miracle, as recounted by the sexton to those who visit the church : St. Dominic having had a violent pain in his breast, and his physician having ordered him woman s milk, the Virgin suddenly descended from heaven, and presented her breast to the saint, who, as it may be supposed, was cured in an instant." Porto Cavello or Cabello, is situated at a league to the west of Borburata. The latter was at one time the principal port of the colony; but it has been only fl ren- VENEZUELA. a village since the maritime trade was chiefly directed to La Guayra. It i* unhealthy place, yet one which any other government would have* easily dered healthy. There is, however, considerable trade carried on there, and al though it was the principal port in the government of Caraccas for the 8] navy, yet in no other part was there so much contraband trade carried on. Lavaysse says "More than half the produce of the province of Caraccas was carried there and sold to the smugglers of Curasoa and Jamaica, who paid for all the produce in Britisl and Dutch merchandise, besides selling annually to the amount of 1,300 000 to 1,400,000 dollars of those merchandises, for which they were paid in specie!" Porto Cavello is twenty-four leagues from La Guayra, and in 10 deg. 28 min. north latitude, and 69 deg. 10 min. west longitude. VALENCIA. This town was founded in 1555 ; it is situated at half a league from the splendid Lake of Tacarigua. Lavaysse remarks, " That the indigenous names of the mountains, lakes, rivers, &c., are much more harmonious than those which the Europeans have wished to substitute for them: a few of those words, as the aboriginal inhabitants pronounce them, will prove the assertion ; Tacarigoa, Maracaybo, Nik-karagoa, Ibirinocco,* Naiagara, Ontario, Amana, &c." The population of Valencia was 6500 persons in 1801; it increased to more than 10,000 in 1810; it is now stated about the latter number. M. Lavaysse says, " The inhabitants are nearly all Creoles, the offspring of ancient Biscayan and Ca nary families. There is great industry and comfort in this town. It is as large as an European town of 24,000 to 25,000 souls, because the greater part of the houses have only a ground floor, and many of them have gardens. Fifty years ago (now seventy), its inhabitants passed for the most indolent in the country : they all pretended to de scend from the ancient conquerors, and could not conceive how it was possible for them to exercise any other function than the military profession, or cultivate the land, without degrading themselves. Thus they lived in the most abject misery, on a singularly fer tile soil. * Their ideas have since completely changed ; they have applied themselves to agriculture and commerce, and the grounds in the neighbourhood are now well culti vated." Valencia concentrates an inland trade from and with Caraccas and Porto Ca vello. MARACAY is situated at the eastern extremity of Lake Tacarigua. " It was inhabited," says Lavaysse, " by a -ace of men, whose minds were never deranged by the frivolous and noxious pride of birth : almost all the inhabitants of the town & and of the neighbouring country are of Biscayan origin, and therefore, industry, comfort, cleanliness, and good morals are to be found generally throughout this dis trict." The grounds around Maracay, are under, principally, plantations of cotton, indigo, coffee, and maize, on the heights the vegetables of the temperate climes of Europe, and wheat, will thrive. Estimated population about 10,OC bitants. TULMARO is situated in one of the valleys which communicates with t * Of which the Spaniards have made Orinoco, Ibirinocco was also the name of the mountains where they supposed the sources of this river were. 900 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. ley of Aragoa ; it is two leagues from Maracay. This was the residence of the administrators of the tobacco contract. This town is very well built; 8000 in habitants were calculated as its population in 1807 ; and about the same number now inhabit it, the plantations of tobacco were from the first cultivated on account of the government. VITTOBIA is situated between Caraccas and Tulmaro, on the side of a village of Caraccas Indians, whom the Spanish missionaries had converted to Christianity. About 125 years ago a great many Spaniards, who established themselves among them either by lawful or clandestine connexions with the native women, became the parents of a numerous and mongrel population. In 1807, the population in the valleys of Arragon was distributed on 23? plantations, and nearly 2000 houses in towns or villages : it consisted of 24,000 whites, 18,000 mixed blood, 6500 Indians, and 4000 slaves. Total 52,500 persons^ CORO. The convenient situation of Coro for trading with the neighbouring islands, and particularly with Porto Rico and St. Domingo, caused its site to be chosen for the first settlement which the Spaniards founded on this part of terra firma. The tribe of Indians that inhabited it were called Coriana. The environs are barren, but at three leagues from the town are hills, valleys, and plains of some fertility. The town is situated on the Isthmus of Paragoana whose inhabitants lead a pastoral life. In 1822, 10,000 persons of all colours among whom there were scarcely 200 slaves, form the population of the town. They still hold a considerable trade with Cura^oa in cattle, hides, and indigo, and even in cochineal, which last article comes from the district of Carora. CAHORO is situated inland about fifteen miles east of Maracaybo Lake; called by an Indian name Carora, had with its district in 1822, nearly 10,000 inhabitants ; we are ignorant of its present number. Formerly the inhabitants were occupied chiefly collecting a kind of wild cochineal, as fine as the Misteca. The soil of the district is arid, but herds of oxen, horses, asses, mules, sheep, and goats, pasture on it, and breed cattle chiefly for tanning the hides. The inhabi tants were rather noted as shoemakers, saddlers, weavers, and ropemakers. They make hammocks and packthread of the fibres of the agave fcetida. BARQUISIMETO, which gives its name to the province, is situated on a plain. Though in 9 deg. 45 min. of north latitude, it enjoys a very mild climate, and wheat grows in the vicinity. All the tropical productions flourish in the sur rounding valleys. The town is well built, and had, \vith its district, in 1825, a population of about 15,000 inhabitants. " In the parish church," says Lavaysse, " there is a crucifix which has worked a great many miracles, and is at the same time an object of devotion with the people, and an abundant source of revenue to the clergy of the church. In the same town is a convent of rich Franciscan friars, who are esteemed great lovers of good cheer, also an hospital, where the VENEZUELA. <JQJ poor are badly lodged and scantily fed." This town ninety leagues C6 t fron Caraccas, and 100 north of Santa Fe de Bogota. SAN FELIPE. Was settled by a great number of Canary Islanders and natives of the neighbouring districts, who were attracted by the fertility of its soil. The inhabitants grow cocoa, coffee, maize, rice, and a little cotton. This district is watered by the rivers Jarani and Arva, and by numerous rivulets. The copper- mines of Arva are in the neighbourhood. Population about 7000. TocuYois built in an elevated valley; its climate is even cold, from the month of November to April, whilst the wind blows from the north. Its district is adapted to all kinds of agriculture, and a great quantity of wheat has been grown around. The wool of the Tocuyo sheep has had a high reputation for blankets and kerseymeres. GUARARB is situated in a magnificent plain on the banks of a river of the rsame name, and extends towards the Portuguese River, which is navigable, and falls into the Apure. It was founded in 1593. The town of San Juan Bautista del Poa, 125 miles south-west of Caraccas, is the centre of a Portuguese district. SAN GALES was settled by emigrants from the Canary Islands. Banio is near it. Calaboza, formerly a village of Indians, has been transformed into a town by the Biscay Company. In the valley, the towns of Aragua and San Matheo contain each from 6000 to 8000 inhabitants; Araure, 11,000. These towns owe their foundations to the fertility of the districts, and to the pastures of the continuous cattle plains. " In those times of conquest and anarchy, the Spanish generals, who fought at :2000 leagues distance from their sovereign, acknowledged no other law than that suggested by their strength and caprice. Christopher Cobos, enraged at the scanty force Roxas had put under his command, and at his private intrigues to counteract his success, did homage for his conquest to Rodrigo Nunea Lobo, governor of Cumana, and the metropolitan government approved of the union of i;he country of the Cumanagotos (the district of Barcelona) with the government }f Cumana. From thence it arises, that the governors of Cumana style them selves also governors of Barcelona." Lavaysse. CUMANA. According to M. Depons, the population of the town of Cumana vas 24,000 persons in 1802. In 1807, according to M. Lavaysse, it amounted :o 28,000 and upwards; and at the end of 1810, it had increased to 30,000 nhabitants, almost all industrious and laborious. Cumana, when visited by M. Lavaysse, had two parish churches and two ;onvents for men; one belonging to the Dominicans, and the other to the Franciscans. It had no magnificent edifice. It rains more rarely at Cumana han at Caraccas. Bull-feasts, cock-fighting, and rope-dancing, are the amusements most fre- 902 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. quented by the inhabitants of this town and the rest of the province. As there was no town clock when M. de Humboldt was there in 1800, he constructed a very fine sun-dial. The Cumanese never fails to say to a stranger who passes it, "We owe this sun-dial to the learned (sabid) Baron de Humboldt. 5 The word sabioy in the mouth of a Creole of the Spanish colonies, signifies both wise and learned. The River Manzanares runs through the middle of this town ; there is a bridge across it : the water in this river has only sufficient depth for very small vessels. Large ships anchor at the Placer, a sand-bank in the middle of the port, which is well sheltered. Cumaria is situated in 10 deg. 37 min. north latitude, and 64 deg. 10 min. west longitude : its climate is very hot, the elevation of the town above the sea level being only fifty-three feet. Fahrenheit s thermometer usually rises to 90 deg., and sometimes even to 95 deg., from the month of June until the end of October. In that season it seldom descends to 80 deg. during the night, but the sea breeze tempers the heat. It is said, however, that the town is healthy. From the commencement of November to the end of March, the heats are not so great ; the thermometer is then between 82 deg. and 84 deg. in the day-time, and generally falls to 77 deg. and even 75 deg. during the night. There is scarcely ever any rain in the plain in which Cumana is situated, though it rains frequently in the adjacent mountains. It is built at the foot of a volcanic mountain, and subject to earth quakes. To the north-east is the Gulf or inlet of Cariaco. Opposite to Cumana, is the Point of Arraya, on which there was once a fort. This gulf is about thirty miles long from east to west, and from eight to ten miles in breadth. The largest ships might ride in it with safety from all weathers. The Gulf of Cariaco has in all parts good anchorage. On each side the land presents two amphitheatres ornamented with the most beautiful and varied vegetation. At the bottom of the gulf, to the east, is the fine plain of Cariaco, watered by the navigable river of the same name. At a mile and a half from its mouth is the town, or rather the large village of Cariaco, which the Spaniards called San Felipe de Austria. The population of this place was about 7000 persons in 180?. Until the beginning of the present century, cotton and cocoa-trees only were cultivated, but coffee was afterwards grown, with sugar plantations, and a distillery for rum established. In 1807, the governor, Manuel de Cagigal, endeavoured to prevent the distillation of rum, under the false pretence that it would injure the trade in brandies with Spain, ; but the true reason was, that the rum trade, one of the English smuggling branches, brought large profits to his excellency. Innumerable flocks of sea-fowls frequent the Gulf of Cariaco, chiefly on the banks of mud situated on the sides of the entrance to the river. VENEZUELA. According to Lavaysse, " These birds issue by thousands from the mangrove trees, where they pass the ni-l-i, and disperse over the surface of the water to seek their food: when their lumber is satisfied, some repose on the mud and sand-banks ; some swim on the water mctcjy for diversion, while others cover the branches of all the neighbouring trees. I have si-en a bank of sand above three hundred yards in length, and the little banks or Mauds near it entirely covered with these aquatic birds. Those 1 recognised were flamm-M s <,i all ages and colours, pelicans, herons, boobies, five or six kinds of ducks, of which one is larger than that of India, several kinds of water-hens, a bird as white and as laru r e as a swan, but which has a long beak, red and pointed, longer and more delicate legs, and feet formed like those of a swan : it swims like that bird, but flies much better. I also saw in the same spot, many other birds which I am sure have never been described l>v any naturalist." M. Lavaysse describes the manner of catching aquatic birds as singular. The inhabitants of the .shores of these lakes and gulfs, scatter calabashes over the water, in order that the birds, by being accustomed to see them, may not be alarmed at the sight. When the Indians wish to catch wild fowl, they go into the water, each with his head covered with a calabash, in which they make two holes to see through. They swim towards the birds, throwing a handful of maize on the water from time to time, the grains soon scatter on the surface. The wild fowl approach to feed on the maize, and the swimmer seizes them by the feet, pulls them under water, and wrings their necks before they can make the least noise to alarm the flocks. The port of Carupano is defended by a battery situated on an eminence. It is described as a healthy place, situated in the opening of two charming valleys, through which flowed two fine rivers. Lavaysse says in his time, " The inhabitants divide their time in the occupations of agriculture, some trading concerns, and dancing. It is completely a dancing town. I have seen very fine youths at the balls of Carupano, and many young women, who would be remarkable 1 beauty even in our European cities -/ but they are beauties entirely strangers to the I ofour coquettes; beauties such as nature has made them, and who know no laws than what that unsophisticated deity has given them." Population of the district about 7000. Between Carupano and the Punta de Piedra, the fertile valley of Rio Carib is crossed, watered by numerous rivulets : it is the Tempo and Campagna of tin country. The town and valley of Rio Caribe have an estimated popu 4000 to 5000 persons. Punta de Piedra, which in 1797, was only a hamlet of fishermen, it became afterwards the principal place in the district of Paria, and the residence of a he tenant-governor. It is situated in a distnct of prodigious fertility, and near t mouths of the Guarapiche, Orinoco, and the ports of Spain in Trinidad. The town is situated in a magnificent plain, and on a platform which commands the sea ; from whence there is a view of the port of Spain, all the western part ot 004 SPANISH AMERICAN RF.PUBLICS. the island of Trinidad, the Gulf of Paria, and of all the vessels that enter or go out of it. At the extremity of this plain opens the beautiful and fertile valley of Yagua- raparo, in which are plantations of coffee and cocoa ; the fertility of its soil, and its climate particularly appropriated to the latter plant, at one time made the fortunes of most of those established there.* The valleys, and above all the banks of the rivers of this part of the province of Cumana, abound in logwood and Brazil wood. CUMANACOA is the chief town of one of the most fertile districts of the province of Cumanacoa. It is situated in a valley of the same name, about forty-five miles inland, to the south-east of Cumana : the air is healthy and tolerably cool. The fruits cultivated there are reputed the best in the province. The population of the town and adjacent country is about five thousand souls. Until sixty years ago, the neighbouring country was inhabited by unconquered Indians, who made frequent incursions against the Spaniards of this quarter, the missionaries have pacified and united them in missions. Humboldt, who remained at Cumanacoa to make astronomical observations, determined its latitude at 10 deg. 16 min. north, and its longitude at 64 deg. 15 min. west.f The province of New Barcelona is bounded on the east by the province of Caraccas, on the west by that of Cumana, and on the south by the Orinoco, which separates it from Guayana. It is thinly inhabited and ill-cultivated, but less mountainous than Caraccas and Cumana. On its vast meadows numerous herds of oxen, horses, asses, and mules, feed. The port of Barcelona exported during the peace of Amiens, in one year, 132,000 oxen, 2100 horses, 84,000 mules, 800 * A Catalan sailor settled here in 1790, when the valley was almost a desert ; he began alone to fell the woods and plant cocoa trees : in 1797 this man had twenty negroes on his plantation; in 1804 he had thirty slaves, and with this small assistance he gathered more than one hundred thousand pounds weight of cocoa. He died in 1804, intestate, it is said, and the Spanish govern ment took possession of his property. f At twenty leagues inland, on entering the range of mountains, near that of Turimiquiri, is the famous grotto of Guacharo, in which are millions of a new species of Caprimulgus, that rill the cavern with their plaintive and disaial cries. The fat is extracted as an article of commerce. In every country the same causes have produced similar effects on the imagination of our species. The grotto of Guacharo is, in the opinion of the Indians, a place of trial and expiation ; souls when separated from bodies go to this cavern ; those of men who die without reproach do not remain in it, and immediately ascend to reside with the great Manitou in the dwellings of the blessed ; those of the wicked are retained there eternally ; and such men as have committed but slight faults of a venial nature, are kept there for a longer or shorter period, according to the crime. " Immediately after the death of their parents and friends, the Indians go to the entrance of this cavern to listen to their groans. If they think they hoar their voices, they also lament, and address a prayer to the great spirit Manitou, and another to the devil Muboya; after which they drown their grief with intoxicating beverages. But if they do not hear the wished-for voices, they express their joy by dances and festivals." In all this there is but one circumstance that creates surprise, it is that the Indian priests have not availed themselves of such credulity to augment their revenues, Many Indians, though otherwise converted to Christianity, have not ceased to believe in Guacharo : and to descend into Guacharo is among them synonymous witli dying." Lavaysse* VENEZUELA. asses, 180,000 quintals of tassajo, or smoked beef, 36,000 ox hides. 4500 hides, and 6000 deer skins. (See statistics of Venezuela hereafter.) BARCELONA is badly built ; the houses are of mud, and in general said to be very meanly furnished. The streets are filthy and miry when there is rain, and in dry weather, with even the least wind, the dust is enough to blind one. Alcedo says that the climate of Barcelona is more unhealthy than that of Cumana. exactly the reverse : the climate of Cumana is very healthy, though hot, because it is dry, and that of Barcelona unhealthy from the opposite causes. This town had in 1807, a population of 15,000 persons; at present the number is not esti mated as having increased. Barcelona is in 10 deg. 6 min. north latitude, 67 deg. 4 min. west longitude, and thirty miles from Cumana in a direct line : but the windings which it is neces sary to make to avoid bad roads, make it a journey of twenty hours. It is reckoned ten marine leagues by sea from the port of Barcelona to that of Cumana ; from the former to the latter port there are numerous islets, frequented by fishermen, but they afford no shelter for large vessels. CONCEPTION DEL PAO is built in a plain situated behind the range of Bergantin; the climate is said to be wholesome, although very hot and subject to heavy rains. It owes this advantage to its elevated situation, from which waters run into the Orinoco and Guarapiche. It is little cultivated, but its pastures feed numerous herds that are exported by the above rivers to Trinidad and Tobago. There are few countries naturally more varied, fertile, or better watered than the different districts of Cumana. Its mountains on the coast form a magnificent barrier to the sea. On those mountains and hills, gigantic and valuable trees, shrubs, aromatic plants, and flowers grow luxuriantly. SPANISH GUAYANA, now included within the republic of Venezuela, has for its boundaries, Brazil at San Jose de Marasitanos to the south, New Granada and the province of Varinas to the west, those of Cumana, Barcelona, and Ca- raccas on the north, and the British, French, and Dutch Guayana to the east. The language of the Marsitan Indians is as generally disseminated towards the Equator, as the Caribbean tongue is from the banks of the Essequibo t< those of the Magdelena. According to the Spanish historians, Juan Cornepo was the first European who sailed up the Orinoco, in 1531. Sir Walter Raleigh and Robert Dudley visited it afterwards. The chimera of El Dorado also attracted a g of Spanish adventurers to it. In 1586, Don Antonio Berreo founded a town, to which he gave t San Tomi, on the right bank of the Orinoco ; but the Indians did not pel him to establish himself long in it. It having been pillaged by the Engh: and French, another town was in 1?64 built further from the sea, about : VOL. I. 906 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. from the mouths of the Orinoco. It is known by the name of San Tome de Angostura, but its name in 1846 has been changed to Bolivar. During the Spanish domination, it was the residence of a governor depending on the captain-general of Caraccas in political and military affairs, and on the intendant of Caraccas for those of finance. It was also the residence of a bishop and chapter. The chapter and its bishop were the poorest ecclesiastics in America. The other towns or villages in Spanish Guayana are Barceloneta, Santa Rosa de Maruente, and Caicara, which is about 250 leagues westward of San Tome and San Antonio, forty leagues distant from it. There were also missions dis persed over this province. The town of San Tome de Angostura had, in 180?, a population of about 8500 persons, among whom were 300 black slaves. This town is tolerably well built but horridly paved. Though situated in 8 deg. 8 min. north latitude, and not much elevated, it is said to be healthy. It would be very remarkable, if the climate had been inhabited by any other than European race, that Spanish Guayana, which is by far the most fertile region of Venezuela, should be the worst cultivated, the poorest, and least peopled. M. Lavaysse says,- " I do not believe there exists a country more wholesome, better watered, more fertile and agreeable to inhabit than that which is situated on one side between the Esse- quibo and the Caroni, and on the other, between the Caroni and the Orinoco : this tract is more than forty-five leagues from north to south, and seventy leagues from east to west ; yet in its whole extent, it does not form a sixth part of Spanish Guayana ! If the Jesuits had not founded formerly the missions which are now superintended by the Capuchins, it would still have been covered with forests inhabited by savages and beasts of prey. The number of inhabitants is about 30,000 souls, of whom 15,000 are united in missions. The others, such as the Arrooaks and Guaraouns, are independent, and have not embraced Christianity. It is estimated that there are now 8000 whites dispersed in the villages and huts in the remainder of the province, about 6000 Mestizos or free people of colour, and about 3000 slaves." The inconvenient position of Angostura is considered by Lavaysse as one oi the principal causes of the languishing state of agriculture and trade in this province : "It is necessary that there should be a commercial town nearer to the sea ; for the swiftest sailing vessels require fifteen days to sail from the mouths of the river to Angos tura. This port becomes worse every day from the sand-banks : there are rocks in that part of the port most convenient for landing merchandise, but these might be easily blown up. The town of Barceloneta, peopled with industrious Catalans, is well placed for becoming a situation of considerable trade." Steamboats will, however, obviate all the difficulties and obstacles of the Orinoco. Spanish Guayana is a country almost wild ; the only object of cultiva tion being a little sugar, cotton, indigo, arnotto, and excellent tobacco. The oxen, horses, and asses, which were originally transported from Europe, ^ increased greatly in this luxuriant region, so that herds of them became wild in the savannahs and forests. VENEZUELA. 907 The wild horses live in societies, generally of 500 or 600, and even -a looo or more : they breed on immense savannas, where it is dangerous to disturb or attempt to catch them. It is related of these wild horses by Lavaysse and others, " In the dry season they are sometimes obliged to go two or three leagues, and even more, to find water. They set out in regular ranks of four abreast, and thus form a procession to the extent of a quarter of a league. There are always five or six scouts, who precede the troop by about fifty paces. If they perceive a man or jaguar (the American tiger), they neigh, and the troop stops. If avoided, they continue their march; but if an attempt be made to pass by their squadron, they leap on the imprudent tra veller and crush him under their feet. The best way is always to avoid them, and let them continue their route. They have also a chief, who marches between the scouts ;md the squadron, and five or six other horses march on each side of the band; a kind of adjutants, whose duty consists of hindering any individual from quitting the ranks. If any one attempts to straggle either from hunger or fatigue, he is bitten till he resumes his place, and the culprit obeys with his head hanging down. Threj or four chiefs march at the rear guard, at five or six paces from the troop. What I have just stated is a fact, which I witnessed twice on the banks of the Guarapiche, where I encamped five days for the express purpose of seeing those organised troops pass. I have met on the shores of the Orinoco, herds of fifty to a hundred wild oxen : a chief always marched at the head and another at the rear of these. " The people of the country have assured me, that the wild asses, when they travel, observe the same discipline as the horses; but the mules, though they also live in troops, ! are continually fighting with each other, and it has not been observed that they have any chief. They, however, unite at the appearance of a common enemy, and display still more trick and address than the horses in avoiding the snares which are laid for catching them, and also for escaping when taken." Lavaysse, p. 134. PROVINCE OF VARINAS. The town of Varinas had, in 1787, a population of 12,000 inhabitants. According to M. de Humboldt, it is situated in 7 deg. 33 min. of latitude, and ?0 deg. 22 min. west longitude, from the meridian of Greenwich. This province has some other towns; San Jayme, containing 7000 souls ; San Fernando d Apure, 6000 souls. M. de Humboldt places San Fernando in 7 deg. 53 min. north latitude, and 70 deg. 20 min. west longi tude. Pedraza is situated at the foot of the mountains which separate the plains of Varinas from the province of Maracaybo : this little town had, in 1807, a population of 3000 souls. Some sugar, coffee, indigo, tobacco, cotton, calico, &c., are cultivated. and beef are exported. This province of Varinas is watered by numerous streams, and several gable rivers which flow into the great Portuguese river, and principal tributary of the Orinoco. The inhabitants chiefly lead a pastoral life. There are but few abongmes ., : this province. A few civilised Ind.ans live with the whites and MesUzoes on the pastures. There were nearly 6000 slaves among the population of t s prc PBoViNO. OF MABACAYBO.-The town of Maracaybo, or New Zan,o,a, , until the beginning of the seventeenth century, the capital of Venezu, was, 908 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. New Zamora was founded in 1571, by Alonzo Pacheco, four years after the foundation of Caraccas. Maracaybo is tolerably well built of stone : its climate is considered healthy though hot. In 1807, its estimated population was 25,000 inhabitants, of whom 5000 were slaves. The Jesuits had a college there, and it was then called the literary town of America ; but with that order, their establishments for public instruction also fell. Next to Maracaybo, the most important town in this province is Merida, founded in 1558 by Juan Rodrigues Suare : this town is the seat of a bishop and chapter; it has also a seminary for young ecclesiastics, and a college. This town is situated between three rivers, which form an island of its district, and discharge themselves into the Lake of Maracaybo. The position of this town near the mountains, renders its temperature very variable. TRUXILLO was founded in 1520, by Diego de Parades, and once considered the handsomest town in this part of America; it was pillaged and burnt by the pirate Grammont in 1678, who landed eighty leagues from it. All the inhabitants who could not escape, were cut to pieces. There were 12,000 inhabitants in it in 1807. This town is situated among the mountains, and enjoys a very mild temperature. In the valleys of its district are cultivated all tropical productions ; and on the hills and elevated situations, wheat, vines, and other articles produced in the temperate regions of Europe. Gibraltar is another little town placed near the lake, and on the shore opposite to the town of Maracaybo : it contains 3000 inhabitants. The population of the province of Maracaybo was, in 1807* 174,000 persons. ISLAND OF MARGARITA. The soil of Margarita is arid and unproductive. The pearl fishery attracted numerous adventurers. The Dutch, jealous of its prosperity, burnt and destroyed Pompatar, the principal town, in 1662. The colony of Margarita was for a long time only a district of the province of Cumana, and governed by a chief who had the title of lieutenant-governor, undei the orders of the Governor of Cumana. About sixty years ago the Spanish g< vernment erected it into a separate government. The Island of Margarita has three ports, the most important is that of Poi patar, situated on the south-east coast. It is a capacious and safe basin. There hj long been carried on a considerable contraband trade with the English and Frencl colonies, &c., and also with Cumana. Pueblo de la Mar is an open roadstead, of little trade, situated at a leagu< and-a-half westward of Pompatar. Pueblo del Norte is a village situated in th< northern part of the island : a coral reef renders the entrance to it difficult. Neai it is a village inhabited by fishermen. The valleys of San Juan, Santa Margarita, and Los Robles, have each a vil lage which bears their name. Assoncion is the capital of the island, and the residence of the governor. THE RIVER ORINOCO. .,,i The agriculture of the island scarcely suffices for the maintenance of ,u ,. habitants. Maize, cassava, and bananas are grown: the bananas are excel lent, but small. The inhabitants cultivate in small proportions, and for their consumption only, all the productions of the Antilles, the sugar-cane, coffee, and cocoa trees, &c. : they rear goats and sheep. The climate of Margarita is healthy; the island has only three rivulets, which, however, are sufficiently large to turn mills ; their waters are limpid, but the inhabitants prefer drinking water from ponds, though it is always turbid, but said to be more wholesome than rain water. jf The fisheries form the principal object at Margarita. The inhabitants of the towns and villages of Venezuela are generally farmers, ; who cultivate their lands, or keep flocks and herds in the surrounding countries. i Priests, physicians, escrivanos (lawyers, who are, at the same time, barristers, notaries, attorneys, and even bailiffs), and needy shopkeepers form the remainder of the population. Mountains, forests and savannahs occupy the intervals that separate the district of a town or village from the neighbouring towns or villages, which are generally twenty to thirty miles or more from each other. Occa sionally, usually at about twenty-five miles distance, missions or villages of half civilised Indians. This republic possesses all the resources of prosperity ; and we must admit that its people and its government have acted, since their independence of Spain, with more wisdom than any of the Spanish republics, unless Chili form an exception ; but the vast natural resources of a region comprising an area of more than three times that of the United Kingdom, and with less than 1,000,000 inhabitants, requires a great population, intelligence, and wisdom, to realise the prosperity and power of which Venezuela is eminently capable. (See Statistics of Venezuela hereafter.) CHAPTER XIII. THE RIVER ORINOCO AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. ALCEDO denominates this magnificent river the most abundant river of the Nuevo Reyno de Granada, and South America, one of the four largest rivers on the continent. It rises in the Sierras Nevadas, to the north of the Lake Parime, in the province of Guayana, according to the discovery made by order of the court by Admiral Don Joseph de Iturriaga, and by the informations received from the Caribes Indians, proving erroneous the origin given to it by the Father Joseph Gumilla, the Jesuit, in his book entitled " Orinoco Illustrado," as also the ori-in 910 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. given it by the ex-Jesuit, Coleti, namely, in the province of Mocoa, in latitude 1 deg. 21 min. north. Without being able to prove fully where the source of this river arises, nor even which of the great upper branches constitutes its chief stream^ the more recent accounts say its source is the small lake called Ipava, in the Sierra Ibermoqueso, in the province of Guayana. The Orinoco, taking the stream considered its principal branch, is estimated to flow over a course of about 1600 miles, receiving a multitude of tributaries, which swell its waters into vast magnitude. "The Orinoco/ says Alcedo, "bears the name of Iscaute until it passes through the country of the Tames Indians, where it receives by the west side the rivers Papamene and Plasencia, and acquires then the name of that district, which it changes at passing; through the settlement of San Juan de Yeima into that of Guayare, and then to that of Barragan, just below where it is entered by the abundant stream of the Meta, and before it is joined by the Cazanare, of equal size. It receives on the north side the rivers Pau, Guaricu, Apure, Cabiari, Sinaruco, Guabiaris, Irricha, Sna Carlos, and others; and by the south those of Benituari, Amariguaca, Cuchivero, Caura, Aroi, Caroni, Aquiri, Piedras, Vermejo, or Colorado, and others of less note; and being rendered thus formidable with all the above, it at last becomes the Orinoco. " Its shores and islands are inhabited by many barbarous nations of Indians, some of whom have been reduced to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits, who had founded some flourishing missions, until the year 1767; when, through their expulsion from the Spanish dominions, these Indians passed to the charge of the Capuchin fathers." According to the same authority, the Orinoco is navigable for more than 200 leagues, about 500 miles for vessels of any size, and for canoes and small craft from its mouth as far as Tunja or San Juan de los Llanos/ 5 We doubt the correctness of this assertion. This river in several parts swarms with alligators. It abounds in fish. The main stream and its tributa ries drain fertile countries, and forests of gigantic trees. In these woods and these waters are the wild animals, land birds and water-fowl common to the American tropics. It communicates with the Amazon by the River Negro and the Cessiquiare, which was proved by the discovery made by the Jesuit Father Samuel Roman in 1743. The Orinoco flows into the ocean by several mouths through a vast alluvial delta, the principal mouth was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and Diego de Ordaz was the first who entered it, he having sailed up it in 1531. " The sound ing between Fort San Francisco de la Guayana and the channel of Limon, stated by Alcedo, is sixty-five fathoms deep, as measured in 1734 by the engineer Don Pablo Dias Faxardo, and at the narrowest part it is more than eighty fathoms deep ; in addition to which, in the months of August and September, the river is accustomed to rise twenty fathoms at the time of its swelling or overflow, which lasts for five months ; and the natives have observed that it rises a yard higher every twenty-five years." The ebbing and flowing of the tide is visible many miles from the sea. The Orinoco is remarkable for its flood rising and falling once a year only. THE R1VEU ORINOCO. It gradually rises during the space of five months-that is, from about the middle of March to September, and then remains for some time stationary. Those -d temate changes are said to be regular, and even invariable. The height of the- flood depends much upon the breadth of the river. In one part where it is nar rowest, it rises (as Alcedo has correctly observed) to the astonishing height of 120 feet. Its average rise is from sixty to seventy feet. The following article, which is translated and abridged from the work of Depons, is, we believe, the most correct description yet given of the mouths ,,f the Orinoco : " It is presumed that the course of this river, for the first 100 leagues, is north east and south. In this part it leaves the imaginary Lake of Parima sixty leagues from its left bank. The rivers which flow into the Orinoco give it, before it has run these 100 leagues from its source, as rapid a current arid as great a body of water as any of the most considerable rivers. From the Esmeraldas to San Fernando de Atabapa, its course is from east to north-east. Between these places is the canal of Casiquiari, which forms the communication between it and the Amazonas, by the River Negro. * At about 100 miles from the sea, the Orinoco, like the Nile, forms a sort of fan, scattered with a number of little islands, which divide it into several branches and chan nels, and oblige it to discharge itself through this labyrinth into the sea by an infinite number of mouths, lying north-east and south-west, and extending more than 170 miles. These islands increase so on the coast, that the mouths of the Orinoco are very nume rous, but very few of them are navigable. It is computed that these openings amount to near fifty, and only seven of them admit the entrance of vessels, and these must not be of a large burden. An idea of the prudence and skill requisite for the navigation of these mouths, may be formed by what daily happens amongst the Guayanos Indians, who, although born on the islands, and from subsisting solely on fish, are so accustomed to the intricacies of the different channels, yet frequently lose themselves, and are obliged to allow the current to carry them out to sea, and then to re-enter, not without the most minute observations and endeavours to ascertain the proper passage. It even requires considerable skill to find the current; for the numerous channels have such different directions, that in the greater part of them no current at all is perceptible, and in the others the eddies or the winds give the currents a direction up the river instead of down. The compass is frequently of no use, and when a person is once lost, he is often obliged to wander several days among the Guayanos islands, conceiving he is ascending the river when he is descending, or that he is descending when he is ascending; and at length he probably finds himself at the very point from which he set out. " 1 . The first of the mouths which are navigable is twenty-five miles south-east of the entrance of the Guarapiche River, and empties its water in the Gulf of Paria. It is called the Great Manamo. The Little Manamo runs in the same channel with it, nearly to the sea, and is navigable for shallops. "2. The second mouth, Pedernales, is twenty miles north-east of the first, from the east of the Island of Guarisipa, and falls into the sea three leagues south-west of Soldier s Island, which is situated at the south entry of the Gulf of Paria. navigable for canoes, or at the most for shallops. " 3. The third mouth, Capuro, is an arm of the channel of Fadernales, trom which branches off at thirty miles from the sea. Its mouth is in the southernmost part of the Gulf of Paria, thirty-four miles south-east of that of the channel of Padernales. navigation is hardly fit for any vessels but canoes and shallops. 4. Macareo, the fourth mouth, enters the sea six leagues south of Capuro, and is the channel of communication between Guayana and Trinidad. * These are French leagues, of about two and a half geographical miles. 912 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. clerate-si/ed vessels, its channel is straight and clear, and it falls into the sea opposite the point and River Erin, in Trinidad. " 5. The fifth mouth is little frequented, on account of the difficulty of the navigation and the ferocity of the Indians inhabiting its banks. They are called Mariusas, and have given their name to this fifth passage of the Orinoco. This mouth is thirty-five miles east-south-east of the fourth. "Between Mariusas and the sixth mouth are several outlets to the sea, which are na vigable with the tide or the floods. " 6. Twenty-five miles more to the south-east is what is called the Great Mouth of the Orinoco; it bears the name of Bocca de Navias, Mouth of Shipping-, because it is the only one which admits of ships of 200 or 300 tons burden. *" Navigation of the Orinoco up to St. Thomas.* The grand mouth of the Orinoco is formed by Cape Barima to south-south-east, which is in 8 deg. 54 min. latitude north, and the Island of Cangrejos, lying west-north-west of the cape. They are twenty-five miles from each other, but the breadth of the navigable part of the passage is not quite three. The depth of water on the bar, which lies a little further out to sea than the cape, is at ebb about seventeen feet. " Immediately on passing the bar, the depth on the side of the island is four or six fathoms, whilst on the side of the cape it is not more than one and a half fathoms. The flats extend from Cangrejcs seven leagues into the sea, but from Cape Barima they do not extend more than two leagues. "Nearly one league from Barima is a river of the same name, which discharges itself into the Orinoco. The entrance is by a narrow channel one fathom and a half deep. On the same shores, south of the Orinoco, and two leagues higher up than this river, is the mouth of the Amaruco, which crosses a great part of the most easterly territory of Guayana. Shallops can sail ten or fifteen leagues up. Three leagues above Cangrejos is the Island of Arenas, which is small, and of a sandy soil. It is from twelve to fifteen feet under water in spring tides. On the south of it is a channel, often altered by the sand shifting. Before ascending half a league, there are two points, called by the Spaniards, Gordas. That on the north side has a flat, which runs out a little, but not enough to obstruct the navigation. < The south shore of the Orinoco, eight leagues above Barima, the River Araturo * The following sketches are from the voyage of Robinson up and down the Orinoco and Arauca : " Owing to the amazing rapidity of the current, in the Gulf of Paria, we were frequently obliged to come to anchor, to prevent our being drifted entirely out of the gulf. " On the 15th we encountered a hurricane, accompanied by dreadful thunder, lightning, and torrents of rain. There were a number of passengers on board ; and, owing to the smallness of the cabin, not more than eight or ten could get admission, while the remainder, twelve in number, got among the luggage in the hold till the violence of the weather abated. " Our vessel stood the weather very well ; and, on the 18th, at six o clock, p. M., we entered one of the mouths of the Orinoco. This mouth was about the fifth or sixth to the south of the Macareo, and, although very narrow, was sufficiently deep for vessels drawing ten or twelve feet. " It was not without some concern that we learned from the master of the vessel, that he had never sailed up this mouth before ; and, reflecting on the late massacre of my worthy friend Colonel Macdonald and others, by the wild Indians, I thought the experiment unsafe. " The thick and impenetrable foliage, of immense height, which crowded every inch of both sides the river, prevented the breeze from reaching our vessel, so that we found it absolutely necessary to warp the ship, or, in other words, dragged it onward, by cords fastened to the trees. " On the 20th, at six, A. M., while at anchor, a canoe appeared, which had just started from a small creek in the bush, with about twenty men, women, and children in it. About forty canoes followed. They assured us that the mouth we had taken had rarely been passed, on the way to the grand river, before ; because it was sometimes infested with banditti of the most blood-thirsty kind, and that it was to prevent depredations by such, that they went in such great numbers. " These people, of a sort of red colour, are called Guaraunos, and are wholly naked, if we except a little piece of cloth, about six inches square, tied before them. They live in families in canoes. From time to time, especially when the river is low, they live in the bush, and subsist by fishing and hunting. " We purchased from them, for some rum, straw hammocks, which they call chinchoro ; reed- THE RIVER ORINOCO. 9J3 flows in from the south, the source is in the savannahs of the missions. Its mouth is very narrow, but it is navigable for ten leagues. "Eleven leagues above Barina is the Island of Pagayos, in the middle of the O but nearest to its right bank. Its soil is white mud, and at flood-tide it is eleven feet under water. It was formerly much larger than it is at present, and is observed to d nish sensibly. Immediately above the Island of Pagayos, is that of Juncos. It is the most easterly of the Itamaca islands, which extend for a space of eighteen leagues up the Orinoco. They divide the river into two branches ; the south branch being D callcd Ita maca, and the north Zacoopana. Both of these are navigable; but the south branch, al though the least, has by far the deepest water. " The east entrance of the Itamaca branch, which is 900 fathoms wide, is formed by the Island of Juncos and Cape Barima Zanica, which juts out from the right bank of the Orinoco. A creek called Carapo, runs from the cape in-shore, and afterwards joins the River Arature. " A little higher up is the mouth of the River Aguirre. Its source is in the tract of the missionsof the Catalanian Capuchins. Its mouth, is very broad, and the depth ten or twelve leagues up from the Orinoco, is three fathoms. As this river does not pass through any cultivated country, its banks are wooded, and the trees on each side are so hi^h, that sails are said to be useless, and vessels ascend arid descend with the tide. " Two leagues from the mouth of this river, in the middle of the Orinoco, is the little island of Venado, and on the south bank of the Orinoco, eight leagues above the Aguirre, is the branch of Caruzina. It proceeds from the Orinoco, behind the moun tains, and thence takes its course south-east, thus forming an island. This branch has deep water at its entrance, but a point of the rising grounds of Itamaca nearly obstructs it for half a league. It spreads into an infinite number of branches. 11 The River Itamaca joins the Orinoco from the south. Its mouth is narrow, but deep, having from sixteen to eighteen feet of water. A bank in the Orinoco runs across the mouth of the Itamaca, with the exception of a very narrow passage. This river, six miles from its mouth, divides into two branches, the first of which flows from the west, and runs through mountain valleys formed by it ; the other flows from the savannah, near the mission of Polomar. The river is navigable up to where it thus branches off, for small craft and boats. " At the mouth of the channel of the Island of Zacoopana commences a flat, running two leagues to the west, and often filling half of the river. Between this flat and an other which proceeds from the Island of Palomas is the passage for vessels. Here the Orinoco, or ratherthat part of it which discharges itself into the sea by the Bocca de F /ias forms only one channel for eight leagues westward. In this space is i nouth of a lake, on the south shore, at a little distance from the river, -he foot of the mountain of Piacoa. From the middle of the Orinoco to the s ieen the mountains of Meri. _. " We now come to the chain of little islands which divide the channel of 1 torn the river. They extend twelve leagues from south to west. On the i .askets ; parrots, to which they give the name of hro in this country ; and monkeys, which they a M"jPrt ^^^ ^ ^ al] over> and some particular parts ******* <& nth a sori of red nut, called ruco. This painting gives their person a t also prevents the bites of insect vermin, of which there are millions ; hen heir heads decorated with a garland of parrots feathers, others had h: .ainted on their body and face. They are well shaped, generally of smal ure jet occa ionally we found some most stupendous figures among them Their face i nd. heir head is covered with long black hair, except over the face, "" ^j^rs round angs over their breast, should!*, and back. Their eyes - small : and of f the day to keep these insects from resting on one or oth tTraW "forests, in the Delta, are filled with every kind of vermin tta can annov he body or depress the heart of man." 6 A VOL. I. 914 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. mouth of the Little Paragoan, from which runs a flat extending to the Great Paragoan. The two channels called Paragoan, unite before falling into^the sea. Above the Great Paragoan the arm Pedernales branches off towards the coast of Trinidad. The Pedernales afterwards forms the divers channels. " A league and a half up the river are the Red Bogs. This is the first place where, the Orinoco re-appearing to the north, is seen the Tierra Firma, or land entirely secured from the tides. The passages for vessels is near the two banks, the best is along the north bank. In the middle of the shallows or rather bogs, there is a very narrow chan nel (Guaritica), by which shallops pass in flood tides, or during the swelling of the river, to a lake, close to it. " A league higher up is the mouth of the Guarapo "channel. During summer it has but very little water, but for several years vessels carried on a contraband trade in mules, oxen, and in productions of Cumana and Venezuela, in exchange for dry goods. " This channel, excepting at its mouth, is very deep, and admits of the navigation of large vessels, but on account of the high mountain through which it flows, they are obliged to use oars or to be towed. Two leagues above Guarapo, is the Island of Araya, close to the north coast. " Towards the south coast are seen the cascades of Piacoa, they are formed by three or four ridges which extend from the middle of the channel to the south coast, but there is sufficient water on the north coast for large vessels. On this coast was formerly the mission of Piacoa and the Catalanian Capuchins. Here is excellent pasture, very fertile land, g-ood water, and regular winds. "After passing the three islands of Arciba, the next is that of Iguana. The river continues navigable on the south side. From the west point of the Island of Iguana, the small mountain of Naparenia is distant one league. It appears to be nothing more than a high rock. " All this river coast as far as the isles of Iguana and Araya is full of sand-banks. " From hence is seen the Island of St. Vicente, having a flat on the east part, which crosses the channel unto a little below the site of a former fortress, but which at full tide is of no inconvenience. " Nearly half a league above Guayana, in the centre of the river, is the large rock of Morocoto, rather nearer the south bank than the north, a/id is visible in summer, but under water during winter. Not far from this rock is the Island of Mares, and on the south side is the rock of the same name, and another called Hache. The channel north of this island is preferable to that on the other side. Three leagues higher, on the south side, is Point Aramaya, a jutting rock. Opposite this point are the three rocky little islands of San Miguel. During floods they are nearly under water. On the right bank, opposite the village of San Miguel, are two islands, called Chacarandy, from the wood with which they are covered ; they are divided by only a narrow channel. The Island of Faxardo is in the middle of the r iver, opposite the mouth of the River Caroni. On the right bank, and a league above this island, is the Island of Torno. It is separated from the main land by a small channel, and on the west point there are rocks, and a flat run ning to five leagues. " Point Cardinal is on the south side of the island, three leagues above Faxardo. Nearly a quarter of a league from this point is a chain of rocks stretching to opposite Gurampo. During winter but one of these is visible, but in summer three are discern ible opposite Gurampo. There is a port formed by Point Cardinal called Patacon. Gu rampo is a number of rocks lying five leagues above the Island of Faxardo, on the north coast. These rocks form a port bearing the same name. A shallow runs from this port nearly north and south, on the east, Point Cardinal, and having on the west extremity three rocks, under water in winter. The Island of Taguache lies half a league from Gurampo, on the left bank. It is one league and a half from east to west. " On the opposite side of the river is the Island of Zeiba, four leagues long, and more than one league broad. The channel separating it from the main land has very little water, excepting in the winter. Between the main land to the north and the Island of Taguache, there is a channel navigable at all seasons. " The River Cucazana on the east point has a flat, running a little to the west, and oc- THE RIVER ORINOCO. cupyinghalf of the river At the mouth is the island of the same name, which m-a-lv joins that of Taguache. It has also a flat on the west point which is in many D visible during summer. " The Mamo channel has at its mouth a flat reaching nearly to the middle of the river and seven leagues below the capital is another, lying north and south with tl Island of Mamo, and having from the month of January to April only ei^ht feet water Vessels are obliged to be lightened in order to pass, which is the case with another channel which forms the Island of Mamo. " After this bar is passed, are numerous rocks on the shore and in the middle of the river. The Currucay points are jutting rocks, and lie three leagues above Port St. Anne Nearly opposite these points, in the middle of the river, is a large rock named La Pierre du Rosaire. Between this and the coast there are several others. To the north of the Pierre du Rosaire is a very narrow channel between the rocks lying under water. Vessels run great risks in summer, and in winter the current is so violent that if the wind dies away, they are in danger of being wrecked against the Pierre du Rosaire. A league above this is a point of rocks on the north shore, and some distance from this are three ridges near each other, and bearing south of the east point of the Island of Panapana. "The Island of Panapana is a league above point Des Lapins, separated from the south shore by a channel moderately wide, but very shallow in summer. At the east and rwest points there are flats with very little water on them. That of the west point lascends more than a league, and inclines always to the south. Between this island, which is one league and a half long, and the north coast is the principal channel of the jOrinoco. It is rather narrow and of little depth, except during the inundation. " Two leagues higher up is the narrowest part of the Orinoco, called by the Spaniards Angosturita. Two rocks north and south form this strait. A little higher up, and learly in the centre, is a large rock called Lavadero, or Washing-place, visible only in summer. Between this and the south coast there is a little island of stones, opposite .vhich the River Maruanta discharges itself. Point Tinco to the north, and Point Nicasio ;o the south are also formed of rocks. " St. Thomas de Angostura, the capital of Spanish Guayana, is the next place. It is iiituate at the foot of a small hill on the right bank of the river. There is a fort now n 1846 called Bolivar, on the opposite side. This place was called Port Raphael, and ?s the thoroughfare of communication between Guayana and the province of Venezuela ind Cumana. Between Port St. Raphael and the city there is an island called Del Wedio, from being in the centre of the river. It is a rock under water in winter, but the lorth side is dry during summer. The principal channel is between this island and the :ity. It is at ebb tide about 200 feet broad, and about fifty .pore at flood. " It is to be observed, that from the junction of the River Apure with the Orinoco to Angostura, the distance is estimated by Alcedo at eighty leagues, or about 200 miles. n all this space no other important river falls into the Orinoco on the south save the ^aura and Caucapasia. From its source it receives almost all its tributaries from the sft shore, and from the Apure it receives many which open to it from thence to Guayana 11 the commerce of the southern plains. The navigation of all the upper part of the Orinoco is among islands which obstruct the channel, and which throw its bed some- imes to the right bank and sometimes to the left; filled with rocks of all sizes and eights, of which some are even with the water, and others at a depth more or less ac- ording to the season. It is also subject to squalls, and cannot be navigated but by ood pilots. " The banks of the Orinoco are frequently bordered by forests of majestic trees, mong which are birds of the most beautiful plumage. Various species of monkeys ai sen crying, leaping, and gamboling. In other parts the view extends over plains with xcellent pasture, and often extending twenty or thirty leagues. Mr. de Humboldt observes, -That the mouth of the Amazonas is much more extended than that of the Orinoco, but the latter river is of equal consideration with respect to the v ater which it has in the interior of the continent, for at 200 leagues from the i bed of from 2500 to 3000 fathoms, without the interruption ol a single 916 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. breadth before Angostura is 3850 fathom?, and its depth, at the same place, according to the measurement made by order of the king in 1734, in the month of March, the season when its waters are at the lowest, was 65 fathoms. "This river, like the Nile and others, has an annual swell. This commences regu larly in April and ends in August. All the month of September it remains with the vast body of water it has acquired the five preceding months, and presents a spectacle astonishingly grand. With this increase of water it enlarges, as it were, its natural limits, making encroachments of from twenty to thirty leagues on the land. The rise of the river is, opposite to St. Thomas, thirty fathoms, but it is greater in proportion to the proximity to the sea ; it is perceptible at 350 leagues from its mouth, and never varies more than one fathom. It is pretended in the country, that there is every twenty-five years a periodical extraordinary rise of an additional fathom. The beginning of October the water begins to fall, leaving imperceptibly the plains, exposing in its bed a multitude of rocks and islands. By the end of February it is at its lowest ebb, continuing so till the commencement of April. During this interval the tortoises deposit themselves on the places recently exposed, but which are still very humid ; it is then that the action of the sun soon develops in the egg the principles of fecundity. The Indians resort from all parts with their families, in order to lay in a stock of food, drying the tortoises and extracting an oil from their eggs, which they either make use of for themselves or sell. The water of the Orinoco is potable, and even some medicinal virtues are attributed to it. " The Orinoco abounds in fish of various descriptions, but these, although they bear the same name as the fishes of Europe, are found not to correspond precisely with them in their nature or quality." Alcedo. In Mr. Robinson s account of a voyage up the Orinoco it is stated that, " In this river there is an immense quantity of fish, especially when full. They are even so plentiful that there is a singular practice adopted by the boys for catching them. They tie three or four fish-hooks close together, pointing different ways, and without bait, they attach these and throw them into the river, from which they immediately pull them by sudden jerks, and thus they very frequently hook a fish, sometimes by one, sometimes by another part of the body. "The alligators here are often very large and very plentiful. It is by no means un common for these monsters to come close in shore among the bathers (and bathing is, if think, used almost to excess among the people here) and carry one or more of them off. About this time, while walking on my terrace, I saw a little female child carried off by one of them. * Bathers are often annjbyed by another kind of fish, called the carabee, which is not so easily kept at a distance as the alligator. This monster is not large ; but it has a mouth very capacious for its size. It fastens its teeth on any part of the body, which it often wholly removes, and generally leaves an ill-conditioned ulcer, which is very diffi cult to heal. " It is a curious fact, that almost all the fish in this river are provided with natural instruments of defence or attack : their nose, their teeth, their fins, or their tail, are the usual seat of these ; and while many of them inflict a simple wound only, others cause excessive pain and inflammation." The vast and fertile regions drained by the Orinoco and its many tributaries may be considered as still in a wilderness state. The small town of Angostura, or Bolivar, and the other small towns and villages on this river and its tribu taries, are few in number. An Anglo-Saxon race, by the aid of steam-power would in a few years bring forth almost unbounded riches from the soil, pastures, and forests which extend along the numerous rivers flowing into the Orinoco, from the Andes of Santa Fe, from the north and western parts of New Granada, and from the vicinity of many parts of the Amazon. (For the Finances, Agri culture, Manufactures and Trade, see Statistics of Venezulea hereafter.) GUAYANA. ,]- CHAPTER XiV. GUAYANA. GUAYANA, or Guiana, comprehended originally the countries which border on the Atlantic Ocean between the mouths of the Amazon and Orinoco, and ex tending inland to an undefined distance. FRENCH GUAYANA, or Cayenne, extends from the River Oyapoc, which sepa rates it from Brazil, along the coast as far west as the River Marony, for about 200 miles. Inland to the Sierra Acaray ; but as the situation of that range is very imper fectly known, the inland boundary is not determined ; consequently, the area of French Guayana is conjectural, when it is computed at about 20,000 square miles. It may be much greater. The mountains in some parts approach within a few miles of the sea : and the rivers, among which the Oyapoc, the Or- ganabo, and the Marony are the largest, are said to be obstructed by fails and rapids. The climate is deemed unhealthy, but its insalubrity must only be con sidered to pervade the swamps and low tracts between the mountains and the shores. The plantations are chiefly on the Island Cayenne, at the mouth of the river of that name : there are some on the neighbouring coast, and on the banks of the Organabo: the remainder of the country is generally in a wilderness state. Sugar, cotton, annotto, cloves, coffee, pepper, maize, &c., are raised. The French transplanted pepper, clove, and nutmeg trees from the Indian Archipelago, the first are said to thrive well. In 1834 the population consisted of not more than 22,000 individuals, of whom three-fourths were slaves. The aborigines cultivate small patches of ground, but gain their subsistence principally by fishing and hunting. CAYENNE, the capital, is built on the northern side of the island of that name, and has a population of about 5000 souls. It exports the produce of the country, which in 1834 amounted to somewhat more than 80,000/. In the same year forty vessels (43?4 tons) entered the harbour, and forty-four vessels (5032 tons) cleared out. (For an account of its subsequent Trade, see French Colonies Trade hereafter.) DUTCH GUAYANA, or Surinam, extends along the sea-coast, between the River Marony on the east and the River Corentyn on the west. All Guayana, English, French, and Dutch, is assumed to extend to the sources of these two rivers, which rise probably in the Sierra Acaray, but scarcely any thing is known of the country south of 4 deg. north lat. The coast-line of Dutch Guayana extends in its windings, about 250 miles ; and area of this country is variously estimated at from 38,000 to about 50,000 square miles. Alongthe sea-coast, to the dis tance of eialit to fifteen miles inland, the country is flat, and little elevated above 918 GUAYANA. the sea. The soil is dry, sandy, and impregnated with salt, yet adapted to the cultivation of cotton. At the back of this low tract the country rises higher, and spreads into savannas, covered with grass, and here and there with bushes and trees. Along the rivers for from half a mile to two miles the country is, where uncultivated, covered with large trees ; this soil is chiefly an alluvial, black fertile mould, and chiefly c ultivated as sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, and cacao plan tations. About forty miles from the shores the country rises to a higher eleva tion, and the region between the rivers consists of rocky soils chiefly covered with trees. The rivers Marony, Surinam, Saramaca, and Corentyn are navigable to near the foot of the mountains, except where for some little distance some rapids or cataracts occur. The Surinam is navigable for large ships for about thirty miles from its entrance. The climate is unhealthy during the rainy season between June and August. POPULATION. The population consists of whites, negroes, mulattoes, and aboriginal tribes. The whites amount to about 17,000, and the negroes and mixed race to about 66,000. The number of maroons and Indians are un known. In the mountains, and in some districts farther north, there are maroons, or runaway negroes, who formerly used to attack the settlements. The most numerous aboriginal tribes are the Arawaak and the Caribs. They live mostly on the produce of the mandioc, plantain, and maize plantations. Among the whites there is a considerable number of Jews, some of whom cultivate plantations in a separate district. The country was first settled by some Englishmen in 1634, but in 1667 the English settlements were given up to the Dutch. In 1808 the English got possession of Surinam, but restored it to the Dutch by the peace of Paris in 1814. PARAMARIBO, the capital, is situated on the western bank of the Eiver Suri nam, eighteen miles from its mouth. It is regularly built in the Dutch style, with wide and straight streets, which are planted with orange trees. The houses in general are two stories high, and built of wood. Near to it, on the northern side, is the fortress of Zelandia, in which the governor resides. The population amounts to about 20,000 souls, three-fifths of which are negroes, or coloured people. They carry on a trade w r ith Holland, to which they send the products of the country. The number of vessels employed in this trade in 1825 amounted to seventy-one, and the value of their cargoes exceeded 500,0007. Since that period the colony has not, according to the official reports, advanced in pros perity. The average quantity of sugar exported has amounted to about 25,000 tons, and of coffee to about 4,000,000 Ibs. BRITISH GUAYANA, the area of which is estimated at 76,000 square miles, lies between 1 deg. and 8 deg. 40 min. north latitude, and between 57 deg. and 61 deg. west longitude. It has a coast- line of more than 400 miles, running south-east and north-west : extending from the River Corentyne westward to the mouth of the BRITISH QUA VAN A. 919 River Orinoco. Neither the western nor southern limits have been defined ; and extensive districts are claimed either by Venezuela or by Brazil, and some by both governments. The western boundary-line, as claimed by the British go vernment, extends from Point Barima, at the eastern embouchure of the Orinoco, nearly in a straight line southward to the River Cuyuny at its junction witli the River Aruarua; it follows the course of the last river to its source in the mountain-range which divides the affluents of the Orinoco from those of the Essequibo, and then runs along the crest of these mountains to the source of the River Cotinga, or Xaruma ; along which river it continues to its confluence with the Rio Tocoto, an affluent of the Rio Branco, which falls into the Rio Negro of Brazil. The River Tocoto then forms the boundary up to its source ; and farther south it follows the mountain-range, between the Essequibo, to the sources of the Essequibo in the Sierra Acaray. From the shores of British Guayana shallows, and in parts, muddy banks, extend from five to fifteen miles seaward, they are in parts dry, in others covered with not more than from three to four feet water. They render the ap proach even in small craft frequently impracticable, and extend in shoals at the mouths of the rivers. The shores are low, and on a level with the sea at high water. The soil is chiefly an alluvium of blue clay, impregnated with marine and vegetable matter. When these soils are drained and cultivated, they sink about a foot below the level of the sea; and require careful attention to the embank ments and sluices. This fertile soil extends from two to eight miles inland. At the back of many of the settlements are swamps, of blackish vegetable matter: sometimes six or eight feet deep. Between the River Corentyn and the Demerara the low land of the coast is generally in the front of savannas, inter sected by fertile, and generally well wooded tracts along the streams. A range of sandy hills, from thirty to 120 feet above the level plain, crosses the country from south-east to north-west. An elevated mountain range separates the streams of the Carony, a tributary of the Orinoco, from those of the Maza- roony, a branch of the Essequibo. The explorations of Mr. Schomburgk, in order to make boundary surveys through the interior since 1837, have unfolded to us magnificent regions of rivers, mountains, plains, and forests of gigantic trees, during his last expedition. He completed the circuit of the colony from its sea boundary to within forty-two miles of the equator in the space of nearly three years. He left Georgetown in February, ascended the Essequibo, and reached Pi- rara on the 24th of March. He and his fellow travellers, on the 30th of April, departed at a period when the rains had swollen the Rupununi to such a height, that, they ascended this river further than any large craft had ever done the Wapisians declared they had never beheld such canoes. At Watu Ticaba they experienced some difficulty in procuring Indians from 920 GUAYANA. the left bank of the Rupununi as carriers of the baggage and provisions. On the 4th of June they continued their route, and leaving the savannahs, entered the magnificent forests of the interior, over the mountain chain, and over undu lating ground, interspersed with Manica swamps, abounding in a species of cocoa (theo broma), which the Indians gathered, as the pulpy arillus surrounding the seed has an agreeable vinous taste. The seed possesses a most delicious aroraa. Mr. Schomburgk states they evinced astonishment when they saw him collecting these seeds and preparing them into a dish of chocolate, which he declares was the most delicious they ever tasted. These indigenous cocoa trees, Mr. Shom- burgk informs us, they met with in innumerable thousands on this (5th of June) and the following day ; and he adds, that these inexhaustible stores of a highly- prized luxury are here reaped solely by the wild hog, the aguri, monkeys, and the rats of the interior. On the 8th of June the party reached a settlement of Taruma Indians, near the River Cuyuwini. In this neighbourhood Mr. Schomburgk had sojourned on his expedition in 1837. The site of the settlement, however, was changed to somewhat nearer the river. " Many of the inhabitants whom I saw on the for mer occasion," he says, " were dead, but nothing struck me more mournfully than the ravages death had committed amongst the Atorais the immediate neighbours of the Tarumas since my former visit ; at that time the settlement consisted of 200 souls, which number was now reduced to less than thirty. The small-pox and the measles have done their worst among these people." Here the travellers prepared their woodskins or bark canoes ; with which, descending the Cuyuwini, they again entered the Upper Essequibo on the 21st of June. After several days journey above the point of confluence of these two rivers, they arrived at two settlements of the Taruma Indians, where they so journed some days, in order to afford time to inform the Maopityan Indians of their intended visit. In this locality Mr. Schomburgk found a variety of the bean tribe (the leguminosce) which possesses a root, or underground tuber, that grows to an enormous size, fully equal to the largest yam. These roots were not at the time in full perfection, but their taste was somewhat between the yam and the sweet potato. The Taruma Indians called them Cuyupa. Mr. Schomburgk thought that, if it were possible to transplant these roots to the coast regions, they would be a most valuable addition to the list of native esculents. The roots are considered fit for use when the herb above-ground dies. A few of the seeds Mr. Schon/jurgk brought with him. At the mouth of the Urana the travellers abandoned their woodskins. This river debouches into the Essequibo in about 1 deg. 3? min. north latitude. They continued their course landward, traversing a chain of hills, and on the 13th of July reached the sources of the Onororo, a tributary to the Essequibo ; and, ascending an elevation of about 100 feet higher than the origin of the first river, BRITISH GUA VAN A. the sources of the Caphiwuin or Apiniau, the head waters of the large river Trotn- betas (which afterwards amplifies itself opposite Phauxis, or Obedos, into the Ama zon), were attained. The chain of hills here, about 2000 feet high, divides the rivers which flow southward into the Amazon, and those which were northward and westward in the Essequibo. A few miles from this spot they came to a Maopityan village. In this place were two houses of singular construction the larger was of unusually ample dimensions it was in diameter eighty-six feet. They were covered in by two roofs, like pagodas, one roof being over the other, and between these the smoke found its way from the house. The party was received by the Indians, and then entered the larger edifice, " which then encompassed," says Mr. Schomburgk, " the remains of the once powerful tribe of Maopityans, or Mawackwas. v The village was nearly destitute of provisions, and the Indians were grinding rotten wood with the little cassava flour they possessed, in order to increase the quantity of bread baked from it. The travellers then proceeded for the territory of the Pianaghotto and Drio Indians, at the head of the Curtini or Curuwini River which Mr. Schomburgk suspected to be the Corentyne. This portion of the journey appears to have been very perilous. The Caphiwuin abounded in falls, some from forty to fifty feet in perpendicular height ; and in a distance of sixty miles they descended 305 feet. On the 29th of July they arrived at the confluence of the Caphiwuin with the Wanamu, both of equal size, whose united streams form a river, called by the natives of those regions the Kaphu. The travellers had been now eleven days from their last starting point, and were informed by a family of Zuramata In dians, whom they found preparing a new provision field, that they would have to ascend the Wanama eight days more, before they could find an Indian settlement. This family was so poor, that they could not even give a plantain. The banks of the Kaphu River," says Mr. Schomburgk, are inhabited by the Tshikianas Indians ; and eastward is the territory of the formidable tnb Maipurishanas (Tapir) Indians. These are described by the other Indian t, as cannibals. But,- says our traveller, of those warlike women, the Ama or Cunhapuyara Indians, no specific information could be procured, journey appears to have chased them from their last hold-the upper I Trombitas Herrera and Acunna inform us that Orellana while 1 troops at the mouth of the River Cunuriz-the present Trombetes--wa S at, by Indians, among whom he observed women fightmg at the, sides ; and a neither BraziHan for European was ever able to ascend that nver, the the public of women was planted near its sources. We fel ^ dispel the last hopes of seeing the romantic accounts reahsed, which and Europeans alike have spread of the Amazons. 6 B 922 GUAYANA. The travellers ascending the Wanamu on the 5th of August, Mr. Schom- burgk s boat was in advance, and turning round an angle of the river, two canoes with Indians were discovered advancing to them. They fled in the utmost dis may. The remainder of Mr. Schomburgk s journey is a record of fatigue, hunger, and difficulty, ascending and descending rivers, until the 24th of Sep tember, when they fortunately discovered the path leading from the River Coren- tyne to the Essequibo; and on the 13th of October, after suffering incredible privations, arrived at Georgetown. RIVERS. The Essequibo has numerous rapids, or falls, in the upper part of its course. Fifty miles from its mouth, and about ten miles south of its con fluence with the Cuyuny, are the lowest rapids, above which the tide does not ascend. The Demerara River breaks over a great cataract. Several miles are rapids. The tide ascends within about ten miles of these rapids. In the River Berbice cataracts occur, up to which, a distance of 165 miles from the sea, along the windings, the river can be navigated by vessels drawing seven feet water. Vessels drawing not more than twelve feet may sail up 105 miles. The Corentyne is navigable from the mouth of the River Cabalaba for boats not draw ing more than seven feet water, a distance of 150 miles from its mouth. In other parts it is obstructed by dangerous cataracts. Mr. Schomburgk considers the upper Corentyne the most perilous of all rivers to navigate; falls succeed falls, and he had frequently to lade and unlade the canoes several times in one day. The River Rupunoony traverses the savannas south of the Pacaraima Moun tains, and falls into the Essequibo, through the savannas, near the base of the Pacaraima Mountains. It is said to have no impediments to navigation. CLIMATE. Guayana has two dry and two wet seasons. On the sea-coast the long dry season begins about the end of August and lasts to the end of November. It is followed by the short rainy season, from November to the middle of February. Then by the short dry season, which continues to the middle of April, and is succeeded by the long rainy season, during which the rivers inundate the low lands. The greatest heat occurs during the long dry season, when the mean temperature is about 83 deg., but it is moderated by cooling sea-breezes ; and during the night the thermometer sometimes falls to 74 deg. During the great rains the mean temperature is about 81 deg., and the heat oppressive when not moderated by the breezes. During the short dry and wet season the mean tem perature is a little above 80 deg. The mean annual temperature is nearly 81 2 deg. The change of the seasons is attended by violent thunder-storms. The climate is considered tolerably healthy, except during the rains. South of the mountain-region two seasons only are said to occur. From the month of August to that of March there are only occasional showers ; but from March to August the rain falls in torrents. BRITISH QUAY AN A. 923 Guayana is highly favoured by climate and soil for the growth of every tro pical product. The cultivation has been chiefly limited to sugar, coffee, and cotton; and to yams, cassava, plantains, bananas, sweet potatoes, maize &c. The pine-apple, guava, the marmalade fruit, the delicious Anona, the sapo- dilla, and the Brazil and Suwarrow nuts, are indigenous. The cabbage-tree is common, and there are several varieties of palms. The forest contains many kinds of excellent timber-trees, among which the mora (Mimosa excelsa) is said to be equal to the teak of the East Indies, and the green heart (belonging to the family of the Laurinea], the sawary (Pehea tuberculosa}, the bully-tree (Achras balata), the sirwabally, crab-wood (Carapa Guianensis), and purple-heart, arc adapted for naval architecture and cabinet-work, &c. There are also many fibrous vegetables, which afford substitutes for hemp and ftzx.Schumburgk. LIVE STOCK. The domestic animals are horses, mules, ho^s, goats, and fowls. The rearing of black cattle is neglected ; as they are more cheaply imported from the Orinoco districts of Venezuela; butter and cheese are also great articles of import ; but herds of black cattle and horses graze on the savannas near the Pacaraima Mountains. Among the wild animals are the jaguar, armadillo, agouti, ant-bear, sloth, a great variety of monkeys, iguanas, alligators, and turtles. In the Essequibo and its affluents there are several kinds of large fish. Among the birds are several kinds of parrots, mackaws, and humming-birds, the flamingo, Muscovy duck, toucan, and spoonbill. Snakes are numerous, among which are the rattle-snake and the boa-constrictor. Traces of iron-ore are discerned ; no other metals have yet been found. INHABITANTS. The population of British Guayana is composed of aboriginal tribes and of foreign settlers: Dutch, English, Europeans, Africans, a number of Coolies, and the descendants of Europeans and officers. By the census of the united colonies of Demerara and Essequibo, taken in 1829, the population consisted of 3006 whites, 6360 free coloured people, and 69,368 slaves. By the last census of the population of Berbice, taken in 1833, there were 5?0 whites, 1661 free coloured people, and 19,320 slaves. It is estimated that at present the whole population consists of 82,824 negroes, 8076 people of mixed race, and 4000 whites, to which the number of emigrants, since 1829 is to be added, which amounts to about 3100 individuals. The emigrants are partly whites from England and Malta, and partly Coolies. British Guayana, as now constituted, consists of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice. The settlements consist of plantations along the sea-coast and extend ing up the rivers. Some few are found on the banks of the rivers a considerabl distance from the sea, chiefly for cutting timber.-<&e the Statistics of the Brit, American Possessions hereafter.) GEORGETOWN, formerly called Stabroek, the capital, is built on the 924 GUAYANA. bank of the River Demerara, which is here nearly a mile wide. The harbour, formed by the mouth of the river is safe, but not of easy access, as a bar of mud extends four miles out to sea, over which no vessel, drawing more than nine feet, can pass until half-flood; the channel along the eastern shore has nineteen feet depth at high water. The streets of the town are wide and traversed by canals ; the houses are of wood, and seldom above two stories high ; they are generally surrounded by a garden, or trees, and separated from each other by canals or trenches. The public building, which comprises all the public offices, is a large edifice. There are churches for the principal denominations of Christians, and public schools. The population is estimated at more than 20,000 souls, of which 16,000 are coloured people. NEW AMSTERDAM, on the Berbice, extends about a mile and a half along the river, and is intersected by canals. The harbour is good, but intricate in its access. In the mouth of the river is Crab Island, which divides the river into two navigable channels, of which the eastern has seventeen to twenty feet, in depth, and the western only eight to thirteen feet at high water ; a bar also lies across the mouth of the river, over which there are only seven feet depth of water at low tides. In 1833 the population amounted to 2900 persons. It exports the produce of plantations on the rivers Berbice and Corentyne. Guayana was discovered by Columbus.on his third voyage, 1498, when he reached the mouth of the Orinoco. The first settlement was formed by the Dutch in 1580 on the River Pomaroon, and called New Zealand, whence they spread eastward to the Essequibo and Demerara, but the progress of the colony was slow^. In 1781 it was taken by Sir George Rodney, but it was restored to the Dutch in 1783. In 1796 it surrendered to the [English, and was again restored to the Dutch by the peace of Amiens (1801). It was taken for the last time by the British, in 1803, and has since remained in their possession. In 1831, the colonies of Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice, were united into one colony, named British Guayana, and in 1838 the slaves were emancipated. GOVERNMENT. The administration and legislature consist of the governor, the chief justice, attorney-general, the collector of the customs, and colonial secretary, to whom are added an equal number of persons elected from the colonists, by the college of the electors, or kiezers. This college consists of seven members, elected by the inhabitants of the colony for life. When a vacancy occurs in this colonial legis lature, the college of kiezers nominates two candidates, of whom the colonial par liament selects one as a sitting member. The members are elected by the kiezers to serve for three years, and go out by rotation. Every member of this legislative body has a vote, and the governor has a casting vote. He has also an absolute veto on all laws and ordinances which have been passed by a majority. (For the Agriculture, Navigation, arid Trade see Statistics of the British Posses sions hereafter.) REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR. 925 CHAPTER XV. REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR. ECUADOR extends from about 1 deg. 40 min. north latitude, to 5 deg. 50 min. south latitude, along the Pacific from the River Mira, south to the Rio Tumbez, for about 5 10 miles; and from some point not well defined between 69 deg. or nearly 70 deg. west, to 81 deg. 20 min. west longitude, or about 830 miles. Its boun dary lines are very irregularly and very indistinctly defined, except on the Pacific, where it embraces the Gulf of Guayaquil, and several bays, headlands, and some roadsteads and seaports. This state claims as its boundary on the south with Peru, the River Tumbez up to its source in the Andes, and thence south-easterly along these mountains to the Rio Chinchupe, following the latter to its junction with the Rio Amazon south of San Juan de Bracamoros ; Ecuador has from thence a boundary between it and Bolivia, or Upper Peru, the Rio Amazon, as far as its boundary of Brazil, from which it is separated by a line beginning on the south side of the Amazon, from in about 69 deg. west longitude, and thence northward to the Rio Negro, which forms the separation on the north, between Ecuador and New Granada, and west from the Rio Negro to the Rio Mira until the latter flows into the Pacific. The equatorial Andes, the hilly country between those mountains and the Paci fic, and the great plateaux between the mountain range on the east boundary of Brazil are comprised within the republic of Ecuador, the area of which is vaguely estimated at about 320,000 square miles. These magnificent regions comprise every variety of configuration and scenery. Wooded declivities, rocky and naked precipices, great rivers, mountain torrents, elevated plains; with a soil and climate producing under the equator, the grains and fruits of Europe, while the lower plains yield the cane and tropical plants, and the elevated declivities afford extensive pasture. The valleys of the Rio Guayaquil and Dauli have planta. tions of cacao, and various other crops are or may be cultivated. The remainder of this region is less cultivated. Savannas occur in some extensive districts and others are covered with lofty trees. In the regions from whence the rivers Guainia and Uaupes flow, mountains rising to moderate elevations prevail, and t country is chiefly wooded; savannas occur also near the foot of the Andes. Heavy rain, lakes, and stagnant pools, render many parts of Ecuador unhealthy. The Amazon is descended on rafts or balsas from the mouth of the Rio C chunga; it becomes navigable for vessels below the Pongo of Manseriche, Borja, for which vessels not drawing more than six or seven feet of water n 926 SPANJSH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. cend : large vessels ascend as far as the mouth of the Rio Tigre. The tributaries of the Amazon which drain the plains, are navigable, some in a greater, others to a lesser extent. These are chiefly the Rio Santiago, which falls above the Pongo de Manseriche, the Marona, the Pastaza, the Tigre, the Napo, the Putumayo, the Yapura. The Napo is as yet the only affluent much navigated. The na vigation of the Yapura is said to be obstructed by a cataract. The Gua inia and its affluent the Uaupes, rise within Ecuador; but these rivers are but little known. The Rio Guayaquil, the Rio Baba, and the Rio Daiili, by which produce is brought down to the port of Guayaquil, the Rio Esmaraldas, the Rio Santiago, and the Rio Mira, are all to some extent navigable. Along the sea-coast, from the Gulf of Guayaquil to the Cape of St. Lorenzo, rain is said never to occur. The valleys of the rivers Daiili and Guayaquil have regular rainy and dry seasons. In the mountain-region, the climate is temperate during the whole year; some rain falls almost daily. The plains suffer from ex cessive rain and heat.* In the western region of Ecuador, Indian corn, plantains, yams,* cacao, to bacco, sugar, cotton, and different kinds of tropical fruit and vegetables are cul tivated. From the elevated valleys and plains of the mountain- region wheat is sent down to Guayaquil and other low districts. Towards the southern extre mity of the Andes there are extensive forests ; the cinchona bark-tree is com mon. The Great Plains yield wax, gum, resin, and sarsaparilla. In the mountain-region and plains, cattle in large herds, horses, mules, and sheep are pastured. Turtles are abundant in the Amazon ; their fat, under the name of manteca, constitutes an important article of traffic on the banks of that river. The fish called mania abounds on the shores of the Pacific. It is salted and sent to Guayaquil and the mountain-region for sale. Pearls were formerly fished. Some cochineal is collected near Loxa. Vessels are built at Guayaquil of the timber yielded by the western forests. Gold is found in some of the rivers, silver ore occurs, but neither in any great quantity. Lead ore and quicksilver are found in some places. At Lo- Azoges quicksilver is worked. Salt is made along the coast at Cape Santa Helena, where it constitutes an article of trade for internal consumption. INHABITANTS. The population consists of the descendants of the Spaniards, and of Indians, and Mestizoes. The number of negroes has always been very small in Ecuador. The whites are most numerous in the valleys of the Andes, and in those of the rivers Guayaquil and Daiili, but in no part do they constitute more than one-fourth of the whole population. In the western region and in the mountains, the aborigines are of the Peruvian race, and speak the Quichua lan- * Other accounts of the climate of the Ecuador differ. Dr. Smith gives a more favourable description of it, and says the sea-coast region is, in most parts, a fertile, verdant country. REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR. . L 7 guage. They are agriculturists, and employ themselves also in weavin- omrs, woollen and cotton stuffs. Along the coast many Indian families live bv fisbb* and making salt. The Indians who inhabit the Great Plains, gain tlu-ir sub sistence almost exclusively by hunting and fishing on the banks of the tributary of the Amazon : they cultivate small pieces of ground. Abundance of sulphur may be procured at Tescan, near Chimborazo. According to the census of 1827, the population of Ecuador amounted to about 492,000, exclusive of the Indians of the eastern plains. ESTIMATED population of Ecuador. DEPARTMENT. Area in Square Miles. Inhabitants. Inhabitants to a Square Mile. Chimborazo, or Ecuador number. 190 000 number. number. Guayaquil J Total 320,000 550,000 The department of Chimborazo is divided into four provinces, Pichincha, Chimborazo, Atacames, and Quixos. The province of Pichincha contains the Vale of Quito; and the province of Chimborazo that of Hambato and Alausi. The province of Atacames extends over the lower country west of the Andes, between the Rio Mira and Cape Passado ; and that of Quixos over the plains east of the mountain-mass as far south as the Rio Napo. The navigable rivers Yapura, Putumayo, and Napo, which fall into the Amazon; the Rio Esme- raldas, Santiago, and Mira, which flow into the Pacific, drain this department. The following are the principal places IBARRA, at the foot of the volcano of Imbabura, 75 72 feet above the sea-level : about 8000 inhabitants, who manufacture coarse stuffs of cotton and wool. Wheat is raised in the neighbourhood : the sugar cane succeeds well ; but of the latter, no great quantity is produced. OTAVALO has, it is estimated, 20,000 inhabitants, who manufacture woollen and cotton stuff s. QUITO, the capital of the republic, situated in a valley, which unites two plains of moderate extent, 9543 feet above the sea-level, near the foot of the volcano of Pichincha. Eleven snow-capped mountains are in view of this town. It is in parts regularly built, with wide and straight streets, and contains many hand some buildings as the president s palace, formerly that of the viceroy, the palace of the archbishop, the cathedral, and the town-hall. The buildings, as is generally the case in Spanish America, surround the Plaza Mayor. There is an university, an extensive building, formerly the college of Jesuits. Quito is said to contain a population of 50,000 souls, and has some manu factures of cotton, silk, leather, lace, and jewellery. TACUNGA, situated near the southern declivity of the Alto de Chisinche, and near large ruins of a palace of the Incas : 3000 inhabitants. 928 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. LACTACUNG A, situated at the foot of the eastern ridge of the Andes., 9524 feet above the sea-level, and built of pumice-stone, has about 10,000 inhabitants. HAMBATO, near the foot of the Chimborazo, 8859 feet above the sea, is situated in a wheat country, 12,000 inhabitants ; the only frequented road from the mountain region to the coast of the Pacific passes through this town to Guayaquil. Along the coast of the Pacific there are no large towns. Coasters find shelter in the harbours of Tumaco, Tola, Esmeraldas, Atacames, and Canoa; these places have no foreign trade. The Missionos of Baeza, Archidonia, and Avila, east of the Andes, are now said to be deserted, although formerly described as very populous. Santa Rosa de Oas, situated upon the Ilio Napo, where that river begins to be navigable ; has a small population. The department of Guayaquil comprises the southern country, between the Andes and the Pacific, including the fertile valleys of the Guayaquil and Dalili. It is divided into the provinces of Manabi and Guayaquil. The products are cacao, tobacco, cotton, maize, various tropical fruits, &c. Guayaquil, the capital, is situated on the right bank of the Guayaquil, about forty miles from its mouth; and large vessels ascend to the town ; the rise of the tide at full and change is said to be about twenty-four feet. The town is built on low ground, fronting the river for about two miles ; estimated population, 25,000 inhabitants. It supplies the settlement of the mountain coast with wine, brandy, and the sugars of Peru and Chile, and with European merchandise. These goods are carried by water to the head of river navigation, at Babahoyo or Caracol. From the head of navigation, merchandise is carried by the route of Guaranda and Hambato to the mountain valleys. In the vicinity of Guayaquil timber trees abound, of which vessels are built. Morro and Santa Helena have harbours, which are seldom visited. At Santa Helena sea-salt is made. At the island of Puna vessels take on board cargoes. The Galapago islands, about 700 miles from the continent, between 1 deg 40 min. south latitude, and 40 min. north latitude, are dependent on the depart ment of Guayaquil. The department of Assuay, includes the mountain region south of the valley of Cuenga, the mountains of Loxa, the high country eastward to the Pongo de Man- seriche, and most part of the plains between the River Napo on thg north, and the Amazon on the south. Westward, the department extends to the south-eastern part of the Gulf of Guayaquil. It is divided into the provinces of Cuenga, Loxa ? and St. Jaen de Bracamoros. The Santiago, Marona, Pastaza, Tigre, and Napo, tributaries of the Amazon, flow through and drain this region. The cinchona bark tree abounds in the mountain forests east of Loxa, rising at an elevation of from 6000 to 8000 feet. There are silver mines, but not extensively worked. There are also quicksilver mines, Los Azogus. Cuenga, the capital of the de partment, and an university city, is situated in a plain 8640 feet above the sea, PERU. * and contains a population of 20,000. Loxa, is 6768 feet above the sea, with 10,000 inhabitants, and has a trade in cinchona bark. St. Jaen de Bracamoros near the banks of the Maranon, contains about 2000 inhabitants. Zaruma, si- tuated on the western declivity of the Andes, in a mining district; 6000 inhabi tants. Tumbez is situated near the Bay of Guayaquil. It has some trade. We must observe that all the foregoing statements, as to population, are based upon estimates made in the country, but which we consider no more than vague com putations, given semi-officially by the authorities. The manufactures of Ecuador are described as more important than those of any other of the South American republics. Coarse woollen and cotton stuffs are woven at many places in the elevated valleys. The inhabitants of coasts prefer English goods. There are manufactures also of silk, and some tanneries. But all these fabrics are produced at a much higher cost there, and are generally in ferior to imported manufactures. There are three roads or routes from the interior valleys to the Pacific, one from Hambato to Guayaquil, one from Quito to Esmeraldas, and one from Cuenga to Naranial. The first is the most travelled over. By the last the cinchona bark and the produce of the mines are brought to Guayaquil. Three routes lead to the eastern plains, but they are very little travelled over. Formerly the elevated valleys received European goods, principally by way of Cartagena and Popaydn ; from Guayaquil gold, silver, cinchona bark, tobacco, and some other articles are exported, ECUADOR, which once formed part of the empire of the Incas, remained from the conquest under Spanish rule, until the revolution broke out in the Spanish colonies of South America. In 1811, Eucador formed part of the vice-royalty of New Granada. In 1823 it adopted the convention of Cucuta, and until 1831 it formed a part of the republic of Columbia. Since the dissolution of that union, it has formed itself into an independent republic. Governed by a president, chosen for eight years, and assisted by a vice-president and council of state. The legisla ture consists of two bodies, the senate, to which every province sends a member ; and the house of representatives, the number of which varies according to the popu lation, a member being elected for every 40,000 inhabitants. (See Statistics of the Spanish Republics hereafter.) CHAPTER XVI. PERU. GENERAL SKETCHES OF THE SOIL AND CLIMATE. THE limits of the present republic of Peru extends from the mouth of the River Loa, (21 deg. 28 min. south latitude) to the entrance of the Tumbez in 3 deg. 30 min. 40 sec. south latitude. Its extreme length along the shores of the VOL. I. 6 C 930 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. V Pacific is estimated at nearly 1 700 miles. The greatest breadth is estimated at more than 1000 miles. It is bounded by Ecuador on the north, on the west by the Pacific, on the south and south-east by Bolivia, on the east by Brazil. The southern and south eastern boundaries are not, however, we]l decided. Peru extends from the western declivity of the Bolivian and Peruvian Andes to the shores of the Pacific. This region is called the Valles. East of the Valles the Montana, or mountain-region, comprehends the Peruvian Andes. Along the eastern side of the Montana is the great upper plain of the Amazon. The region of the VALLES has little or no wood, and includes but small districts fit for culture. Sandy or stony deserts prevail. In the mountain region, a large portion is rocky; the numerous valleys which intersect the mountains from south to north are generally fertile, especially the valley of the Rio Jauja. The eastern mountain region is covered with forests and other vegetable growth ; the western mountains are nearly bare, and frequently without any vegetation. The eastern plains are cultivated only in small spots by the native tribes, who grow roots and maize ; the greater part of these places are covered with forests- Savannas of considerable extent occupy parts of these plains, but these regions are but imperfectly known to us. The whole sea-coast region of Peru- is by all described as sandy, arid, bare, and scorched. The sea-coasts of the state of Ecuador are, on the contrary, de scribed as well-wooded plains and villages. Peru is traversed by two parallel chains of high mountains, called indifferently the Andes and the Cordilleras. Geographers may, to avoid confusion, give the name of Andes to the eastern, and Cordilleras to the western, chain. The western range follows the shores of the Pacific at a distance of sixty or seventy Eng lish miles. It is remarkable that all the streams flowing from its eastern slopes find their way through the chain of the Andes to the Atlantic. In all South America there is no exception to this rule. In no instance do the Cordilleras afford passage to any stream flowing from the Andes, yet the former chain is lower than the latter, at least in Peru and Bolivia. The region between the Andes and the Cordilleras, comprising a vast plateau, or rather many table-lands, about 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. This plateau is scarcely ^inhabited. The whole region is called by the natives Puna, in Spanish despolbado. The general aspect of this plain is monotonous and dreary, the surface is principally covered with faded dull grasses; now and then a solitary stunted tree of the quenua, tracts covered with the reddish brown stalks of the ratana, which the few inhabitants use for fuel, or for roofing their huts. But here are found the llama, the alpaca, the huanacu, and the vicuna. Cold winds sweep from the frozen Cordillera over the plain, regularly accompanied for four months with daily violent snow-storms. Von Tschudi who resided in Peru from 1838 to 1842, inclusive, says, PERT. 93] " It often happens that the traveller passes suddenly out of these c-.lu j very warm currents of air, which are sometimes two or three feet, oftener several hm feet wide, and occur in parallel lines at repeated intervals, so that one may pass tin five or six of them in the course of a few hours. I found them particularly t; in the months of August and September in the highland plains between Cbacftptl] Huancavelica. As far as my repeated observations extend, the general direction or these currents is the same as that of the Cordillera, namely, south-south-west and north-north east. My course once led me for several hours longitudinally through one of these warm streams of air which was not more than twenty-seven paces wide. Its temperature was 11 deg. R. higher than that of the contiguous atmosphere. It appears that these streams are not merely temporary, for the arrieros often predict with great accuracy where they will be encountered ; nor are they to be confounded with the warm air of narrow rocky ravines, since they extend over the open plain. The cause of this curious phenomena is well deserving of minute inquiry by meteorologists." Puna is also applied as a term to the effects which the rarified air of the plateau produces on the body and spirits; other names for which are " sorroche," " marreo," and " veta." These effects, experienced usually at an elevation of 12,500 feet and upwards, are difficulty of respiration, dizziness, pal pitation of the heart, extreme lassitude and weakness *of the limbs. The vessels of the eyes, nose, and lips often burst, and blood issues from them in drops. The mucous membranes of the lungs and bowels are affected, and sometimes accompanied by fatal haemoptysis, and bloody diarrhoea. Dr. Tschudi seems to think that there must be some other unknown condition of climate at work besides rarefaction of the air, and it does so happen that regions abounding in ore are ill-famed for the veto. Men and other animals born in the mountains suffer little from the attack, strangers become acclimated to it ; but some domestic animals, particularly cats, cannot live at an elevation of 1300 feet. Water, it is said, boils at so low a temperature in the high regions, that potatoes and meat cannot be cooked in less than twenty-four hours boiling. We extract the following fromTschudi s recent valuable work, which describes one day s travelling in the horrid Puna region through the deep snow that had fallen overnight : 1 rode alone* a sorry track up the gentle declivity, often being compelled to make wide de ours round rocks^r swamps, which I could not pass over. The latter ^are part.cu- hrlv irksome to the traveller, for he loses much time in going round them and if he at- snow disappeared ma few ^m nutes, ^ an ^ ^^ the ^ Qn both =*= i lSTK: ffi c,k internal ^SyftJ pyramids towering to the heavens. srarc elv discernible Indian villages, and leys of the lower mountain reg.ons w, tn U^ r y ^ the mm ^ K stretching far away { the ? "^ t h e re broken by long low craggy ranges of bilowy extent of the upland "* "id out her last breath in these lonely snow- ; s. -^ m ^^- ^i^^]^^^ ssst* ;;;? the sun awakened all round me, where the dull gr,er |.una 932 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. grass, hardly a finger high, blended with the greenish glaciers ! Glad was I to greet the purple gentiana, the brown calceolaria, and other old acquaintances of the vegetable world. Not a butterfly hovered yet in the thin atmosphere, not a fly or winged insect ; at most the busy naturalist might find a dusky beetle under a stone a rare prize. Here and there the low tortoise crept out of its hole, or a half-starved lizard lay on a stone warming its lithe limbs in the sun. As I rode further, living creatures met my view in more abundance, beasts and birds, few in species, but individually numerous. Amazing is the wealth of animal life in these mountain plains. The vital exuberance of the tropics seem to triumph all over the bleak cold of the Puna, and the scorching sunshine of the Llanos ; there the first fall of rain, here the first glimpse of the sun, calls it forth with astonishing quickness. The blank monotony of the region had almost disappeared. Herds of vicunas approached me inquisitively, and fled away again with the speed of the wind. In the distance I saw quiet stately groups of huanacus, gazing suspiciously on me and passing along ; single roes started up from their rocky lairs, and rushed up the slopes with loud brayings ; the curious horned puna-hart (tarush) came slowly out of its hole, and stared at me with its great black, wondering eyes, whilst the lively rock- hares (viscachas) sported familiarly, and nibbled the scanty herbage that grew ia the clefts of the rocks. " I had plodded on for many hours, observing the varieties of life in this singular alpine region, when I came upon the carcass of a mule, which had probably fallen under its burden, and been left by its driver to perish of hunger and cold. My presence startled three ravenous condors from their repast. Shaking their crowned heads, and darting fiery glances at me from their blood-shot eyes, two of them rose on their giant wings, and hovered threateningly, in ever-narrowing circles, round my head, whilst the third, croaking furiously, stood on the defensive near the booty. Holding my gun in readiness, I rode cautiously by the critical spot, without the least desire of further dis turbing the banquet. It was now two o clock in the afternoon, and I had been riding on a continual, though gradual, ascent since dawn. My panting mule slackened his pace, and halted from time to time, and seemed unwilling to climb a height that rose before me ; I alighted to relieve the animal and my own limbs at the same time, and began to walk up the hill ; but I immediately experienced the effects of the rarefied air, and I felt at every step an uneasy sensation I^had never known before. I was .obliged to stop for breath, but I could hardly respire ; I tried to move, but was overcome by an indescribable oppression ; my heart beat audibly against my ribs ; my breathing was short and interrupted, a world s load seemed to be on my breast; my lips were blue, tumid, and cracked, and the blood oozed from the swollen vessels of my eye-lids. My senses were leaving me ; I could neither see, nor hear, nor feel distinctly ; a gray mist floated before my eyes, tinged at times with red, when the blood gathered on my eye lids. I felt myself involved in that conflict between life and death, which I had before imagined in surrounding nature ; my brain reeled, and I was compelled to lie down. Had all the riches of the world, or the glories of eternity, been but a hundred feet higher, I could not have stretched out my hand towards them. " A heavy fall of snow came on, accompanied with an icy wind, and in less than half- an-hour the ground was everywhere covered with snow a foot deep. Swamp and hill, dale and crag, seemed now one undistinguishable surface ; all trace of my path was lost, and my position was growing worse every moment. Had I then been as well acquainted with the Puna as I afterwards became, I would have shaped my course by the flight of birds, but unluckily I followed the fresh track of a herd of vicunas which was lost in a swamp. I discovered this too late ; rny mule had suddenly sunk in so deeply that it could not scramble out ; in great trepidation I alighted cautiously, and with incredible difficulty contrived to dig out the legs of my beast with my dagger. After wandering up and down in all directions, I at last found the path, which was marked by skeletons protruding above the level of the*snow. They were the remains of beasts that had fallen under their load a welcome and yet ominous token for the lonely wanderer! The clouds were now suddenly rent, and the blazing light of the tropical" sun was reflected from the dazzling surface of snow. My eyes were instantly^ smitten with surumpe (opthalmia) ; they began to smart violently, and it was only with a handkerchief before PERU. <, 33 my way> tormented with the * Half an hour afterwards the scene was repeated over again-thunder, Wind, and snow, then sunshine, then storm again. I continued my route with re difficulty, the mule hardly able to drag its limbs through the accumulated snow \H t was coming on ; exhausted with cold, hunger, and fatigue, 1 could scarcely hold to! bridle, and my feet were insensible, though partly protected by the broad wooc stirrups. I had almost given myself up for lost, when I observed a cave benea overhanging rock I hastened to explore it, and found it would afford me some shelter from the wind I unsaddled the mule, tied it to a stone, spread my cloak and trap, for a bed on the damp ground, and appeased my hunger with a little roasted maize and cheese 1 then lay down, but was long kept awake by the piercing clamours of the night birds. At last 1 slept, but was again awakened by an intolerable burnino- an d smarting in the eyes; the lids were glued together with coagulated blood. There was no hope of sleep or rest, and I thought the night would never end. When I reckoned that day must be dawning I opened my smarting eyes, and discovered all the horrid misery of my situation. A frozen human corpse had served for my pillow. Shuddering, 1 went in search of my mule to quit the dismal spot, but my distresses were not yet at an end. The poor beast lay dead on the ground; in its ravenous hunger it had eaten the poisonous garbancillo. Poor creature ! Many a hardship had it shared with me. I turned back to the cave in despair; what could I do? At last the sun shone brightly, the snow was gone ; I felt my spirits wonderfully revived, and began to inspect the body of my lifeless companion. Was it one of my own race, a traveller who had perished of cold and hunger? No, it was a half-caste Indian, and many deadlv wounds in the head showed that he had been killed by the slings of Indian robbers, who had stripped him naked, and hid him in the cave. " I seized my gun and shot a rock hare, gathered a little fuel, and using a bone for a spit, I roasted the flesh, and made a not very savoury breakfast. I then waited quietly to see what might befal. It was about noon when I heard at intervals a mono tonous short cry, and starting to my feet at the well-known sound, I ascended the nearest rock, and perceived the two Indian llama drivers I had seen the day before. I prevailed on them by means of a small present of tobacco, to let me have one of their llamas to carry my baggage. I cast a handful of earth on the corpse of the murdered man, and jeft the unlucky spot." Rivers. The small rivers that flow into the Pacific are chiefly used for irri gating lands ; none of them are navigable, except the Rio de Piura, for some months, about twenty miles, as far as the town of Piura. Many of the rivers are dried up for several months of the year; a few flow to the Pauba, the others to the eastern waters. The mountain rocks have some streams which might supply irrigation, and even the most arid districts yield luxuriantly when watered. The Montana is drained by the Maraiion, and its affluents the Huallaga and Ucayali. The Maraiion is navigable from the mouth of the Rio Chuchunga downwards. No obstacle to navigation occurs below the Pongo for vessels drawing no more than six to seven feet of water, as far up as the junction of the Ucayali it may be, ascended by larger vessels. The Lake of Parinacochas, which has no outlet, is surrounded by high moun tains : and its surface is said to be 10,000 feet above the level of the sea: the water is brackish. The Lake of Titicaca occupies an area of about 4000 square miles; from it the Rio Desaguadero, flows south-south-east, in gentle course 934 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and it is lost in swamps and lakes, about 19 deg. south latitude. The Lake of Titicaca is 12,795 feet above the sea-level, and the valley, on an average, 13,000 feet. The length of the valley is about 300 miles ; its breadth varies from thirty to sixty miles. Its area is estimated at 16,000 square miles, the lake included. Several passes lead from the valley to the low countries on the east and west, and traverse the two chains of the Bolivian Andes. The average elevation of these mountain passes is about 14,600 feet above the sea-level, or 1600 feet above the level of the valley. The climate of this valley is not subject to great varieties of temperature; neither great heat nor cold are experienced ; except during the nights from May to November, when ice is formed. The winter is dry, the sky is cloudless, there is neither rain nor snow. Snow falls at the beginning and end of summer or the rainy season, which commences at the end of November and terminates in April. During the summer it rains, not heavily, but almost constantly, during the day; at night the sky is cloudless. Even in February the thermometer never rises above 60 cleg ; and in July it descends only during the night to 28 deg. The whole valley has but little wood ; as a substitute the natives use the rushes which grow along the banks of the lake. This valley chiefly presents a beautiful green turf. Some parts are under cultivation ; rye and barley are sown, but as they do not ripen, are cut green as fodder for beasts of burden. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and potatoes are grown. The Lake of Chinchaicocha, or Heyes, which receives the streams descending from the tableland of Pasco, and from which the Rio Jauja issues, is about thirty miles long, with an average width of five miles ; contains several islands. The Lake of Llauricocha is considered the source of the Maranon. Little is known of this lake. Administrative Divisions. The department of Truxillo is divided into the provinces of Caxamarca, Chachapoyas, Chota, Maynas, Piura, Jaen, Lambayeque, Huamacucho, and Patas. The products of those are, rice, sugar, cinchona- bark, sarsaparilla, copaiva balsam, dragon s blood; bullion, the product of the silver mines, and various fruits and vegetables. Payta, with about 5000 inhabitants in the valleys, has a tolerable harbour, and some trade; Piura, with about 8000 inhabitants and some manufactures; Lambayeque, with about 10,000 inhabitants, an open roadstead, carries on some trade; Chiclayo, about three miles from Lambayeque, with about 8000 inhabitants ; Truxillo, the capital of the department, built in a fertile plain, contains about 9000 inha bitants, has some trade, though its harbour (Huanchaco) is an ill-sheltered road stead. Caxamarca, in the valley of the Maranon, has about 7000 inhabitants, and some manufactures of woollen cloth and hardware. It is situated in a plain 370 feet above the sea, and in the vicinity of mines, and not far from the mines of Gualgayo. Chachupoyas, with about 4000 inabitants, is a trading town PKRU. on the road from the vale of the Maranon to the Huallaga. Moyobambo, with about 5000, and Tarapoto, with about 4000 inhabitants, have fabrics of coarse cotton stuffs. The department of Junin is divided into the provinces of Huari, Caxatambo, Huaylas, Conchucos, Pasco, Huamalies, Huanaco, Tarma, and Jauja. Tlic pro ducts are, silver from the mines of Pasco and other places, sugar, Indian corn, rice, cinchona bark ; the rock-salt from the banks of the Huallaga. Pasco, or Cerro de Pasco, is situated on the table-land which bears its name, at an eleva tion of 14,278 feet above the sea, and contains a population of between 12,000 and 16,000 souls. North of Huari, in the upper vale of the Maranon, Caxatambo has about 6000 inhabitants in the vicinity of silver-mines ; Huanaco, in the upper vale of the Rio Huallaga, is situated in a fertile country, and has about 9000 inhabitants. It is about twenty leagues from Cerro de Pasco, with a descent of about 7000 feet. In its fertile valley are produced maize, wheat, beans, potatoes, &c.* Tarma, in the upper vale of the Rio de Jauja, is the capital of the department, has 6000 inhabitants, and some cotton and woollen manufactures. Tarma is described by Dr. Smith as the favourite place of resort of sickly persons from different parts, especially Lima, and the rigorous climate at the mineral works of Yauli, whence the rheumatic miners, after their own hot springs fail to cure them, flock to the Estrada, or to the ball and tertulliaof the blooming Tarmenians. All its peaceful in habitants are agriculturists ; and mostly all the resident families emigrate during har vest-time to little farms in the vicinity of this pretty Cerrano town, which is considered one of the most agreeable and civilised in all the sierra, and wherein the better class* even as in the provincial towns on the coast, desire to adopt the manners of the capital as their standard. Near Tarma is a beautiful cascade, and many peach and apple orchards, with lanes lined with poplars, and perfumed with wild mint and many sweet and fragrant flowers in the wet season, when its hills are verdant, its air pure, and people joyful." * Dr. Smith, describing the Valley of Huanuco, says,-" But the plains that spread round the base of the hills and mountains that go to form the Vale of Huanuco, are never allowcc take upon them the withered face of winter. By the aid of rivulets from the mountains, so times diverted from their natural channels by art, and earned by circuitous aqueducts of mes vere rom er n , miles in extent, the numerous flats among the recesses of the heights and slopes, f. ^-s^^*SSfS&aB^2rs and vine, the pomegranate and orange the citron * Y ne .r O ofed ^ inhales with l>vorv meanest villager, as well as the h^blest Iod e the fa rid ()f ^ . breath the odours of never-foiling blossoms. * i labour! of the field by the cheerful voice happy valley, its inhabitants are animate to u ower3> The city of Huanuco is the prin- of the pretty-plumaged inmates ot i ^^ ^ ets ^. g tem p er j n me too often delu- cipalseat of recreation for him who wast * ^ nc f eme nt mining localities in the neighbour- sive pursuit of wealth in Cerro rasco, ai hood." 936 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. The department of Lima is divided into the provinces of Cercado or Lima, Chancay, Canta, Huaura, Huarochiri, Yauyos, Canete, and lea. The products are chiefly maize, sugar, wine, brandy, tobacco, and salt is made. The department of AY ACUCHO is divided into the provinces of Huancabelica,Lu- canaSjTayacuja, Castro vireyna, Parinacochas, Guamanga, Quanta Congallo, Anco, and Andaguailas. The products are chiefly silver and quicksilver, cattle, horses, and mules. Some maize arid sugar are cultivated in some of the lower districts. The capital, Guamanga, built on the declivity of some mountains, has clbout 26,000 inhabitants, a cathedral, a university, and an ecclesiastical seminary. It is situated on the road from Lima to Cuzco. A few miles east-north-east of Guamanga, on the plain of Ayacucho, General Sucre terminated the Spanish dominion over South America by a decisive victory. Huancabelica, west of Guamanga, has mines of gold, silver, and quicksilver: the quicksilver mines were formerly very rich. It contains about 8000 inhabitants. The department of Cuzco is divided into the provinces of Cercado or Cuzco, Quispichanchi, Urubamba, Abancay, Aymaraes, Cotabambas, Chumbivilcas, Paruro, Calca, Paucartambo, and Tinta : the great majority of the population are of Aboriginal race. Woollen and cotton stuffs, and leather, are manufac tured by them. Cuzco, the capital of the department, originally said to have been built by Manco Capac, the founder of the empire of the Incas, is situated in a broad valley, about 11,250 feet above the surface of the sea. It contains several ancient ruins. The population, about 40,000, manufacture wool and cotton stuffs, leather, furniture, and embroideries, reputed for richness of design and work. The department of PUNO is divided into the provinces of Lampa, Azangaro, Carabaya, Chuquito, and Guancani. Quinoa, potatoes, and barley cut green for fodder, are the chief agricultural products. The produce of the silver mines, and of the cattle are exported from this department. Goods are transported from the port of Arica to Bolivia by the mountain passes over the Altos de Toledo, and of Las Gualillas. Puno, the capital, 12,832 feet above the sea, has about 9000 inhabitants; Chuquito about 5000 inhabitants : both these towns are near the western banks of the Lake Titicaca. Near Puno there are silver mines. The department of AREQUTPA is divided into the provinces of Camana, Con- desuyos de Arequipa, the Cercado or district of Arequipa, Moquegua, Arica, Tarapaca, and Caylloma. The produce of the silver and copper- mines, cotton, wool, and sugar, are exported. Saltpetre in abundance is procured in the province of Tarapaca, and shipped chiefly to England. Acari, which is built in a fine plain not far from the sea, has about 6000 inhabitants ; Point Lomas, its port, has good anchorage. Arequipa, in the vale of Arequipa, has about 30,000 inhabitants. It is a tolerably well-built and trading town, situated 7797 feet above the sea, and a few miles from the volcano de Arequipa, which is 18,300 DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF PEIIU. 937 feet high. Moquegua, has about 10,000 inhabitants. Tacna, about thirty th Se Vlh 170 M et ^^ ltS eVe1 ^ a ^^ f r E ^ used m the Southern Montana, and the greater part of Bolivia, .bout 9000 inhabitants. Anca, the port of Tacna, has a good harbour, and about 5500 inhabitants. Iquique, with about 1000 inhabitants, exports the saltpetre procured in the surrounding country. The plains east of the Montana are not included in any of the departments and are inhabited by wild and independent tribes. The missions which were formerly established among them, have been either destroyed or abandoned CHAPTER XVII. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF PERU. THE most recent accounts upon which we can rely are those included in the narrative of the United States exploring expedition, those of Tschudi, and some manuscript accounts which we possess. Messrs. Pickering, Rich, Agate, and Brackenridge, of the United States exploring expedition, obtained from the com modore permission to make an excursion to the Cordilleras of Peru, for the pur pose of making botanical collections. In Lima the journey was considered as a very serious undertaking, and likely to be attended with much danger, from the banditti who frequent the route they intended to pass over, that to the mines of Pasco. They supplied themselves not only with blankets and horse-furniture, but with all sorts of provisions, and par ticularly with bread, of which they took as much as they could carry, notwithstand ing the country was described as well inhabited. After the delay of a day, the pass ports came in the form of a letter of protection and recommendation from Lafuente himself, to the local authorities throughout all Peru, couched in the most liberal terms, and treating the affair with as much importance as if it were a national one. It is a regulation that the names of all who receive passports shall be published in the official gazette; their intention, therefore, became known to all Lima. From the few who are gazetted, it would appear that but a small number travel into the interior, or else that the regulation is not very strictly complied with. The injunction to render the party assistance in case of need was very strong, and among other things specified to be furnished was clothing, which was thought to look somewhat ominous in this country of banditti. In spite of the positive terms in which the passport was expressed, it was found of little effect in procur ing them mules or horses ; and it was not till after much trouble and disappoint ment that horses were at last obtained from the post establishment. On the 16th of May they were ready to set out. VOL, i. 6 D 938 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Their route lay along the margin of the extensive plain that borders on the sea ; columns of dust and particles of sand were seen rising from the heated plain, stirred by the action of the wind. Clouds of smoke,, too, were visible in the distance, proceeding, according to the information of their guides, from the burning of the cane-brakes. The Peruvian willow, so much resembling the Lom- bardy poplar in its form, was much admired, and the contrast between the barren clay-coloured hills and the bright green of the irrigated fields was very remarkable. Three leagues from Lima they passed through the ruins of an Inca town, situ ated (as they uniformly found them afterwards) on the border of an irrigated valley. The walls of the town were at right angles, very thick, built of mud, and unburnt brick ; the hills were covered with the ruins of Indian buildings, some of them resembling fortifications. They turned up a beautiful valley, on the irrigated fields were herds of horned cattle, horses, and goats, a proof that the irrigated land is not exclusively used for tillage. Around Caballeros, seven leagues from Lima, are extensive meadows and fields of clover. At midnight there was a shock of an earthquake. The house was rolled and shaken as if it had been on an agitated sea. The natives of the adjoining huts ran out into the road, uttering shrieks, striking their breasts, and offering prayers to the Holy Virgin to protect them. The shock lasted altogether about two minutes. It produced a slight nausea, like sea-sickness, which continued for some time afterwards, and a bewildering sensation, that rendered it difficult to collect their ideas to speak. This earthquake was the most violent that had been ex perienced for some time, and it was sensibly felt at Lima and through all Lower Peru. On the 17th, the party set out up a dry mountain valley, the soil of which was composed of stones and loose powdery earth. This kind of ground continued for five leagues, with not a drop of water, nor was a plant or bird col lected ; nothing was seen growing but a few tillandsias. On this route they passed many crosses, marking the spot where there had been loss of life. Immediately on the confines of this dreary waste, is Yanga, a deserted-looking place, but having some good gardens and orchards. During the day they had been much annoyed by sand-flies and fleas; besides these, they had bfewmosquitos, but the latter are seldom seen in Peru. The screaming of parrots during the night, announced that some change had taken place in the vegetation. The land in the vicinity was cultivated, and some or chards and fields of clover were seen ; the mountains, previously gray with tilland- sias, had now assumed a greenish tinge. Agaves made their appearance here ; and, a few miles beyond, the hills became green : all showed that a different region had been entered. The inclined roofs of the huts showed that rains were experienced. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF PERU. The valley now became more contracted, level ground was seldom seen ; the mountains increased in elevation. Cascades were springing from almost the summits of the high peaks ; cattle were grazing, and occasional cultivated pa- were mingled with the pasture-grounds ; irrigation was no longer necessary ; the Cordillera plants of the Flora Peruviana. with the vegetation described by Humboldt and Bonpland, were recognised. At noon they reached Obrajillo, the rendezvous of the two celebrated Spanish botanists, Ruiz and Pavon, authors of the Flora Peruviana. Obrajillo, Canta, and San Miguel, about a mile distant from each other, are said to contain three or four thousand inhabitants. At Obrajillo, some difficulty in getting mules occurred. The horses they had brought from the low country were not considered capable of standing the cold and fatigue of the mountains ; and at Lima, they refuse to allow their mules to cross the mountains. Obrajilva, the largest of the three towns, contains about one hundred cottages. It has a stone church, with two towers, apparently of some age, which fronts on the open square. The dwellings are of one story, without floors and almost with out furniture ; yet it is said to be the residence of many wealthy people. It was impossible, from appearances, to determine, the high and low, the rich and the poor, all seem to live in the same style: but there are many pretty gardens and fields, under a good state of cultivation. The roadside itself looked like a flower-garden, and flowers of every hue were seen on either side, calceolarias, lobelias, &c. Here was the first point where they had met the llama used as a beast of burden ; the load which they carry is from seventy to ninety pounds. On the 19th, at an early hour, some vagabonds, assuming the name of Chilians, went the rounds of the village, helping themselves to every thing they desired, to the utter dismay of the inhabitants, who made no resistance. The consequence was, that the party, having neglected to supply themselves with bread the evening before, now lost the opportunity of doing it. Thiswas a serious inconvenience, for Obrajillo supplies the upper country with bread, as Lima does the lower, and it is procured with difficulty, except at these two places. Potatoes were therefore taken as a substitute, though a very inconvenient one, from their great weight and bulk. At Culnai, a village with about thirty cottages, believed to be 10,000 feet above the sea, cultivation ceases, ending with the potato, tropacolum, oxalis, and basella. The second region of plants also terminates here ; which is suc ceeded by the "Paramera," or cold pasture region of the Andes, re-ion gives growth to a set of plants which make a gradual transition from those pf the second region to low alpine scraggy bushes, none of which exceed two feet in hei-ht The Paramera is remarkable for a dense sward of coarse grass low herbaceous plants, principally of the order composite. The flowers of the latter, it was remarked, were particularly large in proportion to the plant. 940 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. form a rich pasturage for the flocks and herds, which are seen feeding in the valleys and along the sides of the hills. No cultivation is attempted beyond Culnai, and but two species of cacti were met with above this point. The exploring party, from a northerly direction, diverged more to the north east. The temperature fell as they ascended, the air grew clear and bracing, and the scenery as they advanced became, from Culnai, interesting and sublime. To its wild and precipitous features was now added the high snowy peak of La Vinda in the distance, and some few spots of snow were occasionally seen in places sheltered from the sun s rays. The mule-paths had become narrow, and when they met with mules, which was often the case, it became necessary to turn under the rocks until the path was clear. The sagacity of these mules is remarkable. They cling to the wall side, and will succeed in doing so if not prevented by the rider. Their caution is great when they apprehend danger in passing over steep places; the instant danger was anticipated, the nose and fore-feet were used to ascertain its extent, which done, the animals cautiously proceeded, and reached the bottom with great care and ease. When the party had ascended to the fourth or alpine region, they met with sharp and cutting winds, with hail and snow. The lower part of this region was estimated at an elevation of about 15,000 feet. As effects of this elevation, they were oppressed with headache, difficulty of breathing, and excessive lassitude. " The crest of the Cordilleras is at this place a league in width, the surface very un even, containing small lakes without outlets, sunk in deep hollows ; beyond this the streams which form the extreme sources of the Amazon were running to the eastward." After travelling two leagues on a gentle descent they reached at Casa Cancha, a muleteer s rendezvous. It was in charge of two women. The accom modation was an apartment common to all, with no fastening to the door or windows, without a fire, and only the hard ground to sleep on. At night the thermometer frequently falls to the freezing point, and the climate is like that of winter ; there is not a stick of wood nor any resinous fuel, as on the Chilian Andes, to be had, and the cooking is done with turf, when it can be obtained, but dry cow-dung is most commonly used for this purpose. This is the only and the best establishment the place affords; even the first females in the country who are bold enough to ascend the Cordilleras, can procure no better accommodations, and will bear it for the night with contentment. During the night the party were very much troubled with headache and diffi culty in breathing ; they passed an uncomfortable night on the clay floor. The thermometer in the doorway stood in the morning at 33 deg. Casa Cancha is in a valley surrounded by lofty mountains. Its height, upon the authority of a gentleman at Lima, is 14,500 feet above the level of the sea. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF PERU. 941 Pasturage in its vicinity is good; sheep and cattle are abundant: bread and potatoes are brought over the mountains from Obrajillo. On the morning the party, with one exception, were all affected with vomitin-, headache, and fever, and still suffering much from difficulty in breathing; this is usually felt on first visiting these elevated regions, and said to be particularly so at night. The morning proved so boisterous with frequent hail showers, that they deter mined to remain the day, to rest their mules and recruit themselves. As the weather allowed them to botanise, they set out in two parties, but had not been occupied over two hours before they were overtaken by a severe snow storm, which entirely covered up all small plants. They started at an early hour, the wild geese were flying and feeding around them. The object was now to proceed to Alpamarca, distant from Casa Cancha about two leagues. Their guides being unacquainted with the paths, led them among the mountains, and over extensive plains, covered with coarse herbage. A variety of beautiful flowers were found, and domesticated llamas were seen feeding. At Alpamarca are a few huts in the vicinity of a silver-mine, where they found some Peruvian gentlemen, collected from various quarters, who received the United States party with great kindness. They were served in a large gourd-shell with Spanish hotchpotch, or olla, with carrots, pot-garlic, pepper, and small bits of mut ton. This repast was well timed, for the party had been fasting for several hours. Silver Mines of Alpamarca. The Peruvians showed the process of ex tracting the silver : the ore is broken up until it resembles earth ; it is then thrown into a large round vat, and mixed with mercury and water ; six or eight mules are then turned in and driven round and round, until the amalgam is formed ; it is then put into a vessel, and stirred with water until the earth mixes with it, and the water being poured off, leaves the amalgam, whence the mercury is finally evaporated. The ore appears to be taken almost entirely from the surface. It is poor, and the mines do not yield much profit. There are many old veins that have been extensively worked, but owing to their depth have been abandoned. The superintendent proved to be an English miner (Mr. R. Sevan), who had been twenty years in the country. He informed them that the old Spaniards had worked the mines cheaper than any one has been able to do since, were large landholders, and contrived to keep themselves in debt to their tenants; this they always paid in manufactured goods, very much in demand with the Indians who worked the mines, thus making a double profit on the wages. At the present time the mines are worked by Indians of mixed bio. who have a language of their own. They are much addicted to the use of co, (the leaf of the erythroxylon coco, which is mixed and masticated witi and without a supply of this leaf they will not work. 942 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Mr. Bevan took the party to the mine, which is some distance up the moun tains. Much difficulty was experienced in breathing the rarefied atmosphere, and great fatigue in walking; so much so, that it was necessary to stop every few steps to rest; Mr. Bevan, and the Indians who accompanied him, appeared to be more affected than any of the party. He assured them that it was the same even with the Indians born on the spot, showing that neither time nor other circumstances can adapt a constitution to this elevated region. On reach ing the mouth of the mine, they saw several emaciated and ghastly-looking Indians seated near the entrance ; they descended a few yards into it, but found that time would not admit of the delay necessary to pass down to the places where they were at work. On no part of their journey did they find so many remarkable plants as on this mountain. Towards the middle of the afternoon they returned to the hut, when they de termined to proceed to Banos. Along the road they passed some high ridges, with snow and ice coming at times down to the path ; also lakes in deep ravines, somewhat resembling small craters, which, like all the rest they had seen, were tenanted by numerous water fowl. The crest of the Andes did not appear here quite so broad as it had been found to be four leagues to the southward, but its elevation was thought to be greater. The continuous ranges of snowy peaks in the direction of Pasco were very striking. The Indians have names for the most remarkable ones, but the Spaniards embrace the whole, together with the principal one, under the name of La Vinda. At dark they reached Banos, which is considered to be at about the same elevation as Culnai, but the descent is more rapid to the former. According to the custom of the country, they applied to the alcalde for accommodations, who is obliged, according to law, to furnish travellers with a house, if the town should possess none for the use of strangers, free of expense, and to provide them with a cook ; the travellers buy their own provisions, and pay for the cooking, one real for each dish. Banos is celebrated for its mineral hot-springs, from which it derives its name; they flow from the base of a high mountain. The town consists of about thirty houses and a church, of which the inhabi tants are very proud. It is a neat little village, situated in a deep ravine, by the side of a tumbling stream, bounded on both sides by precipitous mountains 3000 feet high. Along the margin of the stream, carnations, pinks, stock gillyflowers, and French marigolds grew naturally; the pinks grow in immense numbers in every crack and crevice. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF PERU. ! 1 .", The cabbages here are woody and arborescent, like the cow or tree-cabbage, the trunk and branches being quite hard, and covered with bark. The thermometer stood at 50 degrees, and the weather, in comparison with the day before, was mild. The soil in this valley is good, and cultivated in some places with care: no fruit was observed. The largest trees were a species of elder and a buddka ; calceolaria, salvia, and heliotropium abounded. At an early hour in the morning the villages or huts of this pasture region are deserted by the inhabitants, who go forth to tend their herds. The houses in these villages contained no other articles of furniture than some roughly-made wooden spoons, earthen dishes, and water-jugs, a few boards made into a rough table, with a stool or two, and a bedstead made of canes, and plas tered with clay. In no part of the United States, whether in the cabins of the far west, or in the poorest suburbs of the eastern cities, are persons to be seen living in such a miserable manner. The country people of Peru, notwithstand ing they are surrounded with every thing to make them comfortable, want the knowledge and industry to use the advantages nature has given them. On the party returning to Culnai, the villagers were busy gathering in their potatoes. There were also several patches of oxaliscunata, tropseolum, tuberosum and a species of basella ; all of them are eaten by the natives. These patches are enclosed by low stone dikes ; the plants, as they grow, are earthed up as potatoes are in Europe and the United States; irrigation is necessary, as the soil is light and open, and consists chiefly of decayed rock and vegetable mould. Culnai and Banos are about on the same level, 10,000 feet above the sea, and are the highest points of cultivation; they are both distant from the crest, by the route of the streams, about nine miles. At Obrajillo good crops of Indian corn, rye, and beans are raised ; but none of these grow at a greater altitude. The party saw in the morning a town officer strutting with a spear about the public square, calling all the women out to come and sweep it. They soon made their appearance, and were not long in creating a prodigious dust. They swept the dirt up into small heaps, then taking their coarse shawls from their shoulders, they spread them upon the ground, and put the dirt they had collected into them to be carried away. On settling with the guides at this place, they requested their money might be kept for them until they reached Lima, as they certainly would be robbed if they took it themselves. This proves how little security there is for persons having any thing valuable about them in this country. The frequency of murder, highway robbery, and a constant resort to the cuchiOo, has not been exaggerated in the accounts of Lower Peru. The guides, knowing well the dangers to be apprehended, showed much soli citude about keeping the company together. 944 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. They reached Yanga without accident, and finding the posada occupied by a party of soldiers and a recruiting officer, they were direSed to a house with a porch, but they found it shut up. Soon after a woman appeared, and on being informed of their situation, and that they had fasted for two days, she set about providing for their supper. She proved to be the owner of the estate, was some what advanced in life, managed her own affairs, and was seemingly well adapted to encounter the roughness of the times. The heiress, a little girl, came gallop ing on a horse, driving the cattle before her with the air of a veteran, having command over both the animal she rode and those she drove ; they were not much struck with her beauty, for her well-plastered face, and wide-spreading and matted hair, gave her the appearance of an elf ; but she was a specimen of Peru vian nobility. Their supper was good, and they were permitted to lie on the clay floor in the house. They paid the usual price for the accommodations. In the morning, before their departure, they purchased fifty oranges for twelve and a half cents (a real), it being stipulated, however, that they should be gathered by themselves. These served to refresh them while passing over the barren track (described in their ascent) of four leagues. Monotonous Vegetation. The great difference of elevation, and the varia tion in climate consequent thereon, would lead one to expect a greater variety in the vegetation, than was actually found. Forests were nowhere met with, nor were any of the palm tribe seen ; very few of the many tropical plants were perceived even on the coast of Peru. The smaller shrubs were seldom found, except in the lower region, where their limit is circumscribed to the well-watered district Thickets are very rare, and in the higher regions appear to be alto gether wanting. The vegetation of Peru, on the whole, is characterised by an air of tamenessj indicating but a slight change of season, and has been classed into four distinct botanical regions, which are easily distinguished. Geology of Peru. The geological structure of the region passed over by the exploring party, as far as their observations went, corresponds to that of North Chile, with the exception of a narrow belt of sedimentary rocks along the sea-coast, west of the granitic range, which is wanting in that country. This belt includes the island of San Lorenzo and others, as well as the coast itself, to the extent of from seven to ten miles from the sea-beach. These sedi mentary rocks are argillaceous, distinctly stratified, and more or less slaty, the layers being in many places discoloured by the red oxide of iron. In other places they appeared of a black colour, as if in the vicinity of coal-beds, of which the existence was spoken of, but they did not discover any unequivocal traces of this substance. Some conspicuous examples of faults were noticed by Mr. Dana along the coast of San Lorenzo. Many minerals were also found by this gentleman ; among them gypsum was of frequent occurrence, as well DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF PERU. 945 as some fossils : for fuller information reference is made to the Geological Report. The hills and mountains to the eastward, joining the above sedimentary rocks, are exclusively of granite, which extends in width to the distance of forty- five geographical miles beyond Yaso. In places it has very much the appqarance of a stratified rock : it is much broken, and variable in its character, so as to render it somewhat deceptive. Dr. Pickering observes, " That this peculiar character or appearance is owing to the slow process of the decomposition of the rock in this dry climate, and which would, in other places, subject to the ordinary fluctuations of seasons, be covered with several feet of earth. The same reasons will account for the duration of the Inca villages that cover many of the hills, and which a copious shower would entirely wash away. The granite on its eastern side was coarse-grained, presenting more of the ordinary appearance of that rock." Immediately eastward of the granite district commence the trap rocks, con sisting for the most part of porphyry. Dr. Pickering traced the line of junction for some miles : the hills on one side being of granite, on the other porphyry. The eastern limit of the trap region is supposed to be distant some twenty miles from the western. The porphyry resembles the Swedish, and that in the vicinity of Boston, New England. Many porphyry pebbles, supposed to be of this formation, were found on the beach at Callao, having, it is to be presumed, been carried there by the water-courses. Next comes the plateau of the Cordilleras, which is formed of sedimentary rocks ; this includes the silver-mines, and the highest peaks, and is apparently of the same age as the coast. Much of the rock is argillaceous. At Banos, an argillaceous limestone was used for burning, and quantities of gypsum, used for manure, was brought from the vicinity of Oasa Cancha, some twenty miles to the north. Conglomerates prevailed over a great portion of the crest the party tra versed. The pebbles included of regular shape, smooth and polished as if sea- washed. The smoothness of the pebbles in the torrents of the Cordilleras had a strong resemblance to those on the sea-beach. -United States Exploring Expedi tion. The bare spots of the higher peaks did not present the variety of colour o Chilian Andes, but had a uniform dark, slaty hue. Gypsum incrustations wer seen forming on the rocks and plants. Obrajilio, Canta, and some other valleys in Peru, extend from the sea-coast to the Cordillera: some only descend a few leagues rapidly from the puna lofty table-land, others sink into deep ravines in the Central Andes, or u face of the Montana. The great region between the gigantic mountains, Andes, and western c CordUlera range, comprise, extenswe table-lands yielding short fine grass arui hilly pastures; which, Dr. Smith says, is "very like m general outlme to Highlands of Scotland, though destitute of heath." Th 1S reg.on ,s watered by lagoons and intersected by rivers and temperate or warm valleys, the so.l VOL.!. 6E 946 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. climate of which yield the richest fruits, while the submits of the hills and mountains are cold and barren. Dr. Smith says, " From one of these glens, where we once resided for some time, we left a house at the door of which the lemon-tree was in perpetual fruit and blossom, and in two or three hours thereafter arrived at the rugged crags and peaks of the eastern Cordillera." The roads or routes from the western coast to the Central Andes wind along narrow glens and ravines, fnced by lofty mountains or rocks. "Many of the mountain roads," says Dr. Smith, "as they leave the bottom of the glens, and ascend, in more or less of a caracole, along the face of formidable steeps, seem to bear date of origin from the Quichoa era, when the llama was the only beast of burden in tlie count:". These animals, like their Indian owners, delight most in the cool of the hills ; but, when laden and on the road, their slow and stately gait must not be hurried or interfered with, nor their burden increased beyond their liking, which seldom exceeds seventy or eighty pounds weight on a long journey : the Indian understands their way, and rules them by gentleness. As the llamas are not for forced marches, and only make short stages of three or four leagues daily, the paths that lead through the pasture- grounds are the best suited for them. " There are places where there would be danger, on meeting an impatient animal or careless horseman, that either party would be hurled over the brink, and consigned to the condors and eaglets that nestle on the cliffs and in the dark chasms of the crags. "Such dangerous passes are at some places so contracted that the stirrup of the muleteer is seen to overhang the foaming stream, or project beyond the verge of the boldest precipice ; and every now and then they are made more formidable by abrupt angles and insecure breast-work without parapets, hastily constructed when the rush of a sudden torrent from the hollow of a hill, or large stones rolling from the heights, have cleft the way so as to render it for a time impassable. "There are also many cuestas or rapid steeps, with here and there flights of steps, roughly cut in the hard rock. By the wayside, in tedious cuestas of several leagues in extent, recesses are, in numerous instances, worked out on the higher side of the road, which serve for the passengers to draw up, while those from an opposite direction are allowed to pass on, or where muleteers stop their cattle to adjust their cargoes and tighten their lassos. But when a rock or shoulder of a cliff juts out from the road towards the lower or precipice side, leaving more or less room for a resting-place, then the little flat space is coarsely walled in with large fragments of rock and such smaller stones as may be at hand, giving the idea of a rucfe but commanding fortress. " The famous Cuesta of San Mateo, on the Tarma road from Lima, we passed in the year 1834, and could not but wonder how, without any very serious accident, an army of cavalry had been able to pass the same route a few months before, when the path and staircases were yet wet and slippery from occasional showers. "The Indian s eyrie on the summit of some steep and lofty mountain (seldom visited by a white man, save the curate), may be easily passed many times unnoticed by a stranger, who may never be led to suspect its existence, unless he meets a swift- footed Indian, closely followed by a person on a well-accoutred and elegant mule, whose gear," says Dr. Smith, * is all laden with silver ornaments ; and the rider, who sits at his ease in a saddle of the country with a rich pellon, wears a large-brimmed hat, with a black silk cap emerging to view at the ears and temples. He has on at least a couple of ponchos (mantles) well-decorated and fringed ; his black or brown stockings are of warm Vicuna wool ; and the heel of a small shoe, half-concealed in a clumsy and costly, though wooden stirrup, is armed with a prodigiously disproportioned silver spur, with a large tinkling roller, used to keep his noble animal in mind that she is but the harbinger of death, and carries on her back the keeper of the sinner s conscience. "This minister of peace to the miserable hurries to save the soul of a dying Christian, whose abode, like the falcon s, overlooks the ordinary path of wayfaring men ; and which, when descried, seems, to the sight of an observer underneath, to be indeed the loftiest earthly point between the ground he himself stands upon and that heaven for which, it DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF PERU. ! ] 7 is believed, the anxious and fluttering spirit of the gasping Indian only waits the cm absolution and blessing to wing its immortal flight. It occurs to us here to remark, tl, ,t in the remote curacies of the hills no friars are to be seen, as on the coast or more genial climates ; an important part of whose duty it is, wherever they locate themselves, to aid the Christian to die well, and to watch by his pillow, and exhort and comfort him) while the crucifix and taper are ever before his eyes, and the breath of life about to leave his animal frame." From Lima to the Cerro de Pasco a rider, on a good horse, will arrive in four days without injury to himself or beast, and this is considered good work ; but we have known the journey from the Cerro to Lima performed in about fifty hours : this again is a work of over-exertion for the man, who is very likely to incapacitate one or perhaps two animals in the undertaking. It may be said, in general, that on a rough and hilly road a league an hour is a fair rate of travelling for a fresh beast on any ordinary journey in the interior of Peru. The arrieros with cargoes usually take nine or ten days, and sometimes more, from Lima to Pasco, as they make short stages, consulting the ease of their cattle and convenience of lucern or pasture ; and at Obrajillo they commonly rest a day at least, to refresh or perhaps relay some of their cattle, before they proceed to brave the toils of the Cordillera. Bridges. When the aboriginal race had to pass any river, their engineers supplied, as best they could, the wants of science by natural sagacity. They constructed a simple bridge near the outlet of a stream whence it happened to flow ; as is seen at the Lakes of Lauricocha and Pomacocha. The bridge was built by laying down large stones at short intervals from bank to bank ; and when piled above the surface of the water, they served as abutments or supporters, over which were laid transversely large flags, which formed an even and safe pas sage for men and cattle. These abutments, too wide apart for stepping-stones, are still to be seen firm in their places, though the transverse flags are no longer found, at least at Pomacocha. The swing or soga bridge, of ancient invention, is still used in Peru, made by ropes twined from the pliable bejuco, twigs of willow, or any other flexible and vegetable filaments ; and these are well secured at the ends on the opposite banks of the water : on these, bundles of maguey leaves, broom, o other long shrubs, are laid crosswise, and bound closely and firmly by ligaments or slips of the maguey leaf ( cabuia"). This kind of bridge is made ofsuffi breadth for foot-passengers ; and a hand-rope runs along each side, by which traveller can steady himself while walking over. A good specimen of this km is the soga bridge of modern Huanuco. At Oroya, over the River Jauja, tl is one strong enough for cargo-mules to cross upon. The ropes are made c lock s hide, and extend from bank to bank; the eras-ban are squared pieces of wood bound down with thongs, and broad enough to allow the animal to pass I passing the lakes and rivers of the Andes, the "balsa- a small can. rushes, is used. 948 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Aqueducts. The aqueducts of the ancient Peruvians are still traced along the chasms of rocks and sides of arid eminences in the vicinity of the coast, and in the dry intermediate valleys. These ruined aqueducts sometimes appear among the most rugged crags, and in some places are elevated to a remarkable elevation. Dr. Smith says, One of the most striking of these aqueducts is about eight leagues from Lima, on the low road to Alcacota by Caballeros, on a high rocky acclivity, along the base of which runs the road, close by the winding of the River Chillon or Carabaillo, which descends from the Cordillera, by Obrajillo. It is also very usual in the temperate valleys, where the hills are flanked with soil, and clothed in vegetation, to meet here and there the rums of small villages with files of successively rising platforms on the hollow side of a hill. These tiers of artificial flats, or gardens, are generally only a few yards in breadth ; but in length greater or less, in proportion to the dimensions of the semicircular sweep of the recess capable of cultivation." Hanging Gardens. Between the cliffs in the neighbourhood of Culnai, may be seen samples of those tiers of gardens, built up one above the other on the face of the acclivity. In constructing these gardens one above the other, the aborigines must have begun by erecting a stone wall on the lower part of the slope, or more even ground, that formed the base of the series ; and, as it was in process of rising to the desired height, the earth must have been scraped down from the side of the acclivity, to fill up the space thus partitioned off into a level bank or platform : then, behind this first level was raised another stony partition, and more earth again scraped down; and so on successively, till the uppermost and last tier of these little and tasteful gardens was completed.* By such means the natives always preserved deep soil, which they dug up at pleasure, bringing a new surface of earth to yield a new crop without manure, and by the same contrivance they preserved from the washings of the frequent and heavy rains, the vegetable loam which they thus so laboriously collected. On descending from the inner regions of the country, among the arid and naked granite mountains near the coast, the ruins of Pagan dwellings show themselves in the crevices of the rocks, where no plant is seen on the waste land, save a few scattered cacti, and no moving creature except the lizard that basks, and the kite that waits its motions, on the crumbling ruins and circumjacent blocks, which have been rolled from their original seats on the face of the steep. Nearer the capital, the vale of Rimac unfolds its wide and fertile deep alluvial soil, but which if not irrigated presents a sterile desert. It only requires irrigation and no manure to yield sugar-cane, and to send forth lucern and Indian corn in luxuriance. * The Indian gardens on the hills of the Sierra are by the Spaniards called Andenes, whence Andes. PERUVIAN MINKS. .I };, CHAPTER XVIII. MINERALS. THE mineral riches of the Montana, especially in silver extracted, great ; but many of the mines are abandoned. Those of Pasco are considered the richest mines now worked in South America; they formerly produced eight I million of dollars, or 1,800,000/. annually. The mines of Gualgayoc, towards the northern boundary of the republic, are also rich. At Huancabelica there are quicksilver mines, which were formerly productive; gold dust, and in pieces, occurs !in several rivers ; copper, iron, lead, and sulphur are also found. Nitrate of soda ; is gathered in the Valles as an article of export. Salt is prepared along the Pacific, [especially at Salimus, near Callao, in Sechura Bay, rock-salt in the interior of Montana. PLAIN OF SAN JUAN AND MINING REGION OP PASCO. The town of Pasco, situated at an elevation of 13,000 feet, in the plain of San Juan, near the head of two ravines, one Rumiallana, leading to the northward, the other Huanuco, to the eastward. It has the beautiful Lake of Chinchaicoca, near old Pasco on the south. Herds of cattle and flocks of sheep feed on the brows of the hills ; the tame llama and the shy vecuna are also seen; geese, ducks, snipes, plovers, water- hens, flamingoes, and other birds abound on or near the waters. The climate for at least half the year is gloomy and cold. The ground that has been broken up, and in which ores have been found, is about half a mile in length, in a north and south direction, and about one-fourth of a mile east and west. Within the whole of this extent ores have been mined of greater or less value, and the mines formerly worked, and now deserted, are said to amount to upwards of a thousand. Pasco is surrounded, north-east and south, by hills of blue limestone; on the west by hills of sandstone ; and on the south-west by hills of a blue slate. All the ores of the Cerro are ferruginous, and the silver nearest to the surface is con tained in an ochreous iron-stone. In some places the silver is mixed with lead and copper, and at variable depths; the ores rest on a bed of solid iron pyrites, which in some mines yield silver. The plain of San Juan on the north is divided into many mining districts, to which names are given to distinguish them more readily. The southernmost of these, Zauricocha, contains several mines, from which the greatest quantity of silver has been produced since the revolution. In the district of Santa Rosa, west of Zauricocha, a greater quantity of ore has been raised. On the east of the Zauricocha is the district called Aranillapata, in which few mines are now worked; the ore, although abundant, is not rich. Cayac, another district lying north of Zauricocha, is worked to some prof and several mines in it have been yielding good returns. 950 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. To the north of Cayac are the Chucarillo and Zauracancha districts, the working of the mines in which had been impeded by water. To the north of these last two districts lies the plain of San Juan; there are a few small veins running through some parts of it, but no important discovery has yet been made, although many mines have been opened and carried down to the depths of 120 to 150 feet. The whole number of mines considered rich in the different districts of Pasco may be enumerated as follows : Zauricocba 12 to 14 Santa Rosa 20 25 Cayac 10 12 Chucarillo.. 5 6 Zauracancba 10 12 Each of these mines comprises a space of 180 feet long by 90 feet wide. The silver ores are estimated by a measure called a box of ore, which con tains twenty-five mule loads of ten arrobas, or twenty-five pounds each. Each box varies in value from six Spanish marcs to 3000; the former being the lowest which, under the most favourable circumstances, will pay the cost of working. The miner who raises ores in considerable quantities, which will give ten to twelve marcs per box, is considered to work profitably. The produce of these mines since the close of the revolutionary war, has amounted to the following quantities : YEARS. Silver. Weight. YEARS. Silver. Weight. 1825 . .. bars. 228 marcs, oz. 56 971 6 1833 bars. 1133 marcs, oz. 256 333 2 1826 818 163,852 1834 1142 267 363 4 1827 1068 221,707 7 1143 276 813 2 1828 922 201 338 1836 . 991 244 404 1 1829 359 82 031 1837 1972 234 785 3 1830 457 96 205 1838 1172 248 022 6 1831 635 135,139 3 1210 279 260 3 1832 994 219,380 5 Shopkeepers and dealers in plata-pina are tempted to lend money to needy mine-owners, to be repaid in pina* at so much per marc. Such a lender is called " habilitador ;" but, by the custom and usage of the miner, the last " ha- bilitador" has a claim to be first paid, which leads to the worst practical results. The establishment for grinding and amalgamating the ores are situated at * Plala-pina, or simply pina, is the name given to silver not entirely purified from the mercury which adheres to it in the process of amalgamation. Amalgamation is effected by mixing the ore, after it has been ground, with salt and quicksilver ; treading the whole together by men or cattle ; then allowing it to repose in cerco, or in the enclosure in which it has been trodden, for a month or six weeks. At the expiration of this time the quicksilver is supposed to have combined with all the silver in the mass, and to have formed a perfect amalgam, called pella, which is sepa rated by washing away the mud and refuse of the ore. The pella thus obtained is white, and so liquid that, by putting it into a strong bag, a considerable quantity of the mercury is made, by pres sure, to escape, leaving the amalgam solid. It is decomposed by a red heat ; and the mercury being distilled, it may again be applied to the same purpose as before. In the process there is usually great waste of quicksilver, on account of the bad apparatus employed ; and the fixed metal or silver which remains is what is called pina. This pina is usually sold by the miner in round masses larger than cannon-balls ; and these balls of silver are, by the trader who does not venture on smuggling, carried to the government smelter stationed at the mines, by whom they are melted down, purified, and cast into bars, which are stamped as the ley or standard purity : after which thev are carried to the mint to be coined. arc CLIMATE OF PERU. from one mile to three leagues from the mines : those nearest the town deficient in water for several months in the year. The construction of all these mills is rude, and much power is lost. The consumption of mercury, including mechanical and chemical loss, is about one pound for each marc of silver produced. No attempts have been made at roasting any of the ores. Coal mines are met with in various parts of the country, at the distance of from two to seven leagues ; the price is one real for an arroba, but might be much reduced if the business were properly attended to. Speculation is always rife in search of these valuable ores, and prospects of great pain are invariably held out to those who engage in them ; hut there is much difficulty in getting the business into successful operation. The great error com mitted by all the English companies established in 1825, for working mi ties i/i Spanish America, was in saddling themselves with numbers of people, engaged at high salaries, and workmen at extravagant wages : the expenses attending I /tin force swallowed up much of the funds before any work was begun. These included not only inspectors and mining captains, but artisans, all of whom were sent from England. From a total change of life and circumstances, the mining captains and artisans almost invariably turned out in a short time drunkards, and became good for nothing. In some cases miners were brought out, and these turned out still more worthless than either of the two former classes. They, indeed, did more work than the Indians, but their wages were higher, and the expenses for their importation in addition made them cost much more. The silver yielded in this department must, according to law, be sent to the government assay office to be melted into bars, and thence to the mint at Lima to be coined. The usual price of silver as it comes from the mine, is from seven dollars six reals, to seven dollars seven reals per marc. If remitted to Lima on account of the miner, it yields him about eight dollars one real per marc. CHAPTER XIX. CLIMATE. IN the Valles of Peru rain seldom or never falls. There are heavy dews ; for six months in the year the interior of the Montana is subject to heavy daily showers, during the rainy season rains fall in torrents over the plains. In the Valles there are fogs, called garua. In the Montana there is great cold on the sides and tops of the mountains, and excessive heat in the deep valleys. The plains are unhealthy, excessive heat causes pestilential vapours to arise from the stagnant waters. Generally speaking, the climate of Peru is far less salubrious than would be supposed from external appearances. Dr. Smith, who lived in the country, and who made its maladies and its climate his special study, says, 952 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the temperature of the low valleys on the coast of Peru may be said not generally to exceed 82 deg. Fahrenheit in summer, nor lower than 60 deg. in winter. Pauza, the most northern province of Peru, has an almost perpetually dry atmosphere. When rain happens to fall which is rare grass and vegetables suddenly spring up on the fields of sand. As to the temperature generally of the sea-coast region, Dr. Smith observes, " That where high hills overhang the sandy plains, or dry pampas, it is difficult to say to what degree the thermometer may fall during night, when the rush of cold air from the upper^egions is in proportion to the degree of radiation from the plains, and the force with which the sun s rays during the day had struck on the scorched ground. So intensely on such occasions does the traveller feel the transition, that, when benighted on desert places, he is sometimes compelled by the keenness of the cold to dismount, and bury himself up to the neck in the warm sand, until a returning sun again befriend him on the morrow, and encourage him to pursue his trackless way. " In Lima, the capital of Peru, neither the extremes of heat nor of cold are ever experienced; an advantage which it partly owes to its very splendid back-ground of mountains, rising one above another to the skies. " On one occasion, when we observed the barometer fall from 29 T 9 ff to 29|- inches, there had been a smart earthquake, which, though it happened in the usually dry month of January, was preceded by a gentle shower of rain, at the appearance of which the people in the streets rejoiced, and called it aqua bendita T holy water! On another occasion, when we noticed a similar sinking of the mercury, the River Rimac showed, by its turbid and swollen stream, that it rained heavily in the higher mountains. As for thunder and lightning, they have been so rarely witnessed in Lima, that there they may be said to be unknown. The above statements regarding the state of the atmosphere in Lima, it may be proper to mention, are founded on observations made by the writer at his residence in Archbishop s-street, close to the cathedral and great square; but about a mile higher up, in a part of the city called the * Cercado, the influence of the adjacent hills is more sensibly felt in the cooler evenings and mornings; the night thermometer sometimes sinks down to 54 deg. at the orchards of the Cercado, when in the centre of the city it falls within an open window or veranda not under 60 deg. of Fahrenheit." Smith s Peru. In Lima the seasons are usually distinguished as spring, summer, autumn, and winter, but the usual division of the aborigines, into wet and dry, are the true distinctions. " In May the mornings become damp and hazy ; and, from the beginning to the latter end of June, more or less drizzly. In October, again, the rains, which even in the months of July and August are seldom heavier than a Scotch mist, cannot be said to be altogether over, as the days are still more or less wet, or occasionally there may be seen to fall a light passing shower; the evenings and mornings being damp and foggy. " In November and December, when the dry season may be reckoned to have set in, the weather, except for an interval at noon, is for the most part cool, bracing, and de lightful : and April, too, is in this respect an agreeable month ; at the latter end of which, the natives of the capital, being so exceedingly sensitive as to feel a difference of only two or three degrees betwixt the temperature of two succeeding days like an entire change of climate, are admonished, by a disagreeable change in their sensations, to pro tect themselves by warm apparel against the chills arising from an occasional north-west, or from the influence of the common south-west wind. "Throughout summer the wind blows almost uniformly, and in gentle breezes, from the south ; but the prevailing wind for nine months in the year is the south-west, which, as it mingles with the warmer air along the arid coasts of Peru, tends to moderate the temperature of the atmosphere, and to produce the fog and garua, or thick Scotch mists, of which we have taken notice. During the dry season on the coast, the rains are experienced in the interior of the country and lofty range of the high table-lands; CLIMATE OF PERU. 953 especially in the months of January, February, and March, when the rain that falls inland is often very heavy, and, on the most elevated regions, it is not unfrequently alternated with snow and hail. Thus, the dry season of the coast is the wet in the sierra, or mountain land, and vice versa; and by merely ascending nigher to the sierra, or descending close to the sea, without any appreciable shifting of latitude, the favoured Peruvians may enjoy, by the short migration of a few leagues, a perpetual summer or an endless winter; if that, indeed, should be called winter, which is the season of natural growth and herbage."* Smith s Peru. By the end of September, which is the beginning of spring, the trees in the great avenues around Lima begin to bud ; and the leaves expand, as the grass fades on the adjacent hills. As soon as the natural vegetation on the neighbour ing heights, and nearer ridges and declivities in view of the city, withers, the irrigated fields and enclosures send forth verdant agricultural crops. Barley, peas, and maize, sown during the wet or misty season, come to maturity through the action of sun and artificial moisture, after all natural or spontaneous vegetation has withered and disappeared from the arid hills and sandy downs. The maize crops are always harvested in the "menguante," or decrease of the moon. Every cultivator believes, that if he collects the crop in the " creciente," or increase of the moon, it will not keep free of moths or mould for three months, even if left in the husk, in which state it is least liable to damage. In the valleys around Lima the agriculturist will not sow in the " creciente," lest the seed should not yield a healthy crop. The same attention is observed by the wood-cutter, who considers that timber cut in the " creciente" soon decays. Mr. Smith says, " Being disinclined to believe what he considered to be the prejudices of the natives respecting lunar influence, he insisted upon roofing in part of a house with alder and willow cut in the * creciente; and after a couple of years he was convinced of his own error, when he saw the timber employed become quite brittle and useless." The " arriero," or muleteer, scrupulously observes the influence of the moon on his cattle. If he travels in the " creciente, he will not unsaddle his horses, nor unpad his cargo -mules, until they have rested and cooled. asserts that, if he should neglect these precautions, he would be sure to hav cattle disabled by large inflammatory swellings, rapidly running on to suppuration, forming on their shoulders or loins. The " chalan," or horse-jobber, will not be prevailed upon to cul from a horse s gums ; nor will a citizen of Lima, at any time, e menauante pare his own corns, for fear of inducing severe imfa * - Late in August, or earlv in September , or seven leagues south of Lima, when the sandy downs, jet ne* D , r and garnished with flowers, such of the trees in the .vale ****? coast , ? mpa rt a like the vegetation of the neighbouring h S0crf to shed abroad their J| in a tive note, responds from the guarango grove. VOL. I. 954 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. all these facts, lunar influence is considered very remarkable in Peru, both in respect to the animal and vegetable kingdom. There certainly appears to be something peculiarly enervating in the atmosphere of Lima. According to Dr. Smith and others, the dog species becomes sluggish and spiritless, and more disposed to bark than to bite ; and it shows itself in its influence on the male descendants of unmixed European parentage. The sons of the old brave and stately Spaniard dwindle away into effeminacy. Dr. Smith observes, " If the mildness of contagious epidemic diseases were to afford a fair test by which to judge of the climate of any particular locality, or the medical police of its community, that of Lima would surely rank as one of the most favourable. But, however open and spacious be the construction of the houses and site of this capital, and whatever may be said for, or against, the personal and domestic cleanliness of its inhabitants, and other circumstances affecting the health of individuals, it must be admitted that the salubrity of Lima, and the chances of life it affords, are materially diminished from the want of due attention to public cleanliness." The aqueducts or canals, which run along the principal streets from east to west, and give off branches for gardens and convents, &c., are, after they have passed the city, to some extent usefully distributed on fields be tween it and the seaport. But, in general, agriculture, like every other branch of industry, is neglected since the revolution. The drains intended to convey the surplus water from the city over a gentle slope, to impart moisture to the good soil which could not otherwise part with its nutritive properties, or support vegetation, are frequently in a ruinous condition. Thus, the water is suffered to stagnate in some parts, and run waste in others, without being applied to those purposes of tillage which should be the means of augmenting the health, popu lation, and general resources of Lima and its environs. By the street-canals, are to be seen all day long vultures (by far the most efficient agents of police), gulping up the refuse cast into these receptacles of every sort of nuisance. When the water runs in small quantity, or is altogether stopped from neglect, the quan tity of vegetable and animal deposit carelessly allowed to accumulate in these channels emits gaseous volatile poison, more or less penetrating and pernicious, according to the season of the year and heat of the weather. The manure conveyed from the pens and stables, when not thrown into the canals, is conveyed to the broad walls of the city, and there heaped up day after day ; or, if not thus disposed of, it is carried to the river s brink, where it is suffered to accumulate into fermenting mounds, daily increasing in size. Here it absorbs moisture, and generates miasmata. Culpable inattention to the cleanliness and salubrity of the capital has contributed largely to entail upon them a greater proportion of disease and mortality than could be expected from the climate. Those natives, indeed, who have passed a life of well-regulated habits, are said to attain a cheerful old age in Lima ; and there are instances CLIMATE OF PERU. 955 of a few individuals exceeding a hundred years of age, who preserve con siderable bodily activity and mental vivacity. NUMBER of Deaths in Lima and its Suburbs, from the Year 1826 to the Year ! both inclusive, taken from a careful Examination of the Register- Books to the Pantheon, or Public Cemetery at Lima. YEARS. Deaths. YEARS. Deaths. Total Number of Deaths in the preceding Ten Years. number. 2075 1831 number. number. 2162 1832 2106 1833 1829 1948 1834 1830 2118 1835 2603 The capital of Lima comprehends within its walls, huts and cottages, conti guous to the city gates, and suburbs of San Lazaro, 54,098 persons of all sexes, castes, states, arid conditions, which are distinguished minutely in the same state ment, of which the total amount consists of 27,545 males, and 26,553 females. Mr. Smith, speaking of the climate of Peru and of the high region which he visited, observes, " From Yanga to Huaramayo, the glen through which lies the road to Cerro Pasco by Canta is extremely narrow and confined, except at Santa Rosa, where it is somewhat more open. The way often recedes from, though it is generally in sight of, the bed of the river; and is bound in on each side by lofty and sterile granite mountains, which, on the left side of the river as we ascend, are frequently intersected with narrow, perpendi cular veins, that arise from the level of the water to the very summit of the mountain, and, from the road, present a ferruginous appearance. It is only by continued irrigation that the few patches and strips of soil throw forth their vegetable luxuriance. "At Huaramayo the temperature is intermediate between that of the Sierra and the coast ; and, as in the warm inland valleys in the centre of the Andes, so here, in a region of corresponding benignancy on the western acclivity of the same great mountain pile, we have the tree called molle, or mulli, in abundance along the river s edge. This tree is much prized as fuel ; and the sugar-refiners of the interior use the ashes from it, in pre ference to those from any other wood, on account of their higher alkaline properties, and consequent efficiency in purifying the cane-juice while being boiled down to a proper consistence to be cast in moulds."* * "The Inca nation," as we learn from Garcilaso de la Vega (see " Commentaries Re^es de los Incas," lib. viii. cap. xii.), " made a highly valued and medicinal beer, which some of the 1 of the interior still occasionally prepare, from the clusters of small-grained fruit that hang g fully and abundantly from this pretty tree. We have said that the climate here corn* that of the warm central valleys of the Andes j but though analogous in several respects, yet is this marked difference, that at Huaramayo, and other headlands like Huaramayo, as, tc ample, Surco, on the San Mateo route to the Sierra from Lima, there is neither wmtei mer, but one perpetual spring. It does not rain here for several months in the year a: more inland vales ; but it agrees with them in being out of the sphere of frosts, and e from the raw fogs and sultry heat of the coast. At Surco, Huaramayo, and other sinula ties in narrow glens extending from the coast to the Cordilleras the sun appears t to set early, for it is only for a few hours in the middle of the day that it slimes strongly hetv the perpendicular and lofty hills of the valley; and the mid-day heat arising from the power* reflection of the sun s rays on the bare rocks, is succeeded by a cool and agreeable evening H then the atmospherical currents of mountains and coast meet and neutralise each ot .- * tremes of both disappear : and the result is a delicious climate for the convalescent important fact the delicate inhabitants of Lima are perfectly acquainted, and they are _ accust to resort to the cabezadas, or headlands of valleys, where these verge on the joint air 956 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Captain Wilkes, of the United States Exploring Expedition, observes, " that were it not for irrigation from the mountain streams, a great part of Peru would become a desert. Indeed, the upland is so now. Though dry, the atmosphere is far from clear. Father Truillo, more than a century ago, recorded that the heavens were generally obscured. Captain Wilkes says, although a glimpse of the sun was usually had some time in the day, yet it was almost as difficult to get an observation of the sun as in Terra del Fuego. The dew almozo of Lima is never so great as to produce running water ; yet it is more like rain than a Scottish mist." He accounts for the aridity of the high Cordilleras of Chili, as well as for the existence of the Desert of Acama, the want of rain on the coast of Peru, and the moisture of the high Cordilleras of Peru, to the fact that the cold dry winds from the southward, sweeping over the western, are great absorbents of moisture. On reaching about latitude 12 deg. south, they cease from being satu rated, and on reaching to a sufficient height, are condensed by the cold, and fall on the mountain regions in almost constant rain. He further observes, fire is not used often in Lima, but that there is a "cold clammy feeling, that is exceed ingly uncomfortable and prejudicial to health. Lima has the reputation of being healthy, but it does not deserve it." The interments have annually averaged over 3500, in a population not exceeding 45,000. Many of these are those of strangers, and the climate has always been fatal to the Indians. tains and coast ; as, for example, Matucana, the favourite resting-place of phthisical and hsemop- tic individuals." Close to Huaramayo, and by the old line of road, begin the steep ascents called the Paxaron, from the number of paroquets always seen about this place. The path is narrow, fatiguing, and precipitous, to near the village of Obrajillo, a distance of several leagues. On the airy hill-tops, that overlook this way and the ravine below it, are several villages, which are only to be ap proached by a zigzag and arduous track ; and here the traveller passes over scenery which terrifies those who are unaccustomed to the ruggedness of alpine regions. Canta and Obrajillo are situated in the same opening among the mountains : the latter is entirely the residence of muleteers, whose strong and active women share in the labours of the field ; while Canta, on an eminence, is a provincial town, and the seat of a governorship. The village of Obrajillo is built in a sort of irregular hollow near the bed of a small river, surrounded by arable hills receding and expanding as they rise towards the loftier summits, and therefore affording better ventilation than is to be found in any part of the valley between this and Yanga. Canta is considered a sort of hospital for the invalides of Lima. In a medical point of view, Dr. Smith considers it invested with a great deal of interest. It is built on a hill whose base skirts the village of Obrajillo ; while from the plaza of the lower village to the higher town, the ascent is no more than about thirty minutes walk. Canta is also considered to enjoy a far purer air than Obrajillo. The inhabitants of Obrajillo and Canta cultivate alfalfa, or lucern, everywhere near the river, and in little enclosures, the surrounding hills are covered with pasture: the lower declivities and slopes produce wheat, beans, potatoes, maize, &c. Of the leaves of the culen, one of the most common shrubs, the natives make a tea which is deemed an excellent stomachic. During the wet season flowers and flowering shrubs shoot forth with liberal profusion ; but there is little wood to supply the inhabitants. Stone or adobe walls, with thatched roofs, are the buildings of the small villages or pueblos of the Sierra of Obrajillo. se dwellings are the receptacles of potatoes, maize, and other eatables. When the family re tire to sleep, most of them lie down on sheepskins wherever they can find room. POPULATION OF PERU. CHAPTER XX. POPULATION. THE inhabitants are Creoles, or other descendants of Spaniards, Mestizoes, and a few negroes and mulattoes, but chiefly the descendants of the ancient Peruvians. The descendants of the Peruvians are tolerably industrious agri culturists, manufacturers, and fishermen. The coasting trade in the balsas is also carried on by them. They speak the quichua or language of the Incas. The tribes that inhabit the plains live chiefly amid the forests, and along the rivers. Estimated number of inhabitants 230,819 whites; 848,846 Peruvians; 323,782 Mestizoes; 64,878 mulattoes; and 31,628 slaves: total, 1,499,953. Distributed as follows in the departments. But this and all other estimates of the population we consider vaguely calcu lated, though probably as near an approximation to the number as can be obtained, without taking a regular and correct census. Of the white, or population of European races, we can say little more than will be found hereafter in the account of Lima. Of their general incapacity, until the people become more intelligent, and public men more virtuous, we have unfortu nately too abundant proof. The most recent description of the population of Peru is drawn up by Von Tschudi. He possibly tells us what he considers true ; and other writers unhap pily corroborate his assertions, we believe, however, there are many exceptions to the general rule. We extend these exceptions even to all the other states of the Spanish American republics; and the following remarks are, we believe, as applicable to the one as to the other of these states. Of the aboriginal race, what is referable to Peru may be, with little variation, extended to Bolivia, Ecuador, and part of New Granada. Von Tschudi s account of the state, and his opinion of the prospects, of Peru, do not certainly convey much that is satisfactory, nor much good to hope for. Its moral degradation is significant in the decline of its population, which has been continually diminishing since the establishment of its independence. A great region, which contained an enormous population at the period of the conquest, numbered, according to what was termed the census of 1836, less than 1,400,000 inhabitants, not more than formerly inhabited the department of Cusco alone. "Not less remarkable," he says, "than the numbei :of Jl^gitimate children (860) is that of the new-born infants exposed and found dead (495). These afford the mos striking proofs of the immorality which prevails in Lima, especially among the cc people 5 to them belong nearly two-thirds of the illegitimate births, and fully four-fifths of the children cast out to die. There is reason to suspect, though it cannot be posi. 958 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. lively proved, ihat no small portion of the latter suffer a violent death by the hands of their mothers. When a dead child is picked up before the church of San Lazaro, or in the street, it is carried without a word of inquiry to the Pantheon ; frequently it is not even thought worth while to bury it. I have seen the vultures dragging about the sweltering carcases of infants and devouring them in the populous streets. ... On comparing the lists of births and deaths from 1826 to 1842, I satisfied myself that the annual excess of the latter over the former averages 550." The causes of the decrease of population are ascribed partly to earthquakes, epidemics, and civil wars; and to the corruption of the national character, chiefly aggravating the calamities of the people. All the degraded features of Mexican character, all the public and private vices bequeathed by the Spaniard to his colonial descendants, present themselves, according to Tschudi, in Peru in exaggerated deformity. The white Creoles are described as a gross, sensual, slothful race, with, however, some generous qualities. The men are tall and well- proportioned, but exceedingly effeminate, with, he says, features that might be thought handsome, but for the expression stamped upon them by low vices and sensuality.* The women of Lima are described as far superior to the men, both corporeally and intellectually ; they are affectionate mothers, though their conduct in other respects is any thing but exemplary. It is not for the sake of pleasing their husbands that they cling, with invincible obstinacy, to the use of their national walking garb, the saya y manto, in which they take their walks in the streets, quite secure in that disguise from detection, even by the most jealous scrutiny. The veil is inviolable ; any one who should attempt to take off a woman s manto would be immediately attacked by the populace. The lives of these ladies com prises two phases: in the bloom of beauty their time is divided between " doing nought and naughty doings ;" when their charms are on the wane they take to devotion and scandal.f " Not that they are wanting in natural abilities, but these are not sufficiently developed by their very imperfect education, and their inveterate indolence prevents them from making good the deficiencies of their early years in after-life. They seldom rise above the sphere of every day matter of fact, and they are ignorant of almost every thing that lies beyond the narrow circle of their town, or at most of their district. I have often been astounded at the gross ignorance dis played by what were called well-educated Peruvians, respecting the position, extent, physical constitution, and the productions of their native land. Incredible as it may appear, it is a positive fact that a Peruvian minister-of-war could not tell either the number of the population or the area of Peru, and maintained with the utmost pertinacity that Portugal formed its eastern boundary, and that one might travel thither from Peru by land. Of past history they know little more than the name of Napoleon ; but in talking of him they make the most ludicrous jumble of events, places, dates, and persons. For instance, a gentleman of high rank, who was universally reputed to he a very learned man, once related to me at full length how Frederick the Great drove Napoleon out of Russia." " A young lady of Lima rises late, dresses her hair with orange or jasmine flowers, and waits for breakfast, after which she receives or pays visits. During the heat of the day she swings in a hammock, or reclines on a sofa, smoking a cigar. After dinner she again pays visits, and finishes the evening either in the theatre, or the Plaza, or on the bridge. Few ladies occupy themselves with needle-work or netting, though some of them possess great skill in those arts. ... The pride which the fair Limenas take in their dainty little feet knows no bounds. Walking, sitting, POPULATION OF PERU. Of all the coloured inhabitants of Lima the free negroes are, in Von Tschudi s opinion, the most hopelessly depraved ; and next to them in immorality and vileness are the Zamboes. The mulattoes display better mental qualities; the Mestizoes are little inferior to the white Creoles. The Mestizoes look down on the Indians with contempt, which the latter return with unforgiving hatred. Von Tschndi and others are of opinion that the degenerate descendants of the Spaniards will be exterminated by the aborigines. The first edition of Garcilaso de la Vega s " History of the Incas was seized and burnt by the Spanish government, "because it contained a prophecy registered in the temple of Cusco long before the arrival of the Spaniards, and which announced the conquest of the kingdom, but added that the Incas would be restored to their throne at some future time by a people from a country called Inclaterra." The Indians made fierce attempts in the latter part of the eighteenth century to throw off the Spanish yoke, under Tupae Amaru, a descendant of their Incas. They were vanquished at last, it is said, by Spanish gold, but not until nearly 100,000 Spanish and Peruvian lives had been slaughtered. When the war of liberation broke out, the aboriginal races were easily persuaded to join. " But," Tschudi says, " it is a great mistake to suppose that the native Indians made .common cause with the Creoles against the Spaniards for the purpose of bringing about the present form of government; for their real object was to shake off the foreign yoke, and establish a dynasty of their own, after the pattern of their ancestors. Il was not a or standing, swinging in the hammock, or lying on the sofa, they are ever watchful to let their tiny feet be seen. Praise of their virtue, their understanding, or their beauty, sounds not half s sweetly in their ears as encomiums bestowed on their pretty feet. They take the most scrupulous care of them, and avoid every thing that might favour their enlargement. A large foot (/ a aza Inglesa, an English foot, as they say) is an abomination to them. I once heard a beautil European lady deservedly extolled by some fair dames of Lima, but they wound up II eulogies with these words : Pao que pie, vat game Dios ! pawe una lancha / (but what a loot ; good heavens! it is like a great boat !) and yet the foot in question would by no means n been thought large in Europe. . . . They have great penetration, sound judgment, ar correct views respecting the most diversified affairs of life. Like the women of 8 ire remarkable for their quick and pointed repartees, and a Limenas is sure never t< second best in a war of words. They possess a rare firmness of character, and t generally given to their sex : in these respects they are far superior to the dastardly, vaci.iati men, and they have plaved as important a part as the latter (often one much more so) in political troubles of the" country. Ambitious and aspiring, accustomed to condu maziest intrigues, with a presence of mind that never fails them at critical moments pas and bold, theV mingle in the great game of politics with momentous effect, and usual! their own advantage, seldom to that of the state. All these characteristics were combined in a high degree in the person of Don F Subvaga, the wife of Don Agustin Gamarra, formerly president of Peru deed, of having been the main cause of the unhappy condition of Pen. at the period c rule, but I believe that the real source of the evil lay m her husbands *^ M W When Gamarra and his troops were pelted with stones by the populace of Lima stood whining in the Plaza Mayor, not knowing what to do, Dona ^ from his side? put herself at the head of the troops, and commanded a ell- only means by which it was possible to save herself and the remains of the arniy. having ventured to make some offensive remarks on her conduct she rode up to him an to that when she returned she would have a pair of g oves made out of * epilepsy a few months afterwards, in exile in Valparaiso otherwise ^^ filled her threat four years afterwards, when things took a favourable turn for her party. 960 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. republic they desired, but a monarchy, and a king chosen from the sacred family of their Incas. Of this the leaders of the revolutionary party were well aware, ancUhey craftily affected to acquiesce in the designs of the Indians, and to labour for their fulfilment* Imperfectly acquainted with the true nature of the liberation war, in which they saw white men fighting against white men, the Indians turned their weapons against all Puca- cuncas (pale faces) and Mistis, and killed Spaniards and patriots indifferently as they fell in their way. Their exasperation rose to such a pitch that all who were not of Indian blood were obliged to fly from several provinces, even though they were the most vehe ment foes of the Spaniards. In Jauja the Indians swore they would not leave a white dog or hen alive, and they scraped the very whitewash off the walls of the houses. They carried sack-loads of white people s heads every morning to the market-place, and ripped up the bellies of living Spaniards to see how many yards of guts a Godo had. (Godo is their nickname for a Spaniard.) When General Valdes crossed the river of Jauja with a squadron of cavalry, and attacked the Indians assembled at the village of Ataura, the latter disdained to save themselves by flight ; but catching; the lances of the soldiers, they thrust them into their own breasts, crying out, Matame, Godo (kill rne, Godo !) It seemed as if they hated the foe too much to deign to fly before them. The bodies of 2000 Indians covered the field. " The provisional government of the patriots reinforced their armies by levies in the conquered provinces. This was the first time the Indians were employed as regular soldiers, and they soon acquired great renown for their coolness and their incredible power of endurance. It was but in few districts they came forward as volunteers, elsewhere they were forced conscripts, and they deserted whenever they had an opportunity." After the expulsion of the Spaniards, the condition of the aboriginal race was very little improved ; some oppressions were removed, new ones were extended to them, and they now remain slaves in the land of their fathers. Is it to be supposed that he should not cherish hatred of all who are not of his own race ? It is said by Tschudi that " In most of the southern provinces the Indians assemble at cock crow on certain days in the hut of the village senior, or of the cacique, who relates to them the history of the Incas, the deeds of their descendants, and the insurrection of the unfortunate Tupac Amaru; inculcates upon them hatred of the Pucacuncas ; assures them that the rule of their kings will be restored ; and sets before them their carefully preserved portraits. These traditions and prophecies will assuredly not remain without effect. The arbitrary proceedings of the government, and the conduct of the Creoles, who treat the Indians more as brutes than as men, are stretching the cord to breaking. The Indians will once more arouse themselves and begin a war of extermination, as under Tupac Amaru, but with more success; after a fearful contest they will win back their native land, and restore their old constitution, with some modifications, perhaps, to suit existing circum stances, but all the other races will have fallen victims to their merciless vengeance." The prophecy is, we consider, one of those accidents which, like many other oracles, acquires credence from events causing a probability of realising a similar effect. Nor do we believe that a restoration of aboriginal sovereign power would last if it should suppress Spanish republican domination. But when we consider what has been effected by the Indian Carrera in Guatemala, we must hesitate in our judgment, and the remarks of Von Tschudi on this subject are not to be passed over. He says, The Indians have made immense progress since the liberation war ; they are ac quainted with the use of fire-arms and military manoeuvres, and twenty years of uninter rupted civil war have kept them constantly practised in regular campaigning. Most of POPULATION OF PERU. . I i 1 the fugitives from the numerous lost battles escaped with their arms, and these they keep carefully concealed. They are perfectly acquainted with the art of making gunpowder, large quantities of which they prepare and consume in fireworks at all their great festivals; their mountain valleys yield the materials in abundance. " In 1841, I found eighteen regulation muskets in a miserable little village on the verge of a montana of central Peru, in the hut of an alcalde where I resided for some days. When I asked him off-hand to what end he kept so many weapons, he answered me with a furtive side-long look, * that there would come a time when they would be useful.* " The public functionaries and the Mestizoes fail not to add perpetually to the accu mulated fuel, which needs but a spark to burst into a devouring flame. So soon as the signal is given at any one point, the Indians of all Peru will gather with the speed of the wind under the banners of their leaders ; but I believe that none but a man like Tupac Amaru, of imposing corporal and mental qualities, and of the royal lineage, will be able to lead the insurrection to a successful issue; and such a man will be once more forthcom ing. What means of resistance can the government command, since its few troops consist for the most part of discontented Indians, who are ready at any moment to desert the hated service, and fight for their own interests? Even the most strenuous aid that could be afforded by European ships of war, would suffice at most to keep some harbours on the coast. The very first onset of the insurgents would be so terrific, that any junc tion between the Creoles and Europeans would be almost out of the question ; and how small is their number in comparison with that of the Indians of pure blood ! "The character of the Peruvian Indian is uncommonly sombre: it was not so of yore, to judge from the lively delineations of the oldest writers on the country ; but 300 years of tyrannous wrong have marked it with this hue. It is strikingly apparent in their songs, their music, their dances, and their whole domestic economy. Their favourite instruments are the pututo and Ihejaina. The former is a great conch shell, with which they produce a dismal music to accompany their mourning dances ; in former times it was used at royal obsequies, and now it is sounded almost exclusively on the solemn days of mourning for the fallen native monarchy. The jaina, which appears to be a more modern invention, is an extremely simple kind of clarionet, made out of a large reed. The tone is thrillingly sad, unlike that of any other known instrument, and of alinos marvellous effect. The wildest horde of Indians, in the uproar of debauchery or in th fiercest broil, grow still, as if by enchantment, if suddenly they hear the notes of jaina, and mute and motionless as statues, they hang in rapt attention on the ma melody. A tear will steal into the Indian s hard eye, that before, perhaps was never moistened but by intoxication, and the sobs of the women are the only sounds that < turb the almost unearthly music. The sad strains of the jaina awaken a nameless, vague yearning, and leave behind them for days a painful void ; and yet the magic always heard again with unabated eagerness." Dr. Smith s remarks on the aborigines, though less sanguine, are also re markable. Tangur, in the department of Junin, is one of those Indian villages so , mon on the elevated slopes which overlook temperate valleys in the int Peru. In this village a curate, who for several years visited it, stated 1 that there were then two distinct municipalities, each possessing i church and magistrates. The aborigines of each municipality speak the same Quichua language, b do not associate together, nor do they even hold their religious festivals on t same day. The origin of this separation of interests, according t far back as the time of the Incas. "When," according to Dr. Smith, " ^ convicts this place, and formed a distinct family, wh.ch has here VOL. I. 6 962 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. period, without ever mingling its blood with that of its neighbours, or entering into com munion or alliance with any other people. This is the more remarkable, as it is the ordinary practice in other remote villages of the interior, for the whole body of men to co-operate in any great work, such as constructing bridges for their common good, or building houses for the convenience of individuals ; on which occasions one party con ducts stones and turf, another builds the walls, a third conveys timber from the distant woods,* and a fourth cuts and lays on the thatch, &c. The unanimity in this case, and the want of it in that of Tangur, are equally characteristic of that love which the Indian entertains for the usages of his predecessors in all things. If the general revolution has been in any degree useful to the poor uninformed Indian of Peru, who has already sunk from the short-lived excitement of patriotic enthusiasm into the dejection of a military despotism if it has really improved his prospects, it has been by rousing him, for a while at least, from his wonted apathy to the general concerns and conveniences of life ; opening to his view a wider range of imitation and desire, and thus breaking in upon the hereditary routine of his customs and habits, to which, till now, he has adhered with the unvarying constancy of mere instinct." The christianised Indians of the Inca dynasty, whose native tongue is Quichua (we do not at present speak of the half-christianised Pano, and other yet un settled tribes of the Montana), are said to be an indolent race ; but it is well- known that their exertion increases as the prospect of bettering their condition expands, and that in general their labour is only conducted in a slothful manner when it is compulsory, or to themselves unproductive. When they labour by "tarea" or piece-work, and are sure of their wages, they work remarkably well. On their own little farms they are laborious ; and if the fruit of their industry were not a temptation to the revenue exactors, they would be more constantly labouring. Dr. Smith truly says, " It is those who tyrannise over them, who accuse them of laziness, duplicity, and natural perverseness of disposition. Of such persons we may be allowed to ask, c Have they ever afforded the Indian any rational encouragement to honesty and industry ? Have they ever, by fair dealing, persevered in the experiment of deserving the confi dence, of conciliating the affections, or of calling forth the kindly sympathies of these humbler sons of the soil ? What virtue, except patience, were they permitted to dis close under Spanish oppression (would it were mitigated under the patriot system), when their masters supplied them with the necessaries of life just on what terms they pleased, and when the Indians could realise no property, however much they redoubled their toil, for in general the fruit of their labour was not their own ? " The Peruvian aborigines are for the most part an agricultural people : they live more by tilling the ground than by pasturage or other means. " Many of the modern villages in the temperate climate of the interior were, not many years ago, large farms, possessed by Europeans or their Creole descendants ; but the labourers, set free at the revolution in consequence of the confiscation of the goods and property of their fugitive or ruined masters, have continued to cultivate the land for their own maintenance, till by degrees their families have swelled into villages, and at length assumed the important character of municipalities. With a few years of undis turbed peace, and exemption from undue exactions, small villages may thus arise and become considerable towns, wherever the locality happens to afford sufficient scope for * As trees of sufficient size for the purposes required are not always at hand, we have seen near a hundred men exhaust their strength in dragging a tree by the means of lassos from deep ravines and hollows. This waste of power might be easily avoided by the help of the pulley, with which they are unacquainted ; but they show great skill in the application and management of the lasso, and, when arranged for the tug, their efforts are roused by a song, of which the chorus is " Huascaruna!" Men, to the lasso I Smith s Peru. POPULATION OF PERU. cultivation. But as it often occurs that the Indian hamlet is erected on a pinnacle, or on the brow of a hill, around which there is but little suitable soil for the spread of agricultural industry, the consequence is that the father divides and subdivides the same piece of ground among the rising members of his progeny, till at length ihe means of subsistence become too scanty for the support of the whole family, and, the supernume raries must seek employment in the mines or elsewhere, as they best may." Smith s I The arts are little needed by Indians who construct their own huts, and who, with the exception of coarse felt hats, make their own clothes, such as wide trousers or breeches open at the knee, a shirt, a vest, a jacket, and over all a poncho, with sandals of raw hide. In cold localities, as Cerro Pasco, they wear warm woollen stockings and a jacket ; not omitting the poncho, which is the in dispensable covering by day as well as by night throughout the Sierra. The impediments to the increase of the population of the aboriginal race are the occasionally destructive effects of epidemic diseases, and among the mines in cold regions, an excessive use of spirituous liquors. In the temperate valleys which intervene between the coast and the Cordilleras this vice is by no means so prevalent as at the mines, where money circulates, and all temptation is to be encountered. Licentiousness is usually stated as a further source of depopula tion among all classes and castes in Peru : but Dr. Smith avers that, " Whatever be the true explanation of the fact, we think that evils springing from such fountains of impurity show themselves comparatively little in the Indian constitu tion ; and though strict regularity of conduct cannot be claimed on the part of the Indian family, yet the modesty of their ancient mamaconas is still remembered among them ; and it is a characteristic which to this day honourably distinguishes the Indians from their more cultivated masters, that with them conjugal infidelity is discouraged, punished, and felt to be a crime." Incessant warfare and anarchy are as destructive and desolating to the abo rigines of Peru, and to the prosperity of the country, as was that of the mines, and manufactories or " obrages," under the Spanish rule. A standing army has become an establishment, as an instrument of despotic and military power, and licentiousness, destroying the true sources of population, the domestic virtues, and domestic habits. It is remarked of the aboriginal Peruvians, that although they have, since the discomfiture of their last bold attempt under Amaru Tupac, en dured oppression with silent meekness, they are tenderly alive to feeh domestic tenderness, and to the natural ties of kindred or of country feelings are lamentable, when they are violently seized upon to recruit In the latter condition, wherever the will of the military usurper of leads or drives them, they are known to sigh and mourn over the los peaceful freedom which they enjoyed previously,-when they herded their or cultivated their maize, pumpkins, and other simple articles of food, relates some interesting facts respecting the Peruvians, who were compel serve in the Patriot (?) army. He says : In a hospital, on the coast, ->-. ^^ a sentence of Spanish to the physician ^ P 8cri ^ , exhausted refused food and 964 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. medicine, until in silent sorrow he expired, a victim tc nostalgia, or a love of home, and a broken heart. These hapless beings, whose devotedness to early attachment and asso ciations bespeaks the warmth and fidelity of their affections, though cherished under a cold and apparently a passionless exterior, we found to be indeed reserved, but sagacious; and, when not under any unusual excitement, their minds, though not cheerful, were serene. Their exterior mien always struck us as solemn, and even sad ; but this may be partly the effect of the awfully grand and sublime scenery so familiar to their view, which imparts a solemn and contemplative turn to the thoughts of the mountaineer, and influences his moral feelings in such a manner as stamps a certain air of mental gravity on his general deportment and expression. As an individual, the Indian is timid, and he will sooner take a cuff than give one; but when they assemble for mutual support, then indeed they are seen to fight most valiantly, and, like tame oxen, when the blood of one of their number is shed, they all become fearfully courageous. Bold and bloody battles we have seen between strong parties of the native miners in Cerro Pasco, armed for the combat with slings, stones, and clubs. At festivals, too, when roused by drink or enraged by jealousy, they lacerate and maul each other; and the meek-looking, dumpy Indian woman becomes equally exasperated and vehement if in her quarrels any one should cut away a tress of her long and coarse black hair ; for the cutting of these tresses is an odious mark of female dishonour, to which women, of every caste in the land except the woolly-headed blacks and mulattoes, on whom nature has not bestowed these ornaments, are most acutely and painfully sensitive.* " From the beagle courage of the Indian, who, like these gentle animals, fights better in company with others than singly, his military character stands very high ; and a regi ment of Indians when conducted by gallant officers, as was the case during the war of Peruvian independence, are sure to prove indomitably brave and hardy." It is a well-known fact that the dark Zamboes of the sea-coast region, when marching as soldiers, and driven onwards up the Sierra, will sink under fatigue, cold, and privations, which are never experienced in the warm and humid low districts. The native Peruvian, with a pouch full of coca, and a bag of roasted maize, marches boldly over the heights, and along precipices as steep as any on which the llama can maintain its footing. In each village in the mountain valleys, the whites and Mestizoes have " pad- rinos/ or protectors, of their own caste, holding some authority as captain of volunteers, governor, or alcalde, or more subordinate post, but the Peruvian or Inca native, who cultivates a patch of land, and who labours quietly to rear his family, is liable to and experiences constant oppression. To recruit the armed bands of a Gamara, or other military usurper, the natives of Inca race are torn from their homes or dragged from the caves and fastnesses where they have sought concealment. This cruel injustice is practised towards native races in all the Spanish republics. Every new levy of conscripts is bound like galley slaves, "and then driven along/ says Dr. Smith, " hopeless and helpless, from the recesses and glens of the interior to the coast, or elsewhere, as circumstances may require, there to die of ague or dysentery, or, if they survive the usual effects of great changes of climate and diet, to be harshly trained for the exercise of war." The sixth article of the constitution of Peru suspends the rights of citizenship * It was a punishment which in certain cases the law of Spain inflicted upon female delin- Jts, to cut off their hair, and sometimes shave their eyebrows. This, we understand, was done by the common executioner, hence the sense of disgrace. POPULATION OF PERU. to the notoriously vagrant, the gambler, the drunkard, and the married man who, without cause, abandons his wife, or who is divorced on account of his own mis conduct The rich or influential can easily evade this law, but a peculiar oppres sion is inflicted on the Inca, who is arrested on the alleged ground of being " mal casado," or cohabiting with a woman to whom he has not been previously married by a Roman Catholic priest. It is not impartial justice that he should be punished in this manner for a delinquency which is almost authorised by the practice of his superiors. These poor mountain Incas join together, at an early age, in an union as binding as a marriage is by a Roman Catholic priest; the latter ceremony is, however, not evaded by the Peruvians, when they can either afford to pay the expense, or avail themselves of the opportunity. But to do so the priest must first be paid his fees. The poor agricultural Peruvian of the Sierra finds it difficult to provide himself with his coca,* a hoe, and a maschetto, or chopping- knife, the tools that he usually works with. It is, therefore, almost an impos sibility for him to save as many dollars as would enable him to pay even the lowest rate of marriage fees. Not being able to pay the priest for marrying him in the Roman Catholic ceremonial, he thinks it can be no great harm to imitate the Christians of Spanish race around him, whose example ought to be worthy of imitation : and, ignorant of the language which Scripture addresses to his conscience, he contracts a marriage sanctioned by the custom of his nation, though not by the Catholic religion -for this he is outlawed! ! It requires, at the same time, great labour for him to pay the capitation tax, from which even the superannuated are not always exempt; yet the treasury professes not to compel the infirm and aged to pay this odious tax. The non-Catholic married outlaw is certainly not exempted. In order to pay this tax they are often obliged to borrow, for which their labour is mortgaged, and they are in consequence often virtually made slaves for the remainder of life. After death the sons are made to take upon themselves the burden under which the father sank into his grave. To recapitulate the oppres sions imposed upon, and the sufferings endured by, the Peruvian Incas, would require a separate work. They are, without any protection, the victims of arbitrary petty governors * " The coca leaf is to the Indian of the interior a necessary of life, which he uses from time to time to renovate his energy ; in the intervals of labour he often sits down to chuccha, or to re fresh himself by masticating coca seasoned with a very little quick-lime, which he always carries about his person in a little gourd. According to the Indian, the lime counteracts the natural tendency of the coca to give rise to visceral obstructions. Used in moderate quantity, the coca, when fresh and good, increases nervous energy, removes drowsiness, enlivens the spirits, and enables the Indian to bear cold, wet, great bodily exertion, and even want of food, to a surprising degree, with apparent ease and impunity. Taken to excess, it is said to occasion tremor in the limbs, and, what is worse, a gloomy sort of mania. But such dire effects must be ot rare occur rence ; since, living for years on the borders of the Montana, and in constant intercourse with persons accustomed to frequent the coca plantations, and with Indian yanacones or labourers, all of whom, whether old or young, masticated this favourite leaf, we never had an opportunity of witnessing a single instance in which the coca-ch ewer was affected with mania or tremor. Dr. Smith s Peru. 966 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. alcaldes, village captains, and military despots, who are destroying this splendid country. The Inca race, which forms the great majority of the Peruvian popula tion, are insecure in their persons and property; they are forced to be submissive in character, by being driven to degraded morals, when torn from their homes to become the vassals of civil and religious bondage. The curates, who reside in the mountain valleys, are aware of the feelings che rished by the Peruvian race, who believe that the time will arrive when the abori ginal inhabitants of the hills or mountain regions of Peru shall be made to know their own political rights and physical strength, that they will then be commanded by bold and sagacious captains of their own race, and that they will successfully avenge their wrongs on all " advenedizos" (exotics), their white oppressors.* There are powerful tribes of independent, and unconquered, aboriginal nations in the more remote parts of Peru, Bolivia, New Granada, Venezuela, the upper parts of Brazil, and the country watered by the Rio Plata, and the Amazon and the tributaries of those rivers. They are in very different circumstances to the conquered nations. All would join in extirpating the Spanish race. But they do not as yet possess the intelligence or the spirit of organisation. CHAPTER XXI. AGRICULTURE AND LIVE STOCK. THE temperate climate of the Valles admits of the growth of European grain, maize, and rice; the grasses and fruit trees of Europe succeed; sugar, wine, and distilled brandy constitute articles for home use and for export. In the elevated districts of Montana the cerealia and fruits of Europe are grown, and the valleys produce tropical products : the forests on the eastern declivity of the Andes, yield cinchona bark, copaiva balsam, copal, wax, yellow and black ; indigo grows spontaneously. The Indians of the plains collect from the forests vanilla, sarsaparilla, copaiva, copal, caoutchouc, and several gums and resins for export. Live Stock. Cattle, mules, and horses are reared, chiefly on the extensive pasture grounds along mountain slopes. On the elevated ranges and table-lands The whites have already an example of retribution in La-paz, where every white man was massacred. The Indians are said to indulge in the hope of yet seeing a prince of their own race on the throne; and such has been their well-founded and now habitual mistrust of the whites, that they have never revealed where all their own treasures and those of the Incas, which were buried after the death of Atahualpa, are to be found. This is a secret to everyone but a chosen lew of the caciques. A few years before the commencement of the war of independence in Peru, a rising took place among the Indians of some of the inland provinces, under a cacique named Pornacagua ; but this insurrection was soon suppressed. The fact of Pomecagua s being ac quainted with the hiding-place of the regal treasure alluded to, and his offer to reveal it to save Ins life, was not believed by the unrelenting Ramires, and he was shot." Smith. SKETCHES OF PERU. !l ( ;7 of Titicaca and Pasco, llamas are used as beasts of burden ; and each carry -about seventy pounds. Sheep are pastured in the colder districts. Agriculture is not only in a rude state, but it would rather appear to deterio rate than improve since the Peruvian independence of Spanish domination. In the descriptive sketches of the country we have noticed the cultivation of some parts. The valley of Huanuco, is one of the most productive maize dis tricts. It also produces wheat, beans, and other vegetables and grasses. This valley and the plains of Lagamarca, and other rather elevated districts are sub ject to frosts which occasionally injure the crops; although the wheat crops, considering the mode of culture, are generally good. Sugar is produced at Huy- las, Huanuco, and other places. The agriculture of Huanuco, though alluring to the eye, which only views its rich and waving fields enclosed with fences of mud, and hedges of the Indian fig, and aloe or maguey plants, is in every way defective as a branch of industry. Dr. Smith, who practically made himself acquainted with the subject of Peru vian agriculture, informs us, " The fields owe their luxuriance to nature rather than to man, except in the single advantage of water, which he often directs and applies to them. Manure is a thing never thought of; and the ground seldom requires it, though we see the same spot year after year under crop ; but much of the soil which is considered poor might be rendered fer tile, in so favourable a climate, if the people would only take the trouble of cleaning out their large cattle-pens once a year ; but this would be to diverge from their accus tomed routine, which they dislike to forsake. The implements of husbandry are of the rudest kind. The plough, which is slight, and single-handed, is constructed merely of wood, without mould-board, which we have seen a one-handed person manage with perfect dexterity. The ploughshare is a thick iron blade, only tied when required for use by a piece of thong, or lasso, on the point of the plough, which divides the earth very super ficially. Where the iron is not at hand, as frequently happens, the poor peasant uses, instead, a share made of hard iron-wood that grows in the Montana. Harrows they have, properly speaking, none ; they sometimes use large clumsy rakes instead ; and we have seen them use a green bough of a tree dragged over the sown ground, with a weight upon it to make it scratch the soil. In room of the roller, of which they never expe rienced the advantage, they break down the earth in the field intended for cane-plants, after it had got eight or ten oloughings and cross-ploughings, With the heel of a short- handled hoe, which they call lampa; a tool which they use with great dexterity in weeding the cane-fields and clearing aqueducts. For smoothing down the clods of earth, we have seen some Indians use a more antiquated instrument. It consist flat, and round stone, about the size of a small cheese, which had a hole beaten thro its centre by dint of blows with a harder and pointed stone. To the stone thus perforated they fixed a long handle, and as they swung it about, they did great execut.on in t work of cuspiando or field-levelling." Lucern or alfalfa is daily cut down, and used green to feed the numerous cattle and the oxen for the plough and sugar-mills. The scythe is not used. The grass is cut with a sickle. The cattle are fed on irrigated past day, but at night with cut grass in corrals or pens. Potato-ground is broken up on the face of steeps with deep narrow spades, with long handles. In the same manner the soil is turned up by those who have 968 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. neither plough nor oxen, for maize on the temperate flats on the hill-sides, and in the thickets near mountain streams, where the soil is usually fertile, and materials for enclosing abound. Holes are made in the ground with a sharp-pointed stick, where the seed is dropped secure from birds, and when planted in virgin soil, it yields a luxuriant harvest. The white-grained maize is sown in preference to the yellow (morocho), as it makes, when toasted, the best " cancha," which the poor Indian uses instead of bread; when boiled it makes the sweetest "mote, or maize simply boiled ; it is also said to yield the most agreeably-tasted chica, or beer, which the Peruvians brew in their huts, whenever they have a little surplus maize. They also make a kind of beer from the fermented juice of the maize- stalks which they press between small wooden rollers. Cattle are also fed on dry maize-leaves and stubble, which are considered more nutricious than either lucern or the tops of the sugar-cane. Agi, or pimento, is generally cultivated around the Indian dwellings and gar dens in the warm valleys, and with it they season nearly all kinds of food. The sugar-mills in the valley of Huanuco are, the greater number of them, made of wood, and moved by oxen. On the larger estates brass rollers are used; but with a single exception, on the estate of Andaguaylla, where Dr. Smith was concerned in erecting a water-mill for the purpose of grinding sugar-cane, the proprietors adhere to the old practice of working with oxen by day and by night throughout the year, barring accidents, and feasts or holy-days. He says, 11 The beautiful hacienda or estate of Quicacan is a model of industry and method, after the fashion of the country ; and the most distinguished family of Echegoyen have, in Colpa-grande, the finest cane-estate, as far as we know, in the interior of Peru. It extends for nine or ten miles along the fertile banks of the river, from the city of Hu anuco towards the ascents that lead into the Montana. " Respecting Huanuco," he continues, " although the principal city or capital of the department to which it belongs, we have to observe, that the consumption of its agricultural produce, as well as its own internal prosperity, depends on the mineral seat of Cerro Pasco. When the population of Cerro rises to 10,000 or 12,000, every article of Huanuco produce is in high demand ; but when, from any cause, the mines are not wrought, or when these ate inundated from defective drainage, and the hands employed in working them are fewer in number, the Huanuquenos and other neighbouring agricul turists are greatly discouraged or actually ruined ; because, deprived of this outlet for their produce, they cannot undertake the expense of sending sugar and spirits on mules to the coast. The consequence is, that they are frequently poor in the midst of plenty ; the owners of extensive herds of sheep on the high pasture-lands, whose wool is of little value to them, as it cannot pay for mule or llama carriage to the coast ; and the scanty produce of the looms of the interior have little estimation, as the ruined obrages, or manufactories, now amply testify. The shuttle is, moreover, nearly put at rest by the cheaper articles of warm woollen as well as cotton clothing continually introduced from the stores of our English manufacturers." Smith" s Peru. A staple article, supplied by Huanuco to Cerro Pasco, is the coca-leaf, from the Montana, distant about fifteen leagues from the city. The indigo growers in the contiguous Montana have nearly forsaken its cultivation from want of funds or enterprise. Much of the fruit of the Huanuco orchards is eaten at the tables of the in- SKETCHES OF PERU. habitant of Cerro; and in the convents are made excellent sweetmeats, highly valued, in the surrounding country, as presents rather than as articles of com merce. Several lands formerly belonging to convents were, after the revolution, ap- propriated as endowments of the college of Huanuco. The Montana regions, which are watered by the Huallaga, Ucayali, Maranon, and their numerous tributaries, are but very imperfectly explored. They combine the most fertile but uncultivated soils in the valleys. From May to November the sun shines powerfully in the Montana, and consequently the soil, where it is cleared of wood as in the valley of Chinchao becomes so dry that its surface cracks and opens for some depth, but underneath it retains its humidity, and requires no irrigation. From November to May it rains sometimes for six or seven days without intermission. In the rivers of Peru alligators, tortoises, and a variety of fish abound. The manatee, sometimes called pexebuey,* feeds among the grass on the banks of the rivers. The forest productions of the Montana, considered as articles of commerce or usefulness, are chiefly, cedar, and chonta or ebony, mahogany, walnut, and almond-tree, Edible herbs and roots, except the potato and yuca, are little cul tivated; but coffee, plantains, and sugar-cane, of which a variety called the or azul grows luxuriantly. The sugar-cane comes to maturity earlu other parts of Peru, and yields an annual crop at a very low c "The" fertile valley of Chinchao is renowned for its coca plantations Some farms in Huanuco cultivate frijoles, or beans, for the use of the coca-gathere rice is also grown along the low rich banks of the great nvers, and ma.z vated, wherever it will ripen as a necessary of life. will be found of greater or less intoxicating power. Indigo and tobacco is of Montana growd, ^ for .^ Cotton grows almost " ^* o( various tex ture by the Ind.an, ThTpine-apple is very abundant, as well as of delicious flavour, though it jd how made , in the description of the Mosquito Territory. f* TT VOL. I. 970 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. grows wild : and among the articles of spontaneous growth in the Montana, conti guous to Huanuco, we may enumerate cacao or cocoa, cinnamon, guaiacum, vanilla, black wax, storax, dragon s blood, Maria oil, gum grana, balsam of copaiba, copal, and many other gums, balsams, and resins. Cinchona and sarsa- parilla abounc} in great quantity. Milk, among the pastoral huts of the high grazing country, is used for making cheese, it is not often drank as an article of nutriment, save by those who live in small round booths. These pastoral huts are scattered over the distant plains and ranges of the mountains, throughout the " estancias" on the hilly pasture-lands, for feeding cattle and sheep. The poor Inca, who owns a few horned cattle, will endure hunger rather than kill for food one of his herd. He who owns sheep, however, kills one occasionally for the meat and "caldo," mutton tea: vegetables being scarce, to make chupe, a kind of broth used by the corn-growers. The inhabitants of the snowy region, or elevated valleys of the Andes, are distinguished by their warm clothing, broad chests, and fresh complexions. They descend from the high cold district to the temperate and corn-growing country, to barter for vegetable productions, fresh mutton, skinned and free from offal, which they carry on the back of asses. Mutton, like beef, is dried in the sun, and stored for use by the inhabitants of the warm districts. This dried meat is called by them "charque," and by the Eng lish jerked beef. When the inhabitants of Tarma have sown their fields, they usually spend, according to Dr. Smith, an entire month in visiting and festivity : "And they say of their neighbours of Jauja (eight leagues to the south of them), whose rejoicing is at harvest-home, that they distrust Providence, while they themselves piously rejoice and rest their hope in the Giver of their harvest ; hence, they infer the wheat crops of the Jaujinos (whose granaries are in favourable years the most plentifully stored in all Peru) are often blighted and frosted, while the Tarmenian barley always flourishes." The pine apples and coffee of the Montana and hacienda of Vitoc, near Tarma, are very good. The centre land of Peru is watered by streams and mountain torrents. They are subject, often suddenly, to rise and inundate the low grounds. The food of the poor, as well as of the rich, constitutes an index to the eat able products of a country, and one may, therefore, include some observation on this head in concluding our sketches of Peruvian agriculture ; which may be con sidered to apply, in many respects, to all the countries of Western South America, between Panama and Chile. A common dish of food on the Sierra consists of potatoes, sliced and boiled in water or milk, with an addition of eggs, cheese, and sometimes butter: but this nutritious dish is often represented by yaco-chupe, or water chupe, consisting of potatoes sliced and boiled in water, with the addition of a little salt, and a leaf of wild mint, as an antidote against flatulency. SKETCHES OF PERU. .,7] In Lima the articles of diet are far more varied than in the country distr Maize is far more generally cultivated than any other grain. Wheat is ch imported from Chile and other foreign states. The food of the poor on the- coast is cooked camote and yuca roots: both are very nutritive and wholesome. In Lima animal food is even profusely consumed, and poultry in incredible quantities. It is the food of the sick, infirm, and convalescent, who constitute a nu merous portion of the inhabitants of the capital, all of whom have chicken or chicken soup at least once a day. Geese and ducks are of low repute for eating, pigeons and turkeys are abundant in the daily market. Fish is usually good and abundant; the fishermen of the coast are described as the most robust of Peru vian natives. The number of fat pigs killed is estimated considerably above twenty thousand yearly. The consumption of lard and fried pork (chicharones) is con sequently great. Dr. Smith says the " mantequero," or lard and swine-dealer, is, after that of the baker and lottery-man (suertero), one of the most lucra tive in the capital. From forty to fifty head of oxen, and from three to four hundred sheep, are slaughtered daily for the Lima market: the beef is good; the mutton of inferior quality. Pastry and sweetmeat criers parade the Lima streets ; a cook-stand, with fried pork and fish, stands at the corners of streets and squares. Poor families of genteel pretensions, who from necessity hire out their slaves, are seldom at the expense of cooking at home, and have their food from these cheap cook- stands. Masamorerias are pap- shops, common in Lima. Of the sweet paps there are as many varieties as there are materials, viz., paps of peas, beans, rice, maize flour, arrow-root, starch, &c. These are boiled in water, with or without fruit or some vegetable acid, and sweetened with sugar, molasses, or coarse sugar, " chancaca," Masamora may be considered as much a Limenian dish as roast-beef in Eng land, or baked fowls in Vienna. Most of the other Limenian dishes are sodden in lard, excepting the common fowl, the pigeon, turkey, and a dish called the " puchero," consisting of a variety of fruit and vegetables, with pieces of meat of different kinds boiled together and served up in a great dish or plate. The soups and vegetable dishes are strongly seasoned with agi or Chile pepper. The native dark races are said by Dr. Smith to be much more robust in form, and hardier in constitution than strangers to the climate; "And many of them drink aguardiente, or uncoloured cane spirits, in great quantity, and with less immediate ill effect than one would expect Their cot of such excitants as ardent spirits and fermented beverages called ch.chas, * food and agi, may possibly be a principal reason why these V*^*" seized with inflammatory complaints, stand general bleeding better than others of 972 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. own caste fed upon sango, a name applied to a sort of mash made with maize-meal and sweet potatoes; but persons of European descent, with skin so much more delicate than the darker races in Peru, and endowed with a more susceptible nervous system, suffer much more readily from atmospherical vicissitudes ; and their digestive organs and powers of assimilation being comparatively weak, those irregularities, borne by the negro and Zambo with comparative impunity, are to the white man, whose organisation is not so suitable as theirs fora warm and relaxing climate, the frequent cause of various dis orders of the bowels, as indigestion, cholera morbus, or dysentery." The Peruvians of the coast are not supplied with fruits. The fruits produced in the orchards in and about Lima are as follow, according to a list by Mr. Mathews, an English botanist, viz., "January. Grapes begin to ripen ; and also apricots, and a few pears. " February. Grapes, pears in abundance, apricots ; peaches begin to ripen ; lucu- mas scarce ; figs. " March. Grapes in abundance ; pears scarce ; peaches in abundance; apples be gin to ripen ; lucumasin abundance; figs in abundance. "April. Apples in abundance ; quinces, ceruela de frayle (spondias dulcis), and cerasas (malpighia glandulosd), patillas (psidium lineatum\ and guavas; figs scarce. "May. The same as April ; a few grapes are seen in the market, brought from the southward ; cherimollas. "June. Cherimollas and guanavanas ; sweet and sour oranges ; a few apples. "July. The same as June, with the exception of apples and limes ; sweet lemons and sour lemons begin to ripen. "August. The same as July ; but slight demand for oranges this month. " September. Lucumas, paltas, and the fruits of the previous month. " October. Same as September ; but a great demand for limes and sweet lemons. "November and December. During these two months there is a great demand for sweet and sour lemons, for frescos, or cooling drinks. Sweet oranges rarely remain good after the middle of November." Plantains are fit for food all the year, but are most abundant during the hot months. The pepino is much eaten during December, January, and February In the months of April and May, the pulp surrounding the seeds in the pod of the pacay are much eaten. In addition to the above, the melon, and sandia, or musk and water melon, are cultivated in the neighbourhood of Lima, and are to be seen for sale in large heaps at the corners of the streets. They are consumed with avidity in the hot month of February. Very good olives grow in the Valley of the Rimac, and ripen in February and March. Strawberries and "tunas," or Indian figs, of in ferior quality, grow in Lima ; but the market is supplied with these fruits, and of the best quality, from the neighbouring valley of Santa Ulaya. The pine-apple does not ripen spontaneously in Lima. That eaten in this city grows on the eastern side of Peru, and occasionally are brought from Moro. GOVERNMENT OF PERU. 973 CHAPTER XXII. MANUFACTURES, GOVERNMENT, ETC. THE Spanish system, which limited supply, forced the inhabitants of Peru to make some indispensable articles. Coarse cotton and woollen stuffs worn by the aborigines and by the Mestizoes, are either made by themselves, or in the valleys of the Maranon, Jauja, and at Cuzco". Iron utensils are made at C ^x-.i- marca. At Lima, Arequipa, and Cuzco, gold and silver vessels, utensils, trin kets, and ornaments, are made.* None of these are exported. Coarse cotton cloth, called tucuya, made in Moyobamba and Tarapoto, is exported to those parts of Brazil adjacent to the Amazon. Trade. The internal trade is obstructed, or rendered difficult, by the want of roads. Since the independence of Peru, a trade has been opened from the eastern districts, with the Brazilian districts adjacent to the Rio Amazon. This trade was chiefly from the valley of the Rio Huallaga, and consists mostly of cotton, gums, resins, wax, sarsaparilla, and tucuya. The maritime commerce of Peru is chiefly with the western coasts, and other republics of America, with Mexico, Central America, Guayaquil, and Chile, to which countries sugar, wine, brandy, salt, and some other articles of minor value are exported. Gold and silver, and the saltpetre of Iquique, Arica, and Arequipa, are exported. Chin chilla fur, vicuna and sheep-wool, and chinchona bark, are the principal articles exported to Europe. (For the Foreign Trade and Navigation of Peru, see Statistics of the Spanish Republics hereafter.) Government. The constitution of Peru was framed in 1828. It was to be based on that of the United States. But it will be seen that it has, like that of all the Spanish American republics, in administrative practice, retained most of what existed under Spain, with a strong tendency towards the centralised system of the police of France. The legislative body consists of a senate and a chamber of deputies, the members of which are chosen by the people.f The executive is * " In Tarma, they make ponchos, or loose cloaks, of great beauty and fineness ; and, on the colder table-lands, warm but coarse blankets and ponchos, c., are still made by the Indians. In the valleys, goat-skins are made into cordovans ; cow-hide is made into saddle- bags, and almofrezes, or travelling-cases for bed and bedding ; mats, too, are manufactured from rushes, and are very generally used as carpeting, under the name of esteras. But the work of silversmiths is generally in a rude state even in Pasco ; for the fine filigree work, for which inland Peru is celebrated, is made, not in the department of Junin, but at Guamanga, in the department of Ayacucho where the natives have also shown a decided talent for sculpture, though their works cannot exhibit, as yet, much elegance or expression." Smith s Peru. f " The chamber of deputies is composed of representatives elected by the electoral college provinces and parishes. The parochial electoral colleges are composed of all the citizens r in the parish, congregated according to law. For every 200 individuals in a parish an elect nominated and in every village whose numbers entitle them to name an elector, 01 974 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. vested in the president, who likewise is chosen by the people for four years, and is assisted by a ministry, chosen by himself, and a council of state chosen by the legislature. The departments have the power of regulating their public and eccle siastical affairs, without the interference of the general government, to hold their departmental juntas, and to frame laws for their local territories; these laws require to be afterwards sanctioned by the central legislature to become law. Departments. The supreme political government of every department is vested in a prefect, under immediate central subordination to the president of the republic ; that of every province answers to an arrondissement in France, and is intrusted to a sub-prefect, who is immediately subordinate to the prefect; that of the districts (say Canton) to a governor (juge-de-paix), who acknowledges the sub-prefect as his superior ; and in every town, or Indian village (say commune), there is a still humbler officer called alcalde (say mayor), who acts under the orders of the governor, or juge-de-paix, of his district, and is intrusted with the ordinary routine of local police. To fill the appointment of prefect, sub -prefect, or governor, it is required that the candidate should be an active citizen, not under thirty years of age, and a man eminent for his probity. ( ?) The duties invested in such functionaries are, 1. To maintain public security and order in their respective territories. 2. To cause the articles of the political constitution, the laws enacted by con gress, and the decrees and commands of the executive power, to be duly carried into effect. 3. To enforce the completion of sentences pronounced by the different tri bunals and courts of justice. To take care that the functionaries subordinate to each of them shall faith fully discharge their proper duties. The prefects are charged with the economical administration of the affairs of state within their respective departments. They are restrained from interfering with, or in any degree interrupting, the course of popular elections. From pre venting the meeting of the departmental juntas, or interfering with the free exer cise of their functions. From taking any cognizance in judicial cases; but, should public tranquillity urgently require that any individual should be taken up, a prefect may command his immediate arrest, transferring the delinquent, accompa nied with the grounds of having taken him into custody, to the judicial magistrate or judge, within the precise term of forty -eight hours. chial college, a municipal body is established with a right to superintend its own local interests, consistently with the laws and public good and subject to the approbation of the departmental juntas. The electoral colleges of provinces are composed of parochial electors constituted accord ing to law, and they elect deputies to congress in the proportion of one for every 20,000 inha bitants, or for a fractional number which exceeds 10,000. But the province in which the whole population does not come up to 10,000 inhabitants, will nevertheless name a deputy." Smith s Peru. GOVERNMENT OF PERU. .17;, This power is found to be exercised to the total subversion of all civil li berty. Departmental Juntas. In every department a junta meets in its capital, composed of two members from each province. The functions of these juntas are to provide for ^Immigration of the provinces of the departments, and of department itself. The members are elected after the same manner with those of the Congress or Chamber of Deputies. The prefects of the departments open and preside at the annual sessions of the juntas, to report to them in writing on the state of the public affairs of their respective jurisdictions, and to suggest measures calculated to promote the general interests of the departments. Such as to propose, discuss, and agree about pro moting the agricultural, mining, and other branches of industry in their respective provinces. To forward public education and instruction according to the system authorised by congress. To watch over charitable institutions ; and, generally, to all that relates to the interior police of the departments, except that of public security. To present the amount of assessments of each department; and to ascertain the amount raised in the particular towns through their respective municipal authorities. To adjudge the number of recruits for the service of the army and navy which each province and district should provide. To exact that the chiefs of the national militia maintain good discipline in their corps, and that they shall be always ready for service. To compel the municipal corporations to discharge their duties, and to inform the prefects of such abuses as they may detect. To audit the accounts required of the municipalities, to make return annually of the funds of the towns and villages. To prepare every five years a statistical report on the department. To provide for the subjugation and civilisation of the aborigines on the frontiers of each department, and to allure them within the pale of civilised society by persuasive means. To take cognizance of the imports and exports of the departments, and to transmit their remarks to the home department, or hacienda. To apprise congress of any infraction of the constitution ; and to elect senators from the lists presented by the provincial electoral colleges.* If the administration of justice were conducted precisely on the foregoing system of government, Peru might be a happy and peaceful country. But the reverse is the general prevalence, and the consequence is, naturally, that the country is in a most unhappy and declining state. Education. The university of Lima, and other institutions for education, have been much applauded as schools of learning. There is little doubt, but that a fair share of merit must be attributed to them, and that among the higher classes under the Spanish rule there were, according to the ideas of their nation and their age, accomplished scholars as far as the course of instruction extended. * See " La Constitution Politica de laRepublica Peruana," published in 1828. 976 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Since the revolution, education appears to have been greatly neglected. With respect to common schools, the attempts appeared to have been unsuccessful, though not in all cases. Dr. Smith observes on this head, "The failure implied on this occasion may possibly have been less the fault of the system than of those who offered to apply it ; for it was remarked as very worthy the consideration of the honourable junta, that, in reference to many of the schools intended for the improvement of the indigenous or Indian race, wherein they were merely taught a jargon of Spanish which they could not comprehend, it were better for them to be left in an untutored state of mind than to be placed under the melancholy influence of such teachers as presided over them. These were represented to be so imbecile, and so unacquainted with the merest rudiments of reading, or so abandoned and drowned in vice, as to be persons utterly unfit to guide the mind of infancy and innocence into a proper path. The junta were therefore called upon by their prefect to appoint some better means of instruction, which might at once serve to improve the virtuous feelings of the individual, and promote the national cause of civilisation." Hospitals and Charitable Asylums. In Huaras, as well as in Huanuco, there were formerly well-endowed hospitals, but these are now fallen into such decay for want of funds for their support, that very few invalids can be accom modated or relieved in them ; and they are now generally much neglected in Lima. CHAPTER XXIII. THE CITY OF LIMA. WE shall conclude our description of the country which once formed the chief territory of the empire of the Incas, by a brief description, according to the best authorities, of the celebrated city of Lima. LIMA the capital of the republic, stands in a beautiful valley, six miles from the sea, and 560 feet above its surface ; the small River Rimac flows through it. The houses are tolerably built of adobes, or sun-dried bricks, canes, and wood ; they are low, in order to stand the shocks of earthquakes, being seldom above two stories, with small balconies to the second floor, with generally an archway from the street, and with a strong door leading to a court within. The lower or ground floor is commonly used as store-rooms and stables, and all kinds of rubbish are stowed away on the tops. The staircase is gene rally spacious and handsome, and the apartments of the lodgers often adorned with common fresco paintings. For the climate these houses are, however, sufficiently well adapted. The cathedral, the palaces of government and of the archbishop, the university, and several colleges, and some churches are the most remarkable edifices. The population is estimated at about 70,000. There are several un important manufactures carried on, and its trade in foreign merchandise, and LIMA. 977 its exports of the produce of the mines, and of the interior, are through the nearly adjacent port of Callao. Captain Wilkes, who had visited Lima in 1821, and afterwards as commander of the United States Exploring Expedition, in 1841, observes that he was struck with the change which had taken place since his former visit. " Every thing nowjetokened poverty and decay : a sad change from its former splen dour and wealth. This appearance was observed not only in the city, but also among the inhabitants. Whole families have been swept off, and their former attendants, or strangers, have become the possessors of their houses and property. "The country has been a scene of commotion and revolution for the last twenty-five years, of which Lima was for a long time the centre. The fate of Lower Peru bein . tirely dependent on it, and the fortress of Callao, the alternate possessors have stripped it and its inhabitants in every way in their power. It may with truth be designated a declining city. " The neglected walls and ruined tenements, the want of stir and life among the people, are sad evidences of this decay. The population is now said to be about forty-five thou sand, although in former times it has been supposed to amount to as many as sixty-five or seventy thousand. " The aspect of the city, especially a bird s-eye view from the neighbouring hills, gives to the eye of the stranger the appearance of ruins. There are few buildings that have the look of durability, and no new ones have been put up for the last forty years. The plan of the city combines more advantages than any other that could have been adopted for the locality. The streets are at right angles, and all sufficiently bread. Those which run with the declivity of the ground, north-west and south-east, have water flowing through their middle. The uses to which these streams are put, and the numerous buzzards that frequent them, give the stranger any other idea than that of cleanliness. The buzzards are protected by law, and may he seen fighting for their food in the gut ters, regardless of passers-by ; or sitting on the tops of the houses, thirty or forty in a row watching for more food." The alemada is situated on the north side of the city ; its centre is adorned with a number of fountains ; its walks are shaded with trees ; water flows through and refreshes its air. It is, therefore, a delightful promenade. In the evening it is much frequented, and its seats, which are of stone, are occupied by numbers of citizens. This is the best place to see the inhabitants enjoy their cigarittas, which they are constantly smoking. The dress of the ladies, however fitted to commit intrigue, is not adapted to the display of beauty. Captain Wilkes says, A more awkward and absurd dress cannot well be conceived. It is by no means indica tive rfSS^STK for frequently this disguise is ragged and i^gm** under its most forbidding aspect to deceive, or carry on an intrigue, of ^^ittr^ould behold these dresses without considering them as an emblem of the wretched condition of domestic society in ^^^^iia^ modest dress, to mark < The saya and manto were ongina y intended **% an escort. The reserve to if **<>^^ sacred from insult. general term for the wearers is TaH* *?* $ f ^ seen , viz ., a shawl worn Tapada is likewise applied to a dress which is a 1 - fa the most inti . over the head, so as to cover the nose V*$j^ in this disguise. It is to mate friend can know the wearer, ; who ^^^^^ m ^J m ^ n. In- ^^ VOL. I. 978 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. very In this dress, it is said, a wife will pass her own husband when she may be walk ing with her lover, and the husband may make love to his wife without being aware it is she The saya is a silk petticoat, with numerous small vertical plaits, containing about thirty yards of silk, and costing fifty or sixty dollars. It is drawn in close at the bottom of the dress, so that the wearer is obliged to take very short steps (ten inches). It is a little elastic, and conforms to the shape, whether natural or artificial, from the waist down. The manto is a kind of cloak, of black silk. It is fastened to the saya at tne waist, and brought over the head and shoulders from behind, concealing every thing but one eye, and one hand, in which is usually seen a cross, or whose fingers are well orna mented with jewels. Before the manto is arranged, a French shawl of bright colours is thrown over the shoulders, and brought between the openings of the manto in front, hang ing down nearly to the feet. The loose saya is also much worn ; this is not contracted at the bottom, and in walking has a great swing from side to side. " The walk of the Lima ladies is graceful and pretty, and they usually have small feet and hands." The houses are built of adobes, or wood. The portales, or arcades, form the most attractive parts of Lima. At nearly all hours they are the most lively resort. They are built on two sides of the plaza. The ground-floor is occupied as shops, in which various goods and fancy articles are sold. Between the columns, next the plaza, sit lace and fringe workers ; and before them are cooks, fresco-sellers, and others. Frying cakes, and fish, in the morning and late in the evening, seems to be one of the most brisk employments, the demand being remarkable. The arcades are about five hundred feet long, paved with small stones, inter laid with the knuckle-bones of sheep, which produces a kind of mosaic pavement, in which is wrought the date of its foundation, 1799. This place for many hours of the day is the great resort of the populace. The palace, formerly that of the viceroy, occupies the north side of the plaza. The lower part of it is now converted into a row of small shops, principally tinkers and small-ware dealers. On the east-side is the archbishop s palace and the cathedral. The fountain in the centre of the plaza, of which much has been said, was erected in 1600, by Don Garcia Sarmiento Sotomayer, the then viceroy and captain-general of the kingdom. "El que bebe de la pila sequenda in Lima/ 5 is the usual saying. " He that drinks of the fountain will not leave Lima." The cathedral is a stately, large edifice; most of its decorations are in bad taste. Formerly it was celebrated for riches in precious metals and stones. Its great altar is composed of silver. In a chapel on one side of the building, there are portraits of all its archbishops but the one who, at the revolution, proved faithful to his sovereign ; they all, except him, are interred in niches in the crypt, under the great altar. Most of the coffins are open, and exhibit the dried-up remains of the saints, clothed in leather jackets and shoes, which the sacristan will dispose of for a trifle. Two skulls and a hand were obtained by Captain Wilkes. The market of Lima, kept in an open square, is well supplied. There are no LIMA. stalls: mats are used in their stead. The meat is spread in rows, and tin, tables heaped up in piles. The meat is cut with the grain, and into small j to suit the purchasers; and poultry is cut up in a similar manner. The co establishments are in great request ; stews, fries, and olla podridas, arc in constant preparation. Captain Wilkes observes, " The fried dishes seemed to claim their preference, if one could judge by the number in waiting. The expertness of the woman who officiated was truly wonderful, twisting and twirling the dough in her hand, placing it upon a stick, dipping it in the hot oil, and slipping it as soon as cooked dexterously into the dish for her customers. Then again was a frier of pancakes close by, equally expert. The variety of dishes cooking was surpris- ing, and those who fried fish exhibited undoubted proofs of their freshness, by consigning them to the pan before they ceased to live. " I was surprised at the variety of fish, meats, vegetables, and fruits ; the latter parti cularly. These were in season, and included oranges, cherimoyers, pommegranates, paltas, plantains, bananas, papaws, granadillas, apples, figs, and ananas. " The above are the usual articles crowded into the market, but were I to stop here, one-half would not be told. All sorts of goods, jewellery, cottons, woollens, laces, hardware, linen fabrics, handkerchiefs, shoes, slippers, hats, &c., are hawked about by pedlars with stentorian lungs, who, with the lottery vendors, with tickets, ink-horn, and pen, selling the tickets in the name of the Holy Virgin and all the saints, make an uproar that one can have little idea of without mixing in or witnessing it." The buildings of the convent of San Francisco cover six or seven acres of ground. In its days of monkish prosperity it was a magnificent establishment. Its chapels are still rich in gilding, carved work, &c., and the cloisters are adorned with beautiful fountains and flower-gardens. Part of it is now occupied as barracks, and the muskets are piled on the altars. It has been stripped of its riches and deserted. The gallery of paintings contains, it is said, several Murillos. The remains of its former splendour seem to justify what Father Feiiille asserted, " that there was nothing of the kind to compare with it in Europe. 5 There are few friars at present, formerly it maintained 500, living in luxury and licentious ness. The public library of Lima contains rare books, both in Drench and Spanish, taken from the Jesuits college and convents. They are in good order, and among them are numerous manuscripts beautifully illuminated. A public museum was lately commenced, by forming a collection of Peruvian antiquities, some native birds, and the portraits of all the viceroys, from Pizarro down. At the cabildo, or city hall, are to be seen some of the archives of Lima. The signatures of the old viceroys and governors, and, among others, that of Pizarro, is shown. Few of them could write, and they adopted the rubrica, by placing the finger of the left hand on the parchment, and making a flourish on each side of it, the clerk filling in the name. This method is said to be generally adopted among the South Americans in signing official documents, and bindino- as if the name was written. All classes of people are addicted to the smoking of cigars, even in carnage, 980 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and at the dinner-table. It does not seem to be considered by any one as unplea sant, and foreigners have adopted the custom. Captain Wilkes says, " There does not appear to exist any accurate account of the population of Peru ; but it is generally believed to have decreased, particularly as regards the whites and negroes. The best information gives but little over 1,000,000 inhabitants, viz., about 125,000 whites; natives and cholos, 800,000; with 90,000 negroes and ranches, of whom about 35,000 are slaves. This does not vary much from the number given by the geographies forty years ago. The country appears, from all accounts, not only to have decreased in popu lation, but to have diminished in wealth and productiveness. A much less proportion of the soil is now cultivated than formerly under the children of the sun. "* There are half a dozen newspapers published in Lima, two of which appear * " The proportion which the different sexes, castes, and conditions, &c., of the inhabitants of Lima bore to one another in the year 1818, may be learned from the subjoined summary taken from the census of Juan Baso, Oidor: Summary of Men and Castes. Summary of Men by Wards. General Amount of the whole. Summary of Women by Wards. Summary of Women by Castes. Secular Spaniards. Priests and Friars. number. 8,406 1,331 2,660 1,561 4,220 4,705 1st Ward number. 6,841 5,882 6,389 3,512 L 259 4,662 number. 27,545 26,553 1st Ward... 2nd , 3rd 4th ... Cercado .... number. 7,975 6,090 7,420 4,756 312 (Secular Spanish \ women. Nuns. Mestiza women. Indian women. r Black and swarthy I free women. Id. slaves. number. 9,455 506 3,262 1,731 } 7,715 3,884 2nd 3rd 4th ( Cercado, the J higher part j of the city V. so called.. . Free Negroes and \ Pardos / Total ... 22,883 27,545 54,098 26,553 26,553 "To convey a more particular idea of the different races of people in Lima, as these are divided and subdivided, arid change in colour by intermixing with one another, we shall add tables on the subject, given by Dr. Unanue, in his work titled Observaciones sobra el clima de Lima : Intermarriages. Offspring. Colour. Mixture. Men. Women. European...^. Creole ... White White . European.*.... Creole Indian Mestiza Creole Creole Mestizo Creole Mulatto . . . . . . White White White White | negro, $ white. \ negro, f white. I negro, f white. White White Mulatta Quarteroua Quinterdna Indian Quarteron Quinteron White Chino :::: White White Negro " The same author gives the following as the retrograde intermarriages, by which the offspring are of more dingy appearance, and made to recede more and more from white, which he takes as the standard primitive colour : Marriages. Offspring. Colour. Men. Women. Negress Mulatta Zamba Dark Zambo China Negro Zambo Dark Zambo Negro Zambo 3-4th negro, l-4th white. 7-8th negro, l-8th white. 15-16th negro, l-16th white. Negro Negro Negro CALLAO AND SAN LORENZO. 981 daily. They are small sheets but have some control over public opinion few or no advertisements are seen in them. These are deemed unnecessary in Lima, all th. amusements, such as the theatre, cock-fighting, &c., are placarded on the portals. Most of the buildings in Lima have suffered more or less from earthquake -. Chorrillos, three leagues to the south of Lima, is the favourite watering-place, and frequented during the sultry months by gambling parties and persons of rank and fashion from town. It is a small village of fishermen, constructed of cane and mud. The Indian owners of the shades, and of some houses or ranchvs, let them to the bathers during the bathing season; and some persons either take these for a term of years, or construct light houses for themselves, which they fit up tastefully, and pass the summer months in them in the midst of gaiety and mirth. Chorillos is sheltered from the south-western blast by an elevated promontory, called the Mora- Solar, which rises like a gigantic guaca overlooking the numerous monuments, or Pagan temples, of this name which are scattered over the naturally rich, but now in a great measure waste and desolate plain, that extends from Lima to Chorrillos. During the raw, damp, and foggy months of July and August in Lima, Chor- rillo enjoys a clear sky and a genial air. The south-westers, laden with heavy clouds, spend their strength on the Moro-Solar (on which burst the only thunder storm witnessed by the Limeniens in the memory of any one now living), and divide into two currents ; the one pursues the direction of the village of Mira- flores, and the other, the hacienda of San Juan, leaving Chorrillos clear and serene between. Thus protected, Chorrillos does not experience the chilly mists of winter ; and it is the great hospital of convalescence for agueish, asthmatic, dysen teric, rheumatic, and various other sorts of invalids from the capital during the misty season. The salutary practice of bathing in the sea was in former times confined chiefly to those affected with cutaneous diseases ; but within the last fifty or sixty years sea-bathing has been preferred to river-bathing, or to the cold baths by the old Alameda, and fountain of Piedra-lisa. The women are usually cleanly in their persons; but, however, congenial cleanliness may be to their sex, they, like the sick and bearded men, seem to be greatly afraid of ablution in hectic fever, and some other diseases with which they are often visited. CALLAO AND THE ISLAND OF SAN LORENZO. Captain Wilkes, who anchored for ten days at San Lorenzo, measured its three highest points with barometers. The result gave 896 feet for the southern, 92C feet for the middle, and 1284 feet for the northern summit. the *JS been uUivted b the potato, and that only the fro. the .oistureof the clouds, and their shield- ing it from the hot sun 982 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. " Quantities of shell-fish are found on the shore, and the waters abound with excel lent fish. " The burying-ground is the only object of interest here. 1 he graves are covered with white shells, anda white board, on which is inscribed the name, &c. They appear to be mostly of Englishmen and Americans, and it would seem that the mortality had been great. But when one comes to consider the large number of men of-war which have been lying in the bay, and the period of time elapseci, the number of interments do not seem large." The Bay of Callao, with the climate, combined with the prevailing winds, renders it a fine harbour. The island of San Lorenzo protects it on the west from the swell of the ocean, but its northern side is entirely exposed ; but there is no danger to be apprehended from that quarter. A few miles to the north the in fluence of San Lorenzo ceases ; the surf there breaks very heavily upon the beach, and prevents any landing. The plain rises gradually from Callao towards Lima. From the bay it is seen distinctly, about six miles distant, and does not appear to be elevated ; yet Cap tain Wilkes, who measured the height of Mr. Bartlett s house above the level of the sea by sympiesometer, found it 420 feet high. This rise is scarcely percep tible passing over the road, except to one who has a practised eye. Since 1821, Callao had improved, notwithstanding the vicissitudes it has gone through since that time. "A fine mole has been erected, surrounded by an iron railing. On it is a guard-house, with soldiers lounging about, and some two or three on guard. "The mole affords every convenience for landing from small vessels and boats. The streets of Callao have been made much wider, and the town has a more decent appearance; Water is conducted from the canal to the mole, and a railway takes the goods to the fortress, which is now converted into a depot. This place, the sea-port of Lima, must be one of the great resorts of shipping, not only for its safety, but for the convenience of pro viding supplies. The best idea of its trade will be formed from the number of vessels that frequent it. I have understood that there is generally about the same number as we found in port, namely, forty-two, nine of which were ships of war; five American, two French, one Chilian, and thirty-five Peruvian merchantmen, large and small." Narrative. The castle of Callao has long been the key of Peru. Whichever party has had it in possession were considered as the possessors of the country. It is now con verted into a custom-house, and is nearly dismantled. Only five of its guns re main out of 145. The Limenians are said by Dr. Smith to be fond of seasonable bathing, and the pleasures of a watering-place, which they know how to enjoy for three months in the year. The principal street of Callao runs parallel with the bay. There are a few tolerably well-built two-story houses on the main street, which is paved. These houses are built of adobes, and have flat roofs, which is no inconvenience, in con sequence of the absence of heavy rains. The interior of the houses is of the com monest kind of work. The partition-walls are built of cane, closely laced together. The houses of the common people are of one story, and about ten feet high; some of them have a grated window, but most of them only a doorway and one room. CALLAO AND SAN LORENZO. 983 Other dwellings are nothing more than mud walls, with holes covered with a mat, and the same overhead. The outskirts of Callao deserve mentioning only for their excessive filth. The donations to the clergy or priests, at two small chapels, are collected on Saturdays from the inhabitants. On the evening of the same day, the devotees of the church, headed by the priest, carry a small portable altar through the street, decorated with much tinsel, and various coloured glass lamps, on which is a rude painting of the Virgin. As they walk, they chant their prayers. The market is held in a square of about one and a half acres. The stands for selling meat are placed indiscriminately, or without order. Beef is sold for from four to six cents the pound, is cut in the direction of its fihre, and looks filthy. It is killed on the commons, and the hide, head, and horns are left for the buzzards and dogs. The rest is brought to market on the backs of donkeys. Chickens are cut up to suit purchasers. Fish and vegetables are abundant, and of good kinds, and good fruit may be had if ordered from Lima. Every thing confirms, on landing, the truth of the geographical adage, u In Peru it never rains. It appears everywhere dusty and parched up." The situation of old Callao is still visible under the water. The very founda tion seems to have been upturned and shaken to pieces, and the whole submerged by a mighty sea. The wonder is that any one escaped to tell the tale. "Two crosses mark the height to which the sea rose. The upper one, one- third of the way to Lima, indicates the extreme distance to which the water flowed ; the lower one marks the place whither the Spanish frigate was carried. I very much doubt the truth of either. I can easily conceive that a great wave would be sufficient to carry a large vessel from her moorings half a mile inland, but I cannot imagine how the water should have reached the height of one hundred and fifty feet at least above the level of the sea, and yet permitted two hundred inhabitants of old Callao to have escaped on the walls of a church that are not half that height. " Outside the walls of the fortress are several large vaults, filled with the dead, in all stages of decay, and on which the vultures were gorging themselves ; this was a revolting spectacle. Many are thrown in naked, and covered only with a few inches of sand. Great numbers of skeletons are still seen with pieces of clothing hanging to them. Dogs and vultures in great numbers were everywhere feeding upon the dead, or standing aloof fairly gorged with their disgusting repast. If any thing is calculated to make a people brutal, and to pre.vent the inculcation of proper feeling, it is such revol these." Callao is said to contain between two and three thousand inhabitants, but this number seems to be overrated. Several new buildings are in course of erection, notwithstanding the times of revolution. The principal street is about a third of a mile in length, and is tolerably well paved, with side-walks. Billiard-signs stare you in the face. This may be set down as the great amusement, to which may be added the favourite monti at night. Coaches, or rather omnibuses, run several times a day to Lima, accounts of robberies on the road to Lima, are still fresh in the mouths of strangers. In times of revolution it was infested by robbers, but the steps taken by government have effectually put a stop to them. 984 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. On the road to Lima is Bella Vista ; but it is in ruins, and has been so ever since the revolution. It was generally the outpost or battle-ground of the two parties, and although the soil in the plain which borders the sea is extremely fer tile, consisting of decomposed rock, containing the elements of fertility in the greatest abundance, it is now a neglected waste. On approaching Lima, the gardens and fields are cultivated and irrigated. Fields of Indian corn are seen, some fully ripe, some half-grown, and others just shooting up. This bears testi mony not only to the fineness of the climate, but to the fertility of the soil. The gardens near the city are filled to profusion with fruits of all descriptions. The road, on its near approach to the city, forms an avenue of about a mile in length. This, in its prosperous days, was the usual, and most agreeable even ing drive. On each side are gardens filled with orange-trees, the fragrance of whose flowers, and the beauty and variety of the fruit, add to its attractions. It is now going to decay from utter neglect. It is typical of Peru. CHAPTER XXIV. BOLIVIA. BOLIVIA extends north to south from 10 deg. 30 min., to 25 deg. south latitude ; and east to west from about 57 deg. 50 min., to about 71 deg. 30 min. west longi tude. It extends nearly three degrees and a half along the Pacific. The greatest length is estimated about 940 miles. The greatest breadth at about 850 miles. Bolivia is bounded on the north by Peru ; on the east by Brazil, and by the republic of Paraguay ; south by the Gran Chaco, the republic of Salta, and Chile. The region between the Pacific and the Andes is appropriately called the Desert of Atacama. Few parts of it are stated to be fit for agriculture. The streams which flow from the mountains, are soon lost in the sands. The country south of the Alturas de Lipez consists chiefly of rocky ridges, with little vege tation, except in the elevated valleys, which are about 5000 feet above the level of the sea. In the latter, the grains of Europe, maize, and the fruits of southern Europe, are cultivated. The valley of Titicaca has a fertile soil, especially in the neighbourhood of the lake, where quinoa, potatoes, and barley are cultivated ; but generally no other grains or culinary vegetables succeed, owing to the severity of the climate. The valleys south of the Sierra de la Cruz are the most populous and best-cultivated parts of Bolivia. The valley of Cocha- bamba, is reputed for the richness of its soil and products. The Yungas, or small valleys north of the Sierra de Santa Cruz, are also productive. The rivers that BOLIVIA. drain these valleys, generally bring down gold, of which a considerable quantity has been collected. The Plains of Moxos and Chuquitos are covered with forests, with occasional savannahs. But although extremely fertile, they arc thinly peopled, and inhabitants and cultivation appears only along some of the river banks. The River Loa flows, for about 180 miles, to the Pacific, but bri down so little water that in summer it is only about fifteen feet broad at its mouth, and only a few inches in depth. Almost every other stream flowing west from the Andes is lost in the sands, and does not reach the sea. The Rio Desaguadero, which drains the valley of Titicaca, runs about 200 miles, until it disappears among some swamps and lakes. Many rivers descend from the eastern declivity of the Andes ; and those which drain the country south of the Alturas de Lipez are also very numerous. They unite either with the rivers which fall into the Rio Madeira, or with those which constitute the most remote branches of the Pilcomayo, a great tributary of the Paraguay. Near 10 deg. 30 min. south latitude, the Madeira is joined by the navigable Beni. The Guapahi and Mamore, as well as the Beni, are navigable from the places where they leave the mountains. The navigation of the Rio Madeira is, however, inter rupted by cataracts, which occur between 9 deg. and 10 deg. south latitude. The cataract of Theotonio is said to be fifty feet high. Farther down the Ma deira is free from impediments to navigation, and may be navigated by vessels of any size to the Amazon. But the Beni, Mamore, Pilcomayo, and Ber- mego, are navigable either to the Amazon, or Paraguay, for vessels suffi ciently large to navigate the Atlantic. ( See account of the Rivers Amazon and Paraguay hereafter). The natural facilities for inland navigation possessed by Bolivia, east of the Cordilleras, and the fertility and power of production of which the soil is capable, are sufficiently great to render Bolivia a very rich and important nation. Climate and Agriculture. The discovered regions of Bolivia vary greatly in climate and productions. The region of Atacama is sterile, as it never rains ; fogs are common during a part of the year. A little maize is cultivated in a few spots. The valley of Titicaca and the plains of Moxos and Chuquitos present a great contrast: both regions have a rainy season, which occurs from November to April ; but while the rain descends in showers on the valleys, it falls in torrents on the plains. On the plains cacao, coca, indigo, cotton, rice, mandioc, and several tropical fruits are grown, whilst the forests supply copai balsam, sarsaparilla, caoutchouc, vanilla, and canella de clavo, and many c valuable plants and fruits, and excellent timber. The valleys between tl tains and plains have a temperate climate, and sufficient rain for the j the grains and fruits of Europe in the higher, and those of tropical countries m 6 K VOL. I, 986 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the lower regions. The forests of the eastern declivity of the Andes yielded chinch ona bark. The valley of Titicaca as well as the savannahs of the plain, supplies pasture for cattle, horses, mules, and sheep. The mountain precipices, which are almost inac cessible to man, are resorted to by herds of guanacoes, vicunas, and llamas; a great number of llamas are used as beasts of burden in the valley of Titicaca. Fish is very plentiful in the rivers. Vicuna and sheep-wool, together with some hides, are articles exported to foreign countries. Minerals. Gold occurs in all the valleys of the Yungas, and is considered abundant in the Tipuani, a tributary of the Beni. Large pieces of native gold are found in rivers. Gold is also found in a mountain near the coast, but it is not worked. The mines of Potosi have, for a long period, supplied more silver than all the other mines of the world, and they tire still worked, but it is said with loss. Mines occur in the valley of Titicaca, near Oruro, and west of Potosi, and in some other places. Copper is found in abundance on the surface, near the southern extremity of the valley of Titicaca : the ore is described as very rich, but it is not yet brought (o the Pacific, as it will not pay the expense of carriage. Iron and lead occur, but they are not mined. Population. The population consists of the Spanish race, Mestizoes, and aboriginals. The latter constitute about three-fourths of the whole, and they are most numerous in the valley of Titicaca, in the Yungas, and on the plains. The native population of the valley of Titicaca consists of Peruvians, who are distinguished by their industry in agriculture, and the rearing of cattle and llamas. They speak the Quichua language. The plains are inhabited by nu merous tribes, most of which are comprehended under the names of Moxos and Chiquitos. The Moxos, who are said to have been civilised by the missionaries, who commenced their labours about 200 years ago, have become an agricultural people ; they cultivate different kinds of plants and roots, and live in fixed habi tations. The Chiquitos appear to have retained their nomade habits. The Chiri- guanos and Zamucos are independent natives. Of the Spanish race, and of the Christianised aborigines, most of what is said relative to the inhabitants of Peru, applies to Bolivia. Nothing can be more vague than the estimates of the population, which range from 500,000 to 1,500,000 inhabitants. The area of the departments into which Bolivia is divided has been computed as follows : 1. Lamar, 30,000; 2. Cinti, 20,000 ; 3. Tarija, 12,000; 4. Potosi, 40,000; 5. Oruro, 12,000 ; 6. Chuquisaca, 24,000 ; 7. Cochabamba, 18,000 ; 8. La Paz, 65,000; 9. Santa Cruz de la Sierra, 159,000; Total area, 380,000 square miles. These computations are mere estimates. The department of Lamar, which comprises the sea-coast, is remarkable for its sterility. It has some harbours seldom visited by European shipping, BOLIVIA. with the exception of Cobija or Lamar. It contains about 1 500 inhabitant I, but is a miserable place : provisions, and even water, are brought to it fro.: distance. The department of Zinta or Cinti is divided into two provinces, Line/ and Cinti. In the fertile valley of Cinti considerable quantities of wine and brandy are manufactured. Tupiza, on the road leading from Buenos Ay res to Potosi, has about 5000 inhabitants, with some silver mines in the neighbourhood. Cinti has about 2000 inhabitants, and traffic in wine and brandy. The department of Tarija lies to the east of Cinti, and comprehends the country west of that which is inhabited by the Chiriguanos Indies, and is drained by the Rio de Tarija, an affluent of the Vermejo, and its tributaries. It is a country chiefly of high mountains, with some fertile valleys, which produce tropical products. The capital Tarija has about 2000 inhabitants. The department of Potosi comprehends the mountainous country north of the Alturas de Lipez, of Porco, and the Eastern Bolivian Andes, as far north as the sources of the Cochabamba. It is divided into the provinces of Chicha*, Porco, and Cayanta. Nearly the whole area is occupied by mountains rising above the limit of vegetation. It contains the richest silver mines of Bolivia . Potosi, the capital, is built on the declivity of the Cerro de Potosi. The town is situated at nearly 13,000 feet above the level of the ocean, and has about 30.000 inhabitants. About 250 years ago, it is said to have contained about 100,000 inhabitants. The streets are narrow and steep, but the houses are substantial. The surrounding country is destitute of vegetation. The mines are above the town, and elevated about 15,000 feet above the sea. The department of Oruro occupies the valley of Titicaca, the Western Boli vian Andes. It is divided into the provinces of Oruro, Paria, and Carangas. Grain is scarcely cultivated, unless it be quinoa ; it has extensive pastures. There are several rich silver mines; and copper, though abundant, cannot be smelted from an utter want of wood, or other fuel than reeds or rushes, and the trans port of the ore where it can be smelted is by far too expensive. Oruro, the capital, is situated in the valley of Titicaca, about 12,000 feet above the sea- level, and contains abont 6000 inhabitants, engaged chiefly in working the silver mines in the neighbourhood. The department of Chuquisaca comprehends the southern districts of leys south of the Sierra de la Santa Cruz ; the vale of the Rio Pilcomayo, and eastern portion of the basin of the Rio Guapahi : it is divided into the provin of Yamuaraes and Tomina. The valleys are broad and fertile, and : dbtricU tolerably cultivated. The mountains contain some i V/C*O^V/*J.A |^v^A VAVX _ . of Yamoaraes and Tomina. The valleys are broad and fertile, and ,n districts tolerably cultivated. The mountains contain some suver-mmes. capital, Chuquisaca, is the seat of the general government of Boh, in a beautiful valley, 9000 feet above the level of the sea. It has a ca and several substantial building., about 25,000 inhabits, several mst.tutu 988 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. for education, including a university and mining school. Two roads lead from this town to the valley of Titicaca, that of Levichuco to Oruro, and that of Tola- palca to La Paz ; the latter leads over a pass 14,375 feet above the sea. The department of Cochabamba is divided into the provinces of Sacaba Ta- pacari, Arque, Palca, Clissa, and Mizque, and contains the most populous and agricultural districts of the republic. All the grains and fruits of Southern Europe succeed in perfection : the products are sent partly to the valley of Titi- caca, and partly to other departments. The silver-mines are of little value as far as worked ; some gold is collected in the rivers. Cochabamba is situated in a valley on the banks of a small river. Oropesa, the capital of the depart ment, has 16,000 inhabitants, and has manufactures of cotton and glass. The department of La Paz extends over the central parts of the valley of Titicaca, and it also comprehends the eastern range of the Bolivian Andes with the Yungas, and the plain as far east as the Rio Beni. It is divided into the provinces of Pacajes, Sicasica, Omasuyos, Larecaja, Chulumani, and Apolo- bamba. Gold and chinchon a bark are among its most important products. La Paz, the capital of the department, is situated in a narrow valley, many hundred feet below the level of the valley of Titicaca, on the banks of the Rio Chuqueapo. It contains about 20,000 inhabitants, and is the most trading town in the republic. A road over the pass of Gualillas (14,200 feet above the sea) leads from La Paz to the coast of Peru, and another over that of Pacuani (15,226 feet high) to Cochabamba and Oropesa. By these roads European commodities are brought to the countries east of the Andes, and gold and bark are exported by those routes. The department of Santa Cruz de la Sierra includes nearly the whole of the eastern plains ; it is divided into the provinces of Valle Grande, Pampas, and Baures, and the regions of Moxos, Chiquitos, and Chiriguanos. Near the de clivities of the Sierra de la Cruz, and along the banks of the Guapahi, there are settlements of Spanish races : the whole of the other parts are occupied by the native tribes, who are agriculturists, and also manufacturers of rudely-made cotton stuffs. The natural fertility of the department is remarkable, but nothing is, however, produced for exportation. The capital, San Lorenzo de la Frontera, situated on the banks of the Guapahi, is not far from the old town of Santa Cruz de la Sierra: it has about 4000 inhabitants, of whom about 1500 are of European race. The great difficulty and expense of carrying commodities over the Andes to the populous districts of Bolivia, separated from the Pacific, had compelled the inhabitants to become their own manufacturers. Cottons and woollens are ma nufactured ; tanneries are also numerous. There are also some glass-works, and manufactories of hats, cloth, &c. We can say little of the government or statistics of this country. The DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CHILE. executive, administrative, and legislative government differs little from that of Peru. Our observations on, and accounts of, the climate of Peru, apply as nearly as possible to Bolivia.^ also the most recent maps of both count Bolivia is a region of great natural advantages, which require only a thrifty. industrious, and skilful population to render its eastern provinces, especially, one of the most productive countries in South America. CHAPTER XXV. CHILE. CHILE extends along the Pacific from about 25 deg. to 41 deg. 50 min. south latitude ; the island of Chiloe is separated from the continent by the straits of Cha- cao, and extends to 43 deg. 30 min. south latitude. Chile lies between 69 deg. and 72 deg. west longitude ; from south to north its length is about 1170 miles, its breadth varies from 100 to 200 miles. On the north Chile is separated from Bolivia by a desert, the boundary-line on the coast of the Pacific is near the village of Paposo. The Andes, the highest part of which constitutes the eastern boundary-line of Chile, together with the high mountain masses which form the western de clivity of the Andes, occupy a great part of the area of Chile ; north of the Cuesta de Chacabuco, there are valleys between lofty ridges similar to the valleys of Peru ; south of that there are extensive plains, and few ridges of hills except along the coast, where the highlands are almost continuous. The western declivity of the Andes is abrupt and intersected by ravines, through which the rivers descend with impetuosity. The parts fit for cultivation are limited to where these ravines change into vales or plains. Southward the lower declivities are covered with fruit, northward they are generally bare and rocky.* There are silver mines, but few of them are worked. The hilly country is, in many parts, sandy or rocky, without any vegetation excepting some patches of cactus and coarse grass. The crops of maize in the mountain districts are said not to be sufficient for the inhabitants, who derive their chief means of subsist ence from the labour in, and produce of the silver and copper mines, and partly also from the fruits of the upper valleys. The plains, in most parts, afford good * In the narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, Captain Wilkes observes* 4 On approaching the coast of Chile, every one is anxious to get a sight of the Cordilleras. There are only two periods during the day in which they can be seen to advantage, viz , in the morning before sunrise, and in the evening at sunset. The first is the most striking view. The outline is at that time of a golden hue, and may be easily traced, in a long line, running north and south. This gradually brightens, and is lost the moment the sun is seen. The evening view gives ; rise to disappointment. The mountains are seen at a great distance (eighty miles in a bird s flight), re flecting the setting sun, and, in consequence, appear much lower than is anticipated. 990 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. pastures. Some districts are fit for agriculture, and the remaining portions are sandy flats. The arable districts of Chile supply the countries of South Ame rica on the Pacific with grain, and the pastures with jerked beef and hides. The undulated country between the plains and the sea is, in many parts, covered with stunted trees ; but grapes, and other delicious fruits, are also grown in the hilly countries. Rivers. The rivers of Chile, north of the Maypu, bring down little water; none are navigable; they serve, however, the important purpose of irrigating the lands. South of the Maypu, in 34 deg., the rains fall in sufficient quantities, and the rivers, though deeper, are not used for irrigation. The River Maule is navi gable for vessels drawing about seven feet of water; it is navigable for river barges for about twenty miles. The Biobio, the largest of the rivers of Chile, flows a course of nearly 200 miles ; at its mouth it is two miles wide, but too shallow for large vessels to enter. It is navigable for river craft to Nacimiento, about 100 miles from its mouth. The River Callacalla is deep enough for lar^e vessels to enter its mouth. There are no large lakes of any importance in the valleys and plains. In the Andes there are some lakes, but, as far as known, the largest is not more than fifteen miles in length. Climate. Extending from north to south for sixteen degrees, and with a very irregular surface, the temperature of the climate of Chile is consequently variable. In the valleys, especially in that of Copiabo, years pass over without rain falling. Further south showers occur only during three or four years, after which a rainy season drenches these southern valleys. In Aconcagua still further south, the number of rainy days do not generally exceed fourteen to twenty-one. South of the River Maypu rain falls sufficient for the cultivation of grain. At and near the River Biobio, rainfalls regularly in winter, otherwise the sky is cloudless during six or seven months of the year; south of that river the rains are irregular, and fall heavily. The regions where rains fall are covered with forests ; many of the trees afford excellent timber. In the arid regions, a few shrubs, stunted trees, and cactus, are the chief natural products. The vegetable productions cultivated are similar to those of southern Europe. Maize is cultivated in the northern parts of Chile ; wheat and barley are generally grown in the southern plains ; and wheat and flour are exported to Peru and other places. Grapes, fruits, and such vegetables as are common in southern Europe, are produced abundantly in the valleys as far south as the River Biobio. The wines, of tolerable quality, are made for home use. Timber is exported from Chile and other parts. The pastures of the southern provinces feed large herds of cattle; jerked beef, tallow, hides, and live stock are exported. Guanacoes and llamas abound in the northern provinces. Minerals. Gold is found in the sands of the rivers. It was formerly, but DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CHILE. not at present, collected. Silver mines exist in the Andes ; south of 33 <: north of that parallel they are numerous in the ridges between the valleys. In the arid and sterile desert between the valleys of Copiabo and Huasco, they are worked to a considerable extent. Copper ore abounds in the same re<jion, and is imported into England, chiefly into Swansea to be smelted. Lead and iron cxi^t, but they are not worked. In the country on the northern banks of the River Biobio there are extensive coal-fields partially worked. Salt is made from the water of a salt lake ; it is also imported, partly from Peru, by sea, and from the native tribes of Patagonia, who make it from the salt lakes of that country. Population. The population of Chile consists of the descendants of the Spaniards, and aboriginal tribes. All the inhabitants, north of the River Biobio, are of European race, with scarcely any mixture of Indian blood. The aboriginals occupy almost exclusively the country south of the River Biobio. South of the Biobio the inhabitants known under the name of Araucanians, have preserved their independence in defiance of the Spaniards. They derive their subsistence chiefly from cultivating maize, potatoes, beans, and vegetables; and they rear large herds of cattle and horses. During the war of independence they made destructive inroads upon the country north of the Biobio ; a successful war was afterwards carried on against them, which ended in a peaceful agreement. As no census, that we know of, has been ever taken of the population, we can only state, that by an estimate made some years ago, the population was stated at 1,200,000 souls. The present population is considered to exceed 1,300,000 souls, exclusive of the Araucanians. CHILE is divided into eight provinces, the area of which is estimate square miles as follows : -Coquimbo, 48,000; Aconcagua, 14,000; Santiago, 12,000 ; Colchagua, 15,000 ; Maule, 12,000 ; Concepcion, 18,OC 40,000; Chiloe, 11,000: total area, 170,000 square miles. Towns -Copiabo, in the valley of the same name, about forty-five mile the sea, has nearly 3000 inhabitants. Its port on the coast is bad, as the surf rolls in heavily, and the landing is very difficult; copper, copper ore, and: laden at this port, which has a village with about 1100 inhabitants, the valley of the River Huasco, about forty-five miles from the sea, owes some silver mines in the neighbourhood. It contains about J^^^H^ takes its name from Ballenagh in Ireland, the birth-place of the fcmily gins. La Serena, or Coqnimbo, the capital of the provmce of tb Ts situated in the valley of the same name, about seven mues -at contains nearly 8000 inhabit**, and exports suver and copper the her- bour which is at the mouth of the river, is one of the best on this co with about 1500 inhabitants, is situated in the ne.ghbourhood o 992 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. posed of the former provinces of Quillota and Aconcagua. Its commercial wealth consists in its agricultural productions, especially wheat and cattle. It has also some mines of silver and copper, but with the exception of those of Petorca, they are not considered rich. A fertile and well-cultivated plain, which is an expansion of the Valley of Aconcagua, has the towns of Felipe and Santa Rosa de Aconcagua : each with from 5000 to 6000 inhabitants. Quillota, about twenty miles from the sea, has 8000 inhabitants, and is surrounded by orchards. CONCEPCION, about two miles from the bank of the Biobio, and six miles from its mouth, was once the capital of Chile. It has been repeatedly destroyed bv earthquakes, and devastated by the invasion of the Araucanians. Since its destruction by the great earthquake of 1835, it is nearly all in ruins. Timber and cattle are exported. Valdivia, the capital of the province of the same name, has an excellent harbour, well fortified, and contains about 2000 inhabitants. The ISLAND OF CHILOE is about 100 miles long, and, on an average, forty miles wide. The western shores of the island are rocky masses rising abruptly from the ocean to the height of 1500 or 3000 feet. The eastern shores are of moderate elevation, and in their natural state covered with forests among which are magnificent timber-trees. Rocky islands are scattered over the Gulf of An- cud, most of which are inhabited ; Quinchao and Lemuy are populous. The inhabitants of the settlements of Calubco and Carelmapu are chiefly Indians, few in number, and occupied chiefly in cultivating timber. The majority of the in habitants of Chiloe and of the adjacent islands are aborigines. The whole po pulation of the province of Chiloe in 1832, amounted to 43,000. They export timber, wheat, hams, &c. The shores and bays abound in varieties of excellent fish. The shellfish is described as delicious. SAN CARLOS is the capital of the province of the same name, with a good harbour, and about 4000 inhabitants. Manufactures. The facility with which foreign manufactured goods can be imported into Chile has wisely discouraged the establishment of any important manufactures. A large portion of the population, however, wear home-made stuffs, especially woollen; the importation of British manufactures is increasing : steam boats from England ply along the coast of Chile ; but under the Spanish rule the coasting trade was discouraged. (See Statistics and Trade of Chile hereafter.) In 1810, the population of Chile rose against Spain, they were defeated in 1814 at Rancaguaby General Osorio, and obliged to submit to their former rulers. In 1817 San Martin, with an army from Mendoza, gained the battles of Chaca- buco (1817) and Maypu(1818), the result of which was the independence of the country. The constitution then adopted is still considered the fundamental law, and formed on the principle of a centralized government. The executive power is vested in a supreme director. The legislature is composed of a senate and a house of representatives. The senate consists of twenty members at the most, and every 15,000 inhabitants sends a member to the house of representatives. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CHIM-. ;. .,;; CHAPTER XXVI. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CHILE AND VALPARAISO : SANTIAGO COPI KK MIM.>. VALPARAISO has increased in population, extent, and importance within the last twenty years, and has become the great sea-port of Chile and the u coast. Its harbour is inferior to others on the coast, yet it is the nearest and most convenient port to Santiago, the capital.* Captain Wilkes says, I have had some opportunity of knowing Valparaiso, and contrasting its present state with that of 1821 and 1822. It was then a mere village, composed, with but few exceptions, of straggling ranches. It has now the appearance of a thickly settled town with a population of 30,000, Bve times the number it had then. It is divided into two parts, one of which is known by the name of the Port, and is the old town ; the other by that of the Almendral, occupying a level plain to the east. Its location is by no means such as to show it to advantage. The principal buildings are the custom-house, two churches, and the houses occupying the main street. Most of the buildings are of one story, and are built of adobes or sun-dried brick. The walls of the buildings are from four to six feet thick. The reason for this mode of building is the frequent occurrence of earthquakes. The streets are well paved. The plaza has not much to recommend it. The government -house is an inferior building. Great improvements are now making, and many buildings on the eve of erection. " They are about bringing water from one of the neighbouring springs on the hill, which, if the supply is sufficient, will give the town many comforts. On the hills are many neat and comfortable dwellings, surrounded by flower-gardens. These are chiefly occupied by the families of American and English merchants. This is the most pleasant part of the town, and enjoys a beautiful view of the harbour. The ascent to it is made quite easy by a well-constructed road through a ravine. The height is 210 feet above the sea. The east end of the Almendral is also occupied by the wealthy citizens. The lower classes live in the ravines. Many of their habitations are scarcely sufficient to keep them dry during the rainy season. They are built of reeds, plastered with mud, and thatched with straw. They seldom contain more than one apartment. The well-known hills to the south of the port, called the Main and Fore Top, are the principal localities of the grog-shops and their customers. These two hills, and the gorge (quebradd) between them, seem to contain a large proportion of the worthless population of both sexes. The females, remarkable for their black eyes and red ba- yettas, are an annoyance to the authorities, the trade, and the commanders of vessels, * Captain Wilkes observes, " The northers are greatly dreaded, although I think without much cause. One of them, and the last of any force, I had myself experienced in June, 182 (whilst in command of a merchant vessel). In it eighteen sail of vessels were lost. But since that time vessels are much better provided with cables and anchors, and what proved a disastrous storm then would now scarcely be felt. I do not deem the bay so dangerous as it has the name of being. The great difficulty of the port is its confined space, and in the event of a gale, the sea that sets in is so heavy, that vessels are liable to come in contact with eacli other, and to be more or less injured. The port is too limited in extent to accommodate the trade tl on in it. Various schemes and improvements are talked of, but none that are feasible, depth of water opposes an almost insuperable obstacle to its improvement by piers, prise of the government, and of the inhabitants of Valparaiso, is, I am well satis undertaking that is practicable. _ . f , " From the best accounts, I am satisfied that the harbour is filling up from the wash of the hills. Although this may seern but a small amount of deposition, yet after a lapse years, the change was quite perceptible to me, and the oldest residents connrrned the f anchorage of the vessels has changed, and what before was thought an extremely dangero tion, is now considered the best in the event of bad weather The sea is to be feared rather than the wind, for the latter seldom blows home, because the land immediately behind the city rises in abrupt hills, to the height of from 800 to 1500 and 2000 feet. VOL. I. 6 L 994 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and equally so to the poor sailors, who seldom leave this port without empty pockets and injured health. " It was difficult to realise the improvement and change that had taken place in the habits of the people, and the advancement in civil order and civilisation. On my for mer visit, there was no sort of order, regulation, or good government. Robbery, mur der, and vices of all kinds, were openly committed. The exercise of arbitrary military power alone existed. Not only with the natives, but among foreigners, gambling and knavery of the lowest order, and all the demoralising effects that accompany them pre vailed. " I myself saw on my former visit several dead bodies exposed in the public squares, victims of the cuchillo. This was the result of a night s debauch, and the fracas attend ant upon it. No other punishment awaited the culprits than the remorse of their own conscience. " Now, Valparaiso, and indeed all Chile, shows a great change for the better; order reigns throughout ; crime is rarely heard of, and never goes unpunished; good order and decorum prevail outwardly everywhere: that engine of good government, an active and efficient police, has been established. It is admirably regulated, and brought fully into action, not only for the protection of life and property, but in adding to the comforts of the inhabitants." The Chilians, when compared with other South Americans, love their coun try, and are fond of their homes. The people are attached to agriculture, and the lower orders are better disposed towards foreigners than in the other Spanish republics. Schools and colleges have been established, and a desire to extend the benefits of education throughout the population is evinced. The police consists of two distinct bodies, one mounted, the other on foot. " The watchmen carry swords only. The former patrol the streets on horseback, while the latter take their particular walk round a square or two, for which they are re sponsible. A message may be sent through them to the furthest end of the city, and an answer returned, in fifteen minutes. They carry a loud and shrill whistle, the sounds of which are varied as occasion requires, and by it a concentration of force can be effected in a few moments. " When they cry the hour they all sing the same tune, but the pitch is ranged in accordance with the scope of the voice. The manner of singing the hour, Viva Chili, Viva Chili, las diez anda y serena, is pleasing. " In the morning they add a prayer, as Ave Maria purissima las cinco y media. " This police adds greatly to the comfort as well as to the safety of the inhabitants. To give an instance of its effects, apothecaries are chosen weekly to keep their shops open all night, and in case of sickness or requiring any aid, one has only to call for the vi gilante, who takes the recipe and passes it to the next, and so on to the shop, where it is obtained, and returned as soon as possible, without any trouble whatever. They have their particular rounds, and each door is obliged to have a padlock. If any door is found without it, they put a lock on, for which the owner has to pay a fine of four dollars to the city to have it removed ; half is the reward of the vigilante. " A complaint during our stay was made by one of the officers, of exactions made by a policeman. It was instantly taken notice of, and punished. It is to be regretted that this police should still wear the military uniform, as it seems unbecoming in a re publican form of government ; at least we thought so." The shops are well filled with articles of English, American, and French manufacture. The markets are abundantly supplied. There are no market-gar dens in the vicinity of Valparaiso, and most of the vegetables are brought from the valley of Quillota, in panniers, on the backs of mules ; grass or clover is brought to in arket on horseback, which almost covers both horse and rider. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CHILE. JiJj Among the few amusements is a small theatre, and an amphitheatre, the ,-////- gano, both of which are usually open on a Sunday evening. Also the national Chilian dance called the samacueca. It is usually performed at the chingano, which is surrounded by apartments where refreshments, including liquors and spirfo, -are sold. It is generally filled by both sexes. The samacueca is danced on u kind of stage; the music is performed by females, on an old-fashioned harp, one . -n,| of which rests on the lap of the performer, and the other on the stage ten feet off. A girl beats time merrily on the sounding-board of the instrument. On the right is another, strumming the common chords on a wire-string guitar, making a full sweep across the strings ; they sing also a national love-song. The samacueca is danced by a young man and woman, the former gaudily decked in a scarlet jacket, embroidered with gold lace, white pantaloons, red sash, and pumps, with a small red cap ; the dress of the young woman is a gaudily-painted muslin dress, short, and starched, over which is thrown a rich-coloured shawl ; these, with silk stockings and pumps, complete her costume. These last are characteristic of the Chilian women of all classes. Silk stockings are even worn by the washerwomen at their tubs. The head is adorned only by the hair, parted from the forehead back to the neck, and descending in two long plaits on each shoulder to the waist. The dance is a kind of fandango. Captain Wilkes says, " The higher classes of females have the name of being virtuous and estimable in their domestic circle, but we cannot say that they are beautiful. They dress their hair with great care and taste. Their feet are small, and they have a graceful carriage. The French fashion of dress prevails, and they are just beginning to wear bonnets. The advancement of civilisation is rapid ; the imitation of foreign habits and customs will soon predominate over those of Chile ; and what is of more consequence, some attention is being paid to their education."* Flowers are but little cultivated. Few gardens are yet to be seen of any consequence. They require constant irrigation most part of the year, which may account for this neglect. There are two in the Almendral, kept in tolerable order. When the American exploring squadron was at Valparaiso, the place was honoured by the president s visit, which, connected with the late victory and successes against Peru, caused much rejoicing ; every attention was shown to the chief magistrate. He was taken on an aquatic excursion, on board of a small brigantine decked out with the flags of all nations, and was accompanied by the civil authorities of Valparaiso, the English admiral, and others. On passing the men-of-war he received the customary salute. " Three balls were given during the stay of the squadron here, in consequence of * A rather singular occurrence took place at a review of the militia on the Plaiancia, one Sunday, by the president, who was attended by his daughter, and a number of the most respect able ladies of the place. They marched down the line, and afterwards danced with the officers on the field, in the presence of the soldiers. All the South Americans are inveterate dancers, the Chilians taking the lead. The taste for music is general, but although they have a number oi national airs, few have been printed. All the printed music in common use is foreign, as j instruments. Pianos are to be seen in almost every house. 996 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the visit of the president (General Prieto) ; one in honour of the recent victory of Yungai over the Peruvians ; the others by the citizens and foreigners to his excellency. As the former was an extraordinary occasion, a description of it will give some insight into the manner in which they conduct these affairs in Chile. All three were managed in a manner that would have been highly creditable in any part of the world. " The place selected for the great ball was between the walls of two large unfinished storehouses, a space of 150 feet long by ninety wide, over which temporary arches were built, the whole covered with an awning lined with blue, and studded with stars, from which were suspended some twenty very handsome chandeliers. The whole was car peted, and the various pillars which supported the roof were decorated with emblems of the victory and nation. At the end, opposite to the entrance, was a transparency of General Bulnes, the hero of Yungai, surrounded with scrolls of the deeds. Along the corridors which the piazzas formed, ranges of sofas and seats were placed ; on the walls were hung rich mirrors and paintings : the former rested on massive pier-tables, in which hundreds of lights were seen reflected, whilst the graceful festoons of the national flags and pen nants formed into draperies, intermixed with wreaths of flowers and evergreens in endless variety, encircling emblematic designs of the nation s glory, produced an effect not easily surpassed. The reception-room of the president was hung with scarlet tapestry, decorated with paintings, mirrors, and pier-tables, and brilliantly lighted with chan deliers, &c." There were card-rooms, smoking-rooms, supper-rooms, a dressing-room for the ladies, in which were hair-dressers and mantua-makers in attendance. All Valparaiso had sent furniture of every kind, and even the churches had contri buted to the great gala fete in commemoration of the national victory. The company consisted of about 500, one-third of whom were females. Many uniforms added to its brilliancy. About ten o clock, the ball was opened by the president, Don Joaquim Prieto, dressed in a richly-embroidered coat, gold epaulettes, and field-marshal s sash. He danced a minuet with a lady of Valparaiso, after which the dancing became general, consisting of quadrilles, country-dances, waltzes, and the samacueca, cachuca, and lordean. Marches and national airs were played and sung. The ball did not break up until eight o clock next morning, at which hour the president and his daughter were escorted home by a procession of dancers, with music playing national airs, &c. On reaching General Prieto s quarters they sang a national hymn, after which they were invited in, where they again continued dancing until noon. Captain Wilkes observes, " The whole equalled, if it did not surpass, any of our own fetes in the United States ; indeed all who attended were much surprised, having little idea that Valparaiso could have made so brilliant and tasteful a display of beauty and magnificence." Previous to the arrival of Captain Wilkes at Valparaiso, the naturalists and some officers belonging to the Peacock and Relief had made excursions into the interior. On his arrival he allowed those who could be spared, and were desirous of visiting Santiago, to set out for that city, and to others with a view of extending their journey to the Cordilleras. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CHILE. The biloche, a vehicle somewhat resembling a double gig, is generally u<- <\ f.,r travelling in Chile. " They have a most ricketty and worn-out appearance ; almost every part appears mended with cords made of hide. They accommodate two passengers; and tketioM required between Valparaiso and the city (Santiago), is about eighteen or twenty 1. In the shafts a horse is put; a postilion rides one on the left, and sometiiiM-s another is placed on the right, both being fastened to the vehicle by lassos of raw-hide proc- from the saddle. Each vehicle is attended by three bilocheros or drivers, with a dr. twelve or fifteen horses, forming quite a cavalcade." The bilocheros are expert riders. Their horses are small, but spirited, an 1 bear fatigue well. Their usual speed is about nine or ten miles an hour. Few equipages can compare with their crazy machines, driven up hill and down dale, with all their accompaniments of horses, guachos, &c. ; and it affords no small amusement to those on foot, to witness the consternation of the affrighted passen gers, in momentary expectation of a break-down. " Fortunately the road was excellent, though at this season (May) it is divested of much of its beauty from the want of vegetation. The interest is, however, carried forward to the lofty peaks of the Andes, of whose summits occasional glimpses are had ; and the eye glances over the surrounding scenery in the immediate neighbourhood, that would elsewhere be deemed grand, to rest on some high and towering peak. Among these the peak of Tupongati is the most noted, ranking, since the measurement of King, as next in height to the Himmaleh mountains." The first stopping-place on the road to Santiago is Casa Blanca, a pueblo of about 500 inhabitants, where travellers usually sleep. The accommodations were recently much improved. In the neighbourhood is the only wooded tract in this part of the country. Casa Blanca is 598 feet above the level of the sea. The road thence passes through Curacovi, a small pueblo, where trap-rock first makes its appearance, and then over a high ridge, called the Cuesta des Zapata. The second plain is of similar character, and extends to the Cuesta del Prado. It is passed over by a zigzag road. On reaching the top, 2394 feet high, the view is magnificent. The peaks of the Andes, covered with eternal snow, some reaching above the clouds, appear but a few miles off, although twenty leagues distant. Beneath are the grazing grounds of the plain, covered with flocks and herds. Variety and life are given to the whole by the view of the national road, on which are seen numbers of vehicles, mules, &c., threading their way up and down the mountain side, laden with foreign and domestic products. This is the only road of any extent! wheel-carriages in the country. It is kept in good repair by convicts who working in chains. A moveable prison, or lock-up house, somewhat resembling used in caravans of wild beasts, is used for their accommodation and night." Heavy merchandise is transported in huge ox-carts. *o iron is used in their stiucture; wooden pins and raw-hide lashings, are made to answer the P urp 0! The yoke is set on the heads of the oxen, behind the horns, and fastened 1 The creaking of these carts may be heard for miles, the drivers never greasing t axles. They are generally drawn by from four to eight oxen. 998 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Light goods are drawn by mules, immense numbers of which are seen on the road at all times. When travelling in biloches, the relays are made as soon as the shaft-horse tires; he is quickly taken out, and one of the drove caught with a lasso, and put in his place. These relays occur every eight or ten miles ; the only relief the horses have is a trot out of harness, without a load. The bilocheros seldom dis mount; all is done on horseback. On going up hill, a third or even a fourth horse is soon hitched to the vehicle to assist the draught. The horses are all in good condition, and it is not a little remarkable that they should be so, for their only food was chopped straw. The teamsters and guachos are equally ab stemious. They live mostly upon bread and their favourite chica, made from the grape, and resembles cider ; but after it has passed through a fermentation, it is intoxicating. Mud-huts, or ranches, are seen on the road-side. Begging is common on this road. * The beggars let themselves to the highest bidders, and value themselves according to their deformities. At Valparaiso, two days are allowed in each week for begging." The plain of Maypo, which reaches to the foot of Cuesta del Prado, is ex tremely level, and nearly thirty miles in width, extending to the foot of the Cordilleras. The road leads nearly in a straight line over it to the city of San tiago on the eastern side of the plain. SANTIAGO. The elevation of Santiago above the sea is 1591 feet, and stands on the third step or plain from the coast. Its entrance is through avenues between high adobe walls. The Cordilleras have at all times an imposing aspect when seen from the neighbourhood of Santiago, and their irregular outline is constantly varying under the effects of light and shade. Santiago is surrounded by orchards gardens, farms, and grazing-grounds. The city being enclosed by high adobe walls, gives it a gloomy appearance until entered, when the streets have a fresh and clean look it is laid out in squares. The streets are paved, and have side walks. This clean appearance is owing to a law obliging the inhabitants to whitewash their houses and walls once a year, and to the white contrasting with the red-tiled roofs. The houses are mostly one-story high, built round a court or square, from twenty to forty feet wide, round which the rooms are situated* The roof projects to form a kind of piazza or covered way. The gateway is usually large, and the rooms on each side of it are not connected with the rest of the building, but rented as shops. Opposite to the gateway is the centre window, guarded by a light and ornamental iron frame, painted green or richly gilt. The court is usually paved with small pebbles from the bed of the Maypocho, arranged fancifully: in many cases, the courts are laid out in flower-plats, with roses and geraniums. The River Maypocho runs through one portion of Santiago, and supplies it DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CIIILF. ()99 with water. In the centre of the city is the great plaza, where the public build ings are situated. These are built of a coarse kind of porphyry from the mountains ; the cathedral and palace each occupy one side ; in the centre is i fountain, with several small statues of Italian marble. All the public buii are much out of repair, having been damaged by earthquakes. The cathedral is a large edifice its altar is decked with gold and silver. There are within it paintings and hangings, among which is a large number of trophies, taken in the wars. The niches are filled with wax figures of saints, and there are also " the remains of two martyrs of the church, in a tolerably r/<><,,l state of preservation." The palace, originally built for the viceroy, is now appropriated to the accom modation of the president and the public offices. On the side opposite to the palace is a colonnade, not yet finished, intended to occupy one whole side of the plaza. Under its portico are fancy and dry goods shops, and between the columns various trades, or lace and fringe-makers work. In the evening it is resorted to by females, with large flat baskets, vending shoes, fruit, and fancy articles ; others are cooking cakes, and the whole portico is lighted up, and much resorted to. The mint occupies a square ; it has never been completed, and has suffered from earthquakes. The operation of coining is in the rudest form. Both rolling and cutting are done by mule power. The public library contains several thousand volumes, which formerly be. longed to the Jesuits, and many curious manuscripts relating to the Indians. The amusements are chiefly the theatre and chingano, and it is called a quiet city. The siesta is daily indulged in; even the shops are shut in the afternoon, and the city is as quiet as midnight. Towards the cool of the evening, the abo rigines resort to the alameda, a beautiful walk, well shaded, about a mile in extent, along one bank of the river. It is planted with a double row of poplar trees. Streams of water are constantly running on each side of the walk; within a few yards of each stone seats are placed, which are at times filled with a well-dressed population. The evenings are often passed at tertulias, social or quiet family parties, or in shopping in the colonnade. The inhabitants are addicted to gambling. Monte is the crame with the higher classes, whilst match-penny is that of the lower orders. The Chilian women are remarkable for their ease of manner, kmdness, and attention to strangers ; they are fond of diversions, particularly dancing and music ; most of them have good figures, and some would be called pretty, b their teeth are generally defective. The men of the upper class and the ladies generally adopt the uirop* fashions. The dress of the lower closes is a mixture of Spanish and I Indian- are fond of bright colours ; over their shirt and trousers is worn a blue or brown 1000 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. poncha. A high-crowned and small-rimmed hat, tied on under the chin, over a bright cotton handkerchief on the head, completes their outfit. They are a well- disposed people, and have more the air of contentment than any other nation of South America. The markets are well supplied ; there is one near the banks of the Maypocho which covers an area of four or five acres, and is surrounded by a low building, with a tile-roof, supported by columns, under which meats of all kinds are sold. In the centre are sold vegetables, fruits, flowers, poultry, and small-wares; the market-women are seated under awnings, screens, and large umbrellas, to keep off the sun. The market is clean. The average price of a horse is twelve dollars, but some that are well broken are valued high. The climate of Chile is justly celebrated, that of Santiago is delightful; the temperature is usually between 60 deg. and 75 deg. The country round is ex tremely arid, and were it not for its mountain streams, which afford the means of irrigation, all Chile would be a barren waste for two-thirds of the year. Rains fall only during the winter months (June to September), and after they have occurred the whole country is decked with flowers ; the rains often last several days, are excessively heavy, and during their continuance the rivers become impassable torrents. At Santiago the climate is drier and colder, but snow rarely falls . on the ascent of the Cordilleras, the aridity increases with the cold ; the snow was found much in the same state as at Terra del Fuego, lying in patches about the summits. Even the high peak of Tupongati was bare in places, and to judge from appearances, it seldom rains in the highest regions of the Cordilleras, to which cause may be imputed the absence of glaciers. The party which made the excursion to the Cordilleras left Santiago in biloches, and travelled to the eastward five leagues, to the if Snow Bank" from which the city is supplied. The ascent was gradual, and with no intervening ravines. They then took horses, leaving their biloches to return. Their route after this lay up a valley. On the surrounding heights guanacoes were seen in great numbers. As they proceeded, the middle region was marked by spiny plants, principally burnadesia. The soil was found to be a mixture of loose earth and pieces of rock. On rising higher, the vegetation became almost wholly extinct ; places occurred of an eighth of a mile in breadth destitute of verdure of any kind. The party then ascended a ridge belonging to the main body of the Cordilleras, and at an elevation of about 10,000 feet, they reached its summit. Here they had an extensive view of the line of snow peaks. That of Tupongati appeared the most conspicuous, although at a distance of eighty miles. The guide asserted that he could see smoke issuing from its volcano in a faint streak ; the peak itself, from this view of it, was sharp-pointed. The scene immediately around them was one of grandeur and desolation ; mountain after mountain, separated SKETCHES OF CHILE. 1 ( M 1 1 by immense chasms, to the depth of thousands of feet, and the sides broken in the most fantastic forms imaginable. In these higher parts of the Cordii they found a large admixture of jaspery aluminous rock, which forms the base of the finest porphyries ; also chlorite in abundance. The rock likewise contains fine white chalcedony in irregular, straggling masses. Trachytic breccia was observed in various places. The porphyry is of a dull purple colour, rather lighter than the red sandstone of the United States. No traces of cellular lava were observed, nor of other more recent volcanic productions. No limestone was seen in the regions traversed by the party ; all the lime used at Santiago is obtained from sea-shells ; nor were any proper sedimentary rocks seen. Com plete silence reigned everywhere ; not a living thing appeared. After spending some time on the top they began their descent ; and after two hours hard travelling they descended below the snow line, and passed the night very comfortably in the open air, with their blankets and pillions, or saddle-cloths. Fuel for a fire they unexpectedly found in abundance : the alpinia umbellifera answering admirably for that purpose, from the quantity of resinous matter it contains. Near their camp was the bank of snow from which the city has been supplied for many years it covers several acres. The snow line here seemed to have remained unchanged. The height they had ascended was supposed to have been about 11,000 feet, and the Cordilleras opposite them about 4000 feet higher. The view of the mass of the Cordilleras, in its general outline, was not unlike those of Mont Blanc and other mountains in Switzerland. They succeeded in killing one of the guanacoes nine feet in length and four feet in height. They were found to frequent only the most inaccessible sum mits, and are said never to leave the vicinity of the snow ; they feed upon several small thorny bushes, which impart a flavour to their flesh, and a smell to their excrement that may be distinguished at some distance from their places of resort. Benzoar is often found in its stomach, and is highly prized among the natives and Spaniards as a remedy for various complaints. It is also used as a gum. All the party suffered greatly from the heat of the sun s rays and the drynei of the atmosphere ; their faces and hands were blistered, and the nose and hps made exceedingly sore, while the reflection of the light from the snow c painful sensation to the eyes. The next day they reached Santiago, whence they returned Valparaiso is usually distinguished in the country. Over the Maypocho at Santiago there is a stone bridge w.th five arches, months of almost every year, the bed of the stream i, nearly dry, but m nine nine muuuis ui aiinvou v,~*j j , , .inter and spring during the melting of the snows, ,t becomes a tc from the damage that has been done in former t.mes, they have taken I e P - caution to wall H in on the side of the city, towards the Cord.lleras, for s 6 M VOL. I. 1002 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. miles, with stone and hard brick. When swollen it is a quarter of a mile wide, rapid and deep, and would cut off the communication with the surrounding country were it not for the stone bridge. Messrsf Couthouy and Dana made a trip to the copper-mines of San Felipe. They left Valparaiso on the l?th for San Felipe, which is about 100 miles north of Valparaiso. They travelled in a biloche as far as Quillota, a distance of forty miles, and proceeded thence to San Felipe on horses. The road to Quillota was found good, although many hills and valleys were passed over. For the first twenty-five miles the road led along the sea-shore, with no higher elevation than about 200 feet. At six miles from Valparaiso, the road cuts through a bed of sienite, remarkable for the vertical dikes of granite by which it is intersected. Ten miles before reaching Quillota, the road passes over a level plain, which extends beyond that place. The hills which bound the valley to the south are low, until approaching Quillota, near which, in the south and south-eastern direction, a lofty ridge rises, adjoining the campagna of Quillota, one of the high cone sea-marks for the harbour of Valparaiso. The town, or city of Quil lota, occupies the centre of the valley, and is twenty miles from the sea. The town of Quillota (according to a Mr. Blanchard, who keeps an inn for strangers), is three leagues in circumference. It contains several churches. The " calle largo/ the longest street, is upwards of a league in length. The same authority gives its population at 10,000 inhabitants. The houses are all one story high, built of adobes, with thatched roofs. There is an abundance of fine building-stone, but in a region of earthquakes the lightest materials are used. Almost every house has a vineyard attached to it, the grapes of which were of good quality and abundant. A portion of the grapes rot upon the vines, as the inhabitants have not the industry or the inclination to manufacture them, although by proper attention they would yield good wine ; they only manu facture some into a hard and acid wine, called masta, or boil the juice down to the favourite drink of the lower classes, called chicha, which somewhat resembles perry or cider in flavour. The small quantity that is not consumed is distilled and sold at Valparaiso. Besides grapes, Spanish wheat and Indian corn are cultivated. Apples, pears, and quinces are also raised. The former are inferior, the latter superior in quality and in great plenty. Oranges are abundant, but of indifferent flavour. Quillota is supplied with water from the River Concon or Aconcagua, which is led through all the streets and gardens of the place. It is used for all house hold purposes as taken directly from the gutters, which are the recipients of dirt of every description from the town. For drinking, it is allowed to settle in large jars kept for the purpose. SKETCHES OF CHILE. The intercourse with strangers at Quillota has been much less than at Val paraiso or Santiago, and consequently the people are more bigoted. About, four years previous to this visit, they burnt, in the public square, a large number of Bibles in the Spanish language, along with a heap of immoral and indecent pamphlets, in the presence of the civil, military, and ecclesiastical authorities. These Bibles had been distributed by Mr. Wheelwright, who has done so much in introducing the communication by steam along the western coast of South America. The fruitful plain or vega of Aconcagua, in width from one to six miles, ex tends, to the west, some twenty miles to the ocean, and is lost in the other direc tion in the mountains ; it is watered by streams, and covered with farm-houses and hamlets, surrounded by trees and vineyards. One feature of this plain is that the mountains seemed to sink into it as if it were into the ocean. In some cases the line was so well defined, that one foot could be placed on the plain and the other on the base of a mountain rising 6000 or 7000 feet high. Captains King and Fitzroy have calculated the height of the peak Tupongati several hundred feet above Chimborazo. The surrounding mountains, though from 10,000 to 12,000 feet high, and much nearer, sink into insignificance when compared with it. The ridges on the northern side of the valley are lofty and precipitous, exhibit ing the columnar structure more distinctly. On the second cuesta the party were gratified by witnessing the mode in which the Chilians capture the wild horses. A party of four or five horsemen with about twenty dogs, formed an extended crescent, driving the wild horses towards the river with shouts. All were armed with the lasso, which was swinging over their heads, to be in readiness to entrap the first that tempted to break through: the dogs serving with the riders to hea< wild horses in. They continued to advance, when suddenly a horse, at furious speed, broke the line, passing near one of the horsemen, and for a momcn it was thought he had escaped ; the next he was jerked round with a f that seemed 5 sufficient to have broken his neck, the horseman hav.. moment the lasso was thrown turned round and braced himself for the The captured horse reared and plunged furiously After becoming * worn out, he was suffered to run, and again sudden y checked. horses, formed an extremely exciting scene. 1004 SPANISH AMKRICAN REPUBLICS. Crossing the streams on returning was attended with some danger ; for, owing to their rapidity and depth, they were near sweeping the horses off their legs. They supped afterwards on a casuela, a sort of Chilian chowder, with a plentiful supply of garlic, onions, Chile pepper, &c. It is one of the favourite dishes of the country. In three days 5 ride they had passed over about sixty miles ; the highest temperature experienced was 65*5 deg., the lowest 35-7 deg. At the rancho, where they stopped for the night, the temperature fell 20 5 deg. in three hours. They passed the nights with the usual annoyance in most houses in Chile, for fleas were abundant. Copper Mines of San Felipe. San Felipe de Aconcagua stands about fifteen miles from the foot of the Andes, and the mountains are seen from thence in all their grandeur. On arriving at San Felipe they proceeded to the house of Mr. Henry New man, an Englishman engaged in mining operations, to whom they had letters. Mr. Newman was not at home, but his lady, a native of Chile, treated them with great kindness and attention. She made them acquainted with an American, a Mr. Chase, who happened to be on a visit there from Santiago. He had been in Chile since the failure of the expedition of Carrera, when he, with several of his companions, settled in Chile, and afterwards engaged in mining operations. He had several times amassed a large property, and as often lost it by the revolutions that had taken place in the country. He is now engaged in work ing a silver mine in the vicinity of Santiago, and attempting the German process of smelting, as there are vast quantities of ore, containing a large per centage of silver, which have hitherto been neglected, from the impracticability of sepa rating the silver by the usual method. There is now only one survivor from among the thirty persons who settled in Chile with Mr. Chase. From his opera tions he expects in a few years to realize a large fortune. The town of San Felipe is laid out in the form of a square, surrounded by extensive alamedas, which are planted with Lombardy poplars. Mr. Newman estimated the population at from 12,000 to 13,000. In the centre of the town is a large open square, one side of which is occupied by the town-hall and municipal offices. Opposite are the church and barracks, and the remaining sides are occupied with shops and private dwellings. The houses are all of one story, and well built. The better class of houses stand some distance back from the street, and are decorated with paintings in fresco on the walls. Roses and jessamines are seen in every court-yard, and the gardens are filled with various fruits, apples, peaches, pears, grapes, pomegranates, oranges, lemons, and quinces ; the latter are remarkably fine > and in great plenty. The houses, as in other parts of Chile, have no fire-places, in lieu of which they use brazeros, or pans of live coal. Here they manufacture the acida and aguardiente of the SKETCHES OF CHILE. 10(1.". country. The process is carried on in a large court behind the house. grapes are brought in large baskets, or hand-barrows, made with poles ami raw hide, and are emptied in heaps under an open shed. On several small boards the grapes are strewed, and separated from the stalks by roll rapidly in their hands, the grapes falling along the boards, which are inclined into a large vat, where they are trodden out by men. The juice runs off through a rude strainer at one end into large earthen jars ; the residuum from time to time taken out of the vat, and placed on a platform, when more juice is expressed, by laying boards and heavy stones upon it. That part which is intended for wine, the " must," is poured into earthen jars, where it undergoes fermentation, and a small quantity of brandy, or the aguar diente of the country, is added to give it body. The chicha is made by boilm- down the grape-juice, after fermentation, for several hours over a slow fire. After this process it is put in enormous earthen jars, containing sixty to 120 gallons, which are covered over, and tightly closed. The portion not required for con sumption is afterwards distilled with the sediment into aguardiente. The stills are nothing more than a number of large earthen pots, holding from eighty to 100 gallons, placed in the ground over a long narrow oven, with, in place of ;. worm, a straight pipe of copper, about twenty feet long, inserted into each pot or jar, and for condensation, a stream of water from the river passes over these pipes All the agricultural implements are equally primitive. The ploughs are nothing more than a crooked stick, with the share-end pointed, and hardened by charrincr. They, however, with rude culture, raise large crops. Mr. Newman having returned home, enabled them to see the mines, and pro vided them horses and mules, in order that their own might recruit for their return journey. The temperature at San Felipe varied, between noon and P M. from 63 deg. to 49 deg. The night was remarkably clear and fine. The next morning they started for the mines, which are near the summit the first Cordillera, on the Mendoza road, and about 3000 feet above tTe valley are the ranchos, called La Vega of Jaquel This rs the prin smelts-place, the ore being brought down by mules from the foot of the -hose sides it is thrown from the mmes. The descent is abouC tiJCt- - toj - Tk rr "" """ - 1006 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. are used by the miners, in order to insure a safer footing. They entered the prin cipal gallery, which was about seven feet high and five broad, excavated for about twenty yards horizontally ; it then divided into several branches, and these again into others, from fifteen to twenty yards in length. The greatest width of any one gallery was about thirty feet. The mountain has been penetrated horizontally, for nearly 400 feet, in the direction of north east to east-north-east, as the veins run, and vertically to a depth of 150 feet. Each person was provided with a tallow candle stuck in the end of a split stick six feet long, and caution was given not to lose sight of the guide. They descended by notched posts. The light of the numerous candles, brought forth on the walls of the galleries all shades of green, blue, yellow, purple, bronze, &c., of a metallic lustre. The heat of so many candles rendered the temperature very oppressive. The course of labour in the mines is rude. A clumsy pick-axe, a short crowbar, a stone-cutter s chisel, and an iron hammer of twenty-five pounds 3 weight, were the tools. The hammer is only used when the ore is too high to be reached with the pick or crowbar. The miners, from the constant exercise of their arms and chest, have brawny figures. When the ore is too tough to be removed by the ordinary methods, they blast it off in small fragments. The ore is brought to the mouth of the mine on the backs of men, in raw hide sacks, which contain about one hundred pounds. Whenever a sufficient quantity to load a drove of mules is extracted, it is thrown down the mountain side, and then carried to the furnace at Jaquel. Seventeen miners were employed : previously the number was one hundred. Whenever a richer vein was struck a larger number were employed, who could always be easily obtained by foreigners, the natives preferring to work for them, as, whatever the profits or losses may be, they were sure of being regularly paid. The wages are from three to four dollars per month, with food. They draw a third of their pay on the last Satur day of every month, and full payment is made twice a year. They tire supplied in part of wages, with clothing and other necessaries, out of which the agent makes a profit. The Chilian government prohibits spirituous liquors to be brought within a league of any mine, under a severe penalty, which is strictly enforced. The cost of the maintenance of each workman is not great; they are allowed for breakfast four handfuls of dried figs, and the same of walnuts: value about three cents. For dinner they have bread, and fresh beef or pork. Sugar and tea they find them selves. The supply of water for the miners has to be brought up the mountains at considerable expense. The miners huts are the last habitations on the Chilian side of the Andes. Chile abounds with volcanic mountains, but few of them are in an active state PATAGONIA AND THE SOUTHERN ISLANDS. 1 1 M>7 of eruption, which may account for the frequency of earthquakes. The peak of Tupongati is the only one in activity in this section. Santiago contains about 60,000 inhabitants, and is one of the few South American capitals, perhaps the only one, that is increasing in wealth and popu lation. It has various private seminaries for both sexes, a national institute or college, on a liberal footing, an extensive hospital, a medical college, and a military academy. The Congress meets on the 1st of June every year, when the president delivers his message. Valparaiso numbers 30,000 inhabitants, and is the most flourishing sea ports in South America. Its population has quintupled within the last twenty years, and it is rapidly advancing in every improvement, growing out of an in creasing foreign commerce, and the enterprise of its inhabitants, fostered and encouraged as they are by the government. The mining districts are to the north, and the grain country to the south. Extensive flour-mills are now in work in Conception and its neighbourhood : the machinery is brought from the United States. There is very little variation in the climate. During what is called the winter the thermometer occasionally falls for a few hours to 52 deg., but the mean of it throughout the year, at mid-day, would be 65 deg. In the evening and morning, it is at 60 deg. CHAPTER XXVII. PATAGONIA AND THE SOUTHERN ISLANDS. PATAGONIA, together with the islands of the straits south to Cape Horn, extends from the mouth of the Cusu Leubu, or Rio Negro, in 39 deg. south latitude to Cape Horn (55 deg. 54 min. south latitude), a distance of about miles, and between 64 deg. and 76 deg. west longitude; in breadth between 4 and 200 miles. On the north it is separated from the Argentine .lepubl the River Ne<m>. On all other sides it is surrounded by the ocean. Along the Pacific the Patagonian Andes occupy the surface from t forty miles from the sea. The climate of this region is excessively wet, ai rains fall during the greater part of the year. Strong westerly gales ooc frequently. The rains prevent both excessive cold or heat The mount j region is generally covered with forests except along parts of the shores of Pacific. The vegetation is luxuriant north of 48 deg., and stunted forth south. The remainder of Patagonia consists chiefly of plains, which slope grad, 1008 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. ally from the Andes towards the Atlantic, and which, owing to the want of rain, are described, but not on what we consider good authority, as little else than a desert. Gales from the west prevail; the winters are severe; shrubs and coarse grass constitute the principal vegetation. The Patagonians live on their horses and on the wild cattle, which abound in the northern districts, and on the guanacoes, cavias, armadillos, and emus, which abound in the more fertile pastures. There are pumas and wolves, and along the coast of the Atlantic seals and sea-lions. Fish is abundant in the inlet of the western coast ; salt-lakes, or lagoons, are found along the eastern shores. The plains on the continent, as well as on King Charles s Southland, are in habited by the Patagonians, a race of men described as of enormous size, though modern travellers have not found them to be such giants as they were described by some older voyagers ; their average height seems to be about six feet or some what more. They lead a nomade life, and travel rapidly from one extremity of the country to the other. They are divided into four tribes : the Chulian, living near the Andes, the Moluche, who occupy the interior, and the Pehuelche, who live along the coast. The Tehuelhet inhabit the plains adjacent to the Straits of Magalhaens. The south mountain region is inhabited by the Fuegians, a race of a short stature varying in height from four feet ten inches to five feet six inches. They live by fishing in the inlets, and pass most part of their lives in small canoes. Of the south coasts of Patagonia, and its harbours, we have condensed the following sketches from the narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition. " The passage through the Straits of Le Maire gives a vessel a much better chance of making the passage round the Cape quickly. No danger exists here that I know of. A vessel with the tide will pass through in a few hours. As for the race and danger ous sea, I have fully experienced it in the Porpoise on the side of Staten Land ; and am well satisfied that any vessel may pass safely through it, at all times and in all wea thers, or if not so disposed, may wait a few hours until the sea subsides and the tide changes. We were only three hours in passing through. We entered the straits with studding sails set, and left them under close-reefed topsails. * The coast of Terra del Fuego presents the same general character throughout, of high, broken, and rugged land, which appears of a uniform elevation of about 1000 or 1500 feet, with here and there a peak or mountain covered with snow, rising to some 4000 or 5000 feet. The whole wears a sombre and desolate aspect. It may be said to be iron-bound, with many high and isolated rocks, that have become detached from the land apparently by the wear of ages. Numerous unexpected indentations occur all along the coast, many of them forming harbours for small vessels, and some of them very safe ones. " The channels formed by the islands are deep, with no anchorage except in the coves near the rocks ; but a vessel is generally safe in passing through, as there are no dangers but those which show themselves, and wherever rocks are, kelp will be found growing upon them. To pass through the kelp without previous examination is not safe. It borders all the shores of the bays and harbours, and effectually points out the shoal water. PATAGONIA AND THE SOUTHERN ISLANDS. 1009 " Nassau Bay forms a large indenture in the southern coast of Terra del Fuego, a few miles to the northward of Cape Horn ; it is about thirty miles east and west, miles north and south, and is somewhat protected from the heavy seas by the Hermit Islands. Around the bay are found some harbours sheltered by small islands, and sur rounded by the precipitous rocky shores, with occasionally a small ravine forming a cove, into which streams of pure water discharge themselves, affording a safe and conve nient landing-place for boats. " In passing the Cape the weather was delightful. We sailed within two miles of this dreaded promontory, and could not but admire its worn and weatherbeaten - which have so long been invested with all the terrors that can beset sailors. Here we first encountered the long swell of the Pacific, but there was scarcely a ripple on its SHI Although the landscape was covered, with snow, the lowest temperature we had yet ex perienced was 40 cleg. Fahrenheit. " We continued beating into the passage between the Hermit Islands and False Cape Horn, and found great difficulty in passing Point Lor t, from the very strong outward set of the tide, which we found to run with a velocity of five miles an hour. We were not able to make way against it, though the log gave that rate of sailing. After beating about in this channel a long and dark night, with all hands up, we made sail at daylight, and on the 17th of February, 1839, at half-past six A.M., anchored in Orange Harbour. Here we found the Belief and tenders all well. " The Relief ha.d an opportunity of proving the positions and sailing directions of Captain King, R.N., and it affords me great pleasure to say that all his observations tend to show the accuracy of the positions, and the care with which that officer has com piled his sailing directions. " No navigator frequenting this coast or passing round Cape Horn should be with out the sailing directions for East and West Patagonia, and he will prize them as highly valuable after he has once used them. The admirable surveys and exertions of this officer and those under him on this coast entitle him to the rewards of his country, as well as the thanks of the civilised world. " On the morning of the 22nd, at daylight, the natives appeared on the beach, shout ing to them to land. They were naked, with the exception of a guanaco-skin, which covered them from the shoulders to the knees. " The party of natives were seventeen in number, and with a few exceptions they were above the European height. The chief, who was the oldest man among them w under and above six low foreheads, , hair was coarse, and cut short on the crown, leaving a narrow border of bair hangw down ; over this they wore a kind of cap or band of skin or woollen yarn teeth of all of them were very much worn, more apparent, however, in the ( young:. On one foot they wore a rude skin sandal. "Many of them had their faces painted in red and black stripes, with clay, sc ashes. Their whole appearance, together with their inflamed and sore ****"* and disgusting. They" were thought by the officers more nearly to approacl Patagonians than any other natives, and were supposed to be a small tnb part of Terra del Fuego in the summer months ; they were entirely d.fferent Petcherais, whom we afterwards saw at Orange Harbour VOL. I. 6 N 1010 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. before closing a bargain. They have had communication frequently before with Euro peans ; pieces of many articles of European manufacture were seen in their possession, such as glass beads, &c. They refused tobacco, whiskey, bread, or meat, and were only desirous of getting old iron, nails, and pieces of hoop-iron. "Their food consists principally of fish and shell-fish. Their fishing apparatus is made of the dorsal fin of a fish, tied to a thin slip of whalebone, in the form of a barb, this serves as a hook, and with it they obtain a supply of this food. Their arms con sisted altogether of bows and arrows. The natives had the common dog, which they seemed to prize much." ORANGE HARBOUR (after doubling Cape Horn) is on the western side of Nas sau Bay, separated and protected from it by Burnt Island. It is nearly land-locked, and is the safest harbour on the coast. The hills on each side, after several undula tions, rise into conical peaks, and the naked rock is everywhere broken into a jagged outline, with no plants to soften its harshness. Every thing has a bleak, wintry appearance, and is in excellent keeping with the climate; yet the scenery about it is pleasing to the eye, bounded on all sides by undulating hills which are covered with evergreen foliage. Distant mountains, some of which are capped with snow, shooting up in a variety of forms, seen beyond the extensive bays, form a fine background. From the ships at anchor, the hills look like smooth downs, and if it were not for the inclemency of the weather, the landscape would be divested of its dreariness. The hills are covered with forests of beech, birch, willow, and winter- bark. Some of the trees are forty or fifty feet high, having their tops bent to the north-east by the prevailing south-west winds. They are remarkably even as to height, having more the look, at a distance, of heath than of forest trees. The whole coast has the appearance of being of recent volcanic rocks, but investigations prove the contrary. They nowhere found cellular lava, pumice, or obsidian, nor was there any granite or other primitive rock seen. The rock was trachytic, or of trap formation, apparently having undergone more or less action by fire. The natives were at first very shy, but they became more sociable and con fiding. Before thesquadron departed from Orange Harbour, a bark canoe came along side with an Indian, his squaw, and four children. The tribe to which they belonged is known by the name of the Petcherai Indians. They were entirely naked, with the exception of a small piece of seal-skin, sufficient to cover one shoulder, and generally worn on the side from which the wind blows. They were not more than five feet high, of a light copper colour, concealed by smut and dirt, particularly on their faces, which they marked vertically with charcoal. They have short faces, narrow foreheads, and high cheek-bones. Their eyes are small, black, the upper eyelids in the inner corner overlapping the under one. Their nose is broad and flat, with wide nostrils, mouth large, teeth white, large, and regular. The hair long, lank, and black, hanging over PATAGONIA AND THE SOUTHERN ISLANDS. )n| ) the face, and covered with white ashes, which gives them a hideous ipp The whole face seemed compressed. Their bodies were remarkable from the de velopment of the chest, shoulders, and vertebral column; their arms I. out of proportion; their legs small, and ill-made, with little difference beta the size of the ankle and leg; and, when standing, the skin at the knee han - ing in a loose fold. In some, the muscles of the leg appeared aln with very little strength, owing to their constant sitting posture, both in tin ir but! and canoes. It was impossible to fancy any thing in human shape more filthy, or a more ill-shapen and ugly race. They have little or no idea of the relative value of articles, even of those that one would suppose were of the utmost use to them, such as iron and glass-ware. A glass-bottle broken into pieces, was valued as much as a knife. Red flannel torn into stripes, pleased them more than in the piece; they wound it round their heads, as a kind of turban. The children were small, and nestled on some dry grass in the bottom of the canoe. The woman and eldest boy paddled the canoe, the man being em ployed to bale out the water and attend to the fire, which is always carried in the bottom of the canoe on a few stones and ashes, which the water surrounds. Their canoes were constructed of bark, very frail, and sewed witli shreds of whalebone, seal-skin, and twigs. They were sharp at botli ends, and kept in shape and strengthened by stretchers lashed to the gunwale. These Indians seldom venture outside the sea-weed, by the aid of which they pull their canoes along ; and their paddles are so small as to be of little use unless it is calm. Their huts were generally found close to the shore, at the head of some small bay, and sheltered from the prevailing winds. They were built of boughs or small trees, stuck in the earth, and brought together at the top, bound by bark and twigs. Smaller branches were interlaced, forming a wicker-work, and on this grass^ turf, and bark were laid, rendering the^ut warm, and these sufficed to exclude the wind and snow, though not the rain. The usual dimensions of these huts were seven or eight feet in diameter, and about four or five feet in height, with an oval hole to creep in at. The fire was made in a small excavation in the middle of the hut. The floor was of clay, apparently kneaded. Opposite the door of each hut was a conical pile of mussel and limpet shells, nearly as large as the hut itself. These natives were never seen but in their huts or canoes. The impediments to communication by land are great, in the mountainous and rocky country, intersected with deep and impassable inlets, in most places bounded by abrupt precipices. On the hills, as well as in the plains and valleys, the soil is nearly a quagmire. The forest is impeded by a dense undergrowth of thorny bushes. 1012 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. They appeared to live in families, and not in tribes, and do not seem to acknow ledge any chief. " On the 1 1th of March three bark canoes arrived, containing four men, four women, and a girl about sixteen years old, four little boys and four infants, one of the latter about a week old, and quite naked. The thermometer was at 46 deg. Fahrenheit. They had rude weapons, viz. slings to throw stones, three rude spears, pointed at the end with hone, and notched on one side with barbed teeth. With this they catch their fish, which are found in great quantities among the kelp. Two of the natives were induced to come on board, after they had been alongside for upwards of an hour, and received many pre sents, for which they gave their spears, a dog, and some of their rude native trinkets. They did not show or express surprise at any thing on board, except when seeing one of the carpenters engaged in boring a hole with a screw-auger through a plank, which would have been a long task for them. They were very talkative, smiling when spoken to, and often bursting into loud laughter, but instantly settling into their natural serious and sober cast. "They were found to be great mimics, both in gesture and sound, and would repeat any word of our language, with great correctness of pronunciation. Their imitations of sounds were truly astonishing. One of them ascended and descended the octave per fectly, following the sounds of the violin correctly. It was then found he could sound the common chords, and follow through the semitone scale, with scarcely an error. They have all musical voices, speak in the note G sharp, ending with the semitone A, when asking for presents, and were continually singing. "Their mimicry became at length annoying, and precluded our getting at any of their words or ideas. It not only extended to words or sounds, but actions also, and was at times truly ridiculous. The usual manner of interrogating for names was quite unsuccessful. On pointing to the nose, for instance, they did the same. Any thing they saw done they would mimic, and with an extraordinary degree of accuracy. On these canoes approaching the ship, the principal one of the family, or chief, standing up in his canoe, made a harangue. Although they have been heard to shout quite loud, yet they cannot endure a noise, and when the drum beat, or a gun was fired, they in variably stopped their ears. They always speak to each other in a whisper. The men are exceedingly jealous of their women, and will not allow any one, if they can help it, to enter their huts, particularly boys. " The women were never suffered to come on board. They appeared modest in the presence of strangers. They never move from a sitting posture, or rather a squat, with their knees close together, reaching to their chin, their feet in contact, and touching the lower part of the body. They are extremely ugly. Their hands and feet were small and well-shaped, and irom appearance they are not accustomed to do any hard work. They appear very fond, and seem careful of their young children, though on several occasions they offered them for sale for a trifle. They have their faces smutted all over, and it was thought, from the hideous appearance of the females, produced in part by their being painted and smutted, that they had been disfigured by the men previous to coming alongside. It was remarked, that when one of them saw herself in a looking-glass, she burst into tears, as Jack thought, from pure mortification. " The men are employed in building the huts, obtaining food, and providing for their other wants. The women were generally seen paddling their canoes. " When this party of natives left the ship and reached the shore, the women re mained in their canoes, and the men began building their temporary huts ; the little children were seen capering quite naked on the beach, although the thermometer was at 40 deg. On the hut being finished, which occupied about an hour, the women went on shore to take possession of it. They all seemed quite happy and contented. " Before they left the ship, the greater part of them were dressed in old clothes, that had been given to them by the officers and men, who all showed themselves extremely anxious to make them comfortable. This gave rise to much merriment, as Jack was PATAGONIA AND THE SOUTHERN ISLANDS. KM . I not disposed to allow any difficulties to interfere in the fitting. If the jackets proved too tight across the shoulders, which they invariably were, n slit down tin ally remedied the defect. If a pair of trousers was found too small around ihe the knife was again resorted to, and in some cases a fit was made I The most difficult fit, and the one which produced the most merriment, was that of a wo man to whom an old coat was given. This she concluded belonged to her nether limbs, and no signs, hints, or shouts, could correct her mistake. Her feet were thrust through the sleeves, and after hard squeezing she succeeded in drawing them on. With tip- brought up in front, she took her seat in the canoe with great satisfaction, amid a roar of laughter from all who saw her. * Towards evening, Messrs. Waldron and Drayton visited their huts. Before they reached the shore, the natives were seen making a fire on the beach, for their reception, evidently to avoid their entering their huts. " On landing, one of the men seemed anxious to talk with them. He pointed to the ship, and tried to express many things by gestures; then pointed to the south-east, and then again to the ship, after which clasping his hands, as in our mode of prayer, he said, 4 Eloah, Eloah/ as though he thought we had come from God. k< After a little time they gained admittance to the hut. The men creeping in fii-r. squatted themselves directly in front of the women, all holding out the small piece of seals-kin to allow the heat to reach their bodies. The women were squatted three deep behind the men, the oldest in front, nestling the infants. " After being in the hut, Mr. Drayton endeavoured to call the attention of the man who had made signs to him before entering, to know whether they had any idea of a Su preme Being. The same man then put his hands together repeating as before, * Eloah, Eloah. From his manner it was inferred that he had some idea of God or a Su preme Being. " Their mode of expressing friendship is by jumping up and down. Messrs. Waldron and Drayton jump with them on the beach, before entering the hut, took hold of their arms, facing* them, and jumping two or three inches high from the ground, makino- them keep time to a wild music of their own. " All our endeavours to find out how they ignited their fire proved unavailing. It must be exceedingly difficult for them to accomplish, judging from the care they take of it, always carrying it with them in their canoes, and the danger they thus run ol themselves by it. , Their food consists of limpets, mussels, and other shell-fish. Quantitie some seals, are now and then taken among the kelp, and with berries of various kinds and wild celery, they do not want. They seldom cook their food much The shell- are detached from the shell by heat, and the fish are partly roaste< Ut When onboard, one of them was induced to sit at the dinner-table ; after a feu y ^Sm danc ing, and laughing. His mimicry prevented any inquiries being made of him relative to a vocabu ary. Some of the officers painted the faces of these natives, black, white, ai delighld them ver^ much, P and it was quite amusing to see the gnmaces made by the. before a looking-glass. upwards of a week, and being wash. <l 1014 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the week he became dissatisfied, and was set on shore, and soon appeared naked again. It was observed, on presents being made, that those who did not receive any began a sort of whining cry, putting on the most doleful-looking countenances imaginable. " They are much addicted to theft, if any opportunity offers. The night before they left the bay, they stole and cut up one of the wind-sails, which had been scrubbed and hung up on shore to dry. " Although we had no absolute proof of it, we are inclined to the belief that they bury their dead in caves. " There is a black-coloured moss that covers the ground in places, giving it the ap pearance of having been burnt. Many small ponds are met with, as though the peat had been dug from the place, and the holes filled with water. There is great plenty of scurvy-grass and wild celery close to the beach. " At Orange Harbour the tide was found to have four feet rise and fall. High water, full and change, at 4 P.M. Among the Hermit Islands it seems to be affected by the winds in the offing. The flood sets to the east." Passing Cape Horn. Captain Wilkes says, " I am inclined to believe that as much depends upon the vessel and the manner in which she is navigated as the route pursued when the Cape is passed close to, or given a good berth ; the object of all is to pass it as quickly as possible, and taking into consider ation the difficulties to be incurred from boisterous weather, heavy seas, and ice, it is im possible to lay down any precise rule ; that course which appears most feasible at the time ought to be adopted ; keeping, however, in view, that there is no danger to be apprehended in navigating on the western coast of Terra del Fuego, as the current sets along its coast, and it is perfectly safe and practicable to navigate it as far as Cape Pillar. The great difficulty exists in passing the pitch of the Cape ; there is none after wards, in geiting to the westward. On the coast the wind seldom blows long from the same quarter, but veers from south-west to north-west; the gales generally begin at the former quarter and end at the latter. Previous to the south-west gales, it would, there fore, in all cases, be advisable, when indications of their occurrence are visible (which are known by the banks of cumuli in that quarter, some twenty-four hours previously), to stand to the southward and westward in preference, with as much sail as can well be carried, that when the change occurs, you may be ready to stand on the other tack to the northward. One thing every navigator ought to bear in mind, that it requires all the activity and perseverance he may be possessed of to accomplish it quickly. " On the 20th we took our final leave of these waters, and on the 21st lost sight of land, passing to the northward of the island of Diego Ramieres. " Immediately after leaving Orange Harbour, dysentery made its appearance on board the Vincennes, and ran through the whole snip s company. Some of the officers were also affected. It proved of a very mild type, and readily yielded to medical treat ment. Upon our arrival at Valparaiso, it had entirely disappeared. The medical officers were unable to account for it, the health of the ship s company having been very good during our stay at Orange Harbour. It was not thought to be owing to the water, as they had been using it for two months without any bad effect, but I think it must be imputed to the cold and wet we experienced in the first part of the passage. "On the 15th we made the land off Valparaiso, and before noon anchored in the bay." BUENOS AYKKS, OR ARGENTINE RKPUBLIC. ] I ) | CHAPTER XXV1IT. BUENOS AYRES, OR ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. THE federal republic, called on its formation the Argentine Republic, in cluding Montevideo and Paraguay, named also the provinces of La Plata, from the wide estuary of that name, lies between 21 deg. and 41 de-. south latitude, and 53 deg. 30 min. and 72 deg. west longitude. Along the meridian of 66 deg. west longitude they extend from south to north about 1120 miles, and in the parallel of 34 deg. south latitude, about 880 miles from east to west. On the south, the River Cusu Leubu, or Rio Negro, forms the boundary line be- tween these provinces and Patagonia. On the east they are bounded by the Atlantic Ocean from the mouth of the Rio Negro north to Brazil, which extends along the northern line as far west as the River Paraguay (58 deg. west longi tude), and west of that river by the republic of Bolivia. The principal range of the Andes extends along the western frontier separating the Argentine Re public from Bolivia and Chile. When these countries became independent of Spain, they formed a federal union. Since that time they have broken up into separate republics, The REPUBLIC of BUENOS AYRES extends, it may be said, along the Atlan tic Ocean from. Rio Negro on the south, to the mouth of the Rio de la Plata ; and along the whole southern shores of its estuary, and also along the southern banks of the Parana as far as the Arrdyo del Medio, a river which separates it from Santa Fe. The western boundary runs from the mouth of the River \i-- posta, in a north-eastern direction to the western extremity of the Sierra del Vul can, and thence it continues north to about 61 deg. longitude to the fortress of Cruz de Guerra (35 deg. 30 min. south latitude), and thence to the fortress of Melinque (33 sec. 42 min. south latitude). This boundary separates Buenos Ayres from the territories of the Southern Indians. A line from Melinque to the Arrdyo del Medio, forms the boundary-line between the republics of Buenos Ayres and Santa Fe. The area within these boundaries is estimated at about 75,000 square miles. But this estimate is a vague calculation, and the limits of Buenos Ayres, from the disturbed state of the country, are not settled. The northern part includes a portion of the Eastern Pampas ; the surface of the whole country is nearly flat, diversified by slight undulations. A very large portion of this state has a fertile soil for arable culture or pasturage ; a tract south of the Rio Salado is low and covered with swamps, or lakes. The most southern portion comprehends the Sierra del Vulcan, and the south-eastern extremity that of Ventana. The plain between these ranges is said to be fit 1016 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. for arable culture. No part of it is cultivated. The climate of the northern portion is mild ; ice is seldom formed. In summer the thermometer rises to about 90 deg. The north winds which prevail are as disagreeable as the sirocco of Italy. The south-western winds, or pamperos, blow furiously, sometimes accompanied by thunder and lightning. In the southern districts the climate is nearly as severe as in above 50 deg. north latitude in Europe, but it is healthy. Both regions have sufficient rain for vegetation: the rains fall most abundantly before the setting in of the cold weather in April and May. Cattle and agricultural products form the chief sources of wealth. The number of black cattle that pasture on the pampas is stated to exceed one million. Hides, hair, and horns are exported, and also tallow, and jerked beef. The hides weigh from fifty to sixty pounds on an average. Horses are numerous, and, as well as mules and asses, are exported. Of late the breed of sheep has been improved, and wool constitutes an article of export. The cultivation of the ground was formerly so much neglected, that corn and flour were imported, but some wheat has been exported to some amount. The following sketch of the Rio Negro, and the southern region of Buenos Ayres is new, and condensed from the narrative of the United States Expedition : The Guachos are generally well made, tall, muscular, black eyes, have large mus taches, and small feet; dress, red striped shirt, white fringed sleeves, and large trousers of scarlet cloth. On the head was worn a red conical cap, surmounted by a tassel. Their riding boots or leggings are made of the hide from the leg of a horse. This is stripped off and put on the leg while yet green, where it is suffered to dry, and re main until worn out. They fit very closely to the foot, like a stocking. The two largest toes of each foot were uncovered, for the convenience of putting them into the stirrup, which is only large enough to admit them. A long knife in the girdle completes the dress. The Rio Negro is navigable for boats to the village of Chicula, 200 miles from its mouth. The distance across the country to Buenos Ayres is but 500 miles, yet it requires fifteen days to communicate with it; the governor had received no advices or informa tion for the last two months from that place. The route is very uncertain, owing to the hordes of hostile Indians. Grain, fruit, and vegetables thrive well, and with proper industry might be pro duced in abundance. The climate is delightful, and cold weather is seldom felt, although ice has occa sionally been seen a quarter of an inch in thickness. Bullocks and horses are the principal articles of trade ; indeed, they constitute the legal tender of the country. The former are worth from five to ten dollars, according to age ; wild horses, two or three dollars, and if broken to the saddle, ten or fifteen dollars. The tariff of duties is the same as at Buenos Ayres, but the late reduction of thirty- three per cent during the blockade did not extend to this place. The Indians that are accustomed to visit this place (Carmen) for the purpose of war or trade, are of four different tribes, viz.: Pampas, Ancases, Tehuiliches or Te- heulehes, and Chilenos. The two former occupy the territory to the north of the Rio Negro as far as the Rio Colorado. The Tehuiliches are from the mountains to the south, and the Chilenos from the south-west. BUENOS AYRES, OR ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 1017 During the infancy of the settlement, and until of late years, these Indians were extremely troublesome, making descents upon the place, and ravaging the outj. waylaying all who were not on their guard, killing them, and retreating rapidly on thi-u wild steeds, with their booty, to the pampas and mountains. The Spaniards frequently retaliated, and by the superiority of their arms and discipline, inflicted summary punish ment on them. The last attack of the Indians was made in 1832, when they met with such an overwhelming defeat, that they have not ventured to make another; yet the garrison is always kept in anxiety for fear of attacks. The weapons usual in their warfare are a long lance and the ballos, such as is used in taking the ostrich and throwing cattle, which they use with great dexterity. This con sists of a thong of hide, four feet in length, with a leaden ball at each end, which the horseman grasps in the middle, and gives the balls a rotary motion by whirling them above his head, then dashing on to the attack, he throws it when within range with un erring aim, and seldom fails to disable his enemy. The Indians who are most feared are the Chilenos. TheTehuiliches, notwithstanding their immense size, are considered little better than cowards. All the information gained here tended to confirm the general impression that the Tehuiliches or Patagonians are above the ordinary height of men, generally above six feet ; and the minister asserted that he had often seen them above seven English feet. We had not any personal opportunity to verify this statement, the Indians being only in the habit of visiting this post once a year, to obtain supplies, viz., in the month of March , at which time a vessel usually visits the place. The few Indians who inhabit the huts or toldos on the opposite side ot are converted, and are termed Indies Mansos ; they are a mixture of all the tribes, and so much changed in habits and dress from their former condition and mode of an accurate idea could not be formed of their natural character. They were none them above the middle height; their limbs were usually full and well formed complexion a brownish copper, with coarse straight black hair, growing very low forehead ; this is suffered to grow long, and hangs down on both s.des of the ft ing much to the wildness of their appearance. The.r foreheads are low and nanow ^to wards the top, their eyes small, black, and deep set. Some were observed mh their eyes set Chinese-like. The resemblance was somewhat mcreased by the * width , of face, which was a particular characteristic. The nose is usually a little flattened root and wide at the nostrils, the lips full, and the chin not P""* **"^ of their countenance betoken neither intellect nor vivacity. The **^^J decked out in tawdy finery, partly after the Spanish fashion; the women h chilipa to cover their nakedness. M/ i Q t, u hnnrU rf the The Chilenos, from the western side of the continent, are pre Araucanian nation. . ... , Tv,iL-n*r ; n ViU account of The Peulches, including the Pampas and Telru.hc |* ia n p ,^d , the this country, describes as inhabiting he portion outh of the of the coast. h tra i ne d to ride from their in- it is very seldom that the, are in the saddle, quietly trotting **~l horse, the flying dress of the the herd; then the eager chase he funoiu speea ^ ^.^ the throw f Guacho, with upraised arm whirling hi lass o, i of an instan , exclted the lasso, and instantaneous overthrow of the bulk tie heightofiOO feet, e X ce,,t to the 1018 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. southward of the river, where the bank is perpendicular ; at this height the ground stretches away in a level prairie, without a single tree to break the monotony of the scene, and affords a view as uninterrupted as the ocean. The only verdure on the prairie is a small shrub, which, when the lower branches are trimmed off, serves a useful purpose. From an optical illusion (the effect of refrac tion) they appear, when thus trimmed, as large as an ordinary-sized apple-tree ; and one is not a little surprised to find them, on a near approach, no higher than the surrounding shrubs, four or five feet. Shrubs are trimmed in this manner at distances of about half a mile from each other, and are used as guide-posts on the prairie. Game is plentiful, consisting of deer, guanacoes, and cavias, cassowaries, partridges, bustards, ducks, &c. Armadillos are common, and the ostrich was frequently seen; por cupines are said also to be found. The cavias were seen running about in single file, with a sort of halting gait. The width of the Rio Negro is less than a third of a mile ; it has a rapid current, and a large body of water is carried by it to the ocean. The ordinary tide is about eight feet rise, and the spring tides fourteen feet. The current is mostly downward, although the tide is felt about ten miles above its mouth. The ebb sets off shore some three or four miles, and may be known by the discolouration of the water, which, just without the bar, is comparatively fresh. The depth at high water on the bar is two and a half fathoms, and the bar is a changing one. No springs were observed in the vicinity, or any trace of running water, except in the river. The water from the rains collects in the depressions, and forms large ponds, covering acres of grounds, but only a few inches in depth. The time of this visit corresponded in season to the midsummer months of the northern hemisphere, and the mean temperature was found to be 73 deg. The winters are represented as very mild; snow does fall, but it disappears in a few hours. Ice is seldom seem, though frosts appear to be frequent in the winter. January, February, March, and April, are the least tempestuous months. The vegetation of the uplands bears the marks of long-continued droughts, in an absence of trees, and the roots of plants penetrating vertically. The stunted appear ance of the shrubs, spreading" from their base, their branches dense, rigid, and impene trable, usually growing into spines ; the smallness of the leaves and their texture, which is dry, coriaceous, and hardly deciduous; together with the general brown aspect of the landscape, all denote a vegetation adapted to endure or escape drought. There was formerly some trade carried on] in the Rio Negro with Boston and New York, in hides, horns, bones, and tallow, in exchange for cotton and woollen goods, hardware, crockery, boots and shoes, a few articles of furniture, spirits, and tobacco, all of which are bartered at an enormous profit. Considerable quantities of salt are shipped to Buenos Ayres. Vessels discharging or taking in a cargo, pay twelve and a half cents per ton. Vessels stopping without discharging, pay half duty ; vessels for refreshments are permitted to remain twenty-five days free of duty, after that time they pay half duty. This duty includes pilotage and all other charges; but the governor seems to have the power to exact the full duty whenever he thinks proper. El Carmen may be termed a convict settlement ; for culprits and exiles are sent here from Buenos Ayres. The garrison is composed of about two hundred soldiers, principally African and Brazilian slaves brought here during the Banda Oriental war." Industry and trade, have, during the domination of Rosas, greatly dimi nished. BUENOS AYRES, the capital, is situated on the south shores of the La Plata, nearly opposite the mouth of the River Uraguay, on level ground, and several feet above the water. Vessels of moderate size may sail up the river as far as the town, but they cannot approach it on account of shoals which intervene between the shores and the deep water. The city is regularly laid out: the BUENOS AYRES, OR ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. ]Q1 J streets intersect each other at right angles. Nearly all the streets are now pave d with granite. The houses are low, few of them having more than one story, and the town covers at least twice the area of an European city with the same popu lation. The public buildings which have any architectural pretensions are the churches; but most of them are unfinished. The town is badly provided with water ; that which is in the wells is brackish, and those inhabitants who can afford the expense have tanks, in which the rain-water is collected from the roofs of the houses. Many of the houses have small gardens attached, and have European or United States articles of furniture. The water of the river is good, but there are no means of bringing it to the town. Water-carriers retail it to the lower classes. The population, about 80,000 souls, is composed almost entirely of the Spanish race ; the number of mulattoes is small, that of the negroes still less. No manufactures are carried on. Buenos Ayres is the seat of government, has a university, an observatory, a public library, and some scientific institutions- The English and Scotch have places of worship, and a burial-place. The trade of Buenos Ayres is considerable, as it is the principal place whence the produc tions of the provinces of La Plata are exported to foreign markets, and through which they are provided with foreign merchandise. (See Statistics of Buenos Ayres hereafter.) The population of the whole province probably does not much exceed 200,000. The great disproportion between the population of the capital would be remarkable, were it not that there is not probably one acre in one thousand under arable culture : all the remainder fit for agriculture being used as pasture. The executive power is vested in the governor, or captain-general, as he is styled, who is elected for five years. He is aided by a council of ministers, appointed by himself, but responsible to the Junta, or Legislative Assembly, of the republic by whom he is elected. The junta itself consists of forty-four deputies, one-half of whom are annually renewed by popular election. But under Rosas all con stitutional government has been reversed ; the public press, except two vile journals under his direction, has been suppressed. A chain of forts has been established along the western boundary-line of the province of Buenos Ayres from the Bahia Blanca to Fort Melinque, to check the inroads of the Indians who inhabit the country west of the republic to the foot of the Andes, and frequently extend their predatory incursions to the settle ments of the whites north of 35 deg. south latitude. The south-western Indian country is very little known, but it is said to be more undulated than the pampas. Between the Andes and the plains, there extends a hilly country from 1 miles in breadth; and an undulated country with woods, and stretches thence the centre of the plains to the purely pasturage or pampas region, which extends to the country of clover, weeds, and thistles. West of Buenos Ayres, the 1020 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Guacho and his herds of wild cattle, inhabit these rich pastures. Sulphur is abundant there, and coal is said to exist ; rock salt is found. The REPUBLIC of ENTRE Rios, is situated between the rivers Uraguay and Parana, west of Uraguay. On the north it is divided from the republic of Corrientes by the Mocoreta and by the Sarandi. Estimated area 32,000 square miles. The southern portion is an alluvial plain, annually inundated. To the north, the country is undulated and swampy. A considerable part is prairies, which affords good pasturage on which herds of cattle and horses abound ; hides, horns, tallow, and jerked beef, are exported. Cultivation is limited to a few places. The climate is temperate and salubrious. This republic only requires to be relieved from anarchy to become a most productive region. BAJADA DE SANTA FE, the capital, on the banks of the Parana, contains about 6000 inhabitants. Concepcion de la China, on the Uraguay, has 2000 in habitants. The REPUBLIC of CORRIENTES extends from the boundary-line of Entre Rios to the Rio Parana, which separates Corrientes from the republic of Paraguay. Estimated area about 20,000 square miles. The southern portion is undulated, partly wooded, and fertile. The northern parts are swampy, and comprise the Lake Ybera. The climate is warm. Cotton, sugar, and indigo are grown. Maize is the common grain. Seta silvestre, a kind of silk made by a species of caterpillar, is used for making coarse stuffs. Agriculture is little attended to ; some cotton and tobacco are exported. CORRIENTES, the capital, near the confluence of the rivers Parana and Para guay, it has 4500 inhabitants, and some trade. The REPUBLIC of MISSIONES, situated between the rivers Parana and Ura guay extends to the boundary of Brazil. Surface is undulated ; the soil is fertile. It was the principal seat of the Missiones, established by the Jesuits among the Guarani Indians formerly. The population once estimated at near 100,000 inhabitants, is at present about 10,000. The climate is warm; the country produces rice, maize, tobacco, sugar, and cotton, but it is now nearly a wilder ness. Estimated area about 7500 square miles. Entre Rios, Corrientes, and the Missiones constitute, geographically, one country ; and it was a descent to the ridiculous to have formed these into separate governments. The REPUBLIC of SANTA FE lies on the western banks of the Parana, and comprehends the region between that river and the Rio Salado. On the south it is bounded by the Arroyo del Medio. On the west, a desert separates it from Cordova; and on the north it extends towards the Laguna Salados de los Porongos, and the deserts of the Gran Chaco. The surface of the country is a plateau, from forty to sixty feet above the level of the Parana, partly covered with the coarse grass and thistles of the pampas, and partly with low mimosa trees-. It is said scarcely ever to rain in this country. Cattle and horses consti- BUENOS AYKES, OR ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 1021 tute the wealth of the people. The River Tercero, or Carcaranal, whtch joins the Parang at Fort St. Espiritu, is navigable. In the northern districts there is a small tribe of Guaycurus, in a state of independence. SANTA FE, the capital, has about 4000 inhabitants. Rosario is a considerable place, built on the high banks of the River Parana. The REPUBLIC of CORDOVA lies west of Santa Fe. An uninhabited country separates it on the east from Santa Fe. On the north it is separated from the republics of Santiago del Estero and Catamarca by the Travesia de Ambargasta and the Great Salinas ; on the west by the republic of St. Luis de la Punta. The soil is generally a sandy loam, and not fit for cultivation without irrigation ; the rains and the streams supply water for the pastures. Herds of cattle, sheep, and goats, are reared in abundance. Maize is cultivated in the valleys, and a little wheat in several places. The fruit-trees of southern Europe succeed. The eastern portion of the republic is nearly uninhabited and chiefly covered with low mimosa trees. CORDOVA, the capital, stands on the small River Primero, in a valley about 200 feet below the surrounding plains. It is regularly laid out, well built, and has a cathedral ; and a university erected by the Jesuits ; the population is about 14,000 souls. Alta Gracia, a neat town near the base of the Sierra de Cordova, contains 4000 inhabitants. The REPUBLIC of SAN Luis DE LA PUNTA lies west of Cordova and extends to the Rio Desaguadero. On the south it is contiguous to the country of the Ranqueles. On the north it extends over the greater part of the travesia desert, which borders on the Great Salinas. It is said to be a very poor country. The northern districts are almost uninhabited, and in many places covered with low mimosas ; in others, without trees and vegetation, and covered with saline efflorescences or with sand. The southern districts are crossed by rocky ridges. It has a few pasture grounds for cattle and goats. There are some silver mines in the Cerro Solosta, called Las Carolinas, which are worked on a small scale. The climate is dry and hot ; rain seldom occurs. SAN Luis J)E LA PUNTA, the capital, has about 1500 inhabitants. The REPUBLIC of MENDOZA comprehends the country west of the Desagua dero de Guanacache as far as the Andes, including the Vale of Uspallata. It ex tends north to south for about 32 deg. south latitude. This republic is flat, with the exception of the Paramilla eastern range of the Andes. The soil is sandy, with little grass, and occasionally covered with mimosa trees. When irrigated, the soil will yield abundant crops of wheat, Indian corn, and lucerne. Rain and dew are rare, except in the southern districts on the banks of the River Diamante, where more corn may be raised without irrigation. The climate is dry ami healthy, though great heat is experienced in summer. It is very favourable to the growth of figs, peaches, apples, nuts, olives, and grapes. There are- some 1022 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, silver-mjnes notwithstanding the Paramilla Range on the side of the Vale of Us- pallata. Cattle and horses are not numerous; mules are exported. MENDOZA, the capital, is near the eastern declivity of the Paramilla Range, 4891 feet above the sea-level, and is a well-built town, with about 12,000 inhabit ants. Two well-frequented roads lead from this place to Chile, over the Andes, by the mountain-passes of Uspallata and of Portillo. San Martin, or Villa- nueva, west of Mendoza, is a thriving place, with about 2000 inhabitants. The REPUBLIC of SAN JUAN DE LA FRONTERA extends along the base of the Andes from 32 deg. to 30 deg. south latitude, and includes the northern part of the Vale of Uspallata. The soil resembles that of Mendoza. The climate is healthy, though dry. Both rain and dew are rare ; the heat is not excessive. It is very favourable to fruit, and wine constitutes an article of export. SAN JUAN, the capital, is situated on the banks of the Rio de San Juan, and is said to have a population of 8000. It has some export trade in the wines and brandies of the country, and in foreign goods for home consumption. A road from it leads to the mountain-pass of Patos, in the Andes, whence it de scends into Chile by the Vale of Putaendo. The REPUBLIC of RIOJA lies principally within the Andes, between 30 deg. and 28 deg. south latitude : it extends over two valleys. The Vale of Guan- dacol, between the Andes and the Sierra de Famatina, is fertile, and not too warm for the growth of wheat ; it has also copper mines ; but neither the wheat nor the copper can be brought to market on account of the expense. The inhabitants, who are mostly of Indian origin, hunt the vicuna for its skin. Some silver mines are worked on a small scale. RIOJA, the capital, not far from the eastern base of the Sierra Velasco, has some trade in the products of the country, and between 3000 and 4000 in habitants. The REPUBLIC of CATAMARCA lies further north, extending over some valleys which run south and north, and intersect the mountain-region of the Despoblado, where it is contiguous to the principal chain of the Andes. It appears to con tain several fertile valleys between the mountains, in which cattle are reared and corn raised. Cotton and red pepper are cultivated for exportation. CATAMARCA, the capital, contains about 4000 inhabitants. The REPUBLIC of SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO lies to the east of the Great Salinas, between 27 deg. and 30 deg. south latitude, and 62 deg. and 65 deg. west longitude. It comprehends two narrow and long cultivable tracts, along both banks of the rivers Dulce and Salado, and vary from one to five miles in width. On the cultivable tracts wheat and Indian corn yield good crops. Cochineal to some extent is collected, as well as honey and wax. The climate is BUENOS AYRES, OR ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 1023 considered to be the hottest in South America. Ponchos, blankets, and coarse saddle-cloths are made and sent to the neighbouring countries. SANTIAGO DEL ESTEBO, the capital, on the banks of the Rio Dulce, contains about 4000 inhabitants. Matara is on the Rio Salado, and from that place downwards the river is navigable for large river-boats. The REPUBLIC of TUCUMAN, north of Santiago del Estero, lies between 20 deg. and 27 deg. 30 min. south latitude, and 62 deg. and 66 deg. west longitude. The western districts, which are contiguous to the Sierra Aconquija, are chiefly covered with high mountains, among which there are a few narrow valleys. The mountains are covered with high forest trees, and contain good pasture. There are also some mines of gold, silver, copper, and lead. The central part of the republic extends over the most fertile and best cultivated part of the plain of Tucuman. It is considered the Garden of the Provinces of La Plata. It yields wheat, maize, rice, tobacco, and sugar. The cattle are of large size. Horses and mules are exported. The climate is dry and hot, but healthy. The eastern dis tricts on both sides of the Rio Salado are rather sterile, and there are only a few settlements on the banks of the river. A great number of Indians within this republic speak the Quichua language. TUCUMAN, the capital, situated on a plateau, contains about 8000 inhabitants. It has some trade, and exports horses and mules to Bolivia. The REPUBLIC of SALTA is the most northern of the Argentine republics, and extends over the Despoblado range of the Andes, and the plains which lie between the rivers Salado and Vermejo, south of the mountains. Its boundaries are not well defined, and its area is supposed to equal that of Paraguay. The few Indians collect some gold, and hunt the vicunas, alpacas, and chinchilla, for their skins and wool, and bring down ice and salt to the valleys. Near the southern slope of the mountains are the silver mines of San Antonio de los Cobres and of Acay. The elevated valleys produce wheat and maize ; the declivities generally wooded or pasture lands. The valleys along the rivers g Lavayen, produce rice, maize, and tropical fruits, sugar, indigo, cotton, i tobacco. On the banks of the Vermejo cochineal is collected, and the coco- plant is raised ; the tree from which the yerba-mate, or Paraguay tea, is ob fe indigenous. The climate is as various as the productions. On the Despo the weather all the year round resembles winter in England ; the low on the Rio Vermejo suffers from excessive heat. The valleys have a more temperate climate, according to their elevation. TA^A the capital, is situated in a valley, exposed to inundat.ons ; ,t conta.ns te^tS^ 4000 inhabitants, on the banks of the river of the same name -s at ng p.ac though the mountain-pass begins here which runs northward to Tup.za, I 1024 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and Chuquisaca, and over the Abra de Cortaderas, about 12,000 feet above tbe level of the sea. The population of all the Argentine states, or provinces, is vaguely estimated as follows, viz. : Buenos Ayres, about 210,000 ; Uraguay, 115,000; Entre Rios, 34,000; Corrientes, 38,000; Missiones, 9000; Paraguay, 400,000; Santa Fe, 17,000; Cordova, 86,000; San Luis, 24,000 ; Mendoza, 40,000 ; San Juan, 24,000; Rioja, 19,000; Catamarca, 34,000; Santiago, 48,000; Tucuman, 44,000; Salta, 55,000. In the southern provinces the inhabitants consist chiefly of the Spanish race. In Paraguay the Missiones and Corrientes, the Guarani Indians, who were civi lised by the Jesuits, constitute the great majority of the people. Indian families are settled in Entre Rios, Santa Fe, and Cordova. In the republics north of 28 deg. south latitude, there are Indians who speak the Quichua, or Peruvian, language. A great portion of the region is still the undisputed property of native tribes. Numerous tribes inhabit the Gran Chaco, between the Paraguay and Parana, and the Rio Solado, The Guaycuru tribe is said to be the most nume rous. The Ranqueles, and unknown tribes, inhabit the country south of 35 deg. south, west from Buenos Ayres to the Cordilleras. The pampas Indians are a nomade people, who move over the pastures with their cattle. The GUACHOS, of Spanish race, are also scattered over the pampas. They are said not to be numerous, and live in huts. They are early trained to ride, and hunt with the lasso. They live on animal food, the produce of their herds and hunting. Their drink is water, are strong, and can endure great fatigue. They are described as hospitable to strangers. Manufactures. A few woollen stuffs are made at Santiago del Estero, and sent to the neighbouring countries. British manufactures have hitherto been chiefly used. Trade. The internal commerce is considerable, as almost every republic pro duces something peculiar, which is in demand in the neighbouring countries. It is also facilitated by the level character of the country, and its climate, which is gene rally dry ; the roads, also, are tolerably good. The navigation on the Paraguay River extends north to Brazil, on the Parana up to the Apipe, on the Uraguay up to the Salto Chico, to which places vessels of 300 tons burden may ascend. By this inland navigation the products of the northern republics are brought to Buenos Ayres or Monte Video, whence they are exported. But the commerce with the neighbouring republics and to Brazil is unimportant; horses and mules were for merly exported in large numbers to Bolivia and Peru ; this trade is said to have nearly ceased. The ports of Monte Video and Buenos Ayres engross nearly all the maritime trade. Government The existing government of Buenos Ayres, under Rosas, is a military despotism. Most of the inland provinces, and especially the Guacho inhabitants of the pastoral regions, are, in a great degree, independent. THE REPUBLIC OF PARAGUAY. 1Q25 CHAPTER XXIX. THE REPUBLIC OF PARAGUAY. THE whole of Paraguay and the republic of Monte Video have scarcely at any time, since the revolt and independence of the Argentine Provinces, joined in tin: federal association of republican states, nominally included in the Argentine Con federation. Paraguay comprehends the extensive region between the rivers Parana and Paraguay, and extends from between 21 deg. and 27 deg. 30 min. south latitude, and 54 deg. to nearly 58 deg. west longitude. Estimated area vaguely stated at from 70,000 to 90,000 square miles. It was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, or Gaboto, in 1526 ; Alcedo describes it thus ; " It is of a warm and moist temperature, from the number of woods, lakes, and rivers with which it is covered, and from the various overflowings which are formed between the months of November and April, when the rains are most abundant. It is watered by an infinite number of rivers, the principal of which are, first that of its own name, and then those in the northern parts of Porrudos, Mboteley, Tobati, Ipane Piray, and others of less note; and in the south part, those of Cafiabe and Tibiquari, this dividing this province from that of the Rio de la Plata of Buenos Ayres. "The woods are many, and in them grow in abundance sour oranges, citrons, limes, and other wild fruits, of which conserves are made. There are also trees of very good timber, and fine wood, such as cedars, petoroques, urundais, tajibos, and others ; of the first they make canoes and slabs, which they carry to Buenos Ayres for vessels and for other uses. In these woods are found a variety of birds and animals, such as rabbits, hares, partridges, wild-boar, deer, and other species of creatures less known, sucli as quiriquinchos, mulitas, and aperiades ; but from the great quantity of neat cattle, the flesh of which is preferred to any other here, none of the above animals are ever hunted; sometimes, however, the inhabitants will hunt geese, which abound in the lakes and the shores of the river, and kill great numbers. Here also breed goldfinches, nightingales, larks, green parrots, long-tailed parrots, others of most beautiful plumage, and peacocks; nor are there wanting ostriches, and birds of prey." The Jesuits laboured so assiduously and successfully to convert the Indians, that the greater part of the country came under the power of the former ; they extended their dominion over Paraguay, and organised the Indians into a disci plined body of militia, and prevented all persons, both Spaniards and Portuguese, from entering their territories. From Paraguay and Parana they drew great revenues; their converts worked for them cheerfully, at stated periods, on their plantations; and the Jesuits not only imported everything necessary for their people from Europe, but they also sent VOL, i. 6 p 1026 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS- immense sums to the superiors of their order at Rome. The Indians were care fully kept in ignorance of the Spanish language; they were instructed in all sorts of useful arts, and trained to the fatigues of military life. They were formed into large bodies of cavalry and infantry, and well supplied with arms and ammunition : as cavalry, the aboriginals were distinguished equestrians. Manv hundred thousands of the native races came under the authority of, and became infatuated subjects to, the Jesuit fathers. But in 1?50 the courts of Ma drid and Lisbon entered into a treaty for the purpose of definitively fixing the boundaries of their respective possessions in the western world. Commissions were appointed in 1.752, to carry this treaty into execution. The representations of the Jesuits, who secretly thwarted the extension of the Portuguese limits, caused a war between Spain and Portugal, in which the Indians took an active part against the Portuguese. The court of Lisbon, in consequence, or rather the Marquis of Pombal, began to entertain suspicions of the real motive of the Jesuits in forming such extensive establishments in America. Soon after, a trial was instituted against one of the order in France by some of the merchants concerned in speculations at Martinique, which had involved the society in debt. On this trial the institute of their order, and their registers were examined, and found to contain principles and doctrines subversive of monarchy, and of the interests of the kingdom. It was consequently decreed to suppress the order of Jesuits in France. On the year following, the King of Portugal was assassinated, and it was resolved to expel the Jesuits from that kingdom. This was followed by their expulsion from Spain and Naples, in 1?67, and in 1773 Pope Clement (Gangarelli) XIV, totally abolished the society. They were banished from America soon after, and the cure of the native tribes they had converted, was transferred to priests of other orders, but chiefly to the Franciscans, and the government was placed in the hands of civil officers. On their expulsion from the territories on the banks of the Parana, there were discovered, in thirty settlements alone, no less than 769,590 horses, 13,900 mules, and 271,540 sheep. The presidios, or garrisons of this province, when under Spanish rule, were nineteen in number, without counting the capital, in which was a body of 350 guardsmen, as well of infantry as of horse. Besides these, there were boats which plied on the rivers to impede the passes to the infidels, or to surprise and cut off their retreats, " The aforesaid garrisons were not only a check to the Indians, but they excluded from the navigation of the river any foreign vessel, independently that it required great skill in any navigator inexperienced with these parts not to take a wrong course, from the number of mouths and creeks which present themselves, and which have often mis led." Alcedo. THE REPUBLIC OF PARAGUAY. 1 1 rj 7 The greater part of the natives are described by Alcedo and other Spanish authorities as of the Guarani nation, descendants of those who were Converted by San Francisco Solano and his companions, with the exception of some families of the Monteses, Canguias, and other nations since reduced. Here \ also four new reductions made, which were under the charge of the Jesuits, cilU-d Estonislao, San Joaquin, Nuestra Senora de Belen, and El Santo Corazon. In each of these settlements was an Indian corregidor without jurisdiction, and appointed only to regard the proceedings of the other corregidors, and to cause to be fulfilled the orders of the curate and of the administrator of the goods of the settlement. Each of them had two alcaldes, and the other officers of the cabildo, and these, as well as the corre gidor, were elected by the influence of the curate, who knew the abilities of his Indians ; but these elections were confirmed by the governor of the province ; and to the curate was assigned ten per cent of the profits of his settlement. Ever since the first establish ment of these settlements, there was allotted to each the territory thought necessary for sowirio of seeds and the breeding of cattle, and when the harvest was gathered in, it was put into one common granary, to the end that it might be divided equally amongst all as their necessities might require, by the administrator; the same practice was observed with regard to the rations of meat. With the excess of the corn and cattle a means was pro cured of adorning the churches, of assisting the sick, and of promoting public works. Neither Spaniards, mulattoes, nor negroes were admitted into these settlements except as traders. 4t The ecclesiastical government was well organised under the ren.ious ordei Francisco, and amongst the first converters were enumerated Father Alonzo de Buena ventura, and Father Juan de San Bernardo, a lay- brother who suffered martyrdom under the Caazapas Indians. At daybreak mass was said every morning, with fine muti on festival days somewhat later, with a discourse regularly by the curate, the cabildo went to receive its orders for the day, and the same were impar whole settlement, that everyone might know his occupation, tasks assi-ned to them proportionate to their strength and capacity, and t and girls remained singing and reciting prayers for the morning, after the ma S! finished, in the court-yard of the church, and repeated the same at mghtfall. of the day they were employed in assisting their mothers, whilst the men were employe in different handicraft works, as carpentering, sculpture musical instrume weaving, and other mechanical arts and employments, for which they masters. Every ni-ht the cabildo came to the curate to inform him of what had hap- pened in the coum of the day, and the people, after saying the rosary, betook themselves t0 -These Indians paid no other tribute than personal service to those under whom they Vine Viopn HIP sp.p.ne ot much Dloo( eu. ,, j /-/ the south-east. *Alceao. IS ttZftZ. *> Along the Parana, and along the Paraguay, north to Angostura, the c is low marshy, and without fuel. Wooded marshes occur (urther north. SSSSrx- 1 -?s 1028 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. numerous. The Yerba-mate, or Paraguay tea, was, it is stated, exported formerly to the amount of 8,000,000 Ibs. Great quantities of timber are, however, floated down to Buenos Ayres. Tobacco, sugar, and cotton have been also exported. The indigo-plant and caoutchouc-tree grow wild. Exclusive of the navigable Paraguay and Parana rivers, the River Tibiquari, which traverses the southern districts, is navigable in the greater part of its course. THE Population of Paraguay, according to Azara s Work, published in 1809. NAMES. Date of their Foundation. Souls. N A M L S. Date of their foundation. Souls. Yta s) > years. 1536 1533 1538 1538 1538 1538 1538 1538 1673 1(507 1610 1592 1592 1555 1609 1698 1634 1614 1627 1633 1622 1706 1685 1746 1749 1760 1536 1635 1718 1766 1785 1773 J784 1715 rd number. 965 2,093 278 368 200 869 972 932 124 725 674 1,144 1,097 806 864 1,283 1,036 1,409 1,514 1,430 2,267 1,017 1,185 854 729 361 7,088 3,813 2,187 825 1,769 1,551 979 2,254 Brought forward years. number. 5, 658 3,972 1,014 232 866 427 1,227 715 654 620 3,595 1,066 733 540 2,352 507 5,305 2,235 1,720 3,098 458 3,346 1,894 1,136 858 1,500 659 1,730 621 520 840 644 1,519 92,347 5,133 1760 1576 1773 1785 1789 1781 1758 1770 1783 1640 1770 1770 1783 1769 1775 J640 1728 1775 1714 1777 17 25 1733 1777 1783 1706 1787 1779 1790 1791 1740 1653 1555 uls Yriaiie (s) Villarica (t) Hiaty (p) . Yaca Guazu (p) Altos (a) Boby (p) Afira (a) Tnha.tv (&) Ajos (p) Ytape (s) Cariy (pi Yhitimiri (p) .... Yuty (s) Piribebui (p) S Maria de Fe (s) Caacup (p).. Quarepoty (p) Pira\u (p) Paraguary (p) S Cosme (s) . Capiata (0} Ytapua (s) Villeta (p) Trinidad (s) S Estanislado (s) Belen (a) Emboscada (ni) Concepcion (t) Loreto, S Total of so iscd in the abovt? * Carried forwa Spaniards inhabiting Ind 45,658 ts not compr ian settlemer Total population in 1809 97,430 Note. The letter (c) indicates city ; (t) town ; (p) parish ; (s) settlement of Indians ; (m; settlement of mulattoes ot people of colour. The state of Paraguay is situated on the eastern bank of the River Paraguay, which, with the Bermejo, flows into the Parana. Aided by Buenos Ayres, Paraguay was freed from Spanish domination. In a Spanish work on the Argen tine republics published in 1825, the author says of Paraguay. " It occupies an obscure place in politics, and maintains no social or mercantile rela tion with any part of the world, for which state of seclusion it is favoured by its detached local situation. Without knowing whether th is circumstance ought to be attributed to the rustic character of the only person (Dr. Francia) who has governed Paraguay during the greater part of that time, or to the constitutional apathy and ignorance of the persons governed, the fact is, that, notwithstanding it followed the sentiment of the whole terri tory as regards its separation from Spain, that province has not only taken no part in the war of independence, by which it has incurred a general odium ; but also, since that THE REPUBLIC OF PARAGUAY. 10 moment, has cut off all communication with the contiguous and united provinces, and thus continued, till the present time, to prevent the exportation of its interesting pro ductions, and to prohibit the return of all foreigners or natives, with very few except who came for the purpose of introducing ultra-marine merchandise into Paraguay. " Paraguay should fill a much more important station than it did under the Spanish government; principally on account of its abundant mountain forests, growing timl all kinds, well adapted for ship-building; which, in fact, has always been one of its principal branches of commerce. Most of the small vessels, employed in the trade of all the internal rivers, have been constructed there ; and in Paraguay also some ships have been built, which have navigated the River Parana, in ballast, as far as Buenos Ayres ; that is to say, a distance of 400 leagues. In the year 1824, one of these ships sailed to Lima, after having made several voyages to Europe. The other production*, such as the Paraguay tea (yerba-mate, or chenopodium ambrosioides), which is greatly superior to that of Brazil, and of which, in that part of America, there is a greater consumption than of tea from China, in the United States coloured tobacco, which, in some respects, is superior to that of the Havannah, and which will equal it in all, when a better system of gathering and growing is adopted cotton, of which consi derable exports might be made even to Europe and, in short, many other produc tions, such as the earth pistachio (mani, or the Arachis hypogca), sugar, reed-cane, honey, &c. &c. &c., will all give to Paraguay, whenever it ceases to be the Great C/<i//d of South America, the place of one of the most distinguished provinces. M. Bompland, who was the companion of Baron Humboldt in his travels, is still (in 1824) living in Paraguay. He was in the towns of Missiones, situated between Corrientes and Paraguay, pursuing] the researches which he was, as a naturalist, employed to make by the government of the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata; which circumstance exciting jealousy in the ruling authority of Paraguay, it would not suffer him or his attendants to leave its territory ,or even to send copies*^ of the insects he had collected, but caused him to be forcibly conducted to the capital, where he lives at liberty, following the medical profes sion, but without hope of escaping from that imprisonment, except through some sudden caprice of that stoical governor, or the natural course of evei- ASUNSION, the capital, situated near the banks of the Paraguay, has about 10,000 inhabitants, and a considerable trade in the produce of the country. Villa Real de Concepcion, with 4000 inhabitants, lies further north on the Paraguay, and is the place to which the produce of the forests of Yerba-Mate is brought : these forests cover the hills from sixty to eighty miles east of the capital. The more recent accounts of Paraguay, by Robertson and others, describe the state of cultivation superior to that of the neighbouring Argentine states. White-washed cottages were, says Mr. Robertson, frequently seen among the trees ; and around them were considerable fields of cotton, yucca, and tobacco. Indian corn, and sugar-cane, were frequently seen in the vicinity of the farm-houses ; and there was abundance of wood and prickly pears, with the latter the cultivate country and paddocks are well provided. The dictator possessed nearly half the country; the savannah, pasture-lands and forests, the estates of missions, and other corporate religious bodies, and many country-houses an. farming-establishments, were confiscated and seized by him in the name of state It is but justice to say that he sedulously improved all these propel and rendered them productive. On some parts large cattle and horse farms 1030 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. were established. He let others at moderate or nominal rents, subjected to be well cultivated. His cavalry was supplied by the pasture farms. Monthly reports of the farms were invariably demanded and received by him. He ex tended the agricultural operations far beyond annual gatherings of mate, or tea, the culture of some tobacco, sugar-cane, and yucca. In 1820 the plague of locusts overran and destroyed eighty leagues of circuit. To avert famine, he compelled the farmers to sow a second crop ; the harvest of which was most abundant. By despotic regulations, he extended his agricultural improvements over the whole country. Rice, maize, cotton, culinary vegetables were grown ; and the breeding of cattle and horses was extensively promoted. Paraguay tea is as much used in Chile, La Plata, Peru, and Brazil, as China tea in England. He also compelled them to establish manufactories. His government was absolute, though the whole was nominally republican. He allowed of no public debt. If the war between Buenos Ayres and Monte Video were ended; if those countries were tranquillised, the period will have arrived when a very lucra tive trade may be carried on with the fertile region of Paraguay and the countries drained by the Parana and its affluents. In his day Francia may have, as a dic tator, prepared this state for future prosperity. CHAPTER XXX. MONTE VIDEO, OR URUGUAY. THE republic of Uruguay, or Banda Oriental, extends from the northern coast and banks of the La Plata, to the southern boundary of Brazil. It is but imperfectly explored from the Atlantic to the River Uruguay. This state extends on the west, along the Uruguay River about 300 miles, and on the Atlantic for about 200 miles. The average width, from east to west, exceeds 230 miles. Estimated area 69,000 square miles. Uruguay has generally an undulating fertile soil, with occasional broken inter ruptions, and is almost destitute of forest trees. The climate is temperate; it never freezes. Rain falls abundantly during winter, but seldom in summer. Cultiva tion is neglected for pasturage. Cattle and horses form the wealth of the inha bitants. The articles of export are hides, skins, hair, horns, and jerked beef. Sheep breeding and rearing is almost entirely neglected. In a Spanish work, which we have quoted, Monte Video is asserted to be favoured by nature, as if it had been selected for the display of fertility and MONTE VIDEO, OR URUGUAY. 1Q31 beauty, and not less important on account of its geographical situation, at tho mouth of the River La Plata, forty leagues distant from the capital city of Bueno- Ayres. Its climate, which has sensibly improved during the last forty yen temperate and humid; but as that quality is moderated by the invariably dry land winds from the north-west commonly called passageros, because they pass through the open plains of Buenos Ayres and by its proximity to the ocean, the temperature of its atmosphere is the most healthy possible. In the year 1810, that province numbered a population of from 60,000 to 70,000 souls, including that of the city, which was not less than 20,000. In 1825, however, it scarcely contained from 40,000 to 50,000, that is, 10,000 in the city, and the re mainder in the country. There are many inhabited places in it : as, Maldonado, Colonia, Santa Lucia, Camelones, San Jose, San Carlos, Soriano, and Cerro Largo, which are all towns; and the villages are Toledo, Pando, Rocha, Penarol, Piedras, San Salvador, Minas, Florida, Porongos, Colla, Bacas, Nivoras, Espi- nilla, Mercedes, Paisandu, and Hervidera. The decrease of population was occa sioned first by the war with Spain, which in that territory was carried on as in no other part of the united provinces ; by the civil war which raged there, during the revolution against Spain ; and also by the domination of the Por tuguese, or Brazilians, from which, being universally detested, the natives have fled in great numbers, emigrating to the other provinces. Monte Video was peopled, little more than about a century ago, by a colony sent from Buenos Ayres. At that time the country was occupied by a multitude of Indians, of whom now only remain the very few who live in the remote parts, known by the name of Charrecas. The new colonists found the country abounding with vicuna. Since that time the soil, fertile in all parts, even in the mountains with which it abounds, appears to have been used particu larly for grazing, its cattle having continued all along to be the staple branch of the commerce of Monte Video ; not only by reason of the exportation of vicuna and horse-hides, but also of salted meat and tallow. Monte Video at one time possessed thirty-three establishments for curing meat; each of them killing at least one hundred head of cattle daily, without that consumption being regard to the vicuna, the multiplication of which race is assisted there by a finite variety of natural circumstances. Nearly the whole country abc excellent pastures, of excellent quality, and fertilised by the irrigate of i rivulets, and springs. At each step the traveller finds himself meeting , streams of pure water, the scenery presents a constant success eminences, meadows, wilds, rugged defiles, and mountains. The prmapal r, are, the Uruguay, Negro, Ybi q ui, CMB<*, Yi, Santa Lu^ Gueguay, Dra Arapei, Guarey, Olimar, Pardo, Tacuari, Yguaron, and Taa^nbo rents of these rivers are formed by countless streams, many of them very 1032 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. considerable, which run in all directions, excepting an elevated ridge of land which crosses the whole province, and is called Cuchilla grande. Almost all these rivers might be made navigable through the greatest part of their course. Those that are now navigated are the Uruguay, Negro, Cebollati, and Santa Lucia. 3 MONTE VIDEO, situated on the north shore of the Rio de la Plata, was founded near its mouth by order of Field-marshal Don Bruno de Zavala, in 1726. " Until 1807 it was a small place, having only one parish and a convent of the order of San Francisco. It had once a house of Jesuits. It is situate on a lofty spot, upon a bay. It has a citadel or castle, which is badly constructed, with four bulwarks and some batteries for its defence the same is the residence of the governor. The town, which is well fortified with a strong wall and sufficient artillery, is inhabited by more than 10,000 souls, amongst whom are some rich and noble families. The climate is excellent, cheerful, and healthy, the soil fertile and abounding in vegetable productions, and flesh and fish are so plentiful as to cost almost nothing. Its principal commerce consists in the hides of cattle, and these are killed merely for the above perquisites. It is 111 miles east-south-east from Buenos Ayres, in latitude 34 deg. 50 min. 30 sec. south, and longitude 56 deg. 16 min. west." Such is the description of Alcedo. Few places in Spanish America have experienced a greater change in poli tical consequence and physical energies, since the time Alcedo wrote, than Uruguay. Independently of its wars with Buenos Ayres, it has been rendered famous by the English expedition which visited the Rio la Plata in 1806. It was for some little time in possession of the British troops, and finally evacu ated at the beginning of September, 1807. The town of Monte Video, according to Mr. Mawe, is tolerably well built^ standing on a gentle elevation at the extremity of a small peninsula, and is walled entirely round 44 Its population amounted in 1820 to between 15,000 and 18,000 souls. The harbour, although shoal, and quite open to the pamperos, is the best in the Rio de la Plata ; it has a very soft bottom of deep mud. When the wind continues for some time at north-east, ships drawing twelve feet water are frequently aground for several days, so that the harbour cannot be called a good one for vessels above 300 or 400 tons." There are but few capital buildings ; the town in general consists of houses of one story, floored with brick, and provided with very poor conveniences. In the square is a handsome cathedral, awkwardly situated ; opposite to it is an edifice divided into a town-house or cabildo, and a prison. The streets having no pave ment, are clouded with dust or loaded with mud as the weather happens to be dry or wet. In seasons of drought the want of water is a serious inconvenience* the spring which principally supplies the town being two miles distant. Provisions are cheap and abundant. Beef is plentiful, and, though rarely fat or fine, makes excellent soup. The pork is not eatable. REPUBLIC OF MONTE VIDEO. IM The inhabitants of Monte Video, particularly the Creolians, are describe! humane and well-disposed, when not actuated by political or >< Their habits of life are indolent and temperate. The ladies are m-m-mlly a;: and polite, fond of dress, and neat and cleanly in their persons ; they adept the English or French fashions at home, but go abroad usually in black, and al covered with a large veil or mantle. At mass they invariably appear in black silk, bordered with deep fringes. They delight in conversation, are vivaciou<, and very courteous to strangers. The chief trade of Monte Video consists in hides, tallow, and dried or jerked beef : the two first are exported to Europe, and the latter is sent to the West Indies, especially to the Havannah. The coarse copper from Chile in square cakes, is sometimes shipped here, as well as mate, or tea of Paraguay, the in fusion of which is as common a beverage in these parts as tea is in England.* The climate of Monte Video is humid. The weather in the winter months (June, July, and August), is at times boisterous, and the air in that season i- generally keen and piercing. In summer the serenity of the atmosphere is fre quently interrupted by thunder-storms, preceded by terrific lightning; which frequently damages the shipping, and followed by heavy rain, which sometimes destroys the harvest. The heat is oppressive, and is rendered more so to strangers by the swarms of mosquitoes, which infest every apartment. The town stands on a basis of granite. The high mount on the opposite side of the bay is crowned with a lighthouse, and gives name to the town. The vicinity of Monte Video, is agreeably diversified with gently sloping hills, and Ion- valleys watered by beautiful streams; but the prospects they afford are rarely enlivened by traces of cultivation ; few enclosures are seen except the gardens of the principal merchants. The same neglect appears in a .north-east direc tion from the town, where varieties of h,ll, valley, and water prevail, and seem to want only the embellishment of cultivated and wooded scenery t i onulent before the English took the garrison, but through * The inhabitants were by no mean, op^atbe o ^ ^^ adventurers b ill- the misfortunes of the *""*^g5 considerably enriched. The great prosp, judged and imprudent speculate s ^ J e ( p , of immense profits by trade to that river, dulged in England before the ^P^ 1 ^ ^^, of the speculators have escaped without con.idcr- have generally ended mriunj^ery lew inaee Ayres might be considered in a fair . able loss. Property, **^XZM uncertain questions were decided, resti- confiscation : and in case of its 1 ia* in . on l c _ lmlt -. Not contented with the profits accruing tution was generally obtained at scru nled to take every advantage which possession of from his commission the *te"^^ interests at the expense of , odent. the property afforded him, ol n lluei " = } { t heck upon him ; for in the Spanish cu., The dread of a legal process could be but a si, it pu ^^ ^^ ^ justice, as well as in others, a jj^^jgjgrf Monte Video. It is a fact that the 1 stances have concurred to em Q0/ su . rling , a < Iim ll portion ot which, on the exported thither goods to the amo ^ ^ U r eshippe d forthe Cape of Good Hope and the restoration of the place to the ^ aniaro , si [ criried at whatever price the Spaniards choM \VllO sptJC -lltlLCtA 3 . of fifty per cent profit immediately a ^ ^ VOL. I, 1034 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the landscape. Some wood, indeed, grows on the margin of the Riochuelo, which is used for building hovels and for fuel. The want of wood occasions great inconvenience and expense ; wood for mechanical purposes is extremely scarce, and planks are so dear that few houses with a boarded floor are to be found. About twenty-five leagues north-east from Monte Video, is an irregular ridge of granite mountains extending nearly north and south, and the country from this distance gradually assumes a rugged appearance. The ravines of these stony wilds, and the wooded margins of the rivers, afford shelter to ferocious animals, such as jaguars, here called tigers, small lions, and ounces; wild dogs breed in the rocks, and at times make great havoc among the young cattle. The farms in this district, for the most part, include tracts of land from twenty to thirty miles in length by half that extent in breadth, watered by clear streams. Herds of cattle are bred upon them ; at one time it was calculated that each square league maintained 1500 or 2000 head, but the war and anarchy must have diminished these numbers. At the distance of about forty leagues north-east from Monte Video, the hills gradually lessen and disappear ; the country opens on the left, and is intersected by numerous rivulets. The country in this part may in general be termed rocky and mountainous. Solid rock frequently appears on the surface, and in many places projects in masses ; the mountains and rocks are of granite ; fine red and yellow jasper, chalcedony, and quartz, are not unfrequently found loose on the surface. Some fossils of the asbestos kind, and some very poor oxides of iron, are likewise to be met with. The limestone on one ridge is of a close compact kind, united to transparent quartz in a tabular form, standing, as it were, in laminse perpendicular to the horizon. The cavities formed by the laminae afford refuge for reptiles. The limestone is loosened by wedges and levers, and brought away in large slabs to the kilns, where it is broken into fragments of a convenient size, and burnt with wood. The lime, when slaked, is measured, put into sacks made of green hides, and sent in large carts drawn by oxen, principally to Colonia, Monte Video, and Buenos Ayres. Barriga Negra is distant about 160 miles north-east from Monte Video, about 120 from Maldonado, and ninety from the town of Minas. The surrounding country is mountainous, well-watered, and partly wooded; the banks of the streams are covered with trees, rarely, however, of large size ; for the creeping plants, interweaving with the shoots, check their growth and form an impenetrable thicket. In this district are the great breeding estates, many of which were stocked with from 60,000 to 200,000 head of cattle. These are herded principally by Peons from Paraguay, who live in hovels at convenient distances. Ten thousand head are allotted to four or five Peons, who collect them every morning and REPUBLIC OF MONTE VIDEO. 1035 evening; and once or twice a month drive them into pens where they are kept for a night. The cattle by this mode of management are tamed ; a vicious beast is never seen among them. Breeding, alone, is attended to ; neither butter nor cheese is made, and milk is scarcely known as an article of food. The constant food is beef, eaten generally without bread, and frequently without salt. This habitual subsistence on animal food would probably engender diseases, were- it not corrected by regularly drinking their favourite mate. The dwellings are wretched, the walls being formed by a few upright posts interwoven with branches of trees, plastered with mud inside and out, and the roof thatched with grass and rushes. The furniture of these hovels consists of a few skulls of horses, which serve for seats, and of a hide to lie upon. The prin cipal cooking utensil is a rod or spit of iron stuck in the ground in an oblique position, so as to incline over the fire. The beef transfixed on this spit is left to roast until the part next the fire is done enough, then turned round until the whole is cooked. Fuel in some parts is so extremely scarce that a strange expe dient is resorted to. The mares are kept solely for breeding, and are never trained to labour ; they generally exceed the due proportion ; many of them are frequently killed for their hides and tails, and their carcases are used as fuel. The Peons are chiefly emigrants from Paraguay, and among them very few women are to be found. A person may travel in these parts for days together without seeing or hearing of a single female in the course of his journey. To this circumstance may be attributed the total absence of domestic comfort in the dwellings of these wretched men, and the gloomy apathy observable in their dis positions and habits. The dexterity of the Peons in catching cattle, by throwing a noose over them, has been frequently detailed. They throw with equal precision and effect, whether at full gallop or at rest. Their method of catching horses, by means of balls attached to leather thongs, is unerring. In training mules and horses to draw light carts and other carriages, no har ness is made use of; a saddle or pad is girded on, and a leather thong is fastened to the girth on one side, so that the animal moving forward with his body in a ra ther oblique direction, keeps his legs clear of the apparatus which is attached to him, and draws with considerable freedom. In the catching of cattle the Peon fastens one end of his lasso (or noosed thong) to the girth of his horse, who soon learns to place himself in such an attitude as to draw the ox which his The horses are spirited, and perform almost incredible labour. They seldom work longer than a week at a time, being then turned out to pastu e for months together. Their sole food is grass, and the treatment they meet witl unmerciful. They are never shod. 1036 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Sheep are very scarce, and seldom or never eaten ; they are kept by some per sons merely for the sake of their wool, to make flocks for bedding. The cattle herds bred in many parts of this district have often tempted the Portuguese to make predatory incursions, and the country being accessible by fine open passes to the frontier, as well as to the north side of the Plata, these violations of territory have been carried on to a very serious extent. So frequent were they at one period, that it became necessary to appoint a military force to patrol the bounda ries against these inroads. Agriculture. There is abundance of excellent clay, and plenty of wood near the margin of the rivers, yet it is rare to meet with an enclosure, even for a kitchen garden, mnch more so fora corn-field. They generally choose the grounds for tillage by the bank of a rivulet, so as to have one side or sometimes two sides bounded by it ; the remainder is fenced in the most clumsy manner. Ploughing is performed by two oxen yoked to a crooked piece of wood about four inches in diameter, and pointed at the end. After the ground has been roughly broken up, wheat is sown, without any attempt to cleanse it from noxious seeds. While it grows up, wild oats, poppies, and other pernicious weeds grow among it in luxuriance. Indian corn, beans, melons, &c., are all treated in a similar way. The wheat is cut down with sickles and gathered into sheaves. A circular pen of from forty to sixty yards in diameter is then formed with rails and hides ; in the centre of this enclosure is placed a large quantity of wheat in the straw. The pile is so formed as to have the ears on the outside. A small quantity is pulled down towards the circumference of the circle, and a herd of about twenty mares is driven in, which, being untamed, are easily frightened and made to gallop round. At this pace they are kept by means of whips for four or five hours, until the corn is trodden out of the ears, and the straw completely broken up. Another parcel of sheaves is then pulled down, and a fresh herd of mares is let in, and this operation is repeated until the whole heap is threshed, and the straw is broken into chaff. In this state it is left until the wind happens to rise, and then it is winnowed. It is sewed up in hides, and sent to the sea-ports, where biscuit is baked. The climate and soil are favourable for the growth of grapes, apples, peaches, and every species of fruit belonging to the temperate zone, but these are not generally cultivated. The potato would thrive abundantly, but the people remain averse to improving their means of subsistence, and seem to wish for nothing beyond the bare necessaries of life. The Peons, brought from Paraguay in their infancy, grow up to the age of manhood in a state of servitude, uncheered by domestic comfort ; at that period they generally wander in search of employment toward the coast, where money is in greater plenty. They are for the most part an honest and harmless race, though as liable from their condi- REPUBLIC OF MONTE VIDEO. In.", 7 tion to acquire habits of gambling and intoxication, as the higher das- s : many of whom fall victims to those vices. The common people generally go without shoes and stockings: as they nn go on foot they have seldom occasion for shoes. Some of them, particularly thr Peons, make a kind of boot from the raw skins of young horses, which they frequently kill for this sole purpose. When the animal is dead, thry cut the skin round the thigh, about eighteen inches above the gambrel; having stripped it, they stretch and dress it until it loses the hair and becomes white. The lower part, which covered the joint, forms the heel, and the extremity is tied up in a bunch to cover the toes. The rest of their apparel consists of a jacket, which is worn by all ranks, and a shirt and drawers made of a coarse cotton cloth brought from the Brazils. Children run about with no dress but their shirts until their fifth or sixth year. Their education is little attended to. Among the many natural advantages which many parts of Uruguay posses are the frequent falls in the brooks and larger streams, which might be con verted to various mechanical purposes, if the population were numerous and better instructed. CHAPTER XXXI. THE RIVERS PLATA, PARANA, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY, AND THEIR TRIBUTARIES. WERE the regions drained by the River Plata, and its great and numerous tributaries, populously settled by an enterprismg people, the mlaud nav.g which communicates with the rich soils and products of those vast and extens.i regions of the Argentine republics, would render these countries among n^^i?w *- -r - s uth A T ca> afte ; "; Ami, It was discovered by Juan Di- d. So* in 1515; .ho nav-gated-t as far as a small island in latitude 34 deg. 23 i seen on the shores some cabins, had the boldness when they were all put to death by the abongmes 1038 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. cessity of entering the River Plata, which he navigated as far as the island discovered by Solis, and to which he gave the name of San Gabriel. Seven leagues above this island he discovered a river which he called San Salvador, and another at thirty leagues distance, which the natives called Sarcana; where he built a fort. He then pursued his voyage as far as the conflux of the rivers Parana and Paraguay, and leaving the former to the west, entered by the second, and had a battle with the Indians, in which he lost twenty-five men ; but succeeded in routing them, taking from them treasures of silver, which they had brought from Peru; and, supposing that there was an abundance of this metal in the ter ritories washed by the river, called it Rio de la Plata (River of Silver) ; whereby it lost the name of Solis, first given it by the discoverer.* This river receives in its extensive course the water of various other large rivers. It is subject to inundations for many leagues from its banks, fertilising the land in the same manner as the Nile. The distance from the conflux of the Paraguay and Parana to its mouth, is about 200 leagues by the course of the river. It is interspersed with beautiful islands, and is navigable for large vessels. The Rio Plata is at its mouth about 150 miles wide; from Cape San Antonio on the south, to Point Negro on the north. From thence to the junction of the Uruguay, it preserves its name, being afterwards called the Parana. Although the whole of it is navigable, it has many shoals and rocks. Between Point Piedras on the south, and Point Yeguas on the north, it is fifty-three miles wide. The coloured water which it brings down is often visible in the Atlantic about 100 miles from its embouchure. The estuary of the Plata is generally shallow, and the navigation extends along the southern shores, but the channel along its northern shores is sufficiently deep for ships drawing about twenty feet, as far as opposite Buenos Ayres, on its southern shore. Vessels drawing more than sixteen feet of water can seldom approach nearer the town than seven or eight miles; smaller vessels enter the inner roads to within about two miles of Buenos Ayres. The navigation of its gulf, though intricate among the extensive shoals, may hereafter be rendered easy by the aid of steam tug-boats. The tides are perceptible as far as Buenos Ayres, but between Point Las Piedras and Point Yeguas the water is generally fresh. The PARAN! rises in the province of Minas Geraes to the south of the city * Another version of the origin of the name is given by the Spaniards, who say that Martini de Zousa, holding the captainship of St. Vicent, furnished Alexo Garcia, a Portuguese, with an escort to explore the wilds to the west of Brazil. By the route of the Tiete, he reached the Paraguay, which he crossed, and penetrated into the interior. He returned, it is said, loaded with silver, and some gold ; he halted on the Paraguay, waiting for his son, with some of his people, and sent at the same time to Brazil an account of the discovery. He was surprised by a body of Indians, who killed him and took his son prisoner. The following year, sixty Portuguese, who were sent in search of Garcia, were also massacred. The Spaniards who first settled on this river, seeing so much silver amongst these Indians, and supposing it to be the produce of the country, called the river La Plata. REPUBLIC OF MONTE VIDEO. 10;) ( i of San Joas del Rev, in some lofty sierras, in Brazil, and flows a course for the estimated distance of more than 1000 miles, receiving innumerable tribut many of them navigable from the north, west, east, and south. At about 300 miles from its mouth two falls impede its navigation. Tin- country through which it flows is temperate and very fertile. Alcedo informs us that the native inhabitants of i;s banks, " Were laborious, lived in settlements, sowed maize twice a year, cultivated yucat or mandioca, bred fowl, and eat human flesh, not only of their own prisoners, Cor were very warlike, but even that of their own dead." Two monks of the order of San Francisco, who accompanied the first governor on his first voyage to this region, were the first who baptised these Indians. Friar Luis de Bolanos, companion of San Francisco Solano, erected many chapels or churches in the upper districts, establishing six reductions, and uniting the Indians in settlements on the banks of the rivers Ibajiba, Paranape, and Pirapo, and, for their instruction in the catechism, he made himself master of the Gua- rani tongue : many of his orations in this language having been printed by the Jesuits. The Jesuits followed up the advantages attained by their predecessors, and founded some fresh settlements, which they called doctrinal establishments, in 1614. The Mamelucos Paulistas of Brazil, made various irruptions against those settlements, in order to entrap prisoners, which they might carry to sell to work in the mines and at the sugar plantations of that kingdom. They car ried away nearly, it is asserted, 100,000 souls; and the missionaries were com pelled to withdraw the upper settlements. Those settlements contained in the beginning of the present century about 41,000 souls, who cultivated wheat, maize, sugar, Paraguay tea, tobacco, cotton, seeds, fruit, and vegetables. When the Jesuits were expelled, there were in the thirty settlements of the Parana and Paraguay, 769,589 horses, 13,905 mules, and 271,537 sheep. The government, arts, and manufactures, which were instituted in this territory by the Jesuits were considered by the Spaniards as a problem not to be solved : whether it should prove the perfection of a republic, or that it should be looked upon as a tyrannical despotism eager only for its own interests, and the establishment of absolute power. (See the Christianismo felice" of Muratori, and the collec tion of documents for the extermination of the Jesuits, printed by order of the Spanish government.) The Parana which the first discoverers considered as the chief, on account of its abundant waters, joins the Paraguay in latitude 27 deg. 16 min. ; and their united streams take the name of the Parana. The Rio Parana becomes navigable for vessels of 300 tons burden at the island 1040 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. of Apipe, about 120 miles above its junction with the Paraguay. Below this junction it is studded with low islands, covered with wild orange-trees and various trees and shrubs : the deepest channel has always from two to three fathoms of water. Before its junction with the Rio Uraguay, it separates into numerous branches, which form a delta. Most of these channels are navigable for boats ,- that called Parana Guazu has seldom less than two fathoms and a half of water, and that of Las Palmas is the next deepest to Guazu. This river and most of its confluents bring down from the countries within the tropics to the higher lati tudes a great volume of water, which inundates the low districts along its banks from February to May. The waters rise in the end of December, and increase gradually to the end of April ; they descend to their lowest point in July ; along the lower part of the river the inundation rises about twelve feet above the lowest water level, and leaves a slimy deposit which enriches the soil. The Paraguay River gives its name to the state. It was first navigated by Sebastian Cabot in 1526. It rises in about 13 south latitude. This great river from authorities relied on by Mr. Mawe, flows "In a southern course of 600 leagues before it enters the ocean under the appellation of the Rio de la Plata. The heads of the Paraguay are 270 miles north-east from Villa Bella, and 164 miles north from Cuiaba, and divided into many branches, forming complete livers ; which, as they run south, successively unite and form the channel of this immense river, which is immediately navigable. To the west, a short distance from the main source of the Paraguay, is that of the Sypotuba, which dis embogues on its west bank, in latitude 15 deg. 50 min., after a course of sixty leagues. In the upper part of this river, and near its west branch, called the Jurubanba, was formerly a gold mine, which was worked with considerable profit; but the superior advantages derived from others subsequently explored in Matto Grosso and Cuiba, caused it to be abandoned, and its site is not now known with certainty. The little River Cabaral, also auriferous, enters the Paraguay on the west side, three leagues below the mouth of the Sypotuba. On the banks of the latter lives a nation of Indians, called Barbados, from the distinction peculiar to themselves, among all the Indian nations, of having large beards." The confluence of the Jauru with the Paraguay was considered a point of importance, as guarding the great road between Villa Bella Cuiaba and the intermediate establishments, and in the same manner commanded the navigation of both the rivers, and defended the entrance into the interior of the latter captainship. The Paraguay from this place has a free navigation upwards, almost to its sources, about seventy leagues distant, with no other impediment than one large fall. The boundary mark, which was placed at the mouth of the Jauru by the Por tuguese, was, and may, if not destroyed, be still, a pyramid of beautiful marble, brought to this distant point from Lisbon. It bore inscriptions commemorative of the treaty between the courts of Spain and Portugal, by which the respective territories were denned. REPUBLIC OF MONTE VIDEO. I > 1 1 The chain of mountains which extends from the sources of the Punrjuuy near its east bank, border the river opposite the mouth of the Jauru, and are terminated seven leagues below it by the Morro Excalvado. East of this point all is marsh; and nine leagues below it there flows into the east side; of the Paraguay a deep river, called Rio Novo, discovered in 17SG. The most di sources of this river are the rivulets of Santa Anna and Bento Gomez. About latitude 17 deg. 33 min., the western banks of the Paraguay become mountainous at the north point of the Serra da Insua, which, three leagues to the south, makes a deep break to form the mouth of the Lake Gaiba. Six leagues and a half below the mouth of the Gaiba, and opposite the mountainous bank of the Paraguay, is the mouth of the St. Louren90 ; twenty-six leagues above this the River Cuiaba enters its western bank : these two rivers are of great length. A tributary, the Itiquira, has been navigated to its heads, from whence the canoes were dragged over land to the Sucuriu, which falls into the Parana. The tributaries Itiquira and Sucuriu were found to have fewer and smaller falls than the Jaquari. The navigation to the town of Cuiaba by the river of that name, from i above-mentioned confluence, is short and easy. Three leagues above this place the Guacho-uassu enters the Cuiaba by its eastern bank, and on the same side, seven leagues further, the Guacho-mirim. From this point the river winds in a north-north-east direction, eleven leagues to the Island of Pirahim, and thence makes a large bend to the east, receiving numerous streams, and pa* the town of Cuiaba, which is situated a mile to the east of it. ninety-six leagues to the east of Villa Bella, and the same distance by wat from the confluence of its river with the Paraguay. It is large, and, togetl with its dependencies, contained, in 180?, 30,000 souls. It was then we vided with meat, fish, fruits, and all sorts of vegetables, at a cheap r; Lntry is well adapted for cultivation, and has mines. They were d.covered ,n r 7 18 and were estimated to produce annually, up to 1805, above twenty arroto below the pr.nc.pal mov b ^^ on its west bank , and in this place they the mountains that s e parae,ro^^ fa ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ part in the appellation ot oerra not annually to be innndated by the floods of the , _ R VOL. I. 1042 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. From the Dourados, the Paraguay runs south to the Serras of Albuquerque, where it touches directly on the north point, on which is situated a village of that name. From Albuquerque the Paraguay turns to the south-west. It skirts its Serras, which terminate at the end of six leagues higher up in the Serra do Ra- bicho, opposite which, on the north bank of the river, is situated the lower south mouth of the Paraguay-mirim. This is an arm of the Paraguay, which, termi nating here, forms an island fourteen leagues in length from north to south : it is the usual channel for canoes during inundations. From the mouth of the Para guay-mirim the river takes a southerly direction to the mouth of the Taquoari, which was navigated annually by flotillas of canoes and other craft, from St. Paul s to Cuiaba, and even as far as the Register of Jaura. The Embotetieu enters the River Paraguay five leagues below the mouth of the Taquari, and on the same side. It is now called Mondego, and was formerly navigated by the traders from St. Paul s, who entered by the Anhandery-uassu, the south branch of the Pardo. On the north bank of the Mondego, twenty leagues above its mouth, the Spaniards founded the city of Xerez, which the Paulistas destroyed. One league below the mouth of the Mondego there are two high insulated mounts, fronting each other on the Paraguay ; at the ex tremity of the southern declivity of the mount on the western side, near the bank of the river, was stationed the garrison of New Coimbra, founded in 1?75 ; it was the last and southernmost Portuguese establishment on the great Paraguay. Eleven leagues to the south of Coimbra, on the west side of the Paraguay, is the mouth of Bahia Negra, a large sheet of water of six leagues in extent, being five leagues long from north to south : it receives the waters of the wide-flooded plains and lands to the south and west of the mountains of Albuquerque. At this bay the Portuguese possessions on both banks of the Paraguay terminated. From thence the river continues to latitude 21 deg., where, on its western bank, is situated a hill known to the Portuguese by the name of Miguel Jose, which was crowned with a Spanish fort with four pieces of artillery, called Bourbon. Three leagues above this the little River Guirino falls into the Paraguay on the eastern side. Nine leagues to the south of the above fort, and in latitude 21 de^. 22 min., are other mountains on both sides the Paraguay, which command this river. Here terminate those extensive inundations to which both banks of the Paraguay are subject; they commence at the mouth of the Jauru, and to this point cover an area of 100 leagues from north to south, and forty in breadth at their highest floods, forming an apparent lake, which geographers of former days, as well as some moderns, have termed the Xarayes. During this inundation, the high mountains and elevated land which it encloses appear like superb islands, and the lower grounds form a labyrinth of lakes, bays, and ponds, many of which remain after the floods have subsided. From this place the banks REPUBLIC OF MONTE VIDEO. Ill downward are in general high and firm, particularly the eastern or Portuguese side. In latitude 22 deg. 5 min., the Galban, a considerable river from the v empties itself into it. Between the Paraguay and the Parana there runs from north to south tin- Am anbay chain of mountains ; they terminate to the south of the River Iguatimy. From these mountains rise all the rivers which, from the Taquari south, flow into the Paraguay, and from the same chain also proceed many other river?, which, takino- a contrary direction, flow into the Parana; one of them, and the most south, being the Iguatimy, which has its mouth in latitude 23 deg. 47 min., a little above the Seven Falls, or great cataract of the Parana. This cataract is sublime. It appears from below as six rainbows. The Iguatimy has its sources ten leagues above this place, among high and rugged mountains. The River Xexuy enters the Paraguay on the east side in latitude 24 deg. 11 min., twenty leagues below the Ipane, another small river, called the Ipane-mirim, intervening. A river of such vast magnitude as the Paraguay, in a temperate and salubrious climate, abounding with fish, bordered by extensive plains and high mountains, intersected by so many rivers, bays, lakes, and forests, must naturally have drawn many of the Indian nations to inhabit its banks ; but soon after the settlement of the new continent, the incursions of the Paulistas and Spaniards dispersed and destroyed numerous tribes ; the Jesuits removed many thousands to their settlements. Other tribes fled to countries less favoured, but more secure by being farther distant, and more difficult of approach. The emigration of one nation to districts occupied by others, created inveterate and sanguinary wa among them, which soon reduced their numbers. The tribes, or rather remnar of tribe* still settle or wander on the borders of the Upper Paraguay. From the River Xexuy, downwards, the Paraguay takes its general cour, south for thirty-two leagues to the city of Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay. Six leagues below Asuncion, on the west side of the Paraguay, the Pilcomayo enters that river by its first mouth ; its second is fourteen or sixt leagues lower. la this space some other smaller rivers enter on the eas Tamon g st them the Ti^uari, on an arm of which, twenty from Asuncion, is Villa Rica, a town owning much property Serra Cubatao, hardly more than twent, mile 1044 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. of the Laguna de Ybera, it turns southwards, and in that direction reaches the Rio de la Plata after a course of about 800 miles. The navigation is interrupted by numerous falls, which are only passable when the waters are at their greatest height during the periodical floods, or by portages in the dry season. Two con siderable cataracts occur below 31 deg. south latitude, only a few miles from each other ; they are called Salto Grande and Salto Chico. The Salto Grande consists of a rocky reef, running like a wall across the bed of the river; during the floods it is passable in boats, but at low water it may be crossed on horseback. The largest of the affluents of the Rio Uruguay is the Rio Negro, which joins it from the east, and runs upwards of 250 miles. It is navigable for a con siderable distance, and traffic is carried on by it with the country near Lake Mirim. From Cape Santa Maria, on the Atlantic, to the Island of Apipe, on the Pa rana, the distance, about 1250 miles, is navigable, without any other reef than the English Bank (Banco Ingles), which would cease to be dangerous if the naviga tion were attended to. In the whole course of the Parana it is asserted that there is not a rock : its bottom is clay and fine sand ; some banks and shal lows are here and there met with, but a channel is left at all times for the passage of vessels ; and near the banks there is a greater depth than in the middle of the channel. The Paraguay is also asserted to be equally adapted for navigation. The Pilcomayo and Bermejo, or Vermejo, which flow into the Parana, both rise in Peru ; the first near the city of Potosi, and the second in the vicinity of Tarija. They run at first with considerable impetuosity from the heights whence they descend; but through the flat country, they flow in a tranquil and majestic course. They have numerous windings, on account of the want of fall in the ground of the Gran Chaco through which they run, and which is the most level tract of all South America. The rivers which intersect this vast region are large; they tend to fertilise it, inasmuch as the flatness of the lands facilitates the inundations during the risings of the rivers down to the Paraguay, into which they disembogue themselves, after watering the lower territory. The Spaniards of the sixteenth century founded a city on the right bank of the Pilcomayo, and called it La Asuncion, to facilitate, by means of the navigation of the river, the transport of the productions and manufactures of that country. That city, as well as another, which they founded on the Paraguay, was destroyed by the Indians, and entirely abandoned by the Spaniards. It is evident that all productions might be transported down to the Plata from Peru by means of the navigation of Pilcomayo and Bermejo. REPUBLIC OF MONTK V10KO. 1 ( I 1 .", The River Salado, which rises in the province of Salta, and unites itself ti the Parana, is another mighty navigable stream. The Gualeguay and the Ne^ro are two more rivers, of the third class, navigable lor many leagues. The La Plata, Parana, Paraguay, and their affluents, therefore, enjoy all tin- advantages possessed by the principal rivers of America for inland navigation and trade, and especially for steamboat navigation. BOOK VII. STATISTICS OF THE SPANISH REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA. CHAPTER I. THE SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM. WE have given, as far as can be ascertained, the statistics of Mexico and Cen tral America. We have now to present, in as clear a form as our materials will allow, statistical tables and accounts relative to the trade, navigation, products, and finances of the South American Spanish Republics. It has been already remarked that the spirit of the Spanish commercial system has descended to the republics. The same jealousy of foreigners and of foreign products is, also, still remarkable. In order to elucidate the commercial and fiscal system of the Spanish American Republics and their progress, we must sketch briefly that by which they were oppressed under Spain, and compare with it the systems, by which they, as separate governments, oppress themselves. Spain, with absurd regulations, which embarrassed and ruined her colonial commerce, was unable to export, or manufacture the raw produce of her vast colonies, and would neither permit them to be exported, or manufactured, by the colonists, nor suffer foreigners to export them, and give in exchange to the colonists those articles that they most wanted. A contraband trade necessarily arose ; and this illicit trade reduced the price of the products of those colonies to a wretched rate, as their sale depended on the uncertain arrival of a greater or lesser number of smuggling vessels: which again, were exposed to the caprices, and interests, of those officers of the government, whose connivance they were obliged to purchase. Spanish colonial agriculture and commerce con sequently languished ; yet some colossal fortunes were acquired in two or three years by generals, intendants, and commissioners of customs. Spain, it is true, did not impose any land-tax on her colonies ; but, instead, the tithes were shared by the king with the clergy. The Indians alone paid a capi tation tax. The revenues of the crown were composed of the local duties, col lected on sales in the custom-houses, and on the transfer of lands, &c. There STATISTICS. were also municipal customs, to defray the expenses of the towns, and courts ,f justice, or consolados. The puertos mayores, or chief seaport towns, paid both kinds of duties; in the puertos minor es the municipal duties only were paid. The duties which had been collected in a principal port were returned when tip- chandise, on which it was levied, was despatched to a minor port; and vice t when an exportation was made from a minor port to a superior one, i; necessary, previously, to pay the duty which should be levied at such principal port, had the merchandise been sent there direct. After the abolition of exclusive commercial companies, and the odious privi leges of Seville and Cadiz, even distinguishing the Spanish American ports int., major and minor ports, was considered a relief, accorded by the cedula of 1778, commonly called the " Free Trade (?) Cedula." The spirit of this regulation was " to establish a balance between the most frequented ports, and those which were least so, in order to induce the exporters of the mother country to send con signments to the latter. The major ports in the captain-generalship of Caraccas, were La Guayra, Porto Cabello, and Maracaybo : Cumana, Barcelona, the Island of Margarita, and the Orinoco were the minor points. Port of Spain, in Trinidad, was a free port for a limited time ; that is, all nations were permitted to trade there : this privi lege, granted to that colony in 17S3, had, in 1797, created a great increase of population and prosperity, which it could not otherwise have attained in a whole century. The edict of the 28th of February, 1?84, established distinctions between the duties which the various commodities should pay on importation from Spain into the colonies ; first, free goods, or productions of the soil and manufactures of Spain; the quota of duties on importation we have enumerated, amounted to ten per cent, and only affected the merchandise proceeding from the soil and manu factures of Spain ; such goods were termed free articles. There was, secondly, another tariff for the produce of foreign countries manufactured in Spain, these were called contributable articles, and which paid twelve and a half per cent. Thirdly, goods purely foreign paid only seven per cent on importation at American ports; but as they had paid fifteen per cent on entering Spain, and seven on departure for America, without reckoning the duties we have enumerated, and those of internacion, indulto, &c., these duties amounted t > more than forty-three per cent on foreign merchandise. Taxation. The bulls, whose annual sale was one of the branches of the revenue of the crown and of the clergy, stand first. Then come the taxes of alcavala, almoxarifazgo, armada and armadilla, of internacion, indulto, corso, aprovechamientos ; the licences of pulperias or taverns, on the taxa and the guarapo, duties of adnanas, laguna, composition for lands, on letting lands, of lances, of the half annatas ; in some provinces, a part of the 1048 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. tithes, in others, the whole tithe; the ecclesiastical mesadas, and royal ninths, the tax levied on the sale or change of public employments, and that on the pro/its on mutual income of those places or employments; the tribute or capitation tax on the Indians ; stamped paper, the right of passage, the fifths of mines, the hos pitalities, the salt-works, confiscations, restitutions, vacant successions, vacant majorities and minorities, the exclusive sale of tobacco, cock-fightings, passage-boats on the river Apure ; this last tax was peculiar to the government of Caraccas. Then follow the municipal duties of consulado and avaria, of cabildo, and official executor. Dollars. 1 st. Alcavala de la Mar. This duty was in the captain-generalship of Vene zuela, four per cent* on all kinds of merchandise, indiscriminately, which entered the ports. It was paid on entry, and not on the departure of mer chandise. At Carthagena de las Indias, it was two per cent ; at Guaya quil, three; at Lima, six; and atVeraCruz, four. M. Depons says that it produced in the provinces of Venezuela, in 1793, 150,862 dollars ; in 1794, 151,408 dollars ; in 1795, 105,251 dollars ; in 1796, 130,644 dol lars ; and in 1797, only 10,248 dollars ; because, according to that writer, maritime commerce was in the last-named year almost entirely suspended. The true cause of the diminution of this duty was from the English having taken possession of Trinidad in the commencement of 1797, that island became the staple of almost all the trade of Venezuela ; a commerce which was carried on with as little concealment as if Spain and Great Britain had been in the most strict alliance. Before the English had possessed them selves of all the commerce of the country it produced annually. . . 150,000 2nd. Duty of Almoxarifazgo. It was levied also on all that was imported and exported ; it had been fixed at fifteen per cent on all that was imported from Spain at the time of the discovery of America. But it was reduced about a century ago to three per cent on Spanish merchandise, and fixed at seven per cent on foreign merchandise, imported in Spanish ships. The Almoxarifazgo, on exportation, is two per cent on home produce, and three on foreign. Its usual annual produce in the Qaptain -general ship of Caraccas was 200,000 3rd. The duty of Armada and Armadilla, or tax for the royal navy and the flotilla. This tax was established for aiding the expenses of the navy, when it was occupied in protecting the colonies against pirates; and though those coasts have not been infested for more than a century, the duty con tinues to be levied ; it is two per cent, and rendered annually on an average from . . ,. .". 80,000 to 90,000 4th. The duty of Corso was instituted for paying the maintenance of guarda- costas (revenue cruisers), for preventing contraband trade : it was three per cent, and rendered 150,000 Total of the royal duties on the imports and exports of merchandise . . 590,000 * The Alcavala de la Mar is the offspring of the Alcavala de Tierra. The Cortes had granted to the kings of Spain a tax on transfers and sales, to assist them to maintain the war against the Moors ; this tax was called Alcavala : those monarchs afterwards established this impost in their possessions in America towards the end of the sixteenth century. It was only two per cent at first, but it was raised to five per cent towards the middle of last century. It was levied on every thing that was sold, moveable or immovable. All the productions of the soil, p as well as those of industry, eggs, pulse, forage, &c., &c., paid the Alcavala on entering the towns. Shopkeepers paid this tax by subscription. This would have produced enormous sums, if in the Spanish possessions there had been more activity in commercial affairs and less contraband trade. The Alcavala de Tierra produced to the revenue, on an average, in the provinces of Venezuela, 400,000 hard dollars. STATISTICS OF NEW GRANADA. 1049 Dollars. Brought forward 590,000 I shall not particularise the proceeds of the other royal duties and imposts paid in the interior of the country, and enumerated in another chapter, and which amounted to, including the bulls* 1,210,000 Total amount of the royal duties and imposts in the general government of Venezuela, not including the expenses of government and of collection 1,800,000 Civic Duties. The united duties of Consulado and Average, were levied in the maritime custom-houses, and paid to the cashier of the consulado or chamber of commerce, to bear the expenses of that court ; it was one per cent on all that was exported to Spain or to the other Spanish colonies, and three per cent on all that was exported to foreign colonies, or which came from them. Beasts of burden were subject to a particular tariff. Horses and mules exported paid one dollar each ; oxen one per cent according to the valuation made of them by the custom-house officers. New negroes brought by the British contractors, were exempted from all duties : they produced about . 100,000 The duty of fiel executor . 70,000 That of the cabildo . . ........ 80,000 Total of the civic duties . . 250,000 All those royal and munificent duties, which amounted, as specified, to 2,050,000 dollars, were not sufficient for paying the expenses of government in the captain-generalship of Venezuela. The intendant received annually about 1,200,000 dollars from the treasuries of Mexico and the kingdom of New Gra nada. Thus the expenses of that government amounted annually to nearly 750,0007.; for of all the imposts levied in that country not a farthing passed into the royal treasury of Spain. Such was the fiscal and commercial policy, of which the Spanish republics have inherited much of the spirit in their attempts at legislation. CHAPTER II. STATISTICS OF NEW GRANADA. EXCEPTING as far as stated in the accounts hereafter of the exports of the pre cious metals, we have no details on which we can place any reliance of the f trade of New Granada and Spain. As far as manufactures were concerned, a contraband trade of great extent was carried on from the British c, thirds to the clergy. VOL. I. 6 S 1050 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Treaties of reciprocity have been negotiated with Colombia ; which are still binding on New Granada, Great Britain, the United States, &c. The commer cial tariffs and regulations have undergone various alterations. REVENUE. COMPARATIVE View of the Revenue of New Granada, in the Years 1844 and 1845, showing the Increase or Decrease thereof. ARTICLES. 1843 and 1844. 1844 and 1845. Increase. Decrease. dlrs. ctf 2,102,134 4 5 51,008 T\ 1,124.345 4= 820,438 41 535,547 6% 180,359 I, 80,462 3| 70,480 ft 36,978 6i 14,661 4 842 4^ 640 Oj 280 2; 616 4; 91,765 6 i. dlrs. cts. 1,926,698 3f 48,308 l| 851,165 6f 890,264 3 548,036 5 174,323 6 76,418 2f 79,813 4| 23,592 5 18,746 7| 3,058 712 6 1,031 2 623 2 73,383 6 dlrs. cts. 69 825 6| 12488 6i 5332 6} 4,085 3i 2215 3f 72 5A 750 7i 6 5| 94,778 5 dlrs. cts. 175,436 0| 2,700 6i 273,179 6 6,035 2f 4,044 1 13,386 11 18,382 Tobacco Fost omce 5,114,563 3f 4,716,177 6f Deduct increase . . . Decrease on the yea 493,164 2 94,778 5 398,385 5 TARIFF DUTIES. By the last decree or law which we possess, dated Bogata, the 24th of May, the duties on importation of merchandise by foreign vessels were based on the rate of thirty per cent ad valorem. The duties on merchandise imported by national vessels, or vessels belonging to countries with which there are treaties of reciprocity, at the rate of twenty- five per cent ad valorem. The produce of Venezuela and Lima, are treated much the same as New Granada products. There is, however, a long tariff of specific rates, based upon, but which may add, or diminish, the general rates of twenty-five and thirty per cent. ARTICLES FREE OF DUTY. The following articles, unless specially rated in the present tariff, shall be admitted free of duty: viz., gold, silver, platina in powder, bullion, and coin ; machines and instruments for agricultural purposes, as, machines for cleaning, cotton-mills, sugar-mills and sawing-mills, also all kinds of machinery and implements for the use of the mines ; fire and all other engines ; steam vessels ; all machinery, &c., for the purpose of building and repairing houses, &c., and for clearing out harbours, docks, canals, and for spinning and weaving, and also all others that may be generally applicable to arts and manufac tures ; beaver and nutria skins ; bee-hives ; surgical instruments, and all kinds of prepa rations, and books, plates, &c., fit for medical science; lithographic types, &c.; books, bound and unbound, pamphlets, &c. ; maps, paintings, statues, busts, medals, and col lections of antiquities ; domestic animals ; seeds and plants for agriculture and garden purposes. STATISTICS OF NEW GRANADA. 1051 No duty shall be charged on merino wool, which may be imported previous to the 1st of January, 1858, nor upon tiles, &c., stone, bricks, and lime, planks and board,,, - and sawn timber, fit for building, which may be entered at the Port of Rio Hacha, previoui to the 31st of May, 1846, nor upon similar building materials, imported at the Port of Chagres, entered thereat previous to the 17th of March, 1850. Carriages, and all other articles, entered for the use of foreign diplomatic agents consuls, vice-consuls, &c., are exempt from the payment of import duties. The importation of all descriptions of books, prints, &c. &c., which may be contrary to religion, or offensive to morals and decency, and injurious to the public good, is mo>t strictly prohibited. But under this head are not included works and prints, &c., proper for anatomical study or for the fine arts. The prohibition to import anise, and essences made from it, sugar, raw, &c., honey and molasses, coffee, cocoa, and indigo, does not apply to the ports in the provinces of Panama and Veraguas, specially legalised for importation. The forenamed articles may be there imported for consumption within those provinces transit through the ports of Panama, Chagres, and Portobello or for deposit at Panama or Portobello, subject always to the customary regulations affecting such transactions. The prohibition to import cacao does not extend to the port of Tumaco ; it may be there entered for consumption, within either that district or that of Barbacoas, paying an import duty of two pesos upon each quintal. Should prohibited merchandise or goods be brought into any port within the republic, either in a national or foreign vessel, it shall be subjected to inspection by two competent authorities ; the one named by the customs and the other by the captain or consignee of the vessel, and if the quantity of such goods shall be found to be double that which the above-named parties may consider as necessary for the use of the crew during the ship s passage, any quantity exceeding such requisite allowance shall be forfeited, and the captain shall be mulcted in a penalty of from 200 to 1000 pesos. If thej administrator of the customs shall suspect that the goods have been put down in the invoice at less than the true value in the port whence they were exported, he shall cause them to be valued at the prices which they would bear at the place whence they came, at the time of exportation; and if the value thus assessed should exceed the value in the invoice by twenty per cent, then fifty per cent shall be put upon the estimated value; and the duties shall be calculated and collected thereon: provided, however, when the estimated value as above shall not exceed the invoice value by twenty percent, then the estimated value shall be considered the true value. Momes. Accounts are kept in pesos or dollars, of eight reals or twelve and a half cents ; medias, or six and a fourth cents; and cuartillas or three and one-eighth cents. The dollar is also divided into halves and quarters. Weights and Measures. These are the same as those used in Spain. The libra contains sixteen onza or ounces. The quintal of 4 arrobas, 100 libras, which are equal to 1< Z> Measure. The cahiz is equal to 12 fanegas ; 1 fanega is equal to 12 celemines. The celemine is subdivided into J, J, J, &c. The fanega measures , inches Enolish, and is equal to 1.599 bushels. Liquid Measure. Imoyo of wine contains 16 arrobas; 1 arroba contains 8 azur 1 azumbra contains 32 cuartillas. A o . f The arroba of oil contains 3.43 English gallons; the arroba of wine e. The foot is divided into 12 pulgadas = 11,128 English inches. Thevara""~. eqia . . " 4 palmos =33,384 DECREE of the 29th of April, 1844, respecting the exportation of the produce and manufactures of New Granada and loading of ships, &c. ARTICLE I.-A11 the natural and manufactured products of New Granada may b 1052 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. ported free, and be conducted through all the ports maritime, inland, or fluvial, whether they be licensed for importation or only for exportation, without paying any national im post; Gold and silver in trinkets, bars or dust, or in whatever other natural form they may be extracted from the mines, even though they be mixed with some other extra neous matters, are alone excepted. ARTICLE II. The prohibition of the exportation of the previous metals, spoken of in the former article, does not extend to the port of Panama and Veraguas, as they may be freely exported from them, whether the product of mines which are worked there or impor tations for circulation, for transit or deposit. ARTICLE III, Foreign goods and merchandise which may be imported for consump tion, and upon which the fiscal dues have been payed, or properly secured, may be re- exported without paying any export duty whatever. ARTICLE IV. Before a vessel can commence to load, the express permission of the custom house is required, which shall be granted for the term which the chief officers thereof may think convenient. ARTICLE V. The permission being given, a new search visit shall be made, to ascertain if the vessel be in ballast, or if she only contain the goods, which at the time of the entry- visit the captain declared destined to other ports, or whether there be a perceptible dimi nution of the stores or provisions for the crew, or in the tackle, sails, and other articles of the vessel s stock. ARTICLE VI. The loading of every vessel shall be attended and inspected by the custom-house officers. ARTICLE VII. Natural or manufactured articles of the country cannot be exported, nor can foreign goods, which have been imported, be re-exported, without the knowledge and permission of the custom-house. For this purpose there shall be presented two poli cies or invoices of equal value, expressing in a detailed manner the goods intended to be exported, and the foreign port to which they are bound. These invoices must be signed by the exporter. The custom-house shall retain one, and on the other shall be put the licence as soon as the effects have been examined. ARTICLE VIII. A permit is also requisite from the custom-houses in order to ship stones for ballast, and pearl oyster shells from the islands of Panama and Veraguas in the Pacific Ocean. ARTICLE IX. Natural or manufactured goods of the country, which are to be ex ported, must be examined before they are shipped by the heads of the custom-house, or by the officers of the coast-guard. ARTICLE X. In order to examine foreign merchandise about to be re-exported, it is strictly required that the goods be conveyed to the warehouses of the custom-house, unless they are inflammable articles, or such as can be so easily inspected as not to re quire a minute examination, but one which may be made without the said warehouses. ARTICLE XL The personal effects, which have to be embarked, as well as the stores, provisions, and other articles carried on board for consumption during the voyage, shall also be examined and inspected by the guard, in order to prevent the shipment for a foreign country of precious metals, in contravention to the prohibition. ARTICLE XII. Every vessel, as well national as foreign, which desires to go to load national effects or produce, at a port licensed only for exportation, must previously ob tain a licence from the collector of customs of any one of the ports licensed for importa tion, but which cannot be granted without the consent of the first political authority of the place. ARTICLE XIII. Licence shall not be granted to any foreign vessel, which may have on board or be destined to receive foreign goods, whether the import duties have been paid upon them or not, but it shall be conceded to such as be in ballast or have on board national effects for exportation, and desire to proceed to the above-mentioned ports to complete their cargoes. ARTICLE XIV. Licence shall be granted to national vessels whether they be in ballast, carry national effects for exportation or consumption, or foreign goods to be dis- STAT1STICS-OF NEW GRANADA. 1Q53 charged in the port of exportation, provided always that the import duties ihereon have been paid or duly secured. AUTICLE XV. Upon the arrival of a national or foreign vessel in the ports, autho rised only for exportation, that have a permit to export effects of the country, the chief of the coast-guard shall visit the said vessel in the act of entering, shall see if she ballast or laden. In the latter case he shall require the register as also the manifests of invoices, which ought to bear the pass of the controller of the custom-house who gave the licence. If the effects are destined for the same port, which can only happen when the vessel is a national one, they shall be disembarked and examined with the formalities prescribed in regard to ports of importation. If they are destined to be exported to foreign countries, they shall be examined abroad, and compared with the registers, mani fests, or invoices. ARTICLE XVI. The exportation of national effects and produce through the ports licensed only for exportation, shall be carried into effect with the same formalities and according to the rules established in the present law for the exportation of the same effects through the ports licensed for importation and exportation. ARTICLE XVII. In the maritime ports of import and export, the entrance of vessels which come with the view to complete their cargo, and have on board foreign goods, the importation of which is prohibited, shall be permitted ; they must present the mani fests and invoices of the said goods. ARTICLE XVIII. The loading of a vessel being completed, and the vessel being duly despatched by the custom house, and by the captain of the port where there exists one, it must sail immediately, and not be allowed to anchor again and remain in the port or its neighbourhood unless on account of stress of weather, or other urgent and unforeseen necessity. ARTICLE XIX. A report shall be drawn up of the despatch of each vessel, which shall contain, first, information of the name of the vessel and of the nation to which it belongs, the name of the captain who commands it, the number of tons measurement, and the port to which it proceeds ; second, the account of the search visit ; third, of the permission to load ; fourth, of the registers or invoices of the embarked effects, which remain in the custom-house ; and fifth, and lastly, of that in which any thing may have been declared contraband, if any such there be. ARTICLE XX. The precious metals, the exportation of which is prohibited, which may have been embarked, may be in the act of shipment, or on which an attempt to embark or convey may be made, and all the effects and merchandise which may have been embarked, in the act of being embarked, or to embark or convey which an attempt may be made, without permission from the custom-house, or in places not appomte< that purpose, or at hours different from those specified for shipments, shall penalty of forfeiture, as well as the beasts of burden, carriages, or vessels imployed the commission of or attempt at fraud. ARTICLE XXI. The vessel shall incur forfeiture also when her master, or mate plying his place, receives on board any quantity of precious metals, tl ~^^, by the visits mentioned in the fifteenth arti cle a vessel shall be found to contain merchandise of foreign product^ which *** * amount those provisions and other articles which are considered necessary for <h, stock and the consumption of the crew, the vessel and all that belongs to it sha, the visit at sailing, the said necessary effects should be shall be liable to the n e decrease amount to a ^^ fi &<& upwards, the vessel and every thing that belongs to it shall be confiscated. 1054 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. DECREE. Of Ports qualified for Import and Export Traffic. The ports qualified for import and export trade in the Atlantic Ocean, are declared to be those of Rio Hacha, Santa Martha, and Carthagena, in the provinces so called ; as are also those of Portobello and Chagres, in the province of Panama, and that of Las Bocas del Toro in that of Veraguas. In the Pacific Ocean, that of Tumaco in the province of Pasto ; those of Buenaventura and Panama in the provinces of their names ; and those of Montijo and Bocachica in the province of Veraguas. The Port of Arauca and that of the Uceta on the rivers of these names in the province of Casanare, are declared the fluvial ports qualified for import and export trade; and the inland ports qualified for the same purposes, are that of Cucuta in the province of Pamplona, and that of Tuquerres in that of Pasto. Of Ports qualified for Export Trade only. The Ports of Sabanilla and Zapote in the province of Carthagena, are declared ports qualified for export trade only. Of Warehousing Ports. The Ports of Carthagena, Santa Martha, Rio Hacha, and Portobello in the Atlantic Ocean ; and that of Panama in the Pacific, are declared to be warehousing ports. Of Ports through which a Transit Trade can be carried on. The transit trade can be carried on through the ports of Panama, Portobello, and Chagres. Of Free Ports. In the Pacific Ocean, the ports of Buenaventura and Tumaco are free ports; the former until the year 1879, the latter until 1861. Every class of national and foreign vessels, can freely enter and leave the free ports, without paying port dues, or import, or other national duties. [The executive power can except, in case of necessity, from the general disposition of this article, vessels of nations at war with New Granada.] The exemption from duties mentioned in the two anteceding articles, only com prises merchandise which may be consumed in the town of Buenaventura, or the Island of Tumaco ; and goods, which leave the said town or island for another or other places of the republic, by land, by river, or by sea, are subject to the payment of na tional duties. The following legislative dispositions remain subsisting, viz., the decree of the llth of June, 1842, authorising the executive power to open the port of San Buena ventura on the River Zulia, and declare that of Cucuta a warehousing port; the decree of the 1st of July of the same year, authorising the executive power to open for import trade the port of Sabanilla in the province of Carthagena. The Port of Iscuande in the province of Buenaventura, shall remain closed until the completion of the road of the province of Popayan to the margins of the River Is cuande", the port being only open for the salt and provision trade necessary for the con sumption of the inhabitants of the cantons of Iscuande, Micai, and Barbacoas. Given at Bogota on the 22nd of March, 1844. Tonnage Duties. By the levy of the 29th of March, 1846, the duties on ships, viz., entrance, tonnage, anchorage, and pilot dues, to be collected under one head, to be denominated tonnage duty. (See Scale hereafter.) The Granadian ton shall consist of twenty quintals of about 103 Ibs. avoir dupois. DECREE, authorising the introduction of Foreign Effects by the Port of Chagres, with direction to the Custom-house of Panama, with a view to be imported through the latter. I, PEDRO ALCANTARA HERRAN, President of the Republic, Decree. I. The introduction by the Port of Chagres of foreign effects intended to be im ported through the custom-house of Panama, shall continue to be permitted. II. The manifest of foreign effects introduced by Chagres to be imported through STATISTICS OF NEW GRANADA. the custom-house of Panama, shall be presented within the term, and with for- malities prescribed in the 23rd Article of the Law of the 5th of June of this year. III. In the said manifesto, the name of the person to whom the effects are addressed in Panama, to be delivered to the custom-house, and who is to take the other steps relative to the importation, shall be stated. IV. After the delivery of the manifest, the heads of the custom-house of Chagres shall permit the effects to be trans-shipped from the vessel in which they were brought, to those which are to convey them by the River " Gorgona" or " Cruces," or to be landed and conveyed to the warehouses of the custom-house, if the trans-shipment could not be effected, or if the party interested desire it. V- In order to carry into effect the trans-shipment, or the landing of the packages, one of the two chiefs of the custom-house shall compare them with the manifest as respects their kind, numbers, and marks, and shall seal them with the custom-house seal, kept for that purpose, and which shall bear the inscription " Importation for Panama." VI. It shall not be necessary to open the packages in order to compare them with the manifest, which shall only be done with the object stated in the foregoing Article. VII. The packages shall be conveyed from Chagres to Panama, with a permit issued by the Chagres custom-house; to obtain which the party interested shall pre sent a duplicate application to the heads thereof, for the said permit, the original being drawn out on a stamp, and the duplicate on common paper. VIII. The application for the permit shall be the same in every respect as the original manifest, setting forth the packages, their nature, numbers, marks, and con tents of each, together with the declaration that they are directed to Panama, to be imported through the custom-house of that port, and the name of the owner or con signee in that city. IX. The heads of the Chagres custom-house shall compare the original and dupli cate application for the permit with the manifest, and if found correct, shall annex the corresponding licence, together with the declaration that the effects have not paid import duties, and of the term within which they must be presented in the custom-house of Panama. X. The licence being issued, and copy of it made upon the duplicate which is to remain in the custom-house, with the documents serving as vouchers of its accounts, the original shall be delivered to the party interested, that it may accompany the effects. XI. Immediately after issuing the permit, the comptroller at Chagres shall remit to the comptroller of Panama the original manifest. XII. The comptroller at Panama shall duly inform the comptroller at Chagres of the receipt of the manifest, as also of that of the permit, and of the effects which accora- XIII. The bales shall on no account be opened in their passage from Chagres to Panama. XIV. Although, in order to proceed to the examination of the packages ot a mam- fest, the arrival of all those belonging to the same permit or manifest is to be waite this does not hinder the examination of such packages as may be observed ceived damage in the transit. XV. In the receipt of the packages, examination of the effects, and calculation, payment, or security, for the import duties, the Panama custom-house shall procee conformity with the Law upon the subject, and the Decree published yesterday fc ing: the same into effect. , . -r, XVI. Effects introduced by Chagres, with a view to be imported in I not, after having been declared as such, be left in bond, nor re-exported without paym: the import duty. Given at Bogota, on the 4th of November, 1844. 1056 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. RETURN of Tonnage Dues, including Fees, and other Charges imposed on Shipping at the Ports of New Granada. 3 per ton. National coasting ves- or British vessels. 16,, kets, post-office vessels Port Dues on Foreign 56,, no tonnage dues. No vessels. The balance 20,, nage dues are only paid Captain of ports fees. Whalers rSix dollars or 24s. if under 100 tons. J Eight dollars or 32s. if over ditto. 1 One dollar or 4s. for office expencea. iTwelre reals or 6s. stamp for roll. / Whalers of all nations entering to refresh/pay one \ real, or 6d. per ton. at the first port of ar rival; if the vessel touches at any other port of New Granada, no further tonnage is required. These regulations are new, and commence oil the 1st January, 1845. CHAPTER III . TRADE AND NAVIGATION OF NEW GRANADA. THE contraband trade interferes so seriously with official statements, that they are much under the actual amount. We have received a report published in the bulletin of the Minister of Commerce of France, of which the following is a condensed translation : Money, 25 francs = II. sterling. According to local information obtained by the French consuls, the average annual value of the foreign trade of New Granada is estimated at 40,000,000 francs. Imports. The imports in 1840 scarcely exceeded 17,000,000 francs; in 1843 they rose to 23,000,000 francs; in 1844 they fell to 22,000,000 francs. Exports. In 1843 the exports amounted to 16,000,000 francs ; in 1844 they fell to 14,000,000 francs. Customs Duties. Of the 22,000,000 francs value of merchandise entered for con sumption in 1844, the customs duties amounted to 5,770,000 francs, or more than twenty per cent on the official value. Trading Countries. The countries which contributed mostly to the trade of New Granada, are Jamaica and Liverpool, to the extent of 13,000,000 francs ; France, 3,769,000 francs; United States, 1,000,000 francs ; Island of Curasao, 820,000 francs ; Spain, 610,000 francs ; Venezuela and Peru, each about 750,000 francs. English Trade. The English imports, forming three-fifths of the whole, were princi pally composed of cheap cloths and stuffs of all kinds, and which no country can com pete with in price ; the bad and discoloured cottons of Switzerland and Germany are those which seem more particularly to menace similar English articles in the Granadian market. United States Trade. The importation from the United States diminish yearly ; they are principally made up of jftour, salt goods, drugs, and imitations of European goods. Spanish Trade. Spain expedites to New Granada, either direct or indirect by the way of the Island of St. Thomas, raisins, wines of Catalonia, Sauhucar, and of Malaga; common oil and rough Biscay iron, which latter the English have imitated, and are in a fair way to supplant. French Trade. The trade of France with New Granada appears to have greatly fluctuated. During the years 1837 to 1840, the French imports amounted to an annual average of about 1,135,000 francs; during the political disturbances which agitated that country, nil ; in 1843-44, they were estimated at 3,000,000 francs. Havre de Grace alone sent to the New Granadian market manufactured goods to the amount of 3,000,000 francs. STATISTICS OF NEW GRANADA. 1057 The French cloths, velvets, paper, the ribands of St. Etienne, and particularly risian goods, find an advantageous market. The fine superior French silks are lo< Pa- rtvtun uuuua, innj. O.U vi.Ycn.ii,tivxwuo i>uin.v,(.. AI.V. unv, superior French silks are loo <-x- pensive to find buyers as yet ; the same is also the case with the fine muslins of Mul- house and French indianas. French wines and brandy, upon which there is a high duty, have but a limited sale; the greater part of the population of New Granada are too poor to purchase even the cheap wines of Spain : they drink in general nothing but water. PORT OF CARTHAGENA. The periodical returns for the Port of Carthagena, prior to 1844, were very indifferent and incomplete ; we can therefore only give a resume for the last two years (1843 and 1844). This is one of the finest harbours in the world ; it will float, secured from all danger, a whole fleet, and is the only port on the coast of Granada fit for the repair of vessels. General Navigation. The navigation, not including the coasting trade, amou eighty-six vessels, measuring 12,605 tons in the year 1843, and to eighty vessels and 12,950 tons in 1844. English Tonnage. The amount of English tonnage trading to this port for the yea 1844, was 5404 tons, the United States 3432 tons, and France 3102 tons, countries almost nil. 1JM Trade The total value of the interchanges of merchandise in the year 1 4J, are valued at 10 369 000 francs, of which goods to the amount of 3,731,000 francs were im ported, and 6,638,000 francs were exported. In the year 1 9020,000 francs, of which the imports were estimated at 3,017,000 francs and exports at 6,013,000 francs. Carthagena enjoyed one-fourth part of the total com- received from England and its dependencies to the value of 1,740,000 francs ^tissues and manufactured artlcles . , d[ French Trade. From France 654,000 francs, composed of pan from the United States 473,000 francs, Chiefly flour its of New Granada and of diminishing the Navigation entered and departed. YEARS. Vessels. Tons. "^No7 3,222 1,522 2,684 5,555 5,213 3,865 3,916 5,259_ No. 15 8 15 30 23 21 23 30 laoQ 1844 - General Trade. __ Special Trade. Imports. Exports. TOTAL. Imports. fr. 227,000 334,000 416,000 299,000 557,000 543,000 782,000 1,096,000 Exports. TOTAL. fr. 361,000 383,000 92,000 312,000 295,000 1,061,000 1,919,000 1,919,000 fr. 717,000 MM* 611,000 852,000 IJMj li 2,701,000 3,015,000 fr. 550,000 495,000 526,000 686,000 1,039,000 898,000 1,532,000 1,319,000 fr. 439,000 435,000 167,000 640,000 561,000 1,413,000 2,916,000 3,127,000 fr. 989,000 930,000 693,000 1,326,000 1,600,000 2,311,000 4,448,000 4,446,000 6T VOL. I, 1058 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. From the above table we see that from 1840 the French trade with New Granada has rapidly increased. The trade is almost exclusively carried on under the French flag. Exports to France. The exports from this country to France in 1844 were com posed of mother-of-pearl, raw hides, dyeivoods, tortoise-shell, cotton wool, cigars, dibidivi, and objects of natural history, $c. Imports from France. Among the French exports to New Granada the tissues were valued at. 1,712,000 francs, of which the French manufactured 751,000 francs, the re mainder being foreign ; also paper, books, and engravings to the extent of 209,000 francs, perfumery, 180,000 francs ; pottery ware, 93,000 francs,; wines and brandy, 83,000 francs. Tissues (woven goods) as quoted above, form a large portion of the French envoys to New Granada, the following table gives the annual value exported from France during the last eight years. YEAH S. FRE] 1 C H \V YEN GOODS. Of silk. Of wool. Of cottou. Of flax and of hemp. TOTAL. it. 8,5,000 fr. 10,000 fr. 6,000 fr. 52,000 fr, 153,000 1 838 \ 56,000 15,000 120 21,000 192,120 1839 .. 65000 1,300 (56,300 1S40 56,000 59,000 300 9,000 124,200 1841 31 000 5,000 53,000 2,000 91,000 1842 177,000 134,000 30,000 29,000 370,000 1843 372,000 274,000 124,000 51,000 821,000 1844 .... 354,000 244,000 112,000 41,000 751,000 Mode of Trading. To be successful in the trade of New Granada, the importers must vary their goods according to the patterns and samples sent them. To attempt to introduce a novel article of fashion would be futile ; there are certain colours and patterns which in that country have become hereditary, and no fashion could change this national usage. Also our merchants must strictly confine themselves to the customary length and breadth in a piece of stuff, such is the force of habit with the natives, that they can not be brought to understand that the larger the size and the better the quality of a piece of manufactured stuff, the greater is its price. Payments. There is also another very important obstacle which this trade meets \vith the European manufacturers are too sanguine in selling their goods for ready money ; when a vessel arrives, if it cannot, after disposing of its cargo, immediately pro cure one in return, it is forced to accept coined gold, which is very expensive, valuing sometimes twenty per cent. The above are facts we would strongly recommend to the serious attention of merchants trading to New Granada. Packing Goods. The trade of Bogota, and of the interior, complains of the French mode of packing their goods. On this head the English are thoroughly expert, knowing that the goods are transported on mules, they pack their merchandises in suitable sizes ; whereas in France, the bales are made up to an impracticable bulk. Indianas. The size of the French indianas also displease the native merchants as being too large ; they should imitate the English size, which is twenty-eight yards long, and never exceeds three-quarters of a yard in breadth. Real and Paste Jewellery are greatly demanded, as also articles of fashion, but they must all be of a low price and in small parcels; in the latter articles, as before said, the taste and caprice of the inhabitants must be consulted. Payments- We cannot too strongly impress upon the attention of our merchants the absolute necessity of giving credit for merchandise sold, for six, twelve, and eighteen months together, otherwise the Granadian merchant, trading to Europe, who follows this system (it being, indeed, the custom of the country) will eventually succeed in supplant ing the European trader. Houses having formed alliances with Granadian ones, a d of necessity following this course, are in a prosperous condition. STATISTICS OF NKW (JHANADA. 1059 Wages. At Bogota, and in the interior, the number of European artisans ;m; daily increasing, and good conduct and attention to their business would make them success ful, but the wages being unfortunately high, lead them too often to idleness and d pation. PANAMA STATE OF TRADE IN MARCH, 1845. Trade. The trade of this port with Europe is of very little importance. Even the English flag is seen but rarely. Coasting Navigation. This limited trade is carried on by means of the coasting- trade, with Callao, Guaquil, and other intermediate ports at Peru. Products. The products of the country are very limited, the most important, viz., gold-dust and pearls, are exported via Chagres, and in general without any official declaration, which prevents us from valuing this branch of the trade. The articles sent to Europe from Panama, are hides and coffee, generally of foreign origin, and are brought via the coasting-trade, from Central America. Mother-of-pearl and Unmanufactured Shells. A vessel from Bordeaux is at this moment (March, 1845) taking in a cargo of shells, in the Archipelago of the Pearl Islands, destined for Havre. STEAM NAVIGATION BETWEEN PANAMA AND VALPARAISO MAILS CROSSING BETWEEN THE TWO SEAS. Navigation. A contract has been concluded between her Britannic Majesty s govern ment and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, for the conveyance ot mails western coast of South America between Valparaiso and Panama. Th.s ,. an important arrangement, as the mails, being taken across the isthmus to Chagres, can be regu brought by the vessels of the West India Royal Mail Company to this country, instead of performing the long circuitous route by Cape Horn. JLMFUKTa ami JL^.JJVI to *-". ARTICLES. 1842 1843 1844 1845 dollars. 2,330,432 1,503,673 dollars. 4,279,110 2,983,709 dollars. 4,102,584 MM7S 3,1" 2,337,600 Excess of declared imports. Over declared 826,759 1,295,401 1,477,409 768,1-. Amount exported in specie of the above 996,742 .... 1,481,230 1,295,280 Amount exported in produce of tbe 506,931 _ .. 1,143,849 1,042.330 EXP ORTS of New Granada in 1844 and 1845. ARTICLES. _ 1843 and 1844. 1844 and 1845. Increase. i-a*e. dlrs. cts. 1,398,982 12J dlrs. ct.". 1,245,391 dlrs. cts. 153,391 \n 32,305 68* 82,254 68* 18,733 48| Coffee-1844, 22,852 qtls. ; 1845, 23,904 qtl* Dividivi 64,970 ,, 22,737 Tobacco 6,750 4,089 86,910 31i 75,631 711 214,087 3?A 176,027 15f 22,391 37 122,238 69 172,078 32 31,645 12 53,240 34} 86! 189,042 50 30 175 16 17,7 534 MS-?844, 8364 fngs. ; 1845, 19,670 "fngs. 12,897 b2$ 17,760 37| 32J132 50 9 3tiO 14,372 124 20,080 Platina re *424 " 540* 29,440 18,264 81} 65,625 27,633 65 H 2,250 52 746 9,368 83J 4f,,i;-25 17,746 Emeralds, 55,000 carats, 125,199 35,000 223,151 31} 1 34,982 89 .... 2,337,600 155,768 104 443,243 10i Deduc ] decrease on the yea r 287,475 1060 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER IV. REPORT ON THE PORT OF CARTHAGENA FOR THE THREE YEARS ENDING, DECEMBER 31, 1845. BRITISH and Foreign Trade at the Port of Carthagena, New Granada, in 1844. A R R 1 V E D. ] 3 E P A I 1 T E D. NATION. Vessels. Tonnage. Crew. [nvoice Va lue of Cargo in Sterling. Vessels. Tonnage. Crew. Invoice Va lue of Cargo in Sterling. REMARKS. British .... .. No. 8 tns. 100th. 1890 24 No. 97 *. d. 33,585 6 No. 8 tns. 100th. 1890 24 No. 97 s. 37,241 8 j Not including specie New Granada 11 1 1152 49 75 66 80 g 35,847 14 1 246 6 11 1 1152 49 75 sg 80 g 22,000 OJ .... per packet. Entered with British goods in ballast via French 6 1470 92 75 24 163 6 1470 92 75 12000 Chagres. American 10 I 1646 82 125 19 65 7 18,913 12 2,936 6 10 1 1646 82 125 19 65 7 15,000 1 000 Of this in specie. Total.... 37 6361 22 332 116,691 18 6 37 6361 22 332 87,241 8J Difference of Exports and Imports remitted per packet. The British import trade is yearly on the decrease. In 1843, the quantity of British goods imported in British bottoms amounted to In New Granadian . . . . ; .. Making a total of ... In 1844, the quantity imported in British bottoms, amounted to In New Granadian . . . . . Making a total of ... in 1845, the amount in British bottoms, is only , ,, In New Granadian 64,551 . 52,189 . 116,740 . 33,585 . 35,847 . 69,432 . 25,321 19,236 Making a total of .... 44,557 This decline is the result of the facilities afforded by the rival port of Santa Martha, for communication with the interior of the republic, and the more lenient system pursued at the custom-house of that port. The goods imported into Carthagena are almost ex clusively for the consumption of the province, and few find their way into the interior. The export trade is reduced almost entirely to specie and bullion, which is conveyed by the steamers of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and deposited in the Bank of England, to cover the credits opened in that country. Produce is exported chiefly from Savanilla (a port of export only, situated sixty miles to windward of Carthagena), and a small port close to Carthagena, called Zapote, the former of which may be called the tributary port of export for Carthagena in the pre sent interrupted state of communication with the interior by the closing of the Dique. Vessels proceed hence to Savanilla to take in their homeward cargo, after unloading at this port. On the opening of the Dique (canal), Carthagena will again resume its place among the ports of export. The total value of exports for this year from the Port of Carthagena is 13,488/., of which only 637Z. was exported in British bottoms. In proportion as the exports of Carthagena have decreased, so have those of Savanilla increased. STATISTICS OF NEW GRANADA. 106 I Thus in 1844, the amount exported from Savanilla was T In Showing an increase in favour of 1845, of . . seventeen per cent. The chief articles of export from Savanilla are sugar, coffee, cotton, hides, corn tobacco, and dividivi. The amount of sugar exported is far greater this year than the preceding. In 1844, there was only exported to the value of 1158/. In 1845, there has been exported 225,408 Ibs. at six dollars currency per 100 Ibs. (twenty-four shillings sterling) amounting in value to 2504J., or an increase on last year of fifty-three per cent. Cotton has decreased in value and quantity exported, the growers not taking suffi cient pains to cleanse it sufficiently to compete with other markets. It has fallen in price from twenty-four to sixteen shillings the 100 Ibs. Dividivi is much reduced in importance as an article of export. Maize, or Indian Corn has been exported to the value of 4054/., showing an increase over the preceding year of fifty-seven per cent. Its price varies from four to six shillings the fanega (two bushels and a half). It consists of two qualities, the white and red, the latter of which takes precedence. Maize forms the chief article of food of the popula tion of the coast. It is pounded, moistened, undergoes a short culinary process, and is sold in the form of a cake under the name of bollo. Bills on England are scarcely attainable, and the credits are met by the shipment of specie, and more especially gold dust (though prohibited), a large quantity of which continues to be exported, and may be bought on the coast at 250 to 262 dollars the Ib. (50/. to 531.) The surveillance of the custom-house has been unusually rigid inconse quence of stringent orders from government, but nevertheless the produce of the gold mines of Antioquia, Choco, and Popayan, finds its way on board the steamers to the Bank of .England. The new gold mine discovered and opened in the year 1844, by a company of French and natives, at the head of the River Sinu, has proved a complete failure. The gold, though abundant, and of good quality, afforded only a dazzling prospect to needy ad venturers, and the failure of the enterprise adds one more to the bubbles of these com panies. Tobacco, the great staple product of this country, is opening a vast source of reve nue, and if properly managed, may become an important article of export. It still continues a government monopoly, and its cultivation is confined to the provinces of Ambalema and Jiron. A fear is entertained that a more liberal spirit in its cultivation may tend to deteriorate its value in foreign markets, thus an important product affording- scope to agriculture and manufacture, a product peculiarly adapted to the varied soil of the country, and indolent character of its inhabitants, is hampered, and restricted from an ill-founded fear that the revenue will suffer. At Guaduas, in the neighbourhood of the capital, a house has been established the manufacture of cigars for exportation, and 4,000,000 of cigars have contracted for. Tobacco, Rum, Sugar, Coffee, and Aniseed, still continue prohibited artic import. These, however, by a late regulation, may be bonded for re-exporta notice to that effect being given within twenty-four hours. The Tariff still remains as last year, though its revision has been strongly urge< government. The custom-house has, however, relaxed in its seventy, and merchants are now permitted to rectify their manifests, and correct errors before presenting them to the collector, by which the odious imposition of double duties is avoided. Vessels!*? whatever nation, are exempt in this port from tonnage duties until the year 1852-a boon granted to Carthagena for its sufferings m t of 1842. The only fees levied, are captain ot ports and pilotage, even f **ftt to 540 dollars currency, the 100/. sterling and doubloons command a premium of eleven to twelve per cent. 1062 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. An Embryo Bank, called Cajade Ahorros, or Savings Bank, has been established, and has yielded a nett per centage of two per month, or thirty- four per cent per annum, which may be considered as the value of money on good security. The Dique or Canal y connecting the Bay of Carthagena with the Magdalena, is in full progress. Already one league of excavation has been effected. The dredging machine is to be shortly put in motion at the exit in the bay, which, meeting the excavat ing process at the town of Mahates, will complete the undertaking. The whole extent of this canal is about eighty miles from the Magdalena River near Barranca to Pasa-Cabal- los, in the Bay of Carthagena ; of this only fifteen miles requires excavation, the rest is a natural channel. The depth is about four feet. Labourers are found in abundance at the rate of three rials, or eighteen-pence per diem, finding their own provisions. A Steam Company to navigate the Magdalena has been formed in London. The new Granadian minister is elected honorary president, but this much to be desired undertak ing will probably expire at its birth, as capitalists will be loth to risk their money in a country, the stability of whose institutions is still doubtful. The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company continues its operations on this coast with increasing success, and admirable regularity. Merchants have, however, not as yet pro fited by the steamers for the transport of merchandise, the freight being considered too high. The College numbers 200 pupils. The chairs of divinity, jurisprudence, and medi cine, are filled, and the students qualified to take their degrees in these learned profes sions. A yearly public examination takes place for this purpose. The rudiments of the English and French languages are also taught. There are two other preparatory seminaries, each of which numbers fifty scholars, who are taught in the different branches of education ; and a school for the education of the better class of females is conducted in a spirit of progressive enlightenment. On the whole it may be said, that attention is being turned by the government to a more liberal system of education, the germs of which are already firmly planted. Sufficient attention, however, is not paid to the moral and religious culture, the latter of which resolves itself in the observance principally of the outward forms of the Catholic religion, attendance on processions, &c. Throughout the republic, the priesthood are in a very depraved state, and with the exception of the higher dignitaries of the church, the common forms of morality and decorum are hardly observed. There are Two Hospitals; the hospital of the Convent of San Juan de Dios for the poor, and the Military Hospital, conducted on a more liberal footing, access to which may be had by diseased sailors of foreign nations, on application being made to the com mandant-general of the town. The Salubrity of this port is greatly increased of latter years, owing to the greater attention to cleanliness, and perhaps a more favourable change in the seasons. Malig nant fevers are rare, and though the heat is intense, the mortality among foreigners is not great. The thermometer ranges from 80 deg. to 86 deg. of Fahrenheit in the shade. The seasons are divided into two: the Verano, or dry season, and the Hibierno, or wet season ; during the former, strong breezes from the north-east prevail. The Population of Carthagena amounts to about 10,000 ; it is difficult to give an accurate estimate, as no census is taken. It is supposed that of this number not 1000 are white. A rapid amalgamation of colour is taking place, and ere long there will scarcely be a family on the coast of pure unmixed blood, so completely are the African and Indian races predominating over the purer Caucasian descendants of the Spanish race. Santa Martha affords great advantages and facilities (from its locality) in the for warding of merchandize to the interior, there being no land carriage, exposure, or trans shipment, as they are at once shipped on board large-decked boats, and not again removed in any way until their arrival at Honda, the extremity of navigation on the River Mag dalena ; they have not these advantages in Carthagena, as the merchandise is shipped in small uncovered boats, having to go through a small canal where large boats cannot pass, and then landed and carried on mules backs half a day s journey, to a town called STATISTICS OF NEW CIRANADA. ]Q63 Barraula, on the Magdalena, where they are again leshipped in boats that go to Honda In this operation there is great exposure and risk, besides considerable extra cl a which is not incurred at Santa Martha, where the merchandise is at once ,,1 it , board a boat that takes it d.rectly to its destination, as there is a direct communi, with the River Magdalena. The principal part of the cargoes of the American, Dutch, and Granadian vessels also comprises a considerable proportion of British manufactures. A bondii^ wa re house has been established; merchandise can lay there for an unlimited time on payint at a rate of four per cent per annum. There is a municipal duty on flour and some other articles, which vary in every town. The most considerable exports are from Savanilla, a port situated at the entrance of the Magdalena, about forty miles to leeward of Santa Martha, and where there is no town, the only building being a temporary custom-house ; the nearest town is Barran- guilla, situated at about twenty-five miles distance. It is not a port of entry, and vessels are only allowed to proceed there to load with produce, by first calling at either the ports of Carthagena, Santa Martha, or Rio de la Hocha, entering at the custom-house, and having no e^oods, wares, or merchandise on board, but the necessary stores, &c., for the voyage. They then obtain clearance in ballast, with a permit to go there and load a cargo ; from the facilities, and as this is the nearest port, and to windward, vessels prefer calling here for their clearance. A considerable part of the produce shipped from Savanilla is for account of the merchants of Santa Martha, which obviates the charges of transporting it from the River Magdalena to this port. The export of specie is considerably more than will appear by the returns. No duty being paid, as was formerly, it is difficult to ascertain correctly any average sum, as there is a very large quantity of gold-dust and bars clandestinely shipped. Uncoined gold and silver is altogether prohibited from being exported or found in the possession of any person within fifty leagues of the sea-coast, under the severest penalties. The province of Santa Martha comprises six cantons, forty-five towns, besides several small Indian villages. The population, when the last census was taken four years ago, was 46,587 souls, and has increased very much since. The principal and staple exports of the country affords the following ; say, dye- woods of several decriptions, dry and salted hides, cotton, cedar, mahogany, dividivi, horned cattle, mules, horses, and asses, together with sugar, Indian corn, cocoa, &c. &c. The Indian corn is much cultivated, and is very productive ; considerable quantities are exported to the British and other West India Islands. The cultivation of the sugar-cane, coffee, and cocoa, has been much followed up lately ; and considerable quantities of sugar are made, together with rum and other spirits, augmenting daily, and new estates establishing; the cultivation of which must benefit and advance the country rapidly, the lands being a virgin and productive soil, and this part of the country being so well watered throughout, that they are much less dependent on the seasons than in the islands ; there are rivers and streams running in every direction. the roads, within eight or ten leagues of the town, are tolerably good ; and they have also the advantage of water-carriage further inland. Agricultural affairs have been much retarded from the unsettled state of the country, the scantiness of population, and the numbers that were lately employed in the army, but, as the military are nearly all disbanded, they are now turning their attention I agricultural pursuits. Fish There is abundance of river and sea-fish of the best description, and of ex cellent quality for salting. There are several natural salt ponds along the coast and within a short distance from the town, where any quantity can be collected at a ti kP There are several extensive lime and brick kilns within a short distance of the town, they make use of the coral rock for burning into lime. The town is in a state of progressive improvement, and new buildings rapidly. 1064 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Slavery is abolishing fast ; in the year 1819 a law of congress was passed, declaring the issue of all slaves born after that period to be free on their attaining the age of eighteen years, it being considered that their services up to that period would initiate them into habits of industry, and be of some compensation to their owners for the expense and trouble of bring them up. The principal part of the labourers here are the Sanebos, a mixed race between the Indian and negro. They are an athletic and hardy race, superior to the original Indian and negro stock. The average value of labour is from Is. 6d. to 2s. sterling per diem, out of which they maintain themselves. Meats, provisions, dried fish, &c. &c., being uncommonly cheap, and from the nature of the climate, not requiring, and using very little clothing. A steam-engine has lately been introduced, of about twenty-horse power, by Don Joacquim Leehelm, one of the most wealthy and intelligent men in the country. He has placed it on his estate of about one league from the town, and it has given so much satis faction that several have been lately ordered from America. Santa Martha, from its locality and other advantages, together with the extensive trade in corn, provisions, horses, cattle, &c. &c., with which it supplies Jamaica, and the other West India Islands, ranks it as one of the principal ports of " New Granada." STATEMENT of the Trade of Panama, for the year 1843. NATIONS. ARRIVALS. DEPARTURES. Vessels. Tonnage. Crew. Invoice Value. Vessels. Tonnage. Crew, number. 249 23 13 25 15 Invoice Value. United States number. 1 34 2 1 4 1 1 tons. 149 1359 438 17 265 205 106 number. 7 270 23 6 32 15 10 dollars. 22,900 108,751 3,284 12,567 6,V*50 number. 31 2 2 3 1 tons. 1276 4380 75 230 205 dollars. 297,972 11,000 Great Britain Peru France Total 44 2539 363 154,252 39 2224 325 308,972 STATEMENT of Transit Trade, via Chagres. IMPORTS. EXPORTS. NATIONS. Value. ARTICLES. Value. United States dollars. 60,550 dollars. 132,128 Great Britain 329,292 Old silver 3,246 262 16 042 257 477,432 Total of exports 151,935 COMMERCIAL Movement at Panama. IMPORTS. Dollars. EXPORTS. Dollars. Imports 154,252 477,432 30,000 20,000 F 308,972 151,935 5 ,00 45,000 53,000 12,000 Via Chapres Of money not registered, supposed Of gold dust from Choco, supposed Total 681,684 Total 620,907 STATISTICS OF NEW GRANADA. 1065 "B ua.a 0,3 37: CS 30 O O O ^> 5 IO (M 00 <N . O sl CC -* l^. C-l !>. ^ o o> =s -N -r c _ -S *i - t> I 1 ~M o cs "" n *? H 5l 11 ?J 2 2 2 ji w o Ij ^ ox-/-: is . o ^^2^ c * Cftl^OO * {4 c 5? te ^ 5 Si 3 55S 2- | l | 1 : 2 IM p 55 (7 a| 3 ^ . . . ^ : i : I *3 ^ ~H N t- ^ | i : : : I: i II .^ OCNM*ClCSO C 2 oo ?o oo * o t* f > 3 2J f <s | i : : : : HP! J SJJS : g. ? i| |i::I: S3 1: T3 W s s 1 . 1 i i u o >>. to ffi 1 - %*>- ~ 1 6 9 ::* = g : 1 CO c 1 g 5 ^ S ?. T > i > D K J 2 : : : : -3 eg 1: jg T> gjj 2 :::::! h - ir * * : : RS o cs 4*3 S 02 "3 * on i l! 5i ^ S J :* 6 2 5 - - Si 1 2 i 1-9*11 CO O O O * 2 cc cs o> . i" < J- m ro . >o t d ! I CM j=l 3 ll .2 tf) >-l o CU jijjij JS Pll-l ! f J 1 1::=: n :1 lgg&S|| oS l s sll g j | S . . .3 o 03 II s || :l : : r 9 - 3 oe 1| 2 i i ij|i| w lo^S . Os, ^ j ac II:::: Iss 28 :| 5-5 s 19 S S i !H 1 |: S : 1! c* .i . p in J Sli^I : 1 |s g : : : i : ii 2 * u t*L | _ 1 n js !!! :i ^ 4 Hi 1 ^ 3 :S : nn o "* " * 1 aT ^ j g 00 OJ c -c S ^^i OS i |H| | - : ^ =r Sa * (O JS IgSSiJ t , HI 1 i S :: i: -1 *0 ctf cf ^* - 1 iS "* O - -- i li 3 O ^ S ^ _cc : S IN 1 cc 1 - "i s " ^ * ^ A 1 :^ : ! : .? . a j! ^-^ -^ es.2 g | g ^ g ,2 . i i w 2 11 |i d g : : - J ill 111 a u-u^as Total. Value of 1 Increase.. Decrease. VOL. I. 6 u 1066 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CENTRAL AMERICA. The following consular statement for the years 1843 to 1844, though referring to the Isthmus of Nicaragua and to Salvador, we sub join in the absence of further information. The foreign import trade of the state of Nicaragua, and of the republics in general of Central America, has been greatly effected by the continuance of the internal com motions ; nevertheless, owing to the great competition of speculators, the consumption of foreign manufactures has increased. The quantity of indigo exported has been about 4500 bales, three-fourths of which were the produce of the state of San Salvador, the crops of Nicaragua having almost en tirely failed, owing to the want of rain during the season. The civil war of Guatemala has partially interrupted the cultivation of cochineal, to which attention has been given in the state of Nicaragua and Salvador. Agriculture is making some progress in Costa Rica. Coffee, which is of a superior quality, is becoming an article of export trade. 5000 quintals were shipped last year. The quantity of chancala (coarse sugar) exported from the ports of the Republic in 1838, is estimated at about 35,000 quintals, of which Costa Rica produced about two- thirds. Mines. Some activity is also visible in the mining districts of Costa Rica, and some valuable machinery has arrived from England. Nicaragua is beginning to encourage the working of mines, which are supposed to abound in the mountainous districts. Gold, silver, and copper abound in all parts of the state of Honduras, but the insecurity of the country prevents persons from embarking capital in these works CHAPTER V. STATISTICS OF VENEZUELA. Mines. We have no account on which any reliance can be placed with re ference to the minerals of Venezuela. The precious metals are reported to be abundant, especially in Cundinamarca. In Choco and Antiaqueo gold and silver are found, and, it is said, quicksilver. Mines of lead, iron, and copper have been worked in Socono. (General Mac Gregor had cannon cast of the copper in 1813, but the backward state of enterprise has, with trifling exceptions, left the mineral riches of Venezuela undisturbed. Pasturage and agriculture, being, for a very thinly-settled region, far more immediate means of subsistence : especially since the Spanish race can no longer enslave the aborigines to work the mines. Manufactures. Comparatively speaking, manufactures scarcely more than exist. Tanned leather and morocco leather are prepared in Corora, blankets are made in Tocuyo, on a small scale, and constitute the chief manufactures. Some other articles are made by foreign workmen established in the country. The vapour refined sugars, the cured hides, and the soaps, might obtain preference STATISTICS OF VENEZUELA. to the same articles from the United States tallow candies are made of fair quality. Some articles peculiar to the country are worthy of attention such as mm made by the Indians of thejibres of the palm-tree, called Mauritia, and hemp of the cocuisa aloe, of a peculiar fineness, and straw hats of Maracaybo, equal in quality, or nearly so, to those of Panama. The interior provinces of Barqui simeto, of Merida, and Trujillo, manufacture table-cloths of cation, but will not bear comparison with similar European articles. The mechanical trades are workers in jewellery, locksmiths work, armourer* work, joinery, and saddlery, of little importance. Tl ey are manufactured with rough, coarse tools. Joinery and saddlery are the most advanced trades at Caraccas, through the means of foreigners, who, for twenty yearj, have been settled at that place. Few samples of furniture show the grepj" varieties of wood valuable for cabinet makers 5 work. Agriculture. We can only give a mere sketch of the state of agriculture in this state. It is in a greater degree a pastoral than an agricultural country. Yet this extensive region has soils and climates adapted for the growth of every useful and rich product- Among the articles cultivated are some wheat in the high parts ; maize, Indian corn for tortillas (the corn bread), sugar, cacao, coffee ; some cotton, indigo, and tobacco. During the four years 1?99 to 1803, 145.000 fanegas of cacao were exported from Maracaybo 0-id Venezuela. Sugar tes Ion; been cultivated and exported, but not in great quantities been exported to England since the duty has been diminished. (See Trade of Ver zuela.) And thf> province of Caraccas, if labour were abundant and enterprise exer has a soil and clmate to produce an immense quantity. Co ff ee _ & cellent coffee might be raised with ordinary care. At present its -quality is inferiwtQtiat of Jamaica. The produce, in 1812, was estimated at 5,000,000 Ibs There are twr kinds, the one called of hot earth, the other of cold earth; they are worth Z^S^A ten gourdes and a half per 100 Ibs.* Spanish (nmety-one francs ^ domination, the exportation of coffee did not surpass 60 ; 000 ;1 ,n- Coo. There are numerous plantations of this nui e exported. The beyoni the mountains of the sea-coast In ^ X? in 1806, was estimated considered superior, not on.y to the coco, o The pound is 0.46 kilogrammes. 1068 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. other parts of the republic, but to every other country. The red varies in price from sixteen to twenty-four gourdes per 110 lbs. of Spain (136 to 226 francs per 100 kilo grammes). Gray cocoa (which was that sent to France before the promulgation of the fate Spanish laws on the customs of the vascondagas provinces) is worth at Caraccas from twelve to eighteen gourdes per 110 Ibs. Spanish (113 to 170 francs per 100 kilo grammes). There was exported from the 1st of July, 1840, to the 30th of June, 1841,76,560 quintals (3,521,700 kilogrammes) of cocoa, of a value of 1,327,000 gourdes (5,308,000 francs). The local consumption is calculated to be about 36,000 quintals (1,650,000 kilo grammes), and the contraband trade conceals nearly 15,000 quintals, (690,000 kilo grammes), which makes the product amount to 128,000 quintals (5,818,000 kilo grammes). The culture of this article was of greater importance in the time of the Spaniards, as the exportation amounted then to 95,000 quintals (4,370,000 kilogrammes), but a great number of cocoa-trees were destroyed during the war of the Independence. Later, and up to 1835, the planters either had not the means, or dared not, in the uncertain state in which they lived, form new plantations. The valley of Tuy lately cultivated, which is only eight or nine leagues from Caraccas, produces excellent cocoa. Indigo. There are three kinds, but all are inferior to the indigo of India. That of the valley of Tuy is the most esteemed. The culture and trade of indigo at Venezuela has lost much of their importance since its separation tVom Spain. Before 1820, the ex portation amounted annually to 10,000 quintals (460,OoQ kilogrammes), of a value of 1,200,000 piastres specie (6,500,000 francs) ; from July l ? 1840, to June 30, 1841, it amounted but to 5462 quintals (251,200 kilogrammes), whioh a t 125 gourdes per quin tal, has produced a sum of 682,750 gourdes, or 2,731,000 francs. Cotton is not in quality so good as that of the United States, It, i s worth on an ave rage thirteen gourdes per 100 Ibs. Spanish (113 francs per 100 kilogrammes). Venezuela has not the long silky-like cotton. The exportation of cotton from July 1, 1840, to June 30, 1841, amounted to 2,014,000 Ibs. (926,440 kilogrammes), of a value of 242,000 gourde s (968,000 francs). According to official documents published at Caraccas in 1839, i-bout 50,000 quin tals of cotton (2,300,000 kilogrammes), were produced, which at ten gourdes and a half per quintal, produces a value of 525,000 gourdes (2,362,000 francs): the exportation amounted the same year to 27,993 quintals (926,300 kilogrammes), valued by the mi nister of the finances, at 241,989 gourdes (968,000 francs). Under the Spanish govern ment, the exportation of cotton never amounted to 25,000 quintals (1,150,000 kilo grammes). Leather (sole leather). That of Caraccas is considered too heavy ; tl a t of Puerto Cabello and of Angostura is exported to France. The exportation of leather from July 1, 1840 to June 30, 1841, amounted to 574,000 Ibs. (264,000 kilogrammes), valued at 506,000 gourdes 2,024,000 francs). Dividivi. Is a kind of husk that covers certain seeds. To be used it must be reduced to powder, sifted, and boiled in water for the space of eight or ten hours. It is sold wholesale from six to eight reals per quintal (6fr. 50c. to 8fr. 70c. per 100 kilogrammes). The exportation of dibidivi amounted to 1,264,000 Ibs, (581,440 kilogrammes), va luing 18,000 gourdes (72,000 francs). Sarsaparilla. 13,000 Ibs. (5980 kilogrammes), have been exported, of a valu^ of 2500 gourdes (10,000 francs). Dyeing-ivoods and Lignum-vitcs. Are very little esteemed in France, and se y e in general for ship ballast. Tobacco. There is a great variety of tobaccoes in Venezuela : that of Van as and of Cumanacao, if well selected, is excellent for cigars. The Varinas tobacco costs but twelve gourdes or twenty-five cents, to thirtee& ur des at Angostura on the Orinoco. Until now there has been produced in the whf re pub- STATISIICS OF VENEZUELA. ](i lie, but 50,000 or 60,000 quintals of tobacco per year (2,300,000 to 2,700,000 kilo grammes), amounting to a value of about 500,000 gourdes (40,(XX)/.). In 1841, 11,943 quintals of tobacco were exported (5o( ),()()() kilogrammes), vain 146,944 gourdes (23,200/.). In the time of the Spaniards, the monopoly, d of tobacco, produced as much as 60,OOOZ. annually. Sugar. Venezuela has seldom produced sugar, except for home consumption; in 1841, there were exported but 8794 quintals (404,500 kilogrammes). The soil i well adapted for the culture of the sugar-cane; that which is wanting are labourers: i are only 49,000 slaves in the whole state. In 1844 the total quantity of sugar ex ported was about 220 tons, in 1835 about 376 tons. Since the alteration of the I duties in 1845 there were exported to England from Venezuela during the six months ending the 20th of June, 702 tons, price 18/. Is. 6d. per ton. Cattle forms the principal wealth of Venezuela. The Llanos, or vast plains of the Orinoco, are covered with herds. There are reckoned to be about 2,400, 000 horned cattle, 1,900,000 sheep and goats, and 400,000 pigs. During ten years the number has nearly doubled, notwithstanding the great interior consumption and mortality whic: laid waste the principal hatos of Venezuela. The Venezuelan mules are indefatigable, especially those of Angostura. One or two schooners from Martinique import them. Indigo was first cultivated, or rather prepared in 1774, and next to tobacco, it becomes the most important product of the valley of Cumanacao, of San Fernando, and of Arenas in 1784 there were exported from La Guyara 126,233 Ibs; in 1796, no less th.ui 737,996 Ibs. ; while that of Guatemala at the same time was estimated at 1,200,00" Vanilla grows in abundance in the forests. Wild cochineal grows near Coro, rona, Truxillo, and it is produced of excellent quality in Cundinamarca. Brazil wood exported from Maracaybo. Cocoa trees are grown around the villages and houses, and at Cumami they hav haciendas, or farms of cocoa-trees ; excellent oil is extracted from the nut; sarsapanlh, Jesuits bark, numerous medicinal plants, drugs and resins are abundant; tamarin oranges, and all tropical fruits thrive. The forest trees are of the most varied and useful kinds. Shin building Timber.lf cut in national forests, exportation prohibited. M-Deponssaysin his time, there were more than 1,200,000 oxen, 180,000 horse and 90 000 mules pastured on the plains between the Orinoco and Maracaybo; 1 ex-hides are said to have been exported in 1790. Herds of cattle are now spreac 6 A?onol a the banks of the Orinoco agriculture is nearly altogether neglected, and the inhabitants are described as remarkably indolent by Robinson and others The cattle are killed in the same manner as in Spam. The animal i and the point of a strong sharp knife is stuck in between the two first curvic; ^ Tt 6 SHS^tl. country which enter into commerce as arti- cles of export, are stated in the statistical tables of trade * Robinson says, "Sometimes they bleed the animal, and sometimes not; with the West India Islands." breakfast in general consists of beef and He says, " The people here drink very reely in * Havi rf onm,l to table on a plate, but sticking hard and tat 1070 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER VI. TRADE AND NAVIGATION. NEARLY all the trade of the state of Venezuela was formerly carried on from the ports of Caraccas, chiefly through La Guayra, into each of the ports of Mara- caybo, Cumana, and Old Guayra, two or three vessels were admitted from Spain. M. Lavaysse, who seems to have investigated the state of trade of Vene zuela during the first years of the present century, says ** According- to official statements, Venezuela, during the year 1807, the value of the agricultural produce exported from the provinces which composed this fine country, exclusive of Trinidad, from 1794 until 1806, amounted to about 4,000,000 dollars an nually ; but, according to the documents taken from the custom-houses of Port of Spain in Trinidad, and from those of the islands of Grenada, Tobago, CuraQoa, St. 4 Thomas , and Martinico, which carried on the contraband trade with the provinces of Venezuela. I am sure the smugglers carried off annually, on an average, more than 2,500,000 dollars in produce; consisting of cocoa, cotton, indigo, a little cochineal, arnotto, woods for dyeing and cabinet-makers, copper, hides, maize, salted and smoked meat and fish, oxen, horses, mules, asses, monkeys, parrots, &c., and about 600,000 or 700,000 dollars in specie, and to the spit on which it was roasted. A person steps round from person to person, till all are served by cutting off what they wish. The bread is generally made of Indian corn, and sometimes rice. Besides Indian corn, there is another kind of bread, which they call cassava. It very much re sembles in appearance the oatmeal cakes used in Scotland ; but is almost tasteless. The natives use it plentifully, and seem to prefer both it and the Indian corn to our flour. The drink is, not tea, but rum-grog, and very often wine (claret). Punch is served up at eleven o clock, which con tinues to be used till dinner-time. Dinner is the same as breakfast ; and the evening is passed in playing cards, smoking cigars, and drinking. " So far as I have penetrated South America I have uniformly observed, that the inhabitants seem to have no idea of grinding or bruising their materials by means of any other machinery than that which they possess in the strength of their arms, aided by a concave ana 1 convex stone to fit it, or by a wooden mortar. On the surface of the concave stone they put their material to be bruised, such as pepper, salt, coffee, &c. and it is almost incredible to what a fineness they speedily reduce these substances ; while their Indian corn, rice, and such substances are bruised in the wooden mortar. After the corn has been bruised, and sometimes the rice, they subject them to the friction of the two stones, with a little water, and thus they form the one or the other into a dough for making bread. " The better orders of the people conduct themselves at table with great regularity and pro priety, as much so, indeed, as could be expected in any country where the advantages of European civilisation have not been experienced. " The middle orders of people, however, seldom have even one knife at table, and three-fourths of them have nothing but their fingers as substitutes for spoons, knives, and forks. The lower orders, indeed, would apply them to no other purpose than as weapons of destruction to stab each other. " From this coarse mode of feeding among the great body of the people, and from the gross materials upon which they subsist, stomachic complaints are very prevalent, which are greatly in creased by habits naturally indolent and unclean. " Smoking tobacco, especially in the form of cigars, is almost universally practised: and almost all the women, who practise this more than the men, lose their front teeth* " Gaming, especially on Sunday, is carried on here to a great extent. This consists in billiards and in cards ; and, while the outcry of every one is poverty, poverty, were you to walk into any of the huts, for instance of Soledad, you would find the tables loaded with silver and gold. " The women dress their long, lank, black hair in two tresses, one on each side of the head Among the higher classes, they seem to dress it in one twist, which they fasten with a comb to the upper and posterior part of their head, somewhat in the English fashion." STATISTICS OF VENEZUELA. 1071 since 1801, a small quantity of sugar* and coffee. There were annually exported from these provinces to Spain and Mexico,f about 2,000,000 dollars in colonial pro., which increases the exportations to about 5,200,000 dollars. "The official statements of the intendancy of Caraccas specified the im; into this country, including contraband trade, at only 5,500,000 dollars, at ihe same period; but those statements are below the truth. On an average from 1789 to 1807, the annual importations amounted to nearly 6,500,000 dollars, including ^nm-Jiu^. Previous to the French revolution, the French had half of this trade. Ti. chants of Martinico, the Dutch of St. Eustacia and Cura^oa, the Danish of St. Tliom.i-, and the Swedish of St. Bartholomew, had their share in this commerce ; but since the Island of Trinidad was taken by the British, in 1797, they have obtained all the tr, that country, where they have established commercial connexions, even as far as ih, tral point of South America, in Santa Fe de Bogota, capital of the kingdom of New (in- nada, whose bishop, a dealer in human flesh, carried on, in 1788 and 1789, the negro trade, in conjunction with an English house in Dominica." Humboldt, in 1803, estimated the exports of Venezuela at nearly 6,000,000 of Spanish dollars, equal to 1,333,3337. English money. The exports of LaGuayia amounted according to his statement, to 2,400,000 dollars; those of Cumana and Nueva Barcelona, to 1,200,000 dollars; of Maracaybo and Angostura to 1,000,000 dollars ; and those of Carupano and some smaller ports to 800,000 dollars. During the war of independence agriculture was much neglected, and the amount of ex- ports decreased. In 1824, a year after that event had taken place, the exports of La Guayra did not exceed 1,650,000 dollars, though some of the articles sold at a higher price. The disturbed state of the country has prevented the trade from improving, as is apparent from the British imports, which, though by far Up most important, did not exceed 200,OOOZ. annually, between 1829 and 1837, on the average of that period . STATEMENT of the Value in currency dollars of Imports into, and Exports from, the Re public of Venezuela, with the Amount of Duties thereon, distinguishing the Trade witl each Country, in the Year ending the 30th of June, 1839. VALUE. DUTIES. COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports. TOTAL. Imports. Exports. TOTAL. dollars. 465,504 dollars. 775,623 dollars. 1,242,127 dollars. 161,034 dollars. 38,930 OKC dollar*. 199,9.S 6,273 20,430 26,703 ot) ()4f, 955,274 536,911 1,492,185 (,-, ()-/ 009 1,217,227 2,006,987 3,224,214 IG 2,454 543,308 705,763 205,505 520,789 726,295 3 i W7 987,048 740,418 1,727,466 8 (J . 5 255,153 211,593 466,747 440 7H4 853 8,822 9,675 241 9 251 31,333 1,118 4 2 6 957 2,113 10 2S - > 479 10,7f,l 14,961 3,072 Total value, dollars.. . 4,302,548 5,371,188 9,673,736 1,090,173 I 260,388 1,350,562 895,198 1,612,289 181,695 43,398 225,003 consumption. I believe I do not exaggera p Ued with almost aU killds ^ h! r & - *- * -* da >- tit O f Venezuela cocoa, commonly called Caracca, is exported to Vera Cruz. Ibid. quantty 1072 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Report on the Trade of Venezuela, drawn up from Official Returns at Caraccas, and published by the Minister of Commerce and Agriculture, in his Official Bulletin, 1845. Imports. The total imports for 1841-42, were estimated at 25,220,000 francs, and in 1843-44, they fell to 17,636,000 francs (twenty-five francs to one pound sterling). J&porto. The exports for the same period fell from 30,412,000 to 23,867,000 francs. Decrease of Trade. The total value, therefore, of the trade of 1843-44, gives a diminution of 14,129,000 francs, or twenty-five per cent, in comparison to that of 1841-42, and of 6,025,000 francs, or twelve per cent on that of 1842-43. Cause. The cause of this decrease is attributed to the badness of the seasons during the last few years it greatly affecting the breeding of beasts and agriculture, which are the trading resources of the country. The rapidly progressive steps taken by this trade during the first twelve years of its political existence, from 1830 to 1842, was mostly owing to the credit which a country, possessing such vast resources, easily procures, at its first outset in the commercial world. Foreign Capital. By means of foreign capital, borrowed at fifteen, eighteen, and even twenty per cent, agricultural proprietors, having carried on their operations to an unlimited extent, an epoch of pecuniary embarrassment had overtaken them, thus creat ing many failures, whilst others, not so unfortunate, were compelled to retrench their ex penses and their purchases, which naturally was seriously felt by the exterior trade. Amount of decrease per Countries. In the following tables, showing the nature and value of the merchandises composing the trade of Venezuela, it will be more particularly remarked, that the trade of Denmark and its colonies has decreased in the whole 2,803,000 francs ; that of France, 1,787,000 francs; that of Spain, 1,500,000 francs ; and that of England, a little more than 1,000,000 francs. The trade with the Hanse Towns and Netherlands, has remained pretty much the same. The United States is the only country which has at all increased in its trade with Venezuela. It purchases in general inferior coftee, the better quality being consumed by Germany ; of 3,000,000 of kilogrammes of the latter quality, being about one-fourth part of the total exportation of this article, Hamburg took 2,500,000 in the years 1843-44, the remainder went to Bremen ; the Hanse Towns are the most advantageously placed in the trade of Venezuela. From 1831 to 1842, the French trade with this country greatly developed itself. During those eleven years, its envoys rose from the paltry sum of 120,000 francs to 3,161,000 francs! and its purchases at Venezuela, from 537,000 francs to 3,886,000 francs! No other country had increased its trade with Venezuela so rapidly and in so short a time. If this trade has fallen off from 1842 to 1844, it is not the only country which experienced at that time this kind of stagnation. Denmark, or rather the Danish possession St. Thomas, has also experienced a similar decrease in its trade with Venezuela. In 1831 its total value amounted to 7,876,000 francs, in 1841 it was estimated at more than 9,000,000 francs, but in 1843 it did not exceed 4,297,000 francs. The Island of St. Thomas, a well-known entrepot for the trade of Europe with the continent of America, loses much of its importance in proportion as the trade with this part of America becomes more direct. It is the same with the Island of CuraQao which greatly affected the exchanges of the Netherlands. Its transactions with Venezuela in 1831 valued 843,000 francs ; in 1841, 3,140,000 francs; and in 1843 they suddenly fell to 2,374,000 francs; and although they were more considerable in 1844 than in 1843, nevertheless its trade with Venezuela seems gradually relaxing. Several other countries of America have a small trade with Venezuela, which rnay increase in importance as their population progresses, and more particularly are distin guished under this head Mexico and New Granada. Sardinia and Belgium are also beginning to frequent its ports. If we compare the years 1842 and 1843, we find the importations of tissues during the latter period to have considerably decreased, whereas specie had greatly increased, this latter causing, no doubt, the fall in the tissues. Exports. Among the exports, coffee, tobacco, indigo, cotton, and specie have greatly decreased. Of coffee, the exports in 1841 amounted to 13,500,000 francs; in 1842 they fell to 10,113,000 francs; and in 1843 to 8,893,000 francs. The Venezuelan STATISTICS OF VENEZUELA. 1078 a great treasury depending principally upon the customs duties, necessarily expercn reduction in its revenue. Customs Dues In the year 1840, when this republic had attained the height of it, prosperity, these duties amounted to 9,000,000 francs ; in 1843 they were estimate a i only 5,669,000 francs, of which 5,276,000 francs were levied on the imports or thirty per cent of the total value imported. Imports. Of 17,636,000 francs of imports, the ports of La Guai/ra rec. 9,738,000 francs; Puerto Cabello 2,984,000 francs; Maracaybo 1,922,000 f, Cumana 812,000 francs ; Angostura 631,000 francs, &c. Exports. Of 23,876,000 francs of exports, the ports of La Guayra contributed 9,184,000 francs; Puerto- Cabello 6,094,000 francs; Maracaybo 2,606,000 francs; Angostura 2,416,000 francs; Maturin 875,000 francs, &c. Coasting Trade. These six ports had more than seven-eighths of the whole Vene zuelan trade; the others, such as Barcelona, Guiria, La Vela, &c., confined themselves more particularly to the coasting trade. Cattle Trade. Maturin monopolises the cattle trade. GENERAL Trade of different Countries with Venezuela, in 1842, 1844. PRINCIPAL Articles of Import. COUNTRIES. Imports. Ex parts. TOTAL. fr. 9,98fi,000 9,126,000 6,234,000 5,213,000 4,297,000 3,284,000 2,373,000 628,000 362,000 ARTICLES. Francs. 1000 .V".: B2 1,000 4. VI ,000 1,71 fr. 3,116,000 5,094,000 2,724,000 871,000 2,863,000 1,546,000 1,248,000 37,000 137,000 fr. 6,870,000 4,032,000 3,510,000 4,342,000 1,434,000 1,738,000 1,125,000 591,000 225,000 England and its colonies of silk S pain and its colonies Denmark and its colonies. .. France and its colonies Netherlands and its colonies. Flour Wiue* Specie. Total 17,636,000 20,439,000 23,867,000 27,089,000 41,503,000 47,528,000 * 20,000 dozen bottles and 71,000 arrobes in casks. Total of the year 1842... EXPORTS, 1843, 1844. ARTICLES. Quantity. Value. Whence exported. Quantity. Coffee kil. 13,244,000 4,107,000 number. 627,660 kil. 163,000 1,172,000 number. 14,894 kil. 954,000 number. 1,848 kil. 2,121,000 fr. 8,893,000 < 1 I 5,404,000 j 2,584,000 1,322,000 1,050,000 71 7,000 { 660,000 < 643,000 208,000 912,000 j kil. 1,000 i.ooo i.:oi;,ooo France 899,000 71. \000 -.000 532,000 442,000 132.000 1,167,000 number. 12.R73 1,839 kil. 373,000 1 > 147,000 139,000 number. 1,584 kil. 2,084,000 fr. 401,000 179,000 ITfLH France Cured hides Mexico Principally to the United States. United States France and its colonies Cotton . Spain Specie Netherlands Snain . : VOL. I. 6x 1074 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. NAVIGATION from the 1st July, 1840, to the 30th of June, 1841. PORTS. ENTERED. DEPARTED. Vessels of the Republic. Foreign Vessels. Vessels of the Republic. Foreign Vessels. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. number. 28 27 44 26 29 41 23 13 21 ID tons. 2,414 2,479 2,163 2,266 482 1,675 506 1,094 998 215 577 317 number. 197 151 10 35 7 30 1 11 8 8 *2 1 tons. 31,560 16,362 1,780 5,344 439 1,322 39 759 350 771 43 19 number. 22 34 170 32 247 23 506 . 8 11 37 23 103 72 19 6 2 tons. 2,698 2,073 8,944 2,578 5,467 1,063 3,022 625 919 532 1,439 802 651 109 191 96 136 number. 173 162 40 48 54 26 11 14 9 14 2 2 16 14 1 3 2 tons. 28,714 17,157 5,289 6,973 1,731 1,219 121 901 363 844 59 43 415 343 228 288 194 Maturiu La Vela 66 17 Riocaribe Total 351 15,186 461 58,788 1316 31,315 591 64,882 TRADE OF VENEZUELA WITH FRANCE IN THE YEARS 1842, 1843, AND 1844. The value of the trade of France is as follows (the direct operations only) : Imported into France from Venezuela . . 3,142,099 francs. Imported into Venezuela from France . . . 3,348,235 Total . . 6,491,034. In 1838 this trade did not exceed 4,500,000. In the French imports, coffee, in 1842 (special trade), 1,203,824 francs (1,416,264 kilogrammes); cotton, 493,429 francs (274,127 kilogrammes) ; Indigo, 518,416 francs (32,401 kilogrammes) ; skins, raw, 305,422 francs (169,679 kilogrammes); cocoa, 174,933 francs (194,370 kilogrammes), &c. In the French exports, silken tissues, 730,956 francs ; cotton, 187,771 francs; wines, 164,589 francs; brandy, 118,633 francs; paper, books, and engravings, 150,834 francs; pottery, glass, and crystals, 106,510 francs; perfumery and soaps, 187,000 francs; cloths, 145,000 francs; mercery and fashions, 136,000 francs; linen cloths, 95,500; gold and silver ware, jewellery, manufactured metals, and Parisian industry, 148,000 francs, &c. Navigation. According to official documents, the navigation, in 1843, gave employ ment to rifty-one vessels, measuring 8477 tons, all French except five, giving an in crease, in comparison with 1842, of six vessels, and 1314 tons ; in 1844 there were only twenty-eight vessels, measuring 43 15 tons, of which twenty-three were French. EXPORTS from Venezuela to France. IMPORTS into Venezuela from France. ARTICLES. 1843 1844 ARTICLES. 1843 1844 Coffee francs. francs,. francs. 435 QOO franca. 443 OQO Indigo .... 13 5 000 Raw hides " . wo f > t " 112 000 121 000 Cotton Cocoa 310,000 132,000 of flax 68,000 55,000 Paper, books, and engravings .. 97,000 88 000 170,000 151 000 erf umes, &c 80,000 128,000 Indianas and cotton-stuffs have been furnished, up to the present time, by Eng land, Germany, and Switzerland. This latter country exports only indianas of middling quality. The Americans introduce their common cotton domestic stuffs into Vene zuela. STATISTICS OF VENEZULLA. 10, Ordinary and fine linens are, in general, imported from England and Germany. Woollen cloth comes principally from France, and also from England, Belgium, and Germany, of the ordinary qualities. Silks are from France, England, and Germany. England imports but small quanti ties, generally of Indian foulards, and stuff for cravats and waistcoats; S 1 , m . ports plain ribbons ; Germany copies French designs, furnishes stuffs and silk. Yet France exports to Venezuela all kinds of stuffs of silk, either pure or manu factured. Hardware comes from England and Germany ; it is a very considt i article. Glassware almost exclusively from Germany. Real and false jewellery also from Germany. Delfvvare is imported by England. Glass, which on account of the bad roads in Venezuela, cannot be transported hut by a very few routes, is furnished, the common quality by Germany, and the fine qualities by France and England. Furniture is imported by the Americans. It is imported in pieces, as a precaution against the difficult communications and the intensity of the heat. Eatables arrive from America, Spain, and in small quantities from France. Wine comes from Spain, America, and France. France exports to Venezuela tlu- red wines of the Gironde in hogsheads or butts. The Spaniards and Americans furnish the sweet wines of Malaga and the red wines of Catalonia. The French wines of Lan- ouedoc are nearly analogous to those advantageously exported by the Catalonians. trade of liqueurs is of some importance at Venezuela, and may yet be of much ^i consequence ; it is also a very good article for a cargo for navigation. Soaps come almost exclusively from America; they find a market on account of tip n softness and low price. Perfumes are almost exclusively from France. Tanned goods are introduced by the French and Americans, the former I skins and the latter the leather. This branch of importation has greatly diminished on account of the number of tan-houses established in the country. Arms.ThQ low puce of the German and Belgian weapons give t except rich weapons. BRITISH CONSULAR RETURN OF THE TRADE OF VENEZUELA IN 1844-1845. " "Hf value of the imports from Great Britain there has been an increase of 40 ,-8 per cent as compared with the imports from theneem 1843-IM4 Tl,&r amount in 1843 and ^^K^^^riS the exports Zl^Zr* SMC year indent,, - BrHain the, has been - ^ in ,84^ ^ to Great Britain were the greatest. , , escr j nt i on and value of the principal The statements hereafter furnish he part,cu . . o r he < !u*np t^ ^ ^ ^^ .,, articles of import and export, and ot U 1844-184^. ,. pl . :* a tonnage of 26,566 tons, entered the .Eight hundred and fourteen Venezuelan^ , ports "of the republic; and in Of the total value of imports, say 1076 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. and 606,1 70/. in British and other foreign vessels ; and of the total value of exports say 894,745/. ; 177,339/. were exported in Venezuelan vessels, and 717,406/. in British and other foreign vessels. The rate of duties on the amount of imports chargeable with a duty was, in 1844-1845, 37| per cent, it having been 35 per cent in 1843-1844, and 34 per cent in 1842-1843. The duties on exports have been taken off since the llth of May, 1844. The following are the rates of duties on amount of imports paid in 1844-1845 respectively by the under-mentioned countries, including in the calculation the duties termed " subsidiary," and a duty on imports charged on the entrance of vessels at " La Guairia,"on amount of imports charge able with a duty : Great Britain, 32 2-3 per cent; France, 32 4-5 per cent; United ;States 53 4-5 per cent. On amount including goods admitted duty free: Great Britain, 29 7-8 per cent; France 27 1-3 per cent; United States, 34 per cent. The duties on warehousing of goods amounted in 1844-1845 to 825/. The annexed statement, shows the amount collected for dues and charges on shipping during 1844-45, to have been 9303/. 14s. 5d. The minister of finance states in his report to congress that if the amount in 1845 of the na tional income, 89J per cent was derived from duties on customs ; such duties; therefore, bear the proportion of 1\\ per cent to the total amount (to the total amount) of national and municipal income of the year. Notwithstanding the high rate of duties levied on imports into Venezuela, there is a very general clamour for their increase, and for the establishment of commercial restrictions and prohibitions upon the delusive assumption that such measures are the only panaceas, excepting that of raising another Anglo-Venezuelan loan, which can be adopted by congress and the country, for relieving the embarrassments of the necessitous and indebted agriculturists, and for affording, according to the Venezuelan popular theory, the indispensable protection to native industry. This retrocession from the sounder notions of commercial and financial policy, hitherto pre valent in Venezuela, is the result of the excitement engendered by the establishment at Caraccas in 1843, by two or three of the principal proprietors and directors of the so-called " National Bank," of a periodical designated as El Promoter, in which, with a view to personal and party objects, the most subversive principles were set afloat, and the most inflammatory language was directed against foreigners, the doctrines of commercial freedom, and especially against the laws which afford the only real legal security for commercial and money transactions in Venezuela in respect of establishments and individuals, not like the national bank, clothed with the extraordinary powers and privileges of the Venezuelan fisc. From the appearance of this mischievous paper to the present time, the nation has been de signedly kept in a state of morbid irritability against, and distrust of, foreigners; and, as a conse quence, the illiberal Spanish colonial system of prohibition and restrictions has been openly upheld and advocated by the several contending parties, as the surest means of acquiring political capital. Owing to this feverish and diseased state of the public mind, to the tardiness and want of con fidence in a faithful administration of justice, and to the consequent increasing disregard and callous ness of debtors concerning their character and commercial credit, the trade of the country is not generally considered, by competent judges, to be in a sound or healthy condition ; and notwith standing the increase of British imports, the trade is, in fact, fast dwindling into a species of retail trade in the hands of petty dealers. Two long established commercial houses lately wound up their affairs. On doing this they declared " We have held on for along time in doubt, in the hope of some favourable change, but, alas, to end in disappointment." Neither of these commercial houses have been replaced by the establishment of other British firms. The president, General Soublette is fully sensible of the erroneous views taken by his country man in respect to the question of commercial freedom, and the suicidal measures, by the adoption of which they vainly flatter themselves Venezuela will be enabled to place her trade and finances upon a sound and healthy footing. The value of foreign merchandise imported into Venezuela in 1844-1845, in transit for New Granada, amounted to 132,216 dollars 97 cents, equal to 21,154/. 14s. 2d. ; of which amount 118,432 dollars 71 cents, equal to 18,949/. 4s. 7d., was introduced through the port of Alacaybo.and 13,784 dollars 26 cents, equal to 2205/. 9s. 7d., through that of Angostura. The amount of British merchandise through the two ports was as follows: through Maracaybo 47,339 dollars 26 cents, equal to 7574/. 5s. 7d. ; through Angostura 1928 dollars 42 cents, equal to 788/. 7s. ; total, 52,267 dollars 68 cents, equal to 63621. 12s. 7d. Caraccas, February 16, 1846. STATISTICS OF VENEZUKLA. L077 Value, as per Manifest, of Goods, including Gold and Silver Coin iml R,,ir into Venezuela from all Countries, respectively, during Fin , Y V 30th of June, 184o.-Exchange Six LllarsLl a *" NATIONS. Amount charged with Spe cific Duty. Duty ad Valorem. Duty free. GRAND TOTAL. Amount of DotiM. Ordinary. Extra- ordin-ry. dolUni. ai.orii I 7 1,111 Jl Ifl dollarT" . "v; 1,690 Great Britain and her colonies Denmark and her colonies, St. Thomas.. dollars. 1,354,171 43,828 582,264 595,118 V56,394 2-29,517 199,627 dollars. 43,330 32,H78 35,797 59,016 32,926 13,98 3,886 40 3,299 2 170 dollars. 13 2,32 j !<(), I7. r > 345,660 6,*94 67,469 87,172 30,279 2 3,590 I 170 dollar*. I.529.X30 373,141 %.V2I 641,028 346,789 330,3*7 233,792 42 75 36,391 2,439 4,052 dollars. 3!i,37i v 10, ;,,;, I7M44 31,09] II 71 11,547 217 ! , > Germany Bremen, and Hamburg France, and French West Indian colonies Holland and her colonies, Curacoa New Granada and Goajira 75 29,502 485 3,767 Countries not named in official returns.. Total dollars Total sterling 3,894,748 623,160 205,042 32,807 861,937 137,910 4,961,727 793,877 1,323,446 21 1.7 " I 137,342 i; 21,17, Comparison of value of imports, in 1843-1844 dollars. iu 1844-1845 4 %1 Til Comparison of amouut of duties on imports chargeable with a duty, in 1843-1844 ,, iu 1844-1845, iu 1,318,932 I 455 788 211,029 232 926 34J per cent. 136 856 21 897 1 th iiiinunt D| duty, 1 .1-10 [ 1 7 J 5 20 "20 I 7 i">l in 1844 1845 1 5T I *30 244 773 Increase, in 1844-1845. 20s ner cent. .. 256.310 11 1 Note A. At La Guaira a duty of two per cent on amount of duties on imports is further collected, a a port-charge on " entrance of vessels;" but as this is in reality a duty on imports, and is not paid i.y the owner of the vfcl, but by the importer, it is not included iu the above statement. In addition to the ordinary and extraordinary duties on imports, included in the treasury and custom-house returns under those denominations, two other duties on imports are collected ; namely, 1st, a " subsidiary duty" of two per cent on the amount of those duties on imports at La Guayra, and of four per cent at all other parts: 2ndly, two per cent on amount of said duties on imports at La Guayra, collected as a port charge on the " entrance of vessels ;" the two du ties being together equal to four per cent on the amount of ordinary import duties with ten per cent additional, which, although termed an extraordinary duty, is, in fact, an ordinary duty, therefore the actual rate of duties on imports charge able with a duty was, in 1844-1845, 3?i per cent; it having been in 1843-1844, 35J per cent. 1078 SPAiMSIl AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CUSTOM HOUSE Value of Exports from Venezuela, including Gold and Silver Coin and Bullion during the Year ending the 30th of June, 1845. Exchange Six Dollars and a quarter to the Pound Sterling. COUNTRIES. Amount. Remarks. dollars. 1,156,751 1,376,596 441,336 701,685 1,012,747 477,494 268,135 84,554 6,000 540 43,557 22,000 704 sterling. Subsequent to the 1st of July, 1844, the Duties on Kx- ports have been taken off. Germany, liremen, an ti g b pain ana her colonies. ....... rr-mce, and rrench \V es n la Mexico N ew Grenada and Goajira Hayti Sardinia Total. . . 5,592,159 594,745 1 COMPARISON of Amount of Exports. dollars. In 1843, 1S44 5,966,7<6 In 1844, 1845 5,592,159 Decrease in 1844-5, 6? percent 374,567 59,931 COMPARISON of the Value of Exports to Great Britain. dollars. Jn 1843, 1844 1,008,023 In 1844, 1845 1,156,751 Increase in 1844-5 147-10 percent 148,728 161,283 185,080 23,797 STATEMENT of the Description and Value, as per Manifest, of the different Articles of Foreign Manufacture imported into Venezuela during the Year ending the 30th of June, 1845. Exchange Six Dollars and a quarter to the Pound sterling. ARTICLES. Value. ARTICLES. Value. ARTICLES. Value. Account bonks, maps, mu sic, drawing- , &c Animal* live dollars. 4,620 1,876 18,846 24,555 6,197 1,000 12,882 2,348 10,711 620 10,020 1,533,151 30,083 228,705 13,629 3,679 20,528 2,247 4,989 82,779 5,207 125/iOl Brought forward.... Hats and bonnets Instruments of agriculture and art dollars. 2,150,273 31,149 16,187 13,895 4,613 6,027 1,623 1,950 811,941 31,475 7,510 5,521 3,270 1,902 33,7P8 11,117 2,524 2,115 2,672 201,506 2,242 3,343,310 Brought forward. . . . Silks ! dollars. 3,343,310 158,560 8,967 110,813 25;> 223 63,862 37,816 2,922 7,912 60,80 1 3,683 1,606 974 6,843 I26,(i86 158,734 1 ,6!>G 6,595 168,092 4,270,350 691,377 f sier. 683,257 110,620 793,877 Barrels and casks, beer . . . Soap Silver, manufactured Stills Hoots and hh< es Ditto, false Lace . Carriages, carts, and wheel- Lamps Leeches Linens Medicines and drugs Mills, sugar M uaical instruments Ornaments for public build ings, churches, &<v Paint and paint-brushes .. Thread, Tiles and bricks Timber Tobacco Tortoiseshell and ivory.... Toys Cidtr Clothing, ready-made Coal C.rdage Karthtn ware Wax Flour Wines Perfumery Picture?, and picture- Watches Sundries* Glass plate Gown.--, artificial flowers, f.ms, &c Grain, seeds, aiid plants.. Ditto, not specified in offi- Total . .. Provisions, groceries, &c., including nil and vine- Foreign gold and silver Hardware, and articles of iron Suddlery, harness, &c Carried forward. . . . Carried forward 4,961,727 2,150,273 * This item consists of coufiture, pump*, playing cards, cut ston>-, spectacle?, and steam-en gin:8. STATISTICS OF VEXI- XrKf.A. STATEMENT of the Total Quantity, Custom House average Valuation ,,! T ot,l V I Articles exported from Venezuela during the Year endin, tl,, n t ,f , Exchange at Six Dollars and a quarter to the Pound sterl?,^ f EXPORTS. Quantity. Value. ToUIV, 4,433 286 17,661 128,484 695 68,100 7,57 J, 1 70 29,034,771 9,602 201,000 1,000,616 982,600 302 372*980 "*468 83 14,754 358,991 463,219 138,5.17 286 295,546 130,960 1,372 J717 18,056 dlrs. cts. 4 97! 5 20 9 95! " ; 1.1- 1C, 14! 8 1-6 o io 1 " -:: 1 12 10} *3 1-9 1 53 5 564 if 32J o "ij 69 32! 97$ f>| 84 40J 1 sU 34J 16J 1 53i 1 1$ 14 47 3 5! "sj 12J dollar.. 1 1-7 till 1 I,ll4.7:i| 2,37 ^ 1,101 500 444 36| 11,580 4jat ris 14,618 741.- 150,504 0<i:. 2,173 19,831 MWI ll. i.HIMI 8,011 1,817 50.332 6,194 l. .TI :.i j 434 3,660 14,517 44,915 ^.<; ( .N 13.7 xi 279 3,o; 28,5{ ll^N t: -I. - ,:.: Chocolate Coffee do Dividivi Fish salt Fruits ....No ....do ....do do .. No ....do ..hhds Mules . No fish Palm at loads ...No. hhds 4,940 1,025 506 30 105,000 814,351 ... No. bottles barrels ...Ihq. Sugar, common brown, called " Papelon" muscovado, and a small quantity clayed, Sundry articles not specified in official returns. ...Ibs. 5,120 560,058 ....do. .... Exports from the port of Cumaiebo not de- The above are Venezuelan productions. Total 5,451. 7: s 137,381 H7 2.7M . . 1 Grand Total. COMPARISON of the Value of Imports and Exports in 1844, 1845. dollars. Total value of Exports in 1844, 1845 5,592,159 , Imports in 1844, 1845 4.961,727 .. 793,87< Excess of Exports over Imports, or 12| per cent. 630,432 .. 100,869 The prices per quantity are never given in the Venezuelan official statements, it has, therefore, been necessary to make the calculation. 1080 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. STATEMENT of the Value of Gold and Silver in coin and bullion Imported into and Ex ported from Venezuela during the Year ending the 30th of June, 1845. Exchange Six Dollars and a quarter to the Pound sterling. ARTICLES. Amount Imported. Amount Exported. dollars. dollars. Silver coin Total 691,377 rts in 1844, 1 tot classified 110,620 845 137,381 691,377 21,981 110,620 Excess of imports over expo Description of coin i 553,996 88,639 . GROSS Return of Venezuelan, and of British and Foreign Vessels that arrived at, and de parted from, the principal Ports within the Consulate-general of Venezuela during the Year ending the 30th of June, 1845. NATIONS. ARRIVED. DEPARTED. Vessels. Venezuela. Vessels. Venezuela. number. 814 414 tons. 26,566 59,650 number. 1490 491 tons. 36,778 67,739 British and other foreign countries.. 1228 | 86,216 1981 104,517 STATEMENT of the several Amounts collected in the Ports of Venezuela during the Year ending the 30th of June, 1845, for Dues and Charges on Shipping, so far as it has been possible to ascertain the same. Exchange Six Dollars and a quarter to the Pound sterling. DUES AND CHARGES. Value. DUES AND CHARGES. Value. dols. cts. 23,382 51 6,996 04 3,669 62 4,747 62 486 90 2,705 00 7,085 01 4,052 18 5,023 41 Not stated. Hospital dues at Angostura irregularly levied by a municipal regulation.. . Mole Dues at Puerto Cabello of 1 dol. equal to 3s. 2|d. a day during period of vessels loading and discharging ; also a contribution of a quarter per cent on the value of all imports and exports applied to construction and conservation of mole, aque duct, and bathing-houses ; both contributions unfairly imposed by dols. cts. Not yet published. Not ascer tained. Not stated or ac counted for in any official statement. s. d Watering . Passports on embarkation of passen- Pilotage collected only at Angostura Mole dues at Maracaybo and other ports irregularly levied by muni- Amount of dues to health officers, captains of ports, government in terpreters, and stamps for licence Billa of health at Maracaybo irregu- 58,148 29 9,303 14 5 TRADE OF LA GUAYRA. LA GUAYRA, the principal sea-port town of Venezuela, is situated in the province of Caraccas, on the eastern shore of a small bay, and contains about 7000 inhabitants. Vessels cast anchor in an open roadstead, exposed to the north-east wind, at a distance of from a quarter to half a mile from the wharf, where the holding ground is secure at a depth of from eight to twenty fathoms. Pilots are not required on the entrance of vessels into this port. The rise and fall of the tide is scarcely perceptible. Stone, for ballast, is procured with difficulty, at a cost of from eight dollars (1Z. 5s. 7 d.), to twelve dollars (II. 18s. 4|d.), per barge-load of five tons. In front of the custom-house there is a covered wharf about 300 feet in length for the embarkation and debarkation of passengers and goods, and close by on the beach is a fountain of fresh and wholesome water for the supply of vessels. Cargoes of vessels are shipped or discharged by means of lighters carrying from four to four and a half tons. STATISTICS OF YEN EZ U EL A . \ (}g J The charge for lighterage is four dollars (12s. 9Jd.) per load. The cost of discharging is generally paid by the shipper, but for winch he is re imbursed by charging ten per cent on the amount of freight, under the denomination of primage, five per cent of which is in fact for lighterage. The expense of loadin" usually defrayed by the exporter. Foreign merchandise or native produce is conveyed by porters between the wharf and merchants stores, at an average charge of one rial or 4d. a load; or, when a pack;, of such a weight or bulk as to require more than one porter, 9 cents, or tyd. is paid to each man per journey. As there is no lazaretto at this port for passengers or goods, vessels having to perform quarantine, anchor two or three miles to leeward of the town, and to avoid being placed in quarantine, a vessel must be provided with a bill of health, duly certified by a Vene zuelan consul, or consul of a friendly nation. Numerous accidents having occurred, both to passengers and goods, upon landing and embarking at the wharf, owing to the heavy ground swell in the roadstead, the municipality of this town, entered into a contract with an American engineer, to construct a breakwater, together with a small lighthouse at the point, and a building as an office for the captain of the port, for the sum of 275,000 dollars, 44.000*, This breakwater was commenced in March, 1844, and is now rapidly drawing towards completion ; but owing to an accumulation of sand on the inner side, washed in by the currents, unfortunately, it has not answered the expectations of the authorities or the engineer, and fresh works will have to be constructed to render it of any material or prac tical benefit to trade. Small coasting craft of from about twelve to eighteen tons burden, are able to anchor within its influence. No reduction in the charge for the shipment or debarkation of goods has as yet been Since May, 1839, a duty of two per cent, to be calculated on the amount of tariff duties with ten per cent addition on imports into La Guayra, has been collected under the denomination of a port charge on entrance of vessels, over and above the port due of 7 cents, 2fdL, per Venezuelan ton on entrance. This is virtually a duty on imports, being paid by 3 the owners or consignees of merchandise. The proceeds are applicable to local purposes, and, at present, are exclusively devoted to the cost of the construction of this breakwater. During the Venezuelan financial year, ending the 30th of June, 1844, this duty amounted & to 14,442 dollars = 231 H. A lighthouse due of 6 cents, 2^., is recovered from national and fore.gn merchant vessels entering the port of La Guayra from a foreign port w.th or without cargo; but ,t is not levied on vessels arriving from another port of the republic. Wth the proceeds of thir fund it is intended to erect a lighthouse on the Roques ; n nf rnrks about seventy-ei^ht miles to the northward of La Guayra, Th^as and Puerto Rico, and to the United n n Si MSTJS eTd^the 30th of June, ,844, the proceeds of this duty La Guayra, amounted to 2140 dollar, 3421 mountams nsmg abruptly foa ta P yfi c P |umbian leagues in , engtn ttSfiSiZ* &S at the highest point above the p.ain upon W hich Caraccas stands, or 6000 feet above the sea ^ ^ ^^ of A carnage road between the cap.al ^J of the > sent construction, has been t* n C ^ e ^oW O r mule road; and before it can be ren dere d SfS SSK t^ge^lT purposes of * a ,arge out.ay and years will be required. 6 TOL. I. 1082 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Owing to its present defective state, little, or no reduction has hitherto occurred with respect to the ordinary charges for carriage by mules, since it has been opened. Articles of furniture, or packages of such a bulk or weight, as previous to its opening could only be conveyed to Caraccas on the shoulders of men at an enormous cost, are now taken up at a very much lower rate ; and also bales of goods, crates of glass and earthenware, &c,, instead of requiring to be broken up and repacked in smaller parcels for conveyance by mules, are now carried up entire in carts. Of late years the charge for the conveyance of cargoes has averaged about 1 dollar 50 cents, 4s. 9fd. per mule-load of two quintals = to about 2031bs. English; but at the present time, a bag of coffee, weighing a quintal, or equal to half a cargo, is brought from Caraccas for 31 cents = Js. Besides the before-mentioned import duty of two per cent, a subsidiary duty of two per cent on imports, calculated in the same manner on goods imported into La Guayra, has been levied since July, 1839; and the proceeds of which have been exclusively ap plied to the construction of the carriage-road between Caraccas and La Guayra. The proceeds of this duty during the financial year 1843-1844, amounted to 14,442 dollars = 23 III. Besides these amounts, the sum of 40,000 dollars = 6400Z. out of the national re venue has, since October, 1842, been applied to the construction of this road. There are two daily posts between La Guayra and Caraccas, from the latter other posts are periodically despatched to different parts of the interior. A private subscription packet sails weekly between La Guayra and Puerto Cabello. Packets with mails for the West Indies and England sail from La Guayra on the 7th and 21st of each month ; whilst the mails from the West Indies and England are usually delivered at La Guayra on the 12th and 28th of each month, or on the twenty-sixth day after the packet s departure from Southampton. Both the National Bank of Venezuela (so called) and the Caraccas branch of the British Colonial Bank, have agents at La Guayra. Weights and Measures. 123 Ibs. (libras) Spanish = 125 Ibs. avoirdupois ; 98,392 ditto = 100 ditto; 25 ditto=: 1 arroba; 100 dittos 1 quintal ; 110 ditto = 1 fanega; 108 yards (varas) Spanish = 100 yards English ; 3 feet (pies) Spanish = 1 vara ; 12 inches (pulgadas) Spanish = 1 foot. The English gallon is used for the admeasurement of liquids. Four gallons are con sidered as one arroba. Five wine-bottles as one gallon. Tonnage. About 140 Venezuelan tons = 100 tons English ; about 1121 ditto = 100 tons United States; and about 134^ ditto = 100 tons French. The total amount of port dues on vessels entering and clearing with cargo from La Guayra may be estimated at 4s. O^d. per ton, British admeasurement. IMPORTS into La Guayra during the Years 1840 to 1844 inclusive. NATIONS. 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 Grand Total of the Five Years. Sterling. Annual Ave rage of the Five Years. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. Great Britain, and her colo- 265,380 139,671 119,465 41,933 116,729 36,342 77,549 60,928 9,111 308 162,596 34,508 84,595 41,069 47,062 24,678 67,065 12,580 14,205 150,000 14,631 69,505 26,337 45,555 25,098 59,230 24,768 5,862 93,879 26,914 81,468 30,687 43,098 29,126 25,499 18,507 6,644 2,482 1,949 811,526 76,053 370,975 184,562 382,713 190,949 283,847 170,298 6,644 36,295 1,949 308 162,305 25,351 94,195 36,912 76,543 38,190 56,769 34,060 6,644 7,259 1,949 308 United States 115,942 44,536 130,269 75,705 54,504 53,515 Spain and her colonies Bremen France and her colouies Denmark and her colonies . . . Sardinia Holland and her colonies Oldenburg 4,635 Hayti Total !744,486 602 036 488,358 420,986 360,253 2,616,119 523,224 STATISTICS OF VENEZUELA. EXPORTS. L083 NATIONS. 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 Grand ToUl. Annual Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. NM Great Britain and her colo- 65 781 14724 34 295 > > ( , 8 864 31 620 1 25 424 % !58 . . . - 73941 120 063 105 702 77 V)t 103,426 149 574 107 047 36 750 3V "i7 i 61424 66 944 30 117 17 643 France and her colonies Deumark and her colonies . . 24,546 86,829 14 003 22,909 105,653 9855 38,534 44,351 14350 53,921 25,467 :u.7*; 10,837 6 618 74.512 li , , 3 574 6 647 969 138 2 113 4682 2 040 3 397 3 3 f 7 13934 13 934 13 934 82 .: Total 449,571 501,138 468,656 406,815 346,602 2,172,782 i.i i ARRIVALS during the Five Years ending December 31, 1844. NATIONS. 1840 1841 1842 Vessels. Venezuelan Crews. Vessels. Venezuelan Crews. Vessels. Crewi. number. 25 tons. 5,441 9,713 3,721 2,810 2,168 2,699 2,032 *756 uuiaber. 298 number. 12 85 39 14 7 26 31 1 19 I tons. 2,229 ll ,595 5,299 2,766 1,936 5,098 3,365 207 1,611 IB number. 137 number. 31 25 80 49 8 7 27 6 20 ton*. 4,589 3,057 11.5:,1 6,444 1,660 1,810 4,434 700 1,148 number. 307 66 26 12 8 13 17 Danish 9 Haytian Total 178 29,340 235 34,154 ! 253 35,395 ARRIVALS (continued). NATIONS. 1843 1844 Grand Total. Annual Arerage. Ves- sels. Vene- zuelan Crews. Ves- sels. Vene zuelan Crews. Ves sels. Vene zuelan Crews for Two Years. Ves sels. Vene zuelan Crews for Two Years. British No. 25 11 73 39 12 8 21 8 tons. 3,494 1,192 9,744 5,226 2,920 1,712 3,384 1,114 No. 212 88 479 399^ 138 241 97 No. 34 24 71 59 18 9 22 11 2 14 1 tons. 7,842 2,330 11,023 9,074 4,253 2,306 4,554 2,271 314 518 158 No. 347 210 548 662 192 95 254 109 2-1 106 6 127 60 375 212 64 39 111 73 3 75 1 1 tons. 23,595 <>,J7!I 53,626 29,764 14,414 9,932 20,171 9,482 521 4,889 158 48 No. 559 298 1027 1061 330 164 495 206 24 231 6 No. 15 20 75 42 13 8 22 15 1 15 I 1 tons. 4,719 B,1M lt,7SB MM 4,034 1,896 26(1 978 158 48 No. 280 I) . 513 531 182 - 17 103 24 116 Venezuelan ... United States.. S panish Hamburg Danish 13 856 125 Oldenburg .... 1848 265 44,648 2553 1411 173,179 4401 22S 34.636 2200 Q. endiof JVofe.-The tota numer o crews 7 o in the 31.t of December, 1844, was 1301, and the yearly average 200. ia. are e,aaHo about { mj } ton,, Vene*ue,,,i admeasurement. :&^ but the return for 1844 includes all vessels that arrived at MtWi ivj ? B ri,Uh or foreign porl. The may have discharged a part of the,. -inward W" we ^ ou rf Venezuelan tonn 8 e and number of crew, and fore St. Thomas and this port 1084 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS DEPARTURES, ending the 3 1st of December, 1844. 1840 1841 1842 Vessels. Venezuelan Crews. Vessels. Venezuelan Crews. Vessels. Venezuelan Crews. British number. 25 tons. > 441 number. 298 number. 12 tons. 2,229 number. 137 number. 29 tons. 4,268 number. Venezuelan 17 2,193 United States 57 34 8,301 4 470 70 49 10,157 6,536 ; 80 52 11,663 6,961 Hamburg 15 3,985 21 4,502 10 2,288 G 1 773 5 1,387 8 2,273 French 22 3 684 32 6,125 24 4,230 13 1,251 16 1,621 6 888 1 126 1 207 Dutch 8 595 13 1,092 17 1,197 3 651 liaytian .. 1 48 Total 184 1 30,777 .. 220 33,904 .. 243 35,961 DEPA RTURES (continued). NATIONS. 1813 1844 Grand Total. Annual Average. Ves sels. Vene zuelan jCrews. Ves sels. Vene zuelan Crews. Ves sels. Vene zuelan Crews for Two Years. Ves sels. Vene zuelan Crews for Two Years. No7~" 286 120 503 500 153 82 228 98 24 115 6 2100 British . No. 27 11 73 36 12 8 21 8 tons. 3,739 1,192 9,744 4,879 2,920 1,712 3,384 1,114 No. 223 88 497 368 138 69 241 97 No. 34 18 68 56 16 9 19 10 2 14 1 tons. 7,862 1,739 10,599 8,618 3,723 2,306 3,840 2,058 314 518 158 No. 348 153 526 632 169 95 215 99 24 106 6 No. 127 46 384 227 74 36 118 53 4 65 1 3 1 tons. 23,539 5,124 50,46i 31,964 17,418 9,451 21,263 6,932 647 4,258 158 651 48 No. 571 241 1005 1000 307 164 456 196 24 231 6 No. 25 15 70 45 15 7 24 11 13 3 1 tons. 4,708 1,708 10,093 6,33 3,483 1,890 4,253 1,386 215 852 158 651 48 Venezuelan United States ... Hamburg . . . French Sardinian Dutch 13 856 125 Oldenburg Haytiau 247 .. Total 209 29,540 1828 41,735 2,373 | 1,103 171,917 4201 221 34,383 Note. The total number of crews of British vessels that departed from La Guayra during the Quinquennium ending the 31st of December, 1844, was 1206, and the yearly average was 251. |" British register. ^ ( 140 ~| 100 tons. < United States ditto. }> are equal to about \ 112 > tons, Venezuelan admeasurement. I French admeasurement. J ^ 134| ) The returns for the years 1840, 1841, 1842, and 1843, only include vessels departing to British and foreign ports ; but the return for 1844 includes all vessels that departed from La Guayra to other ports of the republic, at which they may have taken in a part of their outward cargoes, as well as those proceeding to a British or foreign port. The following statement gives the number of departures of vessels, and the amount of Venezuelan tonnage to British ports, only duriug the year 1844 ; Twenty-five vessels of the burden of 5779 Venezuelan tons. Ihe returns, No. 2, of British and foreign trade, transmitted annually from this vice-consulate to her majesty s Legation at Caraccas, and from which this statement has been compiled, do not contain any particulars relating to the number of departures of Venezuelan vessels, the amount of tonnage, or the number of their crews, during the two years, ending the 31st of December, 1841, as such details have been principally included under the head of " Danish" shipping ; vessels sailing under the Venezuelan flag having been chiefly employed during that period in the trade between St. Thomas and this port. OBSERVATIONS. The import and export trade of Great Britain is almost exclusively confined to the port of Liverpool. It is supposed that about a quarter of the total amount of British goods imported into La Guayra, are on account of German houses ; they also import linens and baizes, but not to so large an amount as cottons. British capital enters into these speculations. ^I he principal British mercantile firms of La Guayra are in the practice of charging on consignments of goods from twelve to twelve and a half per cent, for commission, guarantee on sales, warehouse, collection, &c., and returns of proceeds are made at ten months. STATISTICS OF VENEZUELA. IMPORT Trade of La Guayra, in British and Foreign Vessels, during the Year encW the 31st of December, 1845, compared with the Imports during the Year ls-i T Exchange has been calculated at the rate of Six Dollars and a quarter t" O * NATIONS. Total Invoice Value of Cargoes in Increase. Decrease. Value of Cargoes. Total Amount of Dutie*. Exce of in.i rto IpMl* -.,:,,,: lin; Ml Sterling. 1844 Inclusive of Specie. 1845 Exclusive of Specie. Sterling. Sterling. Admitted Duty Free. On which Duty wan Paid. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. Sterling. B ritish 93,879 26,914 81,468 25,499 43,098 30,687 18,507 29,12!> 6,644 2,482 1,949 158,563 29,546 105,290 55,954 41,407 41,328 24,404 17,970 4,217 3,611 3,222 499 101 64,684 2,632 23,822 30,455 10,641 5,897 4,217 740 499 101 1,69*1 11,156 3,033 1,949 6,781 3,479 38,194 8,654 675 7,666 195 38 452 582 491 4 151,782 26,067 69,096 47,300 40,732 33,662 24,209 17,932 4,216 3,159 2,640 8 97 MUM 7,773 36,130 M. .->, 12,635 12,465 7,038 5,739 1,061 1,193 1,094 ft 26 93,933 16,095 57,008 6,139 10,576 2,837 9,735 344 3,097 499 101 1 0,024 ! M IJtU Venezuelan.... United States.. French Spanish Danish . . Bremen Swedish New Granada.. Santo Domingo Oldenburg .... Total Total invoice i ports in. 1844, 360,253 -altie of im- inclusive ot 486,112 360,253 143,688 Excess of 1845 17,829 Invoice Va 65,212 lue of Exp 420,900 arts over J 145,403 mports in 200,362 96,965 16,761 Ditto, ditto, of Imports over Exports in 184 Increase in the invoice value of imports in 1845, or 35 per cent exclusive of specie. . . 103,397 125,859 EXPORT Trade of La Guayra to Foreign Countries. The Exchange has been calculated at the rate of Six Dollars and a quarter to the Pound Sterling. NATIONS. British Invoice Value of Cargoes in Increase. 14,616 2,222 16,039 44,068 10,730 3,873 3,672 Decrease. 48,674 1,748 2,631 2,694 13 3,397 1844 50,014 11,229 96,958 33,726 32,579 90,240 10,837 10,866 1845. 64,630 13,451 48,284 49,815 30.831 134,308 21,567 8,235 3,873 3,924 125 3,672 S a iis 1 h* 6,618 138 3,397 Dutch Lubeck Total 346,602 382,715 95,270 59,157 Total Invoice Value of Exports, m 1845 ^382,715 in 1844 346,602, inclusive of specie. Increase in the Value of Exports, in 1845 ~~36,113, or 101 percent, exclusive of specie. TONNAGE, and Value of the Cargoes of Vessels, which Arrived at, and Departed from, the Port of Maracaybo, during the Year 1838. COUNTRIES. ARRIVED. DEPARTS D. Vessels. Tonnage. | Value. Vessel?. Tonnage. Value. 2,473 2,698 33,576 4,388 565 British 3 3 38 15 8 2 300 582 4091 1827 362 73 5,088 1,529 31,455 11,344 3,942 93 3 2 41 16 8 2 300 373 4416 1926 362 73 New Granadian Total 69 7235 53,451 72 7480 71,497 REM \RK.-Exchange, six dollars per pound sterling. 1086 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CO I 60 .9 ^B a I cr- a TJ f I" O .s I I 03 I 8- X w el c <3 1 w g Q O 4 0- I d S to o>.2 K CO *> C 1 r* CD CO " ^ g S S 3 s o- o co o 3 .0 ;; CO 2 " 2 5" 1 S 3~ a 41 >M 2 Tg co oo to o ^t 0000 COO T( 00 1 (0 to os ooci to wi> | J CD So, O ,, ^ CO CO O O r-* JT -^ COOl O OOCOI ^* o^ *^,o * ^ ^^ i "i jaag pauQ rt 01 . .0 .... o sa[qBQ SSBIQ JZ5 < o o n bUJOH om^O a . . . .2 . . 2 . . . . g ! 4 ! B raesieg w * " * 1C mpomuiBH ^ . . ~ Id spjBog JBpao [* ?> 5 S 5 dj ao >o ci 1 S3 7 S o . . rf . S O . Cl . . CO - . rr iM CO 6 s ^ K o* ^ asaaqQ j . . o . IN 3 BHUBdBSIBS 5 : : 1 : ::::::: 8 c> i .1 J c 3 O O CO CO O 00 oaoBqoj m : : : : : : j s" Ja ? : >" D 00 tf3 Tt* C s o "CD sauag nmbuoj, 5 I _ o* i- M "Z, IN IW B ^ jaqio jo stipis o **" *^ ** ~ &S "t O> OS CO -.apmpaua O .i g r & r : : H- : : -Cl OO O 1OW CO 06" 05 CN" cT tC<M" oo" -< CO 00 o O O5 O t* CO O O O d O 8900 S 3 S BOOOQ -H C J : : : ^ : : ? JO (M O4 O 00 CO a s * " * " " CN 1< CO O pasjou . . ^ . ^ T5 55 * ^ oSipuj O CO O O * .21 S S S 1 i of c-f of * * * co" io no, ^ O 00 u- f-i i>~ " IN" * " c O O O O 00 o o oo *>. m o o o . . oo jf rf 2" ^ S 5 : : : | ! i . : : I - : : : CH H : Is : ! : : - : S a * Sis g ^S : i p 11 i8 | : J 1.1 8| | I : c c 22 S pq aa fe fe EC M % : : : ** : BR g SS H I| | * ^ g g rt w J 63 fc f* ill d . c i i il i! t 1 "3 ^"3 E? OTi> "3 I ll 1 .11 2 o ^ <i* ^ d u -5 -S^ci-B 2 fl S & Hit ^,0) "* s ? ft ^ g M g^ Sg ^* J !2 ^ i oo -S ^^ -g|-H If !!"& 5 2 1 -i taOd 6 S " ca 2 P 3 S fl 3 **S12 i III-s llSllgs e!i?i; t ^ o IlSg r S Il = C C3 lllllli e 5 h t*T > >H C^. S^^ * p ^-j > >, STATISTICS OF VENEZUELA. 1087 VALUE of Merchandise Imported at the Port of Angostura from various Countries durin- the Year ending the 31st of December, 1* H. UNDER WHAT FLAG IMPORTED. FROM WHAT COUNTRY AND PORTS BROUGHT, Invoice Value of Cargoes in Pound Sterling. ,. d. fi85 8 4028 6 7 1440 19 235 3 3 . d. 5,313 14 7 1,676 2 3 C.1G5 10 5 I..MI; \i o 2,273 5 2,818 9 9 British colonies GG3 6 5502 4 5 96 9 4450 3 United States New York 2273 5 1574 8 1244 1 9 Grand total 22,793 14 GROSS RETURN of the British and Foreign Trade at the Port of Maracaybo during the Year ending December 31, 1844. NATIONS. ARRIVED. DEPARTED. Vessels. Tonnage. Crew. Invoice Value of Cargo. 1 Veselj. 1 Tonnage. i Crew. No. ill Invoice Value of Cargo. British No. 14 12 21 7 1 1 tons. 2083 173 1360 3207 558 131 185 120 No. 110 16,089 1,884 27,899 28,214 2,458 11 2,790 "42 No, 14 1 28 22 9 1 tons. 2032 173 2476 MM 609 131 135 68 38 13,490 16 *,V23 2,515 1, 646 57 United States ....... Danish . . . New Granadian Total 1 58 7817 no 70,387 78 9187 lift 86,595 PORTO CABELLO. There arrived at this port, in 1844, from various parts, thirty-two British vessels, 5455 tons, 337 men ; invoice value of cargoes, 337,778/. : value ex ported by these vessels, 44,733J. The latter consisted chiefly of copper ore, coffee, some cotton, and cattle. There was a falling off this year in the amount of imports, 6645/.; and in the exports, of 12,401* of copper ore, the last shipment was made m June, since which the mines, for the present, have been abandoned. The increase in the exportation of coffee, is about 600 tons. The falling off in the export of cotton is nearly 6000 quintals; the low prices in Europe, and the contributions levied on it export for Venezuelan local objects, check the cultivation. The same remark applu d Articles exported from Porto Cabello, in 1844 :-copper ore, 505 tons ; coffee, 1 1 1,032 quintals; cotton, 3759 packs of 100 Ibs. ; fustic, 539 tons ; sugar (Muscovado) ,4 quintals; hides, 1919; bark, forty-four tons; lignumvite, ten tons; dmdm, ten tc cedar logs, seventy-one tons. 1088 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER VII. CUSTOMS REGULATIONS TARIFF OF DUTIES FINANCES OF VENEZUELA. Ports of Import and Export. ARTICLE I. The following ports are hereby declared to be open for the purposes of importation and of exportation : Angostura in the province of Guayana; Cumana, and Carupano in the province of Cumana ; Barcelona in the province of Barcelona ; La Guayra in the province of Carac- cas; Puerto Cabello in the province of Carabobo ; La Vela in the province of Coro ; and Maracaybo in the province of Maracaybo. II. The undermentioned ports are hereby declared to be open, only for the importa tion of goods for their own consumption, and for exportation : Pampatar and Juan Greigo in the province of Margarita, and Guayra and Maturin in the province of Cu mana. III. The sub-custom-house established at the shipping station of Gaza is hereby opened for the purposes of exportations to foreign countries, and at this station may be despatched all vessels desirous of loading at places from the Port of Angostura into the said station and on either side of the Orinoco. IV. The custom-houses which are limited to despatch goods for the consumption of the port at which they are situated, may not grant permits for the conveyance of goods to other places. The custom-house of Guayra is hereby excepted from this provision ; and on the contrary, is empowered to grant permits for the conveyance of foreign goods to places not open to trade which communicate by rivers with the Gulf of Paria. V. The executive government is hereby empowered to continue open for the purposes of exportations any of the ports which it may think proper of those that are closed by the present law. VI. The law of the 22nd of April, 1839, respecting the ports open to trade in Vene zuela is hereby repealed. TARIFF OF CUSTOMS DUTIES. The modifications made in 1841, and still in force in the customs tariff of Vene zuela, were unfavourable to commerce. The basis of duty on goods not^admitted free, is an ad valorem duty of thirty per cent: the importation of salt, cocoa, sugar, and molasses, is prohibited ; the importation of spirits, extracted from sugar-cane, unless imported in bottles, is likewise prohibited. There are many articles subject to a specific duty; besides the import duty of thirty per cent, there is also levied ten per cent, cal culated upon the amount of the duties, which raises the duty, de facto, to thirty-three per cent. All duties on exports from the ports of the republic cease. CLASS I. The following articles are admitted free from duty: Bricks, bran, moulds for sugar mills, living animals of all kinds, ploughs, peas, rice, oats, scarfs for the use of churches, drills, casks and barrels, pumps of wood or iron for irrigation, coal, carts or waggons, wheelbarrows, surplices and other garments for priests, collections or books of music or drawings, and paper prepared for music or drawings, columns of all kinds for buildings, iron cooking stoves, jackets, staves, juniper berries, baggage of passengers, statues of all sorts, copper or iron sugar or still boilers, Dutch ovens, beans, engravings, mathematical or other scientific instruments, boats of iron or wood set up or in pieces, lentils, parts of sugar mills, printed books and maps, files, Indian corn, apples, cotton gins, machines for dredging, mining, spinning, weaving, and shelling corn, steam engines, gold and silver, pans of copper, brass, or zinc, printing paper, potatoes, carriage and cart wheels, seeds, brushes. STATISTICS OF VENEZUELA. CLASS II. The following articles pay rates of three per cent, ad valorem ; gold and silver table services, and generally all stuffs, works, and ornaments made of these pre cious metals ; diamonds, bracelets, &c., &c., of gold, set with precious stones ; v. keys of gold or silver, medals and medallions, jewellery, fine, whether set or plain, and rings of gold. CLASS III. Articles which pay rates of six per cent, ad valorem; viz., barometers and thermometers (four per cent), silk blonde, brocade of gold and silver, and thread of ditto, and cotton lace, embroidery, &c. CLASS IV. Articles which pay rates of thirty per cent, ad valorem ; viz., perfume; all sorts and fine oils for the toilet, false jewellery and bronze ornaments, &c., works of metal generally, scented waters and essences ; alabasters, and works of; chandeliers of glass and metal, canes and sticks of reed, bamboo, &c., with or without mountin. handles, tassels of silk, or other materials; frocks and shirts, made up or in pieces; sofas and couches, carts and playthings for children, ribbons and tapes, &c., not other wise rated, copper goods not otherwise enumerated, head-dresses and caps, window cur tains and blinds, frames for glasses and pictures, plates of metal for furniture, writing desks, inkstands, &c., buttons of bone or wood, &c., musical instruments not otherwise enumerated (surgical and mathematical instruments, twenty per cent), lamps of all kinds, tombstones; books, plain ; fine earthenware, watch keys, ordinary woods not otherwise enumerated; all kinds of furniture not otherwise enumerated; razors, ornaments for churches, manufactures of human hair, works of lead not otherwise enumerated, clocks, seals, scissors, dyes, sword-scabbards ; glass, plain ; and all articles not tpeciatty >< - merated in this tariff. CLASS V. Specific Rates of Duties on the leading Articles of British Manufactures and Trade, at the rate of 100 cents, equal to 4s. sterling. ARTICLES. Cents. I. HARDWARES. S teel in bars quintal Stills N>. Copper and brass wire do. Scales of copper and brass each iron do. Coffee-pots of brass, &c do. tin do. plated do. Padlocks of iron doz. Candlesticks plated, &c pair not plated do. Iron, pig... Till plates, lb. packages containing 225 sheets each Lancets doz , Copper in bars quu,tal Copper ore do. Coffee mills each Cotton mills, and those for grinding maize, &c. do Knives, ordinary doz, Vessels (pots and kettles) of copper ID brass do iron quintal Lead, raw do Pens of iron, steel , or copper gs Presses for stamping eacl Anvils q uinta II. COTTON GOODS. Cotton yarn, and cotton for wicks of candles and cordage of cotton lb Mixed goods of cotton and linen, up to to quarters in width vara five ditto.... do. Cottons, plain "and proportionate duty on those of greater width) do- Cotton stockings doz. Drawers and waistcoats eac " mixed with linen do. Coverlets for tables do - VOL. I. number. 128 6 8 50 30 50 30 100 50 100 50 25 1 250 25 300 200 25 150 37 10 150 75 400 150 ARTICLES. Cents. Counterpanes, embroidered each stamped do. Tickings up to four quarters in width (pro portionate duty on greater widths) v;ir i Dimities (according to width) fl* )rdinary cottons do. Cloths called "Domestics" (according to width) ^ ara Blankets d " z - Muslins, plainer printed vara fine and embroidered do. Handkerchiefs (according to width). ...... do/.. Tape, &c., up to three inches in width (pro portionate duty on greater width) vara III. WOOLLEN?. Camlets (barragan) up to lour quarters (pr - pirtionate duties on greater width).... \ara Baizes ; Drapers and shirts Carpets, two varas in width Cassimeres Casinettes, &c. (proportionate duty for pre ..d... .vara number. 100 iO 3 5 tof, 3 1J to -2J 600 5 in * 1-2 t.) 1. 50 to 150 1 12 20toM 150 50 200 100 15 .... do. i three inches Cords or girdles ...................... ^ n S ne i, a up"to"fou r quarters wide, (and M> on in proportion to width) Blankets ". . . lb. 10 | proportion) 2 j IV. SILK. 37 to 100 Sashes of silk 50 Shirts ot uitto ...... inn Ribbons of silk and 75 I width 6 z 18 45 30 100 B 300 37 .- of half 33 (continued.} 1090 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. ARTICLES. Cents. Ribbons of silk and satin, up to three quarters of an inch 100 varas M lt up to one inch do. above one inch ...do. of gauze, up to two inches in width varal up to three inches wide. do. up to five inches do. Silk, corded, tor embroidering Ib. Silk neckerchiefs, small doz. large do. Shawls of silk and wool, up to four quarters vara Caps of silk doz - Gloves of silk do. Silk stuffs, or silk partially mixed with cotton, up to two-thirds wide, and gauzes of silk, (proportionate duties for greater widths) Silk or guaze, &c., handkerchiefs <loz. Tulle, lace, up to four quarters in width (pro- Rortionate duties for greater widths).. vara i, sewing .11). V. LINENS. Cambrics (batistes), four quarters in width (proportionate duties on greater widths) vara other kinds (ditto ditto) do. Linen?, called white Irish do. striped, mixed with cotton, called No. 2, three quarters wide (proportionate duties on greater widths) do. Handkerchiefs, fine, of cambric, with borders, or embroidered doz. Linen yarn Ib. VI. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. Copper wire, plated Ib. plain ..do. Iron wire, plated do. plain do. Fish, viz.: cedfish do. herrings, fresh or salted do. sardines in oil do. salmon do. ,, other kinds not specified do. Whalebone do. number. 48 62 150 3 150 20 120 50 25 250 50 100 25 20 7 to 10 34 250 25 ARTICLES. Cinnamon, fine ]b- common , do. Wax bleached do. ,, unbleached do. Locks, &c. of copper doz. iron do Strings for musical instruments gross Bridle bits of steel each plated do. Fruits, dried, not specially rated Ib, Guns each Flour (wheat) in barrels of from seven to eight arrobas do Maize, barley, and potato flour H ats, beaver silk Hue Ib VI arble, rough do Mortars, of marble, glass, or alabaster. . ..each of wood do Wafers Ib Tinsel do Paper hangings 100 varaj writing ream ruled do Whetstones doz Grindin g hones .each Skins , not otherwise rated doz Slates for houses 100 .gross Pens Sa<ro.... Ib Tallow quinta prepared do Cider, in bottles doz in casks arroba Tobacco (Havauna) Ib. cigars 1000 cigars from Virginia, St. Domingo, or Porto Rico do. ,, same quality in leaf. quintal Snuff Ib. Ink, writing do. Tea do. Wine, viz. : burgundy, champagne, madeira, or port, in bottles doz. ,, ditto, ditto, ditto, in casks.. ..arroba Vinegar, in bottles doz. in casks arroba Cents. number. 75 6 8 4 300 150 75 100 150 4 150 400 free. 100 50 4 18 50 25 100 50 100 100 200 100 100 150 200 75 4 200 400 80 50 10 300 200 600 50 20 50 300 200 100 50 Boots for men, the pair, one dollar; boots for boys, the pair, seventy-five cents; pitch, the quintal, one dollar ; beer, in bottles, the dozen, eighty cents; beer, in other vessels, arroba, fifty cents ; brooms, of all sorts, the dozen, fifty cents ; pepper, the quintal, three dollars; slates, each, six cents; white pine boards, the 1000 feet, four dollars; pitch pine boards, the 1000 feet, six dollars; shoes for men, the pair, thirty cents; shoes for women, the pair, twenty cents ; shoes for children, the pair, six cents. FINANCES OF VENEZUELA.* dollars cts. s. d. Home department .... 1,073,748 55 = 171,799 15 5 Finance department . . . . 1,150,656 00 = 184,184 19 3 32,400 00 = 5,184 . . 575,359 29 = 92,057 10 .... 91,291 48 = 14,606 12 10 Foreign affairs War Navy 6 Total expenditure . 2,923,455 32 = 467,752 17 The actual expenditure of the republic, in 1846-1847, will not greatly exceed the official estimates of its income for the same period; namely, 2,076,202 dollars 68 cents, equal to 332,1927. 8s. Id. In these estimates are included the sum of 220,000 dollars, equal to 35,2007 , for The exchanges have been calculated at the rate of six dollars and a quarter to the pound STATISTICS OF ECUADOR. L091 payment of a year s dividend on the Anglo-Venezuelan loan ; and furthermore, 20,000 dollars, equal to 3200Z., for the payment of a year s dividend on tin: i: bonds, issued in part payment of Mr. M Intosh s claim. The usual power to apply surplus revenue to the redemption of the foreign debt, of which the executive government was deprived last year, has not been granted to it by the present law; and looking at the increasing jealousy and prejudice a^ 4ners in Venezuela, I doubt much if this power will be again conferred upon the execut However, the usual amount for the gradual redemption and payment of i> dends on the home debt, namely 152,850 dollars, equal to 24,456/., has bi-tn allowed; and, as many members of congress are holders of the stock of this debt, there is no likelihood of the power or means for its redemption being diminished or withdrawn by congress. The revenue from customs duty, the chief resources, and the mine revenues, are estimated as equal to the expenditure, as Venezuela has hitherto maintained her public credit. CHAPTER VTII. MARITIME TRADE OF THE REPUBLIC OF ECUADOR, THROUGH ITS ONLY I OKT OF GUAYAQUIL, FOR THE YEAR ENDING THE 31ST OF DEC., 1844. AT this port the whole trade of the year has been less than that of the preceding, owing to the continuance of the yellow fever, and to a failure in the crop of cocoa. The fever kept away from the port many of the traders of the interior, when chief part of the merchandise imported is consumed, and to the same caus attributed the smaller number of British and other foreign vessels that have , besides the risk of the epidemic, they are subjected to quarantine in the other | coast when proceed ing from this; national vessels, therefore (the crews of which h; undergone the disease are not supposed to be any longer expose< larger portion of the trade of last year. Of the other exports it is only in cotton that there is much difl 000 1843 Cocoa exported 1844 1843 Cotton exported 1844 NAVIGATION. 1,920 4,018 E NTER ED D E P A K T i: D. NATIONS. Vessels. Tons. Value. number. 95 number. 2,401 *. 49,622 nuniU-r. n> 10 ti 10 2,441 83 H ,, Other foreign 88 9,794 193 14,656 218,263 4 193 217,43-2 3 89 4,1 2S 68,502 89 2 50,041 J 2 British 2 76 365 10,M3 123,3-20 7(> 167 137,409 196.194 1 Total 167 14,718 209,103 6 * " - > 1092 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the ravages of the epidemic, but the importation of liquors and articles of consumption for the table (chiefly Spanish) have been unprecedented. It was decreed, in 1845, to augment and encourage the ship-building establishment at Guayaquil, by exempting all vessels built there from tonnage and anchorage dues, and the partial reduction of the duties on merchandise imported by such vessels. Foreign vessels to pay four reals, or about two shillings per ton ; and every vessel of 50 tons, 8 dollars; from 50 to 100 tons, 14 dollars; from 100 to 150 tons, 16 dollars; from 150 to 200 tons, 20 dollars; from 200 to 250 tons, 22 dollars; from 250 to 300 tons, 24 dollars; from 300 to 400 tons, 26 dollars; from 400 to 500 tons, 28 dollars ; above 500 tons for every 100 tons, 2 dollars. Value of a dollar about 4s. 3d. CHAPTER IX. STATISTICS OF PERU. WE are unable to bring forward any regular account of the statistics of Peru. The uncertain, ignorant, anarchical character of the government, has prevented any systematic returns being made ; notwithstanding that such returns are insisted upon being prepared by the republican constitution of the state : it is not, however surprising, that this constitutional law should, like the constitution itself, become a nullity. A people which could have endured the absolutism of a Gamara as president, is certainly not yet intelligently educated for self-government, nor for an appreciation of a comprehension of true civil liberty, or of sound commercial and fiscal legislation. The effects of such an unprepared state for self-government, have been a course of pernicious administration, in regard to national industry and trade. President Gamara established monopolies, and constantly interfered with the regular course of labour, enterprise, and trade. He caused the shops and trades to cease their occupations, while his national guards, as he called them, were drilling ; in order that those who did not belong to that body, especially foreigners, might be deprived of profiting by the hours when the national guards were acting as soldiers. The coin was debased by alloy in various degrees. Foreigners, and especially British merchants, have suffered greatly by this debased coin. Exclusive of this, forged coin is prevalent; and valueless base metal is abundantly circulated. False coin has even been issued, as is well known, from the public mints, as well as by private forgers. Monopolies of the Guano trade, saltpetre, tobacco, salt, &c., were favourite chemes adopted by Gamara, and unfortunately since he has ceased to rule, a more enlightened spirit does not appear to direct the administration. One person obtained a monopoly of the exclusive export of copper bars from STAT1S1ICS OF I-l.Ill . the mines of Lima. Foreigners were by a decree prohibited from fishing on the Peruvian coasts, under the penalty of confiscating their vessels. By a decree dated the 2 9th of July,1840, guilds of trades were established, to be composed of all individuals who shall exercise in Lima any craft or manuf act n trade ; the object of the formation of these guilds was by compelling for artizans who may exercise any craft or trade in Lima, to become members of a guild, to subject them, under the plea of municipal regulations, to the same / loans and military exactions, and requisitions to which the native members of such guilds are respectively subjected. On the 14th of August, 1841, the government of Peru granted to Mr. Wil liam Wheelwright, for a period of ten years, the exclusive privilege to navigate vessels propelled by steam, or by any other mechanical power, along the coasts and in the ports of Peru. The time for the duration of this privilege is to be counted from the period when any of Mr. Wheelwright s steam-vessels arrived in the Pacific ; and of which the Peru actually arrived at the Chilian port of Talcahuano, on the 21st of September the same year ; another, the Chile, arrived on the 5th of October. Both vessels entered Valparaiso on the 15th of that same month, and one of these, the Peru, arrived at Callao on the 3rd of the following month of November. (See Pacific Steam Navigation hereafter.) The government of Bolivia also addressed an order, under date of the loth of October, to the governor of the littoral province of La Mar, directing him to facilitate, by all means in his power, the despatch of the steam vessels at the only port of Bolivia, La Mar or Cobija, and to allow of pontoons being thereat established, free of all duties, for the deposit of coals. TRADE AND NAVIGATION OF PERU. In order to show the progress or decline of trade in Peru, we introduce the following RETURN of the Value, free on board at Cadiz, of Spanish and Foreign Productions ported into Peru in each Year from 1781 to 1795, both mclusive.-Calculat Exchange of 48d. per Dollar. YEARS. Value of Spanish Produce. Value of Foreign Productions. Total Value. mi 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 791 1702 1793 1794 1795 dollars cts. 111,952 7 566,218 1 695,295 7 1,020,434 1 2,318.448 1 6,136,067 4 3,870,200 7 1,557,904 1,209,196 5 2,297,962 4 1,957,545 n 2,147,970 3 2,809,457 3| 1,969,045 5| 1,688,751 5 s. d. 22,990 7 6 113,243 12 6 139,059 3 6 204,086 16 6 463,089 12 6 1,227,213 10 774,040 3 6 311,580 16 241,839 6 6 459,592 9 391,509 3 9 429,594 1 6 561,891 9 393,929 2 9 337,750 6 9 dollars cts. 309,230 4 638,435 3 1,049,343 4 2,073,530 4 3,727,207 4 7,630,681 7 2,911,898 1 1,194,006 7 1,460,220 3 2,465,499 2 2,2-26,310 1 2,508,513 7J 3,163,822 3J I,663,!i94 6i 1,412,239 Oi . d. 61,846 2 1 126,687 1 6 209,809 14 415,706 2 745,453 10 1,526,136 7 6 582,379 12 6 238,815 7 6 292,045 5 6 493,099 17 445,202 6 501,702 15 9 632,764 9 9 332,718 19 3 282,447 16 3 6 886,928 3 6 dollars cts. 424,183 3 1,199,653 4 1,744,044 3 3,093,964 5 6,045,715 5 13,766,749 3 6,792,099 1 2,7:. 1. . 07 1 2,669,423 4,7ii:5,401 6 4,183,856 OJ 4,656,4*4 2$ 5,973,279 7 3.633,240 4 j 3,100,990 6 64,77i ,707 5 L .<. a. 84,836 13 6 239,930 14 348,928 17 6 : 18 6 2 6 17 6 1,358,419 Ifl 6 550,393 8 6 5.r<>si 1-2 o 952,692 7 836,771 4 3 17 3 1,194.655 19 6 a o 620,198 3 12,959,934 13 6 Total Annual Aver- i 30,360,044 6 2,024,003 6,072,004 15 404,800 12 229,644 466.462 4 4,319,980 863,995 16 -^^^^^^^ 1094 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, EXPORTS. RETURN of the Value, free on board at Callao, and Amount of Money and other Produc tions of Spanish America, exported from Callao in each Year from 1781 to 1795 both inclusive. Exchange 48d. per dollar. Y E A 11 S. Amount of Money. Value of other Productions. Total Value. dollars cts. s. d. dollars cts. s. rf. dollars cts. s. d. 1781 1782 443 anfi 88,661 4 117,766 7 23,553 7 561,067 5 112,213 10 6 1784 16,152,910 4 1785 7 144 3^5 2 3,230,583 6 1,428,865 1 968,290 2 732,587 4 193,658 1 146,517 10 17,121,206 6 3,424,245 7 7,877,912 6 1,575,582 11 178G 8,285,659 7 J787 4.5,8.24(5 3 1,657,131 17 6 <)03,< ; 49 5 6 882,807 1 906,022 176,561 4 6 9,168,4 7 181,204 8 ! 5,424,268 3 1,833,693 8 1,084,853 13 6 1788 1789 5,403,973 1 2,44!),945 6 1,092,794 12 6 489,989 3 579,160 2 523,080 115,832 1 6,043,133 3 104,016 i 2,972,575 6 1,208,626 13 6 594,515 3 1790 5,220,387 2 1,044,077 U 448,095 1 89,619 6 5,668,482 3 1,133,696 9 6 1791 1792 4,962,698 54. 8,285,840 41 992,539 14 9 1,657,168 2 li 736,891 7! 147,378 7 104, , 5,699,590 54 i 1,139,918 2 7* 955,111 2 i 191,022 5 3 9,240,951 6| 1,848,190 7 44, 1793 4,560,318 3 912,063 13 6 1,643,130 6 | 328,626 3 i 6,203,449 1 j 1,240,689 Ifl 6 1794 5,047,814 5f 1,009,562 18 74 498,659 6 99,731 19 5, 546,474 3| , 1,109,294 17 lOi 1795 6,460,323 31 1,292,064 13 10| 162,952 32,590 8 , 6,623,275 3| 1,324,655 1 10 j Total 78,995,760 7 15,799,145 3 6 9,154,550 7 1 1,830,907 19 6 88,150,849 6 17,630,169 3 Annual A^er-i age Amount/ 5,266,384 1,053,276 12 610,304 122,660 5,876,723 1,175,344 12 . In the annual amount of the exports is included the amount of the money exported to China and the Phil- lippine Islands ; and also the amount of the money exported on account of the royal treasury. On account of the war, neither money, nor produce, was exported to Europe from 1779 to 1782, both inclusive ; and only a very inconsiderable amount in 1783 ; which will account for the large amount in 1784. Subsequent to the year 1793, shipments of coca and Lark, were effected direct from Guayaquil to Cadiz, which will account for the falling off in the amount of produce exported from Peru during the years 1794 and 1795. AN Approximate Calculation of the Value of European, United States, and Asiatic Pro duce and Merchandise Imported into Peru and Chili, in 1837. COUNTRIES WHENCE IMPORTED. VALUE OF IMPORTS. Peru. Chile. Peru and Chile. Great Britain ... . . dollars 4,500,000 650,000 350,000 150,000 300,000 1,100,000 270, !00 & 900,000 130,000 70,000 30,000 60,000 220,000 54,000 1,464,000 dollars 3,500,000 550,000 400,000 50,000 200,000 1,000,000 230,000 dS 700,000 110,000 80,000 10,000 40,000 200,000 46,000 1,186,000 dollars 8,000,000 1,200,000 750,000 200,000 500,000 2,100,000 500,000 1,600,000 240,000 150,000 40,000 100,000 420,000 100,000 Germany, including merchandise ol Russia, Holland, and Belgium Italy United Slates (from Canton and Manilla; Total . . 7,320,000 5,930,000 13,250,000 2,650,000 Distribution of the Imports into Peru between the States of North and South Peru. North Peru. South Peru. North and South Peru. dollars 3,000,000 400,000 273,060 100,000 250,000 900,000 220,000 600,000 80,000 55,000 20,000 50,000 180,000 44,000 dollars 1,500,000 250,000 75,000 50,000 50,000 200,000 50,000 300,000 50,000 15,000 10,000 10,000 40,000 10,000 dollars 4,500,000 650,000 350,000 150,000 300,000 1,100,000 270,000 jir 900,000 I30,00 70,000 30,000 60,000 220,0 54,000 Italy Spain United States (from Canton and Manilla) Total 5,145,000 1,029,000 2,175,000 435,000 7,320,000 1,464,000 STATEMENT of the Total Value of Exports from Peru, distinguishing the Country of Production in the Year 1837. DESCRIPTION. Value of Exports. dollars. 7,327,548 259,820 7,587,368 1,465,509 51,964 1,517,473 Produce of the States of the Equator, New Granada, and Central America, on account of European, Asiatic, and United States importations into Peru Total STATISTICS OF PERU. 1 < The number of yards of British bleached cottons imported, Yards. In 1839, was ....... 2,237. ,, 1840, the number amounted to . 5,406,302 Showing an increase in 1840, of . 3,078,686 The number of yards of British gray cottons imported, Yards. In 1839, was . ...., . . 2,48 ? ,000 1840, it was only . . . 1,719,548 Occasioning consequently a decrease in 1840 of 762,452 In United States manufacture, say gray cottons, or domestics, there were imported, Yards. In 1839 . . . 1,323,340 1840 . ...-. - : . 2,087,568 Thereby showing a nett increase of . 764,228 The increase however, is only visible in bleached cottons, as the gray cottons im ported from England and the United States together, amount nearly tc for the two years, viz.: ^ ^ British 2,482,000 yards 1,719,548 yards. United States . . 1,323,340 Total . 3,805,340 3,807,116 The total import of bleached and unbleached cottons, in 1839 and 1840, stands therefore thus : Igg9 1840 Bleached . - 2,327,316 yards Griv 2,482,000 1,719,548 American . ! 1W40 2,087,668 Total 6,132,656 9,213,118 Total increase in 1840 over 1839, 3,080,462 yards. pieces. In 1839, there were imported of printed cottons . 78,174 ,,1840. Being an increase in 1840 . - 109,977 Which, estimated at 3 doHars = 1* a piece, makes th. ... of the ,,,crea ^t tt0 n ^.-Tbe Americans - improvin, in likely that, for many years to come, they faCt i^ from Ireland are dai.y increasing in consumption, and have nearly dnver, ; * A 4 59) at 5 = 22,965 In 1838, there were exports ^^ g _ 5U33Q 1839 f 13 ; 000 ,; 5 = 65,000 1096 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. The export of nitrate of soda is becoming- more valuable as a return : quintals. In 1838. there were exported .... 73,510 1839 113,780 1840 176,876 The importations of quicksilver, In 1839 were . . 2203 flasks. 1662^ quintals. 1840 .... 4625 3491J Increase . 2452 1839 Twenty-seven British vessels arrived in Peru during 1840, from ports in Great Britain : 7 direct to Arica from Liverpool ; 1 to Arica, calling first at Valparaiso, from Liverpool; 16 from Liverpool direct to Callao; 3 from London to Callao, calling first at Valparaiso total 27. 34 arrived in 1839, and 14 only in 1838. The value of British cargoes in 1840 was estimated at 1,190,0007., from which deduct 60,0007. for remnants of cargoes sent on to Central America and Mexico, and there remains 1,1 30,000?., to which must be added the sum of 500,000 dollars 100,0007. value of British goods imported into Peru under the flags of all nations, from the deposit warehouses in Valparaiso, making the total amount of British imports consumed in Peru in 1840 = 6,150,000 dollars = 1,230,0007. The tonnage of Peruvian shipping amounted at the latter end of 1840, to 6637 tons; and the number of Peruvian vessels to fifty-six, namely two ships, two barques, fifteen brigs, sixteen brigantines, three cutters, two pilot-boats, sixteen schooners; fifty-six in all. About one-half of their crews consist of English and American seamen, but by a Peruvian law, which is almost always evaded, no foreigner can be owner or master of a Peruvian vessel. The capital employed in the import trade with Peru in 1840 was estimated at 6,900,000 dollars, equal to 1,380,0007. The revenue of the Custom-house of Callao, on British imports, in 1840, yielded a gross sum of 1,200,000 dollars, equal to 240,0007. The French, German, and American trade, had also considerably increased, as com pared with its amount in 1838 and 1839. Several French cargoes arrived, of which some were valuable, the direct importations from France, chiefly to French shopkeepers, have been greatly on the increase. As an approximate calculation, the annual value of the French import trade in 1840, with Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, west coast of New Granada, Central America, and Mexico, may be stated at 3,000,000 dollars, equal to 600,0007. This calculation has been made by Mr. Perrin, the French consul at Cobija. From Germany there have been no direct importations, still the business done, by shipments from Valparaiso to Callao of German manufactures, has been considerable, and two vessels direct to Valparaiso from Hamburg afterwards came down the coast. The commerce of Spain continued gradually to increase, but a large proportion of the quicksilver imported into Peru passes through British hands on British account. From the United States some valuable cargoes have been introduced in 1840. The value of foreign goods imported from the deposit port of Callao into Guayaquil, are paid foi\in produce of the Ecuador, and in remittances in gold in coined ounces. With Central America the trade to Callao may not, perhaps, have been so extensive during 1840 as in former years, which probably may have had its cause in the con tinued state of anarchy in that republic. With Mexico, the trade of Peru had been at least equal in amount to that carried on in 1839, and no alteration appeared in the trade with California. The Chilian trade with Peru has considerably increased, especially in the exchange of the productions of the two countries with each other. From Asia no direct shipments to Peru have been made, but two cargoes from China arrived at Valparaiso towards the end of 1840, of which the whole assortments for Peru STATISTICS OF PERU. were purchased at Valparaiso and sent down to Callao md the purchaser a fair profit. Paused to lo RETURN of the Exports from Peru to Europe, and the United States dur ending the 31st of December, 1840. NATURE OF EXPORTS. Yearly Quantity. Price per Weight or Quantity. Total Value. quintals. 1633 1027 dollars. 38 per quintal. 8. r 12 7 dollar,. 62,054 20,000 i- no 16 4.000 Total ii7, . r. REMARKS. Of the 1633 quintals of bark exported from Arica 40 wnn> f for United States ; 27 ditto for coast; total, 1633. Of L 1,27,, uimals England ; 191 ditto for France ; 133 ditto for United States ; lfd!o /o r Ha urg; total, i 606 ditto quintals were for NATURE OF EXPORTS. Yearly Quantity. Price per Wt ight or Quantity. Total Value. dollars. 4,097,740 150,000 3,563,000 dollars. a. dollars. 4,097,746 150,000 3,563,000 i. 810,540 16 30,000 712,600 M9 4 Returns to England in bills for supplies to foreign ships of war, chiefly United States In addition to the foregoing, say bullion, specie, bills of exchange were remitted to Canton, United States, France, Ger many, Italy, Spain, and her colonies Total 7,810,746 1 .... 7,810,740 Chinchilla skins do/en. 2.412 4 per dozen 16 9,648 1,929 It Note. Out of the above, during the year 1840, bullion and specie to the value of 3,736,512 dollar* eaual to 747, 302/. 8s. sterling, was exported from Peru to Great Britain, to which amount must be added the returns in L 11 and say 30,OOOJ., thus making the total amount exported to Great Britain alone 777.302/ 8* sterling Chinchilla, 2400 dozen for England ; 12 ditto for France ; total, 2412. RETURN of the Exports from Peru to Europe and the United States, during the Year ending 31st of December, 1840. NATURE OF EXPORTS. Yearly Quantity. Price per Weight or Quantity. Total Valae. quintals. dollars. j35 to38perqntl s. 7 to 7 12 dollar*. 1 17,999 s. 23,599 16 dollars. 4,097,746 150,000 3,563,000 Also to countries, other than Great Britain 7,810,746 .... .... 7,810,746 1,562,140 4 dozens. 2,412 4 per dozen. 16 9,648 1,929 12 quintals. 11,690 1,254 9 per quintal. 17 1 16 3 8 105,210 21,318 21,042 4,263 IS Total 12,944 .... 126,528 25,305 12 85.RH8 16 3,818 90,942 8 12,989 12 182 59,041 12 82,500 35,412 7,795 none, do. 227,356 none. 4,996 1,213 24,434 16,500 12.4 to 14 2 to 24 per hide. 2 per quintal. 13 6 cts. per skin 12 per quintal 25 2 10 to 2 16 8 10 8 2 12 (.3 2 8 5 429.444 19,090 ! 454,712 64,948 910 295,208 412,500 Seal skins sheep s quintals al pacha do. States Note. Of the above quantity of bark, 731 quintals were for England ; 1151 ditto for France ; 7 -lit ditto for United tes ; total, 2631. The remaining quantity, amounting in value to 4000J., is not given, but the difference waa divided bullion specie, to the value of 747.302/. 81., was exported from Peru to Great Britain.; to which must be added the returns in bills, 30.000/., thus making the total amount to Great Britaiu alone 777,304*. 81 terling, and the remainder 784,846*. 16,?. sterling to other countries. VOL. I. 7 A . - STATISTICS 01 PERL 1 . ESTIMATE of the Annual Average Value of the Exports to all parts d :!, of Native Productions, including the Precious Metals, from Chile, IJi.l m .,. and from the Ports of New Granada, Central America, and Mexico, situated the Pacific Coast. COUNTRIES. Arerage Animal A mount r.f Exports. Chile dollars. 6,000,000 f 1 200,000 Bolivia 2 000 000 400000 p eru 8 000 000 1 flOOOOO 1,500,000 300,000 150 000 30,000 500000 PH. i ..ii 4,000,000 800,000 Total 22,150,000 4,430,000 GROSS Return of British and Foreign Trade at the Port of Callao in 1841, ARRIV ED. DEPARTED. NATIONS. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Vessels. Ton*. Crews. British number. 68 22 242 47 31 11 6 5 4 2 3 1 31 11 8 3 3 number. 19,585 15,400 25,514 16,155 7,927 2,656 1,172 1,019 1,302 543 1,176 229 5,058 1,596 694 609 449 number. 1046 905 1620 1278 483 167 74 79 69 31 57 15 314 105 71 47 39 ijo means of ascertain ing number. 64 21 246 48 31 10 6 5 3 2 3 29 11 7 4 3 number. ISJM 14,700 20,343 15,972 7,895 2,443 1,203 1,053 1,032 543 1,176 229 J 1,602 Ml 923 449 number. 1014 1074 IBM j-i It 53 31 57 11 279 i : GO 69 39 Peruvian W h Hampurgu ~P . . Mexican Total 498 1 101,084 6400 494 99,944 6370 Report on the Trade within the Consulate of May during the year 1843. JTfWorteThis year presents the anomaly of a decrease in the value of British im ports of 40,000/., with an increase of nearly 4000 tons of shipping, entered in the poi The reason for this apparent inconsistency, was the diminished demand for British manu- factures I "ihe interior of Peru, on account of the continued revolutions and civil wars wrWVi Viavp wpll nip-h bewared all classes of society. th TlMle , that excited at first the cupidity of numerous speculators hav.ng burst . hSbeen the cause also of great and serious losses to several persons who ente, market 9 dollars, 260 820 WJJ**5 d^", 6,960 dollars; to . .. p m ^/^Z* n &^ !!:;:? "^VS ^!&*SaS, SUfi doUars. 1100 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Vigonia Wool, to England, 6740 Ibs., at 1 dollar, 6,740 dollars. Vigonia Skins, to England, 2120 skins, at 6 rials each, 1,590 dollars. Total value, 884,416.5 dollars at exchange, 4Sd. sterling, 176,883 6*. 6d. BRITISH and Foreign Trade within the Consulate of Islay, during the Year ending the 31st of December, 1844. A R RIVE D. D E P A RT E D. NATIONS. Vessels. Crews. Tonnage. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Vessels. Crews. Tonnage. Invoice Value of Cargoes. British number. 25 number. 442 tons. 8,248 s. d. 181,823 6 number. 22 number. 398 tons. 7,246 s. d. 130,348 5 Peruvian French . . . 3 5 28 75 383 1,359 2,313 7,642 18 3 4 28 62 383 1,156 1,032 12 6,054 12 2 30 593 241 12 2 30 593 none. 4 65 1,102 1,358 12 9 65 1,102 896 10 H- 1 g 96 1 546 11,638 16 88 1,458 2,745 9 Danish 1 14 281 468 14 281 none.; Spanish Belgian 1 1 16 12 277 156 337 3 769 4 16 12 277 156 Co. do. Chilian 2 18 247 530 16 7 8 132 do. 1 12 150 851 5 1 12 150 do. Total 53 608 14,342 207,974 7 10 47 733 12,934 141,677 8 TOLLS, Dues, and other Charges, on British and Peruvian Vessels, in the Port of Callao. British Vessels. Peruviai i Vessels. Currency. Sterling. Currency. Sterling. dlrs. rials. 2 s. d. 010 dlrs. rials. s.d. Anchorage and cleaning the port per vessel Fees of captain of the port.. do. Roll do 5 3 1 1 12 040 2 per 50 tons. 8 per 50 tons. Health visit do 1 04Q Licence for sailing do. 3 2 12 010 2 2 1 010 Ballast duty per ton 2 1 1 006 Vouchers are given for all the above charges when required. The advantages enjoyed by Peruvian vessels over those under the British flag, are : First. The coasting trade. Secondly. In the whale-fishery. All whale-oil caught under the Peruvian flag is free of duty, while that caught under the British flag is subject to a duty of twenty-five per cent, on a valuation of three dollars and a half (fourteen shillings sterling) per lOOlbs. on black fish oil ; and to the same duty on a valuation of ten dollars (two pounds ster ling) per lOOlbs. of sperm oil. Thirdly. Gold exported is subject to a duty, under the Peruvian flag, of three- quarters per cent; under the British flag, of one per cent. Fourthly. Silver exported under the Peruvian flag, three and three-quarters per cent ; under the British flag, five per cent. Fifthly. All merchandise coming direct from Europe, Asia, and North America, in a Peruvian vessel, is allowed to pay twenty per cent of the duty on her cargo in docu ments of the exterior and interior acknowledged national debt, if consigned to a foreign house, and thirty per cent, if consigned to a Peruvian house ; whilst a British vessel bringing the same merchandise is allowed to pay ten per cent only of the duty on her cargo in such documents. Lima, February 1, 1845. CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND TARIFF OF PERU. According to the law in force, Callao is declared to be the only port of unlimited deposit, both as respects classes of goods, their port of shipment, and the time of their deposit; but goods may be deposited at the ports of Arica and Paita, for the period of two years, and at Islay and Huanchaco for that of ei^ht months. STATISTICS OF PERU. 1101 It was enacted, by the law of 1840, that the retail trade, and the whole trade of the interior of the country, shall, after the expiration of eighteen months, be alone ca> on by natives and citizens of Peru, whose names shall be duly inscribed in the ( mercial Register. That mercantile houses for the import of goods can alone be established at Arica Tacna, Islay, Arequissa, Callao, Lima, Huanchaco, Trujillo, Payta, and Piura . limitation, however, of selling only by invoices, or unopened packages, and on 7/< by single pieces. This Article is a violation of the British treaty. By the same law, the duty of five per cent actually on diamonds and precious stonei, jewellery with stones or without, fine pearls, wrought gold and silver, and pocket watches, has been reduced to three and a half per cent ; namely, three per cent to the state, and half per cent for ways and means. The tax, called "arbitrios," or ways and means, is collected by the consulado, and is exclusively set apart for the payment of the interest of the home debt. All linen, woollen, and cotton goods, are to pay twenty-five per cent, as follows : twenty-three per cent to the state, and two per cent for ways and means ; and those which formerly payed thirty per cent, are now charged with a duty of thirty-five per cent and forty per cent ; namely, thirty-two and thirty-six per cent to the state, and three and four per cent for ways and means. Duty on playing-cards, 3 rials^ls. 6d. the dozen packs; namely 2^ rials to the state, and -J rial for ways and means. Soap duty, 7 dollars I/. Ss. the 100 Ibs. ; namely, 6 dollars = II. 4s. to the state, and 1 dollar = 45. for ways and means. To bacco duty, 35 dollars = 11. the 100 Ibs. ; namely, 30 dollars to the state, and 5 dollars for ways and means. The duty on flour, 3 dollars 5 rials = 14s. 6d. ; namely, 2 dollars 4 rials=10*. to the state, 4 rials = 2s. for ways and means, and 5 rials m 2s. 6d. for establishments of public charity. Wheat, the fanega of 135 Ibs., 1 dollar 6 rials = 7s; namely, 1 dollar 2 rials = 5s. to the state, 2 rials = Is. for ways and means, and 2 rials = Is. for establishments of public charity. The following duties will be levied on the importation of foreign merchandise; viz., three per cent to the state, and one half per cent to the arbitrios (city-toll); on gold and silver manufactures, real jewellery, with or without stones, dock-work, watches, real pearls, precious stones of every kind, five per cent to the state, and one per cent to the arbitrios ; amber, gold and silver thread and wire, leaves, and spangles, civet, musk, eleven per cent to the state, and one per cent to the arbitrios ; on timber, iron and steel raw. The following articles shall pay the same duties when they are mtende sumption of the population of the first rate ports of the republic: anchors, oars bis- cuit, wood, handspikes, levers, &c, pitch and tar, cordage iron chain cables nai every sort, travellers (a kind of block), hooks and grapnels, ships cooking utensils hi sheet copper, tin, tow, sheet iron, linseed oil, talc lanterns, laid, paint, sheet lead, pul leys, salt-fish, blocks, grindstones, resin, sand minute glasses sea lead and bacco for chewing, tissues for sails and flags, salt meat (better known by the . artides enumerated above, sent from the magazines and warehouse. , of the Customs to Lima, or to any other place of the state wil pay the whole o 1 named in this article, or twenty-one per cent to the state ant sixteen per cent to the state, and two percent to the arbitrios:- Tissues of cotton ; blonds and tulles. flax ; cambric ; handkerchiefs in pieces. ff ,, lace and tulles. silk ; fncUlf other articles except funui properly so called. blonds and tulles. others with sold or silver others. ?J 1102 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Paying twenty-three per cent to the state and two per cent to the arbitrics : Tissues and all articles not named in the foregoing or following tables, of cotton, of wool, of flax. Paying thirty-two per cent to the state, and three per cent to the arbitrios : Trunks for travelling-, musical instruments, pianos ; furniture chairs and sofas, and theii frames, beds, iron camp beds, desks: skins and leather cueros of every kind, whole or in pieces with or without hair, manufactured or tanned, white or dyed. Paying thirty-six per cent to the state and four per cent to the arbitrios: Hats and caps of every kind, boots and shoes, clothes (made up), furniture of every kind (except chairs and chair frames), pastes as provisions, vermicelli and other sorts, of every kind of flour, carriages of every kind. The articles enumerated in the following table will pay fixed or specified duties: ARTICLES. Duties payable ARTICLES. Duties payable To the State. To the Arbi trios. TOTAL. To the State. To the Arbi trios. TOTAL, pi. ri. Of 1 6 2 2 4 3 4 pi. ri. Oi 2 4 4 1 4 pi. ri. 1 2 1 2 4 2 4 5 4 Flour, without distinction as to pi. ri. 2 4 3 4 Of 3 6 2 4 1 4 30 5 4 3 1* 6 Of 6 pi. ri. 4 4 ()i 1 1 4 4 5 2 1 1 Of 1 0| 2 pi. ri. 3 4 1 4 7 e 3 2 35 7 5 4 2 7 0} I Pork fat . . .do. Beer and cider 12 bottles, or arroba Brandy of every kiud, of 20 de grees 12 bottles, or arroba do. do. from 21 degrees, and above 12 bottles, or arroba Liqueurs. do. do. do. Wines of eyery kind 12 bottles or arroba Olive oil, in bottles, or other wise 12 bottles, or arroba Indigo Ib. Skins. Zuelas of half leather (half soles) per half sole Tallow, raw and melted. quintal Tobacco, in leaves, foreign, of Coffee do. 4 4 2 Of 2} 1 4 4 1 2 3 4 4 Of Oi OJ Oi 4 2 4 5 3 1 3 2 4 4 1 4 4 lb. do. into snuff, Polvillo.,do. do. do. rappee.. do. Tea . . do _ wax do. Grain; wheat fanejya q The following articles are exempt from import duties: Animals of every kind (alive or not), gold and silver (in paste, bars, powder, or specie), wood (hoops -flejes^ masts, staves duelas\ maps and globes, geographical and marine maps and charts, charcoal, sales of freights to the profit of citizens of the state, engravings and drawings, elements of drawing in books, engravings in sheets, grain (other than that destined for sale) seeds, plants (others than those destined for sale), clothes and other dressing apparel, speci mens of natural history, curiosities, &c., coals; surgical, mathematical, and scientifical instruments ; machines and tools maguinas of every kind, alembecs and others, and drawings or models of machinery, herramientas for mechanics, imported by workmen establishing themselves in tke country, and in a moderate quantity ; mining tools, tools; mercury, mercury azoque (quicksilver), music in sheets or bound in volumes, church plate and ornaments;* tombstones and other stones cut for paving, &c.; printing presses, &c., sculpture, statues. The following articles we prohibited to be imported: Fire-arms of every kind, ob scene pictures, shot and bullets, obscene books, lead (except sheet lead), gunpowder, bad provisions (which from their peculiar state might endanger the public health),*tissues of wool, cloths de estrella, swanskin. The following deductions will be made from the articles upon which a duty is levied in order to meet certain expences : * The actual and final destination of the above article to be given. STATISTICS OF PERU. ]]() , Articles paying a duty according to the value . . 5 per cent OJ per cent . 16 o 23 o ;; 32 i 99 " 36 " " 36 U specified quicksilver of other kind > exempt of duty I m^n produce re-exported from the bonding warehouses will pay the A fotvr riais; doubiei six ^ ? ther kind in P-B PFOdUCe undercircumstanc es similar to the above, will pay, once for all, two The following duties will be levied instead of the specified duty :-Flour, in barrels or sacks, five rials per barrel or sack ; wheat two rials perfanega. Those books which are allowed to be imported will pay six per cent of their value. EXPORT DUTIES. The produce of the soil and industries of the republic are exempt from all export duty, as also are the following articles : Gold and silver thread and wire, spangles lace and other similar articles ; copper. The following articles, however, form exceptions to this general rule : Gold and silver in any shape, cascarilla (Peruvian bark), saltpetre paying on exportation abroad, cascarilla, two per cent of value; saltpetre, four per cent; coined silver, five per cent; coined gold, one per cent ; gold paste or powder, two rials per ounce ; silver manufac tured, or old silver, four rials per mark ; gold (manufactured), two rials per ounce. When the foregoing articles are exported by national vessels, three-fourths of the above duties only will be levied. TONNAGE AND PORT DUES. All foreign vessels which discharge a part or the whole of their cargo in any port of the republic will be subjected to the following charges, payable at the port where they first discharge the whole or part of their freight ; Anchorage and port dues, five piastres per vessel ; captain s, ship s complement, and health dues, five piastres per vessel ; tonnage dues two rials per ton. The amount of tonnage will be ascertained from the ship s papers or charters. An export duty of two percent is levied on bark, and of four per cent on nitrate of soda. The importation of small shot, coatings, and star cloths, are altogether prohibited. In addition to the above duties on the import and export of goods, the following additional duties are by the 81st and 82nd Articles thereon imposed, in lieu of the payments formerly made for crane, mole, and other local charges, such as for watching, porterage of goods to custom-house warehouses, and their stowage therein ; namely, one-quarter per cent on goods chargeable with a duty of four per cent ; one-half per cent ditto of eleven per cent ; one-quarter per cent ditto of sixteen per cent ; three- quarters per cent ditto of twenty-three per cent; one per cent ditto of thirty-two per cent ; and one-half ditto of thirty-six per cent. Two per cent on goods chargeable with a specific duty, excepting quicksilver, on which the duty of one-quarter per cent is recoverable. On the re-embarkation of all foreign goods, 3 rials = Is. 6d. a package, or half a mule-load, say about 150 Ibs. weight; 4 rials = 2*. on every box of silver. The productions of the country are chargeable, for once only, with a duty of 2 rials 1104 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. = ls. (no measure or weight stated) upon their embarkation, disembarkation, or re- embarkation. By Article 83 of the same law, " Every class of merchandise and produce which shall be conveyed directly from Europe, Asia, and North America, or by the Isthmus of Panama, to the principal ports of Peru, in foreign ships or consigned to foreigners, shall liquidate ten per cent of the total amount of the duties on their import payable to the state, in government documents of retired officers pensions, documents of the foreign debt, or documents of the home debt, and the remainder in cash, If the said merchan dise and produce shall be imported directly in foreign ships, and be consigned to Peru vian merchants, or in national vessels consigned to foreigners, they shall liquidate twenty per cent in the before-mentioned documents, and the remainder in cash ; and if they shall be introduced in national ships consigned to citizens of the republic, they shall liquidate thirty per cent in government documents, and the remainder in cash. The foregoing are in violation of the treaty with England. By Article 2, Commercial Code, the custom-house of Arica is allowed to make transhipments, solely, however, to the port of Cobija, levying 2 dollars = 8s. for duty on policies, and observing the legal formalities. Foreign vessels may convey provisions, grass, and barley, to the minor port of Iquique, and to the Creek of Pisaqua, when there are no national vessels to convey these articles. The period of deposit in the port of Arica shall be extended to three years. The natural or industrial productions of Bolivia may be deposited in private ware houses, with the consent of the custom-house, without requiring any warehouse rent. The custom-house of Tacna may permit the diminishing of the weight and the reduc tion of double packages for their more easy conveyance into the interior, requiring the memorial and other formalities, which, by the 71st Article, the collector of the customs ought to exact upon importations. Importation. The revisal of the ship s manifest by the consignee of the vessel shall take place within twenty-four hours after its delivery in the ports of Callao and Huachaco. In the port of Arica thirty-six hours, and in that of Paita, forty-eight hours are allowed for this revision. Additions may be made to this manifest, but on no account any article abstracted, or its contents reduced. When the alterations mentioned in the foregoing article shall have been effected, the consignee of the vessel shall present a second " general manifest," and also one in detail in the Spanish language, or on stamped paper. His manifest must contain the marks and numbers of the bales or packages; the description of article, quality, or quantity of the contents of the bale ; the weight and quantity of articles not packed in bales. The names of the "special consignees," who will answer for the genuineness of the articles intrusted to them (namely, that they are the same articles consigned to them by the merchant). The whole to be written in full, the margin free from writing, figures alone to be introduced, without either interpolations (notes excepted) or erasures. Those articles, of which the consignee is unknown, shall be described in a supple mentary document, and deposited forthwith in the custom-house. One manifest to be sent to the inspector-general of public accounts, and the other will remain with the customs. No manifest will be considered, unless it conforms strictly with the above formalities. The manifests being delivered, they will be compared, and if found correct, an order will be given (papeleta) for the unloading to commence, without which order the mer chandise will be liable to be seized. An exception will be made for the landing of samples of small value. Merchandise must not be unloaded before six in the morning, nor after two in the afternoon, from the 1st of May to the 1st of November ; and not after three o clock in the afternoon during the remainder of the year. The entrance of the articles of the ship s cargo shall be admitted as follows, into the magazines and warehouses of the custom-house : STATISTICS OF PERU. 1100 Almonds, in sacks ; wood in (timber) ; brandy, botijas ; winos, in t,o!ij.* ; cacao ; cocoa; candle-wicks (Pavilo) ; copper; iron; grain (wh iut) and tl>nr; miu ; origan; hides and skins, leather for saddles ; paving-stones ; rice ; soap, native ; salt and 8t> tallow; sugar; tobacco, native; merchandises and drugs of every other kind, f ( , or native, which do not pay duty. Articles relative to the complement of a vessel. Every kind of provision, except those enumerated above. In order to introduce an article for consumption, three copies of a " Polizn," or im; bill, must be made, containing the name of the importing vessel; the date of the "manifest in detail ;" the marks and numbers of the bales, their contents, weight, or measure, quantity and quality, exact or approximate. A duty of four reals is levied upon this " bill." Exports. The discharge of the ship s cargo being completed, the captain shall cer tify the same on stamped paper, in which he must give a list of the articles, if any, still remaining on board. An inspection of the hold will then be made by the proper A clearance permit will be given by the customs, free of expense, and which must he written on the following description of paper : for foreign vessels, paper of three piastres ; national ditto, ditto stamped. Re-exportation The re-exporter from the bonding warehouse must present three < demands," on ordinary paper, for which he will pay to re-export abroad, one piastre ; 10 ^transporting the cargo of one ship to another in the Port of Callao, two " de mands" must be sent in, which will cost, if the cargo is destined to go to a foreign port, two piastres, ditto to a national port, ditto. The following articles are considered as being included under the head of ships pro visions and ships necessaries, and pay no duties except bonding fees, &c fish tobacco for chewing, salt meat, anchors, oars, wood, handspikes, levers, &c., p. c and tar iro chain cables, nails (clavos) of every kind cordage (jarc.a) ditto trtteleii - - Pacasmayo, San Jose de La ^ a > e ^" e ; d , for exporting the produce of the The foUowin, are o roa s stea^o y^ g^ g^^ ^ of the dut " them e first three montl.s no bonding < ^ * ^ ; e:a . B y this is mean, the //of e to ;::bu;r;r,e > i g h, ) atsix P ^,Ifa I nonth i sco m n,e,, l ,, ) ged m^fuH. ^^ of ^ ^ ex( . lus!ve , y rcserved to the natives ribed in the ,. inlrod , lctoras} can only be ports, and the 7 B VOL. I. 1106 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. piastres, to be the reward of the informer ; such penalty to be levied by either the tri bunal of the consulado or the commercial judge of the place. All products of the soil of the republic are allowed free circulation with the excep tion of the following : gold and silver, in paste, in bars, and in powder. These must be accompanied by an acquit-a-caution ;" brandy, wines, tobacco. Other articles taxed with a duty. The customs duty must be paid at the first place of importation. Transit by Land.Knc* is the only place of transit for the imports and exports of the Republic of Bolivia. The bonding warehouses at Arica will receive goods re-exported from those at Callao by national and foreign vessels, for the trade of the interior. The produce and manufac tures of Bolivia will also be received in the warehouses, to remain in bond for exportation. CHAPTER X. BOLIVIAN TARIFF DUTIES AND TRADE. 1. THE ultramarine effects which may come into the republic of Bolivia by the land frontiers from the 1st of January, 1845, shall pay duties in the following proportion. 2. Ultramarine liquors and foreign cacao, thirty-six per cent. 1. Perfumery, clocks for tables, or watches, cards, cigars, women s shoes, caps of every kind, desks, iron or brass bedsteads, chairs, sofas, toilette glasses, lanterns and lustres, candlesticks, every description of mercery, foreign gold lace, tocuyos (grey shirting), and every other article to which this law assigns no direct duty, twenty-eight per cent. 4. All woollen goods, silk ditto, linen embroidered, lamas, lamillas (cloth of gold), tissue, eighteen per cent. 5. Earthenware, glass, crystal, and writing paper, eight per cent. 6. Gold and silver ornaments, precious stones, and ironware. 7. Articles free from all Duteis. Cattle, comestibles of the first necessity brought into the republic. Also are free from all duties, on their introduction into the republic, raw cotton, raw wool, cotton-thread, and woollen ditto, vulgarly called caito, excepting rice, which is to pay forty per cent. 8. All importation of foreign merchandise which may enter the republic, shall pay, besides the duties prefixed by this law, a medio per cent for the funds of the Chamber of Commerce in the capital in which they are consumed. 9. Books introduced into the republic by its land frontiers shall pay six per cent, applicable to the funds of the library of the capital where the expenditure takes place. 10. The government is authorised to lower the duties which in the republic weigh on the products of the industry of the neighbouring states, as soon as it obtains from them securities that in these states will be observed the corresponding reciprocity as regards the products of Bolivian industry introduced into their territory. It is authorised to fix the duties on coined silver and gold, or on bullion on their extraction from the republic, as well by the land frontiers as by the port of Cobija. 11. From the 1st of January, 1845, the introduction of gunpowder is prohibited into the republic, either by its land frontiers or by the port of Cobija. Matches (fosforos) are also prohibited. Dated, Illustrious and heroic city of Sucre, 2nd of November, 1844. JOSE BALLIVIAN ; the Minister of Finance, MIGUEL MARIA AGUIRRE. In 1846, two E n o l snme n at Corocoro, a place long famous for copper ores, are said STATISTICS OK HM|.|\i A . tiers, m the Year 1840; and of the Value of Co 1107 ; iiisivi, DEPARTMENTS. Importation of Lit Land * Value of Goods in Dollars. ramarine Goods by rontiers. Duties paid in Dollars. reruvian itepub i Exportation of Money exported in Dollar- lie. Coined Mooey. Dutie* paid i n Dollar.. Cochabamba dollars rials. 8,389 15,255 5 147.5CO 4J dollars rials. 1,746 1* 3,039 6 40,220 2^ dollars rials. 9,750 10,344 H 7,433 2i dollar, ml. 2.IB9 24 Total 171,145 U 35,228 0*. Od. 51,006 2 10,201 0*. Od. 127,527 24 ^25,505 Ot. Od. 2,501 H INOTK. By a document lately published in the official Cu^ttt. f rT coined at the national mint of Poto-i dunnc the VP Bolivia, the sum oi i,,,,, ie \ sterling ; viz., in silver, 2,600,507 dollars ; and in gold, 230 as^Sars ^ 2>830>8yl doljar s or equt m g.i tl to about i EXPORTATION of Goods from Bolivia in 1840 MERCHANDISE Prom Cochabamba. From Oruro. From La Paz. TotaU. ApprokiiiL.t,. \.ih, ariur Soap... . 349 quintals. 376 arrebas. 147 entire. 9,666 10,380 varas. 7,820 ditto. 242 baskets or crates 37 am bas. 233 pairs. 15 If avrobas. 56 tanegas. 33 arrobns. 18 arrobas. 95 66 50 arrobas. 275 li quintals. 17 arrobasQilb. 556 4,959 quintals 171b. 70 baskets. 28 1,060 arrobas. 4,829 bankets. 46 arrobas. ,013 quintals. 624 H quintal*. 1,453 arrobaa 04.lb. 147 entire. 10,222 10,380 varas. 7. --"i dm... 24-3 baskets. dolors cu. 330 1.297 4 4*4 111 ., 1 1 . 4 31 330 o 16M 6 23,995 70 115 35 r<jul to Sandals Goat Skins .... Tocuyo (cotton stuffs) Banacom (ditto).. Eaithenware S arch.... Shoes 37 arrobas. 233 pairs. 15 1} arrobas. 5-i f,.!;. 33 arrobas. 18 arrobas. 95 66 ." ii arroba*. 4,959 quintals 171b. 4,s{)9 baskets. 28 <6 arrnbas. ].<!.< quiatals. Honej .... Wheat Flour Common Gum Ponchos (halt- cloaks) Leather Chairs... Wax Cocco (leaf for chewing) Pellous (saddle Coffee Bark NOTE. Wools are not included m this statement, the number of quintals exported in 1840 not being as yet known. M inistry of Finance, Sucre, Feb. 15, 1841. COBIJA is the only legal seaport in Bolivia. There are ship-building yards establ in it, and the vessels built have privileges conferred upon them. The duties levied at the custom-house of Cobija on foreign merchandise imported during the year 1840, amounted to 103,951 dollars two and a-half rials, equal to about 20,790/. sterling. A quay, barracks, and a new custom-house are the public works in progress, and a spring of fine water (a necessary of which Cobija was formerly deficient) has lately been discovered by an English engineer. Number of foreign vessels which entered the port of Cohija during the year 1840 : English, thirty-three ; French, fifteen ; Spanish, three ; North American, four ; Sar dinian, four; Mexican, one; Granadian, one; Ecuadorian, two; Chilian, twenty; Peruvian, fifteen ; total, ninety-two. Population in 1843 Males, 322; females, 283 ; male children, 105; female ditto, eighty-three ; total, 793 inhabitants. Births in the year Males, twenty ; females, 1108 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. twenty-six; total, forty-six. Deaths Old persons, three; adults, twenty-one j chil dren, thirty-six ; total, sixty. Marriages, five. The garrison, and men employed as labourers in the different mining establishments on the coast are not included in the above statement. Ships which have anchored in the port during the year 1843, not including the steam vessels, ships of war, and sailing packets: English, twenty-one ; French, twelve ; North American, seven; Chilian, twenty-four ; Spanish, three; Belgian, one; Sardinian, four; Peruvian, seven ; Hamburgers, eight ; Danish, four ; total, ninety-one. AMOUNT of the Exportation of Money through Cobija in the Year 1843. EXPORTATION. In Dollars. Ounces. Small Money. TOTAL. dlrs. 1,409,097 56,917 7 dlrs. ri 109,250 12,852 als. 3 2 dlrs. rials. 50,520 4 67 dlrs. rials. From the Argentine Provinces Total 1,466,014 7 122,102 5 50,587 4 1,638,705 91,828 1| Circulating in the is r Total dollars 1,730,533 AMOUNT of Importation of Merchandise through Cobija in the Year 1843. dlrs. rials. Sent by Custom House permits to the interior of Bolivia 1,400,579 3 Sent to the Argentine Provinces, by an approximate calculation. 10!),000 Consumed in the port 28,243 Total dollars 1,534,822 3 Two primary schools exist in Cobija, one paid by the state, the other a private establishment. The town possesses besides an hospital, a druggist s shop, seven mer cantile warehouses, eleven shops to sell in retail well supplied with foreign goods; seventy-eight chandlers shops (pulperias), seven bakers, five tailors, two shoemakers,, three principal eating and lodging-houses, two inferior eating and lodging-houses, two billiard-rooms, four large mining establishments with 120 labourers, and three smaller ones with thirty labourers. Cobija, January 1st, 1844. CHAPTER XL STATISTICS OF CHILE. THE administration of the affairs of Chile, has been far more regularly and justly executed than that of any other Spanish American republic. The con dition of this state has, consequently, been more prosperous. We have little data as to the trade of Chile under Spain, as a great part of its commerce passed through Peru and part through La Plata. Some time after the independence of Chile, the foreign trade opened round Cape Horn with Europe, and it was increased to other parts. In 1824 the value of imports were estimated at 11,500,000 dollars, and the exports of gold and silver at 80,000 dollars, and of agricultural products of 4,000,000 dollars. This we con sider but a vague estimate. Revenue and Expenditure. Chile has maintained her public credit amid war STATISTICS OF CHILE. and difficulty. In 1833, when the country required some assistance from tur moil, the public debt had accumulated to the enormous amount, for a small j lation, of about 10,000,000 dollars. In consequence of this burden, the sident disbanded one-third of the standing army, and greatly reduced the civil expenditure. In 1835, an equilibrium in the finances of the state was obtained, and more than 1,500,900 piastres of interior debts were paid off. INCREASE of Revenue. piastres. 1831 1,517,537 1832 1,652,713 1833 1,770,760 The annual mining produce under the Spaniards was, on the average : Silver 23,500 marcs (1 marc=8oz.) | Copper 25,000 cwt. In 1834, it had risen to Silver 164,000 marcs. | Copper 75,000 cwt. which brought into circulation a sum of about 2,500,000 piastres. In 1837 3 Chile was, owing to the intrigues of Santa Cruz s agents, declared to be in statu belli. STATE of Revenue in piastres. 1834 1,922,966 1835 2,003,4:11 piastres. 1839 2,386,952 1840 2,946,247 1841... 2,761,787 piastres. 1842 3,07-1,575 1843 3,160000 The following were the government s savings for a period of ten years : YEARS. Amount. YEARS. Amount. 1832 1833 1834 piastres. 118,241 134,565 200,519 1838 1839 1840 piastres. 114,512 219,267 415,026 5U9554 1836 1837 212,926 216,311 1842 1,395,412 REVENUE, 1842. Amount. EXPENDITURE, 1842. Amount. Monopolies Tithes Registration Conveyancing duties piastres. 569,564 l,93n,323 590,943 212,427 69,118 77,710 32,379 44,299 Costs of representative Ministry of the interior Charities and public works Administration of justice Religion piatr-. 8,7 153,851 IMJ4I 4.-.730 M,1M 5W.353 151,117 603,551 !. 1,179 tt*,IM MJtl 12,979 7/m 2,409,722 1,396,245 3,805,967 Mint Postal Revenue Highway tolls, &c Auction duties Sundries Confiscations and restitutions Deposits 23,320 40,440 29,796 4,000 13,817 21,650 140,181 3,805,967 Ministry of finances Interest and amortisation of interior debt... f , exterior debt... Ministry of war Navy Repayment of deposits.. Total The maximum, till 1830, had been 800,000 piastre.. 1110 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. CHAPTER XII. TRADE AND NAVIGATION OF CHILE. APPROXIMATE Calculation of the Annual Quantity and Value of Chilian Native Produc tions, including the Precious Metals, exported from Chile between 1836 and 1839, both inclusive. Exchange, 48d. per dollar. NATURE OF EXPORTS. Quantity. Price per Weight or Quantity. Value. Silver, in bars marcs. 128,580 6,240 1,130 3,281 61,797 223,922 drs. rials. s. d. 10 equal 200 10 200 128 25 12 128 25 12 15 300 24,, 10 dollars. 1,285,000 6 MOO 144,640 419,9(58 926,955 559,805 800,000 1,500,000 j s. d. 257,160 12,480 28,928 83,993 12 185,391 111,961 160,000 300,000 Copper, in bars quintals. Estimated returns in bills for supplies to foreign shipping, viz., men-of-war and merchant ves sels, (United States, British, and French,) and salaries of diplomatic, and consular agents Other Chilian articles of export, as wheat, flour, hides, cow-horns, wool, hemp, building timber, Chile hams, nuts, and tallow (from Mendoza, .... 5,699,768 1,139,913 12 NOTE. The amount of the export of gold, silver, and copper is the average of the amount of these articles ex ported from 1836 to 1839, both inclusive, as shown by the returns presented to Congress by the Chilian Minister of Finance; but in this amount is not included money or bullion passing in transit through the port of Valparaiso as returns for foreign goods sold in that port for Bolivia, Peru, Equador, and the western coasts of New Granada, Central America, and Mexico ; and for China and other countries. THE TRADE OF VALPARAISO DURING THE YEAR 1840. During the continuation of the war between Chile and Peru, from the end of 1836 to the middle of 1839, the exports from Europe were cautiously limited. On the re-establishment of peace the small proportion of foreign supplies remaining in the warehouses of Valparaiso found a ready and profitable sale. But the intelligence of peace having reached Europe, supplies from England, France, Germany, and North America poured in during the latter end of 1839 and the whole of 1840, to an unpre cedented extent, and infinitely disproportioned to the consumption of the inhabitants. Thus the general tonnnge of foreign shipping entered inwards during the following years amounted to, in 1837,25,935 tons; of which, from Great Britain direct, 4533 tons; 1838, 24,198, from Great Britain, 4098 tons; 1839,27,520, and from Great Britain direct 7507; in 1840, 45,512 tons, from Great Britain 11,010 tons. During the former years, and until the middle of 1839, Valparaiso was the port to which the merchants and dealers established in those parts along the coast of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to the most northern part of Mexico (who, having rarely any direct communication with Europe), came to purchase the larger portion of their supplies. The blockade of the entire coast of Mexico having cut off all commercial communication on that side, had considerably increased the demand from hence, and the exportation from this country of European commodities would have been still more extensive had the event been foreseen, and articles, in a sufficient quantity, suited to the demand of that market, been provided. STATISTICS OF CHILE. 1111 The Bolivian market is the only one with which the transit trade has increased. The value of European goods existing in Valparaiso at the end of 1840, was cal< The trade between this state and her majesty s Australian dominions has rapidly increased during the year 1840, as compared with that of 1839, but as the ex, tion, composed of raw produce, must depend materially on the favourable or unfavourable nature of the harvest in those territories, a sound inference can scarcely bedru The departures, in the two above-mentioned years, have been 1839 1840 . From Talcahuano. . 281 tons . 1687 From Valparaiso. . 724 tons. . 4701 with cargoes, principally of corn and flour, and an occasional vessel loaded with mares and other beasts of burden. The imports are trifling, consisting of sheep and articles of smal! account, though numerous vessels seek these ports in search of freight for Europe or elsewhere. The commercial importance of Valparaiso, the principal seaport of Chile, shows a state of prosperity and confidence in the stability of the government. While in 1 834 only 450 vessels aggregating 77,700 tons entered this port, the pro portions in 1842, were as follows: Men-of-war . Steamboats Commercial vessels 44 24 1 187,453 tons. 617j Du Coquimbo uring the year 1842, the commercial movements in all Chilian ports Valparaiso, imbo, Copiapo, Constitucion, Talcahuano, Valdivia, and Chiloe together were : rMen of- war Entries . 1 Trading vessels (.Steamers .... r Men-of-war .... Departures < Steamers .... I Trad ing vessels The customs revenue of which amounted to 1,936,328 piastres 481 1173 |>339,019 tons. 112J 541 111 f 328,288 tons. 1209J Transit Trade. At the custom-house of Valparaiso, there were, on May 31, 1 722,472 bales of merchandise. The value of which was . . 7,lfl9.03( .piastres. And coined metals to the amount ot . J,2bU.8J 10,419,869 AMOUNT of Shipments to Valparaiso, during the Year 1840, from England. . ARTICLES. Quan tity. Value. Total Value. ARTICLES. Quan tity. Value. Total Y.,lu,-. Plain cotton, 1st quarter . .yds. No. 3,853,657 4,992,117 75,541 98,388 Brought forward Coloured Cottons. 1st quarter No. 1,162,1^6 36,521 MM 5/205,082 103,207 1,576,410 42,604 4th ditto do. 2,960,215 51,715 3rd ditto " 3,754,09*5 1 535 H05 89,350 31,507 Total 17,011,071 328,851 4th ditto do 8,028,437 1 200,04* Carried forward 328,851 Carried forward 528,893 1112 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. ARTICLES. Quan tity. 1 Value Total Value ARTICLES. Quan tity. Value. Total Value. Brought forward.... Printed cottons, 1st quarter yd No. 2,076,31 2,841,83 3455,18 1,697,96 51,43 69,18 86,76 41,80 528,89 5 1 D 249,18. 3 Brought forward Woollen hose, 1st quarter. doz 2nd ditto do No. 28( M 26$ 62! > 5 ) 2; > 185 i - ! 3,992 3,425 1,703 1,500 1,095,997 260 10,6i7 17,674 40,773 10,378 2,082 4,502 19,455 279 ? 202,523 3rd ditto do 3rd ditto d Total Total 10,071,30 .. Silk hose, 1st quarter doz Cotton shawls, Istquarter.do 14i 83< 76( 57f 97 1,66 1,67 50 542 1,014 826J 548 3rd ditto do 3rd ditto d Total Total 2,3Sf , 6,126 3,531 5,490 2,527 4,82- 2,93( 8,422 20,061 3,695 17,735 1 105,406 127,169 7,894 1,865 13,742 ,095,997 Silk, 1st quarter Cotton handkerchiefs, 1st qua 9,73< 14,00 7,77: 3.43C 2,694 2,825 2,02C 877 3rd ditto 4th ditto Total Total Metals, including copper sheathing, tin, &c. &c., Is quarter 9,543 7,301 11,052 12,877 34,94C 34,105 94,762 90, 125 31,810 . . 4,440 7,629 4,827 3,165 Silk, cotton, and worsted thread, 1st quarter Ib 2nd ditto 3rd ditto 4th ditto Total Total 250,802 783 1,055 1,737 1-20 Carpets, 1 st quarter 17,806 2,903 2,502 1,580 3,893 Cotton miscellaneous. 1st quar 3rd ditto 19,433 9,900 73,491 4th ditto. . . . Total Leather, 1st quarter 120,630 903 422 297 460 Total Cotton hose. 1st quarter... doz. 3,457 4,928 4,697 4,653 2nd ditto 9,315 10,165 11,375 12,091 Total Total Earthenware, 1st quarter .... 2nd ditto 404 763 1,680 1,655 42,946 16,842 41,665 25,832 21,067 32,089 23,121 31,709 40,250 .. 468,055 295,181 595,360 147,176 3rd ditto _ 4th ditto .... Total Total Woollens, 1st quarter Sundries, comprising under this head all sorts of clothing, 1st quarter 5,103 2,411 5,354 6,587 ,505,772 2nd ditto 3rd ditto 4th ditto . Total Total 36 53 190 Woollen shawls, 1st quarter, doz. 2nd ditto do 8/272 3,609 2,639 2,180 3,953 1,389 1,117 1,435 Wines and spirits, 1st quarter gall*. 2,528 2,958 5,360 3,668 3rd ditto . do 3rd ditto do 4th ditto do Total 16,700 320 695 850 2,796 3,239 4,174 3,533 14,514 Silk, cotton, and worsted shawl*, 1st quarter doz. 20 1,496 556 2,072 flats and caps, 1st quarter 3rd ditto 3rd ditto do 4th ditto 4th ditto do Total Total amount .. Silk, cntton, and worsted goods, 2nd ditto Total Carried forward STATISTICS OF CHILI.. ill:; otuojnvncg jo^aoj jontiu aqj auipnptu OSIBJ Bdi^A jo JJo j JB XJBHEJO ni noj jad e^8l aunf jo qjQg aqj uo paB[3ag o j * .2 * . = ... J = i. | S = o* = { " <N 00000 M " -Op -op a3 B raud IU.ID jad a A -, aqj con jad a9ut:qoxg jo ^ e i ivd aqa JB|[op a >. i Jad -p^s ^y |I jo aj -jnoa jad jtiai tt^crt ^sTo zri cn?^ :: ^^ToS e ^ ^^oTc ^^ ^c ^rr 1 : i^N owoi-cj- !^ * "* ~ xo X -^2*^IT ~ - ~ ^f - -^ O O O O G ** * fl* C< ^7*W C ? t. c, 05>r3P: NtOiC2 t "2 *^*^ ~ "* M 22 ~ * - ~ S * C - ~ ~ ^?^~ >HJS JB o o o o o o *_ o< < - ^ o * ------ JS fil cg jo BJ aqj 4Bi[op jad r. - rs JO 8JB^ JM3J jno jad e^e--e^-" O T OOfO ^ ?c< 2^ 2Z "*;^;^ nl ^ "_^ ^--oooooooo ^ I 1~ + oo =.-- = --- i e occ?t-T*ea c oOOMM-Mf *MN O 0> --? r.r: r- - - - I - r I-- J 2 Jo" !t : ]f : 1 J. - .v I JU: :?::!**:: s^" !^ia^ : :Hi:iK^ : :i! . j ::J{1 s: 3 : : ^ : 1 it^tpMM | 4= s 2--I2i2 3B o o S c S^ ~ : i s s = s = - 1 ssssis . . . . Vl 1 -rr : v ; !f! i;;; i: 5 q s : s ss | C J | * ,2-g 5^ - ^ ^~ h ^2 cS S *- s< J >S MIOOI ; ob.ad 1114 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. GROSS Return of British and Foreign Trade at the Port of Valparaiso, in Chile, during the Year ending the 31st of December, 1845. A R RIVE I). D E P A. R T E ] ). NATIONS. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Approximate Invoice Value of Cargoes in Pounds Sterling. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Approximate Invoice Value of Cargoes in Pounds Sterling. number. 236 tons. 77,754 number. 4,143 number. 226 tons. 73,679 number. 3,979 Chilian 194 45,318 3,116 193 45,728 3,120 19 3,162 225 16 2,646 191 3 865 48 3 865 48 123 10 none. none. none. 12 3,171 184 12 3,361 194 United States of Ame- 54 17,838 930 47 15,389 802 F r h* * 61 14,600 937 58 13,996 896 6 1,050 84 5 870 70 31 5,706 387 29 5,657 371 Danish 15 3,719 241 12 2,95.-5 184 Swedish none. none. none. 1 366 18 3 628 35 3 628 35 6 1,061 68 5 840 54 10 2,193 134 10 2,142 133 Austrian 1 232 14 232 14 Total 652 177,420 10,556 .... 621 169,354 10,109 REMARKS. It baa not been possible to ascertain the nature and invoice value of cargoes. NAVIGATION of Valparaiso, in 1342. COUNTRIES FROM WHENCE CARRIED, AND DESTI NATION. Inward. Outward. TOTAL. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. EUROPE. England and Gibraltar -.> number. 44 24 24 5 4 102 17 21 19 32 12 25 10 2 4 18 5 tons. 10,635 6,342 5,969 1,691 1,295 28,251 3,070 5,510 7,539 8,081 3,730 7,235 2,365 342 1,030 5,479 1,719 832 number. 58 17 5 2 111 44 22 7 \ 17 1 7 1 1 3 4 4 3 tons. 15,555 4,409 1,118 476 31,402 10,219 5,152 2,610 1,001 4,746 140 2,182 126 264 580 725 706 979 number. 102 41 29 7 4 213 61 43 26 30 29 26 17 3 5 21 11 9 3 tons. 26,190 10,751 7,087 2,127 1,295 59,653 13,289 10,662 10,149 9,082 8,476 7,375 4,547 468 1,294 6,059 2,444 1,538 979 Spain AMERICA. Peru United States Brazils ASIA, AUSTRALASIA, AND POLYNESIA. New Holland Otaiti, Sandwich, &c Total 375 101,075 311 82,390 686 183,465 Total for the year 1841 369 96,334 343 i 88,790 712 185,1-24 The navigation of the Port of Valparaiso with foreigners, in 1842, compared to 1841, underwent a diminution of twenty-six vessels, measuring 1659 tons. The French movement has not suffered : there was in the navigation betwen Valpa raiso and France, an augmentation of eight vessels, and of 2585 tons. The intercourse, according to the preceding table, was effected exclusively under the French flag. The table of the French customs makes it (inward and outward bound, together) thirty vessels measuring 7253 tons. Of this number, one single vessel only belonged to a foreign flag. Trade. There is no official account published of the Chilian trade with the foreign STATISTICS OF CHILE. in;, states. The continuation of hostilities between Peru and Bolivia, the su.t relations with Guayaquil, the population of which has lately been diminished I yellow fever, have, in 1842, caused a great decrease in the trade of the |>,, r , , paraiso. Although the French vessels brought to Chile in 1842, took but inconsiderable car- goes, their sale was effected with unsatisfactory results, though without l< The most favourable period of the year for "arrivals is the first fortnight of September On the 18th of the month the principal national/efc of the country takes ph. public rejoicings attract many strangers to Valparaiso, who profit by this circurm to make their purchases. Lyons silks remain without competition in the market of Valparaiso, for their fine qualities and the finish of the designs. The shawls of levantine and serges were in demand, but subject to the caprice of fashion. The French made embroidered shawls, China crapes, scarcely compete with those of China, where labour is so poorly requited. French wines had, for some time, sold well, but too many imports, for the wants <>i the place, caused a fall, in 1842, of one half in price, from twenty-four to ten piastre*. THE Average Charges for Freight during the Quarter have been : COUNTRIES. Per Ton. Primage. COUNTRIES. Per Ton. Pi :.. .. ( Copper ore to Swansea. s. d. 526 4 17 6 4 12 6 3 15 350 320 350 250 5 per cent, do. do. nil. 5 per cent, do. do. nil. Tahiti 12 dollars at 45</.. *. d. 250 250 2 10 18 1 6 3 i 10 1 13 l> 1 17 6 i 10 3 1 16 3 nil. do. do. 5 percent. nil. do. <( to, do. do. Marquesas 12 ., .. Rio Janeiro....! Monte Video . . v nominal Bueno Ay res.. ) Cobija 5 dollars at 4, r w/. England. . <^ {gJJJ of loll.. . . . . . . Llluanu (no charters).... United States Any port in the United Kingdom, or on the continent of Europe, in Guayaquil 10 .. .. Central America and Mexico, west coast of 15 Sandwich Islands, 12 dollars at 45d. . Note. The average charge for freight to England this day (30th of June, 1845) is from 5/. to 51. 17*. 6d. per ton with a primage of 5 per cent. The extent of the stocks in granary, is of flour, 1,419,000 Ibs. ; wheat, 34,680 bushels. The course of exchange per current dollar is, on London, 44jrf. to 45rf.sterling ; Pans, 4 francs 75 centimes ; Ham- burg, 40 schillings banco (2* marks) ; United States of America, for government bills, 6 per cent premium ; ditto for masters of whalers, ditto, 2 per cent to 2$ per cent premium. Since last return the nature and extent of the restraint imposed by law upon the exportation and import corn and grain remains unaltered in Chile. Valparaiso 30th of June, 1845. GROSS Return of British and Foreign Trade at the principal Ports within the Vice- Consulate of the Province of Concepcion de Cliile during the year 1 NATIONS. ARRIVED. DEPARTED. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Invoice Value .;-oe. British number. 4 96 67 7 11 tons. 1,213 15,207 22,211 2,219 1,906 206 206 number. 71 973 1648 169 149 19 10 174997 number. 5 92 68 7 9 1 tons. 1,394 14,286 22,:.:: 2,319 l,:.4!l 206 206 number. 85 917 1671 Itl j m 19 10 i ; : Chilian French . . . Peruvian Ecuadorian Total Total for 1844 187 199 43,168 41.685 3039 3002 183 185 42,537 1 -.". 41,797 \ 3054 R EMAR Ks._Durin ff the year there touched at this port the British discovery ship. Herald and Pandora, M French admiral s ship Virginie. . British vessels in 1844, 8. Insured value of cargoes 7MN 1116 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. GROSS Return of British and Foreign Trade at the principal Ports within the Vice- Consulate of Coquimbo, during the Year ending 31st of December, 1845. PORT OF COQUIMBO. AND ADJACENT PORTS OF TONGOIT AND TOTORALLLLO. A R I II V ED D E P A R T E J X NATIONS. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Vessels. Tonnage. Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. British number. 51 tons. 27 439 number. 868 s. d. 3,076 14 6 number. 51 tons. 27,439 number. 868 s. d. 131,390 Chilian 69 9,360 754 129,376 69 9,360 754 9,490 American 10 3,786 165 10 3,786 165 67,431 French. 3 688 48 3 688 48 7,062 I 202 13 548 1 202 13 Peruvian 1 200 13 606 1 200 13 Belgian. . . 1 159 9 1 159 9 516 Total 136 41 834 1870 133,606 14 6 136 41 834 1870 215889 Total for 1844 148 46,032 2153 150,030 148 40,032 2153 106,623 Coquimbo, 3 1st of December, 1845. The total exports from the United States to Chile, in 1844, amounted to 1,105,221 dollars, and the total imports from Chile, to 750,370 dollars, showing a balance in favour of the United States, in 1844, of 354,851 dollars. In 1843 the balance was 191,907 dollars, and in 1842, it was 808,637 dollars: EXPORTS TO CHILE. Amount. IMPORTS FROM CHILE. Amount. Fish, oil, and spermaceti candles dollar.*. 6,953 7,535 2,122 63,489 28,J62 6,411 9,258 22,550 703,951 5,914 dollars. 185,817 355,842 3,345 18,833 19,847 26,431 2,234 9,470 127,951 600 Staves, shingles, planks, &c Masts, spars, and naval stores Provisions, beef, and spirits Bread-stuffs Wool, not exceeding seven cents per Ib Cocoa Tobacco Wax Sugar Manufacture! of all kinds Manufactures N on enumerated, and sundries Salt Domestic exports 856,645 248,576 750,370 Foreign exports Total exports 1,105,221 CHILIAN TRADE WITH FRANCE DURING THE FIRST SIX MONTHS OF THE YEAR 1843. Navigation. The number of vessels under the French flag, which arrived at Valpa raiso during the first half year of 1843 increased in a remarkable manner, compared to the same period of 1842. The arrivals amounted to twenty-six vessels of 7248 tons; and the departures to twenty-five vessels of 6401 tons. Ten vessels came direct from France, and seven were fitted out for this destination. Trade. The French products bought at Valparaiso sold off well ; but not mer chandises destined for Bolivia and Peru, countries where political dissensions continue to be very prejudicial to commercial operations. The French manufactories begin to reap, in Chile, the fruit of the efforts which they nave tor some time made, to augment their transactions and struggle against foreign ompetition. Several French articles of silk have latterly obtained at Valparaiso a marked preference over similar Chinese products. A fact to be remarked is, that France has succeeded to excel, in Chile, in its own silks, the satins, serges, listonnerie, gros de naples, and the sewing silk of China. Thus, STATISTICS OF CHILE. 1117 black satins of China, thirty-three inches broad, remain without buyers at the price of eleven rials, whereas black satins of France place themselves easily at twenty rials The serges of China, offered at eight rials, and that of France at eleven rials; grot de naples of China, called glazed, of twenty-six inches in breadth, sells with difficulty it five rials ; and that of Fiance, of twenty-two inches, fetch from nine to eleven , listens of China are completely neglected. In a word, French silks in general, have ob tained a favour which was justified by the good quality of the stuffs expom-d. These facts will fix, no doubt, the attention of the French export trade. China, besides, imported formerly by wholesale into Chile, shawls oUevantine sergees, embroidered ; the imitations which the French make of these tissues, are dis; the market, where they exclude those of China. A recent exportation of thi> Frti.ch article has had equal success at Lima. France has until now exceeded, in Chile, in the sale of shawls : by the elegance of their designs, the splendour of the colours, and particularly by the shades, lilar. r mlit, lavender, which the Chinese never could import, as they arrived nearly always worm-eaten, or damaged. But China still distinguishes itself by the quality of the principal material which it uses, by the strength of its shawls, the fringes of which are fuller than those of France. Shawls, embroidered in the loom by machine, which the French designate Chinese shawls of two colours, cost in China, in the beginning of 1843, six piastres; similar French articles could not then be established for less than from forty francs to forty-two francs ; and although the progress of the French manufactures have enabled them to be produced at a lesser price, the advantage is still on the side of China. Ribbons are furnished almost exclusively by Switzerland and Germany. IMPORTS into France from Chile in 1842. Weight, T R A I) K. MERCHANDISES. Measure, or Quantity. G E N i R A L. F XC 1 A L. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Copper, pure, of first fusion kilograme. ditto. 525,700 336,200 francs. 1,051,400 36,600 377,900 413,400 francs. 41,300 ditto. 2,069,300 827,700 654,100 Bark of quinquina ditto, ditto. 70,900 103,500 567,400 359,800 123,100 156,800 Fr ^ for *^ A A " ditto. 203,100 304,600 151,100 ditto. 151,700 273,100 240 600 ditto 181,000 262,700 413 800 ditto. 16,200 259,600 101 400 ditto. 187,400 168,700 2 700 ditto. 5,500 6 ,000 64 100 Remains of gold and silver work Cochineal ditto, ditto. 2,100 1,000 64,100 31,100 2,700 - M 29 100 ditto. 155,000 31,000 30,000 grammes. l,. r 00 30,000 3 400 4,200 kilogrames. 15,400 25,800 41,900 ditto. 17,100 2-5,700 x - . 74,500 Coffee dittn. 26,000 58,500 55,100 Total 4,459,900 3,860,100 PRECEDING YEARS. 1841 1840... 1839 4,183,000 2,893,000 4,541,000 3,308,000 3,705,500 4,*0< .000 7.000 1837 Average decennial 182736. 2,831,000 1,591,000 1118 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. EXPORTS from France to Chile in 1842. Weight, T R , \ D E. MERCHANDISES. Measure, or Quantity. GEN KRAL. S P E ( : i A L. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. kilogrames. 2G,600 francs. 2,678,700 16,600 francs. 1,971,100 IUV , O Sll . . . . ditto 42,200 1,314,700 41,400 1 302,000 ditto. 32,300 69(5,300 23,100 462,100 ditto. 10,400 213,200 8,500 J 79,500 hectolitres. 12,557 731,600 12,550 730 600 brandy, and liquors ditto, kilogrames. 1,471 280,000 189,600 804,500 1,398 283,900 181,900 858 500 Perfumery ditto, ditto. 104,300 60,500 730,400 505,5(,0 104,300 58,900 730,400 464,700 ditto. 13,600 344,500 13,600 344,5(10 ditto. 2G.500 168,200 24,400 155,000 w > ^V- 1 i ditto. 23,000 460,000 23,000 460 000 Pottery, glnsnes, and crystals francs, kilogrames. 82,500 429,000 398,100 82300 407,000 397 500 Utensils ana me francs. 161,400 157 700 kilogrames. 25,400 160,800 4,000 29 800 1 5,000 139 400 15 000 139 400 ditto. J 3,000 106,700 11,400 100 100 9 300 93 000 9 300 93 000 grammes. 37,570 90,000 33,570 82,000 Divers articles of Parisian iu- 9 100 80200 9 100 89,000 80 200 15 400 77 200 15 400 77 200 86 200 742 400 " * 1 1 608 800 10 235 600 14 151 000 1 840 t 14,978,000 12 964 600 1839 ... 1 11 017,000 8 7 59 000 1838 7 684 000 6 027 000 1837 1 6 267 000 4 730 000 ! 4 662 000 3 810 000 CHILIAN MINES. By an old Spanish law still in force in Chile, every encouragement is given to search for mines. The discoverer may work a mine in any ground, by paying five shil lings; and before paying this he may try, even in the garden of another man, for twenty days. In the copper-mines, the men have little time allowed for their meals ; and during both summer and winter they begin when it is light, and leave off at dark. (In Chile the summer days are shorter, and the winter days longer, than in England.) They are (at the mines of Jajuel) paid about one pound sterling a month, together with food. This food consists of sixteen figs, and two small loaves of bread for breakfast, boiled beans for dinner, and broken roasted wheat grain for supper. They scarcely ever taste meat. They have to clothe themselves and to support their families with this pound per month. On arrival at the gold-mines of Yaquil (Jajuel), Mr. Darwin was surprised at the pale appearance of the men. The mine is 450 feet deep, and each man brings up nearly two hundred weight of ore. With this load they have to climb up the alternate notches cut in the trunks of trees placed in a zig-zag line up the shaft. The men (who are quite naked, except drawers) ascend with this heavy load from the bottom. Even young men, eighteen or twenty years of age, do this, although their muscular development of body is far from completed, Mr. Darwin says, that the apires live entirely on boiled beans and bread ; they would prefer the bread alone, but the masters, finding that they cannot work so hard upon this, insist on their eating the beans also. Their pay is from twenty-four to twenty-eight shillings a month ; they leave the mine only once in three weeks, when STATISTICS OF CHII.K. ] ] ] \\ they stay with their families for two days. As a means of preventing the men from ab stracting any of the gold, or gold ore, the owners establish a very summary au<; tribunal. Whenever the superintendent finds a lump of ore secreted for tlu-ft. us lull value is stopped out of the wages of all the men, so that they watch over each other, each having a direct interest in the honesty of all the rest. The amount of labour they undergo is greater than that of slaves; being to a certain extent masters of their own actions, they bear up against what would wear down most men. Living; for weeks together in the most desolate spots, when they descend to the villages on feast-days there is no excess or extravagance into which they do not run. They occasionally gain a considerable sum, and then, like sailors with prize-money, they soon squander it. They drink excessively, buy quantities of clothes, and in a few days return to the mines without a penny. It is observed by Mr. Darwin, that this thought lessness, as with sailors, is the result of the mode in which they are made dependent upon others rather than on themselves. Their daily food is found them, and they acquire no habitual care as to the means of subsistence ; while the temptation to enjoyment and the means of paying for it occur at the same times. How different is this from the system in Cornwall, where the men think for themselves, and form an intelligent body. The miners here spoken of are a different set of men from the apires, who are those that bring up the heavy burdens. The miners dig the ore from the bowels of the mine while the* apires are simply labourers, much like the bricklayers labourers, but who carry less heavy loads, and up a much less height. Mr. Darwin illustrates the extraordinary labour which the apires undergo : " According to the general regulation, the apire is not allowed to halt for breath, except the mine is six hundred feet deep. The average load is considered as rather more than 200 pounds, and I have been assured that one of ; pounds (twenty-two stones and a half), by way of a trial, has been brought up fr deepest mine ! At the time the apires were bringing up the usual load twelve t the day, that is, 2400 pounds from eighty yards deep ; and they were employed intervals in breaking and picking ore. These men, excepting from accidents, are hea.thy and appear cheerful-their bodies are not very muscular ^J^f*" 16 * week, and never oftener, and then only the hard dry charqui (dried beef). Alt! with a knowledge that the labour is voluntary, it was, nevertheless quite revc the state in which they reached the mouth of the mine; their bodies bent forward leaning with their arms on the steps, their legs bowed the ^^.^"M O i n _ iL_:_ U^^^^ft. tUaii- nrictnlc C\ IttTPnflPfl . Ine COm( at a quick pace. This appears to me a wonderful instance of the amount ot labour 6 SS d u t or * mere U,fle fo able use of so. vein 8 of this ore, which they had u* t or * mere U,e The mining system of Chile ,s genera^, con d^ted^s ^oUow^ J J th c pa persons concerned in almost every mine, attends to the details of ^.enaa or a " nd atens first, or the actual miner, lives at his j^.enaa or a " n * towns ; he is working the ore. The habilitador resides at one o o tber of he ea^ ^ ^ ^ the mining capitalist, by whose means the mine ^ ; enaD e , rietor or mine r is too The habilitador. are generally ?S^lKSu obtaining from his farm vege- often improvident. The PP".^ ste nce of his miners. The melting-house ,. 1120 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the habilitador, who takes charge of the business part of the concern. The miner is fre quently without funds, and is at the mercy of the habilitador, who makes what terms he The Chilian system has, however, undergone some change by the introduction of foreign capital. ,,, T , t There are at Coquimbo some considerable French trade-houses. Mr. Lambert, who was educated at the Polytechnic school, in France, has constructed reverberatory furnaces, said to be the best in Chile. . Coquimbo is the centre of the copper-mine trade, and Copiapo of the silver-mines. It has been calculated that this latter port sent to Europe, by way of Valparaiso, from 1831 to 1841, twelve millions of piastres worth of silver, in bars, about 2,6oO,000/. sterling A great number of foreign vessels, who visit the coasts of the Pacific Ocean, go to Coquimbo, Huasco, and Copiapo, to bring away copper ore, chiefly for England and the United States. The mines of the province of Coquimbo are in the Cordilleras, and in the hills toward the sea, and in the chain of mountains of the interior. The richness of the ore have caused these mines to be chiefly those explored. By a law of the Chilian congress which came into operation in 1841, the exportation tf flour and corn is free of duty. By a law, dated March 8, 1841, foreign wines and spirits pay a transit duty at the Rate of, per case or cask, of twelve bottles i rials per month. ,, per cask, under 9 gallons from 10 to 20 gallons 1 21 to 30 1 31 to 60 2 61 to 80 3 81 to 100 4 101 to 120 5 ,, i20 and upwards 6 Hides with the hair on, skins of Guanaco, Vicuna, or Alpaca; wool in the fleece, washed or unwashed; suet or fat ; tallow ; common salt in stones or bags, with the ex ception of salt in small boxes ; silver bullion ; silver, wrought or unwrought ; trinkets, of gold, of silver, or precious stones, imported in transit, upon re-exportation by sea, are charged with a transit duty of two per cent, with the exception of metals in bullion, in a wrought or unwrought shape; and of trinkets of gold, of silver, or of precious stones, which are only charged, on re-exportation, with an ad valorem transit duty of one-quar ter per cent. None of these articles, however, if cleared from home consumption, pay any transit duty at all, but simply the import duty. And, in either case, whether cleared for home consumption or for re-exportation, for each bill of entry the customs claim two dol lars currency. By a law dated December 30, 1840, copper minerals, calcined or in " ejes," when ex ported to foreign ports are charged with a municipal duty of one and a half per cent. CHAPTER XIII. CUSTOMS REGULATIONS AND TARIFF OF CHILE. A DECREE establishing a statistical board was passed in 1843. Copiapo declared a major port. Importation of foreign coal permitted through the ports of Papuda, Tongoi, Totoralillo, Chanarol, Pena Blanca, and La Herradara; but only from major ports. Bills of health must be brought by vessels signed by Chilian consuls. CUSTOMS TARIFF OF CHILE. TARIFF OF THE OFFICIAL VALUATIONS OF NATIONAL AND FO! MERCHANDISE. THE Chilian Custom Duties are generally levied on the Valuation. Duties on are levied according to a specified Tariff of Prices as foil- Value IMPORT DUTIES. al nation. d Valorem Duty. IMPORT DUTIES. Valua Duty. lb >ia. cts. 80 80 36 8 50 2 75 2 25 40 2 2 75 2 25 16 7 5 1 2 15 2 2 50 5 30 8 G 200 12 9 4 25 10 1 25 spe( ified duty. 1 2 a"*o 3 1 ad valorem 50 specified duty. 2 3 ad valorem 25 7.5 specified duty. 3 ""o per cent. 20 6 5 20 5 20 5 20 5 G 20 i vide the 1 law of > 1331, Ar- 1 tide V. I 20 20 2 20 30 20 30 } 30 } " specified duty. 25 50 50 ad valorem SO specified duty. 50 ad valorem 30 20 specified duty. 50 50 75 Musical boxes with cylinder, .small pocket, from three to mx pia. cts. ! id vajd 2 AO ! 16 J I 75 2 7 8 3 50 20 25 50 18 75 9 37| ri 87* 20 20 12} C2J 12 . 10 7" ! o 7- 2 4 i 1 25 la. > 10 1 " 20 I \cot others large, from ten to do. Libritos (for silvering) containing twenty leaves eacb, and up to three inches square, ullets, caniiou-bulJx, and shot : Juliets and shot, balas of lead qutl.i municion, for sporting... do. Cannon-balls, bombs, grenades, and other missile:) of warfare q.tL Jottles, pitchers, and jars, &c. : Icarazas, of stone, for water, with or without cover*, from eight to twelve inches high doz. otellas of black glas, ordinary do. otellones of glass, do gall, amajuanas of glass empt, containing from two to three! do. imitation gross do. imitation lb. manufactured, ungilt..marc Firearms and military weapons : Military swords, ornamented with brass, without belts., each Military sabres in steel or leather Heavy artillery, bronze . . . .qnt Guns and carbines, carabinas eac containing from four to five Percussion caps 100 Juttons : Anchors, large and small., .qnt Shirt, de alambra gross Billiard tables, not including th mother-of-pearl (same a* ivory) bone, do. porcelain, do. . metal, common, do. do. plated, large and plain Biscuit, common, sea qnt do. not sweet qnl Other kind with shanks, plain or fancy, of whaltboue or of horn do. large or small, gilt or plated do. Distilled spirits : Anisette in bottles and canast (baskets)..canasto or two bottle Beer, in bottles 12 botrl in any other vessel . . . .ga Cider, in bottles 12 bottl . in any other vessel. ...ga Brandy and spirits of wines, viz Aguardiente of wine ..12 bottl do. in any other vessel ga metal, common, so calleu without shanks, piercec with two or more holes, ol whalebone, metal, and boue do do. large or small, covered with any kind of tissue.... do Button-moulds, pierced with one or more holes, of wood, horn Geneva, in stone or gla Braziers or stoves of copper ot brass, of the ordinary shape, lb t- as t, from ten to fifteen inches diameter at the surface doz metal, beehive shape, or namented, from twenty t twenty-six inches high, witl or without teapot eact Braces, cotton, spun, common with buckles and leathers, doz do. without buckles, leather . do. in any other vessel ga Liqueur?, mistelas or rosolis, bottles 12 bottl Bum (same as brandy) Vinegar, common U a Wines, red, in bottles,. 12 bott: do. in any other vessel ga white, in bottles.. 12 bottl do. in any other vessel ga mixed, India rubber d elastic, in parcels of fou pa i r p.irc< VOL. I. 7 D 1122 S PA NI S H A M L H 1C A \ R K P I B LI CS. IMPORT D T T I E S. Valuation <n>z%*, for bor*e do. rffn,}ff. bair, clothe* and taile brashes do. do. nail and do. shoe e*cotillooe*, with or with- ttbani). do. Coffee, with or without bo*ks qotl. Coffee->ot, containing from one, t* sWe putts, tio, unvarnished do.BriUsh metal, not plated dr>. Bird cajf-s op to twenty-two inches long, of wood earh do. wire (same as of wood; Drawers, knitted, cotton doz. do. wool, mixed wit. i aod unmixed do. re: Sofa* and can -p>e, ebony, ma hogany, and other wof>d, witb horse-hair and other t , each of other inff-rior kind o/ wood, varnUbed do. do. cane do. Chair*, ebony, mahogany, and other kind of wood, without arms, with bor*ebair aod other cushion* doz. do. with cane bottoms. . .do. other wood, Tarnished, with wood hot torn* do J do. with straw do do.j do. witb cane do do. made wholly of cane . ..do. arm, varnished wood, with or without cuthionn do. C<*rds, playing, Kpaimb (mono. pia. ct. > 75 so 4 9 50 10 do. others tbaii Spanish visiting, enamelled, gilt or ot gilt 100 do. not enamelled, white and coloured do Charts and typographical map/, *C j Saucepans of ir.n, tinnd, No> ) t o 12 d.z. enamelled d >( ; BelU, of leather, for children do. sword, plain ,\, t iionp*. wood, of every descnp "*" qntl. Iron Whit* lead /. . .! do . Iron rbains, above hali-a-,r,r I, Hi : i -. i;. i r oilier kind for c... ft Q lt Candlesticks, tin, and of Var nished sheet iron doz. - bras*, or.iinary . M - wax, ojixed and unnlted M ttarine. , | i i ., and bonnet., viz:- Mr raps, with or without cat, ." and small, {, , plain, without trm, .,,,;-, ^^ each k>ud (same a* 80 40 15 20 30 4H 18 73 40 duty free. 7 j a 2 * 374 o t,n 30 15 J 50 H 1 7ft Ad Valorem Duty per cent 25 30 | , 20 uty free. 20 MPORT DUTIES. Valuation. W*n s cap*, with or without cap- froui*, Large or small, oil-skin doz. cap-fr-nts, of leather.... do. Straw, Colombia do. uropean, f-r Children, trimmed and not trimmed. .do. do. f>r women, large rimmed, without trimmings do. do. cut into the shape of caps, witb trimmings do. do. without trimmings ..do. do. for men do. Peru, coarse, ordinary quality, called media tare* or petate do. from elsewhere, for sailors, ordinary do. do. for children, of a better quality, and dyed ...do.) do. other kind, not dyed, called machitos do.j do. small rim HO. do. Breguet fashion, quality as machitos called Breguet do. elt, varnished, for Bailors., .do common sbeep-wool for children, trimmed ea< h do. not trimmed do. ilk and cotton plush, round, trimmed do. | i>r, not trimmed, military, and for nuns do.| md, trimmed do.| do. not trimmed do.i Ik, fir women, trimm- ornamented rloz. ands and ribbons for trm of parchment, morocco, and other leather and tisu< , 6tr. do. "t ib. onghs and plough share*, of .qntl. uldrons, digesters, and sauce pans: ildes of iron, with bandies doz. ndos of cant iron, not tinned, of Iroru lOOIbs. weight and up wards qntl. ill -i* and perolen, from 8ih. to weight, of copper \},. of wrought iron do. of cast iron tinncrt <[,,. do. Tiot tiru.i d jr.tl. ebon, of ordinary size, up to three pintas, of reel doz do. of iron r|o ckdfor infant childr- ; i-.fi or wool do ShirU 5 - Of cotton, whitu and coloured imiii-d with fiti-x do do, other I md. . f flax and IK-MIJ) do. >f wool .,f l,..i/.-, for suilorn..do. vi/.. : In tin hox-s, of frr.rn five to six ,r;w d ,/. in .kc Ib. 1 : |ii|.|, 10 i-..rlin Ii J.O H, i,l fi.,i,, IK to /If do/.. | :<> do. d , do. do. 40tx> 4 , d". do do. low (Jill). | wax in Mirks lh. H, VIA Shram, foriiiorii-N r*rirdin;ir>j up to two Hi bvs broad dnz. cts. h ?:, 26 13 50 12} 4 50 6 do. 8 10 I 2r> 1 2 50 6 4 2 50 48 7J 75 8 10 6 40 J*} 8 ; 12 (i 26 10 75 1 25 2 50 76 Ad Valorem per cent. 30 20 35 20 25 CUSTOMS TARIFF OF CHILE, IMPORT DUTIES. Valuation. LM V . . - Scissors : ;con(tnt<e/i) Shears, escopolos, up to one inch in width .................. doz.1 Tijeras (scissors) with legs and frmall fcbsor?, of one ajo (scis-: sore for horse trimming) ---- do.: - for tailors, with large screw, from 10 to 13 inches long., .do. _ do. without screw, from 8 to 12 inches ................ do. . - cheep shears, common ..do. - for cutting tin for gold smith s work ............... do. _ common, of cast iron, for dressmakers ,up to five inches do.! _ do. others from five to eight inches long ................ do.j Nails, TIB : Of copper and composition longer than one inch ............ qntl. Of iron, longer than one inch.do. - brads .................... U>! - for horse-shoeing ...... qntl. Rivets of copper ............. do.! - of iron .................. do., Broad-headed, used for orna menting trunks, of bronze, and also of copper ........ P** 1 **! Other kinds, less than one inch long, of copper ............ .lb. - of iron, &c .............. do. Glue, in cakes ................ do. Isinglass .............. : ..... -do-j Collars and Cravats, viz. : Corbatos, for Bailors, of wool only, or mixed with cotton ...... doz. Corbatines for men, of all kinds. of stuff .................... do. Cuellos for men, of cotton ---- do. - of flax .................. do. Ropes, Jarcia, viz. : Of hemp, and of every other ma terial, white and tarred. . .qntl. - old, not fit for use ....... do. Strings for Musical Instrument*. Alambre (metallic), tor all kinds of instruments in general., .lb. Cuerdas (gut), for guitars and pia. cts. per cent. 3 50 > IMPORT DUTIES. " THIiL. V: I mTimmvt) \ of goat. dot Boot* and Shoes: (nmTimmvt) do. for ! *kin, embroidered do. plara - do. oi morocco caf-.kn ................... o*. do. of satin or any other 64 cmt only (oortes) not Bttde u^ofjoacs ski^e, . - Of Wl Cord of silver :. .--, do. tipsof 4o. - r mro, of sta*. entire or jot 1 a*m !, Ml picked. . . .qntl. IS 3 75 ft f Painters colours of every kind, 1 prepared .lb. I for carpenters do., taWe-knives, i M knives, with horn or boo* . - .: - to ten inches * _ do., with forks, superior, withiTory handles, for tnut 1 tS 7| 1 15 Eutorchados (strings wound round with metallic wires) do. do ......................... do- Boot*, viz. : Of calf skin, ready made ---- each - legs of, in parcels of four per parcel __ strips of leather tor trim mings .................... doz. Lace-up boots, for women .. .*> - for men ................ do Boots and shoes, viz. : Slippers, common, of cotton, wool, and skin, for women and men doz - trimmed with silk, for wo men, or otherwise trimmed and ornamented ........... do. Shoe?, zapatones (galoches), of oil-calf-skin, for men ....... do, - (zapatos) of India-rubber for women and for men ........ do. - do. manufactured, for boy?, of calf-skin, up to seven inches; 4 50 : : 1 5o 75 doi 75- l . : , for tea or coffee __ do, other kid > f iroo, tinned, for tea 01 d-_ >tber kind <*o. of white metal, Gtrrm* *] ver, for to-* or coffee dox do., other kinds of the ordi * 50 1 50 3 20 10 long I do other kind, for sailors; do. I do. other kind common. . do . for girt-, up to seven inchrs long, of morocco leather and of calf-skin do -| do. of every kind of tissue uo. ___ sUer - of t.nned iron , _ of British etml 3 V *bee< copper wor ted up into piece*, weighing Slbs. and up- _6W. not fit for use.. ..qntl. 40 13 - 1124 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. IMPORT DUTIES. Copper and Bras : (continued) Cobre : red, in small pieces, for! exportation qntl. Brass, sheet lb. . wire (alambre), for mu.sical instruments do. \ do., other kind do. in flat or round hoops for ornamenting canines do Mettales de cobre for exportation mineral ore, raw qntl. do., calcined or burnt. . .do. in the first stage of manu facture (first fusiou) do. Dates lb. Dice (dados), of ivory, mother- of-pearl, and bone doz. Thimbles, of steel, of iron, white and yellow metal.. gross remptijos, for sail-makers do. Mineral watery, in ordinary bot tles 12 bottles Cologne water, in lo> g narrow bottles, of common glass.... do. Oranire flower water, in ordinary bott les do. Laveuder water, in bulf-bottles 12 half-bottl __ Spirits of turpentine gall. .Ei.aniel, in ordinary leaves.. . ,lb.| cut into pieces of div shapes, for artificial flowers do. do., with stones, for flowers and other purposes gross Kmery, for polishing qntl. Anvils, of iron , do. Ink, viz. : Chinese, in cakes, for drawing lb. Writing ink, in small bottles from four to five ounces weigl including the bottle ....12 bo in earthen pots of one pint 12 po Printing ink l Pins, alnleres, common, in paper or i n masse, of every size, in eluding the paper in which th are set horquillos, hair pius, in eluding the paper in whic they are set, and also that i which they are, packed, of iron and of brass do Essences of all kinds, excep T . ro -: es -. do Jto, in pin qnt Currycombs doz Leathern cases, for hats ... .each for spotting g-uns doz Sickle*, uith handles do S"*l,raw qutl Ca^i on ..do Hn, in sheets, not exceeding 14 inches long. . .case of 225 piece do. 20 ao. case of 112 pieces Horseshoes ;. q Irons, for ironing Ihrea.i of the aloe bark, not twisted ...lb do. do. twisted, .do - of hemp, for shoemakers and tor sailniakers quintal of cotton, for sewing, on reels of 100 yards of thread each ": gross . 00. do. other kind white and coloured lb of spun wool, for embroi dering g Valuation, pia. cts. Duty, per cent IMPORT DUTIES. 50 1 50 50 4 1 25 40 30 25 25 62J Thread -.(continued) of spun wool, other kin white and coloured 1 of flax, white, called " . Fianders, of from the Nos. 2 to 120 d do. coloured, ordinar for sewiug d Phials doze Artificial flowers d Trees, for boots pai for hats -..eac for shoes pai Fringes of cotton, white and co loured ya pure, of wool, white and co " )U red, & mixed with cotton. do Cheese lb Galloons, &c., viz. : Franjas of wool (see Guichas.) Galones gf gold and silver, rea ounci do. do. imitation... lb Guichas of cotton, for braces mixed with silk, with India- rubber, of one-half to one inch 2o | broad yard do. do. of more than one and not exceeding two inches broad do. do. for boot straps, do. do. one and a half inches broad. do. of wool tor carriage trim mings, from one and a half do. do. three inches broad, for liveries, &c., pure do. do. do. mixed with cotton. do, do. do. mixed with silk.. do. Gloves of cotton, knitted, with or without fingers (mittens). .doz. of wool, unmixed and mixed with cotton.... , do. of leather, of doe skin..d do. of kid, long gloves, an other kiud d Waistcoats, camisetas, knitte (under-waistcoats), of cotto d( do. of wool, unmixed an mixed with cotton do chalecos, mixed or unrnixec of wool, unmixed or mixed, o eac do. of every other kind.. do Grain, pearled barley. ...quizita rice . dried pease do Ships scrapers, with or withou handles do do. for white washers, with wooden handles do Gridirons, of iron quiuta Jews -harps for children.... gros Guitars, with case each without case do Cloaks and Coats, viz. : Cloaks of wool f>r women, o mixed or unmixed stuffs, shori I or long with or without sleeves embroidered do do. do. other kind of one 01 several colours do for men, of cloth do Capotes of bouracau, &c., for men, capes, mackintoshes, .do do. do. other kind ... .do. Frock coats, of cashmire, of cloth do. Dress coats, do. do. ..do. Axes and pickaxes for carpen ters, azuelas, with handles. doz. do. without handles.. do. do. hachas do. do. hachitas, with or with out handles do. Valuatio pia. cts 2 50 40 3 7 10 18 2 75 2 25 25 30 30 30 1 25 6 50 10 50 3 3 50 12 1 7 4 10 10 12 6 3 50 10 o (continued.) 3.-. CUSTOMS TARIFF OF CHILI:. IMPORT DUTIES. Valuation Ad Valor Duty. . IMPORT DUTIES. Valuation. - . Percent. ,0 35 30 > 20 Jury free. 5 20 5 20 5 20 duty free. 5 duty Iree. M I 30 35 Axes and pickaxes (continued for grubbing up q u j m Hoes of iron, without handles. d Lanterns: of glass, oval, being height up to seven inches. ea do. above seven and up P,a.c,, 8 8 40 80 1 75 4 6 8 12 25 50 1 2 4 6 10 75 2 2 8 62| 50 50 4 5 9 12 7 2 7 4 8 25 50 75 20 j 9 ? 18 j ., 1 12 { 12 I 10 50 I 50 > 2 9 > 18 per cen y so 2 30 10 20 duty free. 20 10 .. 30 20 I 20 30 \ 20 I Mats and n felpu. 50 inches peta painted los of gtraw, up pia. cti. n 7 i, e 20 . 12} ). 32 s. 25 >. 2 25 > 4 1 50 3 50 7 13 . 18 . 25 35 45 55 65 73 85 100 120 140 e 160 o 190 220 250 280 300 75 1 50 3 50 6 50 10 13 18 23 28 33 38 43 50 60 70 80 95 110 125 140 150 J 50 i 5 J 125 2 25 2 75 2 40 ) 2 75 ] 2 25 -> 75 2 25 tes of Guateuial do. of do. of Mirrors am of 3 t eluding fr in won 12 inches, With li gilt wood long, iucli Looking, glasses in frames. Mirrors of glass, .-i!- . vertd. ntments of pium, in pas Id, in paste in leaves, ng, iraitatio >. .... ..square vi Manilla, coloured d P took I ing hU |Lr d > C inches long, in ame .... t i,. do. above ten and up fourteen inches d den caes, from ti t including case...dc ames of painted o from 8 to 12 iucht iding frame dc do. above eighteen and u to twenty-two inches i)< do. above twenty-two an up to twenty-six inches d do. above twenty-six aiid u to thirty inches d inche*. ("from 13 to 16..eac i, 17- 20.. ..do 21-24... .do 25 29.... do 30 32.... do 33 35.... do 36 38.... do ,, 39 41.... do 42 44.... do ,, 45-47.... do 48-50 do 51 53. ...do 54 56.... do 57- 59.... do. 60 2....do. 6365 do. 66 68.... do. 69-71. ...do. 72 74.... do. 75 77- ...do. t 78 80. ...do. ( up to 16. ...do. from 17-20. ...do. 2124 do. 25 29. ...do. 30-32.... do. 3335 do. 36-38.... do. 39-41.... do. 4244 do. 45 47- ...do. 48 50.... do. 51 53. ...do. 5456 do. 57 59.... do. 60 62.... do. 63 65.... do. 66 68.... do. 6971 do. 72 74. ...do. 7577 do. 7880 do. every description Ib. e do. md dust marc hojuelas, for gilil- round, being in height u do. above seven and up t do. above ten and up i do. above fourteen and u to eighteen inches d( do. above eighteen and u to twenty-two inches do do. above twenty-two an up to twenty-six inches . . .do. do. above twenty-six am up to thirty inches. do ; of talc, up to fifteen, inches high do of glass, for carriages do. Corks for bottles per 100( Litharge quintal Registers, plain or ruled do. Iron pots, of cast iron, not tinned] other, of from one to sixteen Hammers, combos, of iron, for martillos, for shoe and boot makers, with handles... dozen do. for blacksmiths, vvith- do. for carpenters, with picos, of iron, without Caudle and lamp wicks, m^riposas (night light;, in boxes contain ing from 90 to 100 12 boxes do. from 180 to 200 do. mecbas or cotton, not longer than four inches, for lamps gross pabilos (spun) of cotton quintal Bits for horses, of iron, common dozen do. real.. books cot 25leaveseac inches pquar do. real.. briscado, 1 do. itnirat; cauntillo, do. imitati ot. taining from 20 to ti, and up to three i, imitation.. prow book r gilding, real.oz. on Ib Coffee and spice (hand) mills, of with fly wheel do on . . ... Ib prepared in pots, of from 12 to 14 ounces weight. .12 pots do. in pots of from 18 to manufactured in pieces, fit 150 100 2 25 2 75 25 4 2 do. old, not fit for use do. panulos, of silver, imitation . . Ib. do. real, gilt or not >/ afers Ib. ad matting, esteras, of for windows and doors, rousers, of cashmere each of cotton, flax, or hemp. do. .>. floor matting, from 36 inches broad yard 1126 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. IMPORT DUTIES. Valuation Ad Valore Duty. IMPORT DUTIES. Valuation. Ad Valorem Duty. Trousers of cloth, common an pia. els. h 1 50 i- if * n 2 >. 1 75 i. 50 - a a 2 25 .1 1 25 1 3 per cent 35 ) - 20 J 30 } 30 } * 15 1: 10 Frying-pans, of iron, up to 1 inches diameter, tinned .doze do. not tinned d Weights of copper or bronze o pia. cts. 4 2 50 80 10 9 50 3 4 50 3 50 2 25 36 24 14 10 8 40 15 o 124 3 10 9 16 9 3 4 4 4 30 5 30 20 6 10 75 1 j 7 50 12 3 50 6 ^ 3 40 , per cent. 1 i > 20 duty free. 2 j- 20 30 1 20 J "... 1 30 f 20 - 30 v 20 do. other kinds (see Casl merf.) Paper, white, for printing (4f shf ets in a ream), the greate length not exceeding 30 incht reai square letter paper d ^ar, baruiz, common, for ship pez, Greek, or red-. quinta Pottery, porcelain cups, mates doze do. tazas, tea or coffee cup and saucers, gilt or painted. do do. not gilt or painted. .do common white and colouret in baskets, &c., whole, from 2 other kinds of ordinary d mensions, 500 sheets in ream florete (a very thi medio-florete, other kmd.dc blotting-paper (450 sheet cartridge-paper quinta paper-hangings, in roll (piezas) from 10 to 12 vare lung and not more than 2 1 8 I I I 1 62$ ; 4 o 2 50 3 3 75 87i 3 1 50 1 12 30 25 1 25 5 6 3 50 7 3 50 2 50 1 50 1 75 4 50 < 6 50 4 50 75 4 3 1 50 45 5 3 do. in half baskets, fnm 1 to 20 cubic feet half baske do. in quarter baskets, u to 12 cubic feet.. quarter baske Pets and pails (bacinicas).of Bn tish metal of every shape r lecheras (milk-pails) of Bri tish metal do sand-paper, not exceeding for shades, window-blinds &c do copying-paper (used with a for making cigarettes, besi (in reams of 500 sheets).... do. do. in books the length of a cigar 12 doz Gunpowder, for sporting, fin for large and small ordnanc do Jlocks, (motones) inch in length loughs, with shares .... each Parasols and umbrellas, of cor- ton, from 25 to 32 inches.. each of silk (vide silk). Parchment for drum-heads, of the u.sual size 12 sheets lanes of every description, u| irths of hemp, cotton, and wool 12 pair not made up of cotton and wool, df one colour yar< oap, common kind, in cakes or bars, for washing linen. quinta aws, serruchos, with handles, from 9 to 26 inches long.. dozen do. small and pointed, for cutting key-holes, 10 or 12 Perfumery, in other vessels than of crystal or fine porcelain 12 pots Combs : do. do. of tortoiseshell. .. do. do. other kinds, of boxwooc do. do. of ivory, from 2 to 4 do. not broader than one peinetas (side combs) per pair, of horn gross sierras, from 60 to 76 inches do. of tortoiseshell doz. do. of iron gross l D g each blades of, from 20 to 36 inches long and up to 1 inch Spades, of iron, with handles doz. do. without handles do. Hydrometers of glass do addlery : harness for carriage-horses leathern halters dozer saddles, trimmed or not, Paintbrushes (broibas), for house- painters, &c do shaving-brushes do. pencils and brushes for por trait, &c, painters do. do. saddles for men (with out any metal) do. ellows, kitchen, common, being in breadth up to 12 inches dozen -7- do. above 12 and up to 17 manufactured in pieces, of every description, weighing more than 10 Ibs do do. old, not fit for use... .do. Pens, steel, without penholder gross 11s made into pens.. 1000 -^- for forges, from 17 to 30 do. above 30 and up to 50 inches broad do 1 penholders of wood, metal eves, arneros, of wire, from 12 to 20 inches diameter, of iron dozen do. of brass do Ornamental feathers, ostrich natural iu coloured, ready made up for bonnets, longer than ten inches dozen do. in parcels of three not longer than eight inches 12 parcels cedazos, of horsehair, from 8 to 16 inches diameter, and of igers, with iron, of from one- lalf iwo inches diameter. . .do. ntrebits, of from one to three rills, from two to six inches ozen (continued.) CUSTOMS TARIFF OF CH1U . 1TJ7 IMPORT DUTIES. V aluation. Ad Va orem Duty. IMPORT DUTIES. ->ar Tea-kettles and tea-pots of cop per, of red copper or bronze, holding from two to six pints dozen . of brass, with warn.er, standing not higher than eight inches.! eacb >ia. eta. p< 16 ^ 3 50 I 10 12 16 J 8 8 8 1 81* 2 81J 3 2 25 1 75 2 2 50 4 2 3 4 3 87| 1 25 62J 12 10 > o 10 9 o m n > 6 12i 22 o 8 11 ), o . 12* o. 16 ot U in n- m ch 5 to. 7 5 "S :h, >re S. a * sj . ;r cent. 20 50 20 1 tton tissues: (continm d, do. from 81 to 00 thread*, rom 22 to 25 in<he each do. above 90 threads, from pia. cu. 1 pa 3 !SO | 4 15 7 12 3 2 1 Mi 501 | 1 1 25 1 12* 12 12 Ilk 15 03 75 50 7 9 16 o il 14 55 ut. 2 ) ted.) lawn, white or coloured, patterned from 33 to 42 inches of iron, holding from two to ten pints, cast, also tinned. d>z. do. of enamelled iron... do. listados, square and stiiped pattern, from 26 to 30 inches in width do of British met^l .& Tea, pays a specified duty of.. ID. Cotton tissues ; stockings for women, Scotch thread, fine quality, embroi dered l2 P a ] rs do. from 31 to 36 do do. Merinos serged, of one sin- pie colour, in pieces of 28 yard*, from 23 to 26 inches iu width piece Pocket and other handker chiefs, neckerchiefs for men, from 32 to 36 inches long doz. pocket handkerchiefs printed red, commonly called of Tur key, from 30 to 32 inches do. do. common, Irom 24 to 2l do. plain...-- Jo- do. other kind, white, plain, do. courana do do. half-fine and ot fine do open work, embroidered do., above 26 to 28 in r do., above 28 to 32 in....< do., above 32 to 36 in do. other kind, of Madras or paliacHte, real or imitation, from 28 to 34 inches long. ..do. muslins and muslin gauze, gasas, white, plain, from 30 to do. coloured of every quality do. do. for men, white, plain, common *r do. courans do. ZZ do , open work at sides, common " do., patterned, from 28 to do. fine quality do. do coloured of every quality do. 40 in do - do., muselinas, painted or printed, from 26 to 30 in. ..do. do., from 31 to 36 in do. nankin, English, in pieces up to 11 vares long and 18 in socks for children do. canvass, for embroidering upon, from 20 to 55 inches in P dth vare do., of China, blue or cau gas, in, pieces, up to 11 vare gingham, striped or square pattern, from 30 to 36 inches 11 do., yellow, in pieces, from JL^cholet, from 24 to 28 inches nankinettes" or florentines single, from 20 to 23 in. wid yar do. ,24 to 27 in. wide.... do piel (crossed), not doubl satined, from 24 to 27 inche coco (eutnmed calico), co loured, for linings, from 24 t tickings (cotinea), single f rom 24 to 27 inches broad.. dr do. double, from 25 to 3 inches broad y __ Russian drills, pure, froi 24 to 27 inches in width, singl ~ felt for hats, from 25 to _ quilted stuff, common Marseilles, from 22 to 25 i 18 O o. 30 ! o. 75 of 10 k, es 25 2 o. 60 in ce 1* d, in. ds 5<> in. io. 1 nd de, are 9 els, iTz . 1 25 (contin mixed of one colour d< . do. double, of more tha one colour ; u flannel, from 24 to 28 inch. _ fort-en-diable (gummed from 24 to 28 inches broa plain, of one colour only...d _L do. quilted, or other kin gergon, from 30 to 36 inch do., other kind, from 24 do., coloured, thread dye . ribbons and galoons, hiladillo, in pieces of from to 12 vares, white and blac i in wide 12 piec _ do., of more than of 1 Indianas (quimones), pieces of 28 yards, red, co, monly called of Turkey, frr 23 to 26 inches in width-. ea do. from 27 to 32 do... _ do. other kind, contain! in a square of half an in both warp and woof, not m< than 60 threads, from 22 to do., cf riletil!o. serged, do., other kind, r,,l..uri plain, or patterned, up^to^ _dO-,ol more than 1 to 2 do., of imitation gold e Bilver, Irom 1 to 2 inches wi shawls and neckerchi pannuelos,ofgau*eorcamb trom 31 to 36 in _^ h d e o. from 61 to 70 th ea from 22 to 24 inches .. _ do. from 71 to 80 threa from 22 to 24 incht-s 1128 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. IMPORT DUTIES. Valuation. Ad Valorem Duty. IMPORT DUTIES. Valuation. Ad Valorem Duty. Cotton tissues -.(continued) shawls and neckerchiefs pannuelott, of tulle, embroi dered, black and white, from 3 pia. cts. 2 50 per cent. 1 Cotton tissues -.(continued) known under the name o generos, otherwise thai serged, white, plain, having in the warp, per square of an pia. cts. per cent. do., from 54 to 64 in. wide do do., coloured, red, commonly 4 ] inch, more than 30 up to 44 threads in width, up to 36 in. do 40 ... i ... do 11 12 - called " of Turkey ."with fringe from 32 to 36 in. broad doz do., from 54 to G4 in. broad 3 50 do., above 44 threads in width, from 24 to 28 in do 12 14 20 do 2 " ,, 36,, do 16 40 do 18 do., other kind, plain or 20 serged, with fringe, from 30 to 36 in. broad do 2 50 do., dyed, or striped of one 4 do., from 54 to 64 in. broad do. do., without fringe, from 30 4 50 1 25 20 Tissues of horse hair, from 20 to 28 inches broad, black, plain vare 1 1 do., from 54 to 64 in. broad, 3m do., patterned, and other 1 ]24 ) " do., rebozos or chales, com- Tissues of wool (alepine), from 18 to 24 in broad do <n 40 5 do., above 24 to 34 in. broad tulle, encajes, patterned, common, from 1 to 4 in. ..yard do. fine quality, from | to ] in. 4 2 12* ~) do. do., above 34 to 46 in broad do. anacoste,or anascoste, from 30 to 36 in. broad, pure, and 60 80 1 37* English tulle, plain, from 26 30 astracan (a kind of English plush), of one colour, from 25 40 quality, for gowns, of one or more colours, painted or stockings for men and wo men, mixed and unmixed. .doz. socks, for children do 4 50 1 do 25 1 2 do., other kind, of onecolour 18 1 baize of pellon, from 60 to do., other kind, of one colour or painted, from 17 to 26 in. 25 ( 20 ] yard do., with short nap do. do other kind of 100 1 25 1 known under the general name of " generos," pure for ponchos (a kind of cloak),from 50 threads, and both sides alike, from 60 to 72 in. broad do. do., other kind, bayetilla, 82 65 do., above 30 up to CO in. do. do., other kind, serged, white, from 25 to 28 in do. do., up to 30 in do. 32 do 1 10 o io| 1 1 } 30 ^ do., fapiela, the same bouracan (plaid shawls) from 24 to 29 in. broad, Scotch do. do., other kind, double, of 30 50 34 , do. 1 1 A 25 > 20 36 do li" do., dyed, or with stripes of 1 124 75 do., otherwise than serged, raw, plain, known by the name of cuyos, being in breadth from cassinette, pure, from 24 to 27 in. broad, and mixed with 70 23 to 29 Inohes .... do O fi do., above 26 to 26 in. ..do. 7 50 29 32 .-do. 32 36 ..do. 36 38 ..do. 8 9 10 damasks, pure and mixed with cotton, from 25 to 30 in. 35 38 41 ..do. ,, 41 44 ..do. do., white, plain, having in the warp, per square of half an iru-U not more than 3G threads in width, up to ^3 in 11 12 , 20 do., from 50 to GO in. broad, do. cloth for billiard tables.. do. duraderas (lasting), of one colour, from 24 to 27 in. broad, 70 4 45 do. do., above 23 to 2!5 in. .do. . 26 30 .do. , 30 33 .do. 33 36 .do. 3G 38 .do. 38 41 .do. do., more thau 3G up to 44 threads in width, from 24 to V7 ir rto 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 bareges, lanilla, for fla^s, from 12 to 15 inches broad do, other kind, with pat tern from 21 to 25 in. broad do. other kind, plain or serged. for coat-linings, pure, from 16 to 20 inches broad do. do. from 21 to 25 inches 12 30 15 do., \ipto30in do 8 do., up to 33 iu do 10 ) (continued.) TARIFF OF CHILI. 1129 IMPORT DUTIES. Valuation. d Valorem Duty. Tissues of wool (continued). . flannel, franela, from 24 to 28 inches, unmixed yard . do. mixed with cotton, com mon do . do. best quality d . . gambrun, of wool and cot ton (a kind of stuff resembling crape), not exceeding 28 inches do. merino cloth, double, uu mixed, for summer coats, from 45 to 55 inches broad vare do. for women, serged on both sides, from 42 to 50 inches broad do. . do. on one side, from 40 to 45 inches broad do. . molleton, or espagnoletti (fine rateen), from 40 to 50 inches broad y ard muslin, from 23 to 26 inches broad, unmixed, plain and open work do. do. mixed with cotton, plain do. do. open work do. plush for collars of cloaks, from 12 to 16 inches broad. .do. shawls and kerchiefs, of cashmere, common, from 40 to 50 inches long doz. do. from 54 to 64 inches long do. do. good and semi-fine qua lity from 40 to 50 inches long do. do. from 54 to 64 inches Ion, do do. of lanilla, ordinary, plain, or serged, pure, fiom 40 to 50 inches long do. do. from 54 to 64 inches long do. do. mixed with cotton, same as " pure." do. of merino, printed, ft 54to64incbes long, common, of merino-cashmere each do. other kind do. alforubras, carpets and mockatoes called " tripe, tufted, from 26 to 30 inches long eacb do. 31-36 ...do. do. " 37-42,,... do. do. curled, 2630 . . .do. do 3136 ...do. do. 3742 ...do. mockatoes, Kidderminster and ingrained (gergon) from 30 to 36 inches, imperial.. yard do. of two threads do. tripe pure (Brussels mocka toes) from 26 to 28 inches, tufted d0 do. curled do. , carpetas (table-cloths) o cloth, plain or of any pattern from 50 to 60 inches broad.yard tartan of pure wool, with long nap for lining of winter clothing, from 48 to 56 inches broad do - knitting, plin or with bor ders, up to 16 inches broad.do. tripe, for miners caps, plush fashion, of one colour, from 16 to 20 inches -do- do. for trousers, mixed witn cotton, plain, or of cordoncillo, from 25 to 30 inches do. other kind, known by the per cent. IMPORT DUTl 1 I, 26 18 25 M 87J 50 30 o 124 18f 13 18 20 32 16 3 25 2 75 3 75 1 75 2 75 4 874 70 1 50 1 25 2 25 75 50 1 Tisanes of wool (con tinutd). general denomination of " ge ueros" for ponchoa, pure, fron 25 to 30 inches d< do. from 31 to 60 inche..d do. mixed with cotton (e " pure.") other kind, of pure wo< crossed, both sides alike glossy, up to 28 inches broad d Tissues of hemp and flax : cambric, batiata, from 27 36 inches breadth va . Brabant, from 33 to 40 inch broad - d britanuies, in pieces of fro 7 to 8 vares long pure an mixed with cotton, bread from 24 to 26 inches, from 79 to 80 threads in a square of * inch of both warp and woof piece do. breadth from 30 to 36 inches, having in the square J inch of both warp and woof, from 60 to 70 threads. do. jt 7180 do. 81-90 de - 91100 , do - 101110 do - canvass for embroidering upon, from 20 to 55 inches broad val : e caserillos (clothsfor domestic purposes), from 21 to 24 inches , in pieces of 13 yards J*n cholet, mixed with cotton, from 24 to 28 inches ..do. ticking, briu (common tick- 1 ing) plain raw, from 24 to 30 inches broad - do. from 36 to 42 inches . . do. do. plain white, from 24^to 30 do C> f?om 36 to 42 inches, .do. -do. cotiues (common tick ing for mattrasses) from 25 to 30 inches broad. . <>" do. drills (Russian), from 24 1 to 28 inches broad, pure, white, and coloured oo. do., mixed with cotton do. _ do. pure and mixed with cotton, from 24 to 30 inches m breadth, having in the .,,.; inch hi tue warp less pU. ct.. / .- 6*4 1 45 2 breadth, having in the square - inch iuthe warp from ^HMo, do. d... , do.| do. do. do*. do. 11 10 IS IS 25 10 20 20 30 40 50 7 I - M N 3 15 VOL. I. 1130 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. IMPORT DUTIES. Valuation. Ad Valore Duty. I M P O W R T DUTIES. Valuation. Ad Valorem Duty. Tissues of hemp and flax : (continued hollanrt, unmixed, fioin to 30 in. broad, and having the warp per pq-mre in. fro pia. eta. 50 per ceiit 1 Wsistcoats, of cloth embroidere or trimmed, of wool and or sil eac of knitted cotton, mixed o unmixed with wool doz . pia. cts. 6 18 per cent. 1 " do ,from 51 to GO threads..d 63 .Screws ot wood, tor carpenters do., above u threads d do , mixed with cotton (s of iron for bedsteads, com 4 unmixed) Irish linen, unmixed, fro 32 to 36 in. broad, and havin in the warp per square J in 50 do. with brass heads do do. other kind, from to 3 inches, for carpenters use. .do Silk, spun, for sewing lb 10 31-} 5 50 } do., from PI to GO th reads.. d 63 75 > 20 not spun, floss, for embroi 60 | do., mixed with cotton (se unmixed) lawn, from 30 to 36 in 50 "issues of silk, viz. : stockings and socks oz brocades, knitted by ma chine, of gold or silver, from 1 i" list.-idos (gingham), unmixe 20 to 25 inches broad, pure real vare 10 do. imitation do 4 do., 31 t<> 36in. broad ...d 12i J do. mixed with cotton., .do do. of silk, pure do 3 2 50 I cambric, embroidered, from 24 do. mixed with cotton... do canvass, for embroidering 2 50 15 20 2 . up to 2J inches do 9 f ] platilla.o, in pieces of 31 yards, having in warp and woof, per square | inch, not more than 70 threads, pure, and mixed witli cotton. ...piece of Rouen, having in the warp and woof, per square 7 J 15 } men, not exceeding 70 inches long, and from 8 to 13 inches broad, unmixed doz. do. mixed with cotton... do. pannelos, black, of China, 32 inches for sailors, from 28 to common, long each 16 12 U J 19 $ in., not more than 70 threads, unmixed, nut exceeding 42 in. broad, and mixed with cotton vare damask napkins, from 36 to 50 6 crape, crespon, from 28 h> 32 inches in breadth vare do. espumilla, of China, from 15 to 18 inches broad ... ..yard damask, from 26 to 30 inches 40 50 \ > 15 known by the general name Scotch... . . 07 1 37J of doth, oiled, Euceradon, lor carpets, for household pur gauze, plain and knitted by poses, double, from 22 to 24 in. 42 20 gros de Naples, plain and do., from 25 to 30 in. broad do. 31 ., 36 do. 37 , 41 do. 50 58 66 lamas (a kind ef knitted stuff), of gold and silver, from 20 to 25 inches broad, real.vare 62J 4 15 42 47 do. 48 53 do. 54 ,, 59 do. CO 65 do. 74 82 90 98 levantine, sargas or levan- tinas, and sayasaya oz. lawn, from 30 to 36 inches 3 62 CG 71 do. do., for table, single, from 30 to 36 m. broad do 1 6 25 pocket-handkerchiefs, ban danas, or chapas, of India, in do., Hull, from 30 to 36 in. 50 30 24 to 27 inches piece 3 do., sail cloth (lona), Nos. 1 3033 do 3 50 to 7, from 22 to 24 iu. broad, 3336 do. 4 50 20 . j - do. lulares of every descrip- do., other kind, generos 60 (sacking) common, from 22 to 28 in. broad do 6 plush, unmixed, from 20 to > 15 do., from 23 to 35 in. bro;id, do. do., from 30 to 42 in broad, do. Gla8H, cristaleria (table glass), common, wine glasses and 8 o 10 40 do. above 24 to 28 incbes.do. ribbons, de listoneria, of ri- betillo, in pieces of 32 vares piece - do. other kind, pure, ot satin, plain, in pieces of 32 75 1 25 37$ do., every other kind of do. other kind, in pieces chimneys for lamps do 50 from 38 to 40 vares, assorted vidrios, (watch glasses). do. do., window and plate glas^ 75 do. not assorted, No. 15. .do. No 20 do 55 100 square fee 4 75 20 No 40 .. do 1 191 Glass manufactures, vix. : abalorios, (large beads 20 do. mixed with cotton, from 1 to 1J inches broad vare 1 12$ 4 chaguiras, do., small .. ..do. 20 broad do > 20 cuentas, glass beads do. 20 J do. other kind, chambergas, (continued. STATISTICS OF BUENOS AYHES. 1181 IMPORT DUTIES. Valuotion. Ad Valoren Duty. IMPORT DUTI 1 , , . . ., Tissues of silk (continued). being less than | inch broad, in pieces from 56 to 64 vares ribbons of gauze, crape tulle, and other transparent stuffs, plain or not, made by machine, from l to 3 inche pia. eta. 65 8 15 1 50 8 12 1 12 62* , 1 25 2 50 2 75 3 1 30 per cent. ^ 15 20 I 15 TiMawnf 8ilk-(con/, (.bawl* and kerchief, of Chi- nese crape, of .-everal colour, printed, from 40 to 45 inche. -54... ea d C h 3 4 1 75 sen I u 37* 1 25 1 2.1 75 "Utjr. I" ..!. 1 15 1 15 " 35-64 .::::::.; bioad vare do. of satin of every qualicy plain or not, made by machine from l^ to 3 inches broad . . do. do. of velvet, unmixed, plain, Nos. 30 to 100, in pieces of 32 vares. . . . piece rto. of tissues of a clear ;m.l tra,, 8parent qual.ty, of another kind than of Cliii,,..,- plain, open worked, knitted or embroidered by machine printed, with or without fnnpe do. other kind, of every dimension, plain or nof.kni ted or embroidered by machine, and nt by hand, with or with out fringe, of one colour and sliotsilk do do. with pattern, from U to do. above 2$ to 3$ inches broad do satin, lamilla (imitation satin) do. do. raso, other kind, and satinette o? -taffeta do. velvet, pure, plain or not.do stuffs known hy the gener*! name of "generos," for waiit- coafs from 20 to 25 inches broad, common, with a small silk ornament, and the remain der of pure cotton \. tri - shawls and kerchiefs of Chi nese crape, of one colour, plain or damasked, from 32 to 36 in- 4045 do 4654 do 5564 do do. other kind, pure do. do. mixed, of cotton and wool, called cashmere . . d . do. of several colours, printed, from 32 to 36 inches do. do. of cotton only do. CHAPTER XIV. STATISTICS OF BUENOS AYRES. THE civil war under Rosas has annihilated the means of compiling any late return upon which reliance can be placed, regarding the trade and statistics of Buenos Ayres. Under Spain the trade of Buenos Ayres consisted in exporting the precious metals, and salt beef, tallow, fine furs, sea wolf-skins, wool, sheep-skins, flour, oil, copper, hides, c. To the interior provinces of Peru, were exported Paraguay tea, swan skins, negro slaves, thread, &c., in exchange for sugar, cacao, cinnamon, rice, indigo, cotton, oil, pimento^ wax, baize, woollen goods, quicksilver, &c. From Europe, La Plata received linens, woollens, silks, cottons, hats, iron^ &c., and the imports were estimated, in average years, at 758,400/. per annum, whilst the exports amounted, in agricultural produce, to the value of 434, OOO/., and in gold and silver to 1,183,400/. The whole estimated total value of exports amounted to I,6l7y400/. sterling. The viceroyalty formerly remitted 700,000 piastres, at 45. 4d. each, to the royal coffers of Spain. In 1828, sixty-four British ships of 12,746 tons entered the port of Buenos Ayres. 1132 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. NUMBER and Tonnage of Vessels belonging to each Country, with the Value of their Cargoes, which arrived at, and departed from, the Port of Buenos Ayres, m the Year 1836. A R R I V E D. D I : p A RT i : D. COUNTRIES. Ships. Tons. Value of Cargoes. Ships. Tons. Value of Cargoes. number. 49 number. 9.759 current dol lars. 23,107,234 number. 47 number. 9,549 current dol lars. 9,767,2 11 11 1,609 758,500 21 2,798 681,300 19 3,465 3,596,400 21 4,128 2,891,000 37 8,063 2,395,400 40 8,810 7,935, 200 39 5,304 4,357,900 39 5,353 889,600 21 1,629 1,784,000 20 4,354 3,641,400 4 680 128,700 3 510 847,300 6 1,553 246,300 3 654 454,100 5 794 512,700 6 1,244 342,900 9 1,291 986,600 10 1,633 820,400 2 358 236,300 3 458 440 100 2 389 223,900 2 389 120,400 6 862 685 600 6 1 002 816 800 1 193 112 800 1 193 232 400 2 168 28< 800 2 168 87 500 Total . . . 213 36,117 39,422,134 224 40.943 29.967.611 REMARKS. The average exchange of the year at -which the Returns of Trade are calculated, is yd. per current dollar of Buenos Ayres. Although the British vessels which have arrived in this port during the year have de creased in number and tonnage, yet the value of the goods imported in them has not much diminished ; say about 10,0004. sterling. The produce of this country, exported in the course of the year, has augmented in value, about 145,0004. sterling 1 more than last year , of which increase the British merchants have partaken in fair proportion, and have sent home large returns for our manufactured goods. The quantity and quality of the wool now furnished from this province, is gradually on the advance, and must prove highly advantageous in our commercial relations with England. The foreign trade with Buenos Ayres con tinues much the same with respect to imports, but the exports of produce have been much increased. NUMBER of British Vessels, with the Nature and Value of their Cargoes, which arrived at, and departed from the Port of Buenos Ayres, in the Year 1836. ARRIVED. DEPARTED. PORTS. Ships. Nature of Cargoes. Value of Cargoes. Ships. Nature of Cargoes. Value of Cargoes. number. 36 640 550 number. 20 fOx hides, borne, and") } hoofs, tallow, nu- [ 8 1 tria skins, wool, ( L &c &c J 2 Ditto 9 451 5 rOx bides and horns,"j ) horse hides and 1 fifi 847 Isle of Mayo 2 Salt ^ hair, nutria skins, f L wool, &c. &c J Cette j Salt Malaga 2 Wine &c 10 076 Quebec 1 1 244 1 ( Tallow, sheep skins, ) 583 Sicily 2 2 Salt 475 Mules Ox hides 352 1 lymoutb Ox hides, horns, &c 5,831 472 Montevideo ..... r Ox hides, horns, and ~\ ) hoofs ; wool, tal- f .... ) low, and five in ( (. ballast J Calcutta * * * Total 49 673,962 47 284,877 STATISTICS OF BUENOS AY 1 H > > TRADE OF BUENOS AYRES DURING THE YEARS 1842 AND 1843. General Trade. The total value of the exports from Buenos Ayres during the year 1843 was valued at 41,423,000 francs (1,659,2061 sterling) being an increase of 5 702 000 francs (228,0807.) over the exports of the preceding year. French Trade. The increase bore upon all articles, and the exports from Buenos Avres to France have gradually ascended in the scale of importance. Failure of Commercial J I tniw._These favourable results were unfortui, broken off in the early part of the year 1844, by the failure of five of the principal commercial houses at Buenos Ayres; namely, four Argentine and one Brazilian failures were followed by the bankruptcy of several other smaller firms Amount of Liabilities. -We amount of their liabilities, according to official doc menu was 24 000 000 of piastres, paper money, or 307,2007. sterling, and as the S res Jame one upon the otL, the f& was very great in a market where thetmount of paper money (the only legal currency) m circulation is 50,000,00 665 Ca^s of Failure -We causes of these failures may be attributed to the great two and two-and-a-half per cent per month , ^b ^ he ea a . terest ^ j During this mania news was brought t large - ar S e ^ , hj , t , catt | e European vessels for the European market, * *e j d , very low pric e, had been driven and killed for P 810 "^"^ a loss in he European markets, by Rivera and his men: the ^^^ h de" a d of six per "cent on dried of twenty- five per cent on salted Buenos an mue i ^ ^ hides. "Although the several ^T^S^SK The English" firms, specula,- tirely ruined by th.s loss, they """ but lhe losses fell more directly u in every branch ot ^J***^^f ,2^*, only for the most part the on the goods C n l-The British trade being ^^. and country of Buenos Ayres, lost no t only ^ th s p . ^^ (Q marke[ . the Argentine army in Uruguay ^ h ^g^ do no t attempt this trade on .tor Trade with aiePromncet.-ZoTOve e ; j osed to . own account, in consequence of ^^"ha v e to pass through several intermedmte Mode of Trading. -The products ^^f" n Jerttion where they are purchase, provinces before they arrive in hose sta f ^^ sole ly to this branch of busmess Wholesale by native houses and ^o wnfine ^ e ^ a d hese ., They then sell them to other and les cons dera > blocUde of he Parana has trade has suffered less than ^SSi being more particularly c rarely sent into the interior 1134 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. interior by others, not by French merchants ; who, being prudent, even stopped the speculations in hides in time to save themselves from Joss. Wine Trade. The French wine trade suffered in the commencement ot the year from the blockade of the rivers, but Spain having recently exported wines only in small quantities to the River Plate, wines from France found no competition in the market, and three different cargoes from Cette, Marseilles, and Bordeaux, sold at good profit. EXTORTS from Buenos Ayres during 1843. MERCHANDISE. DESTINATION. England. France. Antwerp. Hamburg and Altona. Bremen. Spain. Italy. United- States. Hides dried ..number number. 25,822 229,317 21,631 15,<35 35,182 73 177,6-0 159 35,330 76,570 308,995 3,038 "l4 414131 1,224,000 number. 251,929 151,235 22,861 6^,550 1,128 2,905 8,379 50,523 107,207 8,638 11,912 164,664 17,000 number. 136,503 18,517 4,056 9,816 380 5,538 39*, 160 number, 54,130 2,690 *204 7700 8000 number. 24 456 4971 1240 3620 number. 253,941 3,776 4,009 4,430 1,000 2*380 6,000 7,200 number. 89,603 31,118 1,137 2,300 1,393 2,859 33,012 3,590 number. 309,122 12,994 600 2,706 3,385 866 126,553 4,499 9,237 237,555 550 1,679 3,924 302,386 a alted .. .....rt.-do- deer ....... .dnz. Salt meat quintal.- J Tallow candles caseof 25 kil. Bones do. * 1 Ib. equal to kiJg. 46. + 1 arroba equal to 11 kilg. 50. * 1 quintal equal to 46 kilg. EXPORTS continued. MERCHANDISE. DESTI NATION. Total Quantities. VALUE. Resume of 1842. Brazils and Valparaiso rlavanna. Other Countries. In Piastres. In francs at the rate of 32 cents per piastre. Hides, dried. number number. 22,166 number. 124 150 100,800 2,000 Tot Tot? number. 292,206 63,673 6 ,039 2,100 33,687 97,984 * . . t ] number. 1,450,992 518,381 50,238 94,921 39,695 6,236 312,612 143,000kil. 4,658 109,488 or 1,259,000 468,790 "5,391,000 390,216 "4,487,000 15,500 7,130 162,184 7,460,000 9,556 440,000 2,394 ,, 59,850 1,035,325 1,462,500 number. 65,100,000 26,955 000 1,105,000 2,848,000 1,191,000 187,000 1,094,000 56,000 4,380,000 10,313,000 9,755,000 233,000 5,676,000 239,000 96,000 312,006 241,000 number. 21,024,000 8,626,000 364,000 911,000 381,000 fiO.OOO 350,000 18,000 1,402,000 3,300 000 3,122,000 75,000 1,816,000 70,000 31,000 100,000 77 000 francs. 16,246,000 7,098,000 366,000 1,2 14 ,.000 17,000 45,000 53,000 6,000 1,359,000 4,022,000 3,446,000 132,000 1,312,000 138,000 136,000 197,000 232,000 Skins, sheep doz. " . calf do otter Ibs * 16,406 59,705 80 2,394 Wool do Ostricbjfeathers Ibs. Salt meat quintals; Tallow candles. . .case of 25 kil 21,500 130,381,000 41,723,000 1,049,200 36,021,000 1,421,120 * 1 Ib. equal to kilg. 4(j. ) i arroL* equal to 11 kilg. 50. * 1 quintal equal to 46 kilg. STATISTICS OP BUENOS AYRES. | | ;; - ported, were valued .t 421,206 francs! or imports, composed as follows: mercery or small wares, fans in pretty Urn latter have been in much demand. Articles of the Toilette for Men. Since these have latterly been manufactured at Buenos Ayres, those of France are only imported with little profit ; but articles of the toilette for women, such as lace, embroideries, dresses, caps, and bonnets find a eooc market. Stationery and Paper-hangings. Under this head are included fancy gilt, enamelled, &c., paper, also pocket-books and pencil-cases; these articles are only used by the more opulent inhabitants, but not extensively, on account of the political state of the country. Stationery is mostly supplied by England, at least the superior qualities, the thinner and less expensive bein^ French. Perfumery. The importations are considerable ; but the profits small. Hats and Bonnets, fyc. Few persons wear, at Buenos Ayres, felt hats; and Ger many supplies silk hats. The latter are very cheap, and notwithstanding the duty of about three shillings per hat, the Germans find the trade profitable. French hats have not been able to compete with these. Wrought Leather and Skins. Those of Parisian industry rival competition ; the consumption of boots and shoes for the army and for private use being very great. The profits are very limited, from the import duties being so very high, and the consumption being almost entirely confined to the town of Buenos Ayres; the arrival of two or three cargoes is sufficient to glut the market, and ruinously to lower the prices. The interest for money lent at Buenos Ayres is one-half per cent per month ; it has been at two, two and a half, and even three per cent per month. French Wines. The similarity of the French southern wines to those of Spain (which country formerly alone supplied Buenos Ayres), and their cheapness, will soon put down all competition. The imports have considerably increased, in 1843, particularly from the port of Cette. The French exports of wine during 1842 to Buenos Ayres and Monte Video amounted to 73,179 hectolitres ; in 1839, the exports were only 41,419 hectolitres. Trades, fyc., in Buenos Ayres. In the year 1843 there were in the town of Buenos Ayres, six armourers, twenty-nine inns and hotels, five breweries, fifteen jewellers, forty-five bakers, 459 eating-houses, including public-houses, six tanneries, thirteen chandlers, eighty-six boot and shoemakers, two auctioneers, four manufactories of chocolate, twelve manufactories of cigars, 905 vehicles (carts, waggons, &c.), thirty-nine consignee offices, two dru^ magazines, nine (livery-stable keepers) horse-dealers, 202 fruiterers and green grocers, sixty-nine brick-kilns (fours dbriques), twelve outfitters, nine watch and clock makers, four tennis-courts, fifty-five billiard and coffee-rooms, five job-carriage proprie tors, four libraries, sixty-six wholesale warehouses (European articles), 222 retail ware houses (ditto), forty-three magazines for the products of the country (hides, wools, al low, horns), 273 magazines for divers kinds of stuffs, ten mattrass-makers, eleven mer cery warehouses and" manufactories, sixty-three corn-mills moved by horse and other power, eleven fashionable magazines, twenty-four typographical presses, thirty-two con fectioners, twenty-six chemists and druggists* thirteen hardware houses, ten dyers, four carpet-manufactories, three manufactories of tobacco (cut), six manufactories of vermi celli 312 different kinds of industrial workshops kept by labourers or workmen. 1136 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. French woollen cloth. During the year 1841, after the raising of the blocade, there was inported from France, cloths of all kinds to the amount of 300,000 fr. (12,OOOZ.) manufacturing price, a sum which exceeded a little, that of 1842. For the year 1843 the sales are not inferior to those of the previous year, notwithstanding the disadvantages resulting from the prolongation of the war between this country and Monte Video. There has been sent from France, four qualities of cloth, the prices of which (in France) have varied from seven to twelve francs, from eleven to thirteen, from thirteen to eighteen, and from eighteen to twenty-four francs per metre. The sales were in the following proportions; common cloths, from seven to twelve francs could not meet English competition. Those of greater durability than similar English cloths have neither the lightness (which at La Plata is a quality), nor the lustre of the latter, nor are they so cheap. The other qualities have sold in the following proportions: one-third of the value at from twelve to thirteen francs per metre, one-sixth, at from thirteen to eighteen francs, three-sixths at from eighteen to twenty-four francs. The qualities quoted at from seven to nine and ten francs have only sold in very small parcels, and generally at a loss. French Modes. The only colours that find a sale are, the dark and light blues called English blue, black, and bronze-black; these are the only ones which ought to be imported; the greens, the bronze-greens, and all that approaches to green is proscribed as being the colour adopted by one of the two parties at the time of the first civil war. As to the quality, the buyers have generally preferred light cloths to those, which, though stronger and more solid, have not that silken and brilliant dressing so much sought after by the Argentines it is principally to the richer class of consumers that the French products have been sent ; and the qualities sold at from eighteen to twenty-four francs per metre have equalled half the total consumption. The cloths worn by the common people are of two kinds; a blue cloth, rather deep, light, and brilliant, whose manufactured value varies from five to six francs per metre, resembling in strength and wear, the southern French cloths. Cheapness is the great consideration. It is bought chieflv for clothing soldiers and officers, and for cloaks called ponchos : the port-men, soldiers, and the officers of the police, and the seamen of the squadron, are entirely clothed with it. The common blue cloths form half of the English importation ; the remainder is of a small, fine kind of cloth, but particularly of a peculiar woollen tissue, a kind of molleton called bayeta, of a breadth of 160 centimetres and of a scarlet colour. It is now worn by both sexes. It is used for the lining of ponchos, for the cherissas, a piece of cloth of two metres in length upon the whole breadth of the stuff, which is used by the gauchos and cavalry soldiers. The peasant women make large shawls out of them ; the Indians exchange their products for this cloth (the colour of which pleases them much,) when they are not at war with the Confederation. DIRECT French Trade with Buenos Ayres. 4 General Trade. * Special Trade. YEARS. Importations. Exportations. TOTAL. Importations. Exportations. TOTAL. 1840 francs. 335 000 francs. 2 701 000 francs. 3 036 000 francs. 761 000 francs. 2 617 000 francs. 3 378 000 1841 6 164 000 4 569 000 3 106 000 7 H7 r ) 000 1842 12 257 000 4 658 000 16 915 000 8 493 000 3 774 000 12 267 000 1843 1 2 920 000 18 124 000 9 633 000 4 384 000 14 017 000 1844 : 10,055,000 5,616,000 15,671,000 9,177,000 4,676,000 13,853,000 * "General" includes the products of all countries; the "Special 1 of the respective countries. trade only the products and manufactures TARIFF AND TRADE OF MONTE VIDEO. NAVIGATION. YEARS. Entered (with Cargoes.) Departed (with Cargoet.) TOTAL (with Cwoe.). French Foreign TOTAL. French Foreign TOTAL. French Poreig, TOTA,, | Vessels. Tonnage. 1 Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. 1 B Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. 1 | Tonnage. f 1 , Ml , , . 10 M toot. 3532 1 hi 137*7 No. tons. No. tons. No. tons. No. tons. No. tons. No. 3 22 27 tons. 537 1069 4827 6169 No. 1 42 55 61 a ton*. 537 11,711 11,2.-,:. 1841 27 33 44 38 4891 644G 8505 7354 3 17 15 14 620 3G58 3060 2651 30 50 59 52 5,511 10,104 11,505 10,005 15 22 17 25 2661) 4078 3206 4901 7 5 15 4 1422 749 SSI 1843 1844 N.B. The flag of Buenos Ayres is not included in the above table. CUSTOMS DUTIES AND REGULATIONS OF BUENOS AYRES. The war and anarchy which has so long disturbed the Argentine states; the blockades and interruptions of navigation, which have driven trade into so many different and irregular channels, have caused that customs regulations and t to have been far less regarded than in any of the other Spanish American repub lics. Contraband trade has consequently been carried on at such points as smugglers could the most safely and speedily run their goods, regardless of tariffs, into the country. An illiberal scale of duties and prohibitions was promulgated by a decree, in December, 1835, that scale was modified in 1840 and 1841-2. By the decree of 1841, the following articles, which were before then prohibited to be imported were admitted at various duties varying capriciously from twenty to fifty per cent on the value : viz. Alphabets and spelling-books for the use of schools; wheat, at the rate of starch ; rings of copper, bronze, and iron ; handles of steel, iron, and common metal, for kettles, pails, &c. ; cane-brooms; bullets of lead and cast balls; buttons and button-moulds of wood, horn, or bone; ormillas of one or more holes ; steels for striking fire ; iron buckles; bird-cages ; belts, of cotton pure, or mixed wool ; hoops for casks, &c. ; tallow-candles ; ploughshares, of the shape of those used in the country; bells for cattle ; glue ; kitchen- strainers and skimmers of tin, iron, or steel ; axletrees of iron or steel ; manufactured tin ; all articles of iron-work for windows and doors; forms for hats, boots, and shoes; fringes for hammercloths, cloaks, &c. ; galloons pure, or mixed with cotton or wool ; window gratings ; gridirons. Clothing, articles of dress, $c. Cloaks, called buchos; garters of cotton and of wool, pure or mixed. All articles of copper and brass manufactured ; butter moulds of iron ; mustard, pre pared ; steel-yards; combs of all kinds ; wheels for carriages ; wooden pails; saddlery and harness ; tissues for counterpanes, called sobrepellones, for horse-cloths, for cloaks, called ponchos. The old tariff of 1835, appears to be thoroughly broken through, but we have no regular Buenos Ayres tariff which we can publish with any degree of accuracy, and the tariff of Monte Video hereafter introduced, may, until changed, be the probable average of the scale of duties to which goods will be subjected except those that will be run clandestinely past the customs. VOL. I. 7 * 1138 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS, Port Charges at Buenos Ai/res.The following is the last decree of the executive for levying tonnage duties at this port : The Argentine government has resolved, and does decree Article 1. From the 1st of January of the coming year, national vessels sailing from ports beyond sea, shall pay three dollars per ton. 2. Foreign vessels shall pay four dollars per ton, except those which, in virtue of existing treaties, are assimilated to national vessels. 3. Foreign vessels shall pay, for the visit of the health officer, twenty-five dollars, and the same amount for the bill of health. 4. Foreign vessels belonging to nations having no consul, and whose roll is made out by the captain of the port, shall pay forty dollars for it. 5. The duties fixed by the preceding articles shall be paid one-half on the entrance of the vessel, and the other half on her departure. 6. National and foreign vessels, which do not leave nor receive cargoes, shall pay one-half of the duties here established. 7. Let this decree be communicated, and published in the official register. Until peace be re-established on the banks of the La Plata, we find it impos sible to introduce any further commercial statements relative to Buenos Ayres. CHAPTER XV. CUSTOMS, REGULATIONS, AND TARIFF DUTIES OF THE REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY AND MONTE VIDEO. THE commercial law in force in this republic is the old Spanish code, called the " Or- dinanzas de Bilbao. The commercial regulations and revenue laws equally affect the commerce of all foreign nations. A discrimination is, however, observed in favour of national vessels, in regard to tonnage and other dues ; also, a trifling difference in the direct tax of " licence to trade." British ships and their cargoes can, under treaty, claim the same privileges as Monte Videan vessels and their cargoes. All laws affecting commerce are independant of local legislation, but emanate directly from the supreme government, and are liable to such changes only as the political exi gencies of the republic may require. The present revenue laws affecting foreign commerce are the following : 1st. The custom-house law of June, 1837, establishing the rate of duty on imports and exports, and the different ports open to foreign flags. 2nd. A law, revised yearly, imposing a direct tax for licence to trade, in which a trifling advantage is secured to citizens of the republic. 3rd. An addition of sixteen per cent to the duties on imports, and five per cent on ex ports, were imposed to assist in meeting the extraordinary expenses of the war with Buenos Ay res. 4th. A decree, consequent on the declaration of war against Buenos Ayres, interdict ing commercial intercourse with that state. (It is stated, however, that no real obstruction is offered to the trade between the two countries, so far as relates to foreign flags.) Customs Laws. The Senate and House of Representatives of the Oriental Re public of Uruguay, in Congress assembled, decree, &c., concerning importations : ARTICLE 1. Free from duty printing presses, paper, and other articles exclusively for this purpose ; printed books ; geographic maps ; barks, for tanning ; ashes ; staves and hoops of wood ; calf skins ; cow and horse hides, raw ; common salt ; gold and silver, TARIFF AND TRADE OF MONTE VIDI.O. 1 189 coined or in bullion ; and live animals, for promoting industry and improving the breed of the country. 2. Iron, in bars, sheet, wire, or plates; brass and steel, unwrought ; tools, in general, except those expressed in article 6 ; woods; saltpetre; gypsum ; fossil coal . bit, hare, beaver, and other furs used for hats ; cables and cordage ; tar ; ornaments of gold and silver, and watches shall pay six per cent. 3. Linen cambrics ; silk, raw or spun ; fabrics of silk ; laces and ribbons of silk or linen ; gold and silver embroidery, and fine jewellery of gold and silver, shall pay i< <-cnt. 1-1 4. Alfgoods and effects, natural or industrial, not expressed in the aitic sent law, and the common serge, called " bajaras," used for bags and other purposes, shall bay nineteen per cent. 5 Sugar ; mate ; tea ; cacao ; cinnamon ; sweet oil ; spices ; drugs ; provisi general ; woods wrought ; and tobacco in leaf, shall pay twenty-four and ^6 Wheat ; pastes of flour (as maccaroni, &c.); buscuit ; starch ; cheese ; butter ; pork and beef in pickle ; trunks and boxes, empty or containing goods ; moveables; hats; manuf; of sheet tin ; lamp oil ; rings (large) of iron or brass ; false jewellery; perfumery ; soap ; d< and windows with the iron-work therefore; window grates and balcon.es; spits ot crowbars; ploughshares of the. kind used in the country ; shoes for horses am tallow candles ; carriages of all kinds, not intended for carrying heavy loads ; sudd horse trappings; clothing, made up ; caps; dress combs ; leathers ; artificial How, oth r ornaments for thread ; hosiery boots and shoes of all kmds ; china ware cut or gold figured ; mirrors ; liquors; ardent spirits; wines ; vinegar ; c, cards, shall pay thirty-nve per cent on . per month on dry goods ; thirty-seven cents a, d a half on *ic _p I and three-eighths cents on each ^ %%^^ and other articles of *03 pounds eight ounces ^^^^J^^^ on the same weight ; ^t^ ^^ Ce " tS ^ a h ^ " every eight boxes. ment of storae dutv, from the effects cents and one-quarter. *. ****** pay one quaer per cent on the market ^ pnces as ^ rt I y. of ^ ^ V 15. The following are cepted: salt meat J V, f i(J ; ort duty , those tanned hides, and all works of art; &^^B$ 0* River de la Pla,,, and W hich clear to be discharged m " ^J L free fron.duty. 8 , goid of the sa,ne descr.pt.on, -* as yet, is not per.itted, except in the custo.-h .Tor.ea^^H^^^ 19 The state is responsible tor t the inculpab.lity of those ^B ^ Wj^^j*. rf ,he depositors during the l opened at their request. SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 21. The introducers may effect sales by wholesale, without being obliged to remove the merchandise in warehouse. 22. The executive power is authorised to establish warehouses in any or the custom houses of the state, under the restrictions which circumstances may demand. 23. By the present law, the following ports are qualified (habilitados) : Monte Video, Maldonado, Colonia, Soriane, Paisandee, Yaguaron, and the inland port of Tacua- rembo. Transit. 24. Is permitted and free from all export duty : all foreign effects leaving the depo- sito of Monte Video for foreign marts, or for other depositos which may be established in any transit custom-house. 25. Is permitted and free from import duty, in transit from a foreign country into the state, the following articles : yerba mate, tobacco in leaf, cotton (raw or spun), hides and tallow, if their destination is to one of the qualified ports of the state. 26. Is also permitted, and free from duty, the transit for foreign ports of the effects expressed in the foregoing article, by way of the River Uruguay. 27. The government will establish rules necessary to advance this class of commerce, and retains the right of determining the precise points where goods in transit to foreign marts shall be introduced. General Dispositions. 28. The duties will be regulated by the wholesale market prices ; the calculations to be made by a surveyor and two merchants, at the time of despatch of the effects at the customs office. 29. The merchants mentioned in tho foregoing article shall be comprehended in a list of twelve, which shall be formed every six months by the " tribunal del consu- lado," and who shall alternate by fours, each month, to be designated by the" collector- general. 30. In case of disagreement between the surveyors, or objection on the part of those interested, for any difference which exceeds ten per cent, it shall be decided by the col lector-general and two merchants, drawn by lot from said list, without recourse. 31. The judges, once assembled, shall not separate without having pronounced their decision, which will be carried into effect. 32. The operations of the surveyor and his colleagues shall be published, and the former shall be obliged to give account thereof to such merchants as may request it. 33. The government retains authority to establish special rules, in cases where, from local exigencies, the punctual execution of the dispositions of the present law cannot be obtained. 34. The dispositions of the present law cannot be altered until after six months from its publication. 35. Said dispositions shall take effect, with regard to importations from ports north of the equator, in six months from its publication ; from ports south of the equator, in three months ; from ports within the capes of the River de la Plata, one month : and in fifteen days on goods and effects in deposit. 36. The duties established by the law of the 26th of January, 1831, of one per cent " consulado," and one-half per cent "hospital," on imports, are comprehended in this law, and their respective products shall be separated and applied to the objects to which they are destined. Addition to the Custom Laws of the State. Article 1. All those effects comprehended in articles 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th, of the general law, shall pay eight per cent as extraordinary subsidy. 2. Those effects designated in Article 5 as " provisions in general," woods wrought, wheat, pastes of flour, and flour, are excepted. 3. Common salt shall pay, at importation, twenty-five cents per three bushels. 4. Tallow, unmanufactured, shall pay, at exportation, eight per cent. 5. The foregoing articles shall take effect, with regard to importations from ports north of the equator, in six months from its publication ; from south of the equator, in three TARIFF AND TRADE OF MONTE VIDEO. months ; from ports within the capes of the Rio de la Plata fifteen days for articles and effects in deposit. OIllh: an(i m 6. This law shall he revised next year. 7. In addition to the duties specified above, all articles of importations ih-.ll eight per cent as -subsidy except flour, which shall pay no adcl.Uonli ") a per cent extraordinary,- des.gnated by the law of the 29th of March ; I port, hve per cent, and jerked beef thirty-seven cents and a half per 1 0:3 pounds! DECREE. Foreign Flour. Article 1. When the price of this article is upwards of twelve current dollars it shall pay as a maximum four dollars per barrel; and when the price is below ten cui dollars, it shall pay three current dollars per barrel, as a minimum.-/**/, I V 2ttO y *J1til(5 J. 1 j DECREE. Article 1. Fifteen days from the publication of the present decree all goods which may be despatched from the custom-house, and which are subject to importation duty shall pay eight per cent additional, as a war duty extraordinary, to continue until pacific relations shall have been established. 2. From and after the same date, all articles of exportation which are actually liable to duty shall pay five per cent additional to same. 3. The executive power is authorised to extend the operation of this law, so far as re- g-ards imports, to the further term of fifteen days, to be counted in succession _ V Video, June 18, 1839. DECREE. Extra Duty. Article 1. Jerked beef shall pay three rials per quintal on being exported, from and after the 1st day of May next. This shall be continued two years, to commence from said date, in event of the especial circumstances by which the market of this republic is affected should not have definitively ceased. 2. Establishments which are liable for patents shall pay one-third more in 1841, in addition to that which corresponds to the present year, and during the said year of 1841 the stamp paper shall be subject to an additional twenty per cent. 3. All goods which may be despatched for consumption from the custom-house of the state, and which are already liable to duties (with the exception of wheat and flour), shall pay, after fifteen days from the promulgation of the present law, in addition to the custom-house subsidy law already established, eight per cent ad valorem; which recharge shall, however, cease from the moment the loan towards the payment of which the pro ceeds of the five and eight per cent subsidy extraordinary shall have been satisfied. The payment of the duties exacted by this law shall be paid in cash. Sanctioned by the " Sala de Sessiones," in Monte Video, April 7, 1840, and its receipt acknowledged by the minister of finance on the 12th instant, at which date its fulfilment is decreed. Monte Video, April 1, 1840. Tonnage Duties and Port Charges on Foreign Vessels. Tonnage duty, three rials, currency, per ton; guard on board, eight rials, currency, per diem ; hospital fees, four dollars four rials, currency ; entering and clearing, thirty-five dollars, currency ; har bour pilotage, ten dollars, currency ; custom-house vessel, one dollar, currency. Pilotage from Cape St. Mary s to Monte Video. Twelve feet pay 50 dollars ; thir teen feet pay 60 dollars; fourteen feet pay 70 dollars; fifteen feet pay 90 dollars; sixteen feet pay 110 dollars; seventeen feet pay 130 dollars; eighteen feet pay 150 dollars; nineteen feet pay 180 dollars. Port Charges on National Vessels from Sea. Harbour pilotage, 2 dollars; ton- nage duty, 2 rials per ton; entering and clearing, 10 dollars 6 cents. pay no port charges. Currency. The currency of the country is computed in dollars, rials, and rtis, viz. : 100 reis, equal to one rial ; eight rials, equal to one current dollar. The current dollar (nominal) is sixteen and two-thirds less than the Spanish (or silver dollar without pillars). The Spanish pillared dollar, and the patacone or patriot dollar, are equal to 960 reis, and twenty per cent more than the current do! 1142 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Doubloons, Spanish or patriot, are a legal tender for sixteen Spanish dollars or pata cones ; the former, however, generally command a premium of one per cent. All busi ness transactions are settled in sold and silver coins. Weights and Measures. 100 Ibs. equal to 103 Ibs. avoirdupois; one quintal, equal to 100 Ibs. Spanish ; one arroba, equal to 25 ditto ; one pesada of dry or ox hides, equal to 40 ditto ; one pesada of salted ox hides, equal to 75 ditto. Dry Measure. One fanega of wheat, equal to 233 Ibs. Spanish ; one fanaga of salt, equal to 590 ditto; a fanega is equal to three and three-quarters English bushels; a moyo of salt is about sixty English bushels, or two and a quarter tons, and averages about seventeen fanegas. Liquid Measure. In ascertaining the contents of casks of liquids, the same instru ments are used as in England, and consequently all liquids are bought and sold by the gallon. Long Measure. 100 yards English are equal to 108 varas Spanish; 100 varas Spanish are equal to ninety-seven varas Buenos Ayres. VAI.UE of Merchandise Imported into Monte Video during- the Year 1835. FROM WHAT COUNTRY. Custom-House Value. FROM WHAT COUNTRY. Custom-House Value. dollars currency. 993 954 Brought forward.. dollars currency. 2 679,132 351,602 33,472 Buenos Ayres 275935 352 245 Brazil 706 428 12 720 United States .. 333 811 Chili 14 702 17402 3 127 2,679,132 Total 3,095,398 BRITISH and Foreign Trade with the Port of Monte Video during the Year 1835. NATIONS. 5 ARRIVED. D EPARTED. Vessels. Tonnage. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Vessels. Tonnage. Invoice Value of Cargoes. British number. 54 334 93 32 41 3 74 81 20 137 5 5 5 3 2 2 1 tons 10,571 10,583 9,430 6,608 10,832 298 9,130 15,290 2,197 9,496 745 1,012 274 695 823 426 440 328 dollars currency. 993,954 not known 35l"602 333,811 emigrants 706,428 352,245 ] 2,720* 275,935f 17,402 33,472 ( 3,127 f salt 14,702 number 57 no return 36 35 3 41 66 20 no re tons 10,978 outwards 7^486 9,615 298 5,117 12,752 2,197 urns dollars currency 793,885 no account. 486,149 457,056 245,031 282,734 299,035 none* no accountt 58,f75 i i23,i?o French Spanish Sardinian and Spanish Portuguese Buenos Ayrean Hamburg Belgian . . Danish Swedish .". , Dutch Prussian Chilian Total 893 89,238 3,095,398 2,765,401 These are principally slavers in ballast after landing their slaves in Brazil. 1 his number includes packets and pilot-boats. In 1844 no produce of this republic has been shipped from the port of Monte Video i consequence of the war. Produce to a very great extent, which otherwise would lave passed through this custom-house, has been shipped on all parts of the coast, prin cipally at the port of Bucco, a few miles from this city, in the territory occupied by Oribe s troops, and at Rocha and Castiilos, villages between Cape St. Mary and the J lian frontier, occupied alternately by one or other of the two contending parties. ie greater portion of the produce of this country is derived from the remote depart ments on the eastern side of the republic, and has been conveyed during the war to the neighbouring port of Rio Grande in the empire of Brazil, from which it has been ex ported to different parts of the world. TARIFF AND TRADE OF MONTE VIDEO. 1143 QUANTITY. Price. Amount. Exchange. Valii.-. dollars. 19JL dollars. 3% 144 *. rf. C . 4. if 174 7 J ) 100 < l<i > ft Total 570,943,100 1 3 7 NOTE. The city of Monte Video being besieged and blockaded there have been no export* during the jr r IM4 All the produce which had been warehoused in Monte Video previous to the iege wag exported dm 1843. Large sums of specie have been shipped from this port, but as the greater portion han been Mna|(le4 oo board, no correct statement can be made : the following sums, however, have hceii passed through the cuftoa- house ; CHARGES imposed by Public Authority on British Shipping in the Port of Monte \ CHARGES. Currency. Sterling. CHARGES. Currency. Sterling. One stamp for opening register dlrs. reis. *. d. Bill of health dlrs. reii. 4 *. d. n 14 4 10 640 1 18 8 2 1 720 032 300 1 3! One stamp for closing register.. 240 1 1 Custom-house guards per day- 1 240 3 7 1 1 240 1 1 Writer s fee at the custom-house One stamp for opening register to load 10 640 1 18 8 on each vessel, according to the length of the manifest 8 1 8 8 12 230 with cargo 10 640 1 18 8 ** Average rate of exchange, forty-three pence sterling per current dollar of 800 reu. N.B. No vouchers are given by public authorities for any sums paid by shipping. The only difference which exists between vessels under the flag; of this country and British vessels with respect to the charges made on them is, that the national vessels pay 200 reis per ton for anchorage, while British vessels pay 300 reis per ton. The same difference exists between national vessels and the vessels of all other countries. At the present time there are no advantages enjoyed by national or other foreign vessels from which British vessels are excluded. Formerly national vessels had the exclusive privilege of engaging in the coj trade, and no foreign vessel could engage in it. This was, by a decree of the < government, done away with during the period when hostilit.es were being on against this city by the Argentine squadron, as foreign vessels could I be employed in transporting cattle from different parts of the coasts ol ^ft S^i^srss^ -** be deprived f thisprivilese so soon as the war shall cease. CHAPTER XVI. COMMERCIAL LAWS AND TRADE OF PARAGUAY. FROM the success which has attended the first attempt at opening a direct trade with Paraguay, and from the improved cultivation of that state, we are jus concluding, that were a termination put to the unnatural and unjust W ar by Rosalind to the interruption which he has established to the nav.ga the River Plate above Buenos Ayres, civilised nations m.ght carry on a e trade with Paraguay and the mterior states of the Argent.ne Repub Dictator Francia manifested some desire to estabhsh commercial n*. In 1841 Mr Hughes, a British subject, proceeded with a c >.*^^jj^ the authorities who succeeded Dr. Francia, and descended the nver, 1144 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. left a considerable surplus of British manufactures in Paraguay, over the returns of country produce brought down the Plate by him. He was, however, prevented from re-ascending by Rosas. (See Mr. Hughes Letter hereafter.) CUSTOM-HOUSE LAW OF PARAGUAY. Of Maritime Imports. ARTICLE 1. All machinery, instruments of agriculture, science and art, all classes of geographic maps are free from duty. 2. Twenty-five percent will be paid upon raw and spun silk, silk manufactures, net work and laces, with or without embroidery of gold and silver, and with or without jewels all clocks and watches jewellery of silver and gold and every work of wood. 3. Forty per cent will be paid upon all furniture, mirrors, carriages, saddles, and their appurtenances, ready-made clothing, hats, shoes, ponchos, horse-cloths, leathern manufactures, liquors, wines, spirits, vinegar, ale, cyder, tobacco, cigars, and all kinds of perfumery. 4. Three rials per fanega will be paid upon salt. 5. Fifteen per cent will be paid upon all natural productions and manufactures which may not be enumerated in this decree. 6. One rial for each package will be paid upon all articles and manufactures which may enter into deposit, if such deposit does not exceed the term of one month, beyond this term two rials per month will be paid upon each package. 7. Gold and silver in coin or in bars are free from duty. 8. The ports of entry, established, for the present, by the sovereign congress of this republic, are the Villa del Pilar (Neembucu) and Itapua. Of Maritime Exports. ARTICLE 1. Hides (ox, cow, calf) will pay in full two rials for each hide. 2. Horse hides will pay one rial for each hide. 3. Yerba mate* will pay one rial for each arroba. Tobacco will pay four rials for each arroba. 4. All the productions of this republic, not included in the foregoing articles, will pay upon their exportation five per cent upon the current value. 5. All foreign articles and manufactures which may have paid import duties may be re-exported free of duty. 6. Also are excepted for a limited time, those who may prepare the indigo of the country for sale. 7th. Those who may prepare twist tobacco according to the manner of Brazil, and snuffs ; those who may establish the manufacture of vegetable oils ; those who may manufacture flour of Mandioca, as it is prepared in Brazil ; those who may preserve and augment the preparation of wines, spirits, and all classes of liquors ; those who may establish wholesale factories for the making of sugar and soap ; those who may prepare the grain dye of cochineal in the country ; those who may establish mills for the cleansing of rice; those who may establish manufactories of pure and white wax, or who may set up hives of bees for the production of honey and wax ; those who may discover and establish any other useful invention, and who put it into practice, shall also have the same privilege of freedom from duties in the manner expressed. 8. It is entirely prohibited in all the territory of the republic (as it has been hitherto), to export gold or silver, coined or otherwise, under penalty of confiscation, together with a fine to an amount equal to that which it is intended to export. 9. Goods deposited in bond will pay two per cent ad valorem upon their re-ex portation. The Manner of collecting Duties. ARTICLE 1. The ad valorem duties will be fixed upon the current market value of the article, calculated by the collector and two merchants, at the time when the goods may be despatched from the custom-house deposit. TRADE AND TARIFF OF MONTH VIDI.O. 1 1 1 2. The merchants alluded to in the preceding aiticle \\ill be mined In th; col lector. 3. In case of reclamation on the part of the importer, or that of the collector, and which may exceed ten per cent, the delegate or commandant, with two merchants newly chosen, will decide without appeal. * 4. The arbiters met will not separate until they have pronounced their judgment, which will be carried into execution. 5. These operations will be public, and testimony will be given thereof, w;.- reqnired. 6. The avaluation effected as it is ordered by the first article of this chapter, and signed by the collector and two merchants, will be remitted to the supreme govern foT its deliberation. 7. From the present year the custom-house duties will be paid one-half in gold or silver currency, and the remainder as at present. 8. All decrees are hereby repealed, which may be in contradiction to this present, which shall be revised every year, for expedient purposes. And that this may reach the knowledge of all, let it be published, and copies affixed in all the customary places ; and let testimonies thereof be despatched to all the towns, departments, and parishes p jurisdiction. Given in the palace of the supreme government in Assumption, capita the republic of Paraguay, this thirteenth day of January, one thousand eight hundr and forty- two. Letter dated Buenos Ay res, Wth February, 1841, from Mr. JIug/ns. In thTraonth of June last year, I made an application to her Britannic Majesty s go- vernment setting forth my desire to visit the province of Paraguay, asking for a recc m dato ^ letter! and a special passport to that effect I am now m possess SSL-set JftsS.5 -S" - ---" > and cargo. Assumption, Capital of the Ilc,nMic of Paraguay, lUtlt January, lb4J. "^ " 10 " r ctntp in the cieuai imcm. " w~- - most excellent minister secretary ol .tale I { . exce ll e ncy directed tlirough Britannic Majesty, in reply to the oft note wc d Bnto his ce leDCJ your hands unto our P^^^SLj^ta Buenos Ayres, requesting h.se^ the minister plenipotentmry of hBnton j ? ^ above . raentlonecl despatch t cellency to send forward by t "I v ^ VOL. I. 1J46 SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. the foreign office ; and the last to his honour the consul-general of her Britannic Majesty in Monte Video. With this opportunity loe repeat unto you the surety which we verbally gave unto you for your mercantile operations in the port of the Villa del Pilar (Neembecu) and ofltapua, appointed for trade by the sovereign congress of this republic. We trust you will not forget our especial charge, to signify to his excellency the minister plenipotentiary of her Britannic Majesty in Buenos Ayres, the high appreciation with which we have received the felicitation of his excellency, assuring him of our desire to preserve a pure friendship with her Britannic Majesty and all her people. God preserve you many years. CARLOS ANTONIO LOPEZ, MARIANO ROQUE ALONZO. To Richard B. Hughes, subject of her Britannic Majesty. The Consuls of the Republic of Paraguay. Inasmuch as the British subject, Richard B. Hughes, returns to Buenos Ayres conveying official communications to the most excellent minister secretary of state to her Britannic Majesty in the department of foreign affairs, and to his excellency the minister plenipotentiary of her Britannic Majesty in Buenos Ayres, and to his honour the consul-general of her Britannic Majesty in Monte Video. We hereby command and enjoin all the civil and military authorities of our de- pendancy, with earnest request and charge to those of other jurisdictions, not to oppose any impediment to him on his journey, without just cause, but rather to afford him all the assistance he may require. To which effect we have issued the present passport, duly signed and sealed in Assumption, capital of the republic of Paraguay, this eighteenth day of January, one thousand eight hundred and forty-two. (Signed as above.) The Buenos Ayrean government having refused to allow Mr. Hughes to send a vessel up the Parana for his property, in the following terms in a reply given by Senor Arana. to Mr. Mandeville s request : "That Mr. Hughes s application could not be listened to no permissions were granted to go beyond the limits of the province of Buenos Ayres. That the government would not give a licence for Entre Rios, and certainly not for Paraguay. That if he had taken up a larger amount of goods than he could bring returns, for it was no ground whatever upon which he could make a claim for a further licence." Mr. Mancieville considered Mr. Arana s answer as final and conclusive Its injustice cannot be too severely condemned. BOOK VIII. HAITI, AND FOREIGN WEST INDIES, CHAPTER I. COLONIAL POLICY OF FRANCE. BURKE, in his account of the European settlements in America, extols the co. lonial policy of France, under the ancient regime, as constituting in system and in practice the perfection of administrative wisdom. Whoever will examine the history of Canada, under France, and of the French West Indies, will discover that Burke was dazzled by the great value of the tropical products which were cultivated in the French possessions in the \\.-t Indies, and not by a full knowledge of the French administration, in those colo nies. If the French colonial system had, according to its theory, been adminis tered justly in the colonies, France would at this day have possessed Huyti : naturally one of the most fertile and splendid islands of America. The French colonial system was, certainly, so constituted that it might well allure even Mr. Burke, and others, who only read of its organisation, into an admiration of its theory, and, into a belief that it was perfectly adapted for the wise and practical administration of the colonial governments. We have examined the French colonial system, beyond France, we have investigated its executive, legislative, and judicial administration in the Canadas, in Cape Breton, in the French West Indian islands, and in Guayana, and we have, especially in Hayti, found, it to be, in practice, a fallacious commercial and fiscal policy, partial and unjust in its administration, and very far from being divested of judicial corruption. The French colonies were placed under the superintendence of a council of commerce in Paris ; presumed to be judiciously constituted ; its members being twelve chief officers of the crown. This council was assisted by deputies, pre sumed, also, to be chosen from the richest and most intelligent merchants and traders in the commercial towns of France. These deputies were liberally paid, for their attendance in Paris, from the funds of the cities in which they were chosen. This council sat once a week. Their duties were, to propose measures for redressing all commercial grievances, for rendering prosperous declining, 1148 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. and reviving extinct trades, for creating new branches of commerce, for pro moting manufactures already existing, for inventing and fostering new fabrics, to find out new markets for the products of French industry, and, in general, to watch over all the commercial affairs of France, of the French colonies, and of foreign trade. The French plantations were placed under the especial care of this council. Its decrees, when drawn up, were reported to the royal council ; which, almost without exception, issued a royal edict to enforce the decisions of the council cf commerce. This system was eminently French ; that is to say, it was a system of cen tralisation, by which every thing was to be done by the paid council of commerce; nothing by the shipowners, merchants, manufacturers, or colonists, excepting by the dictation of this centralised absolute council of commerce. In each colony there was a governor, who was the representative of the king, or rather of the council of commerce, an executive (not legislative) royal coun cil, the members of which were selected by the crown (or by the council of commerce), an intendant, who was a check against the governor, and also trustee of the king s rights and revenues. The council was presumed to be a check upon both governor and intendant, in order to protect the people. This system of appoinitng one authority over the other was, in principle, much in the same spirit as the colonial system of Spain; with the exception of the latter being delegated to more powerful authorities : that is, independent powers being vested in the three separate authorities of the viceroy, the church, and the audiencia real. All salaries were paid by the crown ; all the navigation and trade of the colo nies were confined to France. There were few taxes, and no import duties, levied in the colonies ; the duties on experts were only about two percent ad valorem on the export from the colonies, and import into France. The amount of the salaries of the governors and all other officers, the expenses of erecting fortifications and all other public edifices and buildings, were drawn by the intendant-general on the French treasury at Paris.* The expenses of the French colonies, including their garrisons and defences, imposed an enormous tax upon the French tax payers at home, and tended, in a great degree, to cause those fiscal difficulties which finally involved the nation in its first sanguinary revolution. The French colonial policy, instead of being the perfection of wisdom, as eulogised by Mr. Burke, was one maintained at an enormous expense, and with little advantage to France. The exclusive colonial trading system was of no real benefit to France. It was rendered abortive by the intrepid and fearless British- American, and West Indian smugglers ; and by the connivance of the officers of the French government in the colonies. Notwithstanding the presumed intelli gence of the council of commerce, its decrees were often at variance with facts, * See an account of the enormous losses which followed the non-payment of the bills of the intendant in Canada Article Canada, Book II. HAVTI. and obstructive to practical undertakings in the plantations. The "over intendants, and colonial councils, instead of the one checking tiv found its interests best promoted by overlooking or tacitly approving their set rate mal-practices. It was argued in favour of the French colonial system, that the fisheries* of Newfoundland and Cape Breton flourished, and that the suur plantations , West Indies had thriven even more prosperously than those of Kn<Hund, and in finitely more so than those of Spain. We admit the fact ; but if we examine the causes, these were, first, that the fishermen and sugar planters of France, aided in no way towards the colonial expenditure and defences; secondly, that the French fishermen, as they are still found to be in the ports of Boulogne, Dieppe, and Brittany, were always hardy, industrious, and economical seamen and fish-takers; and, lastly, that the French sugar-planters were generally intelligent, and ec mical until they became rich. But that the colonial policy was the most injudi cious and expensive that could have been conceived with regard to the people of France; and, almost the worst that could have been planned for the retention of the colonies, is amply proved by facts, and especially by the history of Hayti, at one time the most prosperous of all the French possessions. CHAPTER II. HAYTI, OR SAN DOMINGO. WE have in the first book of this volume briefly sketched an account of this magnificent and naturally fertile island, from the period of its first settlement by Columbus, to the occupation and colonisation of about one-third of it by France. The Spaniards had gradually neglected Hayti, after robbing the aborigines of their wealth, and destroying them by forced labour and sanguinary cruelties. It is true that a few, of the least adventurous but most industrious, Spaniards re mained at Hayti, and cultivated sugar, ginger, and cacao; but, with the exception of the archiepiscopal establishment in the city of St. Domingo, the island was to a great degree abandoned by emigrations to Cuba, and especially to Mexico. When the French colonised the western parts of the island, they even extended advantages to the Spanish farms and planters, by purchasing their cattle and horses ; and, by breaking through the Spanish colonial system, they supplied the Spaniards in Hayti with manufactured goods at cheaper rates, and in greater abundance, than they could be obtained from Spam. The cultivation of sugar, cacao, and ginger, was in consequence revived, and * See Fisheries of America, Vol. II. 1150 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. the culture of indigo, and tobacco was extended on the Spanish plantations. The great portion of the Spanish division remained, however, uncultivated, though it yielded the benefit of grazing cattle. Hayti is estimated at nearly 400 miles long and from 60 to 150 broad. Its area is about 29,000 square miles, or 18,816,000 square acres. Near its centre rise the Cibao mountains, the highest of which are estimated at nearly 9000 feet above the sea; lower ranges ramify from these chiefly from east to west. On the east highlands rise among extensive plains, in parts without trees. These places afford good pastures : the Llanos, especially along the southern coast, which extend about eighty miles from the town of St. Domingo to Higuey, being about thirty miles in breadth. The Llanos are separated by a range of hills from the plain of La Vega on the north, extending east to west about fifty miles, and for about thirty miles in breadth. This plain is very fertile, watered by the Yuna down to the Bay of Samana. The low and swampy peninsula of Samana, on the north side of this bay, is joined to the mainland by a low isthmus covered by the sea at spring tides. Along the northern shores west of Samana, the mountains rise abruptly from the sea to a considerable elevation, with here and there a few slopes, long the shore, of lower lands. Behind these the wide and fertile plain or valley of Santiago is drained by the River Yague. Along the southern and northern shores of the western part of Hayti, small tracts of level and cultivable land occur only in detached portions, but between the hilly ridges are the valleys, or rather plains of Artibonite and Cul de Sac ; the one is irrigated by the Artibonite the other covered partly by the salt lake Laguna de Henriquillo, and has no out let, and by the fresh-water lake Saumache. The region between the mountains of Cibao and the southern coast comprises high hills and ravines, with but few inhabitants. The soil of the plains and valleys yields the most luxuriant vege tation, and the forest trees of the mountains are of gigantic growth. The most valuable trees are mahogany, lignum vitee, ironwood, and dyewoods. Wild fowl, turtle, and excellent fish are abundant on the coast. The coast in most parts is rocky, with numerous harbours for coasting vessels, some of which are capacious, with deep water. Port St. Nicholas, is about six miles long, and sheltered by mountains of considerable height. The harbour of Cape Francois, on the north coast of the island, is spacious, has good anchor age, but not thoroughly sheltered. The Bay of Samana affords good anchorage, but it is not frequented, being unhealthy. The harbour of San Domingo is ex posed to the southerly winds it has good holding ground. Port-au-Prince has two harbours, formed by islets; both afford good and sheltered anchorage. Gonaives is a safe harbour, with water sufficiently deep for large vessels. The whole island is divided into six departments and thirty-three arrondissements. PORT-AU-PRINCE, the capital of Hayti, is situated in the Bay of Gonaives. The streets are straight, and tolerably wide and commodious, but the houses in HAYTI. ] , - | general are mean. Its trade is chiefly with the United States and | M lation about 30,000. The town of Cape Haitien, on the north.-rn OQ about 12,000 inhabitants, with some trade. San Domingo, foru.orl , capital, has about 15,000 inhabitants. Its former trade in jerked I,. and hides, has nearly vanished. Population. The number of inhabitants is variously estimated at fi 600,000 and 1,000,000, being chiefly mulattoes or quadroons; we doubt if th.- whole population exceeds 700,000. The number of whites and pure negroes is small in comparison with the mulattoes, or descendants of Europeans and negroes, and of the descendants of aborigines, Europeans, or negroes. From the variety of climate all the tropical as well as the products of the tem perate climates will grow in perfection. In the plains, of the old Spanish part, the heat is nearly uniform, and varies in proportion to their distance from the mountains. In the plains the thermometer is sometimes at 99 deg. In the mountains it rarely rises above 72 deg. or 77 deg. There the nights are enough to render a warm blanket or covering necessary ; and in the higher mountains even a fire is agreeable in the evenings. Violent heats and heavy rains render St. Domingo humid. Metals soon tarnish, particularly on the sea shore, which is more unhealthy than the interior parts of the island. The soutli part of the island is subject to southern gales, so called, as not attended with such dreadful consequences as the hurricanes in the Windward Islands. Roads. These are little more than foot-paths, or tracks passable on horse back. The island is in general watered by rivers and brooks. Their courses are but short, and few of them navigable to any distance. The rivers which in dry weather hardly cover the pebbles on its bed, is changed by a tempestuous rain into a flood ; and should the banks give way, the rivers spread in devas tation over the plains. Many rivers are infested with alligators. The only lakes or ponds worth notice are those of Henriquelle and Saltpond. French and Spanish Boundary. Before the independence of the i its divisions and statistics, chiefly on the authority of French officers reports, and on the documents prepared by Bryant Edwards, were as follows :- division line which separated the French from the Spanish part of the island extended from the River Des Anses a Pitre or Pedernales on the south side, to that of Massacre on the north side, at the head of the Bay of Mancci It comprised about 6,000,000 acres of a generally fertile soil, uith hills, valleys, woods, and streams. Spanish Division. The cantons or jurisdictions, beginning at most point of the old Spanish frontiers, on the south coast or narrows, w ruco, then possessed by fugitive Spanish and French negroes; Neyve, Azua, Bani or Vani, the city of St. Domingo, and territory dependent thereon, H52 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. Laurent des Mines, Samana, Cotuy, La Vega, St. Yago, Daxabcm, St. Raphael, Hinche, Banique, and St. John of Maguana. Population of this Division. It was composed of whites, freed people, and slaves. There were also a few Creoles resembling the Indians, having long, straight, and black hair, and seemed to be a mixed race descended from the abori- ginesand the Spaniards. The people of colour were excluded from almost all employments, civil as well as military, as long as the colour of their skin betrayed their origin ; but the political constitution of the country admitted of no distinction between the civil rights of a white inhabitant and those of a free coloured person. The major part of the Spanish colonists were then of a mixed race : which in a great degree quashed the prejudice otherwise manifested. People of colour were, however, admitted to holy orders, as curates, but not to the upper dignities of priests and bishops. The slaves were said to be treated with extreme mildness, and usually fed as well as their masters. Few of the Creoles could either read or write. Slavery had so rapidly diminished that when in 1798, there were over the whole Spanish part of the island, 125, 000 inhabitants ; of whom 110,000 were free, and 15,000 only slaves. The French portion of Hayti furnished three-fifths of the produce of all the French West India colonies put together, or more than ten millions sterling. At that period the dress and mode of living of the Spanish Creoles indicated pride, laziness, and poverty. The capital had the aspect of neglect and decay; insignificant towns were seen here and there, near immense districts, called hatles, where cattle were raised with little care. The hatles comprised most of the Spanish settlements ; and were of an extent far disproportioned to their utility. Some were several square leagues in extent, with not above 500 head of cattle, great and small. Some were called horse- hattes, others cattle-hattes, according to the animals they reared ; others for breeding pigs were called corails. In these hattes the people lodged and lived miserably. The small provision farms called canacos, were under the poorer colonists, or freed people of colour. When the insurrection broke out in the French part of Hayti, the slaves in the Spanish part adhered with won derful fidelity to their masters. They did n revolt nor attempt to enrich themselves by plunder, rapine, or predatory robbery. The attachment of the slave towards his master, arose from the Spaniards in Hayti being eminently the most kind and indulgent slave-owners. They seldom inflicted punishment, except for flagrant acts of insurbodination and theft ; and treated their slaves, generally, with leniency and humanity; attended to their wants, and so far mitigated the bond of slavery as to be such little more than in name. A jealousy and hatred had always existed between the French and Spanish colonies in Hayti, yet the smuggling trade was carried on with the Spaniards for horned cattle, mules, horses, &c,; the French supplied them with the manufac- HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF 1UY I I. 11 tures of Europe, and with slaves : both which they could not obtain by the regular course of importation at such moderate prices as from the Frcr. The latter purchased, annually, about 25,000 head of horned 2500 mules and horses ; the Spaniards also paid the French upwards of half a million of dollars, in specie, during the year for the purchase of goods, implements of agriculture, and negroes. Mahogany and dye-woods were legally exported to Spain, and clandestinely, to different parts of Europe, and to the United States, and, indirectly, to England. A trading intercourse of some extent, was carried on with the islands of Porto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica -. to both the latter islands cattle were exported, and mahogany and dye-woods, especially to Jamaica, more advantageously than to Europe, owing to procuring returns in a more direct and cheap way, than through Spain, or France. The commerce with Porto Rico, and the Spanish main, was also productive of some profit to the people of Hayti, from the facilities of smuggling, by which the enormous duties on foreign European goods of thirty-four percent, when imported from Spain, were in most cases saved ; such goods were purchased in Hayti on far more moderate terms, being illicitly obtained from the French part of the island; The trade to the United States of North America, was also of importance ; North American vessels carried off large quantities of mahogany, hides, some coffee, and a little dye-wood, in return for flour, beef, pork, butter, salted her rings, and dried cod-fish: also some East India goods, and fir-timber, boards, and shingles. CHAPTER 1IT. SKETCH OF THE REVOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE OF HAYTI. IT was propagated, at the time, in England, with considerable industry, that the revolution of Hayti began on the breaking out of the French revolution,- wit h a revolt of the slaves. This was not the fact; the slaves remamed per fectly faithful to their owners, for about two years after the "decla rio-hts" was promulgated in France. Thelst symptom of revolt arose among the Sanies or Ge,,s de Co V k,,r, that mulattL! and other coloured free people, who had so far .creased m as to form a very powerful body. Not bein adm.tted to assoc.ate ,th, the of <- on. They VOL. I. 1154 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. had been sent there in early life for their education : others were living in France who possessed considerable property, arid sufficient intelligence to seize on that opportunity to effect changes in Hayti. A society was established at Paris about the same time, called, " Amis des Noirs" (Friends of the Blacks), which called for an immediate abolition of the slave-trade, as well as a general emancipation of all those who were at that time living in a state of slavery. " With these people" (meaning the men of colour in France), says a French writer on this subject, " the society of A mis des Noirs formed an intimate connexion. Their personal appearance excited pity, and, co operating with the spirit of the times and the representations of those who deeply sympathised upon principles of humanity with their condition, all ranks of people became clamorous against the white colonists, and their total annihilation was threatened." When the national assembly promulgated their famous declaration, " that all men are born and continue free and equal as to their rights? the society of Amis des Noirs, aided by a society in London, and by the whole of the coloured people in France, lost no time in sending this declaration to Hayti, where the mulattoes, believed that the French nation was favourable to a restitution of their rights, and the full and unqualified enjoyment of all civil privileges. Several of the colonial civil officers and magistrates declaimed against slavery, and openly adopted the declaration of the national assembly of France ; they were arrested by the provincial assemblies, which were composed of whites, and committed to prison, and such was the fury of the white mob, that M. Beau- dierre, a respectable magistrate at Petit Goane, was taken by force, and, in defiance of the civil powers, executed. During these and numerous other outrages, the negro slaves remained tranquil. The governor of the colony had lost his popularity, with the whites, by his inter position in favour of the free coloured people. A general colonial assembly was convoked in January, 1790, by order from the king: which assembly decided that his instructions were imperfect and inapplicable, and that they should therefore proceed on a plan of their own. This confused state of the colonists, caused an apprehen sion, in France, that Hayti was likely to declare its independence, and the national assembly, in March, 1790, decided u That it never was the intention of the assembly to comprehend the interior government of the colonies in the consti tution which they had framed for the mother country, or to subject them to laws, which were incompatible with their local establishments ; they therefore authorised the inhabitants of each colony to signify, to the national assembly, their sentiments and wishes, concerning the plan of interior legislation and commercial arrangement, which would be most conducive to their prosperity." Then followed a resolution, "That the national assembly would not cause any innovation to be made, directly or indirectly, in any system of commerce, in which the colonies were already concerned." The people of colour and the Amis des Noirs, were naturally alarmed by the HlSTOIflC.M. *KI-;irilKSOFHAY-||. promulgation of so ambiguous a decree. Surprise and consternation attended appearance m Huyt,. It was construed into a further continuance trade. It was considered by the colonists as conceding to them the setthng their colomal constitutions, and absolving them from the.r a to the crown of France. A general assembly was convoked, after the decree had been received and was held at St. Marc on the 16th of April, 1790. Its deliberations cor with a discussion upon the severity to which the people of colour were subjected under the military system of the colony; and it was decided, that they should not be required to perform more duty than was exacted from the whites. M. Paynier, who was at this time governor-general of Hayti, had not that capacity of mind, nor the power of judgment and decision required for adminis tering the affairs of a great colony in difficulties. Colonel Mauduit, a man of some ability and energy, arrived, and acquired such influence over the governor- general as to prevent a coalition which was about to take place between the assembly and the mulattoes. He declared himself the protector of the latter, and gained over the greater part of them. The planters were undecided they wavered in their opinions and were unfit to adopt measures for the tranquillity of the colony. It was evident that there was not one of them capable of energy and decision. They constituted a numerous class, without unanimous opinions or views. The decree of the general colonial assembly of the 28th of May was at least premature.* On its promulgation it was believed, generally, that the " declaring of the colony an independent state, in imitation of the English American provinces," was certain. No obedience, however, to the general assembly could be en forced. The white inhabitants of Cape Francois set the example of with- drawing all respect for that assembly, and of calling upon the governor-general * The articles of the decree assume it as a branch of the prerogative of the crown to confirm or annul the acts of the colonial legislature at pleasure. " First. The legislative authority, in every thing which relates to the internal concerns of the colony (regime interieur), is vested in the assembly of his representatives, which shall be called The General Assembly of the French Part of St. Domingo. " Secondly. No act of the legislative body, in what relates to the internal concerns of the co lony, shall be considered as a law definitive, unless it may be made by the representatives of the French part of St. Domingo, freely and legally chosen, and confirmed by the king. " Sixthly. As every law ought to be founded on the consent of those who are to be bound by it, the French part of St. Domingo shall be allowed to propose regulations concerning commer cial arrangements, and the system of mutual connexion (rapports commerciaux, etautres rapports communs), and the decrees which the national assembly shall make in all such cases, shall not be enforced in the colony , until the general assembly shall have consented thereto. " Eighthly. Provided also, that every legislative act of the general assembly executed provi sionally, in cases of urgent necessity, shall be transmitted forthwith for the royal sanction. And if the king shall refuse his consent to any such act, its execution shall be suspended as soon as the king s refusal be legally notified to the general assembly. " Ninthly. A new general assembly shall be chosen every two years, and none of the members who have served in the former assembly shall be eligible in the new one. " Tenthly. The general assembly decree that the preceding articles, as forming part of the constitution of the French colony in St. Domingo, shall be immediately transmitted to France for the acceptance of the national assembly and the king. They shall likewise be transmitted to all the parishes and districts of the colony, and be notified to the governor-general." 1156 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. to dissolve them. He instantly complied, and charged the general assembly with a design of overturning the peace of the colony, by projects of independency contrary to the wish of the colonists. He accused them with having been instiga tors of the mutiny of the crew of one of the ships of war, and pronouncing them traitors to their king and country, he declared that he should take the most prompt and effective measures, for bringing them to punishment. An order was then issued to arrest the committee of the western provincial assembly. Colonel Mauduit, with a military force, failed in effecting this unwise design ; the members hearing of his approach, collected about 400 of the national guad for their defence, and M. Mauduit retreated after a skirmish. The general assembly immediately summoned the people to support and pro tect their representatives. The northern provincial assembly adhered to the go vernor-general, and sent him all the troops stationed in that quarter, together with an additional force of about 200 mulatoes. The western assembly collected a much greater force, and a sanguinary civil war seemed inevitable. The general assembly of the island determined on an extraordinary, yet loyal though hazardous alternative. They resolved to proceed on a voyage to France* in order to appeal personally to the national assembly. About 100 members embarked on board the royal frigate Leopard: a ship, the crew of which had declared themselves in their interest. They sailed on the 8th of August, with the warmest acclamations of the populace, in admiration of so extraordinary an act of devotion to their country. It was some time after the departure of the members of the general assembly, that the first mulatto revolt occurred. It was headed by Oge, a young man about thirty years of age, and a native of the northern part of St. Domingo. He is said to have been a protege of La Fayette and Robespierre. He had been educated in France at the expense of his mother, a woman of property living near Cape Francois. Having associated with the Amis des Noirs, he became enthusiastic in demanding equality of rights and privileges for his coloured fellow subjects. Stimulated by the Amis des Noirs, and by the revolutionary leaders, he left France for Hayti, in order to animate the men of colour to take up arms and to demand for them equal civil liberties and rights. To give him the prestige of military authority, the society purchased for him the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the military service of some German state. To conceal his object, he made a cir cuitous voyage by North America; but his purpose was discovered before he left France. The governor-general of St. Domingo was instructed to arrest him on his arrival, but he managed to land secretly, and remained unknown, until the expiration of several weeks, when he wrote to the governor, in the name of all the mulattoes, of which he called himself the protector, demanding the immediate execution of all the statutes of the Code Noir, and, that in all times to come there should be no distinction, as to rights and privileges, between the whites and the other inhabitants of St. Domingo. He even declared boldly HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF IIAYTI. , , ;,; that unless the governor-general acceded to hi * ^ i iiaiea tne support and aid to be rcrmi-,1 ; fl i, or the carrying his threat, or purpose, into effect. Hi, bri mated by the spirit of revolt, and some other! joined Mm^t ^ collect at any one time, more than from 200 to 300 allies. them near the Grand Riviere, and his brothersand another vane are charged with having committed many excesses, and of m^" unoffending inhabitants with the most horrible cruelty. Whole familiesVn massacred, from the circumstance of a father, or even a brother, refusin- to Hk up arms, to favour Oge. Troops, and the Cape militia, were despatched by the governor to suppress numbers so despicable. A skirmish ensued; many of the revolters fell and some were taken prisoners. Oge escaped, with Chevane, into the Spanish terri tory, where they were demanded, and received, by the new governor, M. Blanche- lande. In March, 1791, they were tried and condemned: Og6 and Chevane to be broken on the wheel, and his brother and some of his followers, to be hanged. The intrepidity of Chevane never forsook him ; he met his fate with the firmest courage. Oge begged, in the most abject manner, that mercy might be extended to him. A respite was granted to him, in consideration of a promise, to make important discoveries, if his life were spared. Before commissioners appointed for that purpose, he made a detailed confession of the plan which the coloured people had devised to excite the slave population to rebellion. In breach of all faith and honour, after this despicable, and deluded, man had made disclosures which informed the governor of the whole of their designs, the knowledge of which might have frustrated their progress, Oge was, without de lay, executed. This base act of treachery on the part of the government, and its subse quent proceedings, excited the greatest hatred between the whites and the people of colour, the latter soon collected in large bodies. In the western and southern districts they formed encampments, with a determination to resist the decrees of the governor. At Jeremie, and at Aux Cayes, a most formidable body had assembled, well armed and accoutred. Mauduit, who commanded the government troops, was in secret conference with their leaders, and consulted personally with them, advising them not to desist from their purpose. By this treachery he discovered all their plans. The mulattoes were for the time dis persed. The members of the colonial assembly, who had gone to France, having appeared at the bar of the national assembly, were dismissed with considerable disappointment and chagrin. The report of the committee appointed to examine their claims, concludes by stating, " That all the pretended decrees and acts of the said colonial assemblv should be reversed and pronounced utterly null and 1158 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. of no effect ; that the said assembly should be declared dissolved, and its mem bers rendered ineligible and incapable of being delegated in future to the colonial assembly of St. Domingo; that testimonies of approbation should be transmitted to the northern provincial assembly, to Colonel Mauduit and the regiment of Port-au-Prince, for resisting the proceedings at St. Marc s ; that the king should be requested to give orders for the forming a new colonial assembly on the principles of the national decree of the 8th of March, 1790, and instruc tions of the 28th of the same month ; finally, that the ci-devant members, then in France, should continue in a state of arrest, until the national assembly might find time to signify its further pleasure concerning them." Nothing could exceed the disappointment which this decree excited through out the colony, and the indignation of the people was general. To call another general colonial assembly was agreed to be impossible ; the people in many dis tricts absolutely refused to return other representatives, declaring those who were under arrest in France to be the only legitimate members. The national guards refused all further adherence to the cause in which they had enlisted. They were soon joined in the revolt by the regiment of which Colonel Mauduit was the commander. They tore the white cockade from their hats, and refused to obey him. He offered to restore the national colours, and appealed to them for protection against insult, which they promised him. On refusing to beg pardon of the national guards on his knees, he was, notwithstand ing their pledge of protection, on the day appointed for restoring the colours, run through the body by the bayonets of his own regiment. The other regular troops present at this dastardly act, attempted to revenge themselves on the perpetrators, but were restrained in their intention : the revolted regiment, however, was com pelled to lay down their arms, and were sent off prisoners to France. When information of the execution of Oge reached Paris, it excited great sensation on the part of the advocates of the people of colour, and of the society of Amis des Noirs. The Abbe Gregoire, with extraordinary eloquence, demanded the benefit which the instructions of March, 1790, gave to them. Robespierre, in an address of great eloquence, said, " Perish the colonies rather than sacrifice one iota of our principles ;" and the national assembly confirmed the decree of the 15th of May, 1791, which enacted, "That the people of colour resident in the French colonies should be allowed the privileges of French citizens, and, among others, those of having votes in the choice of representatives, and of being eligible to seats both in the parochial and colonial assemblies." This decree, on being received in the colony, excited the greatest indignation among the white people. The governor, M. Blanchelande, had assured the provincial assembly of the north, " That he would suspend the execution of this obnoxious decree, when ever it should come to him properly authenticated ;" the coloured people, iu HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYTI. I 159 consequence, assembled in large bodies throughout the whole island, with tin- deter- mination to enforce by arms the concession of the privileges to which, a decree of the national assembly, they were entitled. The first serious symptoms of revolt, it will now be observed, was not made bv the slave population, but from the first interference of the national assembly of France, and afterwards by the supporters and advocates of the people of colour, and the society of Amis des Noirs. It has astonished those who knew not the fact, that during the disturbances which had prevailed, the slave population should have remained passive observers of the contest. It may be at the same time remarked that the landed proprietors and planters were become wealthy ; their extensive plantations with a rich and productive soil, and with a favourable climate, were in a high state of cultivation. Their manners and habits became depraved in about the same ratio as they ad vanced in prosperity. They are asserted to have been vain, haughty, and volup tuous, and, unlike their Spanish neighbours, they inflicted excessive punish ments, in exacting labour from their slaves. Their sensualities, had also, it is affirmed, excited very general disgust. Society had, in fact, become so depraved, that vice was gloried in. When the slaves were at length instigated to join in the revolt, it was not surprising that the untaught slave, should be led by pernicious example to indulge in iniquitous and immoral practices, and in the ungovernable propensities of his master. It was, in fact, the immorality of the master which prepared the slave for the extraordinary cruelties, which they afterwards inflicted in the spirit of revenge, when instigated by the mulattoes, for enforcing their claims under the decree of the 15th of May, 1791.* It has been generally asserted by the white population, that if the national assembly of France had not interfered with the system of governing the colony, which had been administered before the revolution, the slave population woi have ever remained peaceable observers of events , regardless of a bondage undei which they had no physical wants, except their daily labour, to which they b always quietly submitted. of one was but the consequent of his own , exces es h J t ot ^ ^ ^ unnatural. The proprietor would bear no "> ^ h * p P ar ^ wlv . importe d Africans with the ordinances of justice. Ihe creole slaves "" \exion Vas browner, while all were scorn, and sustained in turn that of the mula "ft ^Undaries of sex, it is let DiacK oeauiy among siaves, muugn -.---., - - . f those who could not boast the same distinction with hen 1160 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. The rising of the slaves in the revolution, it was contended, did not proceed from the oppression exercised by their proprietors ; but at the instigation of those who were striving for power in Hayti. The whites claimed exclusive privileges. The people of colour naturally demanded the enjoyment of those social rights which the Abbe Gregoire and his colleagues in France advocated the concesion of by the national assembly. There is much truth in these assertions ; but we consider that it is chiefly to the imbeci lity and arrogance of the white planters that we must attribute the atrocities of the revolution in Hayti. The first determined act of rebellion on the part of the slave population oc curred near the Cape, in August, 1791> on the plantation of the Count de Noe. The chief leaders massacred the white inhabitants; the slaves demolished the sugar works and fired the dwellings. They were soon aided by the slaves on other neighbouring estates ; on which similar massacres were perpetrated. The whites were then indiscriminately slaughtered: except where some of the women were reserved for the brutal lusts of the most sanguinary and horrible ruffians. Some of the most delicate and beautiful of the female sex were brought forth to witness the butchery of their parents and relations ; and they were afterwards subjected to the vile embraces of the executioner. Even girls of twelve and fourteen years were made the vic tims of lust and revenge. Such massacre and rapine, as those committed on the commencement of the rebellion in the north of Hayti, are almost unequalled in the annals of atrocity. The resistance made by the militia and soldiers was not expected to suppress the revolutionists. It was a mere effort to enable the inhabitants of the city of Cape Haitian to defend themselves from destruction. The citizens and the national guards, with the seamen from the ships, were mustered and armed, in order to repel the rebels should they attempt to take the city. There was a numerous force of free mulattoes in the city, whom the lower order of whites suspected of being in some way concerned in the revolt. These mulattoes were enrolled in the militia. In the northern districts, the white in habitants assembled, and established two military posts at Grand Riviere and at Dondon. But the coloured people had greatly increased their forces by the de sertion of the slaves from many estates, and by a large accession of mulattoes. They attacked and captured the above two positions occupied by the whites ; who were completely routed. The extensive northern plain, with all its surrounding mountains, abounding with every production for their sustenance, was soon after in possession of the revolutionists. Nearly all white persons were subjected to horrible tortures : negroes and mulattoes seemed to rival each other in their atrocities. It was apprehended that the mulattoes, who had joined the whites in the city, and had marched with them to the plains, would desert and join the revolters ; HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYTI. 1161 but the governor, before they were enrolled demanded, and received their wives and children, as hostages for their fidelity. In this northern insurrection, it was estimated that more than 2000 of the white inhabitants, of all ages, were massacred. The demolition of the works and buildings of many plantations, and the total ruin of families were attendant calamities. The insurgents, meantime, being ignorant of the effects of artillery were often mown down in masses. Upwards, it is asserted, of 10,000 of them fell in the field, besides a very large number who were executed. Whilst these atrocities were perpetrated in the northern district, the western district was menaced by a coloured force, which had mustered at Mirebalais, in order to capture Port-au-Prince and the whole plain of Cul de Sac. These insurgents, not exceeding 700 or 800, did not suc ceed further than burning the coffee plantations amid the mountains, and injuring the estates in the valleys. Some of the leading mulattoes finding it impossible to gain over the slaves, en masse, to their cause, proposed an adjustment. A planter, who had been highly esteemed by the people of colour, as well as by the negroes, through the whole Plain of Cul de Sac, inter posed, and a treaty, called the Concordat, was concluded on the llth of Septem ber, between the people of colour and the white inhabitants of Port-au-Prince. This treaty stipulated an amnesty for past acts and differences, and the full recognition of the decree of the national -assembly of the loth of May. It was subsequently ratified by the general assembly of the colony; and, a proclamation was issued, in which it was held out that further concessions were contemplated for the purpose of cementing a good understanding between both class, lattoes were voted eligible to hold commissions in the militia companies formed persons of their own colour; and, some other privileges of minor c were conceded to them. Immediately after the ratification of the fe^^ythecoloma assembly ,h E~r-~~ T ~~ ^SrS"S -,-iir. TOL. FOREIGN WEST INDIES. by the free coloured insurgents. Sanguinary actions were fought, attended with horrible cruelties to the prisoners taken on both sides. The commissioners of the national assembly arrived in September from France. They proclaimed a general amnesty and pardon to all who should desist from acts of insubordination, and who would subscribe to the new constitution. This pro position was disapproved by the colonial assembly and by all parties. The commissioners then left the island in which they found themselves powerless and disrespected. The society of Amis des Noirs, had soon after attained considerable influence in the national assembly; in which there appeared an union in favour of the mu- lattoes, and also of the slave population. This national assembly passed another decree on the 4th of April, 1792, which abrogated that of the 24th of September, 1791. This constituted the first advance towards emancipating the slaves, al though it does not openly declare the same.* The carrying of this decree into effect was intrusted to three commissioners, who, with a force of 8000 men, arrived in Hayti on the 13th of September fol lowing. They immediately dissolved the colonial assembly, and sent the gover nor Blanchelande, to France ; where he was tried and guillotined. M. Des- parbes, his successor, having disagreed with the commissioners, was suspended, and sent to France, where he was, it is said, also guillotined. It was asserted by the whole inhabitants, that the commissioners of the na tional assembly, while professing to the white inhabitants, their earnest solici tude for the preservation of peace, and the prosperity of the colony, were secretly intriguing with the mulattoes ; and they in the end, openly declared that the latter, with the free negroes, should enjoy their civil privileges, and the pro tection of the 8000 national guards which had arrived from France. * By the decree of 1792, " The national assembly acknowledges and declares that the people of colour and free negroes in the colonies, ought to enjoy an equality of political rights with the whites; in consequence of which it decrees as follows : " Article 1. Immediately after the publication of the present decree, the inhabitants of each of the French colonies in the windward and leeward islands, shall proceed to the re-election of colo nial and parochial assemblies in the same month. 2. The people of colour and free negroes shall be admitted to vote in all the primary and electoral assemblies, and shall be eligible to the legislature and all places of trust, provided they possess the qualifications prescribed. " 3. Three civil commissioners shall be named for the colony of St. Domingo, and four for the Islands of Martinique, Guadaloupe, St. Lucia, and Tobago, to see this decree enforced. " 7. The national assembly authorises the civil commissioners, to call forth the public force whenever they may think it necessary, either for their own protection, or for the execution of such orders as they may issue by virtue of the preceding articles. " 8. The executive power is directed to send a sufficient force to the colonies, to be composed chiefly of national guards. "9. The colonial assemblies immediately after their formation shall signify, in the name of each colony respectively, their sentiments respecting that constitution, those laws, and the admi nistration of them. 10. The colonial assemblies are authorised to send home delegates, for the purposes men tioned in the preceding article. "11. Former decrees, respecting the colonies, shall be in force in every thing not contrary to the present decree." HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYTI. 1 1 03 A new governor, M. Galbaud, arrived in May, 17 J.l, to take the command, and to place the island in a state of defence, in case the British mi^ht inv;id : it : war having been declared between the two powers. The national assembly of France soon after sent out commissioners with fresh instructions, and >uspmded the new governor. They decreed that any person holding property in the colonies should be ineligible to fill any office of trust in the colony in which his estate was situated. Galbaud, aided by his brother, armed a force composed of militia, seamen from the ships in the harbour of Cape Haytien, and a great number of volant- and marched without delay against the commissioners, who were with the regular troops. A bloody conflict ensued, and the battle was continued with obstinate bravery, until the sailors, who composed the greatest strength of Galbaud s force, became disorderly. He was consequently obliged to retreat. Various skirmishes followed. Galbaud s brother fell into the hands of the commissioners, and the son of one of the commissioners was captured by Gal baud. The commissioners finding that their troops, were rapidly deserting, and that Galbaud s forces were resolute, and fought with unexampled bravery, they called to their aid the revolted slaves, offering them their freedom, and promising them the pillage of the city of Cape Haytien. Some of the rebel chiefs rejected this dishonorable proposition, but Macaya, a negro of brutal disposition, with an insatiable thirst; for the blood of the whites, accepted the proposal of the com missioners, and with 3000 or 4000 of the negroes joined the commissioners. 1 city was attacked, and men, women, and children, were, without c slaughtered. The mulattoes had now acquired the utmost power of gratifym their revenge ; they even sacrificed their own white parents, and afterwards si jected their bodies to every species of insult and indignity. So atrcc.c the excesses, that the commissioners of the national assembly repairec ships, from which they were spectators of the effects of their own crimes, a beheld an opulent city consumed by the flames, and the inhabitants the most atrocious massacre. When the insurgents first entered the city, every man, woman, and bayoneted or cut down; except the young females, who were m . spared, for the gratification of the lust of those into whose hands After these first atrocities, emigrations commenced fto-u th, UnHedStates,tothenei g hbourmgi^ posses of such places as the be deosed to 1164 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. The intentions of the British government being known, by the means of secret agents, the commissioners of the national assembly " proclaimed the abolition of every species of slavery, declaring that the negroes were thenceforth to be considered as free citizens." No sooner had the abolition of slavery been promulgated, than the slaves rose simultaneously in the different parishes ; and, forming bands, they first took possession of the mountains, in order to secure themselves within the numerous fastnesses. They then sallied forth into the plains, and set fire to the cane-fields : demolishing every habitation within their range, and murdering the white inhabitants. In one part of Hayti, the insurgents amounted to nearly 100,000, without any reso lute leader. In the north district they amounted at first to from about 20,000 to 25,000, but their number was soon increased to 40 ; 000 of the most desperate negroes. The British force, under Colonel Whilelocke, appeared at Jeremie on^the 19th of September, 1793; it consisted of about 870 rank and. file. This place was given up to the British by stipulation; it was taken possession of the next day; and all the inhabitants took the oath of allegiance to the King of England. Cape St. Nicolas next followed ; but the inhabitants displayed some hostility, and most of them joined the republican standard. Tiburon was next attempted, but from the faithlessness of the planters, the British troops were obliged to retreat with some loss. Further operations were suspended until a force from England arrived in February following : consisting of a British squadron, with troops, which were immediately landed, commanded by Major Spencer. He gallantly attacked the enemy, and drove them back with considerable loss. The bight of Leogane was commanded by the British squa dron, and skirmishes took place in the vicinity of Leogane, as well as at Tiburon, and in the neighbourhood of Cape Nicolas Mole. In some instances the British were successful ; in others the enemy obtained advantages. Andrew Rigaud, a man of colour, made his first appearance at this period at the head of the revolted slaves. He previously had the command at Aux Cayes, and, with about 2000 of the insurgents, besieged Tiburon ; but the fort was manned by some British soldiers, who, with the people, sallied forth, attacked the besiegers in the field, and routed them with great slaughter. On the 19th of May, the British force, long expected, arrived under the com mand of General Whyte. On the 30th, the ships of war, consisting of four ships of the line, three or four frigates, and several smaller vessels, anchored off Port-au- Prince. The land forces_amounted to only about 1500 men, capable of doing duty. On the following morning, a summons to surrender the city was sent, to which no attention was paid. The commissioners were in the city with a con siderable force. Fort Bizotton-, which is situate on an eminence to the southward of the city, commands the Leogane road, and the southern entrance in the har bour. The land-side was attacked by a body of troops under Major Spencer, HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAY II. , j simultaneous attack was made on the sea-side by two of th, ifci Captain Daniel, of the forty-first regiment, w ,th ab out seventy or I, , during a thunder-storm, about eight o clock, entered the breach and fort. He was severely wounded, and some of his men and officers were killed The city surrendered, the commissioners evacuated it on the 4th of June the British troops entered and took possession of it, and the sliinpi,,., in th, In, bour. The taking of Port-au-Prince was followed by sickness, which ra^ed an. the British troops to such an extent, that it was found necessary, for the pre.- tion of the post, to erect additional lines of defence against the insurgents. The British troops were in consequence subjected to incessant toil in the sun, and during the night exposed to pestilential vapour fires. The commissioners carried about 200 mule-loads, or nearly all the riches of the city, and they were accompa nied by about 2000 of the inhabitants. These commissioners had lost their power. The value of the property taken at Port-au-Prince, was estimated by a writer of some authority as follows : " In the harbour were found two-and-twenty top-sail vessels, fully laden with sugar, indigo, and coffee, of which thirteen were from 300 tons to 500 tons burden, and the re maining nine from 150 tons to 300 tons, besides 7000 tons of shipping: in ballast; the value of all which, at a moderate computation, could not be far short of 400,000/. sterling. One hundred and thirty-one pieces of cannon, regularly mounted in batteries, were on the lines." A reinforcement arrived soon after, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Lennox, consisting of about 600 men. On their passage from the windward islands to Jamaica sickness broke out, and more than 100 died on board, and 150 were left at Port-Royal in a hopeless state of disease. General Whyte, the commander-in-chief in Hayti, was attacked by malignant fever; and his health was so much impaired that he was compelled to return to England in September, 1794: the command devolved on Brigadier-General Horneck. General Williamson arrived in May, 1799. In the meantime the mulatto Rigaud, commanding a strong force, attacked and captured Leogane, which was defended by colonial troops. He murdered all the French planters who fell into his power, and then marched towards Port-au-Prince. He attacked Fort Bizot- ton which commanded his advance, and was repulsed with great loss, and with 3000 men retreated to Aux Cayes. With this force, and fuur small armed vessels, on the 25th of December, he commenced the attack. The fort, which consisted of no more than 450 men, defended it gallantly ; and after the loss of two-thirds of their number, the remainder sallied forth, to attack Tiburon, cut their way through the insurgents, and succeeded in retreating to Irois. At St. Marc, Colonel Brisbane, who commanded there, defeated the insur gents in several skirmishes on the plains of Artibonite; but, in his absence, 1166 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. the mulatto inhabitants of St. Marc, who solemnly had pledged themselves to observe the strictest neutrality, violated their pledge, and murdered all who were opposed to the French republic. The garrison defended themselves in the fort until they were relieved by a vessel of war from Cape Nicolas Mole. The white inhabitants of St. Marc, conspired to destroy Colonel Brisbane and his force, but he discovered and defeated their plot. At Port-au-Prince, a conspiracy was also discovered, the purport of which was, to massacre the garrison and all the English, by those very French inhabitants, who hailed with acclamations the arrival of the British force before the city. The conspirators were seized, and about twenty, amongst whom were several French officers of rank, were tried by a court-martial. Of these conspirators fifteen were shot on the 18th of February, 1?95, and the remainder were sent off the island. General Williamson, to augment his force, formed several corps of negroes, whom he purchased of the French planters, and placed them under the command of officers of the line. There was great absence of sound forecast and judgment in this act. They were both useless and disobedient. General Williamson was succeeded by General Forbes, who acted entirely on the defensive. In 1 795, the war between France and Spain terminated ; and the despicable Godoy, Prince of Peace, ceded the Spanish part of the island, and its Spanish subjects, to their utter dismay, to the French republic in perpetuity. Brigadier-general Howe arrived in the end of 1795, with about 7000 men, at Cape Nicolas Mole. This additional force did not enable the British troops to attempt much. Sickness and privations overwhelmed them. The insurgents meantime were increasing in numbers, and acquired vigour and activity. In 1797, General Simcoe landed in Hayti, to take the command. About the same time tho negro Toussaint 1 Ouverture was invested by the republican govern ment of France with the high rank of general-in-chief of the armies of St. Do mingo. The negro general proved a tactitian of no ordinary genius and courage. Discreet and intelligent, and well acquainted with the strength of the British force, and of the experience of their commanders, Toussaint remained apparently passive, further than appearing before Mirebalais with a more powerful force than had previously been collected. The British troops not being sufficient to oppose his progress, retreated through the plains of Cul de Sac to Port-au-Prince, aban doning the whole of the country through which they retreated, and from which, from its fertility, the enemy were enabled to obtain abundance of provisions. By this retreat, all communication with the Spanish part of the island was cut off. lo the southward, however, the negroes were driven from every post which they had occupied, and Rigaud, commanding the mulatto force, was defeated at Irois. Toussaint attacked St. Marc s, but retreated with considerable loss. The British power in the island, however, declined, and no attempt was after wards made to attack the insurgents. During these irregular skirmishes, General Simcoe left Hayti, and the command devolved on Major-general Whyte. Bri- HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAY l I. j j r; y .gadier-general Maitland succeeded in April, 1798, under circumstances of di* fiture, and distress. He terminated this most ill-judged and disastrous con test by a truce, and negotiations with Toussaint. The whole of the British con- quest, and the colonial black troops, for whom an enormous sum of n paid to the very persons who afterwards took arms against them, were ceded to the black general, Toussaint, in the name of the French republic, and thus ended, with the exception of the^ great amount which its expense has bequeathed to British national taxation, one of those expeditions which tarnish British wisdom. Toussaint was born about the year 1745, on the plantation of the Count de Noe, not far from Cape Frangois. Of his early life, his steady patience, his mildness to brute animals, and his inviolable fidelity and love to one female whom he had chosen as his wife, were the most remarkable characteristics. The regularity of his life attracted the notice, and gained the confidence of M. Bavou de Libertas, manager of the plantation on which Toussaint was born. Through the kindness of this manager, or, as others affirm, by his own unaided application, he learned to read and write, and became a proficient in common arithmetic. These acquirements were scarcely ever attained by a slave in Hayti. M. Bayou brought him from field labour, and made him his postillion ; a place in which he could gain some money, and find leisure to cultivate his mind. The extent of his read ing in a few years was, with his ideas, expanded, and his powers of reasoning became remarkable. He was also further promoted by M. Bayou. When the insurrection of 1791 broke out, Toussaint was solicited to act in concert with several of the leaders who were his friends. It is possible that gra titude to his benefactor, M. Bayou, prevented him from yielding to their solicita tions. That he did not is certain. Among the whites who remained latest in St. Domingo was M. Bayou. His flight at last would have been impracticable, had not Toussaint managed it with some hazard to himself. He did more : he sent with him a quantity of colonial produce, sufficient for the supply of his future wants ; and when M. Bayou settled at Baltimore, Toussaint seized upon every opportunity to make remittances. After the departure of M. Bayou, there was nothing to prevent Toussaint from fighting under the standard of revolt, and he joined Biassou, one of the negro chiefs, as his second in command. It was not long before Biassou was degraded from an authority which he had atrociously abused, and Touissaint was elected chief. The death or degradation of the other chiefs, and the superior abilities of Toussaint, soon raised him to the rank of principal commander of the negro army. On the evacuation of Hayti by the British forces, most of the planters, who had been faithful to their engagements, departed at the same time, taking with them such moveable property as they were enabled to carry to Jamaica, Cuba, and the United States. Toussaint 1 Ouverture was then left in full pos session of the island, and in the undisputed chief command. Peace succeeded. 1168 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. CHAPTER IV. REIGN OF TOUSSAINT. TOUSSAINT was a most remarkable man. In features and colour he was a pure negro. His first great policy was directed to the culture of the soil, in which he made rapid and even astonishing progress. He adopted the maxim, that " agriculture is the main spring, the master sinew of every great state, the perennial fountain of wealth." In this policy he greatly resembled Francia the Dictator of Paraguay. The planters who had joined his standard were rein vested with their estates; and, without any property in their slaves, they were en couraged to cultivate their lands. He had heard, and believed " that rural or agri cultural labours are equally conducive to health and strength of body and mind ; that the culture of the earth constitutes the most natural and innocent employ ment of man; that it fills houses with plenty and hearts with gladness. 5 But after six years relaxation from the toils of the field, and of predatory warfare, those who had been accustomed to slavery, were not disposed to return to their original occupations, and he knew that the negro population would not readily be induced to labour, and that coercion, mild, if possible, would be necessary to enforce it. He directed that each person, not in any military capacity, should labour in the cultivation of the lands held not only by the government, but by such of the planters as had been repossessed in their estates. The planters were compelled to employ them as servants ; and the latter were ordered to choose the employers under whom they were to work, and on no consideration were they allowed to leave the estates on which they agreed to labour, unless their services were demanded in the army. He fixed wages for the labourers, to be computed equal to one-third of the value of the crops ; other arrangements were made suitable to the views and mutual accommodation of parties. This absolute policy, enforced immediately after the cessation of civil war, proved both the influence held by Toussaint over them, and his conviction that the advancement of agriculture, required him at once to adopt rigid mea sures. He promulgated an edict for enforcing the culture of the soil, which appeared in 1800, and it subsequently formed a leading part of the Code Hatte, or Code Henry, of Christophe. Mr. Franklin observes, that < It embraced every object that could possibly be conceived likely to promote his great aim ; and whilst its enactments might have the appearance of severity, unpalatable to the people just emerged from slavery, so great was his influence, that he felt no alarm for the consequences of enforcing them ; and those who had the temerity to infringe them were visited with the whole weight of the penalties. " This law apportions the hours of labour for the cultivator, which by the 22nd ar- HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYTI. ] 1 tide appears in every point the same as that which is exacted from the slave tish islands, that is to say, it commences at the break of day and com ,ht allovying an interval of an hour for breakfast, and another of two hours at i. provides against any innovations, and precludes the labourer or the pro- : , ihe chance of imposing on each other. I see nothing ambiguous in it, it is i-|.-, ir in \\. ter, and the spirit of it cannot be erroneously interpreted. From the 1 13th to the 120th article inclusive, it appears beyond the possibility of contradiction, that Toussaint was conscious that nothing could be done in the work of the soil without such forcible i- lationsas would command the most strict attention to tillage. " It is quite clear that the labour which this law exacted each day from the rulir. tor was not oppressive, nor have I been able to discover that the slaves in the Briiisi. lonial possessions ever complained of the labour to which they were subjected, as hi been too severe ; and it is undeniable that Toussaint, under the very law which has been cited, compelled the same portion to be done, and that for the better insuring its per formance, military guards were placed to superintend the labourers and to seize t: who endeavoured to evade their duty. That they could not have been injured by labour, and that they did not murmur at its quantum is tolerably clear, for it is said by a writer of some repute, that * the plantation negroes were in general contented, health ful, and happy ; and that this was their condition I am assured by the concurring tes timony of men who had witnessed their state at that period. " There were no civil authorities by which the indolent or refractory cultivator was to be tried for his offences ; there was no distinction between the vagrant who was detected in idleness and the soldier who fled from his post, they were both amenable to the mili tary power, were sentenced by a court-martial, and awarded an equal punishment. " Possessed of no mean capacity and judgment, he knew the character and the dis positions of his negro brethren, and so nicely did he discern and reward industry, and discriminate between the active and meritorious, and the indolent and the worthless, that, although in some cases his judgment was harsh, it was admitted to be just." His plans were prepared with intelligence and skill, and the consequent rapid progress of agricultural improvement has astonished his greatest enemies. Those who had emigrated during the revolution, were encouraged to return, by his assurance that he would protect, and reinstate them in their lands. Many returned and brought with them the slaves who had accompanied them in their flight ; though the latter became free on landing. He endeavoured to improve the domestic morals, and to repress sensuality and voluptuousness, by recom mending and encouraging marriage. Polygamy, which prevailed, checked increase of population; and it soon became apparent that an increase < resulted from his regulations. The character of Toussaint is extolled as almost faultless by mo: even by Bryant Edwards. Mr. Franklin, however, in his work on Hayti, says, Whatever may be the prevailing opinion, he has atever may e e preva , eeU prove that he was revengeful and sanguinary in the fie d: ^^ l ^^^ lies which he exercised over those mulattoes who fell into his ha OU nded as no little ferocity of disposition. It has been argued in exculpation thai he was with people of that class who adhered to his cause, ^J^ ^jg* "C revolt and j J?n L standard of his enemies it was a matter of ^QK or he should resort to the severest measures to deter them tr g from engaging in any enterprise inimical "**^J**^^ will and a to be actuated by a determination to exact the most r igid acqui complete acknowledgment of his supreme power, and to establ, at times recourse to very harsh and cruel measu VOL. I. 1 170 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. Rainsford, a British officer, who knew Toussaint personally, says, that he had not those unrelenting feelings which have been ascribed to him. Rainsford was taken prisoner, and afterwards set at liberty by Toussaint; of his character and of his generalship in the field, he says, " Thus proceeded this illustrious man, like the simple acorn, first promiscuously scat tered by the winds, in its slow but beauteous progress to the gigantic oak, spreading its foliage with august grandeur above the minor growth of the forest, defending the humble shrub, and braving the fury of the contending elements. When the cloud, charged with electric fluid, becomes too ponderous, it selects not the brooding murderer on the barren heath, but bursts perhaps indiscriminately in wasteful vengeance over the innocent flocks reposing in verdant fields. He was, without doubt, a man possessed of many virtues, and performed many very good and very generous acts, and, what must be ad mitted to have redounded greatly to his reputation, he was always grateful, and never left an obligation unrequited. To those planters whom he induced to return to the island, and whom he restored to their properties, he was generous, kind, and indulgent; and of the confidence which they placed in his assurances, they had never cause to re pent. Taking him altogether, he was undoubtedly a most extraordinary character, and whatever might have been the extent of his vices, they were certainly counter-balanced and atoned for by many virtues." An anonymous writer says, that " The excellences of his character unfolded themselves more and more, as opportuni ties were afforded for their development. The same humanity and benevolence which had adorned his humble life, continued to distinguish him in his elevation. He never imitated the conduct of other leaders, in flattering the multitude, encouraging them in crimes, or urging them t.o revenge and slaughter; on the contrary, mercy, industry, and order were always inculcated by his counsels, recommended by his example, and en forced by his authority. The fertility of his inventions, the correctness of his judgments, the celerity of his movements, the extent of his labours in the combined and multifarious business of war and government astonished both friends and foes. If there was one trait in his character more conspicuous than the rest, itwas his unsullied integrity. That he never broke his word, was a proverbial expression common in the mouths of the white inhabitants of the island, and of the English officer?, who were employed in hostilities against him." On peace being restored, Toussaint restored public worship according to the forms which existed prior to the revolution, and he extended full liberty to other forms of religious worship, allowing Methodists, who had arrived from the United States, protection, and the privilege of preaching. He reduced his military establishment at the peace. The discipline of his troops was admired even by British officers. Hayti, in most parts, was intersected with underwood and difficult mountain passes, and irregular bodies, detached in parties, were generally more effec tive in their operations than large masses of troops. Toussaint sought to drill his troops in such evolutions as would enable him effectually to meet the exi gencies with which he might have to contend. It is said of his troops, that "At a whistle a whole brigade would run 300 or 400 yards, then separating, throw themselves flat on the ground, changing to their backs or sides, keeping up a strong fire the whole of the time till they were recalled ; then they would form again in an instant with their wonted regularity. This single manoeuvre used to be executed with such faci lity and precision us totally to prevent cavalry from charging them in bushy and hilly />/-!! r> f .!/-,- " countries. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAY i I. 1 1 7 j His military forces during peace consisted of about thirty thoussiial f.y,t and two thousand cavalry, well equipped, and in complete readiness for a service. In the framing of his constitution and laws, Toussaint was assisted by in- telligent Americans and Europeans. No prejudices against the white race, influ enced him, when their services were useful. He exacted courteous attention from his subjects, to secure the aid of men of learning and ability, without reference to what may have been their country, profession, or religion. Am them were the Abbe Moliere and M. Marinit, and several English and Ameri cans. He was liberal and friendly to them all. In the organisation of his muni cipal governments, and in the arrangements for the different departments of state ; in forming regulations for a commercial intercourse with foreign countries, he was assisted by those intelligent and gifted men. Toussaint was convinced, that without foreign trade, his efforts in cultivating the soil would have been to a great degree unprofitable. Without a market for agricultural products, there would have been little stimulus to industry: as in so fertile a country a sufficient quantity of food for consumption required but little exertion. He made a tour through the Spanish part of the island, which inspired confidence in the people ; and he was received by them with respect, and often with joy. His achieve ments, and mild and agreeable manners, rendered him highly popular. The Spanish division of the island though ceded to France by the treaty of 1 ) was never thoroughly occupied by the French republican forces. The city of St. Domingo, surrounded with fortifications, held out until the arrival of Tous saint, in 1801, when the whole Spanish division surrendered to his forces. In 1801 the whole island of Hayti was tranquil under the authority of Toussaint, and then its prosperity, if undisturbed, appeared secure. The peace of Amiens suggested to Napoleon the recovery of St. Domingo. Insti- gated by the colonists who had fled to France; and considering that he could only rival the power of England, by the possession of colonies and commerce; urged also by speculators in France, and more so by his ambition, he resolved to subjugate Hayti by force. An expedition, consisting of twenty-six sail of the line carrying 25,000 men, under the command of his brother-in-law, General Le Clerc sailed for its conquest. Two of the sons of Toussaint were then France, attending a course of scientific and legal studies. They were taken f. their preceptor by the First Consul, and sent on board the fleet as host the hands of the French general, in the event of any opposition the landing of the French army. The fleet arrived in the Bay of Sumana on the 25th of January, 18( Le Clerc distributed his force into four divisions. One division, command! General Kerseran, was directed to disembark and take possess^ o St Domingo; another, under General Boudet, was to invest Port-au-T |J72 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. a third was to proceed to the south side of Hayti, and land one section at Mansenillo Bay, under General Rochambeau. The main body, under Le Clerc, with his personal staff, intended to disembark at, and capture Cape Francois. Toussaint was informed of the expedition leaving France, but knew nothing of its force, or the policy which organised its objects. He considered himself still under the suzerainty of the French republic ; and even believed that this force might have been sent principally for assisting him in maintaining the peace of the island. Le Clerc did not, however, even attempt negotiation with Toussaint. General Rochambeau, who landed near Fort Dauphin, drew up his troops on the beach, and the negroes, who believed that the French landed as friends, flew in crowds to witness the disembarkation, and to welcome their arrival. Rochambeau, without the slightest intimation, charged them at the point of the bayonet; many were slaughtered, and the rest fled with difficulty, leaving the fort in pos session of the French. General Christophe, who commanded at Cape Frai^ois, having immediately heard of the unaccountable and cowardly outrage at Fort Dauphin, soon prepared for defence. By this wicked blunder, at Fort Dauphin, Le Clerc was prevented from taking Toussaint by surprise. Christophe, suspicious of the French from the first, disposed his forces judiciously: strengthening the weak points of assault, and animated his troops with confidence in their own strength. He acquainted the white inhabitants of the city, that their lives would be held by him as security for the hostile proceedings of the French, and that he would never surrender so long as a single house stood. The whites previously knew of the hostility of the French armament. They were secretly favourable to it ; but they were fully sen sible that the dreadful denunciation of Christophe would be executed. A deputation of the white inhabitants, headed by the municipal authorities, waited upon the French commander-in-chief, imploring him to refrain from hostilities, as it was the determination of Christophe to massacre them, and destroy the city, if it should be attacked by the French forces. Le Clerc told them that his orders were not to restore slavery, but to secure St. Domingo to the consular govern ment of France. The proclamation sent out by Bonaparte was to the same effect. The sequel will show that neither the First Consul nor his general ever intended what they stated. Never was more gross dissimulation practised.* * Bonaparte proclaimed : " Inhabitants of St. Domingo, whatever your origin or your colour, you are all French : you are all free, and all equal before God and before the republic. " France, like St. Domingo, has been a prey to factions, torn by civil commotions and by foreign wars. Hut all has changed, all nations have embraced the French, and have sworn to them peace and amity ; the French people, too, have embraced each other, and have sworn to be all friends and brothers. Come also, embrace the French, and rejoice to see again your friends and brothers of Europe. " The government sends you Captain-General Le Clerc ; he brings with him numerous forces for protecting you against your enemies, and against the enemies of the republic. If it be said HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYTI. 1173 Many accepted the offers, and joined the standard of Le Clerc. i wrote to General Christophe, " that unless he immediately acceded to th.- of his forces, he will hold him (Christophe) responsible for what may 1.;- Christophe, firm, bold, inflexible, and decided, replied, " that he would fear lessly resist the French forces, and that they should not enter Cape Town until it was reduced to ashes." " Nay," says he, " even in the ruins I will renew the combat." Again he says, " How can you hold me responsible for the ev you are not my chief. I know you not ; and can therefore take no account of you, till you are acknowledged by Governor Toussaint." Le Clerc landed his forces near Da Limbe and the Bay of Acul, west of the city. Christophe, knowing that the white inhabitants were wavering and faithless ; that many mulattoes, and even negroes, were secretly inclined towards the French, promptly commenced the work of conflagration which he had threatened: and when Le Clerc and Admiral Villaret came within sight of the city, they perceived it in the course of rapid devastation. The French com manders made great efforts to save the town, but they were only able to save a few buildings. Christophe s threat, to massacre the inhabitants, was not, ever to his credit, put in execution. He carried off many, whom he held as hostages for the conduct of the French ; but it is not recorded, even by his enemies, that he treated them with any barbarity, or that he executed any of them. On destroy ing the town, he retreated with his forces to a strong position, until hi joined by the Governor- General Toussaint. The latter soon arrived, and personally inspected every position by which it was practicable to make a successful stand against the enemy. At the same time, on resorting to his seat at Ennery, about thirty miles from the Cape, his two sons were brought to him to try how far affection mijit enfeeble him, so as to forget his duty. The crafty, plausible tutor Coisnon, the affectionate children, the fond father, and the tender mother-all failed; Tous saint was inflexible. A writer of the time, who describes the interview wh took place, says i The two sons ran to meet their father, and he, with em too big for utterance, clasped them silently in his arms. Few, it is 1 are the partakers of our common nature, who, on witnessing the embrace tears of parental and filial sensibility, could have proceeded, a to you, these forces are destined to ravish from you your liberty, answer, the republic will not , he brins you ^^ canes. . Done at Paris, &c. a (gigned) The First Consul, BONAPARTE. 1174 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. powerful relentings of heart, to execute the commission, with which Coisnon was charged." This was the moment which Coisnon thought most favourable to the perpe tration of his treacherous design. "The father and the sons," says he, "threw themselves into each other s arms. I saw them shed tears, and wishing to take advantage of a period which I conceived to be favourable, I stopped him at the moment when he stretched out his arms to me/ Coisnon then opened the purport of his mission, imploring Toussaint to reflect upon the consequences that would inevitably result from any hostile mea sures against the power of Bonaparte. He also held out to him the most attrac tive promises of the glory that would await him by joining the French standard^ and the vengeance that would doubtless accompany any act of hostility. He handed to the negro chief a letter, written by Bonaparte, teeming with kind expressions and admiration of Toussaint. But the latter was not then to be entrapped. The tutor then tried the intercession of his children and the entrea ties of his wife. Bonaparte, in his letter to the chief, tries what effect an allusion to the former will have. " We have made known to your children, and to their preceptor," he says, " the sentiments by which we are animated. We send them back to you. Assist with your counsel, your influence, and your talents, the captain-general. What can you desire ? The freedom of the blacks ? You know that in all the countries we have been in, we have given it to the people who had it not. Do you desire consideration, honours, fortune ? It is not after the services you have rendered, the services you can still render, and with the personal estimation we have for you, that you ought to be more doubtful ivith respect to your consideration, your fortune, and the honours that await you" Toussaint having composed himself, and assumed an appearance of ease and confidence? took the preceptor by the hand ; then directing the others to retire, he said with dignity, " Take back my children, since it must be so. I will be faithful to my brethren and to my God." A truce was agreed upon for a few days, for the purpose of carrying on a cor respondence between Le Clerc and Toussaint. Le Clerc anticipated a favourable result, but Toussaint s reply contained no augury of his submission to the will of the chief consul. The truce was ended, arid each prepared for active opera tions. Toussaint and Christophe were proclaimed enemies of the French repub lic, and all persons were called upon to arrest them as outlaws. Le Clerc, endeavouring to allure the negroes, held out assurances to their officers of rank and preferment in the French army, and the most solemn promise of freedom. The labourers and cultivators of the soil were becoming weary of war, and determined to remain neutral, so long as their properties were not mo- HISTORICAL SKF.TCIIKS OF II \ Y I f. 117 lested. Le Clerc had nothing to apprehend from them, but to entrap or defeat the negro chiefs was most difficult, from the rugged defiles and passes of the country. The negro troops had been thoroughly instructed in skirmisliiiis, bush fighting, and other irregular warfare. For such operations they were most ad mirably trained, disciplined, and equipped. They were quick in firing ami. and good marksmen. Their movements were effected witli rapidity : they rtcw from one point to another with the greatest celerity. Neither the scorching heat of the sun, nor the pernicious influence of the night air, had any injurious effects upon them, while the French were dying from the effects of both. With the French the field duties were insupportable. The French troops, however, in the plains of the north, attacked Plaisance. It surrendered, and the negro commander and his soldiers, consisting of five hun dred infantry and cavalry, joined the French standard. Marmalade followed and Christophe was obliged to retreat, in consequence of the treachery of one of his officers who had surrendered an important position on his line, and joined the French. Near Port La Paix the French troops, under Humbert, sustained a check ; and on the 20th of February the troops under General Debelle were obliged to retire, after having sustained some loss. General Boudet landed at Port-au-Prince, and proceeded with his division against La Croix des Bouquets, which was occupied by the celebrated Dessalines. On the approach of the French force he set fire to the place, and the next day, by a most difficult yet rapid movement, crossed the mountains, and advanc. Leogane, which place he also set on fire, though defended by a French fnga. Dessalines would appear one day in the plains of the Cul de Sac, .cling v determined bravery, and committing dreadful ravages before the French army on the next, he would descend upon and devastate the plains of Leogane, never facing the enemy in the open field. Bush fighting, and settmg fire plantations! to i.npede the advance of the enemy and destroy the, prov.s his usually successful plan of warfare. La Plume, a negro chief, retreated before Generals Derfourneaux dy from the vicinity of Plaisance, and surrendered, wUh all Ins troops, tc . .===2=3=35 The slaughter was immense, and the loss c 1176 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. than that of the negroes. After the action Rociiambeau could not advance, and Toussaint claimed the victory. The French generals, by flattering promises, seduced Maurepas, a negro chief who commanded the district of St. Marc, to surrender with his force, con sisting of two thousand men. This treachery was almost decisive. Toussaint, Christophe, aud Dessalines still held strong positions, and it required a considerable time and great sacrifice of life to dislodge them. Le Clerc trying every device to ain over the black troops, promoted many of those who had previously joined him, and by kindness towards others became so far exalted in negro estimation that they undertook to allure their brethren. In a short period Toussaint was left with few adherents. One reverse was fol lowed up by another. Toussaint s fortitude never forsook him. He knew that the enemy would have to contend with greater obstacles than any which his resistance could present. Le Clerc, elated by success, became impatient to complete the great object of the expedition, that of restoring the planters to their hereditary estates, of placing the negroes once more under their servitude, and binding the French government to resist all attempts to disturb the planters. This impolitic attempt of Le Clerc excited general indignation. The planters, apprehensive of the destructive consequences of so rash a proceed ing, declined to avail themselves of the offer. The credulous cultivators, who had been allured by the promises of Le Clerc, began to consult their own safety, and to devise means to evade the orders of the French general. Such of the negro troops as had joined the French began to feel terrified lest they should be forced back into slavery. Toussaint seized the favourable moment, and with the most extraordinary celerity formed a junction with Christophe. The cultivators flocked to their standard ; they moved on by forced marches with surprising rapidity, driving their enemy from one post to another, without meeting with the least opposition, until they appeared before Cape Frangois. Le Clerc, shut up in the besieged city of Cape Frangois, and reduced to the greatest extremities, was saved by a strong reinforcement which arrived from France. But in the city, from the number of people within its walls, pestilential symptoms appeared, and the inhabitants and troops were prostrated by its ravages. In this emergency, Le Clerc proclaimed " Liberty and equality to all the inhabitants of St. Domingo, without regard to colour," and an apology for his conduct, with an assurance that he desired nothing but to reconcile conflicting opinions, appease internal discord, restore peace, and place the colony in a pros perous condition. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HA VI I. 1177 All classes in Hayti are said to have concurred in one point, tliat resistance to the French was only justifiable, for the preservation of that liberty, u Inch the national assembly of France had proclaimed. Finally, to the prayers of the great body of the people Toussaint formally, reluctantly, assented. Dessalines was of opinion that no negotiations should be entered into with Le Clerc, except for the evacuation of the colony by the I renth forces. Both chiefs doubted the sincerity of the French general, and believed that his propositions were only intended to sacrifice them afterwards. Christophe, however, from discovering some symptoms of defection among his troops, opened a negotiation with Le Clerc, and officers were appointed for that purpose. Chris- tophe demanded a general amnesty and the preservation of his own rank and property, as well as that of Toussaint and Dessalines, and of all the people of Hayti. To this Le Clerc unwillingly acceded, and the arrangements were accordingly concluded. Toussaint and Dessalines, standing almost alone against the demands of the people, finally consented to the terms granted to Christophe for a short time. This agreement ending a contest, as cruel and sanguinary as any recorded in the annals of war. By this temporary peace the island of St. Domingo was admitted to be under the sovereignty of France. The cultivators and proprietors returned to their homes, and recommence their agricultural labours: hoping to remain in tranquillity, their families enjoying those comforts which the horrors of war had long denied them. Destines, and Christophe, retired to their respective plantations ; bang a by Le Clerc, that their persons and property should be held sacred, and stations should be transmitted to them, upon which they were future military commands. Dessalines and Christophe were far from c of either personal safety or of retaining their estates ; nor did they .lumber m ,relyin, on the captain^ when asleep, unconscious and S ^> wif and beloved ch ,,dren, dragged Toussaint from h,s bed, from "J ul Hesubmhted to hi, fate. 7 L vni.. T. 1178 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. CHAPTER V. REIGN OF DESSALINES. No sooner was the seizure of Toussaint known, than Dessalines, Christophe, and Clerveaux, flew to arms, and called the cultivators and all others to join their standard, to revenge the atrocity committed on their chief, and to defend them selves against the French general. In a few days, they were at the head of a large force, well armed and equipped ; and they determined on a most desperate struggle for liberty. The French troops were hourly diminishing from disease. The officers were dying rapidly, a disaffected spirit had manifested itself, and not only the privates and subaltern officers deserted their standards, but even generals followed the example. Scenes of horrible carnage and destruction followed. The atrocities of the French are said to have exceeded those of their negro opponents. Blood-hounds were brought in by the French, but the negroes were prepared for them ; and although, in some instances, they tore some persons, and devoured a child or two, yet were shot in great numbers, and rendered useless, from the ne groes having been always prepared to shoot them. In the plains near the Cape, and in the city, the massacres by the French were indiscriminate. Scenes of carnage and destruction seemed to have reached their height, when the French force began rapidly to diminish from the effects of a pestilence which soon raged through the whole army. The general-in-chief, Le Clerc, died from disease on the 1st of November, leaving to memory a cha racter, in which were assembled almost every crime, unredeemed for by one single virtue. The command of the army devolved on General Rochambeau, a worthy succes sor of Le Clerc. In the early part of 1803, nothing was decided on either side. Rochambeau and Dessalines fought a battle, in which the latter was victorious. Carnage and massacres followed. The French general, who took about 500 prisoners, put them all to death, careless of .the fate of his own soldiers in the power of his enemy. The latter retaliated ; and on the following morning, at day-break, on as many gibbets, there were exhibited 500 French officers and men sacrificed, in retaliation for the savage conduct of the French general. War having broken out between England and France in July following, a British squadron appeared off Cape Francois, and blockaded the harbour. This force accelerated the expulsion of the French. The squadron precluded the possibility of the French receiving any supplies. The garrison and inhabitants of the city were reduced to great want and distress. Horses, mules, asses, and dogs, were devoured. Preparations being made to take the city by storm ; the French commander- m-chief offered to capitulate. Dessalines received these proposals ; and arti- HISTORICAL SKRTfHKS OF HA V I I. II cles were signed on the 19lh of November highly favourable to the- Ficaeb : they provided for the security of private property, and that all their Mck ..i.l wounded should be carefully attended to by the blacks, and ai u-r\s to France in vessels bearing a neutral flag. For the evacuation ten day* I allowed, and Rochambeau thought that the strong and stormy winds which pre vailed during the autumnal months, might blow off the British ships, ai the French squadron to steal away unperccived: but, finding it imp- elude the British squadron, Rochambeau was obliged to capitulate with British admiral ; and his squadron of three frigates and nearly twenty smaller vessels, each with the prisoners to the number of about 8000 men, were t first to Jamaica, and afterwards to England. Thus ended the war for the recovery by France of St. Domingo. I pwanl 40,000 men, which arrived from France at different times were defeated, and about three-fourths destroyed. In the end of December, 1803, the negroes and coloured people of Hayti were in quiet possession of the island. The successors of Toussaint had not that in fluence over the cultivators which their predecessor commanded. Neith. sion, nor the expectation of gain could prevail upon labourers to return to then cultural employment : and immediately after the war, it would have been impolitic, if not utterly impracticable, to have enforced it. Commerce had been suspended, from the want of articles of exchange for the manufactures of Europe, and the provisions of America. Toussaint certainly made great efforts to revive commerce as well ai agi ture. He promoted both to an extent which, when the state of the CO! and the a-itation of the people are examined, appears surprising. adopted by Toussaint was not dissimilar to that which prevails in Russia, * the peasantry are adscripti cjkba" He acted wisely, though severely, f benefit of his people, of whose innate love of indolence, he was no me; If he was severe in his anxiety to promote industry and exertion, he was , The population of Hayti at this period had greatly diminished; the. increase had been very small, and the ravages of war had created a greal of numbers, exclusive of the emigration which had taken place tectionof the French. The number of the population m 18( was 375,000 ; of which 290,000 were cultivators, 47, 00 domest.cs sa ^ & , 37 300 soldiers By a subsequent statement of the population of the pears to have been about 348,000, of which 27/ skiers, and the re.ainder were corcposed of *-*** saiiors. The d^betweeo the- tjvo o 7,^ appears large, but the destrucfon of hfejas ve,> Spanish part of the is,and was -j**Jj ^ successor5 of Toussu.nt from a fate which awaited those who had vvavei 1180 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. they believed would visit them with capital penalties; and from the ferocity of Dessalines they had little mercy to expect. Dessalines declared Hayti independent on the 1st of January, 1804, and the first steps taken by him on being elected to the chief command, were to endeavour to prevent emigration, to remove delusions under which the negroes were op pressed, to make it generally known, that all previous opinions and trans gressions should be forgotten, and to invite back those who had been allured to take part with the French, and who emigrated in consequence ; assuring them pro tection and security. All those who were disposed to accompany the French army were freely allowed to depart; and many took advantage of this clemency, who afterwards had to regret their credulity. A proclamation, signed by Dessalines, Christophe, and Clerveaux, a mu latto (in which the independence of the colony is declared), encouraged the emigrants to return to their properties, and further declares, " towards those men who do us justice, we will act as brothers ; let them rely for ever on our esteem and friendship ; let them return amongst us. The God who protects us, the God of freemen, bids us stretch out towards them our conquering arms." Many were allured by this promise of security and protection, and returned from the interior fastnesses to which they had fled. Hayti, the name given to the island by the aborigines, was adopted by Des salines, instead of St. Domingo, and he demanded that the people should exe cute vengeance upon their former oppressors. The white French people were indiscriminately massacred by the troops, and by command of the monster Des salines. No age or sex was spared. Females were first violated, and then bayoneted and shockingly mangled. This execrable tyrant, proclaimed that he intended to stay his vengeance, for the sufferings to which his brethren had been exposed, and that all those who had escaped execution under this military decree, should meet for the purpose of receiving protective papers, which would secure them from the vengeance of the people. Unsuspecting and deluded, they came forth from their hiding-places to the place announced for issuing the protecting tickets : they were then immu- d iately arrested and executed. lie also concerted measures for the reduction of the Spanish division of the island, in which there were but few slaves: and those being mildly treated, slavery was only known by name. The people and the few slaves therefore united to oppose the tyrant Dessalines, should he appear before the city of St. Domingo. He laid siege to the city, conceiving that the terror of his name would dispel any resistance. But the besieged had determined, by vi gorous efforts, to repel him. A reinforcement arrived soon after from France, and Dessalines raised the siege and retreated to the west. On his return from St. Domingo, he was, or rather caused himself to be, on the 8th of October, 1804, with great parade, crowned " Emperor of Hayti." HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYTI. I 1 - 1 A new constitution was promulgated, and in it there were article .:ig, on the part of those who framed it, a desire to promote the hupp im prove the condition and morals of the people. By it no Ilaytian \v;is entitled to the privileges of a citizen, who did not inherit all the qualities of a good fa! a good son, and a good husband. No child could be disinherited by his pur emigration subjected a person to the loss of his citizenship, and a ci> bankrupt lost all his privileges; all citizens too were required to maU- th< m*ela-< ful in some mechanical trade. Such enactments as these did credit to the persons from whom they emanated ; and Dessalines consented that they shouM f-.,rm a part of the fundamental laws which he had sworn to observe, and by which h engaged to govern. By the new constitution, religion was tolerated, although it was declared that there should be no predominant religion. Marriage was de clared to be merely a civil ceremony, tending to improve society, and inspire the people with a disgust for unlimited sensuality so prevalent in tl country. Dessalines was, without an attempt at contradiction in his favour, the mo: cious monster of cruelty that ever appeared in Hay ti ; yet he possessed uncomcr powers of mind, and when he had committed his indescribable massacres tortures on the French people, he really endeavoured to encourage a and commerce, and consulted citizens of the United States and others on t points. After his coronation there was peace for some time, and people Lr and the negroes began to return to their homes; others from the French Sriti I colonies came bad, In order to increase the m ale population he , To enter into a treaty with the British agent from Jamaica, offenng to ope, K-: rae nt iands W hich ^J^rB^f:" D^:: con teoaed, Z of their Wng taken to Jamaica * about 400,000, of aU In 1805, the population of countries, there denominations, so that by births and +** M . Humbold , s statement was an increase in three years of ahout 000 t. I ] 82 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. commanding officer of the district, and by proving to him a sufficient cause. The code of Toussaint, as acted upon by his successor, was severe in the ex treme, especially on the government estates. Dessalines knew well the work which could be performed by one labourer, and had a daily return sent in to him of work done, and if there had been any diminution from that of the day before, he often sentenced the negro defaulters to hard labour on the public roads. The greater portion of labour was directed to the cultivation of coffee. The sugar plantations had been destroyed, and the sugar works demolished. Little su^ar was made, in proportion to the quantity produced in the time of the French. Dessalines, although considered an infidel, enjoined all persons to celebrate public worship, and observe the Sunday. This was merely policy for preserving order. He observed in his own person the forms of religious worship, as an ex ample to his subjects, not from regard for religion. He encouraged marriage, and rigidly exacted obedience to its injunctions, and publicly condemned sensuality and voluptuousness. In his own person he is asserted to have been depraved and licentious. His standing force after the conclusion of the war did not exceed 20,000 in fantry and cavalry. The militia, or national guards, were numerous, every man from the age of sixteen to fifty was obliged to assemble four times a year, and undergo a regular training. His troops were active, well-disciplined and armed, but wretchedly clothed. The fortifications he endeavoured to put in a state of defence ; fearing at all times that the French should again invade the island. It is uncertain whether Dessalines, impressed by a conviction of his enor mities, had endeavoured to reform his conduct, or whether he attempted to ad minister with moderation, from policy. But he was not trusted by the people, who secretly detested him as a tyrant. They at last determined, aided by his troops, to conspire against him, and near the north gate of the city of Port-au- Prince, he was shot on the l?th of October, 1806, by one of his own soldiers, a mulatto youth, about fifteen years of age. Dessalines was born and worked as a slave. His father belonged to a carpenter, or thingkr, the latter much the same as a slater. He was short, very stoutly made, and capable of undergoing extraordinary fatigue. He could neither read nor write. He merely signed his name. His military talents displayed daring move ments, rather than well-planned operations. His activity was surprising, and the celerity with which he moved from one point of his command to another, both alarmed and astonished his enemies. He was vain, capricious, and fond of flattery ; still he was an extraordinary man, and would, if differently instructed and disciplined, have not practised atrocities, which were not only tyrannical, but, even m Hayti, utterly impolitic with regard to his own power. In the time of Dessalines, there was no competition for the chief command: from the terror of his name, none daring to oppose him j but after his death, civil war broke forth. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYii. CHAPTER VI. REIGN OF CHRISTOPHE AND PETION. CHRISTOPH E was next in command to Dessalines, and on the death of Dessaline* he assumed the supreme command in Hayti. He stood very high in the est , tion of the people ; and his bravery, humanity, and moral character, diffused an approval of his elevation. His bravery was indisputable. Christophe at once evinced both sound judgment and good sense, and brought into his counsels the best men, both black and coloured, with great impartiality; he only objected to French whites. Christophe assumed only the simple designation of "Chief of the Government of Hayti," under which, and not an imperial title and dignity, he determined to govern. He immediately endeavoured to establish a commercial understanding with Great Britain and the United States, to which purport he expressed his anxious wish to the officers of the British men-of-war, who frequented the port of the Cape, and to whom he always extended the greatest courtesy. To the Americans, who resided at the Cape for the purpose of carrying on commercial dealings, he also communicated his views on trade. The latter immediately trans mitted his communication to their government, but the proposition, made to the British, received no encouragement. British colonial interests prevented a com mercial treaty with Christophe. The rejection of his offer was a flagrant blunder, both in regard to British trade, and to the countenance which England should have extended to Christophe. He, meantime, directed his attention to other important measures for the improvement of his country. His first address, dated the 24th of October, 1806, declared the com mercial system which he intended to establish. It proclaimed certain free ports, and that the flag of all nations would be respected, and proper ty protected ; that personal security was pledged ; and that the odious law, passed by Dessalines, which established exclusive consignments to the citizens of the country, was abrogated; and that every individual should have the right to place his pro perty in the hands of his own agent, who should have the full protection of government. Americans and Europeans soon found advantages in trading with Hayti. The manufactures of England, and the provisions of the United States, flowed into its ports. The people were not able to purchase the rich manufactures of Europe; they bought those which their means enabled them to purchase, buying on credit was not resorted to; it was a barter trade with foreigners; there was then little, if any risk, in the commerce with Hayti. A competitor with Christophe for the supreme authority arose in the person 1 ] 84 FOREIGN- WEST INDIES. of Alexandre Petion, a mulatto, who had succeeded to the command held by Clerveaux, after the death of that general, and subsequently became commander- in-chief at Port-au-Prince. Petion was greatly respected by the people. He was in manners mild and attractive, and possessed talents of a very superior order. He had been educated in France, and served in the French armies, in which he had held the rank of a field officer. As scientific engineer, he had rendered essential services to Toussaint and Dessalines, who rapidly advanced him in military rank. The competitors had recourse to arms. Christophe secured the whole of the north ; on making an attempt on Port-au-Prince, he was repelled, and returned to Cape Francois. In the February following, he published his new constitution, in which the Catholic religion is declared to be the religion of the state, and every other religion tolerated, and he declared " that the government solemnly guarantees the foreign merchants the security of their persons and properties." He also con templated the establishment of public schools, as soon as the state of the country should be sufficiently recovered to enable him to carry his intentions into effect. He subsequently, on the subject of agriculture, expressed an anxiety, beyond ordinary solicitude, for that great source of wealth. He exhorted the people to an unceasing application to the culture of the lands, by the produce of which, foreigners would be attracted to their ports, to exchange the produce of their own countries, as well as money. Being uninformed as to the policy which foreign countries might adopt towards him, his wish was to remain quiet, until they decided, hoping that it might be such, as would be favourable to their com merce, and tend to bind an intercourse founded on common interests. The declaration often made by Christophe, that he never would allow any interference on the part of Hayti with the colonies of any European state, was not believed to be sincere ; until it was discovered that some persons in the southern parts of the island were intriguing with others in Jamaica, who were hostile to their government. He immediately arrested those in Hayti, and had them tried and punished for infringing his declaration. The British government, in con sequence of his integrity, permitted an intercourse with certain ports in Hayti, by an order in council dated February, 1807. In the year 1811, Christophe was elected to the throne, under the title of King Henry; which seems to have been approved of by the majority, if not of the whole of his subjects. It was believed by them that a monarchy suited the exigencies of the times, as more likely to make them respected abroad and maintain their peace at home. It was also an act of gratitude to one who had through a long career of war and desolation, rendered such important services to them. At the time when Christophe became king of the northern part of Hayti a HISTORICAL SKRTCJIKS or II.\Y | I. 11 v, cessation of hostilities was agreed to between him and his competitor : through, it was generally believed, the intercession of the British govern im-nt. Hostilities having been suspended, both rulers turned their attention to, peaceful industry, and chiefly agriculture and commerce. They adopted opi> courses. One adopted a system of rigid enforcement. The other submitted t indolent habits of his people. Christophe knew well the real character and disposition of his countrymen ; and that to govern them, strong and powerful, yet just, measures were demanded. He, like Toussaint, knew also that if he were to relax authority, and permit them to follow their natural disposition, indolence would become general. Mr. Franklin, in his work on Hayti, observes of Christophe s rural policy, that " He was persuaded that, before it would be possible, to raise his country in wealth and in happiness, an implicit obedience to such regulations as he should deem advis able must be enforced ; that if the people were left to their own free agency, from their innate love of indolence, nothing could be obtained from them: they would wander about quite unconcerned for to-morrow, satisfied with that which the day had produced. He knew that the negro race were prone to idleness, and addicted to lust and sensuality ; that they were ignorant of the duties of civilised life, and of the ties which bound then together and it was a matter of the first importance for the consideration of those wh< were to direct the affairs of state, to devise the means by which they should be taug their duty to their country ; that idleness and concupiscence were vices ot the wor and that unless an upright and moral course were pursued, they could , improvement in their individual condition, nor advance themselves in the opm mankind." With these impressions, Christophe and his council, and other advi* about a work, which, however imperfect they may be considered as legislators exhibits no little share of talent and judgment. His Code in 1812. Franklin says, such as were in force in the time of Toussamt and Declines , and as they ^ and tended highly to augment those sources o ^ r . discernment and discretion in Christophe to adopt them as P*oMui code shield for the executive administration o ^gEffiKSj^^ due observance of all those measures likely to be benefac al to 1 is ^ attention to agriculture, encouraged commerce with foreig. ^^ vetnm6 ^ and by extensive purchases of their commodit l TO ucation bv establishing schools for he made rapid strides towards the advancement oteOuca t.o^ ^^ ^ ^ countries, the instruction of youth, and by inviting mer ^ which he had formed for the for the purpose of presiding at the head c promotion of science. ble of receiving instruction " It has been often asserted that the neg >es cue p eop i e o f any other nation or in morality, religion, and every branch of scie not be improper to say, that very colour. This I shall not attempt to deny; b . it me ^ ^ ^ that Hayti is an few instances have yet been adduced to suppui^ ^ ^ advantages, with all the illustration of the contrary being the tact; improve their minds, and to eek opportunities which Christophe aftorded VOL,. I. M 1136 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. for knowledge in the various branches of science, very few indeed have been found who have raised themselves above mediocrity, whilst thousands have been found incapable of tuition, or have rejected instruction altogether. "Mazcres, in speaking of them, says, "The negro is only a grown child, shallow, liorht, fickle, thoughtless, neither keenly sensible of joy, nor of sorrow, improvident, with out resources, in his spirits or his soul. Careless, like other sluggards; rest, singing, his women and his dress form the contracted limits of his taste. I say nothing of his affections for affections, properly so called, are too strong for a soul so soft, so inactive as his." * Christophe was induced also to improve the aspect of the country, by divest ing it of the dilapidation effected during the war; and by commanding the nobility, and those attached to the government, to erect large houses on their estates, and to ornament the plantations in the vicinity of their residences; but he did not succeed, except in a few instances, the poverty of the men raised to dignities, made it impossible for them to comply with his commands. After the fall of Napoleon in 1814, the ministers of Louis XVIII. sent com missioners to Hayti to try by a negotiation, or by menace, to bring under France the sovereignty of the island. De Medina, the commissioner deputed to Chris tophe, had served in the army of Toussaint, and afterwards betrayed his cause and joined Le Clerc. He was an object of suspicion to Christophe, and from some irregularity, respecting his credentials, he was arrested and seized. On the examination of his papers, it was discovered that his object was to excite insurrection among the people, and endeavour to prevail upon them to recognise Louis XVIII. as their sovereign : that monarch assuring them of paternal soli citude, and his pledge that they should retain their property and military rank. Medina was tried and found guilty by a military tribunal of the charges. He was committed to the prison of the Cape, and it was supposed died there ; but no accounts were ever obtained respecting him. Monsieur Lavaysse, a man of ability, seems to have been the chief commis sioner. He proceeded to Port-au-Prince for the purpose of carrying on a nego tiation with Petion, and met with no better success, except that having been more cautious he avoided the fate of Medina. Petion was well informed of the nature of the mission, and was prepared to give a decided negative to the pro positions of the French crown. Christophe was undoubtedly far better adapted than Petion to govern the Haytians. Of a resolute temper, and not dreading the consequences of his measures, however oppressive, and aided by men of ability, he enforced a rigid system of government, and exacted from the people an entire submission to his will. In consequence, the division over which he reigned, presented an aspect of prosperity quite different from that of the sonth. Agriculture was far better, * Letter to Sisraonde. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYTI. 1 1 87 attended to, the produce of the soil increased rapidly, and trade made some progress. Both contributed to the revenue, which in a short time amountc the expenditure, and the people felt little oppression from taxation. Petion adopted a system of relaxation, which involved the great- fiscal difficulties, and all the evils inseparable from an indolent and poor popu lation. The people, allowed to follow their idle inclinations, indulged in the propensities of the negro race; and to prosecute measures for the adv;.. ment of the wealth and prosperity of the country, soon became impracticable. Agriculture was neglected, cultivators relapsed into idle, vicious, and unclean habits. Vice prevailed, and the cultivation of the soil was entirely neglected ; except so far as mere subsistence rendered necessary. Petion never seems to have insisted upon the due execution of the rural laws; and his people, and their lands, exhibited wretchedness and poverty, in con sequence of his wanting the resolution and decision which distinguished the administration of Christophe. The mild character of Petion disqualified him from ruling over a rude and untaught people. He was indulgent, irresolute, and humane ; while Christophe was resolute, decided, and unrelenting in his system of government. Walton says Petion was, Of a sensible and humane character; tutored in the schools of Europe, hi* mind has received an expansion that fits him for the helm of government, and his extenoi address that would distinguish him in a court. Ill-suited, perhaps, to witness which his station as a military commander exposed him in the field of battle, the 1 sensibility often bedews his cheek at the sight of slaughter, and though brave, ente. "nrisino- and bold, he values more the responsive glow of a humane act, than the cnms faurel he has plucked from thebrow of his adversary. He sighs at the purchase of vie whh the sacrifice of those subjects whom he loves ; in short, nothing can be more descrip live of his pecuhar virtues, than the motto of an English artist, at the foot of hi. portrait < ii n a jamais fait couler les larmes de personne. Petion soon became involved in fiscal poverty. A fictitious or debased eoi rency was suggested and adopted as an expedient: that is to say, twindl people under the sanction of government. It is true that Europe afforded a p Ltto the educated Petion : that France, Austria,and some other European had cheated the people by debasing the currency. Petion could no money, even Lurit of the ublic lands, to meet the ordmary epenses merchants whom he had induced to settle in h dominion* 1 the stability of the government, their importat.ons gradually i customs revenue fell infinitely short of the previous rec * Walton, vol. i. U88 FOREIGN- WEST INDIES. For the encouragement of agriculture, instead of enforcing the rural laws of compulsory cultivation for the benefit of the cultivator, the government, whenever the price of products were low, bought largely, in order to raise the price. This most fallacious and impolitic measure was not only pernicious as a burden on the treasury, but it drove foreign purchasers out of the market. Christophe compelled the magistrates to see the rural code rigidly executed, and accompanied by his staff, he rode personally to different parts to ascertain the state of agriculture. He thoroughly comprehended, that to give way to the disposition of the people, would render them irrevocably lazy and vicious. His country in consequence advanced in wealth and in orderly government, the culti vators of the soil, instead of living in idleness, disease, and misery, were indus trious, fared well, and lived in comparative morality and contentment. The cul tivators of the soil under Petion s mild administration presented a most in structive and lamentable contrast. Indolent, improvident, thoughtless of the future, consuming what the hour afforded them, they passed their time. They lived like some animals, in apathy and indifference. Depravity of all shades, and especially the great passion of their sensual appetites, pervaded the whole people. Disease also, accompanied by poverty, soon rendered them a most wretched race. For some time before the death of Petion, which took place on the 29th of March, 1818, he named Boyer for his successor, and he was immediately declared president. Christophe did not interfere with the election of Boyer. The former had accumulated a very large surplus in his treasury, with which he intended to pur chase the Spanish territory, and to annex it to his dominions, but his death in October, 1820, put an end to the negotiation which he had opened ; an union between the north and south parts was then effected under one government, de signated " The Republic of Hayti." His resolute system was no doubt despotic; his ambition was great, and his absolutism was so severe, that it caused a revolt of the garrison of St. Marc, and invited Boyer to assume the government. The city of Cape Haytian followed the example, and the troops prepared to march against Christophe, who was confined by sickness at his palace of Sans Souci. His guards revolted, and finding escape impossible, he shot himself. His sons and several of his officers of state were murdered by the troops. His eldest son begged them to save his life ; but the youngest bravely defended himself, and killing several of the sol diers, he was, however, cut down and shockingly mangled. His wife and daughters were spared by Boyer, who sent them to Port-au- Prince by sea, and he afterwards permitted them to leave the country. They then sailed for England, where they were received with some attention. A small estate HISTORICAL SKvn. 1|V| was secured for, and her valuable jewels were restor was a good humane person, Jo InTb " was a goo umane person, o nbr infliction of punishment. Christophe is now ho v .andin g his abs o lu te spiri t andcha j cter; astll ;:r::\:;r,; r: ; cer; astl , Hayti competent to rule over a people .o ignorant and unprepared It beheved,that if Christophe had lived he would havl SljlIJ affluence and in enaction. Since his death, the former has diminished, a,, ,! t,, latter has not advanced. CHAPTER VII. REIGN OF PRESIDENT BOYER. JEAN PIERRE BOYER, a mulatto, was born at Port-au-Prince. His father, who possessed some wealth, was a store-keeper and a tailor in that city. His mother was a negress of the Congo country in Africa, and had been a slave. He joined the cause of the commissioners, Santhonax and Polverel, with whom he retired, after the arrival of the English. He accompanied General Rigaud to France, after the submission of the south to Toussaint. On the voyage he was captured by the Americans, during the short dispute between France and the United States. Having resided in France some time, he attached himself to the expedition of Le Clerc, for the subjugation of the colony. On the death of Le Clerc he joined Petion, who appointed him, one after the other, his aide-de-camp, private secre tary, chief of his staff, general of the arrondissement of Port-au-Prince, and finally his successor. Boyer, on his succeeding to the government, was in appearance below the middle size, very slender, with an unengaging countenance, but a quick, penetrat ing eye. His constitution was weak, and afflicted with an organic disease, re lieved only by temperance in living. Parade and show, which became a custom, he seemed personally to have no propensity for, but he compelled his staff and house hold to appear in all their glittering embellishments. He appeared seldom among the people except on a Sunday, when he came forth at the head of his troops, and after reviewing them, he rode through the city, attended by his staff and guards. He was vain of his person, and fancied himself and his manners irre sistibly attractive. On the 21st of October, 1820, Boyer entered Gonaives without any opposition ; 1]<JO FOREIGN WEST INDIES. on the 22nd he marched to Cape Haytian, the capital of Christophe, which he en tered the same night at the head of 20,000 men, and on the 26th he was pro claimed president of the north, with the salutations of Long live the Re public of Hayti!" "Independence, Liberty, and Equality!" and "President Boyer ! The revolution in the north, was followed by that in the eastern, or Spanish part, at the end of the succeeding year, in the city of St. Domingo. A deputa tion of the principal inhabitants waited on President Boyer at Port-au-Prince, and tendered submission of the east to the republic, soliciting that it might be incorporated with the republic of Hayti. In the Spanish part there were a great many Haytian refugees, who had made some progress in their plantations, and with the people of colour formed the largest proportion of the inhabitants. On the arrival of Boyer, in the city of St. Domingo, the people received him, it is said, unanimously. Arrangements for the future government of the east were made, and General Borjellas was left in command of the city. By the annexation of the Spanish part, and that without bloodshed, the whole island came under one government, and Boyer had no competitor to op pose him. Boyer attempted little, that was really efficient, for bringing forth the public resources of the country; he seemed insensible to the advantages to be derived from agriculture; the people soon became indolent and obstinate. Commerce declined and almost vanished. The soil produced little for market. Finding his financial wants increasing, he issued debased coin. The most senseless unwise scheme which Boyer effected, that which now so greatly oppresses Hayti, and which led in a great measure to the last revolution, was his sending, in May, 1824, two agents, Rouanney and La Rose, sena tors, to Paris, to negotiate for the recognition of the independence of their coun try, avowedly admitting by it, that France still held the sovereignty over it. These agents were authorised to offer 100,000,000 francs, with certain privileges of trade to France ; but the offer was rejected, and the agents ordered to quit the country without delay. The Haytians, in fact, entrapped their independence ; and when it was known in France, that Boyer had granted an English company the privilege of working mines in the eastern part of Hayti, a fleet of fourteen ships of the line sailed under Admirals Jarien and Grivel, for reducing the Haytians to acknowledge the King of France as sovereign over them, or to submit to such terms as should be tendered. To Baron Mackau was confided the negotiation on the part of France. On his arrival at Port-au-Prince, the admirals moored their ships abreast of the city. From the wretched condition of the batteries and forts, one line-of- battle ship could have demolished the whole. HISTORICAL SK1-TCHES OV 11 AY 1 1. 1 1 . 1 Two officers of the president s staff, were sent on board the commander-in-chief, to ascertain the object of the expedition, and th the president, with communications from Baron Mackau, explaining the n;du: his mission, assuring him that it was entirely pacific ; and on the part oi of France, meeting in accordance the overtures which Boyer had previously made by his own agents. The next day Baron Mackau landed under a salute from the forts, and pro ceeded to the government-house, where he was received by the president, MU- rounded by the officers of state and his staff. The details of this negotiation would be uninteresting. It ended by an acqui escence on the part of Boyer to an ordonnance, dated Paris, the 17th of April, 1825, and signed by the king. It stipulates that the ports in the French part of St. Domingo shall be open to the commerce of all nations ; that French ships and merchandise shall be admitted into the French part, on paying only half the duties exacted from other nations, and the same on the exports thence ; that the inhabitants of the French part of Si. Domingo agree to pay, in five annual instal ments, the sum of one hundred and fifty millions of francs as an indemnity for the losses of the ancient colonists; and that when the conditions of this ordonnance are fulfilled, the French part of St. Domingo is declared independent. Ftes were given in Port-au-Prince to Baron Mackau, and the French off were continually beset by persons paid by the president to cry in the streets, < Vi v Charles the Xth ! "Vive le Dauphin de France!" "Vive la France Haiti !" Vive le President d Haiti !" Vive 1 Independence !* The negotiation for independence having been arranged, it was consic necessary that commissioners should be sent to France for the final adjustme some differences which couldnot be proved for in the preliminary treaty, and the raising of money, by a loan, for the payment of the first mstah and with basis of a definitive treaty comprising twenty-one article., with wic ordered to return to Hayti, and to lay it before their governmen Hor^ o^or . Mr. Fnmklin, who ... *e bom of th, com.ta*, , U92 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. Beyer s officers of state and the people in general manifested the greatest solicitude for his appearance ; a solicitude, emanating from a great sense of the importance which they attached to it. The president suppressed his feelings, whatever they might have been ; but at times he could not resist the temptation of condemning the delay which intervened between the appointment of the consul and his departure from England ; and he was often heard to say, that he questioned the sincerity of the British cabinet respect- ino- such intentions, and that be believed it to be only a ruse de commerce. The inha bitants, however, were of a different opinion ; they knew the integrity of the British go vernment, and were confident that its commerce would not be neglected, but promoted and extended, wherever it could be accomplished. " On the 25th of May, the consul-general and his suite arrived in his majesty s ship Druid, Captain Chambers; but as she did not appear off the harbour till nearly dark, she was not recognised by the government officers, and consequently did not salute before the following morning, when it was returned by the forts, which was the only demonstra tion of respect offered by the Haytian authorities on his arrival. Nay, President Boyer could not conceal his antipathy, nor restrain his dislike to the English, even though he perceived that the presence of the British mission had a strong tendency to reconcile all classes of his citizens to his impolitic measures. He individually neglected even to con gratulate the consul on his arrival ; he did not pay him the common civility of sending one of his aides-de-camp to express himself friendly to the object of his visit, as was the case on the arrival of the French consul-general, to whom he sent two of his staff to offer him the assurances of his high consideration and esteem. The consul-general of England was only visited by a subaltern of artillery on the staff of General Inginac, and the general was absolutely precluded paying a higher compliment to him by the positive orders of Boyer." The only department of government to which Boyer seemed to devote his at tention, was the military establishment. He fixed it at 45,000 men, besides the national guards, 1 13,000, who were armed and disciplined. The reign of Boyer was of a long duration ; yet he did not enjoy that career, without attempts to dethrone him. Boyer was no doubt a man of great personal energy, and powers far above the ordinary standard were requisite to have main tained authority over, not only the former French part, but even the Spanish divi sion, for twenty-four years. That he was a despot, there is no evidence to dispute ; but we believe that none but a despot, little under that of a dictator, could have ruled for nearly a quarter of a century over such a people, as constituted the whole heterogeneous population of Hayti. He is accused, by his opponents, of having almost destroyed the legislative representation, by the limitations intro duced by him in 1822, 1832, 1839, and 1842, and by thoroughly destroying, by corruption, its independence; of rilling the senate Vith members either of his own relations, or those whom he could influence or corrupt ; of assuming powers not authorised by the constitution, especially that of coining money, debasing the currency, and of pardoning criminals; of suspending the civil laws; of an uncon stitutional organising of the army, in order to maintain his absolutism; of re placing the municipal authority, by establishing, under the pretence of main taining public order, special commissions in the towns and villages; of taking the initiative, in inposing customs duties, charges, and taxes; of altering the text of the laws, and refusing to promulgate those framed by the legislative HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HA YTI. 1 ] 93 assembly; of depriving citizens from being tried by the civil judges, and having them convicted by courts martial ; of removing honest judges, and replacing them by his own creatures; and of various other treasonable acts. There may be exaggeration in the foregoing accusations, as to the extent which the maladministration and despotism of Boyer have been exercised- but their general truth is undeniable. Yet, in the year 1842, the stability of the authority of Boyer, and the fidelity of the army, was not doubted. Both were, however, for a considerable time undermined ; and, it required but a few daring minds, to cause a general explosion of the power of the despot, and the loyalty of his officers and military forces. There is scarcely a revolution in the history of nations, that has not been preceded by fiscal perplexities, and by public distress. It is the greatest test of wisdom, forecast, and sound judgment, in the ruler, or the statesman, to provide against the calamities of the treasury, and the hunger of the people. The fiscal perplexities of Boyer, and distress among the inhabitants, were not altogether caused by his own acts; but, in a great degree, they were the natural effects of his measures. The payment of the annual instalments to France, for an indemnity, that was neither morally nor legally due by the citizens of Hayti, and for the voluntary recognition of which, Boyer was guilty, probably with a view to strengthen his own power ; and the maintenance of a large army, as well as the corruption of public men, required excessive taxation, and drained the treasury. The people were in consequence compelled to provide for the public burdens. It is true, that the taxes, which were imposed, might have been endured by a population of ordinary industry, but which certainly did not charac terise the inhabitants of Hayti. The disastrous earthquake of 1842 was suc ceeded by an accidental calamity, or, as many believe, an act of conspiration, which inflicted great distress on a large community. Both led to the develop ment of the pre-existing elements of outbreak, and to a successful revolution. On the 9th of January, 1843, a fire broke out in Port-au-Prince, and de stroyed one-third of the city, including nearly all its wealthy and most popu lous streets About 400 houses were utterly destroyed, and the loss of property was enormous. Many of the sufferers owed large sums to foreign mer chants; especially to houses in Glasgow and Dundee. The destruction of pro perty, and the consequent poverty, excited exasperation on the part of the rabble, who afterwards attempted several times to fire the remaining part of the city. A few days after, the conduct of the government, respecting an indemnity paid for the illegal detention of a Spanish vessel, created very general disapprobation ; and a conspiracy for the overthrow of Boyer was discovered. Its head-quarters were at Aux Cayes, and it extended to Jeremie, Anse de Veau, and other places. The President, who had often been successful in suppressing conspiracies and revolts by military force not without severity, considered that the revolt at VOL. i. 7 N 1194 FORE1GA WEST INDIES. Aux Cayes could be without difficulty crushed. But he was undeceived when he learned that General Herard Riviere, a mulatto, of great energy and bold ness, had, on the 28th of January, revolted with two regiments of the line. Herard marched, first to summon the surrender of Aux Cayes, but did not attack that city. He then marched to the city of Jeremie, which received him with his troops, and the other insurgents. Here the rebel general established his head-quarters. President Boyer certainly displayed his usual energy, on this for midable revolt; and he first concentrated and then marched three military divi sions, under Generals Inginac, Suffren, and Richet, against the insurgents with a force far more than sufficient to defeat and suppress them. Boyer himself remained in the command of the capital. His measures were ably conceived, decisive, severe, and certainly unscrupulous. He arrested and imprisoned all in the capital whom he considered dangerous; meetings of more than five persons were proclaimed illegal ; all letters were opened, and if the fidelity, which he expected from the army had existed, he need not, at least, on this occasion, have feared the deep-rooted disfavour of the people. History, however, proves, that when a whole people are prepared to revolt against their oppressors, the latter can place little confidence in their armies. The bravery of the French army was never questioned; yet that army will ever be found to fight, not for the sovereign alone, but, instinctively, and intelligibly, for the nation, and with the national guards. If this were not true, Louis XVI. would never have been guillotined^ and Charles X. would have died King of France. On the 26th day of February, news arrived at Port-au-Prince, that two actions had taken place between the president s troops and the revolutionary forces, that the former were in both defeated, and that the president s soldiers were hourly deserting to the standard of General Herard. Boyer instantly ordered nearly all the troops in Port-au-Prince to march against the insurgent general. The president, meantime, was actively employed in placing the capital in a state of defence, until he learnt that the national guards, whom he had sent forth against, had joined, Herard, that the desertions to the latter were increasing, that fresh disasters were experienced, that Generals Borgello and Richet, with the chief division of the army, in garrison at Aux Cayes, and on which Boyer chiefly relied, had surrendered to Herard, and, that the surrender of Jacmel immediately fol lowed. On Sunday, the 12th of March, General Miraud, with an army of six thousand of the president s choicest troops and national guards, was ordered by Boyer to attack the advanced post of the revolutionists at Leogane. The action lasted only about ten minutes, the national guards marched over to the insur gents, followed by three or four regiments of the line; and the remaining debris of this force, the last hope of Boyer, retreated in confusion to Port-au-Prince. Three of her Britannic majesty s ships of war were then in the harbour; and President Boyer, seeing his case desperate, applied to her majesty s consul for a HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYTI. 11 95 retreat on board one of these ships, which request was immediately granted. Boyer, with great dignity, then formally signed his abdication : stating, his only object was to save the effusion of blood at Port-au-Prince ; and then, not without risk from being taken by the insurgents, he embarked on board her Britannic majesty s ship Psyche, and soon after sailed for Jamaica. The French consul had also placed a French ship of war at the disposal of Boyer ; and it is rather sur prising that he refused the offer, as he had always been accused of a feeling in favour of France. General Inginac, on the other hand, who had been charged with too great a partiality for the English, embarked on board the French corvette. CHAPTER VIII. ADMINISTRATIONS OF PRESIDENTS H&RARD, GUER1UER, PIERROT, AND RICH.. ON the 21st of March, General Herard Riviere entered Port-au-Prince, at the head of 10,000 troops. He was enthusiastically received, and hailed as the liberator and regenerator of the country. A manifesto was published, detailing the degraded state into which the country had been reduced by President Boyer; and a decree deposing him, and enumerating all his treasons, was printed and promulgated. Various acts of government were then administered by the provisional government in the name of Herard, as " Chief executor of the will of the sovereign people " but in reality as military dictator. Herard was compelled to march to the Spanish part of Hayti, and reached the city of St, Domingo, in July. At Jeremie, and other places, dissatisfaction arose among the blacks. At Aux Cayes an insurrection broke out, which nearly brought about a fearful collision of classes the blacks, who are far the most numerous, against the coloured people. General Herard, then at St. Domingo, immediately sent off one of his staff, and ordered the leaders of the blacks to be arrested : 500 to 600 blacks, led by a negro of the name of Salomon, rose in arms against Herard s national guards. The black insurgents were, however, about the 15th of August, dispersed by General Lazare, and Salomon was taken prisoner. A similar revolt, headed by a black general named Dalzon, was attempted at Port- au-Prince, Dalzon was arrested, and shot. Other attempts, on the partof the blacks, were suppressed by Herard, and martial law was proclaimed on the 12th of Sep tember. Meantime, it was considered the best remedy against revolts to elect a black president; but General Herard s claims were not so easily overcome. Other competitors came forward among which was General Lazare, a negro of about sixty years of age, but ignorant, avaricious, and rapacious. It appeared that the U96 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. attempted revolt under Dalzon was connected with a plot, on the part of the blacks, to massacre every coloured man, woman, and child; and that Dalzon had decreed, that every black who should protect any mulatto, would be punished by the tearing out of his eyes and tongue. The constitutional assembly met in the end of September. The first act of the members was to vote themselves salaries. They then changed the name of Port- au-Prince to that of Port Republican. On the 1 7th of December, General Herard accused the constitutional assembly of causing delay in framing a constitution, and the formation of government. He addressed his army, charging the assembly with conspiring against the country, and that unless they gave a constitution by the 20th, he would resign, and retire into private life. The troops immediately saluted him, by vivas, as President Herard Riviere. This was, on the part of Herard, a mere coup d etat ; and on the 30th of December, the new constitution was promulgated, and General Charles Herard Riviere, unanimously, and enthu siastically, elected President of the Republic. On the 27th of January, 1844, the anniversary of u the revolution of regene ration of 1843" (such was its designation), was celebrated by court ceremonies, fetes, speeches, vivas for Herard, military reviews and spectacles, in imitation of the fetes of July, in Paris. On the 1st of February, the Progress, a journal published at Port Republic, exulted in the happy state of liberty then enjoyed by the citizens of Hayti. " Forty years ago," says this paper, " Dessalines relieved the African race from the ignominious European yoke, under which they groaned for ages. Let us shout, Live free, or die ( Vivre libre, ou mourir). We are delivered from the ignoble and degraded rule, under Boyer, from 1820 to 1843, by the moral revolution of the latter year/ (Revolution toute morale de 1843.) Herard was unfortunate in the appointments he made of the chief officers of state, especially that of his foreign minister, Dumesle. The latter was the main director of the revolt against Boyer. He was, however, unfitted for business, by the leading infirmity of the inhabitants, idleness. He was plausible, that is, he was a faisseur de phrases. The military opposed the new constitution, which was prepared in imitation of the French charter of 1830, and discords between President Herard and the legislative assembly soon broke forth. Three regiments, under a General Thomas, in the north, protested against the new municipal system, and against prefets of departments. Bazin, a black deputy, left the chambers, proceeded to the north, and raised the blacks, ostensibly against General Thomas, but in reality against President Herard. In an affray with the troops, near St. Marc s, Bazin, with several of his adherents, were shot and cut to pieces. In the capital, with its new name, Port Republican, violence was manifested between president Herard and the legislative chamber, and he called on the army and the people to decide between the " Hundred Bazins HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYTI. 1 197 sitting in the legislative chamber and himself." Meantime, symptoms of the revolt of the Spanish part of Hayti required the immediate energetic action of a bold and able ruler to suppress the insurgents, and to bring the whole island under administrative obedience. As far back as July, 1843, a landowner of San Domingo, named Pimental, was authorised to state to the British consul, at Port-au-Prince, that the people of the Spanish part, were determined to declare themselves independent of the French part of the island, and that they wished to place themselves under the protection of Great Britain. The offer was very wisely discountenanced by the British consul. Pimental headed the revolt in San Domingo, in the end of February, 1844, against which President Herard marched with his whole force. Before he arrived, the Haytian authorities, in the city of San Domingo, were overpowered and imprisoned. Almost simultaneously, Azua, Neivae, St. Jean, L Escuobas, St. Jago, and Porto Plata, rose in arms against the Haytians. In the end of March, at Azua, 200 to 300 of his troops were killed or wounded. His army in the north was also defeated. Aux Cayes was taken, Jeremie surrendered to the revolters on the 12th of April, and on the 3rd of May, the old negro, General Guerrier, was proclaimed president. Herard gave in his adhesion, the campaign ended, the army retired, and was in part disbanded . Herard and Dumesle were banished ; but they previously asked the British consul for an asylum on board a British ship of war, which carried them to Jamaica. Herard was a brave soldier ; but unfitted for the post of president. He hated the democracy and the legislative assembly. The new constitution, divided Hayti into the six departments of the South, West, Artiboniti, North, Cibao, and Ozama; these were again divided into arrondissements, and subdivided into communes. Both the constitution, and the divisions, of the country were in imitation of both in France. The great majority of the military officers, and no doubt Herard, were opposed to the constitution. On its being read, in the presence of the people and the army, the officers came forward in a body, crying loudly^ " A bas la constitution, a las les prefets ;" at the same time the democratic party made great efforts to substitute a civil for the military government, which had ruled under Boyer for nearly twenty-five years. The political prisoners were liberated by a decree ; another decree removed the prohibition of intercourse be tween Hayti and Jamaica, and the other British possessions. Equal rights were declared to all Haytians, born in Hayti ; if descended from Africans, or Indians. The animosity between the blacks and coloured races was still manifested ; and this mutual hatred was not extinguished, even by the election of a negro pre sident, in the person of old General Guerrier. On the 10th of June, 1844, revolts had been so far successful, that the 1198 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. whole island of Hayti was under four separate authorities or governments. The Haytians were expelled from the Spanish, part by young, and by almost beard- less men. On the 12th of July, Santa Anna, the San Domingo general, who had commanded at Azua, entered the city of San Domingo, and was proclaimed supreme chief. Previously to the revolution, he had lived as a private country landed proprietor. He then possessed considerable landed property, most of which he spent in the service of the new republic. He is described as a man of good common sense, of moderate views, no lawyer, and not bred a soldier; yet on taking the command of the insurgent force, he displayed great ability. There is no doubt that Herard s conduct, on visiting the towns in the Spanish part, was in many respects arbitrary, and the deputies of the Spanish part were after wards so greatly disappointed at Port-au-Prince, that on their return, they imme diately resorted to arms for their independence: the rapid final defeat of the Haytians followed, with a loss, it is estimated, of nearly 2000, at an expense of 500,000 dollars, and the expulsion of Herard from the presidency. The Spanish part had separated into two, one of which, the north end, under General Duarte, but the latter was soon subdued by Santa Anna, who united the Spanish part, which, it is asserted, now includes at least three-fourths of the whole area of the island. It is, however, the least cultivated : the blacks form but a small proportion of the inhabitants, and the people have lived chiefly on the products of their pastures, and on the sales of mahogany, dyewoods, and hides. In April, 1845, while the Haytian north-western part of the island was sub siding into some tranquillity, reports arrived from Jamaica, that preparations were making by the ex-president, Herard Riviere, to recover the reins of govern ment. This intelligence created great anxiety amongst the mercantile classes. A few days after, the sudden death of President Guerrier seemed the signal for new troubles, if Herard should succeed in landing ; but the almost unanimous disposition of the inhabitants for peace, saved, for the time, the country from civil war. Pierrot was then seventy years old, and the debt to France, and the independence of the island, rendered his government feeble. Meantime, Herard Riviere sailed in a small vessel from Jamaica, and made an abortive attempt to land. On the 8th of May, President Pierrot made his public entry into Port Re- publicain. He was received respectfully, but without enthusiasm. It was evident that he was destitute of energy and decision, and on his departure for Cape Haytian, his wavering conduct had alienated the confidence of the inhabitants. He left three of his ministers, in the capital, for administering the affairs of state, and in a few weeks it became evident that parties were only waiting the president s death to commence a civil war. In addition to all other elements of disturbance, a scandalous waste in the expenditure of the public resources became the cause of great difficulty ; the HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF IIAYTI. 1199 army alone now costing an annual rate of 3,000,000 dollars, currency: being double the expenditure under the severe Boyer. This corruption and waste arose, in a great degree, from each candidate for the presidency being obliged to satisfy the numerous military and political officers. All the money in the treasury was May, 1845, now expended ; paper money was issued, and bankruptcy seemed inevitable. In September, a decree was promulgated, depriving Haytian citizens of their civil rights in certain cases. The pretence of issuing this decree was, that " several illegitimate children of Frenchmen, in Hayti, obtained from the French consul certificates of French citizenship." An insurrectionary movement broke out during the month, in favour of Herard Riviere, headed by General Pierre Paul : the insurgents were defeated by the government troops, and General Paul, and all the principal revolters, shot. Civil war, however, continued between the Haytians and Dominicans : the former were defeated by the latter, with considerable loss. The ports of the eastern part of the island were declared by the Haytian govern ment as blockaded. This was little more than a farce. The blockade never could be enforced, and only existed in the printed proclamation. The war be tween the East and West was continued during the rest of the year, with no decided success, and the Haytian part of the island was involved in all the evils of political and fiscal embarrassments. During the month of February, 1846, the reopening of the campaign against the Dominicans commenced. General dis satisfaction prevailed in the country ; and a change of government became probable. On the 1st of March, another revolution broke out, and General Riche, a negro, about sixty years old, was proclaimed president. He is said to be a man of energy, and he chose as his principal adviser, General Dupuy, a very intelligent man : who had been in London in 1843-4, with powers to contract a loan and negotiate. The new government issued an amnesty, restored the constitution of 1816, promulgated decrees for the encouragement and protection of com merce and agriculture. The. whole Haytian country, except Cape Hayti, sub mitted to General Riche ; and it was anticipated that from the moderation and wisdom, yet energy, of the new president, order would be completely re-estab lished. After some resistance on the part of the ex-president Pierrot, the latter abdicated on the 24th of March. Excesses were, however, committed by the disbanded soldiery, and a disposition manifested in some parts to involve the country in fresh anarchy. The new president visited several parts of the country, for the purpose of restoring order. The obstacles to the permanence of his government are the financial difficulties, and the disposition of the lower orders, for any change what ever, with the hope of plunder. On the return of the president (Riche) from the southern parts of Hayti 1200 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. tranquillity was restored in those districts ; and the whole of the western, or French part of the island was subjected to a state of comparative order. Guided by the advice of M. Dupuy,* the president reformed several local administra tions, which were placed on a more economical footing than formerly. Important financial reforms were directed to be immediately executed. A law was passed by the Haytian legislature, reducing the salaries of all public functionaries, civil and military, including the president and his ministers, to one-half for six months. This measure, however necessary, is naturally very unpopular. It was impolitic as far as it extended to the great majority of employes, who never received but a bare maintenance, and have consequently been tempted to resort to dishonest practices ; one result of which has been, that smuggling has pre vailed in all the ports of the republic : the high import duties offering a tempta tion, irresistible to low paid revenue officers. It appears that there is no disposition on the part of the new president to conquer the eastern, or Dominican part of Hayti ; great wretchedness prevails in those districts, and the barbarous warfare long carried on has only resulted in aggravating misery and poverty on both sides. The great expenditure of western Hayti is chiefly caused by maintaining the army : during the year 1845-1846, it absorbed, out of the general expenditure of 5,148,724 dollars, the sum of 3,786,329 dollars; leaving only 1,362,395 dollars for all the other branches of the public service. There are in the Haytian part of the island more than 200 general officers, and about 3000 colonels and other superior officers, all receiving pay. Agriculture has been so far neglected, and the products so badly prepared that Haytian coffee is in little repute in European markets, from the careless and slovenly way in which it is gathered ; good and bad berries are mixed up with stones and dirt, to add to the weight. When properly cleaned and separated, the coffee of Hayti has always been considered superior to any in the West Indies. This same negligence applies to Haytian cotton, cocoa, and logwood. Owing to the extravagant expenditure of former governments, the value of paper-money and base coin in circulation amounted, in 1846, to about 8,000,000 of dollars currency ; the value of which dollar being depreciated to one-fourth of the Spanish dollar. Attention was lately directed to a revision of that part of the constitution which forbids white men to hold property in Hayti. We are informed that the most enlightened Haytians are in favour of abolishing this restriction, as in jurious to the interests of the country, and disgraceful to their laws ; but it might not be prudent in the government, although they are supposed to be VW were in communication with General Dupuy, when he was in England ; we found him 3 man, who perfectly understood the details and principles of trade. He was many years a partner in the principal British house in Hayti ; and we learn that he is now most desirous ;o give every encouragement to foreign commerce, but that he meets with much opposition, both in the senate, and also from the absurd prejudices of the great mass of the people. He appeared a much nearer approach in colour and features to the European than even to the Mulatto. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF IIAYTI. 1 201 favourable to the naturalisation of foreigners, to offend the prejudiced masses, by creating an apprehension of foreign domination. President Riche was formerly in favour of substituting a monarchy for the present republican form of government; but since his elevation to the pre sidency, he has not intimated any desire to realise this change. The present system, while the president rules, is fully as despotic as royalty could be. During the short period that Riche has held the despotic reins of state, he has clone much towards clearing the capital of the assassins, thieves, and rabble that have so long infested it. He has also directed that the city shall be cleaned from the filth which pervades it, and that the streets and wharfs shall be repaired. There are now (at the close of 1846) due three instalments of the indemnity to France amounting to about 4,500,000 francs : the Haytian government is quite unable to liquidate these arrears. Nevertheless, the president and his ministers take every occasion of declaring, both publicly and privately, their anxious desire to fulfil their engagements to France. The French consul-general has proposed that the Haytian government should apportion, annually, a part of the customs revenue towards payment of this indemnity, but it has not been deemed expe dient to accede to this proposal. Whether President Riche, guided by the wisdom of General Dupuy, may be successful in extricating Hayti from its present diffi culties, and to lay the foundation of future good government and prosperity, will depend very much on their acts ; but we fear that more is dependent on the submission to order first, of the numerous military aspirants, and second, to a reform of the turbulent and yet lazy dispositions of the people. From the day on which Christophe expired, down to the present day, a period of twenty-six years, neither industry, nor improvement, nor energetic adminis tration, nor the extension of the education of the people, nor any progress in the march of civilisation, appears in the agricultural, manufacturing, commercial, moral, social, or political condition of the republic of Hayti. The climate, the soil, and the pastures, yield, almost without culture, sufficient merely to feed a people, too indolent to work for comforts and luxuries. The natural inclination of all mankind, in a rude state, is indolence, and an absence of forecast in provid ing for the future. But there are races, among which individuals arise with powers of mind, so far superior to that of the communities among which they have been bom, that their perceptions have discovered means, for ameliorating the rude state of uninstructed man; and who have, by force of character and wisdom, directed some races, more rapidly than others, into that progress which has formed their advance, by degrees, from the savage or rude state in which man has, first, subsisted, on the produce of hunting, fishing, and of wild herbs, roots and fruits, to the pastoral and agricultural state; and, thence, always accompanied , more or less, by both the latter, into the discovery of the more simple arts, VOL. I. 7 O J202 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. manufactures, and sciences to the pursuits of navigation, of trade to learning, intelligence, and to the higher arts and sciences. Self- discipline, and virtue, must necessarily accompany and direct this progress, which is the result caused by the elements of commercial intercourse, of civilisation. Luxury and voluptuousness, arising from the accumulation of wealth, and, as under the Medici, the exercise of despotism, and the absence of civil liberty and religious freedom, have no doubt pervaded, and in most cases prevailed during, periods of high civilisation. There is no greater fallacy than to confound civilisation with civil liberty. The age of the Medici, and the Borgias, and of Louis XIV., were brilliant epochs of civili sation, of arts, of learning and science: but neither civil liberty, nor religious freedom, existed during those periods in either Italy or France. Among the rude inhabitants, the swineherds, and hunters of the German forests, there was almost perfect civil liberty, in the absence of arts and sciences, and nearlv of trade, or manufactures, or any of the elements, which are considered as forming the great framework of civilisation. Among the Hurons, Iroquois, and other barbarous nations of hunters in North America, there appeared, within each nation, perfect civil liberty. In luxurious and civilised Mexico, the emperor was absolute, and not to be questioned in his rule : the priests were terrible in their religious domination, and in their sacrifices. That social and political state of communities, in which the greatest happi ness is attained, to which human nature is adapted, can only exist when the people are so thoroughly educated, and of such wise judgment, as to appreciate so thoroughly the blessings of civil liberty and religious freedom, that they, at the same time, make, or consent to, the regulations which restrain one man from per verting that liberty, to the injury of the property, or person, of another man : that is freedom without anarchy, constituting wise, equal, just, mild, yet energetic government. Under such government, civilisation, in its highest de gree, and true civil liberty, and religious freedom, are thoroughly compatible. But such intelligence and such government has never yet existed. The pro gress of education, the wonderful power of scientific invention, and that celerity and freedom of intercourse between the nations of the earth, freedom of per sonal intercourse, and of the interchange of commodities, which navigation and the steam-engine have, during a late period of the world s history, rendered irre sistible, will, no doubt, rapidly advance nations towards that state of civilisation and intelligence, and, that civil and religious liberty, which can exist practically and happily together. But, that there are races and nations, which do not move onward in this pro gress as rapidly, or as securely, as other races do, is a mere truism. Some nations have made great advances in civilisation, and others have either remained stationary, or have deteriorated. The Chinese appear to us to be exactly in the same state of civilisation as, probably less moral than, when Marco Polo and Duhalde travelled amono- them. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF 1IAYTI. 1 1>03 The Spaniards sent forth bold spirits, and their fleets were powerful, the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. Civilisation however far advanced in Spain, in cities and colleges, and among the Moors could not pretend to the progress made in Italy and France. Instead of civil liberty and religious freedom, the most tyrannical absolutism, the most horrible ecclesiastical tyranny existed until the death of Ferdinand VII. The only part of the Spanish dominions in which civil liberty existed, were the least civilised ; the provinces of Biscay, where the people taxed themselves and managed their own affairs, in virtue of their municipalities and ayuntamientas. Civil liberty and religious freedom has often been proclaimed, but has not distinguished Spain, since the death of Ferdinand. The historical registers of that kingdom, will, from that period, constitute a record of interruptions to all security of person and of property, of the presence of anarchy, and the absence of good, wise, or intelligent government, of a continual routine of military executions, imprisonments, and confiscations. During the present day there is no country in which, the Spanish language is that of the people, where anarchy, or absolutism, does not prevail ; and there is not a railroad completed in any one of them, unless some temporary tram-road, laid down by an Englishman, to convey ore upon, or that constructed by the English and Anglo-Americans in Cuba. Can we therefore be disappointed at the deplorable result of many and bar barous revolutions, and of the unhappy attempts at self-government in Hayti. We have heard the success of the experiment extolled, as proving the full capacity for receiving intelligence, and of the wise and able exercises of the highest mental faculties, of the negro race. That natural disposition and capacity may be wonderfully changed and improved, is a truism, that numerous instances, such as that of Toussaint and Christophe, exist, of extraordinary powers being displayed among them, we admit, but that the negro race generally are not of great intellectual capacity, and that they are inferior to what some other races have been, or are, in a state of nature, all experience will compel us to admit. What the destiny of Hayti may be, we will not attempt to determine : further than the revolutions of 1842-3-4-5 and 6, the expulsion of the presi dent Boyer the atrocities committed by the negroes on the coloured races,, the contests and distractions between the former political men of the island, the insecurity which prevails, the non-payment of the instalments of indemnity to France, the neglect of agriculture, the consequent want of products for trade, and the lax morals and indolence of the population, are all subjects, when deliberately considered, that do not leave us much good to hope for, in the prospects of Hayti. 1204 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. CHAPTER IX. STATISTICS OF IIAYTI. SINCE the expulsion of Boyer, our statistical materials, relative to Hayti, are scarcely in any case more than vague estimates. The trading regulations, and the customs tariff abound in the greatest contradictions and absurdities, fiscally and commercially. The great capabilities, and former commerce of Hayti, will be elucidated by the following tables, prepared by order of the French govern ment : GENERAL State of Aoriculture and Manufactures in the French Division of St. Domingo, in 1791. CHIEF JURIS DICTIONS. PARISHES. Sugaries Coffee Plantations. Cotton Plantations. ol tC 2 II E No. fi 6 11 4 10 2 37 369 15 15 48 322 78 1184 31 185 44 175 169 157j 129; 3097: j w j ::::::: : :::: : : :::::::: to ~ * j Tanneries. | 6 N. :i B 4 4 4 20 11 z:, 10 11 7 18 8 73 Cacao Plantations. 1 ^X 0) *; - 3 11 o >> i! No 1 2 1 2 2 5 8 3 1 4 1 5 12 2 8 61 Negroes employed. i K C9 5 No. 1 a No. Southern , division. Western division. Northern divisi n. f ITheCipe Fort Dauphin.. Port de Paix.. LThe Mole No. 2 37 157 255 216 272 324 71 151 123 218 81 151 62 27 58 298 52 11 105 69 24 39 57 2S<) No. i 3 2 1 5 2 2 1 9 14 22 24 19 18 315 25 7 30 76 12 28 89 705 No 5 1 1 18 1 2 1 1 2 1 25 2 4 2 3 69 No 2 4 1 7 32 2 3 3 4 26 20 23 5 14 71 9 9 14 32 7 18 7 13 No. 21,613 11,122 19,876 18,554 17,376 15,978 15,018 10,004 9,987 15,476 29,540 3,183 48,848 18,553 10,902 14,896 67,216 18,829 13,229 20,774 30,937 8,153 18,785 21,151 480,000 La petite Ance and ihe Plaine tin Nord. L acul, Limonade, and Sante Suzanne.. <^ Morien and L* Grande Riviere 43 52 35 7 4 1 A Lirnbe and Port Magot 22 3 C Fort Dauphin 29 25 56 6 7 2 1 2 <. Ouanaminthe et Valliere r Port de Paix le petit St. Louis \ Le Mole et Bombarde Port au- Prince. Leogane St. Marc Port-au-Prince and La Croix des Bou- C5 11 75 36 Leogane r St. Marc, la petite Riviere J \Les Verettes and Les GonaivesJ fLe petit Goave, le Grand Goave, et le 27 22 11 6 3 24 9 39 21 16 11 5 86 23 1 341 Petit Goave.... ( L Anse a Veau ami Le petit trou Jeremie and Le Cape Dame Marie Les Cayes Cape Tiburon.. St. Louis Jacmel Les Cayes et Torbeck C<pe Tiburon and Les Coteaux . . . St. Louis, Cavaillon et Aquin Total Fifty-one parishes 451 PRODUCE of St. Domingo Exported to France, from the 1st of January, 1791, to the 31st of December, inclusive. DEPARTMENTS. Sugar. Coffee. Cotton. Indigo. Hides. Syrup. Tafia. kegs. 25 6 36 45 49 6 136 ^Vi White. Brown. In the Raw. Tanned. (Sides.) Cape Ibs. 43,804,552 8,009,258 473,800 22,500 7,792,219 Ibs. 1,517,489 1,639,900 824,500 105,680 53,648,923 7,688,537 6,993,966 855,237 476,445 18,984,425 278,500 9,600 67,910 Ibs. 29,3f 7,382 2,321,610 1,829,754 294,550 14,584,0i!3 1,786,484 5,521,237 1,395,690 4,453,331 1,843,403 305,740 90,706 4,357,270 ibs. l ,200 38,752 29,236 1,370,021 154,084 3,008,163 84,865 189,194 720,770 34,325 42,497 613,019 Ibs. 195,099 2,005 61,472 6,294 176,918 12,520 357,530 320 1,075 105,456 1,954 2,064 7,309 number. 2006 1134 120 31 1601 112 100 67 15 number. 6975 160 752 jars. 10,654 2,731 272 84 8,350 95 73 206 6,938 99 nf\ cno Fort Dauphin Port de l j aix Mole Port-au-Priuce Levant- "" Saint Marc Petit Goave 3,244,673 218,866 19,804 4,375,627 63,150 2,000 48,266 70 997 fiQC Les Cayes Cape Tiburon St. Louis Jacmel Total... HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF HAYTI. 1205 VALUE in Colonial Currency of the Produce Exported from the 1st of January to the 61st, ot December, 1791. ARTICLES. Quantity. Average Price. Valne. Dty paid. Sugar, white Ibs. 70,227,708 livres. sous. 12 livres. livrea. 93,177,512 68 151 180 6 40,04 1,507 M97 l.i.TV 51,890,748 1 "> 7- i) 2 I7,572,tta 7- ) n;i; 7 10 10,875,120 465,008 190,000 1,947,132 221,275 72 21,816 l,*2l 10 78,870 10,377 03,3-18 7,807 Mahogany and campeech wood.. do. 1,500,000 10 50,000 40,000 Total value in colonial currency. Total value in livres tournois.... Total value in British money.... . . . . . 199,401,634 133,514,423 5,565,600 6,924,166 2,616,011 109,001 SUMMARY of the Territorial Value of Plantations and Buildings in the French Division of St. Domingo. PROPERTIES. Number. Value of each. Valuations. TOTAL VALUE. Lands and Buildings. Negroes and Animals. Sugaries white 451 341 2,810 705 3,097 173 69 3 374 455,000 16,000 12,000 livres. 230,000 180,000 20,000 30,000 30,000 5,000 4,000 160,000 15,000 2,500 400 120 livres. 103,730,000 61,380,000 56,200,000 21,150,000 92,910,000 865,000 275,000 480,000 5,510,000 livres. 1,137,500,000 6,400,000 1,440,000 livres. 103,730,000 61,380,000 56,200,000 21,150,000 92,910,000 8(>5,OCO 275,000 480,000 5,510,000 1,137,500,000 6,400,000 1,440,000 Indigo Lime-kilns, brick and pottery works Horses and mules Total value of agricultural property .... 342,500,000 1,145,340,000 1,487,840,000 TRADE of the French Part of St. Domingo with France. Imports for the Year 1788. NATURE OF GOODS. Quantity. Amount in Hispaniola Currency. NATURE OF GOODS. Quantity. Amount in Hispaniola Currency. number. 186,759 livres. 12,271,247 number. livres. 1,366 38,684 Baskets of aniseed liquor.... 19 457 3309 217,450 5 999 of wax candles 2,044 27,154 602,010 1,589,985 Cases of preserved fruit Quintals of cod fish 14,613 320,477 85 607 16,896 1,479,510 1 308 26700 of oil 20,762 1,973,750 of butter 17 219 1 650 150 1 359 55 750 cf salt beef 24 61 998 300 121,587 13,610,960 14 732 1 101 395 7,020 584,770 of salt pork 4,351 376,560 5,732 3-28,175 1 627 177 340 6 174 157,380 Dry goods, viz. linens, woollens 10,375 340,070 silks, cottons, and manufactures 2284 23,784 Sundry other articles, valued at. . . . 3 685 600 b .... 33,413,783 Amount of all the goods imported. 86,410,040 These importations were made in 580 vessels, measuring together 189,679 tons, or by average 325^ tons each vessel, viz,: 224 from Bourdeaux 129 from Nantes 90 from Marseilles 80 from Havre-de-Grace 19 from Dunkirk 1 1 from St. Malo 10 from Bayonne 5 from La Roclielle 3 from Harfleur 2 from Cherbourg 2 from Croisic 1 from Dieppe 1 from Rouen 1 from Granville 1 from Cette 1 from Rhedon, 1206 FOREIGN WEST INDIES, Add to the 580 vessels from France, 98 from the coast of Africa, and the French part of Hispaniola will be found to have employed 678 vessels belonging to trance in the year 1788. Foreign Trade in 1788 (exclusive of the Spanish}. Imported by foreigners (Spaniards excepted) to the amount of . . 6,821 ,707 livres. Exported by the same !_;_ " Difference ... 2,41 1,785 N B This trade employed 763 small vessels, measuring 55,745 tons. The average is 73 tons each. Vessels from North America (American built) are comprehended in it : but there were also employed in the North American trade 45 French vessels, measuring 3475 tons (the average 77 tons each), which exported to North America colonial products, value . . ... *; 525,571 livres. And imported in return goods to the amount of 465,081 Difference 60,490 Spanish Trade, in 1788. 259 Spanish vessels, measuring 15,417 tons, or 59 tons each, imported to the amount of (chiefly bullion) .... .... 9,717,113 livres. And exported negro slaves, and goods ( chiefly European manu factures), to the amount of ..... ; 5,587,515 Difference . . . . . , , 4,129,598 N.B. This is exclusive of the inland trade with the Spaniards, of which there is no account. NEGROES imported into the French Part of Hispaniola, in 1788. PORTS OF IMPORTATION. Men. Women. Boys. Girls. Amount. Vessels. number. 4 732 number. 22 06 number. 764 number. 541 number. 8 293 u umber. 24 St Marc 1 (565 645 230 60 2 GOO g 1 652 798 469 327 3,246 9 75 93 18 204 I 1 6 24 872 1245 849 4 j jO 19 5913 2394 1514 752 10573 37 Total 15,674 7040 4245 2547 29,506 98 In 1787, 30,839 negroes were imported into the French part of St. Domingo. The 29,506 negroes imported in 1788, were sold for 61,936,190 livres (Hispaniola currency), which on an average is 2099 livres, two shillings each, being about 60/. sterling, The foregoing statements exhibit an extraordinary state of prosperity in the French division of San Domingo : that is, for an area less than one-third of the whole island. Toussaint and Christophe, who understood thoroughly the disin clination of the population to agricultural labour, may well be justified for the severity of their rural codes when we compare the San Domingo of 1790 to the island of Hayti in 1846. HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF 1IAYTI. 1207 00 I I o 00 I-* 00 r ( I Gum Guaiacum. i si 1 O o O O | sis s eTwo" cT g 858- Mahogany. . ~Soc^j?2> ,D (7* -f o *C C*l O GO X r*3 vi ^ ^^l !"*. 3 55 - io Tobacco. i "3 1 ^ ^ **?. "**, *. , c , M ", ""V ^ ft OtCfO-< cOOC ift 1 .53 S ^0 c M 00 t O d . 5 II 5 S S s" S 3 S" S S " c .55=2lllSilS 6 i i g^^sss^^ I . .IggSlgJlsii I* ^pll 11 ^^ = -J O TO t^ t- <B ^, .22 S r^ 3 cc A : H ! :j : H H eg SssslisiSSS a I w I V ": o * M ss * -- . I C* tf5 Is B Jg IP K 3" 1 S S I 111 a Tobacco. ^11 -~ Cocoa. l|| 9 i O T J 35 1 |2"3 II a Is 1 51 := s- a !i ! is -5 ffi 3> HR * 3 ss ^ - o " rr " " s I O ! J 35 1 sS i a 1 iftrr a* -s ""^S ! 4 llj i 9* u i"S tf j H j j II 2 J Z 2 5 o T ~* r:!l| ^Sj^j oo g " w 25 |5*I S s S f 2 fill I p o a Z 3 s-- iii Sss: iffil 0.00-* =0 1208 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. RETURN of British and Foreign Trade of Port-au-Prince during the Year ending 31st of December, 1841. ARRIVED. DEPARTED. 00 J5 Invoice * NATIONS. | Tonnage Crew value. J Tonnage. Invoice Crew. Value. No tons number. BriiMi 22 3,497 207 No. tons. 94,711 24 4,068 2 172 65,892 22 4,982 20,416 13 1,922 3,000 5 881 4,190 3 484 23,778 63,437 75 9,529 number. 227 90,593 19 2,525 289 10-2,585 132 43,097 40 13,900 31 8,247 599 107,175 Hay tian 6,204 339 5 2,192 153 5 1,049 54 484 31 1 196 14 2 8,956 582 United States 7 Trt.1 ,., 145 22.580 1380 275,424 144 22,038 1337 368,122 DESCRIPTION. ARRIVALS. Cargoes. Vessels. Tonnage. Value. Of the twenty-two British vessels that arrived there were general ballast No. 15 4 tons. 2373 646 92,576 .... 19 3019 92,576 general ballast do. 1 1 1 188 150 142 2,135 Trinidad St. Vincent .... 3 19 480 3019 2,135 92,576 Total from Great Britain Total .... 22 3499 94,711 DESCRIPTION. DEPARTURES. Cargoes. Vessels. Tonnage. Value. Of these twenty-four British vessels that departed there were For Great Britain .... coffee and cotton No. 19 tons. 3322 70,648 ,, Leghorn do. do. 2 3 5 19 276 470 10,9(3 9,032 Total for other part* .... 746 3322 19,945 70,648 Total .... 24 4068 90,593 RETURN of British and Foreign Trade of the Port of Cape Haytien, for the Year end ing 31st of December, 1841. NATIONS. ARRIVALS. DEPARTURES. Vessels. Tonnage. Crew. Invoice Value. Vessels. Tonnage. Crew. Invoice Value. British number. 19 a 11 11 40 tons. 2,629 149 1,997 1,964 5,067 number. 157 18 111 121 210 29,096 1,029 27,082 22,509 56,798 number. 16 1 9 10 42 tons. 2,098 42 1,543 1,770 5,349 number. 130 6 90 109 221 32,387 224 36,556 51,279 42,324 Haytian French United States Total 84 11,806 617 136 484 78 10,802 556 162770 STATISTICS OF HAYTI. BRITISH ARRIVALS. Cargoes. Vessels. Tonng. - Invoice Value From Great Britain with ... . Turks Island dry goods, do 5 8W rfM 1 00 l i dry goods. 1 I 53 1 i ballast. 2 97 14* 2 422 2 128 1,646 Trinidad bricks 1 143 ballast 260 18 2 351 I 161 25 From other parts Great Britain Total . . . . 14 5 19 1732 897 2629 . 1 1 1 MUM BRITISH DEPARTURES. Cargoes. Vessels. Tonnage. Invoice Value. For Great Britain with Coffee, &c. ogwood. 5 VKI 20,022 410 1,828 For Great Britain .... 7 1300 21^50 logwood. 4 214 630 do 58 866 Halifax do 53 1-5 do 70 500 do 143 ft ,303 260 2,993 For other parts Great Britain Total !!.". 9 7 16 798 1300 2098 10.537 21,850 32,387 RETURN of British and Foreign Trade of Port Gonaives for the Year ending the 31st of December, 1841. A RR I V ED. D EP A F ITE D. NATIONS. Vessels. Tonnage. Crew. Invoice Value. Vessels. Tonnage. Crew. Invoice Value. British number. 13 tons. 1986 number 109 number. tons. number. French 1912 102 1 150 g 1 160 Hamburg 1 276 13 284 United States 30 4764 228 9 970 27 4228 203 32 Iis6 Total 55 9088 460 15,158 52 8521 433 78,864 BRITISH ARRIVALS. Cargoes. Vessels. Tonnage. Invoice Value. From Great Britain dry goods. 3 523 4Mi Nassau, N. P hardware. l 44 78 crockery. 1 16 97 St. Thomas dry goods. 2 255 418 ballast. 3 536 dry goods. 1 277 4 ballast. 1 171 do. 1 164 10 1463 597 3 523 802 Total .... 13 1986 1399 VOL. I. 1210 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. BRITISH DEPARTURKS. Cargoes. \ essels. Tonnage. Invoice Value. - - ; Coffee, &c. I 176 3,127 mahoganv. 4 700 8.476 M 1 200 1,795 " " machinery and do. 1 134 1,186 For Great Britain 7 1210 14,584 coffee. 1 44 225 logwood. 1 16 64 " R t coffee and machinery. 1 191 1,246 ,, ... do. 1 277 2,064 St. Thomas coffee. 1 57 170 For other parts ., Great Britain .... 5 7 585 1210 3,769 14,584 Total 1 1 12 1795 18,353 EXPORTS from the Republic during 1840 and 1841. PRODUCTS. 1840 1841 PRODUCTS. 1840 1841 46,126,272 442,305 1,725,389 39,283,205 922,575 741 15,511 19,862 1,754 16,251 3.190 8,136 37,292 196,699 4,072,641 12 39,627 313,100 848 252 19 98 e- 34,114.717 640,616 3,219,690 45,071,391 1,591,454 1,363 9,506 43,413 2,052 19,178 18,874 15,822 44,596 2,712 6,009,632^ 27,126 728,650 927 no| 10 14 g- 6 147 "? 296 7-12 6 53 17 400 11,290 350 44 2 6,774 13 g- 84 72 177 319 8-12 *20 28 22 1,345 7,025 350 8 44,307 *20 205 4 4 1 Campeachy wood do. Kaw sugar do. Y, How wax do Pjirg Ri{,-s do. Tamarinds barrel S\rup of battora do. Cigars .... . do Taftia . barrel T.J ^ ca 9 ai do Pease.. do. Pineapples do. PRODUCTS Exported from Port-au-Prince. ARTICLES. 1840 1841 ARTICLES. 1S40 1841 Coffee Ibs. 21,656,814 784,077 109,810 741 10,613,046 1,242,831 8-12 1,8931 2,115 2,811 201,197 15,898,884 1,175,180 248,925 300 11,429,950 1,515,779 9-12 1,703 2,143 12,028 271,817 Cigars No. 84,200 3,190 6,901 296 7-12 36,300 4,69H 184 6,692 247,750 18,343 15,181 319 8-12 44,566 8,270 959 40,536 12,841 265 Cotton ,. . .do. Cocoa do Cassia fistula. Ibs. WiHger do. Raw snpar do. Campeachy wood do Mahogany feet Tortoi*e*hell Ibs Hides No. Horns of cattle Ibs. Leaf tobacco do Lignum vitse do. Castor oil MEMORANDUM ON THETRADE OF HAYTI DUBING 1841. There is a remarkable fall ing off in the trade of Hayti during the year 1841, when compared with the preceding year. This decrease may be accounted for, as arising from various causes, but chiefly from the deficiency in the coffee crop and the very ereat importations of 1840. The necessary limitation of credit, which the merchants find indispensable to their interests, in consequence of the enormous debts already due by the country, may be cited s another influential cause of the decrease of commercial activity. It may also be re marked that the general poverty of the inhabitants, and the depreciation of the currency ave both contributed towards lessening the demand for better description of goods, and /e caused the substitution of those of a cheaper and coarser kind. British and German Tade is sensibly affected by this change, whilst that with France suffers still more, there Mng but little demand for silks, cambrics, and wines. The American trade is carried on with some activity, but is far from being profitable to those engaged in it. is a considerable decrease (upwards of 12,000,000 Ibs.) in the export of coffee it amount being about one-fourth of the average crop. The value of the exportation STATISTICS OF TIAYTI. 1211 of this article, the staple produce of Hayti, is annually decreasing, owing to lar^e suunliet of coffee being now imported by European markets, from Brazil. The export of cotton remains much the same, varying from 1,000,000 to l,oOO,0001b.; nor has the mahogany trade undergone any great variation during the 1 years. There is, however, a falling off in the export of logwood, caused by its low i in Europe, and by the high rates of duty still maintained on its exportati- Tobacco has of late years been much cultivated in the north-eastern parts of 1 and has well repaid the care bestowed upon it. STATEMENT of the Receipt and Expenditure of the Republic of Hayti, during the Year 1837. RECEIPT. Amount. EXPENDITURE Amount. dollars. 701,166 43,106 409,435 462,028 64,167 61,351 * 25,256 4,522 1,758 54,027 82,003 36,730 5,583 10,663 120,714 Suppl Work Salari Wage Arsec Hop Mar n Repa Natic Unfo Ditto Ditto Expt Nati Note Ball Gen Notf dot 21,304 391.290 1,163,816 5,405 11,771 , - . :w> i 314 clothing and equi s and public edirict es of civil officers ::::::::::::.... \V eighing and wharfage Tax on slaughter-houses farmed out 8 Demesnes farmed out VY.Y:V:: ::."." ::::............. ynient ot lodging ni oale ot demesnes . , Total Total 2,082,522 1,038,686 100,787 ,713.102 dollars. Details of the excess per annum; nes of governmen t 2,0* I 536,305 91,813 Total 1,713,107 nee December 31, 1 dollars. 36 984,653 2,082,522 3,8.V2,!>76 1,139,474 785,400 Funds remitted to various chests Balance on Dec. 31, 1837 T *! Balance December 31, 1837 1,139,474 REVENUE from all Sources during the Years 1840 and 1841. PORTS. 1840 1811 Increase. Decrease. g. c. ft i i g. c. 988,335 76 52,566 5J 417,575 80 176,770 29 150,07 8 40 471,942 94 107 .8^ 49 1-12 139,434 10 g. c. 578* 43 1188 7f 31,309 774-12 19,846 63 C- " 302,621 44 54,223 44 vrol* 45 84,702 88i Gonaives 154,890 35 Saint-Domingo 119,587 43 H ,.,t 2,510,551 99 1-12 52,922 91 1-12 468,396 -2IJ 52, 91 I 1 * Deducting .... 2,510,551 9< Decrease in the ye ar 1841 compared w ith the year 184 415.473 30 -tt CUSTOMS REVENUES DESCRIPTION. 1840 1841. B 3 - 914,5-29 39 8-12 B"- 678,005 92 2-12 consignments exports 33,509 52 7-12 663,169 70 6-12 738,204 54 1 -4 22,018 93 4 12 603,121 54 7-12 649,448 73 5-12 Transit Duties Charge for weighing and wharfage 125,925 15 11-12 2,477,338 33 11-12 118,790 36 2,071,385 49 6-12 2,071,385 49 6-12 Diminution of the customs revenue during 1841... 405,952 84 5-1* 1212 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. GENERAL EXPENDITURE. PORTS. 1840 1841 Increase. Decrease. Port-au Prince 1,549,852 81,093 238,890 103,481 106,336 453,520 69,771 172,415 c. 80 28i 71 % 4 5-12 19i g- 1,784,438 61,802 216,839 91,687 83,189 329,054 55,778 143,794 c 44 14 68 18 63 34 74 8 g. c. 234,585 64 g- 19,291 22,051 11,793 23,146 124,466 13,992 28,621 C. MI 83 91* 75f 30 5-12 i Cayes Cape Haitien Porte-Plate Total Deducting 2,775,361 2,766,583 37 5-12 2,766,583 92 6-12 92i 234,585 64 243,363 234,585 8 11-12 64 Decrease of the General Expenditure of 1841 compared with that of 1840 was 8,777 44 11-12 BY comparing the Expenditure of 1840 and 1841 in the following table the difference is remarkable : YEARS. National Debt. Bank Notes. Expenses of the Interior. g. c. 554,091 64 g. c. 218,030 g. c. 2,003,239 73 5-1 2 1841 785,217 44 179,623 1,801,743 48i g. 1 580 826 66 8-12 2 510 551 99 1 12 R 6 "! ^ \ A th -par 670 800 BanK notes issued au ing > . Total 4 7 62 178 65 9 12 1 801 743 48* 785 217 44 179 623 2,766,583 92 6-12 BALANCE in hand, in the Treasury, of the Republic on the 31st of December, 1841. PLACES. Foreign Specie. National Specie. TOTAL Gross amount in band g- 1,028,315 15 553,180 130 622 81 g. 4 737 21 6 *13 31 1 Cayes 5 212 2 59 341 62 Jactnel 7 023 50 31 021 81 4,620 94| 24,653 92 Porte-Plate 9,282 78 9 719 89 14,993 284 19,596 82 8-12 123 06 91 Envois defonds et mandats & regler 74 152 74 Total .... .... 1,995,594 73 3-12 GOVERNMENTS OF ST. DOMINGO AND OF HAYTI, December, 1846. In Domingo, or the Spanish part, Santa Anna, has published a constitution. It declares the limits of the republic to be the boundary of 1793 as appertaining to Spain. It declares the govern ment to be civil not military, republican, popular, representative, elective, and respon sible. The territory to be divided into five provinces: 1. Ampastella de Azun; 2. Santo Domingo; 3. Santa Cruz del Seybo; 4. La Concepcion de la Vija; 5. Santiago de los Cabelleros. These provinces to be divided into communes. Citizenship is ex tended nearly to all even to foreigners who pay a fixed amount of taxes. Sovereignty is vested in all the citizens. The executive is a president/with a legislative assembly, and council. In HAYTI President Riche has proclaimed the .constitution of 1816, which is that already described as merely a transcript of that of France, with the exception of president for king, and republic for kingdom. SPANISH WEST INDIES. 121?, TONNAGE DUTIES. HAYTI. The tonnage duty heretofore exacted on foreign vessels at cue d< II r Spanish per ton, is increased to two dollars Spanish per ton (consequently Ameri vessels pay two dollars and twenty cents per ton). All foreign vessels, going from one port to another in this island, will pay f or each port visited an additional duty of 100 dollars, Haytien currency, on vessels under 160 tons. Vessels from 150 to 200 tons, pay 150 dollars. Vessels of 200 tons and upwards, pay 200 Haytien dollars. The duties on wharfage and weighage, on merchandise imported, are increased to double their former rates. The " territorial" duty on exports is still in force; but the duty of exportation is reduced, which reduces the export duty on coffee from twenty dollars, Haytien currency, per 1000 IDS., to twelve dollars. Cocoa from ten dollars to four, per 1000 Ibs. Tobacco, in leaf, from fifteen dollars per 1000 Ibs., to five dollars. Logwood, from seven dollars per 1000 Ibs., to two dollars. Mahogany, from twenty-two dollars to twelve dollars per 1000 feet. Hides of all kinds are free of export duty. The wharfage, and the weighage and measuring are to be added to the foregoing, as folloms : On coffee, one dollar, Haytian currency. On cocoa, On tobacco, On logwood, On mahogany, Hides are charged one cent, Haytian, each. The present value of a Haytian dolllar is two-fifths of a Spanish or American silver dollar, or sixty per cent below their par. SAN DOMINGO. Foreign vessels to pay one gourde or dollar in silver per ton, about 4s. 3d sterling. Those taking on board mahogany or other cargoes the produce of the soil. D ESCRI PTION. Tonnage Duty. per vessel dollars. 250 51 to 100 do do. 400 101 to 200 do do. 600 do. 900 301 and upwards do. 1500 CHAPTER X. SPANISH WEST INDIES. SPAIN, notwithstanding the revolt and independence of her vast possessions on the continent of North and South America, still possesses fertile and magni ficent insular colonies, in the western hemisphere. The Abbe Raynal observes, in describing Cuba, This one of the largest islands in the world, served as the entrep6t of a great trade. It is regarded as the boulevard of the New World, and it has .mportant productions. Under these aspects it merits serious attention. SPANISH WEST INDIES. -Cotton is the production, which may be naturally increased with profit in this island. At the time of its conquest it was very generally grown ; now it has become so rare, that for years none of it has been exported. Ahhoueh the Spaniard has an aversion, almost insurmountable, to imitate others, he has adopted in Cuba the culture of coffee; but in transplanting this production from foreign colonies, he did not imitate the activity which renders it valuable "War the most important production of the West Indies, would alone suffice to extend prosperity to Cuba; but the Spaniards have only a small number of plantations, where their best canes yield only a small quantity of inferior sugar. "Spain possesses by far the most extensive and fertile part of the West Indian Islands. In active hands their islands would become the source of riches without limits ; in their present state they are frightful solitudes. " It would be calumniating the Spaniards to believe them incapable, by character, of laborious and painful industry. If we consider the excessive fatigues, which are so patiently endured by those, of this nation, who follow the contraband trade, it is evident they endure much greater hardship and fatigue than is experienced in rural industry. If the Spaniards neglect to enrich themselves by labour, it is the fault of their govern ment." Such was the state of Cuba about sixty years ago. The colonies still possessed by Spain in America, are the magnificent and fertile islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. CHAPTER XL CUBA. CUBA is situated between the latitude of 19 deg. 50 min. north, and 23 deg. 12 min. north, and between the meridians of 74 deg. 8 min. west, and 84 deg. 58 miu. west longitude. Its extreme length, following the centre, is calculated by some at 800 miles, by others, at not 700 miles. Its breadth varies from 20 to 130 miles. The area of this magnificent island is stated by Humboldt to be 3615 square leagues, or 32,535 geographical square miles. Mr. TurnbulPs cal culation is 31,468 square miles ; that of its dependencies ; viz., the Isle of Pines, 865; Turignano, 38; Romano, 1?2; Guajaba, 15; Coco, 28; Cruz, 59; Paredon Grande, 11 ; Barril, 13 ; De Puerto, 9; Eusenachos, 19 ; Frances, 14 ; Largo and other minor isles, 96 ; total, 32,807 square miles. If the latter is calculated as English statute miles there is a great discrepancy between the two estimates. We are inclined to believe in the correctness of Humboldt, as calcu lated in marine leagues, of twenty to the degree; viz., 220 marine leagues, in its extreme length, equal to 660 geographical miles, or 764| British statute miles. The coasts of Cuba are generally surrounded with reefs and shallows, within which are low sandy beaches in many parts, or more generally a slip of very low land, frequently overflowed by the sea, and nearly always wet and heathy. The lagoons, within the beaches and sands, yield a good deal of sea-salt. There are, however, many excellent harbours. CUBA. A cordillera of calcareous mountains extends from one end of the island (., the other. Its soil is generally fertile, except where the limestone rocks pro trude over the surface. The forests of Cuba are still of great extf hogany, and other useful woods, are among the large indigenous tret- trees and plantains are abundant. Maize is indigenous. Only one small animal, the Hutia, has ever been known as indigenous. As to its mineralogy, its copper mines are by far the most valuable. Coal, which is highly bituminous, follows next. Asphaltum, marble, and jasper abound. It is doubtful whether there were ever any gold or silver mines worked in this island. That found among the natives, is now supposed to have been collected by washing the sands, and accumulated during ages by them. In agriculture, especially in the cultivation of sugar and coffee, the inhabit ants of Cuba, aided by slave labour, have made great progress since the vear 1809, when the trade of this island was emancipated from the restriction of trading to no foreign country whatever. The administration of Cuba has, since that period, published, with apparently great care, official returns of the popu lation, agriculture, revenue, and trade of the colony. These returns, made under the direction of Don Rama de Sagra, were commenced during the administra tions of the Captain- general Don Francis Denis Vives, and of the Superin- tendent-o-eneral Conde de Villanueva. We have from these returns formed the O condensed tables which follow. Population of Cuba. The census of 1775, gave a population of 170,370; that of 1791 gave 272,140; that of 181? gave 551,998 ; and that of 1827 gave 704,487 inhabitants ; viz., whites, 168,653 males and 142,398 females; total whites, 311,051. Free coloured and negroes, 51,962 males, 54,532 females; slaves, 183,290 males, 103,652 females. STATEMENT of the White, and Free, and Slave-Coloured Population, in each of the Departments of the Island of Cuba, in the year 1841. D E P A. R T M E N T S. Cities & Towns. | 8 to jaS Hamlet?. Rural. Districts. WHITES. F R E E. SLAVES. CRXD TOTAL. Co loured. Ne- gioes. Co- loured. Ne- gtoea. Male*. | Femalej. TOTAL. TOTAL. TOTAL. TOTAL. 5.885 2,849 2,240 TOTAL. Western department 9 (i 89 6 13 108 63 34 96 90i 135,0791 108,944 88 1 60,0351 53,838 101 i 32,030j 28,365 244,023 113,873 60,395 25,280 21,294 41.4SO 41,183 10,285 13,316 315,389 47.307 62,825 ;;.: . IW > 180,256 Total 22 279 227,144 191,147 418,291 88,054 64,784 10,974 4-25,521 1,007,624 Of the free coloured 43,658 were males, 44,396 females. Of the free negroes 32 145 were males, 32,739 females. Of the slave coloured 5868 were males, 5106 females. Of the slave negroes 275,382 were males, and only 150,13 females. Total free population, 571,129. Total slaves, 4 over slave population 134,634. There is a garrison of several battalions, and a small marine force. 1216 SPANISH WEST INDIES. Agricultural Returns. In 1830, of the 468,523 caballerias of thirty-two English acres of land, which compose the whole territory, 38,276 were under sugar, coffee, tobacco, garden, and fruit cultivation, and 9734 in grazing-grounds, and in unfelled woods belonging to sugar and coffee estates. caballerias. There were under sugar-cane plantations . . . 5394 coffee- trees . . . . . 5761 tobacco . .... 1389 In lesser, or garden and fruit, cultivation . 25,732 Total caballerias . 38,276 Total acres . 1,224,832 It appears that there was an area of 430,247 caballerias, or 13,767,904 acres uncultivated in the whole island; some parts of which were appropriated to rearing and fattening animals, others to settlements or towns, and the remainder occupied by mountains, roads, coasts, rivers, and lakes ; but the greater part were absolute wilds. The value of lands vested as private real property has been estimated as follows : dollars. 32,857 caballerias in grazing grounds, for larger and for smaller cattle, and attached to Halos and Cerrales, at 100 dollars . . . . . . . 3,285,700 10,752 ditto in grazing grounds, attached to estates, with enclosures, at l 000 dollars .... 10,952,000 15,300 ditto in sugar estates, at 1500 dollars . . . 22,950,000 9,200 ditto coffee estates .... 13,800,000 20,732 ditto in smaller cultivation, provisions, &c., at 2000 dollars ....... 41,464,000 2778 ditto in tobacco, at 700 dollars . . , . 1,944,600 Total value of lands in 1830 . . . 94,396,300 dollars. Those under cocoa or cotton, are supposed to be included in the above. The buildings, engines, materials of labour, and other utensils of country estates, were estimated in value as follows : dollars. On the wild pastures . . . . . . 1,737,000 On pasture or grazing attached to estates . . . 619,600 On sugar estates ...... 28,835,000 On coffee estates . . . . . 20,0()0,UOO On smaller cultivation . . . . 2,789,400 On tobacco plantations . . ... 622,850 Total value of buildings, utensils, &c., 1830 . 55,603,850 dollars. The value of the different products of cultivation were valued as follows, viz., dollars. Sugar-canes in the ground ..... 6,068,877 Coffee-trees ....... 32,500,000 Fruit-trees, vegetables, &c., of smaller estates . . 41,464,000 The same on the larger estates . . . 5,476,700 Tobacco plants . . . 340,620 Total value of plants in 1830. . . . 85,850,197 dollars. CUBA. doll The value of the wood exported in 1830 was Ten times the quantity exported was consumed on the island 1,0,05,630 The charcoal consumed has been valued at . .2,107 300 Total annual value of the produce of woods . 3,818,493 dollars. The minimum value of the forests of the island of Cuba was estimated in 1830 to be equal to 190,624,000 dollars. Value of slaves in 1830 ; viz., dollars. 100,000 slaves in sugar and coffee estates, at 300 dollars . 30,000,000 31,055 ditto in smaller cultivation ..... 9,316,500 7,927 ditto in tobacco ... . . 2,378,100 Total value of 138,982 slaves, supposed useful, at 300 dollars . 41,694,600 dollars. The others being old or supposed of little or no value. Value of live stock ; viz., dollars. 1,058,732 beeves and 893,538 hogs existing in the original grazing grounds . 21,282,077 140,539 oxen for labour and hauling . . . 7,026,950 186,973 horses, supposing 20,000 employed in other private uses, separate from estates . . 9,348,650 9642 mules and asses, deducting 10,000 which may be found in other occupations . 46,962 sheep, goats, &c. . 1,000,000 domestic breeding birds . Total value of animals 39,617,885 dollars. RECAPITULATION. dollars. Lands . . . 94,396,300 Plants, including the forests Buildings, engines, and utensils . Anmal, Representative value of agriculture . . 507,088,002 dollars. Representative value of the capital invested . .31 7,264,832 dollars. VALUE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. dollars. 8,091,837 arrobas of sugar, white and brown . 81,545 of inferior do. - Wg 35, 103 hogsheads of molasses . 2,883,528 arrobas of coffee . 7] c 23,806 of cocoa . VOL. I. 520,897 of rice - 4o4,230 165,659 of beans peas, garlic, onions . . J^,260 1,617,806 fanegas (nearly a barrel) of maize 4*863,418 Carried forward . . 19,172,871 Q 1218 SPANISH WEST INDIES. Brought forward . . 19,172,871 4,051,245 horseloads of vegetables and fruits . . 11,475,712 2,793,308 of grapes . . . 5,586,616 36,535 horseloads of casada . . . . 146,144 2, 107,300 bags of charcoal 2,107,300 woods, or the products of woods . . . 1,741,195 Total value of vegetable productions . . 40,229,838 dollars. ANNUAL VALUE OF ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. dollars. 180,289 beeves, slaughtered . ." . 3,605,780 equal number of hides . . . .# 180289 269,211 pigs . . ... 1,346,055 60,000 calves, colts of all kinds . . . 1,200,000 30,000 animals giving wool . . .. . 120000 1,953,120 domestic birds . ... 976 560 29,952 thousands of eggs . . 1,060, sOO 592.800 jars of milk . . . . . 296400 63,160 arrobas of virgin wax .. . . . 189480 76,404 ,, of honey . 47 752 Total value of animal productions . . 9,023,1 16 dollars. dollars. V egetable productions . . . 34,629,868 Animal do. . . . - . . 9,023, ll6 Total gross produce of agriculture . 43,652,984 ESTIMATED NET RENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL INDUSTRY. vr L j c i dollars. s et produce ot the primitive grazing grounds . . 2,928,405 ,, of the grazing grounds of estates . . 2,169 l61 of sugar estates . . . . . 4,189,043 of coffee estates . . . 1,287,375 ,, ot smaller cultivation . . 11,861,984 of tobacco . . . .0 ." 372^54 Total net product . . . . 22,808,622 dollars. GENERAL RECAPITULATION. Representative value of the agriculture of Cuba . . 50^89,332 . ^637 866 of capital invested. .317,264,832 . . 63,490,593 of gross products . . 49,662,987 . . 9,932597 of net rents . . 22,808,622 . . 4561724 CAPITALS INVESTED. dollars. dollars. t tssfr - - : . 6. Menao-eries 6 > 5 32,420 681,240 . 26,767,977 5,051,836 CUBA. We have no accounts of the present extent of cultivation in Cuba; but b v comparing the value of exportable produce of 1830 with that of 184 f J. various estimates, we consider it probable that the lands under sugar, c< ; tobacco, and gardens, may fairly be estimated at 54,000 caballerias, or 1 728 000 acres. In 1840 the number of persons engaged in agriculture were, on 1238 sugar estates, 138,701 persons; on 1838 coffee plantations, 114,760 persons; and on 42,549 farms, 393,993 persons. Total number employed in agriculture, 647,454 labourers. If we compare this extent with the remaining vast area of the fertile soils of Cuba, which are still uncultivated, and the produce which the whole island at present yields, it can scarcely be an exaggeration to say, that Europe might draw as much coffee and sugar from Cuba alone as the quantity at present con sumed. But the process of reclaiming the forests and waste lands must necessarily be slow, even by slave labour; for that labour must not only be hereafter more limited, but it would appear from the returns of free labour in Porto Rico, and from the Prize Essay lately approved of in Jamaica, that free labour is cheaper than slave labour. In 1760, the produce of coffee and sugar together, in Cuba, only amounted to about 5,000,000 Ibs. Forty years afterwards the produce of both increased to above 40,000,000 Ibs. In 1820, the exports increased to above 100,000,000 Ibs.; and since that period the increase will appear by referring to the tables of the trade of Cuba, which follow. In 1800, there were, according to Don Sagra, but eighty coffee farms and plantations; in 1817, they increased to 780; in 1827, to 2067 ; at present it is estimated to above 3000. Tobacco is indigenous, and the best quality is grown, but it is said not to be profitable to the planter. In 1826, the exports of cigars amounted to 197,194 Ibs.; in 1837, to 792,438 Ibs. The culture of cotton and indigo is on the decline. Maize, rice, and plantains are abundantly grown, also potatoes and some wheat. Mr. Turnbull says, that burning the wood on the ground to be cleared deteriorates the soil : in North America, and even in Old Spain, it is burned to fertilise the soil. There is one railroad constructed ; the common roads are very bad. CHAPTER XII. CUSTOMS DUTIES AND REGULATIONS OF CUBA. THE customs and fiscal system of Cuba has been greatly improved since 1809. Differential duties on cargoes in Spanish and in foreign ships are, however, n: tained. IMPORT DUTIES. The ra-e of duty SPANISH WEST INDIES. rule although there are a few exceptions, foreign produce and manufactures in Spanish bottoms, from a foreign port, pay 17J and 21 J, and Spanish produce and manufactures in foreign bottoms, from a Spanish port, pay the same ; and foreign produce and manu factures in Spanish bottoms, direct from the Peninsula, pay I3f and 16f per cent. Spanish produce and manufactures (except flour, which pays 10*. sterling per barrel), imported in Spanish bottoms, direct from the Peninsula, pay 6 per cent on the valuation in the tariff, but after having touched in any foreign port, they pay duty as if shipped from that port. EXPORT DUTIES. The produce of Cuba pays export duty at the following rates : Foreign flag, for any port, 6 per cent upon the valuation of tariff. Spanish flag, for a foreign port, 4J per cent ditto. Spanish flag, for a Spanish port, 2| per cent ditto. Except leaf tobacco, which pays 12J, 6, and 2 per cent, according to the flag and destination ; and clayed sugar, which pays \s. id. sterlingper 100 Ibs, in foreign bottoms, and 1H<7. sterling in Spanish bottoms; whilst rum, tafia, swine, horses, mules, horned cattle, cigars, and molasses pay the same duty in all cases. On the total amountofall duties an additional 1 per cent is levied, under the denomi nation of " deucho de borlanza," and of late years an additional impost of one-seventh of the amount of duties has been added, to meet the expenses of the late war, except on the import of Spanish flour and the export of sugar, coffee, molasses, leaf tobacco, and cigars, which have had a fixed additional duty imposed. Foreign flour remains untouched, the old duty amounting nearly to a prohibition. On all bottled liquors there is a deduction made of 5 per cent on the duties, as a com pensation for breakage ; and on earthenware and glass 6 per cent for the same cause. On jerked beef, from Buenos Ayres and Brazils, 14 per cent ; from the United States and Campeachy 6 per cent is allowed for waste and damage. There is also a small impost on imported liquors, to meet the expenses of the " casa de benificencia" of the Havanna, at the rate of 2s. sterling per pipe, Is. per cask or hogshead, 6d. per demijohn, and Qd. per dozen bottles. Coffee pays an additional municipal duty of about 13d. sterling per 100 Ibs. Gold and silver, of the proper standard, when properly manifested and reported, may be imported free of duty, otherwise 4 per cent is levied. Gold pays an export duty of 1 J per cent, and silver one of 21, but the duty is generally evaded, although at the risk of seizure both of specie and vessel. Foreign agricultural implements and machinery, in foreign bottoms, pay 24^ percent ad valorem; but steam-engines for the use of the mines, ploughs, stallions, mares, rice- mills, and all implements for the manufacture of sugar, may be imported free of duty. Cotton, green fruits, tobacco stems, syrup, and lime juice are exported duty free. Sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco in leaf, and cigars, air-guns, daggers, pocket-pistols, knives with points, and obscene prints, are not allowed to be imported; and books and printed papers generally are subject to the inspection of a censor before leaving the cus tom-house. Gunpowder and muskets are the only goods allowed to be deposited at St. Jago de Cuba, and as the slave-trade falls off so does the deposit of these articles. The Havanna is the only general port of deposit in the island. Merchandise having paid duty inwards pays none on exportation. Every master of a vessel entering the port is obliged to present two manifests of his cargo and stores; one to the boarding-officers of the customs, and another at the time of making the entry and taking the oaths, twenty-four hours after arrival, with permission to make any necessary corrections within the twelve working hours ; and every consignee is bound to deliver a detailed invoice of each cargo to his, her, or their consignment, within forty-eight hours after the vessel entering the port, and heavy penalties are incurred from mere omission or want of accuracy. The total amount of duties paid upon the leading articles of import and export in foreign bottoms are shown in the following table, reduced to British money. CUBA. 1221 DUTY ON IMPORTS. ...barrel s. d 12 6 i I . . jerked Brazil ,100 Ibs. do 6 11 Wines, Marseille ...hl! 1 7 Oft Bread, pilot aud navy barrel 8 24 Bordeaux ....hall Butter Candles, tallow sperm Cheese, Dutch and English. Cordage, tarred do. do. do. ....barrel 16 9i 1 15 9| 13 111 12 3| I 8 6 205 Catalouia ...... Satins Chairs, Windsor Boards Hoops pi--e ft 11 -i I .1 i (i Fi*h, cod and scale herring mackerel Hams Lard . ..100 Ibs. ....barrel 100 Ibs. 3 1IJ 064 5 Oi 14 II Hi V 7 10 Hogshead ditto Coals Powder Earthenware Axe* do. ioo ibs. crate dozen (, 1 li 3 7 2 10 4 086 Oil, whale 007 007 Macbets Hoes do. (i 5 I Rice Soap ....do do 046 1 Pi 19 7 085 14 2 5| Table knives and forks.. Iron wrought in bars... Sheet copper Tumblers, all sizes Wine glasses, ditto Cigars do. 100 Ibs. do. 1000 035 040 1 II II 1 2 1 2 li -2 ! 1) i <) S igar Molasses. Fustic.. Tobacco do casl ton do ..100 Ibs 1 1 030 Oil 030 069 Rum Wax Hides each 020 5 1 005 rixt.pr ton. The tonnage duty on pans vesses sH^sriasA ttSsasss subjects the vessel to quarantine culation in this part of he ,la nd .^ J* s P^ 1 , , h driven .Imcst ever, other at the rate of four pisetas to the dol lar, ana co \ , government, however, at coin beyond its aliquot parts out o, .c at n he Sp ^^ ^ ^ ^ ,,, length aware that smuggling " "o thei proer value, and paving the holders at the wi " of lhe au - thorities. TONNAGE DUTIES AND PORT CHARGES. Tonnage dutv on S* vessels 6,, cents, and on forei g n vessels 8d,,s. 50 ct, per ton. ,-, 1 H tv is exacted of 21^- cents per ton on all vesseVnatFo nalor foreign, for the ^PP" 4 [ j^/"^ ?! ^nt per day T other nation. The wharf dues in Havanna ate on Span h v , ^^^ 1 dlr. 50 cts. per day for each 100 tons o tne * (here ^ no officia l inform Lighthouse dues, officers fees, &c., a e no _e , rf Baracoa _ The port tion in g the department with regard to them, ^^ m ^ duly> , d , 50 cl> . charges diSer in the various ports; those ot Bar a heaith offic er s fee for boardm? per ton; anchorage, 12 dlr..; free P l * e d f ,^ s f ce to remain on board to seal Lsels, Sdlrs. ; custom-house .nterpeter 5 d.s & ^. c , earance and unseal while discharging, 5 dlrs. , mspec 8 dollars. ,,,,, -, made in a very simple manner. The island of ( The collection of the duties " T^ Ha y vanr is the principal. divided into customs mtendancies, of which 1222 SPANISH WEST INDIES. The intendancy is organised into seven branches ; viz., the intendanf, the superior council of the hacienda, the tribunal of accounts, the accountant-general, the treasurer- jreneral, the administration of the customs, and the administration of the internal revenue. The administration of the customs is comprised of the administrator or collector, the accountant, and the treasurer. When a vessel arrives at the Havanna, she is first boarded by the health officer ; after whom comes the revenue officer, and the smuggling preventive service. A copy of the custom-house regulations, in Spanish, French, and English, is handed to the captain, and a manifest required of him of all the particulars of his vessel and cargo. Every article on board the vessel omitted in the manifest, is subject to confiscation. Within forty-eight hours after the entry of the vessel, every consignee must deliver a detailed statement of the articles coming to him, with their quantities, weights, and mea sures, all reduced to the legal standard. All the documents and papers relating to a vessel are stitched together in a book, with the signatures and seals of all the government officers through whose hands the several documents pass. A copy of this book is made for the use of the inspectors and appraisers; the latter function being restrained within very narrow limits, by a printed tariff of all articles of import, with a valuation to each, which valuation in a great degree defines the duties of their ad valorem character. As fast as the inspection and appraisement takes place, the consignee is permitted to remove the goods, by procuring the signature of some responsible person to the words inscribed in the book, " I make myself answerable for the duties." The inspection and appraisement being concluded, the book is returned to the accountant s office where the liquidation of the duties is forthwith made. The payment is then proceeded with. These payments are mostly cash ; that is to say, on some articles, whatever may be the amount, cash is required ; upon other articles the duties are cash under 1000 dollars. If the amount is greater, a credit of one-fourth is given for sixty days, and one-fourth payable at the end of each succeeding month making five months credit in all. The security for this credit consists simply in the pro missory note of the consignee, without endorsement, with the power, in case of a failure, to convert every other note of the same individual into a cash debt ; the individual to be forever after incapacitated to enter goods except for cash. This system has been in force many years, and under it no loss whatever has been sustained by the government. Formerly the same credits required the endorsement of a holder of real estate, but this was abandoned on account of its insecurity. The exports of the island produce are generally for account of speculations, sometimes for account of European refiners, and rarely for account of the planters. The chief spe culators are the United States and European merchants. Shipowners, and merchants in Cuba, often take interests in cargoes, and some are shipped on account of speculators at Havanna. The produce being always purchased for cash, it is sometimes done with the uett proceeds of imports. Sometimes specie is imported for the purpose ; but a large pro portion is paid for by bills of exchange. Drawers of bills, of good character, can always sell them to any amount. When abroad, bills are not in demand ; returns for imports are made in produce for account of their owners, instead of being made in bills drawn against the same produce for account of some speculator. Money accounts are kept in pesos, reals, and maravedis. The peso, or dollar, is equal to 8 reals plate, or 20 reals vellon. The real plate is equal to 34 maravedis. By the act of Congress of 1799, the real of plate is estimated at 10 cents, and the real vellon at 5 cents, and they are so calculated at the custom-houses. There are, also, as in other parts of the Spanish dominions, halves, quarters, eighths, and sixteenths of the dollar. The gold coins are the doubloon, and its subdivisions. The doubloon is equal to 8 escudos d oro, or gold crowns, and is legally worth 10 dollars, but the price varies, ac cording to weight, and sometimes to demand. Weights and Measures. The pound is equal to about 1 Ib. 4drs. avoirdupois ; mak ing 100 Ibs. or libras, equal to 101 lbs.7oz. avoirdupois. The subdivisions are : 36 grains = 1 adarme ; 2 adarmes = 1 drachma ; 8 drachmas = 1 onza; 16onzas = 1 libra; 25 libras = 1 arroba ; 4arrobas = l quintal. The vara is equal to 33,384 inches, or 108 varas = 100 yards. The fanega is equal CUBA to Bushels nearly, or 200 Ib, Spanish. The arro ba of li qui d measure is e q ual to IMPORTS and Exports of the Precious Metals to and from METAL. " ___ _ 1839 _ 1840 dollars. 908,108 454,118 1,302,226 1841 1842 IMPORTS. dollars. 1,497,408 709,770 2,207^78 850,858 874,945 dollars. 595,780 185,959 781,639 dollars. MM* 1,158,770 ,, silver Total EXPORTS. 526,322 526,778 326,842 765,829 154.055 1,136,605 Excess of imports exports 1,725,803 481,375 1,053,100 209,126 1,092,671 311.032 1,290,060 131 891 Exports of specie to th< Imports ,, from United States dollars. 51.357 177.120 Excess of imports.... 12^7rT STATISTICS of the Comparative and Aggregate Amount of the Commerce of the Island of Cuba with all Nations. OB tf < M ^ IMPORTS. EXPORTS. 1 National commerce. Iln national vessels. If a 5 Pec England. Spanish American ports. France. National commerce. In national vessels. Is il Pu> England. iff < c ! 1826... 1827 dollars. 2,858,793 2 541 322 dollars. 314,683 349.72S 431,553 844,826 1,051,538 1,825,890 3,178,596 4,777,580 4,970,013 5/200,955 5,680,070 4,966,191 6,163,152 7,108,704 6,684,718 * . dollars. 5,632,808 7,162,695 6,599,096 5,734,765 4,791,544 4,690,308 3,542,936 4,461,472 3,690,101 5,406,919 6,553,281 6,548,957 6,202,002 (5,132,794 5,654,125 5,200,221! dollars. 1,323,627 1,618,371 dollars dollars. 1,169,451 1,472,204 dollars. 1,992,689 2,284,250 1,556,224 2,292,580 3,740,747 2,193,761 2,173,537 1,854,714 2,074,502 1,801,092 2,348,453 2,919,474 2,692,159 2,719,792 5 473,630 5,729,9701 dollars.! dollars. 185,878 3,894,597 184,0594,107,449 711,4793,176,964 562,6533,191,535 543,267 4,266,782! 727,338 3,921, 592 : 993,4043,108,466 1,274,0404,386,885 1,401,5683,824,724 1,114,60514,866,660 917,7335,513,024 1,294,2825,792,623 1,532,8405,574,591 l,951,/85 5,523,045 2,044,4415,660,739 15,282,574! dollar*. 1..0W171 I. 5,071 1,611,820 1,729,404 1,233.594 1,567,720 2,101,686 910,981 2,080,387 l.7:..fi7; ,700,115 I9<M66 <. is3/s 5,141,098 6,749,438 ....,-,.... dollar.. 19,678 16,214 10,371 36,185 2 4. S. 3 23 30,562 70,9851 37,2! 9! 301,562 dollar*. U i-2,2l l,m.V,l 1 : - - 757,736 441,058 360,099 531,321 M7.43I 603,985 489,6*4 771. .171 MM I 1,617,711 1828 4,523,302 4,961,043 4,739,776 4,121,829 %576,707 3,185,781 3,412,487 ,508,349 ,470,725 ,659,153 ,460,987 ,320,515 ,295,261 ,557,351 1829 1830 1,837,775 1,745,388 1,465,983 1,257,964 1,625,173 1,676,9 18 ! 1,689,466 1,522,429 1,373,964! 1,439,300 ! 1,770,499 1,437,199 3,110,6981 ,371,786 1,747,224 2,084,552 1,579,588 ,099,367 ,713,650 ,467,125 915,541 ,487,894 1,254,947 721,648 669,604 805,824 927,491 906,414 904,140 817,445 861,360 816,954 714,664 : 618,461 ,476,752 . 1831.. 1832 1833 1 834 .... 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840.. .. 1842 rf I IV [PORT S. E X P R T S. S ss s gj a "a ei to OJ 1 u*i l o __. I J BQ f 3 ! 1 ills ! x^ 1 3| \ CD 1 s i-l "* *$ *Cu dollars. dollars. dollars. dollars. dollars. dollars. dollars. dollars. dollar.*. dollars. 1826 1,631,125 16,849 218,794 1,759,621 14,925,754 2,998.154 487,223 200,761 1,312,839 1827. 1,640,011 192,826 309 047 2,066,646 17,352,854 2,651,083 487.288 439,402 1,483,966 14/286,192 18-28 2,082,906 176,027 282,584 2,033,507 19,534,922 2,809,229 783,521 237/289 1,473,0-20 13,114,362 1829. 1,346,875 87,886 115,293 2,521,442 18,695,856 2,406 813 904,920 303,540 1830. 1,701,358 81,958 102,116 1,236,283 16,171,562 2,448,290 1,035,268 334,137 1,521,144 15,870,969 1831. 1,808,899 20,632 50,582 895,061 15,548,791 2,188,299 544,839 443,466 890,644 IS 18.711 1832. 1,918,197 33,843 87,884 796,511 15,198,465 2,590,813 1,135,525 393,574 737,009 13,595,017 1833. 1,145,967 90,931 96,754 828,193 18,511,132 1,771,381 1,137,774 250,511 858,813 13^6,100 1834. 855,363 19,215 151,151 1,134,407 18,563,300 2,289,782 1,081,284 101,443 954,615 1835. 619/211 55,687 145,443 1,107,345 20,722,072 2.076,001 994,771 158,926 1,179,252 14,i.V.i. 2J; 1836. 766,959 59,068 92,628 1,009,771 22,551,969 1,934,935 1,029,570 264,730 1,132,942 1837. 565,048 28,341 95,450 2,639,521 22,910,357 2,713,586 644,018 523,106 1,875,918 20,346,407 1838. 1839. J840. . 916,498 552,078 1,010,291 79,193 124,405 47,914 64,593 36,099 29,492 2,873,545 2,087,911 3,357,172 24,729,878 25,217,796 24,700,189 2,698,163 2,054,088 2.835,620 1,646,953 266,401 924,398 366,643 424,905 319.941 1.074/287 2,478.848 MW.748 20,471,102 2l.4l.s4- 25941,783 184-2. . 3,402,395 188,354 191,464 2,021,394 24,637,527 3,588,917 770,067 326,652 1,807,536 26.6H4.701 1224 SPANISH WEST INDIES. IMPORTS and Exports of Cuba, for 1842, distinguishing the Flag. COUNTRIES. 1 M P( ) R T S. E X P C > R T S. Spanish Vessels. Foreign Vessels. Spanish Ships. Foreign Ships. dollars. 5 508,035 dollars. 49,316 dollars. 3,729,970 dollars. 474,262 5,725 959 243,683 5 038 891 989,931 486,821 515,678 1 102,034 Kimlaiid 2,000,212 1,110,485 697,502 8 562,103 129,194 195,827 18,336 434 801 372,080 9,762 64,497 307 699 2,332,113 363,417 430,281 2 333 302 138,381 37,312 73,816 235 028 Portugal 160 15,611 10,999 5 907 90,518 61,198 7,255 1,342,150 1,145,743 280,796 20 776 Ura/.ils 37,638 2,021,394 ** * * 15,398,430 9,239,089 6,072,813 20,611,789 IMPORTS into the Island of Cuba, in 1839, 1840, 1841, and 1842. ARTICLES. 1839 1840 1841 1842 LIQUORS. Sweet oil dollars. dollars. dollars. dollars. 372,403 228,960 306,702 266,777 161,322 259,598 259,600 171,727 180,760 222,617 162,478 Cider 106,599 100,092 198,205 Vinegar 25,762 37,498 22,765 Wine, white Wine, red 87,132 8,8 12 101,722 12,890 155,713 11,298 135,721 1,382,240 1,103,971 I,229,7fi4 1,203,713 89,365 82,050 45,036 42,144 Total liquors 2,390,558 J ,999,958 2,429,910 2,302,701 Po--k Beef . 40,571 55,296 62,275 38,944 46,4 1 / 46,344 50,170 34,814 2,5 GO 4,239 9,187 12,712 1,655,433 1,582,278 1,868,823 1,806,610 30,354 30,833 40,867 Ham 28,073 36,569 28,785 37,046 81,728 81,174 130,300 122,718 Total provisions SPICES 1,885,402 1,836,254 2,180,373 2,093,711 Saffron ... . Cinnamon 34,896 48,186 18,525 19,697 Cloves 47,376 13,984 12,180 8,867 4,24 1 6,921 3,496 1,862 6,389 1,707 5,386 3,013 Other Spices 8,422 23,857 11,259 2,968 19,6r7 9,428 8,977 Total spices FRUITS. 119,224 114,332 60,274 45,384 Olives 31,033 33,709 33,442 39,295 Filberts 51,720 43,346 61,986 4,908 11,194 14,575 Figs 9,867 6,156 3,512 5,482 Raisins 16,781 9,584 12,971 Other fruits 51,466 66,338 78,421 64,566 60,153 51,057 Total fruits 229,306 Rice 838,914 1 037 773 1 030 784 971 484 Beans 40,463 174,428 30,683 27,239 38,877 20,622 37,805 31,751 Wheatflour " 79,332 2,416,611 62,522 2 425 162 50,542 2 843 193 83,353 2 358 896 Indian corn 810 1,457 2,452 6,927 3 592 1,017 10 684 28,386 23,947 8,972 21,959 Total breadstuff s 3,444,850 3,751,568 4,012,498 3,506,383 (continued.) STATISTICS OF CUBA. 1223 ARTICLES. 1839 1840 IM1 iMt LINENS. Drills dollars. 284 933 dollar*. dollara. dollar* 22 830 10 169 1 >. , ;< .:.-- O,| t 23 653 Hi 1^8 3,83.3 328 317 276 302 1 ,.170 Holland 24 102 21 871 Irish 30 317 70 133 4 J,flJl Caleta ... 371 741 143 7 )8 07,113 400 629 313 752 129,745 453 842 512 94 1 220.500 37 975 MM 113 557 127 354 307 778 458 077 Total linens 2 634 286 2 445 255 3,043,220 SHOES AND LEATHER. 11 608 7 490 3 inn 173*01 157,440 1,470 49013 57,042 38 060 57,141 50,306 87 874 1 .. i 289,100 127,363 1.3 J r >45 70 893 125,293 1 r >3 009 Total 651 256 524,934 384 687 LUMBER. 87,446 97,6-26 105841 Hogsheads 278,864 223,120 525,837 700.561 141,134 66,078 1,597 1 *7 655,982 733,467 720.09S 515047 9,174 5,961 7,542 6 134 120,177 204,801 17,649 27 299 Total lumber 1,292,777 1,331,053 1,379,158 1,319.343 OILS. Whale 102,711 136,194 1S0.810 132, t *6< Lard 620,245 507,124 748,768 12 A 525 33,861 47,149 77,811 80,035 67,328 94,410 132,147 13ti,lK2 26,609 95,116 62,188 58,629 152,937 160,907 223,048 42,037 64,841 38,100 102,621 42,458 53,765 Total oils 1,015,728 1,105,741 1,443,180 1,449,750 FISH. 17,333 20,149 9,754 19,506 2,659 1,228 1,417 3,943 Cod 318,016 365,408 332,934 330,478 Mackarel 16,981 7,177 565 12,683 16,783 15,066 39,012 :tt.x5s 20,045 29,879 44,704 45,878 894 832 2,710 2,129 Total fish 398,711 439,739 431,096 448,475 MISCELLANEOUS. 28,633 38,261 39,838 41,004 114,219 117,129 78,511 38,199 25,768 18,840 7,366 77,759 95,662 4,434 4,078 Vegetables and pickles 49,425 33,732 Total 292,276 296,727 290,789 346,394 WOOLLENS. 3,531 2,843 1,028 2,121 52,147 87,667 8 412 3,687 2,609 81 773 71,898 88,06 1 51 046 66,197 S3 195 83,605 106,224 281,065 35T.842 195,246 175,936 MISCELLANEOUS. 26,930 9,717 86,497 12 408 Linseed 24,647 20,899 8 148 9,403 9,717 19041 17,000 20,899 5 5" J 184 422 200 216,190 280,855 107,017 Coal . 14,515 21,768 VOL. I. 7 R 1226 FOREIGX WEST INDIES. ARTICLES. 1839 1840 1841 1842 Glass . doll tr.-j. 213 393 dollars. 145,746 dollars. 111,558 dollars. Ironware 911,127 695,632 737,135 672 82S Caps . .. 5,410 6,451 2,139 Cochineal . 107 238 62,980 Ice 56,160 60,772 149,960 140 040 Twine 12,726 35,099 17,467 Soap ... 480,398 489,456 258,094 Rifiirinc 32,554 92,662 20 474 Bricks 43,974 66,729 58,674 Books 79,013 67,919 73 681 20 299 12 213 17 925 137,276 146,139 158 515 21,945 21,707 28,180 169,470 101,837 122 998 Hardware 546,621 711,885 174 186 60,794 68,102 7fi 187 198,176 1 16 983 105,222 69,770 118,301 6,982 3,502 65,488 67 651 20,107 Paint 60,777 46 406 74,284 55,349 27 811 38,086 43,415 81 132 24,133 Clothing ,. 53,868 79,928 63 570 110 519 34,676 100813 115 612 79,184 12,880 15 730 156,321 Hopes 67 919 133 568 .... 15,150 Hats 74,770 90 021 87,166 18,621 18 630 128,957 . stems 12 853 38 21 1 Snuff 1,715 1 481 28,659 Chairs 59 579 40 21 5 1,077 12,321 25,063 4,955 K fiQV 10,157 254 3,641 89 850 3,517 3,235 310,216 Total miscellaneous . 4,196,306 4,191,105 3,183,025 3,834,988 392,926 Coquillo 4,386 661 5,191 2,322 Listados 139,866 38is,237 167,065 181,678 77,396 Nankeen 10418 124,246 134,698 Blankets 62,139 1,687 506 Stockings 197,314 33,380 47,486 Muslins 360 478 142,252 159,525 Cambrics 169,972 364,941 383,326 22246 2,429 124,607 Handkerchiefs... 334,430 18,980 54,783 Calicoes 485,207 152,652 138,484 Other articles 525,088 749,729 469,981 377,648 265,608 360,571 Total cotton manufactures. 3,086,707 4,132,722 1,875,065 1,749,312 Ribbons 85,737 102,549 55 747 111 Silknet 49,784 26,281 28,981 20,722 9,734 1 1 545 62,409 4,948 33 730 7,983 8,959 9,809 Handkerchiefs 105883 35,146 30,827 20 373 45,254 47,667 Net goods 8,309 1,419 14,324 8,834 Serge 35,895 10 016 37,580 45,862 63,551 Sewing silk 35,771 4,851 7,986 Tafeta " 12 182 .... 11,116 Dresses 490 4,350 22,870 Other silks 54,663 68,530 1,002 .... 41,047 Total silks 484,062 432,551 304,302 386,064 Quickcilver Nails Copper 23,838 143,586 127 269 126,375 147,175 Iron Coined gold silter... 261,855 1,497,408 709,770 118,782 908,108 454,118 177,958 46,130 119,997 595,780 94,058 92,729 792,124 Other metals 42,971 30,939 185,859 2,146 __ 5,940 48,271 9,165 Total importations... la warehouse . . 2,806,697 25,236,139 1,701,852 24,790,939 1,173,995 21,515,247 3,299,483 1,497,392 22,848,324 2,021,394 STATISTICS OF CUBA. r> to > an( ^ tne ex pense of the entrv nf i Cuba, may best be understood from the artnal ,i;ok,, goods in ii. other foreign vessel, as follows : sements n accou " t of a liriti.h or DISBURSEMENTS BY A FOREIGN SHIP-MASTER AT THE PORT OK HAVANA. Custom-house entry and stamp . <l -? Ila V (iollar8 Harbour-master s fees, in and out . Board of health Marine interpreter Translating manifest Tonnage duty on 160 4-95 tons, at 1 dollar 50 cents per ~ ton and 1 per cent balanza" duty on amount of said tonnage ... 3<n 01 Wharfage from 10th to 23rd instant, inclusive, fourteen days, at 1 dollar 25 cents per day on each hundred tons, 260 tons 45 00 Stage hire fourteen days, at 75 cents per day, and 3 rials for carrying the same . . . 10 88 Mud-machine, If rials per ton, and 1 per cent balanza" 57 44 Custom-house clearance, and bills of discharge : Eleven days discharge, at 5 dollars 50 cents per day 60 50 1 wo visits, in and out . . . . . 11 00 Seven sheets of extracts, each 1 dollar 7 00 Clearance 8 00 Stamp paper for clearance . . . . * . ! 8 25 94 75 Light money 4 00 Morp pass, governor s fee, and clearing officer . 4 00 Certificates of duties being paid . . . . . 4 25 Custom-house broker ..... 3 00 15 25 The following are not government charges, but in continuation, &c. : Bill of health, 7 dollars ; Russian consul s certificate, 8 dollars 50 cents ; Danish consul s certificate, 5 dlrs. 20 50 20 50 Cooper s bill for repairing casks . . . 9 94 Journeymen for discharging cargo, twelve days, for six men, each 75 cents per day .... American consul s bill . . . . . . . Lighterage on 1573 boxes sugar Trip on board 84 Total . 892 85 To which add commission, 2^ per cent. During the time a vessel is discharging, a government officer is stationed on board, and is required to report daily to an officer of the custom-house ; and for each report the vessel pays 5 dollars 50 cents. The charge is the same, whether one barrel or a thousand is discharged each day. A vessel loaded with jerked beef pays 5 dollars 50 cents for every 500 arrobas, or 12,500 Ibs., without reference to the quantity discharged each day. Lum ber pays 5 dollars 50 cents for every 20,000 feet. Cotton, the same for every 60 bales. Salt cargoes, 5 dollars 50 cents per day. Logwood a like sum for every 800 quintals. 1228 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. rories of the invoices of all cargoes are i.ssa me of the vexas ex ions which are allowed to interfere senously w,th ofThat mag,rcent island. The following is a statement of the sh.ps that have arnved and sailed from each part of the island : SHIPS entered and sailed from the Island of Cuba. PORTS. Entered. Sailed. Spanish. Foreign. Spanish. Foreign. Havana 509 130 22 80 55 8 40 7 21 3 4 5 884 1053 958 901 284 25 270 136 17 10 86 29 10 4 1773 1981 2065 467 128 12 79 54 4 39 6 25 4 5 5 828 1036 912 952 273 25 338 138 17 11 83 41 I 12 3 1900 2082 21(50 Cuba Baracoa >a a uz. Total, 1842 1841.... 1840.... TONNAGE entered, with Imports and Import Duties. TONNAGE ENTERED. 1840 1841 1842 Free. Payingduty. TOTA L. 237,801 255,430 252,251 16,013 230,010 24(5,023 53,139 67,274 67,252 47,913 62 070 109,983 5,177 66,091 4,963 200 3,868 4,568 67,244 71,071 77,573 3,558 59,101 62,659 28,965 31,138 32,123 9,797 21,617 31.416 1,710 1,693 2,426 2,224 2,224 4,322 3.962 3,689 670 2,865 3,. )35 7,349 12,604 15,253 2,924 11.653 14,577 8,359 7,945 8,804 1,844 6,611 8,455 1,005 490 578 147 258 405 1,785 2,142 2,635 913 913 Til 389 293 337 337 Total 417 077 520 229 467 840 83,066 40! 527 485 095 1841 51,069 416,770 467,839 VALUE OF IMPORTS. PORTS. 1839 1840 1841 1842 Havana dollars. 18,436,888 dollars. 17,713,310 dollar*. 18,581,877 dollars, 18 801,913 Cuba 3,165,422 152 647 2,927,497 1 72 263 2,671,421 186,828 2,382,938 l7l 383 1 868 819 I 863,624 1.995,311 1,801 558 Trinidad 1 012 267 990,012 942.661 828 !*> 36 407 57 376 81,832 8" 490 Gibara 197 840 156 856 127 588 172 084 187 935 310,741 288 732 195 935 155 142 152 321 153 072 1 17 030 1 677 17 860 25 869 14 S06 Santa Cruz 60 497 83 025 54 732 44 589 11 255 1 303 8 484 19 519 25,315,796 24,505,188 25,121.407 24,637,430 STATISTICS OF CUBA.* L229 AMOUNT of Customs Import Duties, levied in Cuba. PORTS. 1839 1840 1841 I-U dollars. dollars. dollars. dollars | Cuba 4,150,343 4,071,500 4,41 j Nuevitas 50,297 680,212 52 579 Matanzas i Trinidad 539,758 217,790 590,674 244 7/>9 .111 1 [ Gibara 11,770 1 1,^02 23,663 1-71! 47,082 37,797 87,618 10 316 57,403 874U 10^(01 7,13* 36,675 11,517 6,449 5,591 G,*77 Total 6,113,503 5,951,798 5,943,813 ,< -,<:-, THE following is a Table of the Values, and the Countries from whence the leading Sup- plies of Manufactures were Imported in the Year 1842 : COUNTRIES. Cottons. Woollens. Linens. Silks. Leather. Lumber and ProTisiooi. dollars. 35621 dollars. I 452 dollars. dollars. dollars. dollar*. United States .... 80 905 13217 245,046 18 434 England 631 944 171 481 Holland 4 008 46 171 14 725 II.- : 282 151 43 118 178 117 5611 158 542 13 491 1 552 5 100 1 101 Total 1,505,515 273,138 3,233,537 342,447 jv ;.;:!.. 7,819,839 The United States, it appears, supplies but a very small proportion even of those ma nufactures of which she has the best means of producing. Nearly all the manufactures coming from England are in Spanish bottoms, while American manufactures are in United States vessels. Spanish vessels can go to England, take in cotton goods, and carry them to Cuba, on better terms than American vessels can carry them direct. This is a singu lar fact, and is to be accounted for only on the ground that the paper currency of the United States carries the level of prices too high to admit of profitable shipment to the specie prices of Cuba. This view is confirmed by the fact that, during the six months which has elapsed of the year 1843, cottons have been exported from the United States to an amount far greater than ever before. A difference in the currencies of the two countries forms an insuperable bar to equality of intercourse. VALUE of Exports from the Island of Cuba. ARTICLES. 1839 1840 1841 1842 dollars. 103,272 dollars. 64,398 dollars. 66.261 dollar*. 56,161 174 055 211,051 226,050 !. Cocoa 1,024 2,538 Cotton .. .. 310,418 133,885 132,874 Coffee 1,950,469 2,143,574 1,852,509 8,290,387 11,264,367 11,613,798 11,447,009 Cedar .... ... ... 31,065 25,901 21,671 40,101 Wax 147,686 115,311 307,131 290,828 2,418,450 3,706,951 4,505,400 4,981,405 Hides 15,054 6,991 ttjm 14,168 19,4*9 14.:{<>4 Fruits . 91,837 9-1 ,24 2 96,708 Honey 51,744 55,918 68,862 82] 188 744,608 W classes 900,163 43,722 19,388 1,205 Fustic 92,124 82,504 82,918 Cattle 984 124 Cigars 637,558 535,122 719,364 1,273,069 1,395,689 1,677,743 79,371 87,979 51,215 16,626,620 21,309,704 22,283,317 23,400,707 1230 f OKEIGN WEST liNDlES. M E T A L S, &c. 1839 1840 1841 1842 dollar*. 9,900 210,344 dollars. 7,461 186,061 33 955 dollars. dollars. Cochineal Coined gold 850,858 874,945 526,322 526,778 326,842 765,829 154,055 1,136,605 .... .... 39,996 46,903 Total 2,200,347 1,280,577 1,132,667 1,337,763 FOREIGN Goods. ARTICLES. 1839 1840 1841 1842 dollars. 513,772 dollars. 1,842,192 dollars. dollar*. 843,259 539,051 24,466 6,023 135,252 95,105 153,347 16,709 5,975 6,372 108,985 171,478 37,525 87,523 154,901 7,528 30,199 10,135 5,688 1,426 333,616 164,504 67,418 8,621 96,537 76,805 Peltry 25,714 17,775 3,507 Silk 104,585 74,319 45,203 4,919 26,898 29,492 12,888 19,270 993 318,828 159,587 159,452 116367 T 1 f d 2 654 765 3 360 589 510 506 138 349 Grand Total exportations. . . Exports from warehouse. 21,481,732 25,950,870 23,924,507 24,876,619 1,807,536 TONNAGE Cleared, with Exports and Export Duties. TONNAGE Cleared. PORTS. 1839 1840 1841 1842 tons. 235 703 tona. 223 167 tons. 253 865 tona. 233 446 Cuba 54 006 68 121 64 416 90 238 Nnevitas 4 923 5 370 3 628 Trinidad 28 238 30 547 30 880 31 424 Baracoa 1,603 1,111 2,221 1,880 Cienfuegos 4,404 7,778 3,894 12,563 2,880 14,973 3,468 15,116 10,515 954 9,412 1 385 8,806 200 9,129 Santa Cruz 2,913 1,176 617 943 337 267 192 228 431,900 455,113 486,027 472,100 EXPORT Duties levied at the several Ports. PORTS. 1839 1840 1841 1842 dollar*. dollars. dollars. dollars. Cuba 140,271 141,042 117,118 153,096 5,602 7,780 6,510 9,967 Trinidad Baracua 73,369 78,761 89,249 91,152 Gibara Cienfuegos 17,429 20,201 12,679 31,207 10,390 28,609 19,089 35,478 Santi- Espiritu 14,513 1,722 6,466 11,251 2,090 7,880 10,626 911 5,446 12,981 2,140 4,981 Total 250 1,249,564 551 1,435,695 236 1,322,642 1,203 1,371,710 STATISTICS OF CUBA. VALUE of Exports from the several Ports. PORTS. avana "uba iNuevitas , Matanzas , Trinidad Baracoa Gibara Cienfuegoa.... Manzanillo ... Santi-Espiritu. Santa Cruz San Juan Total. 1H40 dollars. 12,200,7:57 4,149,806 8-2,727 3,335,284 013,417 2I.45H 240,255 280,669 192,252 10,681 47,822 662 21,481,848 dollars. 181,750 1,046,181 43,075 217,562 506,256 151,866 19,910 49,584 8,220 25,941,778 1841 2^,714,614 ltd dollar.. 205,110 34,312 EXPORTS of Sugar and Coffee from Cuba, during the Years 1840 and 1841. 18-1 18 41 Sugar. Coffee. Sugar. Coffee. boxes. arrobas. boxes. arroban. 265 W4A 4-10,144 739 15* Trinidad ... . 5q 77 j 111,908! 32 175 572 312 9,722 Total 804,490$ 2,187,671 812,129 1,360,920ft EXPORTS of Sugar and Coffee from Havana and Matanzas in 1841 and 1842. WHERE SENT TO. SUGAR IN BOXES. ARROBAS OF COFFEE. From Havana. From Matanzas. From Ha tana. From Matanzai. 1841 1842 1841 1842 1841 1842 1841 184* 17,343 90,332 52,585 2,620 34,957 11,147 15,397 15,992 2,222 12,532 86,261 6,254 37,616 23,074 1,765 12,076 138 7,667 4,486 434,464 15,785 109,888 24,403 1,205 49,395 15,067 11,804 22,135 3,349 21,233 78,825 7,358 22,982 13,572 2,030 3,858 102 8,583 5,891 417,465 2,974 31,621 57,132 33,626 6,213 6,154 7,702 1,012 10,603 29,500 6,347 14,447 24,883 7,824 2,510 260 12,407 6,752 1,535 67,079 39,235 40,348 10,570 3,564 1*,*138 10,299 21,498 10,870 14,894 20,182 7,193 8,324 4.046 13,031 16,516 621 29,626 45,488 30 976 75,585 97,816 23,841 17,334 4,268 2,418 15,121 272,102 65,691 40,215 4,879 60,074 2,941 4,244 90,964 56,238 8,144 1,355 123,273 213,903 50,789 56,402 23,656 27,762 8,475 185,674 48,849 40,364 10,300 120 "90 471 12638 9*158 9,484 1,374 3,516 2,292 16,419 31,496 10,610 4.905 5,628 1,651 3,274 2,318 1,937 3.831 14,107 20,513 22,203 2-2,430 BJ11 23,180 12,469 4,74* Bremen Holland Belgium Spain Italy New York Boston . . Charleston New Orleans .... . . Mobile Other ports of the United Various Total Number of boxes. . . 261,967 260,775 725,488 1,013,607 108,209 161.373 The suoar imported into England from Cuba, as well as that from Brazil, has chiefly been refined in bond. The sugar exported from Brazil to Trieste, and to many other continental ports, those of France, Portugal, and Spain excepted, has British ships. 1232 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. STATEMENT of the Number of Vessels which have arrived at, and sailed from the various Ports in the Island of Cuba, during the Year 1 COUNTRIES AND FLAG S. ARRIVALS. DEPARTURES. J I I S Trinidad. Outporta of Trinidad. Santiago de Cuba. SOurportsof Santiago de Cuba. TOTAL. a H * <a X 1 1 Matanzas. Trinidad. Outports of Trinidad. Santiago de Cuba. Outports of Santiago de Cuba. TOTAL. Spanish SOP 5!)0 1C8 27 6 21 51 13 80 235 24 2 55 110 10 41 81 44 130 82 166 16 69 34 17 884 1132 429 45 6 22 83 20 6 4 5 8 4 5 2 2 407 626 195 28 7 21 47 10 6 3 2 2 1 1 2 79 287 29 2 "l 9 6 2 1 1 54 111 11 is 32 81 48 128 83 160 15 8 2 1 2 2 68 48 12 4 5 828 1236 455 45 i 8 4 3 7 3 1 3 2727 English French **3 5 is ii 2 4 Danish Swedish Italian 3 2 3 2 3 ! From Spanish Posses- 3 2 2 .. .. 2 East Indies .. .. Total (1842).... Total for 1841 . 1410 350 191 166 414 125 2657 1359 417 192 161 401 137 1563 480 203 206 427 155 3034 1653 558 199 149 419 140 3118 12 18 3 Decrease 153 130 12 40 13 30 378 234 141 7 CHAPTER XIII. SEAPORTS OF CUBA. THE Havana, Spanish Habana, or as pompously styled in official language, " La Siempra Fedelissima Ciudad de San Cristobal de la Habana" is justly described as one of the best harbours in the world. The population, in 1827, consisted of 46,621 whites, 23,562 coloured and black free people, and 23,840 coloured and black slaves. Total, 94,023. Including the garrison, the present population is considered little if at all under 150,000. The streets of Havana cross each other at right angles, and extend in straight lines from one side of the city to the other. In 1584 there were only four, and the notaries in those days commenced certain deeds with " la publicd en las cuatro calks de esta Villa. 3 * In consequence of their regularity they do not now exceed fifty within the walls. "They are all," says the author of a recent book, 1845, " McAdamised, thanks to the energy of Tacon, but their want of width has prevented the formation of sidewalks ; unless the narrow row of flag-stones close to the houses, and which are often below the level of the street, may be so named. These are not unfrequently used in common by the carts and pedestrians ; and in wet weather, forming as they do the inner boundaries of the side gutters, are scarcely preferable to the middle of the street. It is not, there fore, surprising that the ladies of Havana do not promenade in the city ; indeed, the absence of the female form in the busy crowds that pass before the eyes of the stranger, constitutes one of its most striking features. "In the more frequented channels of the city, considerable skill is requisite to wend your * La Habana en sus primeros dias. DESCRIPTION OF HAVANA. 1233 on iron way safely. Besides a multitude of narrow carts, which, however, are supported wheels so low that you might easily pass over one, if it obstructed the way there i lumbering volante, with its long shafts and ponderous wheels, roUin* close every moment. The horse trots leisurely on, so that if he does strike against you it mav ! be accepted as a friendly warning of the approach of the vehicle, for none is ever civea by the postilion, and he is so far in advance of the wheels that you can very easily : escape. Add to these the heavy ox-cart, with its team of well-broke cattle ; long trains I of pack-horses, with their cumbrous loads of charcoal, green fodder, or poultry mounted horsemen, urging their steeds to their utmost speed, whenever the course is clear for but a short distance ; and innumerable negro porters with wheelbarrows, or carrying huge loads on their headsand some idea may be formed of the principal thoroughfares of the city. When the crops of sugar, molasses, and coffee, are brought here for exportation, they are sometimes so blocked up by the laden carts, and the whole place becomes so filled with the accumulated produce, that it is not unusual for the captain-general to grant permission to labour not only on the Sabbath, bu^ during the whole of each night, which is never otherwise permitted among the warehouses and shipping. The calle des Mercaderes is the principal street for shopping, and contains many fine and extensive stores, filled with choice dry goods, jewellery, china, glass-ware, &c. These are designated by different names, which, however, have no reference to their contents as * the bomb, a favourite one, the stranger, virtue, &c. ; but the name of the owner never appears on the sign-board. The principal commercial houses have neither sign nor name, and can only be distinguished from the larger private dwellings by the bales of goods, or boxes of sugar and bags of coffee that are piled up in their lower stories ; the merchant and his family, and clerks, living in the upper part."* . * Nearly all the retail shops are owned by Spaniards, and, with very few exceptions, none but men are seen behind the counters. The Parisian shop-girl, so celebrated for her skill in selling, might, however, here learn a lesson, not only in overcharging, but also in that assiduity in serving, that will scarcely permit the visitor to leave without purchasing something. Let the novice take care how he offers one -half the price asked for an article, if he does not wish it, for that, not unfrequently, is its real one ; in almost every case, one-fourth will be deducted, much for this xippee-xappee ?" (hippee-happee) I inquired of a hat merchant. " Twelve dollars." " I will give you six." " Say eight." " Only six." " It is a very fine one, senor, take it for seven;" and finding that was about its value, and longing to exchange my beaver for a Panama, more suited for the heat, I closed the bargain. " You shall have this cane for a dollar," a Catalan said to me, as I was examining his var articles spread out under one of the arcades near the market ; not wishing to buy it, I offered two rials, when he handed it to me. I gave him two realcs sevilhnas, but he insisted and I got my cane for one-quarter the price asked. A cane is an inseparable appendage exquisite, it is still used as an insignia of several professions Thus, the doctor is here still reco nised by his ebony cane with its gold head and, black tassels, and some public o SUiS AlSo?gh"he calle des Mercaderes is the Bond-street of Havanna, retail shops are scaUered all over the city, which in a large part seems to be made up of them the k* <** the dwelling-houses being thus occupied. The ladies m shopping do not in f"MUS volante*, but have the goods brought to them, the strictness ; of Spanish eUqii to deal with a shopman ; and it is only when the seller of goods is of their own sex that they venture into a store. The custom of appearing in public only m "TJ* jS; ~ some of my fellow-boarders, American ladies, who ventured to do their ^|* ^g greeted in their progress by the ^^^SSSSff^^ as a Persian would to se e ne seemed as much surprised to see a lady walK tr unveiled in his. I have said that Spaniards are chiefly the ASU irian S , wimc -. engaged in commerce. Those containing dry goods ^i^^^^SSS^ shrewd of groceries and provisions is monopolised by Catalans, ii - received their sobriquet of economical class 5 and have, perhaps in consequence of these qual e> rece v the r o q Spanish Jews, which can only be construed into a cornphme nt " the rael e , of the commerce of the island is in their hands, as well as JJTOJJSJHfci the pack of the the interior of the island they appear to monopolise every branch of VOL. I. 7 S 1234 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. -The substantial manner in which even the most unimportant building is constructed attract "attention ; every one seems made to last for ever. The walls of a single-story ho se are seldom less than two feet in thickness; and to witness the erection of those of the larcrcr ones, the masonry might readily be mistaken for that of some embryo LtificatiJn, destined to be cannon-proof. Many of the private dwelings are .immense structures I was shown one belonging to one of the Gomez, that cost 500,000 dollars ; and without the walls, facing the military parade-ground, another was nearly bu.lt, which with its pillars and arches, occupied a front as large as some of the minor palaces in Kurope. The value of real estate is very high in Havana ; a lot about sixty feet snuare on which a store was afterwards built, sold a few years ago for 40,000 dollars, and the hotel of my host, that can accommodate from thirty boarders comfortably to sixlv packed away, as they often are here, commands a rent of six thousand dollars. With such a value set on the land, but little is appropriated to yards, and the whole city may be said to be divided into squares of solid blocks. The architecture of the larger houses is heavy. They are so constructed as to form o jcn squares in their centres, their only yards, where sometimes a few shrubs planted in boxes serve to relieve the eye, and upon which the lofty arches of the corridors look down. The lower story is occupied by the store-house, reading-room, kitchen, and stable ; while the common entrance is often half blocked up by the volante, its arched passage serving for a coach-house. From the side of this latter a wide flight of stone steps leads to the corridor of the second story, into which all the rooms open, and which forms the common passage to all of them. It opens itself on the central square, and the spaces between its heavy pillars and high-sprung arches, are generally closed with Venetian blinds. An air of rude grandeur reigns throughout the whole structure, the architecture partaking of a mixture of the Saracenic and Gothic styles. The chief hall or parlour is generally from forty to fifty feet long, twenty wide, and as many feet high ; while the windows and doors, reaching from the floor to the ceiling, render it cool and pleasant during warm days, but afford little protection against the damp northers. The floors are all stuccoed or tiled, and the walls and ceilings not unfrequently ornamented with fresco ; while only here and there, a few panes of glass let into the thick shutters, serve to admit the light when they are closed. M Notes on Cuba, 1845. This description, written by an intelligent citizen of the United States, differs little in character from some of the towns in Spain. The town houses are like fortresses. " Every window accessible either from the street or the roofs of the neighbouring houses, is strongly barricaded with iron bars, while the stout folding-doors, guarding the only entrance to the whole building, would not be unfit to protect that of a fortress. They are castellated palaces ; and with their terraced roofs, their galleries and passages, their barricaded windows and ponderous doors, remind one of the olden Saxon strong holds, which Scolt has so graphically described. humble pedlar to the country tienda with its varied contents ; and in the maritime towns, many a commercial house, whose ships cover the sea, is theirs. " Under the arcades near the markets in Havana, may be seen a number of shops not ten feet square, with a show-case in front, before which a restless being is constantly walking, reminding one of a caged wild animal that chafes for a wider range. At night the show-case is carried into his little cabin, which serves him for shop, dormitory, and kitchen ; and where he may be often seen preparing his frugal meal over a chafing dish of" live charcoals. Five years of privation and a fortune is his motto ; and not a few of the wealthiest Spanish residents in Cuba may date the commencement of their prosperity from as humble a source. The greater part of the trade with old Spain is in their hands, and they have latterly also extended their correspondence to other :ountries, and entered into active competition with the resident foreign merchants. The Catalan. cover, furnishes the planter with all the necessaries for his negroes and plantation ; advances moneys for his crops, which he then sells on commission ; and often loans to him the requisite sums to erect his costly sugar works, or make his less expensive coffee estate, but all at an interest, ruinous in the present depreciated value of his crops." -Notes on Cuba. DESCRIPTION OF HAVANA. " There is no West End in Havana ; the stately mansion of the millionaire is of.en in juxta-position w.th the magazine of tasajo, jerked beef, with its si-,, . 8 ] ic , swinging over its door, and its putrid-like odours tainting the air ; or its basement occu pied by the tienda, with its stock of lard, garlic, and groceries, or the woiksl,. humble artisan. Many of the dwellings are, however, of only one storv and their parlours are completely exposed to the gaze of every one, through their lain windows which open on the street. Two rows of arm-chairs, facing each other, areplaced near these, where, during the evening, the older members of the family may be seen seated with their visitors. The younger ones stand within the windows, looking through the interstices of the iron bars at the pedestrians, and occasionally enjoying the conversation of an acquaintance as he loiters for a moment to pay a passing compliment." All sorts of goods are sold in the shops. The markets of Havana are well supplied : the fish market is extolled. In 1610, an old hospital was the only place of worship in Havana, which the inhabitants complained could not accommodate one-eighth part of those who desired to partake of the sacrament. They petitioned the king, through their new bishop, to aid them in the erection of a church, and to remove the cathedral of St. Jago de Cuba to their city, as the latter place was badly fortified, and the church there had been already sacked by pirates of all its chalices, &c.* It now contains sixteen churches, built without much attempt at architectural beauty. The great wealth once possessed by the monks in Cuba is well known. They owned large tracts of the richest soil on the island, and their revenues from their plantations were very great. Their possessions have all within late years been confiscated, and with them their power has passed away. Most of them have left the island, their number in Havana, by the census of 1842, being reduced to 106, to which may be added 188 nuns all that now remain of those once numerous bodies. Two of their establishments, St. Augustine and St. Domingo, have been converted into storehouses by the government for its use, and severe restrictions are imposed on all who still retain the order. Of all the numerous monastic orders, who must once have swarmed in the city, but one or two monks only are now occasionally seen passing through the streets. Although their rich cane fields and valuable coffee estates have long been adver tised for sale by the government, few purchasers have as yet been found. Much of their landed property had been bequeathed to them for the express purposes of religion ; and the fear that if bought by individuals, lawsuits might hereafter be instituted for its recovery, has deterred persons from buying, for no faith is placed in the government substantiating the claims of the purchasers. The church of San Felipe is the resort of the fashionable, and haying seen service performed in the more humble edifice of Santa Clara, I took my seat the nex among the worshippers of this. It was the anniversary of Santa Lucia, and I was nearly half filled with gentlemen, among whom were a few military officers in r uniforms/ Not more than a dozen ladies were present, the rest of the females we re coloured, and there were only a few children. The central benches were occupied by gentlemen alone, but the two races were not separated; and here, as in S * La Habana en sus priraeros dias. 1236 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. coloured mostly were near the sacristy ; one old woman, in a shabby attire, kneeling on the very steps/and almost touching the gown of the officiating priest. -Notes on Cuba. The cathedral is situated near the mansion of the captain-general, in the Calle del Ignacio, with its towers and pillared front of discoloured and worn stone. But the chief object to which the attention of every visitor is invited, is a tablet of stone, inlaid in the wall, to the right and in front of the .altar, with the bust of Columbus sculptured on it, in basso-relievo, above the opening of what is called his tomb. The large convent of San Juan de Dios is now used solely for a hospital. It is a huge building, with high, unornamented walls without and within, of irre gular construction, with a double gallery open to the central square court. The great prison of Havana is a large building, erected by Tacon, during his residence on the island, and is situated without and near the gate of La Punta, not far from the sea. The fresh breezes circulate freely through it, and protects its inmates from the pestilential fevers which generate in crowded and ill-ventilated rooms. It is quadrangular, each side being about 300 feet long and fifty high, and encloses a central square planted with shrubbery, and watered by a handsome fountain. It can contain 5000 pri soners, and has had more than 1000 within it. The style of its architecture is simple but massive ; and, although unenclosed by walls, and built with care for the health of the inmates, its strongly ironed barred windows and doors, and the guard of soldiers, afford ample security. It is said, its erection did not add to the expenses of the city ; as it was built by the labour of the convicts, and with funds which, before the administration of Tacon, had been dishonestly appropriated by the civil officers, and of which he deprived them. Tacon greatly improved the streets and passeos. The disorganised state of the country before the absolute rule of Tacon is well known. He put a sudden check to murder, robbery, and fraud, and impressed on a people, whose corrup tion was proverbial, some regard for honesty, which has outlived his administra tion. The American writer whom we have quoted, says of Tacon, " Neither the noble nor the mean, the rich nor the poor, were shielded from the law. There was none of that mawkish sensibility present with him that has become of late so fashionable with us, and of which our increasing cases of crime are in some measure the fruits. Punishment surely and quickly followed on the conviction of the accused ; and the head of the murderer was often hung over the spot of the assassination, as a warning to his comrades. 44 In consequence of this even-handed justice, while he restored quiet to the country, and rendered the highway as safe as the public streets, he made many enemies among the rich, who had hitherto rode rough-shod over the poor; and they preferred charges against him for unnecessary cruelty. He referred his judges to the annals of the court, and it was found that fewer punishments had been inflicted by him than by the former governors, during the administration of whom murder and robbery had stalked unchecked m open daylight, even in the streets of Havana. DESCRIPTION OF HAVANA. of .hep T ease, were made Lwerab.e for the robberies comSTp L^^&; . was sent to Havana. Men were sometimes taken suddenly from the ,ni,l of the families, where they hved m fanc.ed security, were shown the indisputable proofs of c r guilt, and at once exned from the island as inimical to its government. During the carnival at Havana, the theatre is transformed into an immense mask-ball-room; and the streets are filled with the most grotesque characters. The latter frequently stop before the grated-windows and dance to the music of the guitar or tambourine, the family coming forward to the window to enjoy the outside drollery; others, habited as Turks, Jews, and other nations, parade the streets. On Good Friday, all the church-bells are mute ; in some places their peals are made to imitate thunder. The yards of all the Catholic ships are also crossed, and a figure representing Judas is hung by the neck from some con spicuous point ; in country villages, the monteros amuse themselves by shooting at him. The crucifixion, burial, and resurrection, are also acted. The possessions of the church have been confiscated, but the tithes are still collected, and it is said, that most of the money is appropriated to other pur poses than the support of religion. The people feel most sensibly every additional tax on their resources. The expulsion of the monks is an advance towards religious liberty ; but no permission has been obtained to erect a chapel in Havana for Protestant worship. The history of Havana comprises much of that of Cuba. It forms a key to the Gulf of Mexico, and all its channels. San Cristobal de la Habana, according to Solis, Herrera, and other early historians, was at first established on the south coast of Cuba near Batabano ; but on account of the insalubrity of the spot it was translated, in 1519, to its present site, on what was then called the Port of Carenas. Its judicious selection became soon evident by the relief which it gave to many vessels that were wrecked on the neighbouring coasts, and on that of Florida, particularly on the Matacumbi rocks ; where, besides others, the whole fleet of Don Rodrigo de Torreo, with the exception of one vessel was lost in 1733. It was chiefly from this port that the early discoverers of much of Mexico and of Southern America sailed. The governors at first resided in St. Jago de Cuba, which, besides containing the cathedral, was near to Hispaniola, the head-quarters of the Spaniards. In 1538, Hernando de Soto took up his residence in Havana. In 1607, when the island was divided into two departments, the military chiefs and the bishop made it their chief residence. In 1538, it was surprised by a French corsair, who reduced it to ashes; and during this century and the beginning of the next, * Morel, Vida de este obispo. J238 FOREIGN WEST INDIES. about 16,000 of the inhabitants of the islands flocked to the vicinity of Havana in order to avoid the depredations of the Buccaneers. In an attack on St. Jago de Cuba, the pirates sacked the cathedral; and their chief, Giron, carried off the bishop a prisoner, who, after eighty days captivity, was ransomed for 200 ducats, 1000 hides, and 125 Ibs. of beef. In 1655, the English attempted to take Havana by assault, but failed with crreat loss.* In 1762, however, the English captured the city, attacking the de fences by sea and land, making a breach in the Morro.f The British fleet, con sisting of fifty-three vessels, carrying 2268 guns, was commanded by Sir George Peacock j and the army, numbering 12,041, and 2000 more from New England, Virginia, and Jamaica, under George, Earl of Albemarle. Three bomb-ketches, carrying twenty-four bombs, were attached to the fleet. To oppose this force, the Spaniards had sixteen vessels in the port, carrying 890 guns, while the city and the Morro were . defended by 250 more, of which only one was a forty-two pounder, and six thirty-six pounders ; besides these they had eleven mortars. Their army numbered 13,610 Spanish troops, and 14,000 militia and coloured men. The Morro was obstinately defended by Don Luis Vicente Velasco, who refused to capitulate, and was mortally wounded in the final assault of the English. He died in twenty-four hours after ; and in perpetual commemoration of his indomitable courage, Charles III. commanded that there shall always be one of the vessels in the Spanish navy bearing his name. After retaining posses sion of the whole island for about one year, it was restored to Spain. J The number of war vessels built at Havana from 1724 to 1796 amounted to fifty-one ships of the line, twenty-two frigates, seven barks, nine brigs, and twenty-five smaller crafts; in all 110, carrying 5068 guns: six rated above 100 guns each, among which was the Santissima Trinidad. In 1844 the Cuba navy consisted of one frigate of forty-four guns, two or three steamboats built in the United States of five guns each, and sixteen other crafts, carrying from one to sixteen guns ; in ail carrying about 190 guns. The fortifications, whatever may be the number of guns under cover, have very few mounted, and those of not a large calibre. The harbour of Havana is one of the safest in the world, being land-locked on all sides but the north, where its entrance is only 1000 feet wide, with the gulf-stream flowing deeply before it. It has about six fathoms of water within, and is sufficiently capacious for about 1000 vessels. " The Spaniards say, the English were repulsed by a miracle, the memory of which is still perpetuated by the name of los congrejos, the crab miracle. It is related that they disembarked ie coast during a dark night, but became so alarmed by the noise of the crabs among the dead leaves ot the mangroves, which, with the lights from an immense number of coculos, induced them to believe they had fallen into an ambush, that, filled with terror, they fled to their boats in the greatest disorder." Notes on Cuba, f The Morro was first built in 1633; the present one was erected on the ruins of the first, destroyed by the English. La Punta, La Estella, and Santa Catalina, were built in 1C64. J Apuntcs para la Historia de la Isla de Cuba DESCRIPTION OF HAVANA. ] g The first church in Havana was built on the spot now occupied by the man sion of the captain general; an attempt was made by the Senor Laso to demo lish it, and build another on the site ; but it continued to be used as a pi. worship until the expulsion of the Jesuits, when the present cathedral erected. In January, 1607, one of the prebends of the canon was suppn to give place for the tribunal of the Inquisition, which was held in the church of San Domingo. This huge edifice is now used as a government wood-yard. Besides the Royal University, including a medical and law school, and chairs for the natural sciences, it contains several other learned institutions. Among these are the Royal Seminary of San Carlos y San Ambrosio, founded in 1773 ; a seminary for girls, founded in 1691 ; a free school of sculpture and painting, founded by the Sociedad Economica in 1818 ; a free mercantile school, and some private institutions for primary instruction. A museum of natural history was established in 1838, and the naturalist, Don Felipe S. Poye, appointed director ; without the walls there is a botanical garden under the especial care of a pro fessor of botany, Senor Auber. The means of education are, however, far from being ample, and many of the wealthier families send their sons to Germany, France, and the United States, and on their return they are greatly divested of Spanish prejudices, and no doubt impart liberal and intelligent views to those with whom they afterward associate. The Real Sociedad Economica de la Habana, formerly called the Patriotic Society, was established in 1793 ; and is divided into three principal sections, on education, agriculture, and commerce and popular industry ; a section, on the history of Cuba, has been added. It has a public library, in the old convent of San Domingo, that is open to all, daily, except on Sundays and festivals. This really useful society publishes a monthly report of its labours, which contains, also, besides contributions from its members, extracts from foreign journals. It records the general statistics of the island, and collects fragments of its early history: it has corresponding branches in nine of the principal towns of Cuba.* The medical school was re-organised in 1842, and the present requisi tions for graduation, are a classical education, and six years study of medicine. Foreign candidates for licences to practise medicine or surgery, are now com pelled to pass through a most rigid and expensive formality, which costs about 400 dollars. Several of the professors are Frenchmen. * Among the subjects for which premiums were offered by this society in ing: For th! best Essay on Free Schools. For one detailing the advantages nation. For one on the introduction of steam-power on sugar estates and the f of a school for native machinists and engineers. For one on the necessity of augment ing tl nl mber of the white population in Cuba, and the possibility of substituting white **^ sugar estates, with calculations on the cost, &c. The diploma of a Aoc*o deM Mo J was also offered to any one, who, after three years, produced 200 boxes of si g r from thus worked. For one on the breed of cattle, &c. For one on the ^^ coasting vessels in Cuba. For one demonstrating the means to correct the in its present state. Notes en Cuba. 1240 * FOREIGN WEST INDIES. There are twenty-six printing establishments in Cuba ; thirteen of which are in Havana; one founded in 1735, one in 1747, and one in 1787 ; and ten in the other principal cities. - The periodicals published in Havana, besides the me moirs of the Patriotic Society, and a medical journal, are three daily papers, > and one thtee times a week. Matanzas, Puerto-Principe, Trinidad, Villa-Clara, Santi-Spiritu, and St. Jago, have each one newspaper. The Carres del Ultra- . mqr\& weekly paper in Spanish, printed in Paris, and containing a condensed re- po rt of European news is also received in Cuba. Almost all the American and English newspapers find their way into the island, through the commercial houses in the maritime towns, but these are of no use to the Cuban, from his ignorance of the English language. The American author already quoted, says " The character of some of these papers, in point of literary contributions, is, how ever, as good as that of many in the United States ; while although the people dare not through their columns give utterance to the least complaint against the government, they are also free from that scandal that sullies the pages of some of the presses in our own country and England. Nor is the censorship confined to the politics of the island. A quack medicine, which had been puffed through its advertisement in one of the Ha vana papers, was found on trial to be deleterious, and to have caused the death of several persons. To guard against future similar accidents, a medical censorship was also established, to which the ingredients in all quack medicines must now be confided, before they can be recommended through the papers. Metaphysical, scientific, and moral subjects are often well discussed in the Diario and Noticioso of Havana, and rival in their excellence many of the contributions to our periodicals. Indeed, whoever takes up one of these papers will soon perceive that there is no lack of talent or learning in Havana, but it is confined to the few. The mass of even the wealthy population are not liberally educated, and of the poorer classes, very many are ignorant of the first rudiments, reading and writing. Over every effort to instruct them the mother country watches with a jealous eye ; and Cuba, as long as she remains subject to her, will have cause to mourn over the ignorance of her indigent classes." There is an opera-house generally well filled. The Tacon Theatre is said to be larger than the Scala of Milan. Havana has also musical societies ; the three principal of which are, the Filoharmonico, Habanero, the F. St. Cecilia, and the most exclusive, named simply the Filoharmonico. The Royal Lottery was established in 1812; the tickets are drawn in Havana sixteen times in the year ; the prizes amount each of fifteen times to 110,000 dollars, and once to 180,000 dollars. The price of the tickets is four dollars, and so numerous are its agents that almost every small town has one, and ped lars hawk them about the streets and through the country, where many are bought by the slaves. "One has but to glance at this mammoth establishment and trace out its multiplied ramifications through the whole island, to perceive the incalculable injury it does to the Drals of the people by fostering a spirit of gambling, the very counterpart to one of honest industry. Its very stability and just payment of drawn prizes only increase its baleful influence, tempting more to venture their gains in its vortex. The parental affection of a government, that thus creates a fund by fostering the vices of the people, should be strongly distrusted." DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CUBA. + ] ->.j 1 There are 363 licentiates and doctors of law in the Havana, and eleven en tical advocates ; besides escribanos and procuradores publics, notaries, and alter neys. It has also eighty-five medico-chirurgeons, twenty physicians, nine v surgeons, and fifty-seven sub-surgeons, who, in urgent cases, are permitted to render assistance to the wounded, or sick, until a surgeon or phyllcian can be brought. A large number of barbers, eighty-eight, which receive licences.to bleed, cup, leech, apply blisters and setons, and extract teeth, and are generally employed for these purposes by the higher branches of the profession. There were, in 1842, 140 merchants in the city. " It is true that the enormous duties compelled some of them to adopt a certain mode of business with the custom-house, with the officers of which they held a tacit under- standing. Recent measures have, however, almost completely checked this mode of introducing goods, and although the revenue of the crown has thereby increased it will only be the means of encouraging smuggling." Cuba has not a single bank, the merchant drawing on his foreign credit. But although it has only a specie currency, in no country is there, in the form of bonds, promissory notes, &c., more paper money, The Casa Real de Beneficencia was founded, or rather removed, to the pre sent site, in 1794. The departments for the reception of insane females consist of a number of rooms, in front of which a wide piazza extends, and a spacious yard affords ample space for exercise. About sixty-five were lodged here in 1842, of whom not more than a dozen were whites, the rest being of every shade from black to brown. All their necessary wants are supplied. There is an orphan boys department, with dormitories in long, high, venti lated, clean halls, in one corner of which the cots used at night are placed away. A dining-room is attached and well provided for about 150 boys, who are also taught in a school. There is also an infirmary attached to this praiseworthy institution. About 150 girls are also provided and taught in reading, writing, and needle work. The institution was at first intended only for girls, and by its rules three years residence within its walls entitles each on her marriage to a dowery of 500 dollars. "The children, who are all whites, are received after the age <f six years from the Foundling Hospital and other sources. The boys are kept until fifteen years old, and are then indented as apprentices. In 1842, a proposition was made by Monsieur An tonio Cournand, a student of the high normal school of Paris, and tutor in this institu tion, to educate the more intelligent boys for schoolmasters, to supply the schools on the island. It was agreed to by the trustees of the school, but the early death of the proposer has unhappily frustrated the completion of the design." In addition to the departments already described, the institution embraces also one for white female paupers, another for the free coloured, and one for indigent men. The Lunatic Asylum is also a part of it. " It contains besides, a place for the confinement of slaves arrested for crimes, from which it receives a considerable income, in the charges exacted from their owners for their lodging and board." W VOL. I. 7 T HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The capital of the Casa de Beneficencia amounted in 1832 to 262,505 dollars, and by the report for the year 1842, read by its secretary before the Patriotic Society, its income for that year was 86,407 dollars, and its expenses 86,262 dol lars. "Of this sum 3300 dollars were for six doweries, and an additional one bestowed during that year. In the girls department twenty-two had been admitted, twenty had been placed at service in private families, two had married, and two had died. In that of the boys thirty-three had entered, thirty had returned to their friends, or had been indented, and one had died ; 156 were left, and of the girls 15 1. In the Lunatic Asylum, fifty-four had entered, twenty- ei-ht had left, and eleven had died, leaving 130; while in the female insane department, nineteen had entered, twelve had left, and seven had died, leaving sixty-three. Of the paupers, thirty-two had entered, twenty-six had left, and seven had died, leaving thirty-nine. The whole establishment gives shelter to 604 individuals, including forty-nine negroes of both sexes, and sixteen slaves belonging to it. Another charitable institution, the Hospital of San Lazaro, destined chiefly to succour those unfortunate persons affected with the incurable Kocubea, or LazarinOy commonly called leprosy, a disease said to be peculiar to the West Indies. It commences its ravages on the toes and fingers, which first become atrophied and distorted ; then a small blister appears on their extremities, and joint after joint decays and falls off, until sometimes the whole hand to the wrist, and the whole foot to the instep is wasted. Some recover with the loss only of the first and second joints of their fingers or toes ; but the stumps remain insensible. " This disease is probably ossification of the arteries, on which an inflammation super venes, closing their calibers, and death of the part ensues, as in semile gangrene. It is regarded by the Creoles as contagious; and any one affected by it, if seen in the streets, is at once conveyed to the hospital. No instance has, however, been related of its spread ing there to the nurses or physicians; and I have myself known the father of six children, who although long a martyr to this affection, never communicated it to them or his wife, although they visited him constantly in the cottage where he lived, separated from the other negroes, on a coffee plantation." Notes on Cuba. The road leading to the Campo Santos, or common cemetery, is through mean streets, but the entrance to it is through a pretty shrubbery of ruses, pomegra nates, papayos, &c., rills of water meandering through it. Palms rise in rows within, where negroes are perpetually digging graves. Near it stands a lunatic asylum. The Military Hospital lately established in the building which was formerly the Royal Factory of tobacco, is an immense quadrangular building, enclosing several separate squares, and presenting the appearance of a large fortress, with massive high walls, well secured by gates. It was in these vast buildings that all the cigars of Cuba were made, and the tobacco packed for exportation, when the trade in that article was monopolised by a chartered company. Its capital was UESCKIPIIVK SKETCHES OF CUBA. , ., ,., 1,000,000 dollars, and in less than fourteen years the property of ,1 amounted to 14,000,000 dollars; and the expense of boxes su and labour, amounted annually to 46,000 dollars. All the employe, and iuW to prevent their smuggling, were compelled to live within the Imildin** As a military hospital its arrangements are highly extolled by the America physicmn It contained in January, 1842, 480 patients, and received that v 5622. Of these 5540 left it cured, 201 died, leaving 358 in its wards in Janulrv 1843. The comparative mortality of Havana may in a measure be learned from the statistics of its hospitals. San Juan de Dios, in 1842, lost 507 of 2299 who entered; San Francisco de Paula, for women, 181 of 479; San Lazaro, 18 of 106; the foundling hospital, Real Casa de Maternidad, 32 of 169; the military hospital, just described, 204 of 6102; in all, 942 of 9155 about 9.7 of the patients entered. Of the monastic institutions, &c., that have been suppressed, Antonio de Lopez states that in his time there were twenty-three convents in Cuba, three of them contained nuns.f Of the hospitals established by the religious orders, San Juan de Dios is the most ancient, having been founded by three brothers, hospitallers from Cadiz, in 1603. During the seventeenth century, according to its tables, it had 100 beds, and 800 sick persons were annually cured in it; but as the commerce and popu lation of the city increased, it is probable that the number was greatly aug mented ; the order consisted of thirty brothers. The hospital San Francisco de Paula, dedicated to the reception of women, was founded in 1665 by Don Nicolas Estebes Borges, a native of Havana, and dean of the church of Cuba. In 1730 it was destroyed by a hurricane, and was rebuilt in 1745. La Cuna y the Cradle, was founded in 1711, at an expense of 16,000 dollars, and maintains both the nurses and the foundlings. In 1842 it received sixty-four children, in addition to the 105 remaining from the last year; of these, thirty. * Arrate. f Sebastian de la Cruz, one of the few saved from the wreck of the ship Perla. Covered with rags he entered the city, exciting by his actions the laughter and mockery of the mob, which at first treated him as a lunatic. But his obstinate silence, the imperturbable quiet and humility he manifested under their injuries, and especially the perseverance and courage with which he castigated himself, resting nightly on thorns, and rising covered with wounds, induced a more favourable opinion of his merits. Soon after his entrance in the city, he appeared in public, dressed in the third order of St. Francisco, and went about exercising charity to all the sick he met, whom he conducted to his barracon. There he cured them, administering with great benevolence all the aid he could, to which end he applied the alms he received ; and was at the same time their cook, their nurse, and their almoner. Thus did this singular man spend the remainder of his life, which terminated on the 17th of May, 1589, without informing any one who he was, or whence he came, on which subjects he ever preserved an obstinate silence. The account of his life is found in both Valdes and Arrate s histories of Cuba, but the latter fixes the period of his death in 1778 so much do historians differ. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. two died, twenty-three were sent out to gratuitous nursing, and two to the Casa Beneficencia, leaving 112 inmates: its income was 35,859 dollars, and its expenses 31,682 dollars. The name of its founder is conferred on all infants left without one under its protection. There are beside eighteen other public hospitals on the island, located in its chief towns. Education. No report on the state of education in the whole island has been made to the Sociedad Economica since that of 1836, by Don Pedro Maria Romay, and Don Domingo del Monte. According to that report, the island contained 41,416 boys, from five to fifteen years of age, and 32,660 girls, from twelve to fourteen. Havana maintained eighty-five white and six coloured male schools, in which 4453 white and 307 coloured boys were educated ; and fifty-five white and one coloured female schools, with 1840 white and thirty-four coloured girls. The second division of the island, St. Jago de Cuba, had thirty-two white and nineteen coloured male schools, and educated 1069 white boys; and nineteen white and five coloured female schools, with 347 white and 145 coloured girls. Puerto- Principe, the third division, had twelve white male schools, with 512 white boys ; and seven female schools, with 239 girls, not classified. The whole amounting to 210 schools, with 8460 white scholars ; and thirty-one schools, with 486 coloured scholars. Of these, 3678 received a gratuitous education ; 1243 from the teachers themselves, and 2435 from funds provided by the Sociedad Eco nomica and by subscriptions, &c.* The report of 1842 states that the public funds for the gratuitous education of scholars, r which not long before amounted to more than 32,000 dollars, has been reduced to 8000 dollars, sufficient to support only 457 boys, and 342 girls, in thirty-seven schools. The cost of instructing them in religion, reading, writing, arithmetic, and grammar, was, for each pupil, one dollar monthly. In the large towns schools are general, but in the country districts scarcely any are provided with even primary schools. Nueva Filipina, with a population of more than 30,000, and containing the richest vegas of tobacco, has but one school for about forty boys, recently established. The poverty of the labouring whites in the rural districts is one cause of this neglect of education ; the children often have no clothes decent enough to appear at school, and some have none at all. But the high and oppressive taxes to meet, no one dares publicly own, is the depressing effect. The enormous exactions of Spain, the mother country, is the principal curse. Crime. No statistics of crime have ever been officially published : the fol lowing report affords some data by which the aggregate may be roughly calcu lated. Of the number of criminals, however, confined in the Havana prison in 1842, many are brought from a distance, and includes all within the jurisdiction * Mcmoriasde la Sociedad Economica, Vol. ii., p. 220370. The report, written by Senor Del Monte was too liberal in its tone to be printed entire. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CUBA. 1245 of the capita], a population of 631,760; the greater number from the ,-noraut population of the country. ACCUSED OP Whites. Coloured. TOT4L. Murder Duml^r. ii urn In- r. IHUI.UT. Wounding II 38 161 49 Forgery and passing counterfeit money 132 14 137 Ml Carrying prohibited arms Serious injury , 50 Rape and ravi.shr.ient 12 4 4 II 44 31 n Vagrancy 33 Deserters from those condemned to hard labour... 17 35 19 30 180 Total 1123 1219 2434 From this number must be deducted 107 sent to .the prisons of the jurisdictions where the crimp* were committed; also the convict deserters and the soldiers, 71. Of the 383 suspected persons, it is calculated that 288 at least will be found innocent, for persons in Cuba are ofren imprisoned on very slight ground* of sunpicion. The 462 arrested fur non-observance of police laws, cannot be classed among criminal- , and, added to the piecedmg, make the number 928 to be deducted from the tota , leaving 1500 criminals. The same year 19 lunatics were confined in the prison until proved fit subjects for the Lunatic Asylum, making the total 2451 ; that for 1841 was 2551, at the end of which year 482 remained confined ; and at the end of 1HW. <nily 287, showing a decrease in crime. The comparative number of particular crimes in the two >ears, were as follows : ACCUSED OF Murder Wounding Robbery Rape and ravishment. Incendiaries Total. 1841 number. 74 340 372 21 5 712 1842 Diminution. i umber. 25 102 103 5 235 Liberated Confined for correction and hard labour Condemned to hard labour aloue Deserters sent to their garrisons Sent to the Casa Beneficencia Lunatic Asylum Section of Industry of the Sociedad Economica. Died in the hospital Executed Remaining Total. 1842 numht-r. 1512 202 329 69 21 19 2 7 5 287 The following is a comparative statistic of crime and education, reported in 1837 to the Patriotic Society by the captain-general. Of 888 prisoners in the Cabanas, 494, charged with grievous offences, had not had even a primary education : to which may be added, 239 sick prisoners sent to the hospital San Juan de Dios, making the total 1127 persons accused of crime. The 4407 scholars in Havana and its suburbs, compared to the accused, give a per centage of 26, and to the 1105 convicted in the capitania-general, give 25 per cent. " The same comparison between the scholars and prisoners, gave for Cuba (St. Jago) 24 per cent, Baracoa 28 percent, Jiguani 21 percent, Bayamo 5 per 1246 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. cent, and for San Juan de los Remedies 20 per cent. The greater number of the prisoners in these places had not received even a primary education.* Intoxication is very rare. With all the corruption of the bench, the murderer seldom escapes from punishment; and even the duellist receives no mercy, which crime is now said to be unknown on the island. The section of Industry and Commerce has reported to the Sociedad Economica on the subject of apprenticeship, for 1842, that they have reclaimed from vagrancy 1411 boys, and placed them in situations to learn trades and the arts ; of these, 257 were apprenticed in 1842. During the year this section also ad justed 620 quarrels between the masters and the apprentices, and tHeir parents or trustees; so satisfactory were their decisions, that only five disputes were referred to a magistrate. Of the whole number apprenticed, seventy-two became masters of their trades ; eighty-four changed masters by mutual consent; eleven died ; 159 absconded, 153 of whom were retaken and replaced in their occupa tions. Fifty only were lost, many of these having been removed by their own parents or trustees ; fourteen were sent to the workshops of the Lanceros as a punishment ; and thirty-two were arrested for public offences. The author of the " Notes on Cuba/ describes the views from the Cabanas as truly magnificent. He says, "Far down lies a forests of masts, the tops of \\hich are hardly on a level with the base of the fortress ; and just beyond is the populous city, with its solid blocks of turretted houses occupying every space of the level land, and creeping half-way up its surrounding hills. Carry your eye southward, and trace the shores of the little bay every where studded with villas, its bosom covered by the large fleet of vessels from every nation, riding securely at anchor; and the summits of the adjacent heights crowned by forts, protecting while perfectly commanding the city presenting, in their sullen gran deur, a strong contrast to the peaceful look of the latter. How dwindled to pigmies are the moving throngs below, yet how the sound of their mingled voices sweeps up wards; even here you can almost distinguish the words spoken. And that sudden burst of music from those numerous convent bells, playing their merry tunes, as if to arouse the buried monks once more to life s joys. Now they cease and now again they all strike up a din, that would start a fireman from the sleep of death. But let us leave this spot, and following the parapet, separated from the fortress itself by a deep fosse, trace all its indentations and angles. What a city of embattle- nients lies on your left, as you pass sea- ward ! line upon line, and battery over battery, all admirably supporting each other, and the whole on such a grand scale, that the place seems built to be garrisoned by giants. The very air of desertion which its long extent of unarmed embattlements presents, adds to its apparent strength : the largest cannon, in those embrasures, would look like a swivel on the deck of a line-of-battle ship; a thousand soldiers paraded on those stupendous works, would only impress the beholder with an idea of their weakness. Not a single human being is seen on its walls; its sentry -towers, hanging over the abyss below, are tenantless, and silence seems to hold her court within the massive enclosures. Suddenly, the roll of the rattling drum issues from its inner depths, and the trumpet speeds the message in repeated wild notes to the next fortress. It is the signal of the setting sun, and from battery and fort, and the war-ship s deck, is heard the evening gun ; but the su.dden tumult is over, the mingled * Memoris de la Sociedad Economica DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CUBA. 1247 noise from trump and drum have ceased, and the spirit of the place seems again to t< We have now followed the parapet nearly a half mile ; and beyond lies another fortress the Moro, with its tall tower, its < Twelve Apostles, and its Pastor/ ra: the surface of the water, and completely commanding the entrance of the harbour, it&elf an almost impregnable stronghold ; while to our right, within a mile, another Height covered by batteries that could sweep the whole intervening vale. Wei might the palm of building be awarded to the Spaniards, but let us not forget that that of keep- Cha been conceded to the English, and let us profit by the history of Gibraltar. Wh a sufficient number of troops-a Spanish officer has said 8000-the Cabanas would be impregnable ; and should this port ever again fall into the hands of the Eng- Ugh our whole southern coast and the Gulf of Mexico would be commanded by them, nor could any present power dispossess them of it by force. In the arsenal of the Havana there have been built forty-nine ships line, twenty-two frigates, seven packet- ships, nine brigs of war, and schooners of war. The suburbs, or barrios estra muros, cover more ground, and contain a population than the city within. The line of fortification, embraces a ^ort o LLlar polygon, of an elliptical form, the greater diameter of which 2 yards, and the smaller 1200 yards in extent. HARBOUR OF HAVANA. The harbour, topographically, assumes the form of a capacious basin, with ,, tatter,. The length of * " ".n, b, P,,~k,,,v,l * , .Me * ride at anchor in front of the wharves. 1248 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. On the south side of the entrance of the Havana there is a lighthouse, with reflecting lamps and a revolving light, which may be seen twenty-five miles distant. The harbour can be known at a distance at sea by the hills of Managua, which lie inland soutli from the entrance ; eastward as well as westward the land is low, with the exception of the Moro rock, with its lighthouse and fortifica tions. Six leagues to the eastward are the detached hills of Jaruco, of moderate height. Dolphin Hill is seen some four leagues more westerly. The harbour is not very easily entered when the wind is north, or east-north east, as the channel lies nearly south-east and north-west. The wind begins to blow about ten in the morning, and continues till sunset, which enables vessels to enter the port during the day. In the rainy season the winds are often un favourable for entering : vessels at this time anchor on the Moro bank and warp in. In the dry season, or when the nortes blow, there is some difficulty to put to sea, from the swell which sets in to the harbour s mouth. Generally vessels enter about noon, and depart about sunrise, excepting in the hurricane months, and later in the season when the nortes prevail. The anchorage on the Moro bank is tolerably safe. But there are so few dangers, that with ordinary care, there is but little risk either in entering or departing from this admirable harbour. CHAPTER XIV. RECENT CUSTOMS REGULATIONS. TRADE OF THE PORT OF HAVANA IN 1844. The alterations in the new pauta, in 1846, are favourable to Spanish tonnage, and consequently go still more to the exclusion of British shipping from the import and export trade; although, in general, they do not materially affect the consumption of British staple- manufactures, as the duties augmented on some articles are reduced on others. The duties on linens have been somewhat reduced, whilst those on cottons are increased, and some changes have been made in the classification. The export duties also have been changed, and the tonnage duty on vessels carrying away molasses is now exacted ; all foreign vessels, by an order just promulgated, are subjected to the payment of twenty-three per cent additional tonnage duty, as difference between their registered tonnage and the Spanish ton of Burgos, or abide by the measurement to be made here. PORT OF HAVANA. L249 Sugar, formerly CONTRAST of Export Duties. By Foreign Ships to Foreign Ports. 50 cents per box . . 37 Coffee, formerly now Tobacco, formerly ,, now . Cigars, formerly now 56 20 150 621 50 per91bs. By Spanish Ships to Foreign P< 37 cents per box. 25 50 per91bs. 12 85 75 per mil Rum and molasses remain free of duty. Copper ore to pay nine cents per quintal. any flag. A fixed rate of duty on flour imported continues to be charged as follows : 2 dollars 00 cents per barrel, Spanish growth, by Spanish ships. 6 06 by Foreign 8 58 by Spanish 9 95 by Foreign R re 5 Spanish, in Spanish ships, 3-| p. ct. Spanish, in foreign ships, 17^ p. ct. " I Foreign, in 23 Foreign, in 33 By royal order from Spain, instead of the rate of two dollars paid by each vessel entering the ports of Havana for the health visit; foreign ships are now subjected to the payment of one-third of a real for each ton of their measure ment; i. e. a vessel of 300 tons has to pay twelve dollars four rials, whilst Spanish vessels are now subjected to only one-half of the above charge, or half a rial per ton ; being upon 300 tons, six dollars two rials. NAVIGATION OF THE PORT OF HAVANA, DURING THE YEAR 1844. In 1844, there arrived at Havana, 67 British vessels, of 12,659 tons, 715 crew; with cargoes, value 63,312/. 9s. Sd. : and 65 vessels, of 12,491 tons, and 701 crew, departed ; with cargoes, value 135,53 U. 15s. 8d. Also, 516 Spanish vessels, of 71,985 tons; 851 American, of 160,102 tons ; 24 Bremen, of 4353 tons; 16 Belgian, of 4418 tons; 21 Dutch, of 4053 tons; 22 Danish, of 4196 tons; 26 French, of 5738 tons; 17 Hamburg, of 3796 tons ; 1 Kniphausen, of 322 tons ; 5 Mexican, of 409 tons ; 10 Prussian, of 2967 tons ; 8 Russian, of 2975 tons ; 8 Swedish, of 2293 tons ; 2 Sardinian, of 435 tons ; 2 Oldenburg, of 250 tons ; 2 Norwegian, of 710 tons ; and 2 Brazilian, of 437 tons: making altogether, 1600 vessels, of 282,698 tons burthen. VOL. I. 7 u 1250 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. BRITISH Trade and Navigation of Havana, during 1844. A R R V A L S. DEPARTURES. COUNTRIES. ! Vessels . Burden. Value. COUNTRIES. Vessels Burden. Value. There were 67 Britis vessels that arrive !, o which there were froi Great Britain, wit general cargoe* Great Britain coals ... i Dumber f 16 13 1 31 tous. 3,284 3,463 386 292 7,425 s. d 32,760 D 4,558 3,082 . There were 65 Britisl vessels that departed, o which there were for Great Britain with number r. 14 2 2 1 1 1 tons. 3,095 324 159 393 362 201 102 121 52.329 9,333 1,600 3,800 6,000 600 Great Britain produce.. From Great Britain. Halifax fish r m od 40,400 6,400 800 700 2,100 600 6.000 600 4,000 tiO 75 50 365 872 240 46 general cargo 6 3 3 769 447 321 159 230 186 242 206 65 362 201 239 248 265 223 138 279 153 181 26 63 95 102 ballast Guernsey bricks ballot For Great Britain.... Vew Orleans ballast . . . Vfatanzas general cargo. 23 4,757 73,662 23,306 130 60 6,300 5,000 5,200 300 5,195 88 7,050 1,500 4,323 2,160 1,053 200 St. Thomas ballast 2 4 : 42 23 240 184 1,093 140 25 226 1,075 483 386 160 65 170 230 159 527 204 217 150 218 124 121 120 254 459 95 248 61 26 B. lib-nine* ditto St. Jago de Cuba ditto.. fi*b ,_., ballast Berbice ballast Buenos Ayies jerk beef. Puerto Rico pork, &c. fish Arichat molasses ballast Mariel ditto Newfoundland fish Nasau general cargo .. C ienf uegos coals ballast Surra Morena ballast... Guernsey produce From other parts From Great Britain.. Fr.x ional parts 36 31 5,200 7,425 34 22,908 40,400 198 St. Jagode Cuba ballast. Belize ballast Total 67 12,659 63,312 9 8 Sierra Morena ditto.... Halifax produce X T assau general cargo. . . For other parts For Great Britain.... Fractional parts Total 7,700 4,757 34 61,865 73,662 4 65 12,491 135,531 In 1844, there arrived at the port of Havana, 49 British steam-packets, bringing 568 passengers, quicksilver, cochineal, gum copal, &c.; total value, 6,710,280 dollars. These vessels departed with 782 passengers CHAPTER XV. OUT-PORTS AND TOWNS PORT OF M ATA NZ AS PUERTO PRINCIPE. THE city of Matanzas, which ranks next to Havana, as a commercial port, was reviously to 1809 prohibited to trade to any foreign country, and restricted in > trade m many other respects, though forming an outlet for the products of ichest part of Cuba. It lies on the north coast, fifty-two miles east of Its harbour, which is rather limited in anchorage ground, by the mud lown by two rivers, is sheltered by a ledge of rocks, bay, which is spacious, is protected from all winds but the north-east. PORT F M ATA N 2 AS. 1251 There are two channels, the one in at the north, the other in at the south, end of the ledge; but the southern is only deep enough for coasting vessels. The most recent account which we have of Matanzas is by the intelligent author of " Notes on Cuba." He visited the place by land, and observes, "The country, after leaving the Carlotta and its beautiful valley, became rolling, and more sterile the nearer it was to the coast. It was only when we reached the San Juan Rive/ which runs by Matanzas, that it became again clothed in the rich verdure of cul tivation Its borders were lined by farms, and on its occasional meadow lands, herds of rattle and troops of horses were grazing on the luxuriant herbage. About a league from h tv we passed the only refinery of sugar established on the island, and that one owned by an American citizen. Its sugars have been proved, by a comparison, to be lunerior to the best in the states, preserving, in a measure, the flavour of the cane ; still, Cuba the clayed article is preferred for its cheapness, the coffee and chocolate, here almost universally drank, masking its peculiar flavour. A market has, however, been o ened for it in Spain, which will remunerate the proprietor for hisenterpr.se and Ut - The outskirts of the town were composed of mean-looking, strangling, and often, f houses very pictures of desolation and m.sery, with here and there a tfenda, deserted houses, very P generally seen a number of pack-horses waiting for the.r before the doo^whf g , ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ of dnver who was re a ^ r gentlemen s houses to be seen, although on ihe M o rio^LS were many beautiful sites; the grounds were sterile, and the sides T!l Wl cov ?d only with a few stunted bushes and short grass. As we entered the of the hill cove o y f the town th e houses improved in appearance, but the greater more P^^JgJ^i, O ne story, and presented irregular fronts, without any regard number by far were ojoniy^ , ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ m ^ c here to architectural beauty. o fatio-ued had we been by our repeated pro- Eng ,ish was spoken, as soon g ne and , .. ^^^ * Jg a ^ n,enades up the h lls thate^ one; howev er, that could not f.,1 to arrest degree f satisfaction^ Ihe s c|ose ^ ^ ^ br|(lge o{ the the attention of ever , wa> ^ w m onteros, volantes, pack-horses and ox- Yumun river, with ihe var ed CTOWQ _ ^ Ca ^ , Qng extende( , sldes carts hurrying into -or leaving the city ^ > very summit, with here and there a covered vvhh a rich ^^^^SSflS^A^ its gentle declivities. On the solitary building or clum, o tiees in eg J cultivated fields, and palms and other side rose the high .11 ba k ot tne c 1> from the Cumbrej Bi|h tl . ick cocoas, terminating ab ruptly at tl e deep ap p o ^ ^ ^ beautiful an ^ woods skirting the who e brink ol the p, ec p c ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^ its anchored fleet, and for s d * j betvveen V w o small rivers which issued from signifying the slaughter of ^ battle-Hek . ^ coffee estate?j and after It was * ThS back country of Matan as s r ich * commerce . It now extend, an arm made a port of entry it increased p^ly in ^ ^^ where an emb ty hdi across the San Juan river i^o thea ajc the Yumuri, at the base of the Cumbre sprung up, called the Pueblo ^ ievo, ^ ^ m ^ ^ p0 p u l at ,on m 1841 another arm named Versailles - lnc u ^ n whu 304 1 were free coloured, and on9 amounted to 19,124, of whom . 1 f* ^ entere d its port, of which 302 were American, were slaves. The same year 1252 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. and 558 sailed from it ; paying to the t^^fy^^^ ^ch 434^99 million of dollars. Its importations amounted to 1,995,311 dollars, of which 434 59, dollars were for lumber from the United States ; and its exportation* to 4,374,780 dollars of which 3,733,879 dollars were for sugar, 351,733 dollars for molasses, and 163,385 "it contains one church (the foundation of which was coeval with that of the city), which is now nearly completed, and another recently erected m Pueblo Nuevo; a large and excellent hospital ; extensive barracks garrisoned by a regiment of Spanish soldiers, a theatre, and a cock-pit, like every other town in Cuba, and, for the benefit of my countrywomen I mention it a solitary mantua-maker and milliner s establishment. Its public library, which in 1835, contained 695 volumes, now possesses over 1000, and reports made on it state the gratifying fact that it was daily more resorted to. In 1827 an ad junct society to the Sociedad Economica of Havana was established here, and now numbers nearly one hundred resident members ; it is divided into two principal sections, one on Education, the other on Industry and Commerce, the labours of which have been highly instrumental in sustaining their respective objects. The jurisdiction of Matanzas in 1835 contained 4460 children of both sexes, of whom only 815 received a primary education, and of these but 360 in public free schools; the whole number of schools amounted to sixteen. The recent reports of its section on education have, however, given a more favourable view of this subject ; although it must be confessed, that learning is here, even now, at a lower state than in almost any other civilised country. "The houses of Matanzas are mostly of stone, built like those of Havana in a very durable manner, with their windows as strongly barricadoed with iron bars. But the number constructed of wood, the English one continually hears along the Bay-street, and the general cleanliness of the town, give to it somewhat of a home air. It wants the bustle of Havana, nor has it as many sources of amusements ; but to many its very quiet forms an attraction, and the proximity of its beautiful passeo, from which a fine view of its whole bay is obtained, its purer air, and the romantic scenery in its vicinity, induce many to prefer it as a residence. ** The manners here are similar to those of Havana; the mornings are devoted to business, and in the evening those who have volantes and horses ride on the passeo, while the promenaders amuse themselves in gazing at the ladies. I must not omit to mention that at this time the merchants and sea-captains meet on the Bay-street, the Americans in front of a store owned by one of our countrymen, which from time imme morial has formed a kind of exchange for them. The billiard-rooms, of which there are several large ones near by, are then also crowded, chiefly by Spaniards and Creoles, who spend a large part of their idle hours at this game. Music parties are common ; social visitings are also kept up, it is conceded by all who have visited the two cities, that the fair of Matanzas bear the palm for beauty. The plaza is also a favourite resort at night, especially when the military band is present; but here, as in Havana, the female form is rarely seen in the streets except in a volante, or at night. The Sunday morning is spent by but a very small proportion of the population in public worship ; shops are kept open all day, and only the closing of the custom-house, the police, and other public offices, and the cessation of labour in loading the shipping, distinguish it from other days. The afternoon is especially devoted by the negroes to amusements, and in numerous places on the hill back of the town, and in the Pueblo Nuevo, will be seen flags raised on high staffs. These point out the spots where they congregate and indulge in their national dances, for the different tribes introduced here from Africa retain all their custom and habit." To the music of two or three rude drums, formed by stretching an untanned cow-hide over the extremity of a hollow trunk of a tree, the crowd of men and women, gaudily dressed, keep time with their hands. These balls are all under the protection of the civil authorities, who permit them to take place only on Sundays and other religious holidays; they are never frequented by even the PORT OF MATANZAS. 1253 lower classes of whites, and good order generally prevails among their sable performers. Over each slave tribe a king and queen presides, and so great is the influence exercised by the former over his subjects, that complaints made to him of the idle or vicious habits of any particular individual, not unfrequentlv, through his remonstrances, correct the evil. Trade of Matanzas. The importations are chiefly articles of food, and materials and machinery for sugar and coffee estates ; most of its fancy and other goods are brought from Havana. During the last piracies in the Carib bean sea and the Gulf of Mexico, not a small portion of the spoils obtained by murder and robbery on the ocean, found their way, overland from Cardenas and other places, to this city, where purchasers were readily found ; and smu<r- gling was carried on extensively here. At present, the custom-house regula tions are strict, and piracy is now unknown. The principal business mart is a long wharf projecting into the bay, covered by a shed. There were, in 1844, forty-eight commercial houses in Matanzas, including several American, English, German, and French. Much of the products of the country is sold in the city, but a considerable portion is shipped for disposal in foreign ports. The counting-rooms are all in the dwelling-houses of the merchants, and as there are no banks in Cuba, each contains an iron safety-chest for specie ; attached to the dwellings are store-houses for sugar, coffee, &c. The merchant and his clerks generally live under the same roof and dine at the same table. Matanzas has eighteen physicians and surgeons, thirteen apothecaries, and several barbers, for the preservation of the public health ; the last do all the bleeding, cupping, and leeching prescribed by physicians, and undergo ex aminations, before licences to practice this minor surgery are granted to them. There is but one cemetery for all who die in the city and its suburbs. The public peace is intrusted to thirty-four advocates, eleven notaries and seventeen attorneys. Matanzas is twenty-two leagues east of Havana, in latitude 23 deg. 2 min. 45 sec. north, and longitude 75 deg. 15 min. 42 sec. west of Cadiz. It is the seat of a governor, and includes within its jurisdiction a circuit of about six leagues. Within this space are 161 sugar estates, employing 29,696 persons 175 coffee estates, with 13,332 persons ; and 1881 farms and other rural esta blishments, with 20,942 persons. The whole population amounts to about 85,050, of which 27,148 are whites, 45?0 free coloured, and 53,322 slaves ; only 21,070 of the whole reside in cities and villages. There are several beautiful drives in the vicinity of Matanzas. The neigh bouring valley of the Yumuri is splendid, with its back-grounds broken into sharp peaks, or now gently undulating ; " Its cane-fields with their pea-green verdure, and the dark-green foliage of the 1954 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. tall palms scattered irregularly over them ; its golden orange-groves and luxuriant plan- a s% ith broad wavin| Ua/es; its cocoas, its almonds and its coffee with here and there a cio-antic Ceyba spreading out its massive arms high in air. As he mist, which in different parts hung over the scene, rose in fleecy masses or gradually dissolved in the increasing heat of the day, and farm after farm i, and cottage after -cottage became lit by the bright sun s rays, throwing into the bold rehef the illuminated portions, while the rest still fay in the deep shade of the Cumbre, a landscape was presented, that I had never seen rivalled even amid the picturesque scenery of Switzerland. It was here that, in 1511, numbers of the aborigines were cruelly massacred by the Spaniards ; and the remnant, driven by bloodhounds to the surrounding heights were forced in despair to throw themselves over their brinks into the river below, crying out, lo mori" I die; whence the name of the vale and river. " On the ridge \\ere several private residences, into one of which we were invited by its owner, who gave us that scarce article on a Cuba farm, a glass of fresh milk. In our descent to the city several varied and beautiful views of it, and of the harbour and shipping, were presented ; and when we reached the base of the hill, a short but rapid drive brought us into the gap through which the Yumuri escapes from the valley, High precipices rose on each side, their summits crowned with luxuriant growths; while from the overhanging walls of the southern side immense stalactites of various hues hung in irregular and grand festoons, amid which the entrance to a large cave was plainly visible." Notes on Cuba. Puerto Principe. The city of Santa Maria de Puerto Principe, is the capital of the central department of Cuba. It is situated in the interior. Mr. Turn- bull says, " it stands between two rivulets, the Tinima and the Satibouico, which afterwards unite, and form the Rio de San Pedro, falling into the sea at the distance of forty miles in the direction of east-south-east. The trade of the place, as may be supposed from its inland position and its want of water car riage, bears no just proportion to the number of its inhabitants. In former times the Hatos, Corrals, Realengos, and Potreros in its neighbourhood, were the chief source from whence the capital of the island obtained its supplies of butcher s meat. At that remote period it was not uncommon for 20,000 calves to be sent in the course of a year from Puerto Principe to the Havana ; but the soil in the neighbourhood of the capital having been long ago exhausted for agricultural purposes, by a bad system of husbandry, and the sugar estates, which formerly existed there, having been definitively abandoned, the land has been laid down in pasture, and the markets of the Havana have thus become to a certain extent independent of more distant supplies. " It was formerly the practice, when grants of land were obtained from the government, to fix upon a point which was to be declared the centre of a circle, the circumference of which was to become the limit of the concession. This me thod was probably resorted to for the purpose of avoiding disputes as to territorial boundaries ; but in the sequel it had only the effect of making these questions of boundary more intricate and more difficult of adjustment. PORT OF MATANZAS. j -j " The Hato was a circle, the diameter of which was four leagues ; that of the Corral being equal only to its radius that is two leagues in extent ; the Rea- lengos were the royal reserves, surrounded by the exterior curved lines of the Corrals and Hatos, to which the original name continued to be applied long after the land had been ceded to private individuals ; and the Potrero was a portion of land indeterminate in form or extent, but generally occupied, like the Hatos, Cor rals, and Realengos, as breeding farms for the rearing of cattle. " The Hariendo Principal is a generic name, including all but the Potrero, and is applied to breeding farms of the largest class ; while the Potrero, without any definite limit, is considered a place of inferior importance. In the course of time the curved boundaries of the Hato, the Corral, and the Realengo, have been gradually departed from, by the ordinary exercise of proprietary rights, by sale, deed of gift, or testamentary disposition; as by another mode of exercising these rights, the original cattle-pen, as the breeding farms are called in Jamaica, has been converted into Ingenios or Cafetals, or otherwise applied to agricultural purposes. The dimensions of the Hato being so much greater than those of the Corral, the latter was formerly confined to the raising of pigs, goats, and sheep ; while on the Hato were bred the horse, the mule, and the cow ; but this distinc tion, like that of the form of the estate, is also becoming obsolete. " The Bay of Nuevitas may be regarded as the harbour of Puerto Principe, although twelve leagues and a half distant, as there its produce is shipped, and and from thence it receives its foreign supplies. The want of all tolerable means of communication, however, for the carriage of heavy articles, is such as to threaten the greater part of the rich soils of the interior with a condemna tion to perpetual virginity. "A few years ago a new colony was formed in the Bay of Nuevitas, which at the end of twelve years from it commencement, could boast of a growing popu lation, already amounting to 1153 ; of whom 709 were white, eighty-seven free people of colour, and 357 slaves. 5 Puerto Principe is 151 leagues from Havana, has a population of 13,817 whites, 5784 free coloured, and 4433 slaves. Formerly the number of inha bitants was much greater. It was founded by Velasquez on the port named by Columbus del Principe, now Neuvitas ; but was afterwards removed to Camaguey, a pueblo of Indians, on account of the frequent invasions of the pirates. Trade. Its importations in 1841 were in value 186,825 dollars, of which 117,340 dollars were for provisions, and 10,000 dollars for lumber; its exportation amounted to 74,595, dollars, of which 24,264 dollars were for sugar, and 11,000 dollars for tobacco; forty-nine vessels entered its ports, of which seventeen were American, and it received in dut.es, &c, 51,935 dollars. J95G HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The jurisdiction of the city, which is the seat of a lieutenant-governor, extends over a population of 51,086. Of this 3010 are on ninety-one sugar estates, forty-seven on one coffee estate, and 20,091 on 2201 farms; the rest being in cluded in the town and villages. The whites number 30,104, the free coloured 7599, and the slaves 13,383. TRINIDAD, another of the seven cities founded by Velasquez, is situated a league from Port Casilda, on the south coast, and ninety from Havana. It is the 3 seat of a governor, and contains 5877 whites, 44?4 free coloured, and 2417 slaves. Its importations in 1841, amounted in value to 942,661 dollars of which 4G9243 dollars were for provisions, and 170,090 dollars for lumber; its ex- portations to 1,157,571 dollars, of which 934,565 dollars were for sugar, and 138,534 dollars for molasses; 203 vessels entered its port, of which 116 were American, and it received in duties, &c., 351,559 dollars. It has jurisdiction over a population of 28,060, of which 7004 are on forty-four sugar estates, 905 on twenty -four coffee estates, and 1611 on 826 farms : the rest being in the towns and villages. The whites number 10,280, the free coloured 6092, and the slaves 11,688. The southern coast has twenty-eight harbours and roadsteads, of which that of St. Jago de Cuba is one of the best in the world, and is protected by a moro and several batteries. The large Bay of Guatanamo has several harbours, and that of Jagua has a secure port, and is fortified ; the latter has six square leagues of superficies. The Bays of Cortes and of Corrientes admit large vessels. From the Cape de Maisi to the Cape de Cruz on the south coast; and from Bahia-honda to the Punta de Icacos on the north coast, the island is easy of access, and the coast-navigation excellent. The rest of its coasts is lined by reefs and islands, within which steamboat navigation is safe at all times of the year. The islands off the coast vary in size, from a few yards to several miles. One of them, the Cayo de Sal, supplies Havana with salt ; others, like the Cayo de Vela, have good anchorage ; while some are so surrounded by reefs, as to be almost inaccessible. The Isle of Pines, Isla de Pinos, formerly so celebrated as a hiding-place for pirates, is on the south coast. It has 117 leagues of superficies, but is divided longitudinally by an extensive swamp, passable at only one point. The popula tion is about 500, and has lately been put under a military and civil government. Its chief pueblo is Nuevo Gerona, on the west bank of the River Casas; the Jther is the pueblo of Santa Fe, on the river of the same name ; it is watered by another river, the Nuevas. Its mountains are the Canadas, Daguilla, Sierra Casas, and Caballos. The Bay of Siguanea is on the west coast, and termi- --tt-s south-west at the Cape Frances but a small part of this island is culti vated. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CUBA. 1257 SANCTI SPIRITUS, founded by Velasquez, 100 leagues from Havana, is re markable for the great majority of its white over the black population. The town itself contains 5296 white, 2722 free coloured, and 14GG slaves; its ju risdiction extends over 32,711 persons, of which 2258 are on forty sugar estates, 109 on three coffee estates, and 20,069 on 2668 farms. The white* number 21,969, the free coloured 4958, and the slaves 6784. SANTIAGO DE CUBA, more frequently called Cuba, was founded by Velas quez. It is the capital of the eastern department of the island, and the seat of an archbishopric: and situated in 20 deg. 1 min. north latitude, and 76 deg. 3 min. 30 sec. west longitude. Its harbour is safe and commodious: thesea breeze generally blows into the harbour during the day, and the land wind blows out during the night. It is 230 leagues from Havana, on the south coast. It is the seat of a governor, and contains 9326 whites, 7494 free coloured, and 7933 slaves. Its importations, in 1841, amounted to 2,631,421 dollars, of which 1,305,685 dollars were for provisions, 57,821 dollars for lumber, 232,674 dollars for cotton goods, and 242,300 dollars for linen goods ; its exportations amounted to 5,993,631 dollars, of which 4,439.890 dollars were for copper ore, 553,168 dollars for coffee, 356,499 dollars for sugar, 368,868 dollars for tobacco, and 130,849 dollars for cotton; 160 vessels entered its port, of which 103 were American, and it received in duties, &c., 821,254 dollars. It has jurisdic tion over a population of 91,512, of which 28,859 are in the town and vil lages, 8882 on 123 sugar estates, 2?,456 on 604 coffee estates, and 26,315 on 3524 farms. The whites number 19,768, the free coloured 21,944, and the slaves 49,800. Four leagues west is the village of Cobre, or Santiago del Prado, containing 2000 inhabitants, chiefly occupied in working the copper mines in the neighbourhood. There are but few British subjects established in the province of Santa Jagode Cuba, with the exception of those engaged in copper ore mining 1 , and indeed few foreigners of any nation, with the exception of Frenchmen, who are found in considerable numbers in and around Santiago, both from France and her ancient colonies, or their descendants, and whose example and exertions have had great influence on the agricultural prosperity of the province; the cultivation of coffee may be traced to their immigration. ARRIVALS at St. Jago de Cuba during the Year 1840. Spanish, 132 vessels, 13,879 tons; British, 125 vessels, 23,667 tons ; American, 124 vessels, 19,912 tons ; French, 29 vessels, 6305 tons ; Hanseatic Towns, 10 vessels, 1698 tons; Dutch Colonies, 6 vessels, 376 tons; Columbian and Mexican, 3 vessels, 200 tons ; Danish, 1 vessel, 150 tons. Total number of vessels, 430 ; tons, 66,187. The Spanish arrivals were chiefly from the Peninsula, with flour, wine, brandy, hard ware, dried fruits, soap, spices, coarse earthenware, provisions, drugs, silk goo few other manufactures. The British arrivals were principally direct from Great Britain, in the employ o English mining companies, with coals, mining machines, tools, powder, and various mining VOL. I. 7 x 1258 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. supplies; ana a few annum a vessel arrives ith cod fish, whilst twice or thrice pei r L assorted cargo of earthenware, hardware, r ;:; ~^^ ? ^ ^ ^^, * *~ % . H ___:..~i,, !,,,* exclusively from ports in the TDucoona arrivals were with dry goods, fruits and provisions The Colombian and Mexican vessels were from Campeachy and Lisat, with grass bags The uan.sn ve s from Hamburg, with dry goods and provisions The imports of late years have been nearly equal, and are expected to continue so. Spanish imports for the year 1841 amounted to . 319,320 sterling. British imports for the same period ] 8,999 Hut in comparing the two amounts, the fact must not be lost sight of, that large quantities of British dry goods, hardware, and earthenware, are annually imported from Jamaican Spanish bottoms, chiefly on account of the difference in duty , and also from the facility o selecting the above-named articles as cheaply in Kingston as in London, and with the ad vantageV being able to proceed there and return in three weeks time. But it must no be concealed that the Hanseatic Towns interfere with British imports, underselling us it many German articles of hardware, cotton, woollen and linen goods, and glass; althougl generally speaking, they are considered inferior to British manufacture of a similar kind EXPORTS from St. Jago de Cuba during the Year 1840. ARTICLES. Quantity. A R T I C L 1 3 S. Quantity. number. 14,307,800 21,977 4,915 10,429 1,600 U74 21,805 30,225 number. 1,400 100 5,000 2,000 27,142 2,289 3-17 12,867$ Sugar, clayed box of about 4 quintals Muscovado.. hogsheads of about? do. do. ...box of 1000 Hides Molasses hogsheads of 117 galls. ton Tafia and Ruin pipes of 110 galls. Wax, white and yellow Ib. In 1845 there arrived at St. Jago de Cuba, 93 British vessels, of 28,537 tons burden, value 10,3012. ; of which ther were from Great Britain 9 vessels with coals ; 3,039 tons ; 8G4/. value : 1 with machinery, 335 tons, 4642. value ; 1 witl powder, 328 tons, value 101/., 24 with sundries, 8,348 tons; value 6,766/.; 33 in ballast, 10,966 tons : total from Great Bri tain tin vessels, 23,0 10 tons, value 8.195/.: 2 from Jamaica with sundries, 415 tons, value 35G/.,1 with fish, 95 tons, valu 250/. ; 1 with rice, 31 tons, value 800/. ; 5 in ballast, 062 tons : 9 from Grenada in ballast, 3008 tons: 1 from Bermud in ballast ; 205 tons ; 1 with onions, 25 tons; value 3002, : 1 from St. Vincent in ballast, 200 tons ; 1 from St. Thomas in ballast, I<i4 tons; 1 from Curazoa^in ballast, 211 tons; 1 from Porto Rico in ballast, 291 tons; 1 with fish, fron St. Jcihu st, 124 tons, value 4002. ; total from other parts, 25,5521 tuns j value 21062.: total from Great Britain, G J3,iiir. tons: value 8195/. : total, 93 vessels; 28,537 tons; value 10,3012. I lit-rc departed from Cuba 90 British vessels of 29,452 tons burden, value 387,1702., of which there were for Grea Rritrtin. si with copper ore, 27,010 tons, value 374,0402. ; 1 with produce, 300 tons, value 80002. ; total for Great Britaii S2 vessel*, 27,310 tons, value 382,G40/. ;2 for New Orleans in ballast, 200 tons; 1 for St. Cruz in ballast, 265 tons; for Jamaica with produce, 84 tons, value 1550/. ; 1 for Manzanella with produce, 252 tons, value 2,0002.; 2 in b alias 411 tout. ; 1 for Montego Bay in ballast, 425 tons ; 1 for Crinfucyos with fustic, 291 tons, value 200/. ; I for Halifa: with prodtire, 05 tons, value ISO/.; 1 for Havana with fish, 124 tons, value 400/. ; 1 for Bermuda with produce, 2 ton, value 250/. : total for other parts 14 vessels, 9142 tons, value 4530/. ; total for Great Britain 82 vessels, 27,31 tons, value 382,C40/. During the past four years there has not been any great difference in exports, with tin exception of coliee and copper ore. The exports of coffee have fallen off greatly during the last three years, owing to ex cessive drought, but they may be expected to revive; whilst those of copper ore havegreatb increased, excepting during 1846. The raising of the latter article only commenced fourteen years back, from which time it annually augmented in quantity, but its rich ness or quantity of metal contained in the ore has decreased. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CUBA. 1 259 CHAPTER XVI. DESCRIPTIVE AND AGRICULTURAL SKETCHES OF CUBA. So little that can afford information respecting Cuba, and which can be relied on, is known in Europe, that we have endeavoured to condense the various statements and descriptions upon which we can place any dependence,* and having reduced these descriptions to the least space that would be satis factory, and interesting to the general reader, as well as to those who wish to acquire a more especial knowledge of Cuba. This magnificent island is very generally surrounded with reefs, within which are many good harbours, and through which are many safe channels. Of the interior of Cuba, the descriptions hitherto given have been remarkably meagre. On leaving Havana for the interior, there was until the railway to Guines was constructed, scarcely twelve miles of road fit for an European carriage. The rude volatile was, however, dragged over rocks and ruts. Railroads, constructed by Americans and by English engineers, and chiefly with British capital, have, to a considerable extent, opened the interior. Havana, contains a population of above 100,000 inhabitants; four contain populations from 12,000 to 24,000 ; nine from 4000 to 9000; nineteen from 1000 to 3000 ; twenty-four from 500 to 1000 ; forty from 250 to 500 ; sixty seven from 100 to 250; and fifty-four below 100. There are three principal high roads under the care of the Junto de Fomento but they are in bad condition even during the dry season, and quite impassable in most places during the rains. From each other roads branch off. The one from Havana to Pinar del Rio passes through Guatao, el Corralillo, la Ceiba del Agua, Capellanias, la Puerta de la Guira, las Canas, Artemisa, in the Partido San Marcos, fourteen leagues from Havana, las Mangas de Rio-Grande, Candelaria, San Cristobal, los Palacios. Hence west through the Paso real de San Diego, la Herradura, Consolacion, Pinar del Rio, forty-five leagues, San Juan y Martinez and Guane. From Havana to Santiago de Cuba, the route passes through Jesus del Monte, Luyano, San Miguel, Santa Maria del Rosario, Tapaste, Aguacate, Cei- ba-Mocha, Matanzas, Limonar, Taberna del Coliseo, Cimarrones, Guamutas, Ceja de Pablo, Alvarez, Rio de Lagua le Grande, Esperanza or Puerta de Golpe, Villaclara, Taberna del Escambray, Sagua la Chica, Guaracabuya, Santo-Espi- ritu, Rio Sasa, Ciego de Avila, San Geronimo, Arrogo Tinima, Puerto Principe, Guaimaro, Rio Jobabo, las Tunas, Paso del Selado, Rio Cauto, and Cauto del Embarcadero, Bayamo, Rio Cautillo, Jiguani, Rio Baire, and Rio Contramaestre, Palma- Soriano, Rio Yarago, Cuba. * By far the most valuable sketches are those condensed from." Notes on Cuba," 1844, by an American physician. 1-60 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. From Havana to Trinidad the route passes through Francisco de Paula, Ta- berna del Dique, Lomas de Camoa, San Jose de las Lajas, Sitio and Lonias de Candela, los Guines, Pipian, Bermeja, Alacranes, el Caimito, Rio de la Hana- bana, Rio Damuji, in the Paso de los Abreus, Pueblo and Rio de Caonao, River Aumirs, and several other rivers, among which are el Gaudan, San Juan, Gua- cubo, and Trinidad. After leaving Havana for the country, the road passes through well-stocked farms, and then trimmed by lime hedges, with white aromatic flowers, both equally impenetrable to man or beast; also, loose stone fences, built of the jagged, honeycomb coral rock that abounds throughout the country. These often enclose whole acres of luscious, fragrant pines, each sustained by a short foot stalk above the circle of thorny leaves composing the plant, that spread low over the ground. The pine-apples often are pbserved in all stages of growth. Some small, and blue, with half-withered flowerets that blossom over the fruit; others ripe, large, and of a golden hue; and a few, the hardier kind, of a reddish- green tint. Fields are passed of plantains growing thickly together, bearing above their 1 frail stems heavy bunches of green fruit, with their terminating cones of lowers; with long, small, fan-like leaves, torn in shreds by the wind Beyond the immediate neighbourhood of the city, its gardens, its farms, and its hamlets, are extensive sugar and coffee estates, with their portreros and woodlands were common. The royal palm appears on every side its cool verandah,, and its ba " """ f the "*" "" P---H-4.cl.ri, b | ntereeoli , Cub -" ,Uld^urculchs.;nP ^T"^ U S6emed im P ossible ">.t ""^ * h CfarS a " d the and bl w t races faASrj ""^ * h f CfgarS a " d the white > , filled our tanks, a lad b oK tZS&T* d Stl , nction - At one place, where s DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CUBA- \_.\ pay for my portion, I learned that one of them had already settled for the fe pany. -Knowing it to be the custom on the island that the first of a party wiw pays the scot, 1 did not mingle my expostulations with my acknowledgneac* e compliment. t; Eailroad Incidents. Again our cars were in motion, and when nf tharf ^ route, all of us were eagerly looking out of the doors and windows at a large that was gathered about a car some distance on the road before us. Romovr h us, that the last summer the whole train had been stopped, and a large som of that it was conveying to Guines, had been taken from it by robbers, who bad been apprised of its removal. Although it had no foundation, we did regard with anxiety the crowd, but soon found they had gathered to look on the downward that had run off the track. Not one of the Monteros, however, lent the least asotc to the few whites and negroes attached to the road, who were actively engaged ii placing the cars. To our regret, we learned that it would detain us two hoars; so we willingly consented to be rolled back to the last posada we had passed, flaring been dinnerless, we made a general rush to its bar, where, amid garlicky sausages, bread, cheese, and Catalan wine, we forgot our disappointment. " The sun had just set when we continued our journey ; but the landscape was even more beautiful in the soft light of declining day than under his bright rays. The east wind had subsided into a perfect calm, as it generally does at this time, and an air of peaceful quiet hung over the whole land. Even the fringed foliage of the palms was motionless, and drooped pendant from the long and gracefully arched stems; remindng one of those bunches of ostrich feathers worn by the belles of past days, which then seemed to add so much to a stately figure and bearing. About us, surrounding objects were mellowed by the increasing shades, but in the distance all was becoming indistinct; save the giant seyba, whose wide-spread foliage, like a vast umbrella, raised in mid-air, was still plainly visible above the gloom below; and the rows of tall palms on the bare ridges of distant hills, whose trunks and tufted crowns were painted in bold relief against the clear sky. Star after star now rapidly appeared, for here no twilight fonts the imperceptible link between day and night, and the whole firmament was soon blazing with its thousand lamps. " Now and then we passed an estate, on which the negroes were clustered around large fires of corn-husks, which they were removing from the Indian grain, preparatory to grinding it for their morning meal. The fires were sometimes close to the road, the flames shone brightly on their laughing faces, and their loud cries rang merrily on the air as they cheered us. At the stations where we stopped there were also lights, and some fires along the road; and many curious inquiries were made about the cause of our delay. But our attention was scon engrossed by a large basket of excellent Galician hamj bread, cheese, olives, cakes, sugar-plums, and wine, among which several bottles of champagne figured conspicuously. The whole had been furnished at our last stopping- place, by the liberality of a fellow-passenger, one of the ofiicers of the road, who brought us all around it to partake of its varied contents. " SAN JULIAN DE LOS GUINES, during the dry season, is one of the most pleasant inland towns in Cuba. It then lies on a hard, black soil, and is free from that fir, so annoying on red lands. When the rains set in, about July, from the st: meander around and through it, and the deep ruts in the road, I suspect i perfect quagmire. It contains 2500 inhabitants, who are remarkably civil to strangers; and beino- at the terminus of the railroad, forty-five miles from Havana, and only twelve miles from the south coast of the island, it has lately increased suddenly in impoi This is evident from the number of spruce modern shops intermingled with its anc:ent rusty tiendas, and a certain lively, flourishing look, quite uncommon m a town. The invalid will here also escape, in a great measure, from the dr. the northers ; the mountains on the north almost completely exhausting tl: clouds before they reach the town. " The houses have before them wide, smooth pavements, protected the sun by sheds, under which one might enjoy a promenade, even at mid-day contains a lar^e church, painted blue, a favourite colour throughout the island I HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. buildings. There was also a commodious and cleanly-kept hospital for the destitute in the town ; barracks for soldiers ; a public hall; a large ball-room ; and, as a thing indis pensable to the happiness of the inhabitants, a spacious cock-pit. "The market was filled with bunches of green plantains, and heaps of yams, yuca, sweet potatoes, and other vegetables. A long shed covered the butchers shambles, with lar-e slices of beef and pork hung along its whole front. Jerked pork, a favourite pre- par D ation of the meat with the creole, was being prepared close by, being hung on poles over the smoke of a fire, having been first salted, the only method by which meat can be at all preserved in this perpetual summer clime. " The market had a cook s-shop, with a dozen parrots in cages before it, which by their screams seemed to invite all within hearing to partake of the savoury dishes ex posed on the shelves. Among them were several with a light green plumage and yellow crowns, brought from Mexico, and highly valued for the ease with which they are taught to speak. "The creole is always an early riser. Several were engaged in sweeping the pave ment ; others were clustered around the milkman s cow, which had been brought to their doers, and were waiting their turn to have their pitchers filled from the slow stream, \\hilea calf, tied just without tasting distance, looked piteously on, and at times showed signs of impatience, as he saw his morning meal borne off. When all had been supplied, he was muzzled, and his halter tied to the extremity of the cow s tail. One rush to her bag was tried, but the cruel netting frustrated all attempts to taste the bland fluid, and the poor animal quietly followed in the rear, as the man drove his cow to the houses of his other customers. "At other doors, the malhokero was counting out his small bundles of green fodder, each containing a dozen stalks of Indian corn, with the leaves and tassels attached, the common daily food of the horse. On their pack-horses were bundles of small-sized sugar-cane, neatly trimmed and cut into short pieces ; selected small, on account of their superior richness, offering to the creole a grateful refreshment during the heat of the noon. Others carried large matted panniers, slung over their clumsy straw saddles, filled with fine ripe oranges, the favourite and healthy morning repast of the native and the stranger, the healthy and the invalid. "As the day progressed, mounted monteros were seen galloping through the streets, just arrived from their farms, each with his loose shirt worn over his pantaloons, its tail fluttering in the breeze, while his long sword, lashed to his waist by a handkerchief, dangled at his hack. Then there was the heavy cart, laden with sugar for the railroad depot, drawn by eight strong oxen, the front pair some twenty feet in advance of the rest ; its freight of boxes, bound down firmly with cords, and covered with raw hides. By its side the driver stalked, dressed in a loose shirt and trousers, and a high-peaked straw hat with a wide rim on his head. He held in his hand a long pole, armed with a goad, with which he urged forward his slow-moving team ; often striking the sharp nail, ts extremity, repeatedly into the flank of an ox, until the poor animal, in his endea vours to escape, seemed to drag the whole load by his sole strength. Other carts were turning to their distant sugar estates, laden with planks cut into proper sizes, and fas- J in packages, each containing all the sides to make a sugar-box ; thus put up, by ouMngemous northern friends for the Cuba market. The arnero with his pack-horses, eight or a dozen in number, was also seen urging by his voice and the occasional crack of his whip ; while they staggered under eavy loads of charcoal, kegs of molasses, or of aguardiente, and the halter of each pickfn the^ w ieextremit y of the tail of the horse before, moved in single files, carefully In.lhn Bt>0nd Uie , t( T f Guines farm after farrxi cll pied the grounds ; some sowed in .orn asclosel y as oats, and just springing from the soil, intended for food for le ; or planted three together, the hills not two feet apart, already in tassel, g the nearly mature grain. Others were covered with sweet potato vines and -,1 tree iT Wa ^ also a P le " tiful show of okra and tomatoes, salad, carrots, turnips, " I ke cabbages, with yuca, yams, and other tropical vegetables, giving to > a thriving appearance. Long canals, with their sides embanked traversed plaini ; and their rapid streams, elevated above the level of the soil, in several DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CU1U. 120.", places were drawn off, to irrigate the land, by breaking through their sides or by ob structing the course of the stream by temporary transverse dams. " The rivers in this flat district, which run parallel, are generally elevated above ea^h other, so that many streams run from one and empty into the river below I was m formed by an intelligent engineer on the Guines and Havana railroad, that in surveying its track, they found this to be the case of three considerable streams, and that on one occasion, during a freshet, those most elevated poured their superabundant waters, by side streams, into the lowest, and so swelled its current, that a large and strong stone bridge was carried away by it. The soil was black, resembling marsh-mud, but without a grain of sand in it, the substratum being lime-stone. It was so tenacious, that a bank a foot thick served to confine the waters of a canal, four feet wide, which, instead of washing away the sides, left a white deposit on them." The foregoing descriptive sketches are considered applicable to many of the small towns and rural districts of Cuba. The portreros, with grass which grows rapidly after the first rains, afford abundant pasturage to large herds of oxen and horses. Flocks of sheep and herds of swine, under the care of a few negroes, also feed near the unenclosed, cul tivated fields of the neighbouring farms. These are frequently unprotected by either fence or hedge, and the cattle are either tethered or under the care of keepers, or were enclosed in portreros, Negro Dwellings. The cottages near Guines are all thatched with palm leaves, with walls of poles, and mud plastered thickly on them to fill up the cracks, the floors being of the latter material, and often not higher than the ground without. They contain little furniture; a table, one or two stools, a cot, and a few plates or jugs, composed all the household articles; while women, dressed often in a single gown, half open and half off their shoulders, and squalid, dirty children, with nought save the covering nature gave them, form the family group. The hut, however, is tastefully shaded by groups of cocoas,* or wide-spread foliage of an almond-tree, with the ground blackened by the last crop of nuts, and surrounded by plantains and orange and lemon-trees, with air-plants hanging from every grove, or covering the rocks, wherever the foliage of shrubbery protected them from the rays of the sun. The slaves all over the island are remarkably addicted to their dances, and fond of dress. Mr. Turnbull s account of the severity with which they are flogged and treated, is asserted by other authorities to be greatly exaggerated. But wherever there is slavery there must be harshness, and the last revolt of the slaves in Cuba was certainly suppressed with little regard to their lives. If the slave trade be continued, and the number of slaves conse- * " The cocoas looked so tempting, that I asked the price, when a lad offered to procure four for one rial, or twelve cents. He was not more than ten years old, but without a moment s hesi tation, he climbed up the tall trunk of one of the trees, resting only for a moment mid-way in his ascent ; and holding on to the long branch-like leaves, crawled into its tufted crown and pushed off the fruit with his feet, crying out to me from his giddy height to take care of my head. The little fellow seemed quite fearless, winding his light body between the leaves, more than fifty feet in the air, and stretching out his full length to reach the best nuts. He descended without being at all fatigued, and procuring a knife, cut through the rind and shell of the nut, which, when green is not hard, and offered the vegetable milk to me. In its unripe state it contains about pint of refreshing fluid, and the pulp is then so soft, that it can, like cream, be scraped from tl with a spoon, but neither has that rich oily flavour they possess when mature. Notes < HISTORICAL PEOGRESS OF AMERICA. quently greatly increased, the Spanish Creoles may well dread a period of as terrible retribution, as has been experienced in Hayti. We see little future secu rity for Cuba unless the slave trade be entirely abolished. Agriculture. The statistical tables that we have already given exhibit the agricultural productions of Cuba, and greatly important as they are, the whole product is but small in proportion to the productive capabilities of the soil and climate of this naturally, perhaps, the most fertile of the large islands of the world. Cattle are reared, or rather without care, breed in numerous herds. The number is estimated at above 1,500,000. Climate. The climate of Cuba is not so regular as that of the more southerly islands, and from the proximity of the north-western parts to the continent of America, it is sometimes so cold that at some few hundred feet above the sea ice occasionally forms. Snow never falls, but hail-storms occur. It has its rainy and dry seasons, but they do not appear to be regularly de fined. Destructive hurricanes have sometimes devastated the country. Although some low parts are unhealthy, the climate of Cuba is generally salubrious. The island is frequented by invalids from the United States, and during late years inns and boarding-houses, with good accommodation, have fceen established by American citizens. Earthquakes occur in the eastern parts of the islands, and have occurred at Havana. Forests. Immense districts, especially the mountain regions, are still covered with trees. Among which the magnificent Ceiba and gigantic mahogany trees^ with other valuable woods for furniture and for ship-building abound. Many varieties of majestic palms, plantains, and some beautiful hard woods also abound. Maize and the yuca grow in Cuba, and many esculent roots, and fruits are indigenous. Animals. One indigenous quadruped only has ever been known. This is the huitia, which resembles a great rat, about eighteen inches long without the tail. Amphibious animals are, however, abundant, among which are the alli gator, manati, tortoise, and others. The domestic dog and cat have become wild, and it is said fierce. Large serpents, from ten to twelve feet long and from six to eight inches thick are met with, but not frequently. Mosquitoes and some other insects are numerous, and in the low districts very annoying. Asses and pigs are numerously bred. Birds of the most beautiful plumage enliven and adorn the country. On the coasts and rivers many delicious varieties of fish abound, with which the markets, especially that of Havana, are supplied. Minerals. It does not appear that much gold or silver have ever been found in Cuba. Excellent bituminous coal has been dug hear Havana, and iron is said to abound in the mountains. The copper mines, near Santiago, were worked and abandoned in the seventeenth century. Three companies were formed some years ago to reopen and work these mines, which have been executed by great DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF CUBA. 12G5 outlay and by the aid of steam engines, with considerable success. The ore has been chiefly imported for smelting to Swansea. A copper mine in the neigh- bourhood of Santa Glala has been opened by an American company ; but from its inconvenient access, and the less rich mineral, it has been worked with far less advantage than those near Santiago and Cuba. Bitumen, asphalte, marble, and jasper are also found, but the wretched means of internal communication, prevents profitable enterprise at any distance from the sea coast ; except as far as regards the railway (forty-five miles) to Guines and four very minor railways, all constructed by Americans or Englishmen, the means of transport are both difficult and expensive. Steamboats have for some years been established for conveying passengers between Havana and the other ports of the island ; and this mode of visiting all places on the sea-coast has become convenient and speedy. No foreigner can land in Cuba without procuring security to the government for good behaviour from a responsible inhabitant. Revenue. The revenue is derived from 1. Import and export customs duties; 2. Impriestos interiores, which comprise taxes on the consumption of butchers 5 meat, stamped paper, taxes on hucksters, municipal dues, sales of indul gences, taxes on cock-fights, lotteries, &c ; 3. Deductions from church revenues; 4. Deductions from official salaries ; 5. Royal lands, vacant tithes and estates, vendable offices, &c.; 6. Casual receipts, deposits, confiscations, donations, &c. Government The captain-general is supreme military commander of the whole island, and civil governor of one of the two great divisions of Cuba. The governor of the other part (Santiago de Cuba) has independent civil power, re sponsible only to the court of Spain. The captain-general is, however, ex officio president of the Audiencia Real, or supreme court. The municipalities have their ayuntamientas, and the rural districts jueceos pedoneas, or magistracies. The History of Cuba consists of little more than a catalogue of captains- general and bishops from the time of the first Captain-general Velasquez in 1511 down to the year 1809-10-11, when the ports of Cuba were opened to the ships and trade of foreign countries. During which period fifty-four or fifty-six cap tains-general ruled, or misruled, this splendid island. General Tacon, who was appointed in 1825, was by far the most efficient of these governors. The early settlement of Cuba, the expeditions to Mexico, the capture of Havana by Admiral Peacock and Lord Albemarle, and the opening of the ports, we have already noticed: for other particulars See Spanish Colonial Policy. VOL. I. 7 Y J966 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, CHAPTER XVII. PORTO RICO. THE fertile island of Porto Rico lies between the latitudes of 17 deg. 54 min. and 18 de<j. 31 min. north, and the longitudes of 65 deg. 39 min. and 6? deg. 21 min. west. Its length is stated to be about 100 miles, its average breadth about thirty- nine miles. Its area is computed at about 3750 square miles, being about 2500 square miles less than the area of Jamaica. A ridge of mountains extends from the east to the west end of the island. Some of the rivers which flow down are navigable for small vessels ; and some of the numerous coves and inlets form good harbours for large ships. The soil is generally fertile and beautifully undulated. There are no serpents or other reptiles. There are large rats, which do great injury to the sugar-canes. The climate is generally salubrious; but some parts are subject to rains, others to droughts. Porto Rico was discovered by Columbus in 1493. It was invaded in 1509 by the Spaniards from St. Domingo ; and the natives, said to have amounted to 600,000 in number, were exterminated in a few years. The Spaniards, however* derived no profit from this island, though it subjected them to great expense. Ponce de Leon, who, in his voyage in search of the fountain of perpetual life, discovered Florida, was the explorer and conqueror of Porto Rico. The laws of Spain, as administered in Cuba, are those of Porto Rico ; and in the latter these laws are particularly severe in regard to foreigners ; especially if Protestants. Every foreigner who arrives in Porto Rico ? must, before he lands, find security on the part of responsible residents, for his good behaviour. After six months, the foreigner must either domiciliate or leave the island. In order to domiciliate, he must profess the Roman Catholic faith, the only religion tolerated. If he decline, he must leave Porto Rico. The difficulties in the way of a foreigner establishing himself in trade, even when domiciliated, are ex ceedingly vexatious, if not in partnership with a Spaniard. Foreigners, how ever, have managed, not only to overcome all religious scruples, but to become proprietors of estates ; and the rapid agricultural improvement is chiefly owing to the enterprise of such foreign residents. The population, according to an estimate based on the last census, is stated inhabitants of which there are not more than about 50,000 slaves. s labour prevails in this colony. Among the slaves there are many of those, ieir offspring, which the emigrants from Spanish St. Domingo brought with them; most of the settlers from the Danish, French, and British islands did the same. STATISTICS OF POUTO RICO. 12G7 Porto Rico is an agricultural colony. It has no manufactures, nor have any mines of gold or silver, or other minerals, been worked. Gold is found in small lumps and in dust in the streams running from the mountains, and a licence has been recently granted to a company in the island to search for gold, which is supposed to be abundant on the mountains. Copper, iron, and lead, have ulso been found. A coal mine has also been discovered, but in a place of very difli- cult access, twelve miles inland from Port Arecibo. There are two salutes or salt ponds, worked by the government, but yield only about 157 tons of salt. Roads. There are no roads of any extent for wheel carriages in the island. All travelling is performed either on foot or on horseback. According to an official return of 1840, the land cultivated, and its produce, were as follows : ARTICLES OF CULTURE. Acres in Cultivation. PRODUCE. Quantity. number. 14803 ( Sugar (Muse.) cwt number. 414,660 1 507 769 12 165 Plantains 30 760 617 826 M a i ze 16 194 63 750 Rice 14 850 Rice 2599 34 640 Manioc 1 150 30 419 1 224 29 570 Yarns ti 696 Yams ^0 7 850 Pulse 1 100 Pulse (j 4 570 Co Tee If, 992 350000 3,079 not known. Fruit-trees and gardens 140 Total ia cultivation 109,587 or about 1-1 5th of its area. During the last fifteen years several thousands of acres have been cleared and cultivated. The lands are often held in very small lots. In 1828, 1,437,285 acres were held by 19,140 proprietors. At the same time, 423 individuals were proprietors of estates regularly worked by slaves ; 275 of which were sugar, and 148 coffee plantations; 17,440 proprietors were graziers who bred cattle, and who also raised provisions and some coffee. In 1802, there were but twenty-nine sugar estates in Porto Rico, and the total value of exports was estimated at 57,500 dollars. We are indebted for valuable information relative to Porto Rico to Dr. Reid, who practised for some years as a physician on that island, from whence he has recently returned, " Previously to 1828," says Dr. Reid, in a manuscript report, " Porto Rico was little known to, and less frequented by, foreign adventurers on account of the policy observed by the government, which had a tendency to exclude strangers, by opposing almost insurmountable obstacles to their settlement. " Anterior to the period alluded to, strangers were required to produce the most un doubted evidence of being Roman Catholics, in order to become domiciled, and they were also under the necessity of becoming naturalised after five years residence I say that formerly this was not optional but of necessity. A stranger, before he was permitted to J268 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. land in the island was to give secu.ity for good political and moral conduct, and i Sup- t at he we e able .o".ur.nount these difficulties, such were the jealousy and ,11,- of the overnment, that few were induced to reman, m a country where no prospect of success appeared. In 1828 however, the leniency and liberality of Don Miguel La Tone, then captain- general, by relaxing the rigour of former observances, had great effect in removing the fmpediments to the establishment of foreigners in the island La Tone acted strictly accordin to the spirit of the Heal Cedule of 1815, having for its object the encourage ment of agriculture and commerce in the Spanish colonies. "Thus the Domicilio was procured by paying a trifling sum of money, and by the ap plicant complying with certain formalities. Moreover, government encourages, instead of damping the enterprise of foreigners, convinced, that in this manner, the resources of the island would be best developed. " In consequence of the encouragement given under the administration of La Tone, a considerable migration took place to this island. "Planters from the neighbouring islands of St. Croix and St. Thomas, sold their estates and brought their slaves and capital to this country, lured by the superior fertility of the soil, and the liberality of the government as administered by La Tone. " Several planters of the windward British and French islands, acted like the people from St. Thomas and St. Croix. ** Merchants also had their attention attracted towards this spot, and the establish ment of several commercial houses now existing was effected. " Seconded by foreign enterprise and foreign capital, this island has continued to prosper in a most extraordinary degree since 1828 ; and it has been a source of consider able revenue to the mother country. " But notwithstanding the rapid improvement which has been effected in this island* and the continued increase of its staple exports, the improvement would have been still greater, and the export considerably larger, but for the oppressive duties imposed upon all articles of necessary consumption, and the frequent heavy exactions made by the go vernment towards the support of the war in Spain. These causes, by lessening the profits of the planters, have prevented them from extending their estates. Thus the advancement in the cultivation of the soil is more due to the continued influx of new settlers with their important capital, than to the prosperity and advancing operations of the old. " Some years ago the great mass of the inhabitants did not require, and scarcely knew, the use of many articles which are now considered necessary. " Of this class are fine cotton goods, fine linens, and woollen cloths. The natives of the present day, throughout the island, are extremely fond of dress and fine apparel. " Formerly people were very remiss in furnishing their houses; at present they pay great attention thereto. I might multiply intances of the advancing civilisation of the natives, forming by far the greatest proportion of the population. " All the machinery for the manufacture of sugar and rum is allowed to be imported dutv free. Men cannot be imprisoned for debt, nor can a planter s estate be sold, or any of his implements of agriculture and manufacture, unless he owes at least two-thirds of the whole value of his estate. " If a proprietor sell an estate or a house here, in order to remit the proceeds, he is required by the government to pay 10 per cent on the amount of the property sold." The sugar estates and other plantations are situated on the sea-coast, near the capital and other towns or pueblos. STATISTICS OF PORTO RICO. 12GO Slaves. The following are the regulations respecting slaves in the Lland of Porto Rico. In every large and small town there is an alcalde or justice of the peace, and likewise a person appointed for the special protection of the slaves, called a syndic, who is expected to see that justice is done them. It is always iii the power of a slave to purchase his freedom as soon as he can collect sufficient money for the purpose, and the master and slave generally come to an understanding as to the price, if the value is not ascertained, which it generally is in most instances, from the master having purchased him, cr from other circumstances; and he cannot demand more than he has given for him, unless he has taught him any trade, when he is allowed to demand a higher price, but the general value of a slave not knowing a trade is 300 dollars, though some are not worth so much, and if they cannot agree, the slave goes to the syndic, and one person is appointed on the part of the slave, and another on that of the master, and in case of difference, the alcalde appoints a third, who[fixes the price, which the master is then obliged to take. The slave can also change his master, but the owner is not bound to sell him to any third person if he does not like it, unless either of the following can be proved against him, that the slave is either badly fed, badly clothed, ill-treated, or prevented from going to church, and if the slave can prove either of these, he may go before the syndic and demand to change masters ; the syndic will then order the master to sell him within a specified time, and the slave has a paper uiven him, authorising him to find another master ; the master is at the same time ordered to fix his price, and if no one will give the sum asked by the master within the time fixed by the syndic, he is obliged to take the highest price that may have been offered for the slave. All this appears favourable for the protection of the slaves, but it is principally those only in the towns who have means of access to the syndic, and can derive advan tage from it, as in the country, when slaves have bad masters, it is a very difficult thing, and almost impossible for them to make a complaint, for from the strict regulations on the estates it is difficult for them to absent themselves a sufficient length of time to go to the syndic; when, however, they are well-treated, which they are in most instance?, they are very careless about purchasing their freedom, as after they are free, they are subject to serve in the militia, and fill the parochial offices. When a slave has saved a little money, sufficient to purchase ahead of cattle in which the island abounds, he can buy one with his master s consent, and let it to a free man, who pays him half the earnings, and the master sees that the slave has justice done him, whereas, if he were free, he would not have any master to protect him. Many slaves are enabled to become possessed of property much more than sufficient to purchase their freedom, but when they die, what they leave, becomes the property of the master. But the masters do not take it, but give it to the wives and children of the deceased. The distinction, however, between black and white inhabitants is not made with reference to colour, for a black, as soon as he has purchased his freedom, is considered a white man ; and when they show any hair upon their heads, they are taken to serve in the militia, the Spanish law not allowing any but white people to become soldiers, except three companies of black artillery who are distributed over the island, having officers of their own, with white HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. officers over them. There are in the island seven battalions of militia of 1000 men each, formed from the free inhabitants, independent of the regular troops, who furnish guards over the different prisons in the towns and villages, keep the slaves in subjection, and per form other duties. Labour. The work on the estates is generally done by both free people and slaves; the free people are employed in planting and cutting the canes, and digging ditches, but it is very difficult to get them to work in the boiling houses, where the negroes are principally employed ; on a few estates, however, where they are well-treated, and are regularly paid, they are employed at all the different works that are in hand indiscrimi nately with the negro slaves. What the proprietors of estates complain of with regard to the free labourers is, that they cannot depend upon their remaining with them, but from some whim, or from having managed to get a little money in advance, they will leave their work at once, frequently without giving any notice, and at a time, perhaps, when it may be very inconvenient to lose them : whilst they work, the general pay which the free labourers receive is six dollars, or about twenty-four shillings per month, and they receive the same provisions as the slaves, and the negro drivers have charge over them as well as the slaves. The north and south sides of the island are so much separated by the chain of hills which run through it, that whilst they have had abundance of rain on the north side, the crops have considerably failed on the south side from the want of it. The Britis i North American colonies have latterly purchased large quantities of Porto Rico produce and the fish they import is more approved than that of either French or Amerio;"i curing. SEAPORTS. The following are the legal ports for the importation of goods, and the exportation of produce: San Juan de Porto Rico, the capital (population 80,000) ; May ugas, Ponce, Guayama, Aguadilla, Cabo Royo, Guayanilla, Saliir * 9 Manati, Patillas, Penuelas, and Saguerillo. The principal articles exported are, sugar, rum, molasses, coffee, cotton, bacco, hides, live-stock, dyewoods, lignum vitse, and timber, ground provisio rice, salt, &c. The sugar is nearly all muscovado, no clayed sugar being made in this islai. The molasses is of a good quality, and exported chiefly to the United States. Tl a rum in general is inferior to that manufactured in the British West Indies. The cofTee of this island is of good quality, but scarcely equal to that ot St. Domingo in flavour. The cotton is of fair quality, but the fibre is short. Indigo is indigenous. The tobacco, though rather inferior to that of Cuba, is of good quality for smoking. It is produced only by free labour. . The hides are large, and the cattle are of a good breed. Numbers of them are carried to the neighbouring islands. The beef is good, and the cattle of Porto Rico are superior to those bred on the Spanish main. STATISTICS OF PORTO RICO. Sugar.-In 1814, scarcely enough of sugar was grown for the consumption of the island. According to official documents, the quantity of sugar exported from all parts of Porto Rico in 1839, amounted to 69,245,783 lbs, valued at 2,423,602 dollars. The ports of exportation were Ibs.; Manati, 56,025 Ibs. ; Patillas, 643,362 Ibs. ; Penuelas, 5615 Ibs. ; saguilfo, Coffee. The quantity exported during the year 1839, was 8,538,362 Ibs., valued at 853,836 dollars. The ports of exportation were Porto! Rico, 517,471 Ibs. ; Mayugas, 3,187,200 Ibs. ; Ponce, 634,691 Ibs.; Gua- yama, 304,248 Ibs.; Aguadilla, 2,134,014 Ibs.; Cabo Royo, 283,977 Ibs.; Areibo 507,289 Ibs. ; Naguabo, 3525 Ibs. ; Humacao, 86,300 Ibs. ; Guayanilla, 288,1 15 Ibs Salinas, 416,562 Ibs. ; Manati, 57,036 Ibs. ; Patillas, 24,325 Ibs. ; Penuelas, 92,609 Ibs. Molasses. 3,311,719} gallons of molasses, valued at 496,759 dollars, were exported during the year 1839. The ports of exportation were Porto Rico, 288,627 gallons; Mayugas, 446,734 gallons ; Aguadilla, 2942 gallons; Ponce, 915,637 gallons ; Guayama, 1,244,098 gallons; Cabo Royo, 37,895 gallons , Fayaribo, 57,746 gallons; Areibo, 88,888 gallons; Naguabo, 47,500 gallons; Huma- c.,o, 56,509 gallons; Guayanilla, 91,382 gallons; Salinas, 4108 gallons ; Manati, 1810 gallons; Patillas, 28,933 gallons. Cotton wool. 1,183,973 Ibs. of cotton, grown in the island, valued at 189,435 ipllars, were exported during the year 1839. The ports of exportation were Porto Rico, 361,484 Ibs.; Mayugas, 503,022 Ibs. ; Guayama, 8170 Ibs. ; Aguadilla 309,097 Ibs. ; Guayanilla, 2200 Ibs. Live stock. The value of live stock exported is given for the same year as follows: horses, 7023 dollars ; mules 4340 dollars; horned cattle, 20,303 dollars. Coin. In 1839, 1104 dollars value of gold coin, and 129,285 dollars of silver, i exported, = 130,389 dollars. Hides. 673,832 Ibs., value 60,644 dollars, were exported, viz., ^rom Porto Rico, 423,888 Ibs. ; Mayugas, 159,047 Ibs.; Ponce, 62 10 Ibs.; Guayama, ibs.; Aguadilla, 72,320 Ibs.; Cabo Royo, 4474 Ibs. ; Areibo, 520 Ibs. ; Humacao, ,,6 Ibs. ; Guayanilla, 1239 Ibs. ; Manati, 625 Ibs. u Wood. The value of timber exported was estimated at 24,236 dollars. Tlum. 649| puncheons, value 16,241 dollars, were exported in 1839; viz., 1-rom Porto Rico, 277 puncheons; Pouce, 127 puncheons; Guayama, 107 pun cheons; Aguadilla, 40 puncheons; Fayardo, 23J puncheons; Areibo, 53 puncheons; Naguabo, 10J puncheons; Humacao, 4 puncheons. tfzce.-- 228,925 Ibs. of rice, valued at 10,301 dollars were exported in 1839. Dyewood. The value exported in 1839, was estimated at only 494 dollars. Corn. Indian corn and grain were exported only to the value of 531 dollars. Miscellaneous. Articles not enumerated were exported to the value of 14,879 dollars, of which was salt to the value of 2701 dollars. Total value of produce exported in 1839 was, 4,398,142 dollars, and in coin J272 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. 130,389 dollars, and of 988,079 dollars, the value of deposited or bonded goods exported. The total value of exports 5,516,660 dollars. The rum exported is chiefly to the British North American colonies. Rum is immoderately consumed in the island by the common people. EXPORTS FROM PORTO KICO IN 1840. tf^flr. The quantity exported was 81,793,693 Ibs., value 2,862,779 dollars. Coffee. The quantity exported was 12,450,114 Ibs., value 1,254,011 dollars. Mo/asses. The quantity was 3,033,034 gallons, value 454,195 dollars. Tobacco. The quantity exported was 4,227,484 Ibs., value 169,099 dollars. Live Stock exported ; viz., dollars. 112 horses, value . . . . . - 4,783 86 mules . . . . 4,308 3396 cattle ..... 117,090 Total . . .... 126,181 The total value of goods imported from Spanish ports, and under the Spanish flag, in 1839, was 725,740 dollars; in 1840, it was (with the exception of the imports from Cuba) 915,260 dollars. The amount from Cuba, under the Spanish flag, in 1840, was 217,232 dollars; under the British flag, 315 dollars. The imports from the neighbouring colonies, under the Spanish flag 1 , in 1839, amounted to 1,951,617 dollars; in 1840, to 2,617,489 dollars. In 1839, the value of imports from the United States amounted to 1,192,670 dollars; in 1840, to 1,279,477 dollars. In 1839, the value of the imports from Germany was 193,956 dollars; in 1840, 412,568 dollars. In 1839, the amount of Danish imports was 44,715 dollars; in 1840, none imported. In 1839, the amount of French imports, by French vessels, was 86,382 dollars; in 1840, it was 135,990 dollars. In 1839, the value of Dutch imports amounted to only 8615 dollars; in 1840, none imported. In 1839, British imports, under the British flaj, amounted to 145,825 dollars ; in 1840, under various flags, to 185,187 dollars. In 1839, Portuguese imports amounted to 833 dollars; in 1840, the imports, chiefly under the Brazilian and Spanish flags, from the Brazils, amounted to 517,982 dollars. In 1840, the value of imports from the continent of South America was 518,819 dollars. EXPORTS 1839 AND 1840. The value of exports to Spain, under the Spanish flag, in 1839, was 400,401 dollars ; in 1840, under various flags to Spain, 1,816,658 dollars. The value of exports to Cuba, under the Spanish flag, in 1840, was 24,593 dollars. In 1839, the value of exports to the neighbouring colonies, under the Spanish flag, was 4 14,996 dollars; in 1840, under various flags, 671,068 dollars. The value of exports to the United States, under the American flag, was, in 1839, 2,588,482 dollars; in 1840, under various flags, 1,803,761 dollars. Exports to Germany, in German vessels, in 1839, amounted to 266,694 dollars ; in 1840 under various flags, to 480,288 dollars. Exports to Denmark and her colonies, under the Danish flag, in 1839, 211,758 dollars; and in 1840, 14,386 dollars. Exports to France, nder the French flag, was, in 1839, 292,054 dollars; in 1840, under various flags, > dollars. Exports to Holland, under the Dutch flag, in 1839, amounted to 5 dollars; in 1840, under various flags, to 18,180 dollars. Exports to Great ntam and her colonies, under the British flag, in 1839, amounted to 347,892 dollars; i under the same flag, in 1840, to 356 5 997 dollars. Exports to Italy, under various gs, in 1840, 148,825 dollars. Exports to Turkey, under the British and Austrian lags, in 40, 1 1,282 dollars. Exports to the continent of South America, under varous ustrian various STATISTICS OF PORTO RICO. 1273 In proportion as the Dutch and Danish trade with Porto Rico have been declining, the British has been advancing. VESSELS of different Nations, which entered the Harbours of Porto Rico, in 1839. COUNTRIES. 18 39 IS 40 . Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. number. 675 tons. number. ton*. 439 648 31,3084 349 4<,3IH .... 2 571 Danish 47 21 2,494 88 3,201 4 178 15,201 British 114 9 494 2 36 10,830 Swedish 2 88 223 Dutch 9 130 44 &a 442 Total 1392 116 3971 223 Cotton. The exports of cotton were 621,218 Ibs., value 99,394 dollars. Hides. The exports of hides were 607,385 Ibs., worth 54,664 dollars. Rum. There were exported llOOf puncheons, value 27,518 dollars. Wood. The value of wood for building exported, amounted to 21,517 dollars; the quantity of dye woods exported, amounted to 1,261,795 Ibs., value 7882 dollars. Salt. The exports of salt were 3995 bushels, value 3995 dollars. Miscellaneous Articles were exported to the value of 15,911 dollars. Specie. The exports of coin amounted to 121,346 dollars. The export of merchandise in bond amounted in value to 1,424,251 dollars. The total value of Porto Rico products exported in 1840, was 5,038,911 dollars; which, with the value of specie and bonded goods, 1,424,251 dollars makes the total value of exports, for 1840, amount to 6,634,588 dollars. 12,547,9 10 Ibs. of sugar, it appears, were exported in 1840, over the quantity exported in 1839 ; from which it would also appear that the cultivation of sugar had increased in this ratio in the course of one year, a proof of the advancing state of the agriculture of the island. 3,911,752 Ibs. more of coffee were also exported in 1840 than in 1839. IMPORTS IN 1839 AND 1840. The total value of 1839 was 5,462,206 dollars. The imports of oil, wine, and fermented liquors, amounted, in 1839, to 290,095 dollars; spices, 9856 dollars; preserved and dried fruits, 22,777 dollars; salted meats, 85,095 dollars; various kinds of grain, 1,079,542 dollars; lamp oil, lard, &c., 124,346 dollars; salted fish, 250,521 dollars; miscellaneous articles, 95,705 dollars. VOL. I. 7 Z 1274 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, THE Imports of Manufactured Goods were as follow : ARTICLES. Amount. ARTICLES. Amount. dollars. 844,018 Lumber dollars. 241,516 Woollen goods Linen goods 09,590 610,033 Hardware and metals Articles not included in the foregoing 711 389 Pur Silks 93,766 THE total Value of Imports, in 1840, was 7,538,472 Dollars; viz. : ARTICLES. Amount. ARTICLES. Amount. dollars. 373,284 89,536 11,686 37,558 1,132,907 dollars. 215,577 343,71 1 150,738 Wine", oil, and fermented liquors Salt fish , Other articles not included under the MANUFACTURES Imported were as follow : ARTICLES. Amount. ARTICLES. Amount. dollars. 1 488 928 dollars. 3l4 324 Woollen goods * 9*> 553 5 57 033 907 098 Other articles not included in the pre 266 101 ceding heads 1 371 556 Silks 182,875 OF this Number there entered at the different Ports, in 1839 and 1840 : POUTS 18 39 18 40 Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. St. Jago (of all nations) number. 289 tons. 28 168 number. tons. 137 13 755 186 208 23 397 234 203 196 Aguadilla 60 22 861 Q 5891 Fajardo 121 4 095 80 O 754. Areibo 33 19 139 71 Salinas 40 2,410 2 SI Guayanilla Manati 22 5 1,099 20 2,105 Patillas 15 Penuelas Laguillo 10 120 IM. Bw^f * **w vcoacia m 01,0 io:j tuns i*icaieu. in io-tl/. REVENUES derived from Customs and Tonnage Duties, in the Years 1839 and 1840 IMPORT DUTIES. 18 39 18 10 EXPORT DUTIES. It 539 1 B40 Derecbo real .... dlrs. 710 345 dlra. dlrs. dlrs. dlrs. dlrs. dlrs. dlrs. Consul ado 8 484 Total import duties.. 734,395 .. 1,169,356 Deposito 5,559 2,063 7,562 3,414 Deposito Arbitras locales 215,514 4,912 18,012 259,470 7,069 22,223 734,395 12,277 1,169,356 Weighage 2,622 241,060 2,937 291,699 86002 975,455 1,461,055 2 755 88 758 total dollars Total sterling 1,063,913 212 782 .. 1,553,090 316 618 STATISTICS OF PORTO RICO. BRITISH Ships entered and cleared with Cargoes, in 1843. 1275 PORT S. ENTERED. PORTS. > A I L i; I). Ships. Tonnage. Ship.. Tonnage. tons. z ON -if, 7i 1,032 1,350 619 813 847 84 San Juan number. 20 16 13 11 9 3 G tons. 2,754 3,116 1,501 1,328 511 535 568 San Juan uumlujr. It 15 14 11 11 5 9 1 Ponce Agnail ill u Ponce Aguadilla \reibo Fajardo Total 78 460 311 180 10,313 25,160 45,1921 22,666$ Total 85 442 338 196 10,732 24,107 4r>,322i 25,15*i American, Grand total 1029 103,331i 1061 i 106,380$ British ships entered, in 1842.. .. in 1843.... less in 1843 more in 1843 British ships sailed, in 1842 in 1843.... less in 1843 more in 1843 68 78 7,700 10,313 91 8.". 10,312 10,732 10 2,613 6 420 COMPARISON between the General Arrivals and Sailings of Ships, in 1842 and 1843. YEARS. ENTERED. YEARS. SAILED. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. number. 1348 1029 tons. 125,025* 103,331i Ships sailed in 1842 number. 1217 1061 tons. 127,019 6-12 106,380 in 1843 iu 1843 less in 1843... 319 21.6944 156 20.639 6-12 IMPORTS into Porto Rico, in 1843, in which Great Britain was interested. IMPORTS. Amount. Sterling. IMPORTS. Amount. Sterling. Imported in British Ships: From the West India Islands. England dlrs. els. 44,072 86 15,049 78 9,539 59 34,665 64 *. d. 20,665 11 6 29,580 18 1 Imported from England : At Mayaguas Aguadilla dlrs. cts. 15,049 78 38,312 08 . <f. 10,672 7 5* 27,672 19 9 29,580 18 1 Venezuela Canada and Newfound land .... Total 53,361 86 40,930 21 44,072 86 138,364 93 9,539 59 147,904 62 Imported from Canada and New- 103,327 87 38,312 08 6,264 57 At San Juan.. 28,242 ills. 24 cts. Mayaguas. 9,260 *2 Guayama. 3,427 15 Imported in Bremen Ships : Imported in Spanish Ships : Imported from our West India Total . Grand Total 147,904 52 Imported from Venezuela in Bri tish ships Independent of the above, the imports from St. Thomas amounted to 1 ,470,022 dol lars ten cents (294,0047. Ss. 5d. sterling), great part of which consisted of woollen, cotton, and linen goods, ironmongery and crockery-ware from England, the particulars of which cannot be ascertained. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, EXPORTS from Porto Rico, in 1843, in which Great Britain was interested. EXPORTS. Amount. Sterling. EXPORTS. Amount. TOTAL. Exported in British Ships :- To the West India Islands England dlrs. cts. 2-1,886 09 I .534,506 04 123,107 92 082,560 05 17,390 29 70,220 48 32,328 00 33,520 47 13,282 93 849,302 22 . d 136,512 2 169,860 8 11 Exported to England : dlrs. cts. 125,153 10 287,913 54 84,896 68 53,112 40 71,990 28 1,305 67 59,419 49 4,174 12 dlrs. cts. 687,965 28 136,450 85 24,886 09 849,302 22 Mayaguas ,) Canada and Newfoundland Tntal Aguadilla Exported In Danish Ships : To England Naguabo Fajardo Exported to Canada and New foundland : Exported in American Ships : 53,307 76 19,477 61 26,938 85 27,053 77 210 25 5,526 24 2,612 47 1,323 90 Exported in Hamburg Ships: Ponce Exports in Dutch Ships; Guayama " Aribo Exported in Spanish Ships: Jo Canada and Newfoundland Exported to our West India Total dlrs. ctg. s. d. Total exportation, in 1843 5,054,905 86= 1,010,981 3 5 importation, in 1843 4,342,540 67 *= 868,508 2 8 Balance in favour of exports 7)2,365 19 = 142,473 9 N.B. This includes the articles taken into and delivered out of bond. COMPARISON between Imports and Exports, in 1842 and 1843. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 1842 1843 Differences. dlrs. cts. dlrs. cts. 4,342 540 67 dlrs. cts. 1,414,863 17 6 429 257 35 5 054 905 86 1,374,351 49 Total 12,186,661 19 9,397,446 53 2,789,214 66 COMPARISON between Duties, in 1842 and 1843. DUTIES. 1842 1843 Difference*. Oi importation and exportation dlrs. cts, 1 339 468 20 dlrs. cts. dlrs. cts. Total 1,438,351 18 1,082,201 58 356,149 60 EXPORTATION of the Principal Articles of Produce, in 1842 and 1843 : R U M. COTTON. SUGAR. HIDES. 18 12 1843 1842 1843 1842 1843 1842 1843 ~7b7 509,777 hotheads. VOJ7g hogsheads. 1 ll )8 . H57i 882,064 Ibs. 350,553 Ibs. 91,906,688 Ibs. 71,039,913 Ibs. 567,052 COP FEE. CATTLE. MOLASSES. T O B A C C (. 1843 ISM ibT U.878,953 1843 1842 1843 1842 1843 1842 lh. 7,756,33. , heads. 3548 heads. 2595 gallons. 3,037,725 gallons. 2,280,1 15 Ibs. 6,693,953 Ibs. 7,453,145 STATISTICS OF PORTO RICO. 1277 VALUE of the Merchandise placed in Bond in 1843 : ARTICLES. Quantity. Nation. Value. ARTICLES. Quantity.j Nation. Value. Cotton, from Venezuela, Ibs. 87,700 2,234,672 125,583 93,950 2,541,905* ships. Spanish, do. Danish. Dutch. Spanish, do. do. do. Danish. Dutch. English. Spanish. American . do. Danish. English. American, do. dlrs. cts. 406,699 68 71,891 28 37,300 00 2,516 00 518.406 96 Brought forward... . Cocoa (Carracas), from 3,344,310$ 6.1275J 8,G47| 54 J ship*. Spanish. Danish. Dutch. Spanish, do. English. Spanish. Spanish. do. American do. . 201.: dlrs. ct. 518,406 90 275.H35 00 70,056 25 33,040 00 26,433 00 923,771 21 83,200 61 1,006,971 82 194 75. 3rf. Venezuela do. Total Hides, from St. Thomas, Ibs. Trinidad do. 1 5,324 J 174 4 ,668* 761J 103,138 1,100 62,528 1,400 557,873 72,500 253 708,792 900 1,376 488 125 95 (Carupano), from v l " d 8> Total (Trinidad), from ditto do 5,6041 3,304 354,500 114,650 7,300 9,900 Total VV beaten flour, from Tobacco, manufactured, United States. ..do. St. Thomas do. United States.. .. do. St. Thomas do. Total (Virginia), United St Thomas do Total 2,984 530 99 486,350 3,854,898? Maize flour, from United Total quantity.. St. Thomas do. Total Carried forward .... Total Value Value in jgsterli [,gi 629 3,344,3 10| VALUE of Merchandise Exported out of Bond in 1843. ARTICLES. Quantity. Nation. Value. ARTICLES. Quantity. Nation. Value. Cotton, to Spain Ibs. 2,381,941J ships. Spanish. dlrs. cts. 381,110 63 Brought forward.. 3,269,526f ships. dlrs. cts. 794,629 17 ARTICLES. Quantity. Nation. Value. ARTICLES. Quantity. Nation. Value. Cotton, to Spain Ibs. 2,381,9411 717,685 5,008 6?, 806 74,900 866,390 13,939 83 10 791 ships. Spanish. do. do. American. Danish. Spanish, do. Danish. Sardinian. Spanish, do. do. do. do. do. dlrs. cts. 381,110 63 77,975 92 254,007 00 48,290 62 27,620 00 5,625 00 Brought forward.. Maize flour, to Cura- 3,269,526f 80 ships. Spanish. do. do. American. Spanish, do. Danish. 17 dlrs. cts. 794,629 17 320 00 8,081 20 2,271 00 8f 5.301 37 53,898 74 St. Thomas do. United States... do. Tobacco (Cuba), to Spain Ibs. St. Thomas do. United States . . do. Total 18,706 12,300 9,400 40.40G Total Cocoa(Carracas) to Spain c ts. Cuba do 366,500 7,000 5,000 378,500 3,688,5125 St. Thomas do. Italy.... . do Venezuela do. Total (Carupano), to 14,111 3,837| 251 Total Total quantity.. Other articles. . Cuba do. Total (Trinidad), to Spain do. Wheaten flour, to Cuba barrels St. Thomas do. Total Carried forward.... 3,863J 2,762 300 150 450 3,269,5262 Total value. . .. Value in sterling 859,200 11 1,8-10 5*. 194,629 17 From which it appears that almost the whole of the cotton and hides put into bond were exported to Spain, and the flour was mostly taken out for home consumption ; this last with other articles is frequently put into bond to delay payment of duties, and when the merchant s stores arefull.no charge being made by government for rent. Ihe cocoa was brought here because it could not go from Venezuela direct to Spam, but the trade having been BIDCS thrown open between the two countries very little more cocoa is likely to brought here. 1278 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. PARTICULARS of the Exports from Porto Rico iu the Fear 1843, specifying the Quantities and Values, under what Flag 1 , or where Exported. MUSCOVADO SUGAR. CAST, OR FRIAGE COFFEE. Quantit y. Countries. Value. Ships. Quantit y. Countries. Value. Ships. IbB. Where to. dlrs. c a. In. Ibs. Where to. dlrs. c -- Ml Spain i St. Thomas 22,732 92 Spanish 28,774 06 do. 1,86 17,82 3 United States 2 Curacoa 93 891 American Dutch 315,74 do. 12,100 97 Danish do. 2,001 99 English 19,68 I I 984 10 I.M 42.07 I.-- 1,58 Santa Cruz I Curacoa do. Turkish Islam United States . 0. Bremen do. Denmark France 44 1,472 . 168 55 J 1,248,184 Z 254 2 3,107 3 4,200 7 14,994 1 6,749 3 13 Danish >2 Spanish 0, Dutch 5 American f do. 8 Danish 7 Bremen 4 Danish 6 do. 6 Spanish 473,971 20,758 375 36S 280 2,001 11,755 272 DRY Spain United States Bremen France England Halifax Genoa Trieste HIDES. 42,657 i 1,868 5 33 7 32 g 25 2 480 1,057 9 24 4 7 Spanish American 5 Bremen 5 French English 9 do. 5 Spanish do. do. Guadaloupe 448,080 43 French 7,862 ;u do. 509,777 45,879 9 1 33,442 Hamburg 1,170 47 Danish SA LTED HIDES. do. Hollmd 16,123 48 Hamburg 14,213 29 English (198 23 Spain Sf. Thomas 261 751 Spanish 8 63 ^~ 79.1M hn gland 30,769 83; American 60 Bermuda 18 7 5 English do. 17,390 2 Danish do. 30,354 .. Hamburg 771 289 1 | IM 1,168 ;t, 244,703 175,44fi . do. do. Bermuda Grenada Newfoundland Halifax do. Genoa, do. New Brunswick 33,520 4 435,556 1( 1,816 2( 14 7( 110 6C 78,564 6C 6,140 61 292 88 13,096 80 5,525 24 Dutch English do. do. do. do. Spanish do. Sardinian English No. 3 2 31 1 9 2 34 29 HO Spain Santa Cruz St. Thomas do. Guadaloupe Martinique Grenada Nevis RS ES. 300 ( 100 ( 1716 51 50 ( 220 C 100 C 850 725 > Spanish do. > do. Dutch French do. English do 71,032,413 coco ,486,134 46 A NUTS. 7 24 St. Kitt s Venezuela 180 900 do! Spanish No 142 5141 50 8,344 5,400 GOO 7,700 I, J37 MO Spain St. Thomas France. Guada oiipe United States England 166 80 Spanish 108 do. 12 Oj do. 151 French 38 75 American 10 English 9 12 4 " * M I St. Thomas Guadaloupe St. Kitt s BLACK LE S. 450 570 160 1180 CATTLE Spanish French English 24,481 Jbs. 489 55 TORTOISE-SHEL L. 581 1509 66 St. Thomas Guadaloupe Martinique 18,566 Spanish 56,632 French 2,196 rir >- 231 Spain 230| Spanish 70 36 Barb*does Dominica 2,100 1,188 English do. 2 800 S B E A N S 1 Grenada 30 do. 70 S Danish 126 Jamaica 4,376 do! 47,307 St. Tkomas 6 25 1184 18 do. do. 8 31 Nevis Prorideuce 240 1,023 do. do. 50,417 1260 43 2128 86,351 If) 16M .nl 110,835 CO F Spain Cuba s t. Ti.omas Santa Cruz I nited States Bremen FEE. 89,249 90 22 70 41,629 60 33 10 49,533 10 Spanish do. do. Danish American Ibs. 87,700 85,581 1-SOOO 32,400 LI G N U Spain France England Halifax M V I T JE. 548 13 534 94 112 50 202 50 Spanish French English do. Bi8i IM8I do. Dtnmark France do 41,932 50 31,351 GO 1,348 10 29,545 80 Bremen Hamburg Danish Spanish 223,681 VALUAB No LE WOODS A> 1398 07 T D BUILDIN G TIMBER. 179,073 MO Sit 831,870 Humburg do. do. Gibraltar do. Bermuda Newfoundland H.. . fax do. Genoa do 53,278 20 17,907 30 32,605 114,389 50 35,584 20 24 71,771 50 779 30 21 1,247 50 1, i02 80 19,871 st; l,fil 5(1 French Bremen Danish Hamburg American Hamburg Bngliah do. do. do. Spanish do. An 287 102 419 73 15 1718 1027 168 609 346 4 Spain St. Thomas Santa Cruz United States Hamburg Guadaloupe Martinique Antigua Barbadoes Grenada Halifax 809 50 74 783 264 22 50 2 50 3,096 21 2,522 05 774 38 1,576 19 469 80 16 00 Spanish do. do. do. American Danish French do. Et glish do. do. do do. (uracoa SSSJS Ss Dutch 256 86 277 Jamaica St. Lucia St. Kitt s 814 81 401 50 1,349 75 do! do. do. 7. :.-";...-..; 7 7 < i r tr\ i 2 Genoa 2 Spauish / -K Hi.) 30 5390 12,978 19 STATISTICS OF PORTO RICO. 1279 SMALL CATTLE. SOLE LEATHER. Quantity. Countries. Value. Ships. Quantity. Countries. Value. Ship*. No. Where to dlrs. cts. In. Ibs. Where to dlra. cts. 6 St. Thomas 24 Spanish 11,764 Spain 2117 52 Spanish 11 France 50 French 1 ,600 Cuba 288 d>. 5 981 St Thomas 1076 58 do 17 74 400 United States 72 American PEPPER Ibs. OFTHEISLAlx D CALLED 3 HALAQUITA. 19,745 3554 10 9,583 4,490 Spain St. Thomas 574 98 269 40 Spanish do F U S Ibs. r i c K. 14,073 844 38 81,440 Spain 509 Spanish MOLASSES. oz. G L D C I N. gallons. 4,490 Spain 673 50 Spanish 177 Spain | 28,408 Spanish 916 St. Thomas 137 40 do. oz. SILVER COIN. 2,158 767 Curacoa do. 323 70 115 05 do. Dutch 4,010 Spain | 4010 Spanish 1,907,463 28,804 United States do. 286,119 50 4,320 60 American Danish VEGETABLE MARROW, OR AQUACATES. 64,934 222,547 Halifax do. 9,740 10 33,382 05 Spanish English No. 80,900 St. Thomas. 404 50 Spanish 20,192 Newfoundland 3,028 80 do. 27,844 Bermuda 4,176 60 do. hhds. 9,280,115 342,017 30 236 Spain Cuba 5,900 155 Spanish do. PLANTAINS. 332i St. Thomas 9,560 do. 845,900 6,200 16,000 St. Thomas Santa Cruz Curacoa 3,172 12 23 15 60 Spanish do. do. 121$ 114| 69 12 Curacao United States Denmark France 3,050 2,856 25 1,725 300 do. American Danish French 868,100 3,255 37 England Halifax 1,762 50 1,410 English do. Ibs. 655,175 LEAF 1 St. Thomas 1 B A C C ( 26,207 ). Spanish 32 56 Newfoundland Genoa 812 50 1,400 do. Sardinian 35,322 2,422 Curacao do. 1,412 88 96 88 do. American 1157* 28,931 25 3,171,103 Bremen 126,844 12 Bremen COTTON. 387,458 do. 15,498 32 Danish bales. 715,925 995,352 Denmark Hamburg 28,637 39,814 8 do. do. 305,035 12,424 Spain France 48,805 60 1,987 84 Spanish French 1,223,510 248 45 do. Holland 48,940 40 9 937 Hamburg Dutch 33,094 England 5,295 4 English 742 17,711 England 29 68 708 44 do. Bremen 350,553 56,088 48 R I P P 7,453,145 298,125 80 4483 Spain 201 74 Spanish 112 ROLL Spain FOB AC C ( 336 J. Spanish 125 150 Cuba St. Thomas 5 63 6 75 do. do. 17 St. Thomas 51 do. Old 19 10 United States 30 American HORNS. 139 417 9,675 Spain 146 51 Spanish CIGARS. 1,596 St. Thomas 23 94 do. b lxes 3,000 Genoa 45 do. 14,363 215 45 SNUFF IN BOTTLES. WHITE SUGAR. 12 doz. Spain 108 Spanish Other produce .... 12,045 34 7500 | England 450 Hamburg dollars cts. Total Exports in 1843 4,195,705 75 as above An d exported out of bond 859,200 11 s. d. 839,141 3 171,840 5 Total 5,054,905 8G or 1,010,981 3 5 VALUE of the different Articles of Exportation. dollars, cts. s. d. Rum 28,931 25 Cotton 56,083 M 2.486.5S4 40 Coffee 774,649 4(1 Hides 45,879 III Cattle 86,351 a 342,017 K Gold and silver coin 44,660 32,418 JO 298,125 BO Total 4,195,705 75 or 839,141 3 1280 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. PARTICULARS of the Principal Articles of Importation into Porto Rico in the Year 1843, specifying the Quantities and Values, under what Flag, and from whence Imported. ARTICLES. Whence. Quantity, Country. Amount. TOTAL. Olive oil, in jug* arnba about 1G bottle countries. Spain St. Thomas number. 23,32 If 28 sliipa, Spanish do. dlrs. cts. 69,965 25 84 dlrs. cts. in bottles .. ..doz. bottles Spain St. Thomas do. France do. 23,349| 641 7314 31 2 661 do. do. French do. Spanish 1,923 2,560 25 108 50 7 2,313 50 Brandy, Spaninh ..demijohns, 3i to 4 galls, each Spain St. Thomas Spain 2,066$ 9,253 12 396 do. do. do. 18,506 24 792 Beer.. .ciiartillo, or bottles of 1 quart each Spain St. Thomas 9,661 1,200 840 do. Dutch 75 52 50 2,040 127 50 Spain do. do. do. United States 7,879 11 88 24 251 Spanish American Hamburg English American 11,818 50 16 50 132 36 Bremen France Guadaloupe Englaifd do. 818 152 226 113 304 Bremen French do. Bremen English 1,227 228 339 169 50 456 0,866 14,799 Gin, in stone bottles... bottles St. Thomas do. do. do. 196,948 312 5,640 24,000 Spanish Danish Bremen Spanish 24,618 5 39 705 3,000 Wine, white, in cask...aroba 8 Spain Cuba Spain 226,900 ll,666f 43 _^ 4 _ 5 _ do. do. do. 14,582 92 53 75 806 25 white, in cases case* Catalonian P i pe8 Bourdeaux hhds Spain 12,354f 202 1.356J do. 606 27 130 ditto * * 40 Marsalla i, ll(1 V 1,711 ditto . . 388$ Salt pork, in barrels... barrels J St. Thomas do. do. St. Vincent Halifax nited States 244 171|~~ !3 25 15 23 l,856i Spanish American French English da American 2,576 25 172 50 187 50 375 225 345 27,843 75 732 2,115 Salt beef, in barrels.... barrels I St. Thomas do. Barbadoes Jnited States do. 67 191 11 909 20 Spanish American do. do. Danish 536 1,528 88 7,272 160 Westphalia Hams... lbs American do .....*t 1,198 6 825 9,584 Fig "I - RaisiuMuboxeVoiVMbs. ea 1 : 185,397 45,164 7,368i 1,023 75 16,685 73 1,806 56 1 1,052 75 Carried forward I 266,150 21 STATISTICS OF PORTO RTCO. 1281 ARTICLES. Whence. Quantity. Country. Amount. TOTAL. Brought forward Spain St. Thomaa do. Barbadoes numbers. V, 7 15 157,022 81,307 5,941 ships. Spanish do. American do. dlrs. eta. 437 18 7,"65 99 3,658 85 267 35 dlrs. eta. 266,150 21 United States do. Halifax 1,144,128 8,492 6,652 do. Danish English 51,485 76 382 14 299 29 63 596 56 1,413,257 Caracas 2294 221 1-6 4,126 50 2 764 58 Trinidad 102 1,020 7,911 8 552 5-12 St. Thomas do. l!o. do. 4,223 3,871* 128 120 Spanish American French English 16,892 16,486 514 480 Santa Cruz United States do. do. 100 10,426 120 899 do. Danish American 400 41,704 480 3,596 79,550 19,887* * Spain Cuba St. Thomas do. do. do. United States Barbadoes Gu ad a loupe 8,112 750 7,541 5 292 1,074 14,803$ 205 14 Spanish do. do. French English American do. do. do. 101,406 25 9,375 94,262 50 62 50 3,650 29,425 185,040 63 2,562 50 175 I France do. Santa Cruz Curncoa Trinidad Spain St. Thomaa United States 60 30 2 30 3 600 734 1,439 Spanish French Danish Dutch English Spanish American do. 750 375 25 375 37 50 7,500 9,175 17,987 50 4C2 184 38 35,694J St. Thomas do. do. 45,325 5JO 77,910 Spanish English American 5,665 63 63 75 9,738 75 I United States do. 423,006 4,089 do. Danish 52,875 75 511 12 68 855 550,840 f St. Thomas do. United States 21,887 20,061 105,952 Spanish American do. 2,735 17 2,507 83 13,244 60 I England Halifax 150 400 Bremen English 18 75 50 18728 47 149,827 j St. Thomas do. Barbadoes 13,817 20,927 238 Spanish American do. 1,381 70 2,092 70 23 80 1 ( I Guadaloupe United States do. , Halifax. 143,606 1,923 860 do. Danish English 14,360 60 192 30 86 18,215 60 182,458 . Spain St. Thomas do. France 2,013 83,321 864 1,563 Spanish do. Danish Spanish 281 82 11,664 94 120 96 218 82 do. Guadaloupe Bremen England 389 3,024 4,080 do. Bremen do. 54 4t; 423 36 571 20 ] 3 4 T3 88 1 96,242 Carried f onvard 998,695 28 VOL. I. 8 A 1282 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. ARTICLES. Whence. Quantity. Countries, ships. Spanish Amount. dlrs. cts. 62 50 39 1,476 198 127 1,268 75 259 2,327 50 11,457 25 122 50 210 1,545 25 35 49 12,506 13 10,038 14 2,863 84 2,753 80 287 04 528 78 1,844 64 24,712 73 42 66 4,243 61 818 37 135,778 23 272 89 5,054 57 23,477 09 3,627 22 1,638 87 140 TOTAL. countries. number. ,! dlrs. cts. 998,695 28 2,521 60 1,902 SO 17,190 25 230,664 10 34,202 15,291 75 14,426 20 18,420 75 .33..314 43 Cheese, Spanish main.. . .Ibs. Venezeula f St. Thomas do. ^ United States Barbadoes I Halifax IS . Thomas do. do. United Sta es Jtarbadoea Halifax do. Spain St. Thomas do. do. do. do. Barbadoes Guadaloupe do. France Martinique do. United States do. Halifax do. Trinidad Guadaloupe United States Spain St. Thomas do. do. United States Halifax do. do. St. Vincent Spain Spain St. Thomas do. United States do. Halifax I Venezuela 125 78 2,952 396 254 3,805 do. American do. do. English 362! 74 665 3,273| 35 60 441| 4,91 1$ English do. American do. do. Spanish English Spanish do. Ameiican Danish French English American Spanish French do. do. American do. Danish Spanish English do. French American Spanish do. Ameiican EngHsh Ameiican do. Spanish Euglish do. Spanish do. do. American do. Danish English Spanish do. do. English American do. Danish French do. Bremen do. English Carried lory i Cod fish .. Ibs < 1,014 357,318 386,804 81,824 78,680 8,201 15,108 52,704 706,078 1,219 121,246 23,382 3,879,378 7,797 144,416 670,774 103,635 46,825 4,000 Mackarel barrels < 6,590,403 350 394 740 1 ,280 22,408 320 1,000 7,498 212 87| 98 185 320 5,602 80 250 1,874^ 53 k Garlic .trinr. 8,550$ 61,167 Onions... 239,206 41,119 11,417 253,938 1,805 14,000 15,563 5,980 15 1,027 98 285 42 6,348 45 45 13 350 389 07 Potatoes... ,,. , 577,048 6,999 75 351 76 50 1,212 75 9,193 50 225 128 25 40 50 112 50 18 63 Spain St. Thomas do. do. United States do. Prance Guadaloupe Bremen England Halifax 3,111 156 34 539 4,086 100 57 18 50 8 28 8~il87 ard... .. 1 STATISTICS OF PORTO RICO. 1283 ARTICLES. Whence. Quantity. Countries. Amount. TOTAL. Brought forward . . . Pastes, as maccaroni, &c..ibs. Salt cwts. countries. St. Thomas do. do. Hal.fax Barbadoes Triui.lad United States do. St. Thomas do. United States Trinidad Halifax Spain St. 1 horn as United States England do. Spain St. Thomas United States St. Thomas do. do. United States do. England Spain Cuba St. Thomas do. do. do. do. United States do. Martinique Guadeloupe France Spain Cuba St. Thomas do. United States Martinique number. 189,668 11,002 795,544 5,615 26,536 ships. Spanish Spanish American English do. American do. do. Danish Spanish Auieiican do. do. English Spanish do. American Bremen English Spanish do. American Spanish Dutch American do. Danish English Spanish do. do. American Danish French English American Danish French do. do. Spanish do. do. American do. do. Carried frm dlrs cts. cllrn. ct. .333,314 43 18,906 80 11,1102 365.781 34 41,339 90 U SO 86,421 05 18,888 GO 8,422 50 19,902 37,053 61 83,266 72 4,41 1 28 4,106 48 172,600 5,910 72,155 42 3,295 3,125 94 28,154 96 7,529 76 19,269 31 24,119 77 155,628 Cottons , . Woollens ... . . Silks Staves*. do 50,000" 32,559 2,214 5,900 4,800 1,500 1,902,603 58,958 900 586 06 39 85 106 20 86 40 27 34,246 86 1,061 24 i c Pine boards feet { 2,058,534 562 80 8,427 54 72,132 20 1,280 864 18 28,140 421,377 3,606,610 64,000 43,209 [ Wrought iron and in hoops.. Ibs. 4 in plates and bars.. - Ibs. < 4,163,336 110 72 2,832 96 314 64 1,055 36 97 60 1,384 35,412 3,933 13,192 1,220 55,141 9,900 82,425 10,337 396 3,297 413 48 102,662 23,884 96 400 944 1,680 240 1,008 3,295 1 0,003 298,537 5,000 11,800 21,000 3,000 12,600 Silver ditto Skins and leather goods Linsied oil gallons Fish oil do Glass 351,937 485 38 150 14,877 32 111 23 417 87 150 88 66 1,763 4 82 25 236 54 213 80 715 1 1,443,967 11,412 39,527 4,520 56,413 441 144,396 70 1,141 20 3,952 70 452 5,641 30 44 10 Soap Ibs < 1,556,280 vard... 2.821.510 43 1284 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. ARTICLES. Whence. Quantity. Countries. Amount. T OTAL. Brought forward countries. St. Thomas do. do. France England Spain St. Thomas do. Martinique Guadaloupe St. Thomas number. "416 1 1 25 37 ships. Spanish American Danish French. English dlrs. cts 12,480 30 30 750 1,110 dlrs. cts. 2,821,510 43 Clay earthenware . ..dozen 480 4,374 278 44 203 86 20 5,005 17,799 22 30,981 72 28,296 24 14,406 75 10,503 60 18,207 6,334 4,833 43 36,980 2 2,398 5 91,073 40 3,870 2,852 68 4,122 50 7,207 68 18,522 60 14,050 56 44,921 25 4374 278 44 203 86 20 Spanish do. French do. do. English Spanish do. do. American Hamburg French American Bremen Spanish French American Bremen Danish French Spanish do. do. American Danish French American Danish French English Spanish Spanish American do. Spanish do. do. American French English American do. Spanish 6005 5,008 18 289 75 17,861 70 600 56 784 23 24 75 2,502 55 373 258 2,26-> 4 111 865 21 24 75 18 f 1 aberda * her y .... . Spain Cuba St. Thomas do. do. do. United States Bremen France do. Martinique England Venezuela Guadaloupe Spain Cuba St. Thomas do. do. do. United States do France England Cuba do. do. St. Domingo Virginia do. St. Thomas do. United States I 722 12 118 69 25,235 18 496 17 143 10 569 22 5,019 40 20 63 4,389 63 265 88 Stone, for building Paint I Tallow 455,367 645 71,317 41,225 90,096 185,226 manufactnred 1000 do d- twut do Candles, sperm.. . iiw j 6,582 9,720 27,606 2,106 24 3,110 40 8,833 92 tallow.... lha 43,908 74,38 75 18 75 5,615 62 1,523 75 15 63 312 50 29,492 50 316 25 187 50 Spain Cuba St. Thomas do. rto. do. United States Barbadoes France 59,510 150 44,925 12,270 125 2,500 235,940 2,530 1,500 1 359,450 1 Sundry other articles 684,500 18 7 eq 198,336 13 224,168 51 ual to . . . . 422.504 64 STATISTICS OF PORTO RICO. 1285 Imported direct for home consumption. . .. ., taken out of bond... dint. cts. t j 3,335,568 85 equal to 667 113 15 5 86935 79 17,387 3 2 3,422,504 64 Imported and paid duties 3,422,504 64 in bond 920,036 03 684,500 18 7 684,300 18 7 184,007 4 1 Total 4,342,540 67 868,508 2 8 VALUE of the different Articles of Importation. Liquids ill, cts. dlrs. ctsi. 212,700 17 68,853 64 Fruits 614 208 68 Fish. . 365781 34 Woollens 41 339 90 296 785 56 Silks 86,421 05 72 155 42 Woods 192 957 96 !!.". 727 240 95 3,422,504 64 Equal to 684,500 18 7 . Prices of Export. The average prices of the principal articles of export in the year 1844 were Rum. 22 dollars, equal to about 4/. 8s. sterling per puncheon, containing 110 gallons. Cotton. 10 to 12 cents, or about 5d. to 6d. sterling per pound. Sugar. 3 dollars, or about 12s. sterling per quintal of 100 pounds. Coffee. 8 cents, or about 4d. per pound. Hides. 9^ cents, or about 4jd. sterling per pound. Cattle. Large cattle, weighing 22 to 24 arrobas, or about 550 to 600 pounds each, 35 dollars, or about 11. sterling; small cattle, weighing 18 to 20 arrobas, or about 450 to 500 pounds each, 25 dollars, or about 6/. 55. sterling. Molasses. 11 cents, or about 5^d. sterling per gallon. Tobacco. 6J to 6J cents, or 3d. to 3|e?. sterling per pound. They have not any manufactures on the island except soap. The average prices of the principal articles of import in 1844 were From America. Wheaten flour, 13 dollars per barrel ; maize, ditto, 24 to 26 dollars per cask of 800 pounds; salt mackarel, 8 dollars per barrel ; salt herrings, 5 dollars per barrel; smoked herrings, 3 rials per box; mess pork, 15J dollars per barrel of 200 pounds ; salt beef, 8 to 10 dollars per barrel of 200 pounds ; lard, 12 dollars per quintal of 100 pounds ; butter, 15 dollars per quintal ; hams, 15 dollars per quintal; biscuit, 4J dollars per barrel of 60 pounds ; pepper, 12 dollars per quintal ; tobacco, 9 to 10 dollars per quintal; tobacco (Manilla), 12 dollars per quintal; soap, 10 dollars per quintal ; onions, 2 dollars per quintal ; potatoes, 2J dollars per barrel ; cheese, 10 dol lars per quintal ; tallow candles, 16 dollars per quintal; sperm candles, 36 to 40 dollars per quintal ; fish oil, f of a dollar per gallon ; linseed oil, 1J dollars per jar of 1 gallon ; sperm oil, 1J dollar per jar of 1 gallon ; wrapping paper, 4 rials or ^ a dollar per ream; apples, 4 dollars per barrel ; kidney beans, o dollars per barrel ; rice, 3^ to 4 dollars per quintal ; deals, 12 to 14 dollars per 1000 feet (1-inch thick) ; hogshead staves, 28 to 30 dollars per 1000 ; iron hooks, 6 to 7 dollars per quintal. From Spain. Red wine (Catalonian), 28 to 30 dollars per pipe ; white wine, 10 to 11 rials per arroba of 18 bottles : garlic, 2 to 2J rials per string ; wrapping paper, 6 rials per ream; tallow candles, 11 to 12 dollars per quintal (of bad quality) ; tunny fish, 8 dollars per quintal ; earthenware, 6 dollars per dozen ; oil, 12 rials, or \ dollars 1286 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. ner iar of 8 bottles; soap, 9 dollars per quintal ; chick peas, 4 dollars per quintal; tes (as maccarom &c.) 9J to 10 dollars per quintal ; raisms 2 dollars per arroba of 25 pounds; paper, 3 to 5 dollars per ream; cigar-paper, If dollars per ream; vinegar, 2 dTrs per barrel ; figs, 6 dollars per quintal ; onions 1J dollar, per quintal; salt, 2 to 2* dollars per quintal; flour, 11 dollars per barre ; brandy 4 rials, or If dollars per demijohn ; beer, 2 to 2J dollars per., dozen ; g.n, 1 <- to 1} dollars per demijohn of 31 >allons ; olives, 8 dollars per quintal. " There is no goods can be imported under any flag* from all countries, without any difference in the duties, independent of those between goods imported in a foreign ,nd Spanish ship; goods of all kinds can also be imported except fare-arms and gun powder the importation of which is prohibited except under special licence. There will not be found to be any great difference in the amount of exports and imports in the years 1843 and 1844, as there is very little difference in the amount of the export and import duties in those years, as dlr*. 1,082,201 cts. 58 216,440 s. fi d. 4 In 1844 1,070,548 33 214,109 13 4 Difference 11,653 25 2,330 ia There is not much difference in the exports of the two years from the port of San Juan, of the principal articles of produce, viz. : ARTICLES. 1843 1844 ARTICLES. 1843 1844 quantity. 340 * bhds quantity. 300i hhds Molasses quantity. 287,325 galls. quantity. 351 ->52 galls 63,143 Ibs. 131,752 Ibs. Tobacco 16,324 Ibs. 42,32i> Ibs. Sugar Hides 13,338,695 do. 273,462 do. 13,46J,335 do. 381,502 do. Coffee 606,483 do. 663,981 do. Money of the country. The dollar referred to .is the Macuquino, or dollar of the inland, which is inferior to the Columbian dollar, varying from 3 to 18 or 20 per cent, at present it is 6^ per cent inferior 10 the Columbian dollar, from 485 to 500 of which, according to the course of exchange, are equal to 1007. sterling. The Macuquino dollar is, therefore, not quite worth four shillings sterling, but at that rate it is valued in this statements as the nearest value. The Columbian doubloon of 16 dollars is worth 17 dollars Macuquino money, the Spanish doubloon is worth 18 dollars; but the prices vary according to the demand for either doubloons or Macuquino monev. Revenue and Expenditure. The whole expenses of the island, including the civil and military establishments, are paid out of its annual revenues arising from the custom house duties and other levies of different kinds, viz: Balance in band the 1st of January 1844 . dlrs. 9 942 cts. 15 s. d. 1 988 8 7 1 Revenue of 1844 1 672 521 67 334 504 6 3 1 Total .... . 1 642 397 22 Balance in hand the 1st of January, 1845 40,066 50 8,013 6 Iii the expenses, however, are included bills drawn by the Spanish government, paid in 1844, 79,999 dollars 37 cents, and other charges for account of Spain, making altogether 187,930 dollars, 96 cents, or 37,5867. 3s. \Qd. sterling, and in 1843 bills from Spain were paid for 83,778 dollars 62 cents, and other charges ; making altogether 167,818 dollars 34 cents, or 33,5637. 13*. 4d. sterling, besides which, on the 1st of January, 1845, bills drawn upon the government of Porto Rico by the Spanish government to the amount of 778,839 dollars 73 cents, or 155,7677. 18*. lid. sterling remained unpaid, which will be paid off according to priority, as they may be able to spare the funds for schargmg them, but several years must elapse before they can be all paid off, and I >M I* J Kk-o 1161 * 5 C lombia and St> D omingo, whose ships are not allowed to enter the STATISTICS OF PORTO RICO. 1287 whilst the government at home draws so heavily upon the colony, it is impostble that they can appropriate money to any extent for improvements in roads or any thing else unless some internal tax be laid upon the inhabitants for the purpose, for what they now pay is very trifling. Official Returns, Porto Rico, \4th of January, 1845. REGULATIONS RELATING TO THE PAYMENT OF DUTIES IN PORTO RICO. The productions of the island which have been shipped to foreign ports and are re turned to be imported heie, whatever may be the cause, must pay the same duties as are paid upon the productions of the country from whence they were last imported. All articles entered for home consumption at Porto Rico, if exported to any other foreign port, shall be free of all duty on their exportation ; but the import duties will not be returned. If any vessel lands g-oods in small or large quantities in the roads, creeks, or bays in the island not allowed for that purpose, they with the vessel and all that belongs to her will incur the penalty of confiscation. Sixty days are allowed by the customs for the landing and payment of the duties on goods from the date of delivery of the captain s manifest, the consignee being obliged to pay them at the expiration of that time, but if no consignee be found, the captain must pay them before he departs. The duties on goods imported must be paid as soon as the return is made by those not entitled to a delay in the payment. One-fourth part of the duties required by the customs must be paid in gold or Spanish dollars, and the other three quarters in the Maeuquino money or currency of the island. The person answerable for the duties to whom an extension of time is granted for the payment, must give a note of hand payable at a fixed period for the sum of money to which they amount, and this note of hand must be endorsed by another person making himself liable for the payment in case the importer should not pay it. This permission extending the period for the payment of the duties is not, however, granted indiscrimi nately to every one, but the party claiming the credit must be a merchant and acknow ledged as such by the Chamber of Commerce, to which he must in the first instance apply to be enrolled as a merchant, stating that he is in a situation to comply with their regulations, and upon their being satisfied of it his name is placed upon the list of merchants, and all others not coming under this description must pay the duties upon the goods they import directly. The following are the regulations established relative to the payment of duties by such importers as are settled at Porto Rico as merchant?, and subject to the Chamber of Commerce. When the manifest value of the goods (supposing them to be foreign) does not exceed 200 dollars, the duty must be paid as soon as the return is delivered in by the landing officers. From 200 to 2000 dollars in value two months are allowed for the payment ; from 2000 to 4000 dollars, three months ; from 4000 to 6000 dollars, four months ; from 6000 to 8000 dollars, five months, and on amounts exceeding that sum, six months, the Inten- dencia or Board of Revenue reserving to themselves the right of enlarging the last-named period for payment when the value of the cargo is considerable. Spanish goods imported in a Spanish ship have an advantage over other goods in the fixing for the value, by which the period for the payment of the duties is regulated as they are taken 75 per cent lower than other goods. For instance, in the first class Spanish goods to the value of 50 dollars only, are required to pay the duty at once, whereas other goods to the value of 200 dollars must pay the duty directly ; in the second class, Spanish goods to the value of 500 dollars only, have two months credit, whilst other goods to the amount of 2000 dollars must pay their duties in two months ; in the next class, Spanish goods to the amount of 1000 dollars have three months credit, but other goods to the amount of 4000 dollars must pay their duties at the same period, and so on with the other classes. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The same credit is not allowed in the payment of the duties upon the exportation of the productions of the country as upon articles for importation, but they must be paid ^Spanish and foreign ships coming from abroad which may proceed from one approved port in the island to another, with the whole or part of their cargoes shall be de patched with certificates referring to their manifests, and having on them the proper annotations of the goods landed at the first port (if any were landed), which must be produced at the port where they wish to discharge, going through the same formalities if they proceed to others as at the first port of entry, and paying at each the duties on that part of the cargo which may be landed there. Foreign goods which have paid the import duties, can be taken free by land or by water to all parts of the island with proper permits, without any necessity for the return The^productions of the island can also be removed free from one port to another, but those who take them are obliged to deliver in returns of the permits. Vessels coming from foreign ports to the island of Porto Rico ought to be careful in brin<rino- a manifest with a clear specification of the contents of the cargo, with cer tificates of the shipment of the goods on board, signed by the Spanish consul at the port of shipment, if there should be one there, as they are very particular in requiring these documents in importing a cargo, Tonnage Dues. Spanish ships coming from the neighbouring islands pay five and a-half rials, or about two shillings and ninepence English, per ton ; two rials, or about one shilling English, if from other foreign ports; and one rial, or about sixpence per ton if from a Spanish port. Every ship under the American flag pays eight rials, or about four shillings English, per ton, and all other nations pay five and a-half rials, or about two shillings and nine- pence English, per ton. Every Spanish or foreign ship, although she may enter in ballast of the export a cargo, much or little, is subject to the whole duty of tonnage. There is an addition also of one per cent upon all tonnage dues. If Spanish or foreign ships proceed on their voyage from one port of the island to another, they pay the tonnage duty only at the first port. Spanish or foreign ships which arrive in want of water or provisions, or to inquire the prices of goods, repair damages, or for other motives, shall not be charged any tonnage duty, but they must supply their wants as quickly as they can, and sail again from the port as soon as they are ready, taking care not to import any article, for if they do they become subject to the whole of the tonnage duty. Anchorage and Harbour Dues. Every ship coming to an anchor in the port is sub ject to a duty of two dollars for anchorage. The pilotage into San Juan is eighteen dollars, and there are besides the captains of the ports and interpreters fees, the whole of the different charges amounting together to thirty-two dollars. If a ship from abroad proceeds from one to other ports in the island, she must pay the anchorage and harbour dues at every port she enters. U arehouseing. The port of San Juan is the only one in the island at present where foreign goods can be warehoused without payment of duty. The goods are allowed to remain in bond twelve months, and when taken out two months more are allowed the merchants for the payment of the duties, provided, if Spanish goods, they are of the value of fifty dollars, or other goods of the value of 200 dollars, the duties must otherwise be paid when taken out of bond. Goods warehoused without payment of duty, pay half per cent on the value on landing, which is paid by the importer, and half per cent on clearing, which is paid by the person who takes them out of bond, making together one per cent, which is the only charge, besides the expense of labour, landing, and shipping, and the goods are depo sited in the goverment storehouses, which are fire-proof, and no charge is 5 made for store house rent. Regulations respecting the Coasting Trade of Porto Rico The coasting trade, which was confined to particular ports, can now be carried on between all the ports in STATISTICS OF POKTO RICO. 128iJ the island. No coasting vessel, despatched from one port of the island to another is allowed on her passage to touch at any foreign port unless driven there by bad weather and then it must be carefully ascertained that the cargo she has on board is the same as that which she shipped, and in the event of its being different it shall be confiscated together with the vessel. The coasting trade can be carried on in Spanish vessels only. If a coasting vessel happens to touch at another point distinct from that for which she was despatched, and wishes to discharge the whole or part of her cargo there, it may be allowed upon the captain exhibiting the permits or documents with which he may have been furnished at his shipping port, and after the goods are landed receiving through his agent the corresponding return of permits, and having the requisite annotations made on his despatch. Trade between Porto Rico and the Island of St. Thomas. The importation into the Island of Porto Rico of goods coming from the Danish Island of St. Thomas, and those near it, can only take place at San Juan, Mayaguas, Ponce, Guayama, Areibo, Fajardo, Naquabo, Aquadilla, Humacao, and Guayanilla, and in vessels which measure twenty tons. Captains, when they leave St. Thomas, ought, before they take their departure, to have a manifest prepared giving the full contents of the cargo, with a full specification of the packages, boxes, &c., on board, and it should give the tonnage also of the vessel, and the person interested in the cargo should give the captain a sealed note for the head of the customs at the port to which she may be bound, expressing from whence the dif ferent article?, came and what each package contains, and certificates from the Spanish consul are required for the shipment of all the packages or there may be a difficulty in landing the goods, an<f at any rate no credit will be allowed upon the payment of the duties. Particulars of the different Rates of Duties on Goods imported into Porto Rico. A fixed duty of fifty-seven reals (Spanish money) on every quintal of foreign cordage imported in a foreign ship, thirty-four reals from foreign port in Spanish ship, twenty reals from Spanish port in Spanish ship. In a Foreign Ship. 100 per cent ad valorem on foreign salt. 40 ,, foreign flour. 36 ,, refined sugar from foreign ports, 26 ,, ,, oil, liquors, woollen goods, hams, lard, butter, furniture, paper, pastes, asmaccaroni, &c., furriery, salt fish, cheese, anchovies (foreign). <20 , ,, cod fish, meats, and salt provisions, ironmongery, fruits, grain, cotton, thread, and silk goods (foreign). 4 ^ n jewellery of gold and silver from foreign ports. 2 ditto, ditto from Spanish ports. In a Spanish S/iip. 32 per cent ad valorem on foreign flour. IS M M refined sugar from foreign ports. 2i f> oil, liquors, woollen goods, hams, lard, butter furniture, paper, pastes, as maccaroni, &c., furriery, salt fish, cheese, anchovies (foreign). 14 ^ jf cod fish, meats, and salt provisions, ironmongery, fruits grain, cotton, thread, and silk goods (foreign). 11 >f M leeches from a Spanish port. 6 fruits, and ggods, and merchandise from a Spanish port. 3 jewellery from foreign ports in Spanish ships, VOL. I. 8 B |290 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. p ree Q ]d an( j silver in bullion and coined, steam-engines, and other machinery for the use of sug:ar-mills. There is a duty of owe per cent upon the value of the goods, also for mak:ns: roads, and there is a duty called the balance of one per cent on the amount of the duties, and one-quarter per cent consulage upon the value of the goods, in addition to the above The war duty, a temporary tax, was taken off 1st of October last. It was a tax amounting to 500,000 dollars, imposed upon the island by the government of Spain, the 30th of January, 1838, to pay the expenses of the war. The articles prohibited from importation are gunpowder and fire-arms, which can be only admitted under special permission. "Three- fourths of the duties to be paid in the Macuquino money of the country, and one-fourth in gold or Spanish dollars, both on exports and imports. Particulars of the Duties on Exportation of Produce, S?c.,from Porto Rico. In Foreign Ships. 20 per cent ad valorem on valuable woods and building timber to foreign ports. 5 9t spirits, cotton, hides, molasses, tobacco, and the other pro ductions of the island, except cattle and wood. 2 ,, silver in bullion and coined, for foreign ports* In Spanish Ships. 12 per cent ad valorem on valuable woods and building timber t foreign ports. 4 ,, ,, ditto, ditto to Spanish ports. 3 ,, spirits, cotton, sugar, coffee, hides, molasses, tobacco, and the other productions of the island, except cattle and wood to foreign ports. 1 ,, n spirits, cotton, hides, molasses, tobacco, and the other pro ductions of the island, except cattle and wood to Spanish ports. ,, ,, gold in bullion and money to foreign ports. The Duties on the Exportation of Sugar and Coffee from this Island. Those duties will henceforth be as follows, viz. : Three rials (round money) upon every case of sugar of four hundred pounds weight, in a foreign ship. Two rials (round money) on the same quantity exported in a Spanish ship. Four per cent on the value of coffee exported in a foreign ship. Two ditto, ditto, ditto Spanish ship. Free. Gold arid silver in bullion and money to Spanish ports. The duty on cattle was taken off by the government of Porto Rico on the 19th of November last. TRADE BETWEEN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND CUBA AND PORTO RICO. THE exports of British manufactures to Cuba was carried on to a very great xtent before 1809, when they were absolutely prohibited by law. Since that period the trade had increased in proportion. FRENCH WEST INDIES. 1291 DECLARED Value of British and Irish Produce and Manufactures, Exported from the United Kingdom to Cuba and Porto Rico, in each Year from 1827 to 1846. A small part of these Goods were Exported to some of the other Foreign West Indies Ilavti excepted. YEARS. Value. " YEARS. Value. \827 649 378 1834 , 1828. 569 728 1835 1829 672,176 1836 987 122 618029 1837 891 713 1831 663 531 1838 ....... 1 025 392 1832 633,700 1839 891 8^0 1833 577,228 1840 863,520 VALUE of British Manufactures, Exported to Cuba and Porto Rico, through the British West Indies. YEARS. Cotton. Manufactures. Linens. Woollens. Hardwares. Miscellaneous TOTAL VALPB. 65,265 38,612 2849 6,984 6 555 120265 64,213 28,944 3849 7,965 11 320 1 IS 271 76 594 34637 2885 9,210 12 801 156 127 85 247 25 840 4632 8,250 23 009 146 Q78 49,833 24,061 4425 7,^46 18 106 103 671 70,139 33,886 4303 10,100 14 700 133 128 52714 33 897 2097 8 064 11 428 1 08 200 68,689 29,775 919 6,698 18,850 124,931 1840 46,969 32,869 506 487 14,705 05,536 See detailed tables of exports from United Kingdom to Cuba, &c., hereafter, in Miscellaneous Statements. CHAPTER XVIII. FRENCH WEST INDIES. FRANCE possesses in the West Indies exclusive of Cayenne, or French Guayana,the Islands of Guadaloupe and Martinique. These possessions have for some time engaged most laudable attention, espe cially with reference to the slave population, on which subject great merit is due to the Duke of Broglie. Guadaloupe consists of two islands, divided by Salt River, about five miles long, and twenty to forty fathoms wide, with sufficient depth for vessels of from forty to sixty tons. The eastern is called Grande-terre, western Basse-terre, or Gua daloupe ; both about 534 square miles, or 341,760 statute acres ; length of Grand- terre thirty-six miles, breadth of ditto twelve miles; length of Basse-terre thirty- five miles, breadth of ditto eighteen miles. Basse-terre is covered with mountains and hills of volcanic origin; the highest part, near the southern extremity, hay a volcano, La Souffriere, rises to the elevation of about 5108 feet. It has no regular crater, but smoke issues out of three or four places. Not far from the 1292 FRENCH WEST INDIES. sea south-west of the volcano, a spring rises out of the sea of boiling hot water. It is well watered by springs and rivers. Grande-terre is generally low, in few places above 1000 or 1500 feet high. It is not of volcanic formation, the elevated hills consist chiefly of coral rocks ; it has neither streams nor springs of fresh water and the soil is sandy, and much less fertile than Basse-terre. Point a Pitre is built near the southern entrance of the Salt River, on low ground ; the harbour of Le Petit Cul de Sac is sheltered, and the anchorage is good. Population about 16,000. Basse-terre, Guadaloupe, is built within an unsheltered roadstead^ with indifferent anchorage. It is unsafe during the hurricane season. The town extends along the shore, but not far inland, owing to a mountain rising almost abruptly from the shore. It is well built, and is situated in the more productive part of the island. Population about 7500. MARIE GALANTE is about twelve miles long, and five to nine miles wide ; area sixty British square miles, 38,400 acres. The hills towards the southern extre mity are of no great elevation, and are covered with trees ; on their summits there is generally a verdant plateau. In the northern districts, the hills rise higher ; and towards the eastern coast, they terminate near the sea in high and precipitous rocky cliffs. Parallel to the low northern shores there extends a narrow lagoon about eight miles long, separated from the sea by a narrow bank of sand, The capital is GRANDBOURG, a small, but neat place. Within these mountainous rocks, nine miles south-east of Basse-terre, called Saintes, there is a safe harbour. The Saintes consist of lofty and steep peaks, some of which are united by flat ground, and ridges of inferior elevation; others are entirely separated by the sea. The products are coffee and cotton. DESEADA, or DESIRADA, a small island two leagues east of Guadaloupe rises with a steep ascent, and then spreads into a tableland of limestone rocks, in which caverns occur. It is without water. The population of these islands on the 21st of December, 1836, consisted of males, 60,794 ; females, 66,780, total, 127,574. Of the above there were PROVINCES. Free. Slaves. TOTAL. number. 26 168 iiurnlier. 81 642 number. 107 810 3,072 10,116 13,188 Desirad.i 570 498 569 1,139 i Kfio St. Martin (French part) .. QgQ Total 31,252 96,322 127,574 Average proportion of births and deaths to the population one birth for every fifty slaves, twenty-eight free ; one death for every forty-four slaves, thirty- four free. The average quantity of rain that falls in the year is calculated at about eighty- six inches. The difference in the quantity, between a dry and wet season, is about thirteen inches. In the course of the year, the greatest number of days tHENCH WKST INDIES, 1293 on which rain falls, during five years was, 223, and the smallest number 179. The greatest quantity of rain falls from the middle of July to the middle of October ; the remaining nine months are comparatively dry. The area of Guadaloupe and its dependencies is constituted as follows in English acres: Guadaloupe, 339,160 acres; Marie Galante, 37,900 acres; Saintes, 3102 acres; Desirada, 10,695 acres ; St. Martin (French part), 13,266 acres ; total, 401,123, or 631 square miles. GUADALOUPE and its dependencies are divided into three arrondissements, six cantons, and twenty-four communes (part of the island of St. Martin which lies to the northward of St. Christopher, forming one of the latter). AREA in hectares. PROVINCES. Total surface. Cultivated. Pasturage. Woods. Uncultivated. hectares. 138212 hectares. 38 004 hectares. 19 801 hectares. 20 528 hectares. 59 879 Marie Galante 15 344 4 109 3 201 1 626 6 408 4 330 629 457 121 3 123 The Saintes 1 256 162 89 192 813 Port of St. Martin 5 371 1 841 241 674 2 615 Total 164,513 44,745 23,739 23,141 72,838 The two small rivers, the Goyave and the Lezarde, are navigable for boats, and facilitate the shipment of produce. The productions of these islands are, sugar, molasses, rum, coffee, cotton, cocoa, and small quantities of cloves and tobacco. The quantities of these articles produced in 1835 were: Sugar 79,937,530 Ibs.; molasses, 1,431,384 gallons; rum, 474,763 gallons ; coffee, 2,209,618 Ibs. ; cotton, 177,020 Ibs. ; cocoa, 61,649 Ibs.; cloves, 759 Ibs.; tobacco, 8310 Ibs. The government of Guadaloupe and its dependencies is vested in a governor, a privy council composed of six members, three of whom are appointed ex-officio, and a colonial council of thiity members, elected by the owners of landed pro perty in the island. The metropolitan interests of the colony are intrusted to two delegates in Paris, who are elected by the colonial council, and form part of the colonial committee of seven members, who advise with the central governments. The internal affairs are managed by municipal councils. (See Martinique.) MARTINIQUE. The French geologists class Martinique with those islands which are entirely of volcanic formation. Masses of volcanic rocks rise in the interior to a great elevation. Mount Pelee is nearly 4450 feet high, and the summits of Les Pitons-de-Carbet, are said to be higher. Six extinct vol. canoes occur, the craters of one of which is of vast breadth arid depth. The volcanic rocks extend in most parts from the mountain to the sea; which latter form numerous and deep indentations along the coast. Between the volcanic rocks irregular broad fertile valleys occur. About two-fifths of the surface of the island is under cultivation, and the remainder is covered with trees, or occu pied by naked rock or disintegrated pumice-stone. When the latter is mixed >vith mould, both constitute a most fertile soil. The mountain slopes are in 1294 FRENCH WEST INDIES. most parts covered with primeval forest. In other parts the slopes are culti vated to the height of about 1400 feet perpendicular. Numerous streams flow down from the mountains. Near the southern end there is a small salt lake. This island produces sugar, coffee, cocoa, and cotton. The valleys on the west side, or Basse-terre, are more extensive, fertile, and level than those in the eastern called Cabes-terre. Of the numerous harbours, Cul de Sac Royal is an admi rable port, on the shores of which stands Fort Royal, the residence of the French governor. Population about 10,000. The CAPITAL is ST. PIERRE, the largest and best built town in the Lesser Antilles. The houses are four to five stories high, built in the style of European architecture. The streets are regu lar, and the shops are numerous and well supplied. Population about 20,000. Small streams run down the centre of the paved streets, which are lighted at night by lamps. It has some churches, a botanic garden, and is strongly for tified. Fort Trinite, on the eastern coast, stands in the bay of the same name. It has a considerable trade. Population about 6000. There are many other harbours, but they have, on the east side especially, intricate entrances. The number of the population of Martinique in 1836 was as follows : Free males, 17,419 ; females, 20,536 ; total, 37,955. Slaves, males, 37,584; females, 40,492 ; total, 78,0/6. Total, free and slaves, males, 55,003 ; females, 61,028; total, 116,031. The whites are not distinguished from the free black and coloured persons, but it is estimated that they amounted to about 9000, and that of the other 29,000 free persons, 17,579 had been manumitted in the five preceding years, and from 1836 to 1842, there were manumitted 3534 slaves. The proportions of births, deaths, and marriages, among the different classes of the population are : Births, whites and free black and coloured, 1 in 29 ; deaths, 1 in 37 ; mar riages, 1 in 137. Slaves, births, 1 in 32; deaths, 1 in 35; marriages, 221 in 5577. The climate is humid. From observations during six years, the greatest number of rainy days in the year was 238, and the least number 223. The quantity of rain which falls during the year averages eighty-four inches ; the dif ference between a dry and a wet year does not exceed thirteen inches. The greatest rains fall between the middle of July and the middle of October; during the other months showers are frequent. The heat is tempered by the sea breezes. The area of Martinique is estimated at 98,782 hectares, or about 244,348 English atfres ; one-third computed as level, and two-thirds as mountainous. Some of the rivers or streams are navigated by boats for a short distance. Great improvement in the culture of the sugar-cane has taken place in this island of late years, and in 1835 it was estimated that 38,320 hectares were under FRENCH WEST INDIES. 1295 culture, that savannah and pasture lands occupied 21,772 hectares, woads and forests 23,387 hectares, and unproductive lands 15,303 hectares. In 1836 there were three earthenware and tile factories, and ten lime-kilns, employing 352 slaves ; and a number of hands, both free and bond, are employed in fishing ; and between 400 and 500 in navigation and the coasting trade. OFFICIAL Account given of the Distribution of the Cultivated Lands, their Produce &c in 1836 : ARTICLES. Hectares cultirated. Produce. Quantity. hectares. rilaw Sugar Do 198,780 do. 23,777 Rum 6,259,139 litres. 1,669,920 do. 2,917 692 807 kil. 464 125,610 do. Mulberry Total 40,117 On which 55,421 slaves were employed whose value is estimated at 1500, and 1000 francs each. On the 1st of January, 1836, the number of beasts of burden and other stock upon the island was 38,034, valued at 12,324,230 francs, or 513,5097. 11s. Sd. sterling. The number of mills employed in the manufacture of sugar was, in 1826, water-mills, 183 ; wind, 27 ; cattle, 211; total 421 : in 1834, steam, additional 13 ; total, 434. Martinique is divided into the arrondissements of Fort Royal and St. Pierre, fourteen cantons and twenty-six communes. It has a military force of about 2000 men, besides a militia of about 4000. There are three schools of mutual instruc tion, two in the capital, and one at St. Pierre, and there are primary schools in every commune, orphan asylums, and other charitable institutions. The public expenditure of the island, in 1837, was estimated at 4,387,866 francs, the receipts to meet which amounted to only 2,260,711 francs. The difference falls on the French treasury. Justice is administered by a court royal, two assize courts, and two inferior tribunals. Besides the towns already named there are Marin, with 3000 inhabi tants; Lamentin, with 8900 inhabitants; and Riviere Salee, 2300 inhabitants, There are also about twenty villages in the island. Fort Royal is the seat of government, and St. Pierre the maritime capital. Government. The administration is under a governor and a privy council of seven members. A colonial council of thirty members is elected for five years, by whites paying 300 francs, or 12/. per annum direct taxes, or possessing pro perty in the colony worth 1200/. ; it authorises the levying of taxes for internal purposes ; advises the governor and privy council in all matters which it considers useful to the colony. The colonial council elects two agents to represent the colony in Paris, and to form part of a committee of agents for all the French colonies. 1296 FRENCH WEST INDIES, STATISTICS OF THE FRENCH WEST INDIES. French Guyana, population, Canton of Cayenne, 3854 free; 14,941 slaves $ total, 18,795 inhabitants. Canton of Senamary, 1202 free; 1651 slaves; total, 2853 inhabitants. Total population, 5506 free; 16,592 slaves; total, 22,098 AGRICULTURE and Produce of French Guayana in 1840. PRODUCTS. Hectares. Rural Habitations. Slaves Em- p oyed in Agriculture. PRODUCTS. Quantity. Gross Value. Estimated Exportation of Agriculture. Dumber. 1,363 209 2,303 19-2 1,000 2,490 32 10 2 3,846 number. 28 14 71 11 39 131 3 93 number. 3,489 | 217 2,091 259 1,477 3,732 92 294 Sugar 2,383,100 til. 750,707 lit. 205,850 52,920 kil. J 7-1,780 45,125 176,060 576,285 2,060 520 92 fr. i 1,309,585 10-!, 13? 303.254 31,589 349,!77 546,514 2.539 820 493 3,508,415 fr. 463,528 26,033 75,817 7,894 87,494 136,628 634 205 123 87/",103 Syrup of molasses- Coffee Coffee Cotton ROCDU P^er^. Pepper Cinnamon Nutmegs Food Food j Total.... 11,447 390 12,251 Total.... 6,157,323 1,675,459 Besides the agricultural habitations, there were 72 hattes, 7 wool or building-yards, aud 5 brick-kiln-! whieh era- Value of lands under cultivation 5,56-1,400 Value ef buildings and machinery .. 7086*500 Value of slaves 19,468,500 Value of live stock 1,073,440 Total value - 33, 136.S40 or, Sterling 1,327^454 LIVE Stock in 1838. DESCRIPTION. Head. Approximate Value. Per Head. TOTAL. VALUE. number. 126 26 80 78 6,073 1,734 656 762 1,798 823 12,156 fr. 500 100 500 500 120 150 50 50 20 30 -_. fr. 63,000 2,tiOO 40,000 39,000 728,760 260,100 32,800 38,100 35,960 24,690 1,265,010 Asses Mules Stallions Hulls and oxen Calves Heifers Pigs Rams and sheep Total SUGARS Imported into France from Guadaloupe, Martinique, Bourbon, and Cayenne YEARS. Imported. Entered for Con sumption. -j Duties Levied. 1831 kilog. kilog. fr. 1832 81,280,000 38,807,000 1833 82,248,000 39,258,000 1834... 69,919,000 33,058,000 1835 ;;; 1836 83,049,000 84,250,000 66,475,000 69,340,000 31,533,000 32,932,000 18*7 ;;;* 1838 79,32ff,000 66,536,0(10 66,189,000 66,490,000 31,494,000 31,534,000 1839 87,6*55,000 68,147,000 71 613 000 31,798,000 Decennial average 1841 75,544,000 80,414,000 85,819,000 78,445,000 72,015,000 74,515,000 28,863,000 32,837,000 34,720,000 FRENCH WEST INDIES. 1297 NAVIGATION between France and Guadeloupe. YEARS. ENTERED. CLEARED. ENTERED AND CLEARED. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. tons. 95,395 87,276 70,821 88,368 86,191 85,872 63,579 70,423 72,133 64,364 78,442 74,342 1831 .... number. 194 184 159 107 163 163 115 142 175 131 159 140 tons. 47,772 45,178 39,165 44,343 41,576 42,575 2y,629 33,672 38,814 29,420 39,214 31,107 number. 195 170 121 168 174 156 130 149 141 148 155 179 tons. 47,023 42,098 31,656 44,025 44,615 43,297 33,950 36,751 33,319 34,944 39,228 43,235 number. 389 354 280 335 337 319 245 291 316 279 314 319 1834 1835 1837 1 838 18S9 1840 1841 OFFICIAL Value of the Trade of France with Guadeloupe. YEARS. IMPORTS. EXPORTS. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. General Trade. Special Trade. General Trade. Special Trade, General Trade. Special Trade francs. 36,727,000 46,810,0110 31,607,000 32,776,000 35,168,000 38,632,000 35,829,000 32,064,000 33, 267,000 37, 200,1; 00 36,009,000 33,149,000 francs. 26,184,000 23,367,000 21,101,000 24,556,000 23,738,000 23,641,000 17,236,000 21,512,000 25,276,000 20,333,000 22,700,000 20,445,000 francs. 23,910,000 24,328,000 19,371,000 18,390,000 18,806,000 18,687,000 18,251,000 17,046,000 18,707,000 20,769,000 19,827,000 15,792,000 francs. 12,143,000 22,908,000 12,296,000 14,385,000 16,508,000 20,204,000 17,615,000 15,193,000 14,726,000 16,807,000 16,279,000 17,377,000 francs. 12,817,000 22,491,000 12,236,000 14,386,000 16,362,000 19,945,000 17,578,000 15,018,000 14,560,000 16,431,000 16,182,000 17,357,000 franca. 38,327,000 46,275,000 33,457,000 38,941,000 40,246,000 43,845,000 34,851,000 36,705,000 40,002,000 37,140,000 38,979,000 37,822,000 1833 . ... 1834 1835 1837 1839 1840 1841 PRINCIPAL Articles composing the Trade between France and Guadeloupe, in the Years 1839, 1840, 1841. IMPORTS. ARTICLES IMPORTED. GENERAL TRADE. SPECIAL TRADE. 1839 1840 1841 1839 1840 1841 francs. 14,292,000 697,000 274,000 177,000 156,000 84,000 37,000 14,000 7,000 2,000 2,000 50,000 francs. 23, 165,000 793,000 203,000 366,000 310,000 45,000 30,000 21,000 36,000 2,000 217,000 23,000 12,000 8,000 45,000 francs, 18,746,000 958,000 172.0CO 120,000 96,000 46,000 39,000 15,000 53,000 13,000 15,000 60,000 francs. 18,866,000 780,000 295.000 182,000 145,000 54,000 37,000 15,000 9,000 4,000 2,000 56,000 francs. 17,104,000 798,000 164,000 247,000 195,000 53,000 30,000 18,000 7,000 1,000 49,000 9,000 8,000 24,000 francs. 19,466,000 720,000 14-1,000 130,000 145,000 46,000 30,000 15,000 7,000 2,000 l 2,000 46,000 Cotton wool Copper, pure, of first fusion Sweetmeats and preserves, &c.... Cassia, p p Other articles Total value of import* 25,276.000 20,333,000 20,445,000 18,707,000 20,769,000 15,792,000 VOL. I. 8 c 1298 FRENCH WEST INDIES, EXPORTS. ARTICLES EXPORTED. GENERAL TRADE. SPECIAL TRADE. 1839 1840 1841 1839 1810 1841 francs. 3,706,000 1,563,000 215,000 225,000 1,391,000 492,000 59,000 620,000 228,000 435,000 578,000 257,000 677,000 289,000 152,000 385,000 270,000 145,000 42,000 90,000 83,000 180,000 57,000 558,000 168,000 153,000 117,000 1,585,000 francs. 4,871,000 2,123,000 307,000 389,000 991,000 819,000 101,000 685,000 616,000 388,000 419,000 185,000 589,000 293,000 234,000 477,000 300,000 193,000 106,000 123,000 214,000 121,000 104,000 16,000 98,000 97,000 89,000 1,799,000 francs. 4,637,000 2,204,000 33.SOOO 424,000 950,000 859,000 153,000 811,000 630,000 495,000 454,000 424,000 370,000 261,000 261,000 247,000 230,000 202,000 180,000 164,000 161,000 144,000 30,000 14,000 480,000 123,000 152,000 1,982,000 francs. 3,704,000 1,553,000 193,000 225,000 1,391,000 492,000 59,000 620,000 228,000 435,000 5(51,000 257,000 607,000 289,000 152,000 384,000 276,000 145,000 42,000 90,000 83,000 180,000 57,000 558,000 160,000 153,000 117,000 1, -549,000 francs. 4,868,000 2,123,000 307,000 389,000 670,000 819,000 101,000 (585,000 605,000 388,000 419,000 1 85,000 589,000 293,000 234,000 477,000 300,000 193,000 164,000 123,000 214,000 121,000 104,000 16,000 98,000 97,000 89,000 1,760,000 francs. 4,637,000 2,204,000 335,000 424,000 950,000 859,000 153,000 811,000 630,000 495,000 454,000 424,000 370,000 2(51,000 261,000 247,000 230,000 202,000 180,000 164,000 161,000 144,000 30.000 14,000 480,000 123,000 152,000 1,962,000 of llax or liciiip of wool Brandy and liqueurs Instruments and manufactures of Mules (>li\,. ,,i| Wax, prepared, and candles Paper, and paper manufactures.. \\ ,, Itl J ifJrv Total value of exports 14,720,000 16,807,000 17,377,000 14,560,000 16,431,000 17,357,000 COMMERCE OF MARTINIQUE. Staple Products. Sugar, rum, coffee, and cotton. AVERAGE of Four Years Produce of Sugar, Molasses, and Rum, between 1832 and 1835 inclusive. SUGAR. Molasses and Syrup. Rum. Raw. Refined. kilogrammes. 29,258,716 kilogrammes. 121,190 litres. 8,851,873 litres. 1,950 204 QUANTITIES and Value of the Principal Articles Exported in 1836. ARTICLES. Quantity. Value. number. 22,994,75* 2,483,593 133,727 519,507 1,289,018 144,957 53,006 40,547 francs. 13,796,852 506,962 120,354 831,238 253,679 86,266 79,524 81,094 415,180 252,289 M classes .". . " Raw cocoa Coffee Dyewoods... Rum ]itrp Cassia kil. -om, gold and silver ....do. 16,423,438 or, 684,309 10s. fcftfe^STsH FVellSh TewSs 8 " 19 480 398 francs tons entered, and 353 left the ports of the FRENCH WEST INDIES. 1299 NAVIGATION between France and Martinique. YEARS. ENTERED. CLEARED. ENTERED AND CLEARED. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. number 136 137 114 127 133 125 106 114 124 108 122 122 tons. 35,037 35,200 28,523 32,504 33,164 31,928 27,575 27,030 27,556 24,584 30,310 28,521 number. 154 147 98 152 150 115 130 144 136 128 136 139 tons. 40,966 38,249 25,734 38,931 37,715 31,214 33,128 33,972 31,487 27,495 33,889 33,554 number. 290 284 212 279 283 240 236 258 260 236 258 261 tons. 70,003 73,449 54,257 71,435 70,879 03,142 60,703 61,002 59,043 52,079 64,199 62,075 1832 1834 1835 1830 ] 838 1840 Decennial \ average / 1841 OFFICIAL Value of the Trade of France with Martinique. Y EARS. I M P ( ) R T S. EXPO R T S. IMPORTS AN D EXPORTS. General Trade. Special Trade. General Trade. Special Trade. General Trade. Special Trade. 1831 francs. 18 992 000 francs. 17 454 000 francs. 12 638,000 francs. 13,649,000 francs. 31,630 000 francs. 31 03 000 1 832 16 403 000 16 956 000 21 259 000 19,261 000 37 662 000 1833 14 7G 9 000 13 270 000 12 438,000 12 399 000 27 200 000 1834 17230 000 13 001 000 14,465,000 14,480,000 31,695 000 27 48 1 000 1835 . . . Hi 244 000 14 181 000 16710,000 16 639,000 32 954 000 30 840 000 1836 15429000 13 175 000 15 656,000 15068 000 31 085 000 28 243 000 1837 13 42S 000 12 513,000 17,308,000 17,283,000 30,736,000 29 796 000 1838 17 112 000 12 020 000 15,594,000 15,496 000 32 706 000 27 516 000 1839 17,277,000 14,104,000 16,507 000 16,366,000 33,784,000 30 470 000 1840 15 390,000 14,901,000 20,955,000 20,869,000 36,345,000 35 770 000 Decennial > average / 1841 16,227,000 16,664,000 14,158,000 14,545,000 16,353,006 18,330,000 16,153,000 18,315,000 32,580,000 34,994,000 30,311,000 32,860,000 PRINCIPAL Articles composing the Trade between France and Martinique, in the Years 1839, 1840, and 1841. IMPORTS. ARTICLES. GENERAL TRADE. SPECIAL TRADE. 1839 1840 1841 1839 1840 1841 francs. 15,484,000 351,000 360,000 271,000 254,000 1,000 54,000 134,000 105,000 5,000 11,000 12,000 29,000 107,000 francs. 13,445,000 676,000 316,000 116.000 162,000 76,000 124,000 135,000 92,000 34,000 12,000 12,000 9,000 105,000 8,000 2,000 2,000 60,000 francs. 14,670,000 430,000 339,000 284,000 221,000 194,000 156,000 128,000 72,000 43,000 15,000 13,000 9,000 1,000 1,000 88,000 francs. 12,840,000 348,000 330,000 190,000 5,000 1,000 56,000 121,000 105,000 7,000 12,000 29,000 17,000 6 000 4000 33000 francs. 13,416,000 465,000 303,000 151,000 13,000 99 ,000 124,000 107,000 34,000 12,000 11,000 9,000 115,000 1,000 2,000 2,000 37,000 francs. 13,000,000 414,000 365,000 214,000 4,000 25,000 147,000 93,000 72,000 43,000 12,000 12,000 19,000 1,000 1,000 123,000 Coffee Rum and Taffia Vanilla Old iron, &c Sweetmeats, preserves, &c. Goldsmiths sweepings Ti Q 6,000 4,000 89,000 Other articles Total value of imports.. 17,277,000 15,386,000 16,664,000 14,104,000 14,901,000 14,545,000 1300 FRENCH WEST INDIES. EXPORTS. ARTICLES. GENERALTRADE. 1 SPECIALTRADE. 1839 1840 1841 1839 1840 1841 francs. 4,164,000 2,180,000 Kj 2,000 390000 722,000 1,000,000 907,000 627,000 223,000 154,000 284,000 730,000 586,000 316,000 244.000 248,000 204,000 375,000 136,000 108,000 158,000 101,000 173,000 36,000 112,000 1,937,000 francs. 6,139,000 3,097,000 383,000 427,000 1,063,000 1,134,000 1,220,000 391,000 317,000 191,000 421,000 806,000 720,000 377,000 316,000 208,000 193,000 218,000 207,000 283,000 181,000 98,000 284,000 107 000 67,000 2,104,000 francs. 4,302,000 2,502,000 448,000 425,000 1,139,000 1,004,000 680,000 545,000 495,000 455,000 451,000 500,000 417,000 387,000 326,000 281,000 268,000 229,000 185,000 179,000 152,000 79,000 63,000 54,000 116,000 2,648,000 francs. 4,162,000 2,180,000 162,000 387,000 722,000 1,000,000 907,000 627,000 223,000 154,000 280,000 730,000 426,000 646,000 244,000 245,000 204,000 375,000 136,000 168,000 158,000 101,000 173,000 35,000 107,000 1,814,000 francs. 6,132,000 3,097,000 383,000 427,000 1,063,000 1,134,000 1,220,000 391,000 317,000 191,000 417,000 806,000 720,000 377,000 316,000 208,000 193,000 218,000 207,000 283,000 1S1.000 98,000 284,000 107,000 67.000 2,032,000 francs. 4,302,000 2,502,000 448,000 425,000 1,139,000 1,004,000 680,000 540,000 495,000 455,000 451,000 500,000 417,000 387,000 326,000 281,000 268,000 229,000 185,000 179,000 152,000 79,000 63,000 54,000 116,000 2,638,000 of flax or hemp . of silk \\ HUM I J otfery, plassware*, &C Candles . .. I M f.imery ]f iiindasLery Milieu Moliriiuv- ... I ajirr aud paper nianut ac- Wood Soap Thread of hemp and flax... Materials Total Value of exports... 16,507,000 | 20,955,000 18,330,000 16,366,000 20,869,000 18,315,000 NAVIGATION between France and Cayenne, YEARS. ENTERED. CLEARED. ENTERED AND CLEARED. Ships. Tons. Ships. Tons. Ships. Tons. 1831 number. 23 24 23 17 22 28 24 24 20 26 23 26 number. 4056 4304 4485 3325 4336 6121 5168 5099 3786 4148 4483 4345 number. 27 21 17 16 23 29 26 27 24 27 24 27 number. 4458 3904 3251 3269 4767 6404 5917 5239 4366 4430 4600 4409 number. 50 45 40 33 45 57 50 51 44 53 47 53 number. 8,514 8,208 7,736 6,594 9,103 12,525 1 1,085 10,338 8,152 8,573 9,083 8,754 1- .V! 1833 1836 1".{7 l.-vH 1840 Decennial average 1841 OFFICIAL Value of the Trade of France with Cayenne. YEAR S. IMPORTS. EXPORTS. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. General Trade. Special Trade. General Trade. Special Trade General Trade. Special Trade. J; : | ( francs. 2,427,000 2,001,000 2,158,000 2,250,000 2,679,000 3,051,000 2,762,000 2,735,000 2,824,000 3,645,000 2,653,000 3,438,000 *"" - -.^. francs. 1,579,000 1,672,000 1,785,000 1,635,000 1,871,000 1,988,000 1,678,000 1,531,000 1,262,000 2,146,000 1,715,000 1,927,000 franc. 1,737,000 2,027,000 2,273,000 2,157,000 2,027,000 2,759,000 3,0!I9,000 3,417,000 2,816,000 2,643,000 2,496,000 2,508,000 francs. 1,753,000 1,945,000 2,197,000 2,075,000 ?.001,000 ,675,000 3,089,000 3,391,000 2,682,000 2,637,000 2,444,000 2,437,000 francs. 4,164,000 4,028,000 4,431,000 4,407,000 4,706,000 5,810,000 5,861,000 6,152,000 5,640,000 6,288,000 5,149,000 5,946,000 francs. 3,332,000 3,617,000 3,982,000 3,710,000 3,872,000 4,663,000 4,767,000 4,922,000 3,944,000 4,783,000 4,159,000 4,364,000 1 vil ]SC. Decennial average FRENCH WEST INDIES. 1301 PRINCIPAL Articles composing the Trade between France and Cayenne, in the Years 1839 1840, and 1841. IMPORTS. ARTICLES. GENERAL TRADE. SPECIAL TRADE. 1839 1840 francs. 335,000 1,2-20,000 1,287,000 339,000 64,000 258,000 27,000 76,000 ,000 4,000 5,000 3,000 2o",(JOO 1841 1839 1840 francs. 53,000 334,000 1,289,000 53,000 55,000 33,000 27,000 7,000 49,000 4,000 2,000 3,000 237,000 1841 franc*. 117,000 V2<l,000 72,000 393,000 144,000 20,000 15,000 28,000 11,000 10,000 5,000 1,000 26,000 francs. 539,000 961,000 736,000 317,000 195,000 18,000 19,000 6,000 5,000 10,000 4,000 5,000 2,000 8,000 francs. 1,060,000 944,000 878,000 305,000 152,000 18,000 1 5,000 13,000 11,000 10,000 1,000 1,000 so ooo francs. 84,000 218,000 475,000 249,000 151,000 18,000 19,000 (i.OOO 5,000 9,000 3,000 7,000 11,000 7,000 W< od, exotic Coffee . . . Hides, untanned Copper, pure, of first fusion Cocoa Total value of imports .... 2,825,000 3,045,000 3,438,000 1,262,000 2,146,000 1,927,000 EXPORTS. ARTICLES GEN ERAL T R ADE. S P E C I AL T R A.DE. 1839 1840 1841 1839 1840 1841 francs. 778 000 francs. 596 000 francs. 515 000 francs. 779 000 francs. 596 000 francs. 515 000 flax and hemp... 405,000 93 000 258,000 141 000 234,000 187 000 405,000 03 000 258,000 141 000 234,000 187 000 Wines 163,000 289,000 168,000 159,000 289,000 168,000 165,000 171 000 140,000 1 1 1 000 153,000 142 000 163,000 171 000 140,000 111 000 153,000 142 000 Salt meat 60000 95) 000 75 000 58 000 99 000 75 OCO Wheatmeal 42 000 60 000 74 000 35 000 60 000 69 000 Pottery, glasswares, &c. ... Olive oil.. 39,000 100 000 49,000 51 000 58,000 51,000 39,000 19,000 49,000 51 000 5M,000 10,000 Brandy and liqueurs Tissues of silk Butter, salt Mats 28,000 60,000 29,000 7 000 33,000 24000 26,000 151 000 46,000 42,000 34,000 32 000 24,000 60,000 29,000 7 000 33,000 24,000 26,000 151 000 46,000 42,000 34,oOO 32 000 Wax, manufactured, and 26 000 24000 31,000 26000 24 000 31 000 31 000 25 000 28 000 31 000 25 000 27 000 Lime 9000 22,000 27 000 9,000 22,000 27,000 Essence of meat, <frc Paper and paper mauufac- 26,000 21,000 49,000 18,000 17,000 26,000 21,000 49,000 18,000 17,000 Fish 21 000 14,000 17,000 19,000 14,000 17,000 15 000 45 000 1 5,000 10 000 45,000 15,000 14 000 21,000 10,000 14 000 21 000 10 000 Wood 1,000 18,000 6,000 1,000 18,000 6,000 Oil, seed 3,OCO - 6,000 11,000 3,000 5,000 11,000 56000 1,000 1,000 56 000 1,000 1,000 37 000 20000 17 000 33 000 20 000 8,000 34000 32 000 4 090 34 000 32 000 4 000 28 000 10000 11,000 28,000 10,000 11,000 Salt 10,000 2,000 2,000 10,000 2,000 2,000 Other articles 367,000 306,000 482.000 341,000 300,000 467,000 Total value of export? 2,816,000 2,643,000 2,508,000 2,682,000 2,637,000 2,437,000 FRENCH WEST INDIES. NAVIGATION between France and the French Establishments of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon. YEARS. ENTERED. CLEARED. ENTERED AND CLEARED. Ships. Tonnage. Ship?. Tonuage. Ships. Tonnage. JH11 number. 318 365 371 4-25 519 481 503 533 489 487 449 476 tons. 30,715 49,472 48,095 57,325 68,596 65,135 70,573 69,483 64,542 66,486 60,002 64,613 iiumber. 328 371 473 440 508 491 573 604 574 509 487 472 tons. 42,489 49,884 6r,i94 53,613 65,310 58,957 86,398 80,314 75,152 62,881 64,219 59,169 u umber. 646 734 844 865 1,027 972 1,076 1,137 1,063 996 936 948 tons. 82,204 99,356 115,889 110,938 133,906 124,092 156,971 149,797 139,694 129,367 124,221 123,782 1 *T> i^ i i I V, 1 IMII Decennial average.. l-il OFFICIAL Value of the Trade of France with Saint-Pierre and Miquelon and the Fisheries. YEARS. IMPORTS. EXPORTS. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. General Trade. Special Trade. General Trade Special Trade. General Trade. Special Trade. J831 fr. 6,701,000 7,^98,000 7,697,000 7,650,000 7,146,000 7,520,000 11,013,000 12,4,000 13,646,000 13,444,000 9,494,000 13,923,000 fr. 6,608,000 7,296,000 7,604,000 7,636,000 7,11(5,000 7,665,000 11,457,000 12,175,000 13,675,000 13,447,000 9,468,000 13,584,000 fr. 479,000 3,428,000 4,804,000 4,957,000 4,953,000 5,423,000 4,797,000 5,679,000 5,776,000 5,457,000 4,575,000 4,986,000 fr. 394,000 2,718,000 4,800,000 4,814,000 4,5 95,000 3,618,000 4,103,000 5,601,000 5,678,000 5,022,000 4,134,000 4,403,000 fr. 7,180,000 10,726,000 12,501,000 12,607,000 12,099,000 12,943,000 16,410,000 17,903,000 19,422,000 18,901,000 14,069,000 18,909,000 fr. 7,002,000 10,014,000 12,404,000 12,450 000 11,711,000 11.2S3 000 15,560,000 17,776,000 19,353,000 18,469.000 13,602,000 17,987,000 1 g32 1833 . . . |>v!| 1835 IMI; .. \^\- ivis 1 H|};) I>ID Decennial average. 1841 PRINCIPAL Articles composing the Trade between Saint-Pierre, &c., in the Years 1839, 1840, and 1841. IMPORTS. ARTICLES. GENERAL TRADE. SPECIAL TRADE. 1839 1840 1841 1839 1840 184) ( ..(l-fish fr. 7,143,000 4,136,000 1,343,000 683,000 207,000 60,000 72,000 fr. 6,734,000 4,433,000 1,078,000 757,000 205,000 55,000 33,000 149,000 fr. 6,929,000 4,677,000 998,000 804,000 195,000 126,000 58,000 136,000 fr. 7,143,000 4,130,000 1 ,383,000 685,000 207,000 60,000 67,000 fr. 6,735,000 4,271,000 1,076,000 774,000 200,000 217,000 33,000 141,000 fr. 6,654,000 4,677,000 992,000 804,000 195,000 126,000 58,000 78,000 cod \\ li.ilrbune >;lier than cod r.llll.blT Roe of cod and mackarel... Total value of Imports.. 13,646000 13,444,000 13,923,000 | 13,675,000 13,447,000 13,584,000 BUTCH WEST INDIES. 180:5 EXPORTS. ARTICLES. GENERAL TRADE. SPECIAL TRADE. 1839 1840 1841 1839 1840 1841 gait fr. 1,468,000 535,000 101,000 234,000 314,000 325,000 503,000 304,000 234,000 230,000 186,000 92,000 129,000 103,000 33,000 394,000 47,000 27,000 70,000 fr. 1,542,000 553,000 118,000 489,000 267,000 266,000 223,000 540,000 156,000 207,000 150,000 132,000 97,000 100,000 145,000 32,000 41,000 20,000 37,000 21,000 321,000 fr. 1,371,000 566,000 65,000 488,000 304,000 240,000 231,000 203,000 177,000 148,000 12,000 145,000 105,000 88,000 72,000 61,000 46,000 19,000 17,000 12,000 616,000 fr. 1,408,000 535,000 98,000 234,000 314,000 319,000 500,000 304,000 234,000 230,000 186,000 92 000 129,000 97,000 33,000 394,000 47,000 26,000 70,000 368,000 fr. 1,42^,000 553,000 118,000 248,000 267,000 266,000 223,000 534,000 156,000 207,000 150,000 132,000 97,000 100,000 96,000 32,000 41,000 20,000 37,000 21,000 296,000 fr. l,Z5ft,(ifi(C 966,000 <;:>,ooo 806,000 301,000 240,0(10 225,000 135,000 177,000 146,000 12,000 125,0(10 105 000 88,000 15,000 54,000 46,000 19000 17,000 12,000 585,000 Tissues of flax or hemp Instruments and manufac tures of metal Potatoes and vegetables .... 449,000 Total value of exports . . 5,778,000 5,457,000 4,986,000 5,678,000 1 5,022,000 4,403,000 CHAPTER XIX. DUTCH WEST INDIES. SAINT EUSTATIA. This small island was first settled by the Dutch in 1635. It is nearly thirty miles in circumference, and its area is said to be nearly 190 square miles. It appears, at some distance from the sea, like a conical moun tain ; but it changes its appearance on approaching its shores, with a level sur face for several miles, covered with some cane fields and provision grounds. Its town, during the war, carried on a contraband traffic to an extent which perhaps has never been surpassed; the plunder which fell into the hands of the English, when taken by Admiral Rodney in 1781, amounted to about 4,000,000/. sterling. The prosperity of this island has rapidly declined ; little commerce is now carried on. The expenditure of the local government exceeds the revenue. The island has no water except that supplied by rain. It is reputed healthy. There are very few sugar plantations, producing about 1000 barrels; yams, and a few other articles of food are raised. The population, at one period, amounted to about 5000 whites, and about 15,000 slaves ; the present number does not exceed 300 or 400 whites, and about 2000 slaves. SABA lies about ten miles to the north-west of St. Eustatia. It is inaccessible excepting on the south side, where an artificial path admits the ascent of one person at a time. In a secluded valley, in the middle of the island, there are a few in- FRENCH WEST INDIES. habitants, who grow some cotton and vegetables. It is a dependency of St. Eustatia. ST. MARTIN. The French "and Dutch made a settlement on this island in 1638, from which they were expelled by the Spaniards : the latter abandoned it in 1650. The French and Dutch divided it between them. It is about fifteen miles in length , breadth, nine miles ; area, thirty square miles. This island is hilly, but has no mountains ; it is watered by several rivulets ; in the southern part are salt water lagoons, from which great quantities of salt are obtained by the Dutch. The coast affords several good roadsteads, of which Philipsburg and Marigot are the chief. The soil is light, stony, but fertile, especially in the northern district : excellent tobacco is grown. The climate is considered healthy. Tiie northern and largest portion of the island, belonging to the French, forms a commune of the colony of Guadaloupe. The population of this division is estimated at about 600 free, 3000 slaves. The southern division, though less fertile, is more valuable for the salt it produces. It also yields annually about 25,000 cvvt. of sugar, and 130,000 gal lons of rum. Its expenditure, in common with all the Dutch colonies, exceeds its income. The population of the Dutch has been estimated as equal to that of the French part. CURA$OA. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632. Its length is about forty-two miles, and about fourteen miles in breadth, with an area of nearly 800 square miles. It is generally low, with several hills rather than mountains. It has in most parts a bold sea-coast, with some good harbours, the first of which is Santa Anna. The soil is sterile and rocky: the industry of the inhabitants have brought a considerable quantity of land under culture. Sugar is the chief staple, and salt is also made. From its vicinity to the South American coast, it was formerly a place of great contraband trade. Williamstadt, the capital and seat of government, is one of the cleanest and best built towns in the West Indies. The government is vested in a stadtholder and a civil and military council. According to official statements, the expenditure exceeds the revenue of the colony, the former amounting to 408,903 francs, and the latter only to 57,847 francs, 53 cents. Population, about 3000 whites; 5500 free coloured ; 5000 slaves. DANISH WEST INDIES. 1305 CHAPTER XX. DANISH WEST INDIES. ST. THOMAS. This island, which was settled by the Danes in 1672, is in length about ten miles ; in breadth, five miles ; area, about thirty-seven square miles. A chain of hills traverses the island from east to west. The soil is generally poor ; water is scarce, and the island is subject to severe droughts. Sugar and cotton are grown in moderate quantities. The town is well built, situated on the acclivities of three conical hills ; near these it is defended by strong fortresses, commanding the harbour and shipping. The general aspect of the place is said to present a superiority over many of the towns in the lesser Antilles, and as resembling a populous commercial town in Europe. The houses are principally built of stone and brick, and tiled. St. Thomas has long been, and is now, a principal emporium in the West Indie . Its convenient situation, its spacious and safe harbour, and the moderation of the import duties, which vary from 1 to 1J per cent, ad valorem, have, inconsequence, rendered it a depot for the supply of the neighbouring inlands ; goods being sent to it as an en- trep6t, until sold to other markets. Commerce and activity pervade its streets, and shipping of many nations are always in its harbour. The articles of importation are manufactured goods: principally from England, and partly from other coun tries of Europe ; and provisions, lumber, &c., from the United States. The import trade of this island in 1840 from Europe and North America was as follows : PLACES. Vessels entered. Tonnage. First Cost Value of Importation. From Great Britain number. 42 tons. 9 208 dollars. 2 1 00 000 France . 38 6 944 640 000 7 520 23 000 Italy 9 1 288 53 000 30 5 890 960 000 12 2265 41,000 9 1 432 199 000 Holland . .... 2 306 13000 United States & Brit.America 217 30,279 968,000 Total 368 58,132 4,997,000 In the same year the Spanish American and West Indian Islands arrivals were as follow : PLACES. Vessels. Weight. PLACES Vessels. Weight. Venezuela and New Grenada... British Island* number. 55 600 tons. 4,642 9,923 Brought forward Danish Islands number. 1186 321 tons. 32,005 13,637 55 2 311 18 569 377 11,981 43 1,813 Dutch Carried forward 99 1186 3,148 32,005 Totl 1568 48,024 VOL. I. 8 D 130G DANISH WEST INDIES, Besides a great number of vessels which call, neither load nor unload goods, and, in that case, free from port charges. Population about 7000; of whom there are about 500 whites; 1500 free coloured and negroes ; and the remainder slaves. SANTA CRUZ, OR ST. CROIX. -This island was first settled by the Dutch in 1643, who were expelled by the English in 1646. In 1650, the English were routed by the Spaniards, who laid the island waste. In 1733, the French crown sold its claim to the Danes for 75,0007. In 1801 it was taken by the English ; restored in the following year; captured in 1807, and remained under the do minion of Britain till 1815, when it was again ceded to the Danes. Its leno-th is about twenty miles ; breadth, about nine miles; area, about eighty-one square miles. Santa Cruz is of an oval form; inferior to St. Thomas in its maritime commerce, it is of far greater importance in area, fertility, products, and internal resources. With the exception of a few hills in the neighbourhood of the capital, the whole island is nearly a level. Its surface was originally divided into equal portions of 150 acres each, which, with different shades of culture, gives a varied aspect to its area : the roads are good, and average from twenty-four to thirty feet wide ; they run in straight lines through the island at right angles. The soil is not very rich, but tolerably fertile, yet owing to droughts the crops are uncertain. Christianstadt, the capital, is extremely well built ; the houses are of stone, and commodious. The government of the island is under a governor-general, whose jurisdiction extends to the other Danish colonies in these seas, and two councillors: there is nlso the " Burgher Council, " consisting of seven members. The code of Christian V., together with the rescripts of the crown, constitute the law. A number of the largest estates in the island are the property of British subjects ; about one-third of the slaves belong to the King of Denmark, as owner or mort gagee of estates; but the slaves are in the course of annual and gradual emanci pation, as is the case in the other Danish islands. Population in 18413200 whites; 20,000 slaves. In 1816, the island produced upwards of 40,000 hogsheads of sugar, but in seasons less favourable, not more than 10,000 or 12,000. The cultivation of coffee, indigo, and cotton, has been generally abandoned for many years. Average value of Sugar, about ... . 1,200,000 rix dollars. Rum ,;.. 500,000 r. JOHN. This island was settled by the Danes in 1721. Its length is een miles; its breadth, six miles. Sugar and cotton are produced in I quantities, and live stock is also reared. On the south-east side, a pro- DANISH WEST INDIES. 1307 montory forms two coves, which are defended by a fort on the north point of the entrance, and another on Duck Island, close to the south point. This promontory has the town called " the Castle." ST. BARTHOLOMEW. This island belongs to Sweden. It was settled by the French in 1648 ; ceded by them to Sweden in 1784. Its length is about fifteen miles ; its breadth, about five miles ; area, only twenty-five square miles. St. Bartholomew is of slight elevation, with irregular round hills. It is well wooded, but indifferently supplied with water. The inhabitants depend chiefly on rain-water. The soil is fertile, producing sugar, cotton, and some tobacco ; the woods yield lignum- vitas, iron-wood, and other trees. Reefs surround the coast, but there is a good harbour on the west side called the Carenage, near which the town of Gustavia is situated. The population of the whole island is estimated at between 6000 and 7000 many are descendants of Irish Roman Catholics. BOOK IX. EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. CHAPTER I. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES AND STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. have in the first and third books of this work introduced a sketch of the discovery and history of Brazil. This empire comprehends the great eastern section of South America ; from the sources of the Rio Branco, in about 4 deg. north latitude, or rather from the boundary of French Guyana, to the boundary line of Uruguay in about 30 deg. south latitude.* The length of the empire of Brazil is computed, from north to south, at about 2600 miles. The greatest breadth, from between 6 deg. and 8 deg. south latitude, on the Atlantic Ocean about 35 deg. west longitude, to the Rio Yavari (70 deg. west longitude) is estimated at near 2540 miles. The area is estimated at about 2,750,000 square miles, or nearly twenty-three times the area of the United Kingdom, and about seventy times as large as Portugal. The boundaries will be best seen by reference to the last modern maps than by description ; further than that its boundaries, which are not, except on the Atlantic, well defined, are, French Guayana on the north, the Atlantic on the east and north-east, Uruguay on the south, and the Spanish Republics along its great western frontiers. The northern and western provinces of Brazil consist of vast alluvial plains of great fertility, with, in many parts, an unhealthy climate, arising from the rich vegetation of low, alluvial lands. The central, eastern, and southern provinces vary greatly, both in climate and in products ; some regions are not inferior in fertility to the most favoured parts of the earth, others are either completely arid or nearly unproductive. The whole of the southern and eastern provinces may be considered as one great plateau, which rises somewhat abruptly from the Atlantic, and extends westward with undulations, and hills, and rivers, and streams, several hundred miles, with gradual declivities towards the north and The highest part of this great plateau rises into a chain of mountains, tch run parallel to the coast and east of the River San Francisco. This region lac. om rfZi I th f C Untry east of Monte Video alon S the Atlantic, is with its islands and lagoons claimed as far as 35 deg. south, by Rio Grande do Sul. DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1309 is called the Serra do Espinha^o, or the Backbone Chain. There is, however, very generally a belt of low land between the sierra and the ocean. Sea Coast. Approaching the coast from the Atlantic, the outline appears mountainous, but on nearing the shores it generally presents a picturesque cha racter, varied by mountains, forests, and verdant valleys. The lands rise, how ever, rather abruptly (some few miles) from the coasts, and afterwards to the high ranges, from 5000 to 6000 feet high, called the Brazilian Andes. The approach to Rio Janeiro, with the Organ mountains in the distance, the coast of Brazil north of Rio Janeiro, or rather north of Cape Frio, which stretches out into the Atlantic, east from the Bay of Rio Janeiro, is remarkably picturesque but not remarkable for projecting headlands. Cape Frio is the great landmark for ships arriving from the Atlantic for Rio Janeiro. This promontory is one of the termini of the long ridge of mountains, which follows the coast to the south and west. Mr. Kidder observes, that " a huge oval mass of granite here marks the spot where the line of coast turning to the north, forms nearly a right angle." Some years ago the English frigate Thetis, bound homeward at the expiration of a cruise in the Pacific, was wrecked upon Cape Frio. This vessel, on leaving the harbour of Rio where she had touched, had encountered foul weather. After struggling against it till it was presumed she had cleared the coast, she bore away, steering the proper course, if sufficiently east. In the darkness of the night, with the wind fair and strong, the ship was running eight or ten knots an hour, when, without the slightest apprehension of danger, she dashed upon this rocky headland. The officers and crew had barely time to clamber on to, or drag themselves up, the promontory, before the frigate sunk. The crew ma naged to hold on the rocky shelves of the cape, above the reach of the waves, throughout a most dismal night. A good lighthouse has since been constructed upon Cape Frio, which at the present time renders the approach of the navigator nearly as safe by night as it is by day. From Cape Frio the coast to the north is low and sandy. About ten miles from it is a village which, in 1615, received the name of the city of Cape Frio. It does not thrive nor increase, though it has a safe harbour and fertile land, with sea-marshes yielding salt. The next place to the north is Macahe, at the mouth of a small river. The steamers which ply between Rio de Janeiro and Campos, touch at the village of Cape Frio and at Macahe. The fertile district surrounding Campos is called the Campos dos Goyatakazas, or plains of the Goyatakaz Indians. It has been compared to the Elysian fields. Campos, situated on the western bank of the river, has regular and well-paved streets, with some good houses. Its commerce employs a vast number of coasting smacks, which export its sugar, rum, coffee, and rice to Rio Janeiro. The sugars of Campos are deemed the best in Brazil. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The coast of Espiiito Santo, which embraces the old captaincy of the same name, and part of that of Porto Segu.ro, extending from the province of Rio de Janeiro on the south, to that of Bahia on the north, was discovered by Cabral, and settled by the first Donataries. It is but thinly inhabited and worse culti vated. Its soil is fertile, and well adapted to the growth of sugar-cane and other tropical productions. Precious woods and drugs abound in its forests, and the shores abound in excellent fish. A company has surveyed the Rio Doce, with the view to open a transport between the coast and the province of Minas Geraes. The Abrolhos (in Portuguese, open your eyes] are four small, rocky, low, and dangerous islands, about ninety miles from the shore, in the eighteenth degree of south latitude. They are a projection from a bank of rocks, which exhibits itself, occasionally, between the seventeenth and twenty-fifth degrees of south latitude, at a distance of from two to ten leagues from the main land. Besides these shoals, there is a regular reef of rocks running near and generally parallel with the shore from Cape Frio to Maranham. Espirito Santo, Porto Seguro, Ilheos, and nearly all the ports along the coast are entered by openings through this reef. This long reef protects vessels sailing within it so effectually that it has been compared to one continued harbour. The sandhills along the shores of Brazil often rise in high white hummocks. The distance from Rio de Janeiro to Bahia is about 800 miles. There is no large city or flourishing port on the coast, nor is there a single direct or beaten road through the interior. The only author who has ever travelled over this portion of Brazil, by land, is Prince Maximilian, of Neuwied. It is difficult to form an idea of the impediments, annoyances, and dangers which he had to surmount: such as dense and thorny vegetation, insect plagues, among which were the most formidable wasps and hornets nests, wild beasts, venomous reptiles, and rivers without bridges. Yet he tells us that " although scratched and maimed by thorns, soaked by the rains, exhausted by incessant perspiration caused by the heat, yet nevertheless the traveller is transported in view of the magnificent vegetation." His travels in Brazil were accomplished between the years 1815 and 1818, and his interesting work furnishes up to the present day the best account we have of the scenery and of the people of this part of the empire. The character and condition of the inhabitants have not since then been sus ceptible of much either of progress or change. Under the present adminis tration, there has been a gradual improvement; yet, up to 1839, the whole vince of Espirito Santo contained not a single printing-press. Many of its mrches, built with great expense by the settlers, were going to decay. Nothing s Jomg towards civilising or instructing the Indians; and, amidst a popula tion of more than 40,000, there were only six or seven primary schools with any pupils. On approaching Bahia and the Island of Itaparica, the coast is low, and DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 13 H little can be seen, save here and there a line of branching coqueiros (cocoa-nut trees). The latter are often seen along the coast as far south as Santa Catherina. From Bahia to each of the provinces of Sergipe and Alagos, the coast is generally low, but in parts undulated, with a thick jungle covering the country to the serra of Itaparica, about twenty miles inland. The serra divides the low country from the open plains of the interior. Brazil-wood abounds in the serra. Porto dos Pedros, Barra Grande, and Porto Calvo, occur on the coast of Alagos. The shore continues low, with white sandhills to and at Pernambuco and Itamarca, and often covered with cocoa-nut trees. The coast of Rio Grande do Norte is also generally low, with a sandy beach, and the soil sandy, and only in parts fertile. The coast, after rounding Cape St. Roque, trends westward, with shores generally low, and with some peaks inland in the province of Ceara. The coast of Maranham is more irregular but not mountainous. From Maranham to the mouth of the Amazon, the shores, including the Delta, are, with little ex ception, flat and uninteresting. The whole coast of Brazil north of Rio Janeiro, may be considered generally as low, and faced at some distance in the sea with reefs or banks, yet from a distance of some leagues at sea, its appearance, for a very great extent is mountainous. From Cape Frio to Rio Janeiro, the shores form an exception to this rule. South of Rio Janeiro, rivers, bays, and the large lagoons of Patos and Merim occur ; and, with a high mountainous back ground, the coast, generally, with a few bluffs, is also low. CHAPTER II. LAKES AND RIVERS OF BRAZIL. LAKES are numerous in the great basins, or plains, of the Amazon, and some are of considerable extent during the rainy season. The Lake of Xarayes exists only during the wet season, when it covers many thousands of square miles ; in the dry season its waters entirely disappear. There are numerous lakes in the southern provinces of the empire in the low country bordering Uruguay ; the largest is the Laguna dos Patos and Lake Mirim. The greatest part of Lake Mirim is included within Uruguay. No lake of any extent occurs on the great table-land, small lakes are not uncommon. But no deep or extensive lakes like the great inland seas of North America occur in Brazil.* * While we are too well aware that the most careful writers do not escape making erroneous statements, and one writer after another has related some general errors respecting Brazil, the recent work of Mr. Kidder, being from the evidence of his personal knowledge down to 1844, has appended the following remarks : " It was not until the present work was in press, that the attention of the author was directed to the article on Brazil, in M Culloch s Universal Gazetteer in that work. " 1. Three Provinces are enumerated which have no existence in the empire, to wit, Rio Negro, Minas Novas, and Fernando. "2. Two of the actual provinces, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul, are not in the list at all. " 3. All its principal cities are on the coast. Its HARBOURS are among the finest in the world, HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. All the tributaries of the Amazon, which flow into it, east of the Rio Madera, from the south, run their whole course within the territories of this empire. Of the tributaries which fall into the Amazon from the north, between the mouths of the Madera and Guyana and that of the Yavari, the lower part of their courses only flows through Brazil. The rivers which drain the southern portion of the table-land carry their waters down to the Parana and Paraguay. Most of the larger rivers which fall into the Amazon from the south-east, and those which flow into the Parana, have their course interrupted by rapids, and cataracts. These rivers are generally, however, navigated, portages occur where the impe diments are too great to be overcome. Those rivers which do not join either the Amazon or the Parana, and navigated to some extent, are chiefly the Itapicuru, the Parahyba, and the Iguaribe, west of Cape San Roque ; and south of it the Rio San Francisco, the Rio Grande do Belmoute, the Rio Doce, the Parahyba, and the Rio Grande do Sul with its branch, the Jacuhy. But with the exception of the Amazon, the rivers of Brazil flowing to the coast are interrupted in their navigation. The great range of moun ains near the coast prevents any rivers from attaining the ocean immediately, except such as spring from the eastern side of serras; but several rivers of the interior fall circuitously into the Atlantic. and are connected with the interior by numerous large RIVERS, most of which are navigable for a considerable way inland. " The harbours of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia deserve the above compliment. But what great navigable rivers connect either of them with the interior, remain to be discovered. It is matter of notoriety, and of universal regret, that, notwithstanding the number and the vastness of the rivers flowing through the northern and western portions of the empire, and finally mingling their waters with the Amazon and the La Plata, there is not one, besides the Amazon, emptying into the Atlantic along the whole Brazilian coast, which is navigable any considerable way from its noutli inland. Hopes are entertained that the River Doce may be rendered navigable to steam boats, but great expense must first be incurred. No city or harbour of note exists at its mouth. i t n- e T S il near tlle coast dis P la y s evidences of the richest cultivation. In the neighbour- 3d ot llio Janeiro, it consists in a great measure of plains." ., ." N P art f Brazil has been, as yet, subjected to the richest cultivation, and probably three- ) the whole sea-coast are, as yet, in a state of nature. If it is meant that the coast erally has been more cultivated than the great interior, it is in the main true, although it may be Honed, whether any part of the coast has been better cultivated than some portions of Minas (u-raes. lo speak of the soil in the neighbourhood of Rio, consisting in a great measure of 8 $ ^ bviously incorrect > as will appear from any authentic description or view of ; ;. Under the head of RELIGION, it is stated that one of the chief sects at Rio is that of the Sebas- J hut just to say that this was never true. Individuals there are in that city, as well er parts of the empire, belonging to that sect, but they are nowhere numerous, and have >t been during the present century. <i. Respecting POPULATION, it is stated on the authority of Balbi, that there are 300,000 dians. Probably no intelligent Brazilian would estimate the number higher than tlu- inH ma T lr !? St charitable allowances. Again, on the same authority, it is stated that Indians, European settlers, &c. (singular conjunction), amount to 150,000; >a\a4 hXnV 3 5 n t0 bdieVe that the P rovince of Para alone contains that full number of jr fiftPPn v!^ Ull0ch -r V16W f litera tre, education, &c., would have been tolerably correct twelve art of steaiim?U g f ^ 6XC pt the absurd and malicious statement, that the book called the "TV : i [r nd ! ? nearl > ever y house in Brazil ! T the 1 vvhole artic le under observation consists in its having been com- RIVERS OF BRAZIL 13 j 3 The Paraiba discharges itself in latitude 6 deg. 57 min. south ; longitude 42 deg. west. There are three Rio Grandes : one rises in the province of Minas Geraes and, after a long course to the north-east, falls into the Atlantic a few miles north of Porto Seguro, in latitude 15 deg. 26 min. south ; another waters the province of Bahia, and falls into the Rio Francisco; a third gives a name to the province of Rio Grande do Sul, and flows in the Atlantic about the 32nd parallel of south latitude. The immense estuary of La Plata is the great drain for all the central waters south of the tributary streams of the Amazon. The land which divides the waters of the Amazon from those of the Plata, rises to its greatest height between the 13th and 14th parallels of latitude. The Paraguay, Parana, and other tributaries of the Plata, we have described in Book III. THE RIVER AMAZON. THE AMAZON, which, with its tributaries, is considered the largest river in the world, assumes its name at the junction of the Tunguragua, or Maranon, which issues from the Lake Lauricocha, in Peru, in latitude 10 deg. 29 min. south; and the Ucayali, formed by streams which have been traced to the 16th and 18th degrees of south latitude. These two great and navigable rivers unite on the confines of Peru, and form the main and uninterrupted stream of the Amazon, which, running eastward more than 1000 miles, then takes a more northerly direction, and having received the waters of hitherto countless and na vigable tributary streams, falls into the Atlantic by many channels. Following all its windings, it is computed to be between 4000 and 5000 miles in length. At its mouth, it is about 180 miles broad, and its depth is in most parts un known. It has been navigated to its confluence with the Pachitea, between the 8th and 9th degrees of south latitude, where its current is gentle ; and, by the Rio Negro, one of its branches, it communicates with the Cassiquiari, which falls into the Oronoco. Its shores are covered with dense woods, inhabited by tigers, leopards, boars, and an innumerable variety of apes or monkeys, while an im mense variety of birds of the most beautiful plumage enliven these vast solitudes. The manati and tortoise abound along the banks of this river and its tributaries, which also swarm with alligators. That huge herb feeding animal, the manati, ascends or is found, as well as the turtle, high up the Ucayali. The principal stream of the numerous magnificent rivers which fall into the Amazon, is the Rio Madera, or forest-river, formed by the union of several streams issuing from the eastern slope of the Andes on the borders of Peru, which flowing towards the east and north-east, unite before they reach the 10th degree of south latitude. Their confluent waters, after several magnificent falls, reach the level country ; whence the Madera rolls along, its vast waters, forming, for a great VOL. I. 8 E 1314 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. part of the distance, the north-western boundary of the Brazilian dominions, and joins the Amazon in latitude 3 deg. 24 min. 18 sec. south. Flowing in the same direction, but further eastward, are the Tapajos, the Xingu, and the Tocantines, all descending from the great central mountains ; the two former flow out of the province of Matto Grosso ; the latter from the region of Goyaz, in about latitude 19 deg. south. The Tapajos takes a northerly course for more than 600 miles between the Xingu and the Madera (its whole course being computed to be 900 miles in length), and falls into the Amazon in latitude 2 deg. 24 min. 50 sec. south ; longitude 55 deg. west. The Xingu has a course of about 1200 miles, the navigation of which is frequently interrupted by cataracts. The Tocantines, the largest of the three, is joined by the Araguaya in latitude C) dog. ; and the united stream, after a course of about 300 miles, flows into the southern estuary of the Amazon in latitude 1 deg. 40 min. south, about twenty leagues west of the city of Para. Its whole length is upwards of 900 miles. The Rio Negro, which falls in from the north, is a large, clear, navigable river, com municating also with the Oronoco by a branch, the Cassiquiari. A little above its mouth is the fishing and boat-building town of Manoas, or Barro de Rio Negros. We have, in the first book of this volume,* briefly described the discovery of this mighty river by the intrepid traveller Orellana, who, in a frail craft, de scended the Amazon from the mountains of Peru to its mouth ; and whose descriptions gave rise in Europe to the kingdom of El Dorado, and the unfor tunate expedition of Raleigh. Gonzalo Pizarro, the brother of the conqueror of Peru, marched, in 1541, from Quito, with an army of 300 soldiers, and 4000 Indians to serve as bearers of burdens, to seek the imagined kingdom of gold, believed, from some accounts of the persecuted aborigines, to exist east of the Andes. The monarch of this fabulous kingdom, was said, in order to wear a more magnificent attire than any other king in the world, to be adorned in a daily coating of gold. His body was anointed every morning with a rare and fra grant gum, and gold dust was blown over him through a tube. Thus attired, the Spaniards named him " El Dorado" "(the Gilded King). He was said to re side generally in the superb city of Manoa: in one street of which there were said to have been no less than 3000 silversmiths or silver- workers. The columns of his palace were affirmed to be porphyry and alabaster; his throne ivory, and its steps gold ; the body of the palace was of white stone, ornamented with golden suns and silver moons ; living lions, fastened by chains of gold, guarded its entrance. To conquer such a monarch, city, and kingdom, might well allure Gonzalo and his army onward against all physical obstructions. Never was an expedition more fatal, and the discovery of the Amazon as a great navigable river, uninter- * See pages 46 and 47. RIVERS OF BRAZIL. 1315 rupted by falls or rapids, to the ocean,^and the non-existence of the El Dorado, have been the only fortunate result. Considering it imprudent to return back to Peru over the Andes, from the wretched state to which his followers had been reduced by more than a thousand deaths from fatigue and famine, he reached the banks of the Napo, a tributary of the Amazon. From that point he resolved to proceed down the stream, and constructed such a vessel as the circumstances of his condition enabled him to build. He sent this craft, under charge of Orellana and fifty men, down the Napo, to stop at such a place as water deep enough was found to take all on board. Orellana descended rapidly, and instead of waiting for Pizarro, he continued the voyage downwards, fought with the natives, called them Amazons, as women were seen to command them ; built a larger vessel, and reached the sea in five months. He then proceeded to Spain, was pardoned for deserting Pizarro, and received a charter to conquer the regions he had discovered. He succeeded in raising funds and enlisting adventurers for an expedition; and with a fleet he arrived on the coast in 1544, but amid the numerous channels at the mouth of the river, he failed to find the main branch. After a month or two spent without being able to ascend the river, Orellana, with many of his followers, sunk under disease, and died. Southey considers that " as a discoverer, he surpassed any of his countrymen ; and if, as a conqueror, he was unfortunate, it is now the happier for him, having never had the opportunity of committing those atrocities which blackened the characters of many of his contemporaries." Southey has even gone so far as to attempt to give the name of Orellana to the whole mighty river, and to reject that of Maranon, as having the same origin as Maranham ;* and denounces Amazon, from its fiction. In his map, and generally, in all his references, he denominates the great river OreJlana. O Amazonas is, however, the general name among all those who traverse its waters, or who live upon its banks. Para, which was the aboriginal name, signifies the Father of Waters, and still imparts its name to the province through which the Amazon flows down, as well as to its capital. The Para is also the name of the southern branch. About seventy years after the expedition of Orellana the Portuguese began to settle in Para. In 1616, Francisco Caldeira, the first chief captain, founded the city of Para. In 1637> two Franciscan friars and six soldiers, who formed a mission to the aborigines, near the frontiers of Peru, descended the Amazon from Quito. Some of the missionaries grew weary and returned ; others travelled on ward, until the natives attacked and killed the officer in charge of the soldiers. Dismayed at the dangers and obstacles of a journey back to Quito, the survivors committed themselves to the floods, in a weak craft, as Orellana had done nearly a century before. They reached Para in safety, but were unable to give * Both words have the same origin, being derived from the Portuguese mare, the sea, and ndo, not, not the sea, as the great river near its mouth appears to be. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA any satisfactory account of the countries through which they had passed. The dread of cannibals seems to have deprived them of the powers of observation. Durin the same year, the first expedition to ascend the Amazon was equipped under the command of Pedro Teixeira, who, with seventy soldiers, 1200 natives as rowers and bowmen, and numerous females and slaves, in all about 2000, embarked in forty-five canoes. The strength of the current and the diffi. Wlty of findino- their course amid the intricacies of numerous channels, opposed great difficulties and fatigue. Many of the Indians deserted, but unceasing per- severance and able conduct, enabled Teixeira, after a voyage of eight months, to ascend to the head waters of that navigation. Leaving most of his men with his canoes at this place, he journeyed overland to Quito, where he was received with distinguished honours. He was, on his return, accompanied by several friars to record an account of the voyage. This record was the first authentic informa tion collected and published to the world. The party reached Para, then called Bek-m, in December, 1739. Afterwards voyages up and down the Amazon be came more common. . In 1745, M. de LaCondamine descended from Quito, and constructed a map of the river, based upon a series of astronomical observations. His memoir, read before the Royal Academy on his return, is at this day a very interesting and instructive work. In modern times, the most celebrated written voyages down the Amazon are those of Spix, Martins, Mawe, and Lieutenant Smyth.* * Most, but not all, the voyages on the Amazon have been unattended with calamity, but the sufferings of Madame Godin have been of the greatest hardship. Her husband was an astro nomer, associated with M. de la Condamine. He had taken his family with him to reside in Quito, but being ordered to Cayenne, was obliged to leave them behind. Circumstances trans pired to prevent his return for a period of sixteen years, and when finally he made the attempt to ascend the Amazon, he was taken sick and could not proceed. All letters or messages that he attempted to send his wife, failed to reach her. A rumour reached her, that an expedition had been despatched to meet her at some of the missions on the upper Amazon. She immediately set out on this perilous journey, accompanied by her family, including three females, two children, her brother, and two or three men. They passed over the Andes and down the tributary streams of the Amazon. As they descended they found the missions in desolation, from the ravages of the small-pox. The village where they expected to find Indians to conduct them down the river, had but two inhabitants surviving : who could not aid them, without guides or canoe-men, and igno rant of the navigation, their misery was now beyond description ; their canoe drifted down the current, and filled with water; they escaped with some provisions. They formed a raft, which was soon after broken upon a snag, a partly sunken tree. They escaped to the river-bank, and attempted to proceed on foot, without map or compass. They \vere soon bewildered in the forest. Wild fruits and succulent plants now became their only food ; reduced by hunger, they soon fell victims to disease. lu a few days Madame Godin alone survived, amidst eight dead bodies ; she attempted to bury them, but was unable. After two days spent in mourning over the dead, she determined to make a last effort ; but she was nearly 3000 miles from the ocean, without food, and with her feet torn by walking amid the woods. Taking the shoes of one of the dead men she started upon her dreary way, during the day. At night she lay exhausted amid tbe most desolate wretchedness and horror. She was taken up on the ninth day at the river side, by a party of Indians in a canoe. They carried her to one of the missions, from which she was finally conveyed down the Amazon and restored to her husband, after nineteen years separation. They returned to France together and llTCd in retirement ; but she never fully recovered from the effects of her sufferings. Mr. Kidder saw a fellow countryman at Para, who had visited Brazil for his health, and having to a great degree recovered, he was induced to make a voyage up the great river. The best vessel RIVERS OF BRAZIL. 1317 The voyager on the waters of the Amazon, above Para, will scarcely see fifty houses in 100 leagues. There are but few settlements directly on the river. Most of the small settlements are on the tributary streams, and on the ivuarapes, or bayous. The houses have all mud floors and thatched roofs. It is astonishing how feeble have been the attempts to navigate the mao-infi- cent inland navigation of Brazil, and especially the waters of the Amazon and its tributaries. During the year 1827, a steam-boat company was formed at New York, with the express purpose of carrying on that navigation. It originated at the suggestion of the Brazilian government through its charge d affaires, Mr. Rebello, then in the United States, who stipulated for them great, encouragement, and a grant of special privileges on the part of Dom Pedro I. A steamboat was fitted out and sent to Para, and other heavy expenses were incurred by the com pany ; but from want of co-operation on the part of Brazil, the enterprize failed. During the last three years, small government steamers have three or four times plied as far up the Amazon as the River Negro. Such voyages will, no doubt, be repeated, but we fear that little more will be effected in extending steam navigation on the Amazon for many years to come. The main stream of the Amazon is navigable for more than 2000 miles; the Tocantins, the Xingu, the Tapajos, the Madera, the Negro, the Purus, the Beni, and other rivers, are navigable for several thousand more. They altogether flow through regions with rich soil, and the most luxurious vegetation, but their waters are now only disturbed by alligators and reptiles, and now and then by the uncouth though large canoes. A different population than the Portuguese must inhabit its banks and open its navigation before it can be profitable. It is even probable that the intercourse between the Atlantic and Peru, in the productions of the latter, east of the Andes, may be the first established line of steam navigation. Exclusive of the want of population on the banks of the Amazon, and other political and moral obstacles to opening the trade and navigation of those magnifi cent regions of the world, the Brazilian government has, with respect to the naviga tion of the rivers and harbours of the sea coast, limited the foreign commerce to a few ports. In the fertile province of Pernambuco, for example, the harbour of that name is the only port open to commerce. In fact, the fear and jealousy of the government of Rio de Janeiro of the power and prosperity of the northern provinces, has led to the most pernicious restrictions on trade and intercourse. Penedo, at the mouth of the Francisco, is well adapted for foreign trade, though the bar of the river s entrance has not more than sixteen feet depth of water over it. Yet this port is closed to foreign trade, from the jealousy of Rio Janeiro, in which he could procure a passage was a miserable trading smack. The inconveniences he suffered on board, together with the lack of fresh provisions and suitable accommodations when he went on shore, brought upon him a renewed and aggravated attack of disease. He was fortunate enough to obtain a passage down in a Brazillian war-schooner ; but he only survived a few months. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. that the produce of the province of Minas Geraes might escape to sea by the former instead of the latter port. The Rio FRANCISCO, which has its rise in Minas Geraes, and after flowing northward for a considerable distance along the great longitudinal valley at the foot of the Brazilian Andes* dividing Bahia from Minas Geraes, turns at length to the east, and, separating Bahia and Alagos from Sergipe, enters the ocean in about the llth parallel of south latitude, completing a course of upwards of 1000 miles. This is the largest river of Brazil, independent of the Amazon or the Plata. From the mouth of the Rio das Velhas to the falls of Paulo Affonso, the distance of 1000 miles, the waters of the San Francisco are suitable for naviga tion ; but from the few inhabitants on its banks, and the want of enterprize, it is but little used as the means of transport. The falls of Paulo Affonso are de scribed, by those who have seen them, as a sublime cataract, down which the river thunders in magnificent grandeur. Above the falls the waters of this river sometimes overflow its banks for some leagues 011 either side, and the inhabit ants are compelled to resort to the hills for safety. They are at such times forced to communicate with each other by boats or canoes. The low adjoining country is fertilised by these inundations. Mr. Cowper, in order to make an expedition through the interior country up to the falls of San Affonso, on the San Francisco, and to report on the navigation of that river, left Pernambuco in January, 1846, for Maceio, in the little province of Alagoas; from Maceio he proceeded inland, and his report to the foreign office, from which we derive the following information respecting San Francisco, is both i .teresting and instructive. We shall in this chapter confine ourselves to that part of the report which is descriptive of this river. Mr. Cowper, on reaching its banks, by a tedious route over streams, barrens, forests, and mountains, ob serves, that the river after rising in 20 deg. south, in the province of Minas Geraes, flows direct north-east for 700 miles, during the last 300 of which, dividing the provinces of Bahia and Pernambuco, it turns abruptly to the east, finally to the south-east, and after running in that direction for 300 additional miles, falls into the Atlantic between the insignificant provinces of Sergipe and Alagoas, in 10 deg. 35 sec. south. The Rio St. Francisco thus not only flows over upwards of 300 leagues of ter ritory, but it passes through some of the richest provinces of the empire, con taining more than half its whole population. The government of Rio de Janeiro, to cut off the provinces of Bahia and Pernambuco from the mouth of the San Francisco, created two new provinces : taking one from each of the above, merely from a spirit of jealousy; and al though Penedo, near the mouth of the San Francisco, a prosperous town, seven leagues only from the sea, offers every facility for navigation, nothing has as yet RIVERS OF BRAZIL. 1319 induced the government to make it a port for foreign trade. The cotton, sugar, and timber produced in its neighbourhood, are now shipped in large canoes, and are, by this wretched tortuous manner, carried to Maceio, Pernambuco, and Bahia. No plausible objection can even be imagined to making Penedo a port, as at present the navigation of the Francisco is physically barred for fifty leagues, by the falls of Paulo Affonso, and therefore could not interfere with the commerce carried on between Minas and Rio de Janeiro. The throwing open of the lower portion of the River San Francisco, would at the same time be highly advan tageous to Brazil, and to every nation with which she has commercial intercourse; especially if the navigation of the whole river were opened by a canal to surmount the falls. The falls and their obstructive effects upon navigation may be said to extend for twenty-two leagues. The Barra de Moxoto, which Mr. Cowper reached on the 5th of February, 1846, he considers the centre of the cataracts or rapids above the great cascade, that is to say, three leagues above it, and three below the first falls of Itaparica. The river at Moxoto, is about a mile wide, and was on the 5th of February, about half-full as it is termed, which may be explained by stating that from Christmas to Easter, the rains of the interior flood the river, at which period it is full, and it gradually subsides until Michaelmas, when it is termed empty. From the Falls of the Itaparica to those of Paulo Affonso, the river is one roaring, hissing, boiling, foaming rapid, interspersed with rocky yel low limestone islands, the largest of which, the Ilha Tapuya, is covered with verdure; upon the banks there exists, at long intervals, a miserable house; the soil is dry and arid, producing scarcely any vegetation ; it is the worst part of the Catinga, and near the great falls bears the fearful name of " Os Morlds de Cuxo- cira" few Europeans, indeed very few natives had visited this spot before Mr. Cowper, and it was with feelings nearly approaching to awe that he de scended the banks of the river towards the falls. "At every step the rapids in creased in force, noise, and fury, and shortly before disappearing from view amidst the spray, they literally appeared to shriek in the confusion of sounds at their inevitable fate ; a hundred yards above the falls it is necessary to pass a small arm of the river, but so rapid is the current of the main body, that the water articulates like an artery; at one moment it is quite dry, at another full, for this reason it is called the " Vai e Vem" or " Go and come/ From the Cas cade of Itaparica to those of Paulo Affonso, the river runs nearly north and south, immediately below it turns at right angles to the east, it is consequently viewed from exactly opposite : the effect is stupendous. You stand upon a rock inaccessible from the water, it being quite perpendicular, it is almost upon a level with the top of the falls, which are about a quarter of a mile distant, these are composed of five distinct cascades, four of which present themselves at once to HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. the view, and cannot be less than 900 feet high, and half a mile broad, they are embosomed in an amphitheatre of rock, composed of the same yellow limestone, and have a huge solitary island of the same formation immediately before them, and in the centre of the amphitheatre, within the interstices of the rocks, vege tation springs forth, and upon their summits small trees, brushwood, and cactacea ; from the continued spray, the tints of all these are most vivid, the rocks of the brightest sepia, and the vegetation of the richest green. Upon the Pernambuco side the first fall is an escada, or ladder fall, and passes to the left of the island, in a direct line from its summit, one vast sheet of foam, to the main land, from whence it is viewed, dashing itself with inexpressible fury against its base ; the se cond and third falls are behind the island, and are the main falls, they dash against it with such force, that a solid body of water again rises in the air, and falling once more into the basin, throws up a spray which is seen for leagues, it then rushes round the right side of the island, is joined in its descent by the waters of the fourth fall, and they precipitate themselves to its base, there they unite with those of the first fall, dash against the mainland opposite, and then, apparently exhausted with their efforts, run rapidly, but smoothly, betwixt perpendicular rocks, not 100 yards apart, to the east; a quarter of a mile lower down, the fifth fall joins the rapids, which continue without intermission for sixteen leagues to Peraubas, on the Pernambuco side, and Canindi on the Bahia; at the angle formed by the river at the falls, there are two huge caves, the descent is effected with considerable risk by the bed of a small rivulet which runs into the lower basin of the falls, with bare feet and a steady eye, it is necessary to pass from rock to rock, one false step would be certain destruction. Upon reaching the caves, they consist of two immense hollows, 200 feet deep and 100 high ; in the centre is a rock like a rostrum ; the caves are infested by immense bats, who have deposited guano sufficient to load several vessels; at the mouth of the caves are quantities of timber, bones, &.C., of trees and animals which have descended the falls. M. de Goussencourt, who accompanied Mr. Cowper, observed upon the spot, " that if all the falls of Italy and Germany which he had seen, were united, they would not equal those of Paulo Affonso." For twenty-two leagues Mr. Cowper considers the river one vast cataract, at present insurmountable for the navigation to the upper river from the sea; but above San Affonso it is deep, broad, and said to be navigable for 200 leagues. Of various plans which have been proposed, Mr. Cowper considers that there are two which appear to be feasible, namely, a canal or a railroad ; the former might be brought from Itaparica on the Bahia side, and running along parallel with the river through a marsh as far as the Great Cascade, or very nearly, might find its way along the base of the Muribeca Mountains to Canindi ; the Bahia side he considered the most desirable, as owing to the angle formed in the course of the river at Paulo Affonso, it would be the shorter, forming the base RIVERS OF BRAZIL. 1321 of a triangle. He had neither time nor means of examining the ground. He has no douht that a canal of twenty or thirty leagues in length would open the navi gation of the Francisco. The other plan would be to construct a railway from the Pernambuco side, above Itaparica, to the city of Pernambuco, but he apprehends this would be vastly more expensive than the former ; and he also apprehends that no proposal, having for its object the opening of the navi gation of the Rio San Francisco, particularly above the falls, would be favourably received at Rio de Janeiro. On leaving the falls, he re-crossed the "Catinga," passing the Fazendas de Gado of Cruzes, Salgado, Lagumes, Xinga, Falhado, and Olha d Agoa, and the streamlet of Luca, and once more reached the San Francisco, on the 8th of February, at Peranhas, sixteen leagues below the falls ; it is a place of some little commerce, being the spot to which farinha, and other necessaries of life, are brought from the coast to the sertao : it contains about 300 inhabitants, and was at the time of his visit filled with refugees. Peranhas, is so called from the quantities of fish of that name abounding in this part of the river. They render bathing extremely dangerous, are very small, of a red colour, and are so voracious and numerous, that they have been known to kill an ox before he could pass the stream. Another fish, called the cherubim, is peculiar to the Francisco, it grows to an enormous size, resembling a huge trout, excepting that the spots are black, is extremely rich and delicious eating, and would yield vast quantities of oil. In his descent from Peranhas to Penedo, he passed several small towns and settlements, which exhibit a larger than ordinary population on its banks than in many other parts of Brazil.* The distance from Peranhas to Penedo is about thirty-five leagues. He em barked with his horses at the former place in a huge canoe, and floated down with the rapid current to Penedo in two days and nights ; on no one occasion did the boatmen use their oars. The scenery of the river is extremely grand, and resembles that of the Italian lakes. During the dry season large rocks appear above the water, leaving, however, a clear and deep channel for the navigation ; it is everywhere interspersed with islands. Penedo is about seven leagues from the sea, and is a flourishing place, con taining 5000 inhabitants. Villa Nova, its rival, on the opposite bank, is greatly * The following are the names of these places ; Upon the Bahia and Sergij)e side: Cunende, Ferada, Coleti, Angica, Caxoeira, Tacari, Capoeira, Carolina Nova, Carolina Vilha, Budeigo, Ilha de Ferra, Ospatos, Tacco Grande, Caxoeiro, Lagoa das Pedras, San Pedro, Aratica, Franciscan Julia, Os Porteiros, Ilha d Ouro, Ilhadas Entaes, Terpete, Patuba, Lagoa Azeda, Coral das Pedras, Serra da Pabunsa, Boraco de, Maria Ferreira, Villa Nova. Upon the Pernambuco and Abagnas side .-Piranhas, Barra de Cabaca, Bonita, Ilha de Ferra, Prairas, Pao Ferro, Pas d Assucar, Espinas, Limoeira, Lagoa Furda, Barra de Panema, Tacobim, Mundo Novo, Sacco, Queimado, Traipa, Serra de Pas d Assucar, Serra de Pemea, San Braz, San Colegio, Ilha Munbu, Ilha Maunha, Alagoas, Bubenare, Ilha de Corcia, Barra de Imbusica, Penedo. See a catalogue and description of these woods hereafter in the Statistics of Brazil, VOL. I, 8 F HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. its inferior. The bar of the San Francisco has fifteen feet of water over it but the channel changes its place, owing to shifting sands. Mr. Cowper procured specimens, atPenedo, of all the Brazilian woods which he considered adapted to ship -building, &c. CHAPTER III. CLIMATE, SOIL, AND PRODUCTIONS. Climate. Although the greater part of Brazil lies within the tropics, a con siderable portion of territory is in the southern temperate zone, and the climate varies greatly in its different regions. Extensive table-lands are elevated from 2000 to 2500 feet above the sea. The plains on the Ilio Amazon, and those east of the mouth of that river, are characterised by excessive heat, and by rain falling during every month of the year. This climate appears to prevail as far south as 10 deg. latitude, with the exception of the country east of about 41 deg. west longitude, which suffers rather from drought. The second region comprehends the countries south of 10 deg. latitude, to the Serra dos Ver- tentes. The low country along the sea resembles in its climate that of tropical countries which are little elevated above the ocean, and w T ith mountainous back grounds. The heat is often oppressive in summer, and the rains are abundant. In other parts of the year little or no rain falls. The terraces, or elevated steppes, by which the country rises to the highest table-lands, partake in some degree of the peculiarities of this climate, where the ascent is rather steep, as between 18 deg. and 24 deg. south latitude ; but where the country rises slowly, and the ter races are wide, as between 10 deg. and 18 deg. south latitude, rain is by no means abundant, and years often pass without a drop falling. On the table-lands the mean annual temperature seems to differ from that of the coast by eight or ten degrees. The rains are more regular than on the declivities, but they are far from being abundant, and the vegetation of this region is much less vigorous than along the loose soils of the sea coast. According to meteorological observations, it would seem that the rains diminish on proceeding westward, and that some of the western Campos are little better than arid deserts. In the most elevated table-lands night frosts are experienced, when the sun is near the northern tropic. The countries south of the Serra dos Vertentes are chiefly situated in the temperate zone, at least those east of 55 deg. west longitude, which are drained by the Parana. The rains fall most abundantly in summer, but in other seasons rains are also frequent. The heat is moderate, and the vegetation, though vigorous, less so than towards the coast further north. The countries which arc drained by the Paraguay, and lie west of 54 deg., have a much hotter DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1323 climate, and abundant tropical rains, but there is a long dry season in which no rain falls. In these parts frost does not occur. During the winter months south of 30 deg. latitude the table-land of Curitiba and the more elevated tracts towards the boundary of Uruguay seem to have a regular winter season of a few weeks, with occasional frost.* In the northern parts, situated in the centre of the torrid zone, the air of the lower tracts is sultry and oppressive ; but vegetation is vigorously nourished bv the night dews. In these regions there is little distinction of seasons: the flowers are in perpetual bloom, the foliage is evergreen ; and with the grandeur of the forests, and the delicious coolness of the nights, impart to the country and climate a perpetual spring. Near the coast, the trade-wind, which blows over the whole breadth of the Atlantic, imparts refreshing coolness to the atmosphere of these naturally sultry regions. The northern provinces, however, occasionally suffer from the want of rain. In ascending towards the sources of the great rivers, the temperature is modified by the elevation of the country, and as the distance increases, from the equator. On the Campos Parexis and other similar plateaux, with arid soil, the solar heat is intolerable ; but within many of the elevated districts of the interior, fertile valleys are found with a temperate and salubrious climate, where the vegetables and fruits of Europe will ripen. Such is the climate of parts of Minas Geraes and San Paulo. Towards the southern extremity of Brazil, and in the higher mountainous districts, the air is colder, and the soil yields European grain in great perfection. The west wind pass ing over vast marshy forests, is frequently found unhealthy in the interior. The northern provinces are at times subject to heavy rains, variable winds, torna- * Mr. Kidder says, " The climate of Brazil is remarkably mild and regular. At Rio de Janeiro there cannot be said to be any regular rainy season. It would be difficult to fix on the months in which most rain may be expected. During the rains there is generally but little wind, and the temperature changes but slightly throughout the day. In dry weather the mornings and evenings are always cool, and the heat of the day is almost invariably mitigated by a strong sea-breeze. " The south-east trade winds sweep the whole coast. From March to September, during the southerly monsoon, the prevailing winds are from east-by-north to east-south-east. During the northerly monsoon, from September to March, the winds are from north-by-east to north-east- by-east." METEOROLOGICAL Table kept at Rio de Janeiro, 1838-1839. MONTHS. FAHRENHEIT S THERMOMETER. MEAN TEMPERATURE. WEATHER. NUMBER OF DAYS. July... Sunrise. 63 61 65 71 71 75 75 74 73 71 64 63 69 Midday. 78 78 81 87 86 90 95 95 88 87 80 77 85 Sunset. 73 67 68 76 76 80 81 76 76 75 74 71 74.5 Maximum. 84 85 92 102 96 102 101 108 93 95 88 83 108 Minimum. 58 54 58 62 62 70 72 71 65 63 60 58 54 Clear. 14 17 23 15 Jl 20 12 16 13 16 18 25 200 Cloudy. 7 9 4 11 13 7 15 6 12 5 6 2 97 Rain. 10 5 3 5 C 4 4 6 6 9 7 3 68 September November December February March April .. May ........!" The Year ( Continued. ) 1324 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. does, and thunder-storms ; while the southern regions have a more settled, tem perate, and salubrious climate. Soil. An empire of such great extent as Brazil comprises every variety of soil, from the sandy lands of the sea coast to the ruggedness of the mountains ; from the alluvions of the great and lesser rivers, to the undulated and wooded midlands, up to the pastures and bare plains of the table lands, and back to the arid Campos. Fertility may be considered the general character of the soil ; but with some broad exceptions, as the arid plains of the interior, and the sandy and rocky districts. Products and Agriculture. Nearly all the trees and natural products which were found in the West Indies abound in the north parts of Brazil. In the forests and plains there are also many other natural products. In the southern or temperate provinces, the grains, vegetables, and fruits of Europe succeed, and wheat, barley, rice, maize, and tobacco are also grown. Within the tropics the chief products of agriculture are mandioca, rice, yams, bannanas, plantains, beans, GENERAL Result of Meteorological Observations made during the Year 1842, in the City of the Recife de Pernambuco, by the late John Loudon, M.D., in his residence on the south side of the Rua d Aterra Boa Vista. MONTHS. Temperature bj the Thermometers of Farenheit and Reaumur. Humidity, calculated at mid day by Saussure s Hygro meter. Maximum. Minimum. Medium. Maximum Minimum Medium. January arenheit. Reaumur. Farenheit Reaumur. Farenheit Reaumur. / 75.00 80.00 70.00 85.00 87.05 / 84.98 87.65 83.06 89.00 89.03 86.00 86.00 87.00 84.00 83.00 82.00 82.00 81.00 85.00 87.00 87.00 88.00 24.00 24.00 24.44 23. 11 22.66 22.22 22.22 21.77 23.55 24.44 24.44 24.88 72.00 73.00 72.00 73.00 71.00 70.00 67.00 69.00 70.00 70.00 73.00 74.00 17.77 18.22 17.77 18.22 17.33 16.88 15.55 16.44 16.88 16.88 18.22 18.66 79.59 81.19 81.80 78.30 78.22 76.44 75.3S 75.03 76.33 81.06 82.93 81.09 21.26 21.80 22.13 20.56 24.54 19.64 19.28 19.12 19.70 21.62 22.60 21.63 96.00 98.00 99.00 97.50 100.00 March . . Apiil May ::::: July August September October . November December Medium 84.23 | 23.20 71.10 17.43 79.00 20.88 98.01 1 77.05 86.74 METEOROLOGICAL Observations continued. MONTHS. Atmospheric pressure at midday by Barometer. Quantity of rain by English in ches. Number of days from which quarter the wind blew. Number of days and nights in which it rained. Maximum Minimum. Medium. S. to E. N. to E. Day?. Nights. January . . o / o / 765.1 764.0 762.0 762.3 761.4 766 57 765 90 764.04 763.06 763.05 6.09 2.01 8.23 25.24 16.21 25.26 16.11 3.15 1.04 1.13 0.29 1.31 .... 8 ib 30 31 30 31 31 20 7 6 4 23 28 21 ib 24 24 26 20 3 5 17 15 20 17 7 4 2 5 9 20 19 21 20 19 11 6 5 5 Febrnaiy March.... April . . . May ;..;* June . . July "" August September October November December 768.2 707.6 706.8 764.6 764.7 766 4 Medium... 109.27 2U8 156 124 130 DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIF,. W 2~) and sweet potatoes, with coffee, sugar, cotton, and cacao; the four last-mentioned articles are chiefly cultivated for exportation. The forests supply excellent timber for ship-building and for the construction of houses; several kinds of wood for cabinet work, and others for dying ; among the dye-woods, Brazil-wood and Campeche-wood are important articles of trade. Other products are vanilla sarsaparilla, ipecacuhana, gingers, peppers, canella do clavo (from the Persea caryophyllata, Mart.) anatto, caoutchouc, copal, and copaivi balsam, pitch, Brazil nuts, tamarinds, tonca, and pechurim beans. Cinchona bark also exists, and many others abound.* The yerba-mate is found in the southern provinces and is exported, chiefly to Peru. Pine-apples, oranges, figs, and other fruits, ripen in perfection. It is estimated that not more than one acre in 150 of the whole cultivable area of Brazil is under any kind of culture. Probably not one acre in 200. Forests. The interior consists, in many parts, of one continuous forest : at a little distance from the coast, the country, in some parts, is covered with nu merous varieties of the palm-tree, among which is a remarkable species with long, serrated, lancet-formed leaves, composed of innumerable fibres, which rival silk both in fineness and in strength. The sandy soils of the coast are turned to account by plantations of the cocoa-tree, which grows here thicker and taller than in the East Indies. The Brazilians say, that this tree affords them both food and shelter. Of the trunk and the leaves their huts are built ; of its fibrous roots baskets are made, and cordage of the outward husk ; cups are made of the shell ; its fruit supplies meat and drink ; and an excellent oil is obtained by skimming the juice which may be pressed from the pulp. The cocoa kernel is in general use in cookery ; and it forms an important article of internal trade. The carrapato, or castor-tree, is also an indigenous production, much cultivated for the sake of the oil extracted from the seed, which is in general use for lamps and other purposes : it also grows spontaneously. The ibiripitanga, or Brazil-wood tree, called in Pernambuco, the pao da rainlia (queen s wood), on account of its being a government monopoly, is now rarely to be seen within many leagues of the coast, owing to the improvident manner in which it has been cut down by the govern ment agents, without any regard being paid to the size of the tree or to its culti vation. It is not a lofty tree : at a short distance from the ground, innumerable branches grow forth and extend in every direction in a straggling, irregular, man ner. The leaves are small and not luxuriant ; the wood is very hard and heavy, takes a high polish, and sinks in water : the only valuable portion of it is the heart, as the outward coat of wood has not any peculiarity.! Besides these, we * See lists of trees and barks hereafter, under the head of Statistics of Brazil. f The name of this wood is derived from brasas (or brazas), a glowing fire or coal. Its botanical name is Caesalpinia Brasiletto : it belongs to the genus Lomentaceae, in Linnaeus s nat. order, and is a leguminous plant, of the class Decandria Monogynia. The leaves are pinnated : the flowers are white, papilionaceous, growing in a pyramidal spike. One species has flowers variegated with red. The branches are slender and full of small prickles. There are nine species. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. may enumerate among the vegetable productions of Brazil, the cedar, the wild cinnamon-tree, and the jacaranda, or rosewood, valuable for cabinet work ; the tatajuba, or fustic, yielding a yellow dye ; the Brazilian myrtle, a beautiful shrub ; the sicicupira, resembling the teak of India ; the peroba, oraubu, and loiero, resembling a species of oak and larch ; logwood, mahogany, and a variety of forest-trees, invaluable for the purposes of ship-building. The original forests are called in Brazil, mato virgem, virgin forests. Dr. Von Spix gives us the most graphic account that we have read of these forest regions. He says, " Almost every one of these sovereigns of the forest is distinguished, in the total effect of the picture, from its neighbour. While the silk-cotton-tree (bombax pentandrum\ partly armed with strong thorns, begins at a considerable height from, the ground to spread out its thick arms, and its digitated leaves are grouped in light and airy masses, the luxuriant lecythis and the Brazilian anda shoot out at a less height many branches profusely covered with leaves, which unite to form a verdant arcade. The jacaranda (rose-wood tree) attracts the eye by the lightness of its double-feathered leaves: the large gold-coloured flowers of this tree and the ipe (bignonia chrysantha), dazzle by their splendour, contrasted with the dark green of the foliage. The spondias (s. myro- balamis], arches its pinnated leaves into light oblong forms. A very peculiar and most striking effect in the picture is produced by the trumpet-tree (cecropia peltata\ among the other lofty forms of the forest : the smooth ash-grey stems rise slightly bending to a considerable height, and spread out at the top into verticillate branches, which have at the extremities large tufts of deeply lobated white leaves. The flowering csesalpinia; the airy laurel; the lofty geoffrcea ; the soap-trees with their shining leaves ;* the slen der Barbadoes cedar; the ormosia with its pinnated leaves; the tapia or garlic pear-tree, so called from the strong smell of its bark ; the maina ; and a thousand not yet described trees, are mingled confusedly together, forming groups agreeably contrasted by the diver sity of their forms and tints. Here and there, the dark crown of a Chilian fir (arau- caria imbricata), among the lighter green, appears like a stranger amid the natives of the tropics; while the towering stems of the palms with their waving crowns, are an incomparable ornament of the forests, f the beauty and majesty of which no language can describe. The colour produced from this wood is greatly improved by a solution of tin in aqua regia, which, when mixed with the aqueous tincture, affords a beautiful precipitate of a purplish crimson, sub stituted sometimes for lake. It is used for dyeing silk what is called false crimson, to distinguish t from that produced by cochineal. It is indigenous to both the East and the West Indies, and is the same as Sapan wood. f Sapindus suponaria. The fruit is brought to the city in large quantities ; the poorer class lem instead of soap. " In many years, one of these trees, which are generally about the size >tour nut-trees, produces several bushes of this fruit, which contains a great quantity of sapo naceous matter." V. Spix, p. 280. f The cocoa-palm is frequently seen above thirty feet high. Mr. Mawe measured a fallen tree es not mention the species), which was full seventy-six inches in diameter at the thick end, bove twenty-five yards in length. Prince Maximilian says - " The colossal trees are so lofty, r owhng-pieces could not carry to the top of them, so that we often tired in vain at the finest birds." Travel*, p. 43. tt Mr. Luccock describes a very singular tree, one of those vegetable productions," he says, :e astonishes the English traveller. It is here called a gamelleiro (from gamella, a great b-ith* n l r M roug W because from its trunk are turned those large bowls which are used as j ne s allest part of its stem was eight feet above the ground, and there the circumference -een feet. Immediately below this line the roots begin to project in the manner of and produce that kind of timber which is particularly esteemed in forming the knees of terminate in the roots, which run along the surface of the ground, and appear rcle of seventy-six paces, each of which was intended to measure a yard. One of ie distance of sixteen feet from the body of the tree, rose wholly above the soil : mred four feet. The branches, which begin to expand immediately above the line. he tn k was measured, extend on each side thirty-five feet, so that the whole head forma hed hemisphere of more than 200 feet in circumference." JfVbtet, &c, p. 393. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1327 " If the eye turns from the proud forms of those ancient denizens of the forest, to the more humble and lower which clothe the ground with a rich verdure, it is delighted with the splendour and gay variety of the flowers. The purple blossoms of the rhexia ; pro fuse clusters of the melastoma, myrtles, and the eugenia; the delicate foliage of many rubiaceee and ardisioe, their pretty flowers blended with the singularly formed leaves of the theophrasta; the conchorcarpus; the reed-like dwarf palms; the brilliant spadix of the costus ; the ragged hedges of the maranta, from which a squamous fern rises ; the magnificent stiftia, thorny solana, large flowering gardenias and coutereas, enlivened with garlands of mikonia and bignonia ; the far-spreading shoots of the mellifluous paul- linias, dalechampias, and the bauhinea with its strangely lobated leaves ; strings of the leafless milky lianes (bind-weed), which descend from the highest summits of the tree?, or closely twine round the strongest trunks, and gradually kill them; lastly, those para sitical plants by which old trees are invested with the garment of youth, the grotesque species of the pothos and the arum, the superb flowers of the orchidece, the bromelias which catch the rain-water, the tillandsia, hanging down like lichen pulmonariuSy and a multiplicity of strangely formed ferns : all these admirable productions combine to form a scene which alternately fills the European naturalist with delight and astonishment. " But the animal kingdom which peoples those ancient forests, is not less distinguished than the vegetable world. The naturalist who is here for the first time, does not know whether he shall most admire the forms, hues, or voices of the animals. Except at noon, when all living creatures in the torrid zone seek shade and repose, and when a solemn silence is diffused over the scene, illumined by the dazzling beams of the sun, every hour of the day calls into action a distinct race of animals. The morning is ushered in by the howling of the monkeys, the high and deep notes of the tree-frogs and toads, the mono tonous chirp of the grasshoppers and locusts. When the rising sun has dispelled the mists which preceded it, all creatures rejoice in the return ot day. The wasps leave their long nesis which hang down from the branches; the ants issue from their dwellings, curiously built of clay, with which they cover the trees, and commence their journey on the paths they have made for themselves, as is done also by the termites, which cast up the earth high and far around.* The gayest butterflies, rivalling in splendour the colours of the rainbow, especially numerous hesperise, flutter from flower to flower, or seek their food on the rocks, or, collected in separate companies, on the cool streams. f The blue shining Menelaus, Nestor, Adonis, Laertas, the bluish-white Idea, and the large Euro- lychus with its oscellated wings, hover like birds between the green bushes in the moist valleys. The Feronia, with rustling wings, flies rapidly from tree to tree, while the owl- moth (noctua strix), the largest of the moth kind, sits immoveably on the trunk, with out spread wings awaiting the approach of evening Myriads of the most brilliant beetles buzz in the air, and sparkle like jewels on the fresh green of the leaves, or on the odorous flowers. Meantime, agile lizards, remarkable for their form, size, and brilliant colours, * " It is scarcely possible," says Mr. Lnccock, " to conceive of a greater plague than that which is produced by the ants. In the forests below, they form their nests beneath the surface of the ground, or pile cones of sand, eight or ten feet high, generally ronnd the root or stem of a tree. But, on these heights, their nests standby the roadside, in the form of rough pillars made of earth and leaves, more than eight feet high and three in diameter. They resemble bee-hives in shape ; and at first 1 thought them the production and abode of bees ; for some of them have been opened with a machado (axe), for the purpose, as I was told, of procuring honey. Examining them, I found the inside hollow and very black ; the walls were from six inches to a foot thick, and full of innumerable passages communicating with each other, but with the external air only at the base, which is a little contracted and thus sheltered from rain. The upper part frequently appears patched, as though an addition had been made to the cells, or a breach repaired. Whether the bees drive out the ants, or only take possession of a deserted hive, I know not ; but I found they were of a small brown species, such as I had never noticed below. Within the hollow they de posit their round balls of wax and honey, and are deprived of it by travellers." Notes, &c., pp. 404-5. Henderson enumerates, among the various species of the Brazilian bee, " the cupimcira, so denominated because it occupies the houses deserted by the cupim (ant)." f A collection of 1600 different species of butterflies was made in Brazil some years ago. 1 323 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. and clark-coloured, poisonous, or harmless serpents, which exceed in splendour the ena mel of the flowers, glide out of the leaves, the hollows of the trees, and holes in the ground, and, creepin- up the stems, bask in the sun, and lie in wait for insects and birds. From this moment all is life and activity. Squirrels and troops of gregarious monkeys issue inquisitively from the interior of the woods to the plantations, and leap, whistling and chatterinn- from tree to tree. Gallinaceous jacues,* hoccoes,f and pigeons, leave the branches" and wander about on the moist ground in the woods. Other birds of the most singular forms, and of the most superb plumage, flutter singly or in companies through the fragrant bushes. The green, blue, or red parrots, assembled on the tops of the trees, or flying towards the plantations and islands, fill the air with their screams. The toucan, sitting on the extreme branches, rattles with his large hollow bill, and in loud plaintive tonescalls for rain. The busy orioles creep out of their long:, pendent, bag-shaped nests to visit the orange-trees, and their sentinels announce, with a loud screaming cry, the approach of man. The fly-catchers, sitting aloof, watching for insects, dart from the trees and shrubs, and with rapid flight catch the hovering Menelaus, or the shining flies, as they buzz by. Meantime, the amorous thrushj (turdus Orpheus), concealed in the thicker, pours forth her joy in a strain of beautiful melody; the chattering rnanakins, calliiig from the close bushes, sometimes here, sometimes there, in the full tones of the nightingale, amuse themselves in misleading the hunters ; and the woodpecker makes the distant forests resound while he pecks the bark from the trees. Above all these strange voices, the metallic tones of the uraponga (or guiraponga) sound from the tops of the highest trees, resembling the strokes of the hammer on the anvil, which appearing nearer or more remote according to the position of the songster, fill the wanderer with astonish ment. While thus every living creature by its actions and voice greets the splendour of the day, the delicate humming-birds, rivalling in beauty and lustre diamonds, emeralds, and sapphires, hover round the brightest flowers. * The jacu is the size of a large capon, black, with the figure of a turkey-hen. The jacu-tinga and jacu-penba are varieties of the same genus. f Probably the soco is meant, described by Henderson as about the size of a large capon, with out a tail ; there are several species, a white, an ash-coloured, and other varieties. ^ Alluding, apparently, to this bird, the author says in another place : " We first observed in these woods the notes of a greyish-brown bird, probably a thrush, which frequents the bushes and grounds in damp, low woods, and sings with numerous repetitions through the musical scale from H 1 to A 2 (of the German scale) so regularly, that not a single note is wanting. It commonly sings each note four or five times over, and then proceeds imperceptibly to the following quarter- tone. It is usual to deny to the songsters of the American forests all melody and expression, and to allow them no pre-eminence but splendour of plumage. But if, in general, the pretty natives of the torrid zone are more distinguished by the beauty of their colours, than by fulness and power of note, and seem inferior to our nightingale in clearness and melodiousness of tone, yet, this little bird, among others, is a proof that they are, at least, not destitute of the principles of melody." Vol. i. p. 287. Mr. Henderson, in his list of Brazilian birds, has the sabia, " a kind of thrush, and the greatest singer in the Brazil : its song does not differ from the blackbird." Prince Maximilian notices the same bird. " The red-bellied thrush, here called sabiah, sat pouring forth its melancholy though pleasing song on the tops of the bushes." (Travels, p. 53). Mr. Luccock has a remarkable auec- >te of this bird. " The incident, an affecting one, led him, he says, to doubt whether the song of birds is always an indication of pleasurable feeling. He had shot a " sabiar," whose note he de scribes as very full and melodious. " Though badly wounded, it struck up a song, and continued it to almost its latest moments." Notes, Sfc , p. 307. "The Colibri, or humming-bird, known in Brazil only by the name of Beija Flor (kiss the 2r), is the smallest bird existing. Their varieties have been stated at six or seven, but there e a great many more. Padre Cazal has seen ten different kinds. A European would never have Med that a bird so small as the end of one s finger, could exist, furnished as it is with a bill, t-rs, wings, and intestines, similar to the larger kind ; and he would be naturally disposed to it as but a creature of imagination, until he visited its native country, and daily beheld it g take a butterfly at every flower, and humming a gentle chirrup. It has long wings com pared with the size of the body. The largest, of the size of a very small wren, are of an indigo a white spot upon the back. The second species differs from the first only in being r, and not having a spot , both have a long tail much forked. The third kind and size are Kike their nests in inhabited houses, in the form of a little pocket, suspended from the DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1329 " When the sun goes down, most of the animals retire to rest: only the slender deer the shy peccari, the timid agouti, and the tapir, still graze around ; the nasua and the opossum, and the cunning animals of the feline race, steal through the obscurity of the wood, watching for prey ; till at last, the howling monkeys, the sloth with a cry as of one in distress, the croaking frogs, and the chirping grasshoppers with their monotonous note, conclude the day. The cries of the macuc, the capueira, and the goat-sucker (caprimulgus), and the bass tones of the bull- frogs, announce the approach of night. Millions of luminous beetles now begin to fly about \\keignesfatui, and the blood sucking bats hover like phantoms in the profound darkness of the night."* In Brazil, man has much less to fear from wild beasts than from reptiles, the species of which are almost innumerable, and the greater part are said to be veno mous. This, together with the plague of mosquitoes and other winged enemies, must be admitted to form some drawback on the beauty and luxurious tempe rature of the climate.f As the ground, however, becomes cleared, and the marshy point of a straw. The fourth variety are entirely green. The fifth are the same colour and size, with a white spot upon the breast. The sixth differs from the preceding only in having a very short tail. The seventh is of the same colour and size, with the tail yellow. The eighth is the colour of the nightingale, the breast finely speckled with white. The ninth is of a brilliant green, with the wings and tail dark, the beak short, slender, and yellow : all the others have it long, pointed, very delicate and straight, with the exception of the gray ones and those of the nightin gale colour, who have it a little curved. The tenth kind is dark, or almost black, with a short tail of the colour of fire, the bill black and of medium length : when turned towards the spectator, the throat and breast exhibit at one instant various colours, according to the movements of the bird ; at one time that of Aurora when most bright, or like gold melted in the crucible, followed on a sudden, sometimes by a suffusion of green, at other times by blue, or by white, without ever losing its inimitable brilliancy. The head, which is black, appears ornamented with a little crest of the same colour, when the bird has its side towards the observer : when it presents the front it appears studded with sparkling rubies, or all of a brilliant scarlet, which insensibly changes to refulgent yellow. They generally have the tongue very long, the legs exceedingly short, and the eyes black. Their principal aliment is the juice of honey of flowers, which they extract, not as the bee, but in the same manner as the butterfly. Some of them have the tongue cleft." Hendersons history of Brazil. Appendix, pp. 509, 510. * Von Spix, vol. i. pp. 239 49. f " The finest orange-groves frequently fall a prey to the brown ants, which gnaw off the bark, or to the mole crickets, which devour the roots. The young mandioca and sugar plantations are often invaded, stripped of their leaves, and laid waste by similar enemies in incredible numbers or deprived of their roots by the wasps which live under ground. But even when the crop has happily reached maturity, the owner must share it with many foreign guests. Swarms of monkeys, flocks of parrots and other birds, attack the plantations; the paca, agouti, and other kinds of wild swine, eat up the leaves, stalks, and fruits ; and myriads of tenthedroes injure the crop. The planter himself, particularly if he has just arrived from Europe, and is unaccustomed to this climate, has many hard trials to undergo from tormenting animals. If he does not keep his dwelling closed, particularly in the morning, evening, and at night, there are swarms of large and small mosquitoes which torment him with their stings, even through the thickest clothes ; and only gauze or silk can secure him against these enemies. The earth-flies (pulex penetrans) which are concealed in numbers in the sand, penetrate under the nails of the hands and feet, and by pro ducing a blister filled with little eggs, cause the most painful sensations, which, if the sympathetic swelling of the inguinal glands is neglected, are often followed by mortification. The blister, as soon as it gives pain, must be carefully removed, and snuff rubbed into the wound. Besides these, the inhabitant has often other enemies in his house. The white-bellied ant (cupim, termes fatale), a great number of blattae, and other vermin, continually oblige him, by their destructive fury, to make new arrangements. The former cause the most terrible devastation wherever they pass in their course, for, metals excepted, they gnaw through every thing ; and in a few days, the beams of the house are rotten ; the linen, books, and all the household furniture are destroyed. The blatta commits great destruction among the vegetables in particular, and, in the night, even attacks the tips of the fingers. Without are numberless enemies. Not to mention the savage ounce, the poisonous serpents, lizards, scorpions, centipedes, and spiders, which, fortunately, are not frequently met with, and wound a person only when provoked ; the mite (acarus), called carabatos, is one of the most formidable plagues. These little animals, from the size of a poppy- seed to that of a linseed, live in societies, and crowded by hundreds in the grass and on dry leaves, VOL. I. 8 G 1330 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Jands are drained, most of the reptiles and insects are gradually expelled or diminished. The primeval forests are giving way, but not by any means so rapidly and effectually as in Anglo- America, before the axe and the flames ; and their various tenants retreat to regions more remote from the invasion of man. The luxuriant power of vegetation in the fertile soil of Brazil produces the greatest variety of plants. When the trunk of a tree has a decayed hole or a crevice in if, arum, caladium, dracontium, and other productions of that kind, throw out large tufts of juicy, heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, dark-green leaves, which add to and embellish the forests. In some places, where the forests have been burnt down to clear the ground for cultivation, the immense scorched trunks appear like the ruins of colonnades, still in parts joined together by the withered stalks of their parasites. Some times, the climbing plants so interlace and surround the larger trees, that it is impossible for the eye to penetrate the " verdant wall." Many of them are decked with the most brilliant flowers ; one kind of bromelia, with a deep coral- red flower, has its leaves tipped with violet : the heliconia, a kind of banana, has a dark-red calyx and white flowers. The bauhinia with its strong "woody branches growing in alternate arcs of circles, and the concavity of each hol lowed, with a short blunt thorn on the convex side, climbs to the tops of the highest trees. Many of these creeping plants shoot downwards their long branches, which, taking root, impede the progress of the traveller. "In general,- says the Prince Maximilian, "vegetation is so luxuriant in these climates, that every old tree we saw, presented a botanical garden of plants :ten difficult to come at, and certainly for the most part unknown." Even the rocks- remarks the same traveller, "are here covered with lichens i cryptogamous plants of a thousand various kinds; particularly the finest ns, which ,n part hang like feathered ribbons in the most picturesque manner from the trees. A deep red horizontal fungus adorns the dry trunks; -e a fine carmine-coloured lichen (on the properties of which, as a dyeing :er, some experiments have been made in England), covers the bark of the onger trees with its round knobs. 5 * Ir.Luccock describes the various tints of a Brazilian forest as extending very quickly penetrate through his clothes to hich is increased by the iuevSeruW A ^^ parts and cause an intolerable itching, Travel*, vol. ?. pp 258-60 g m ihe d P roduces an inflamed blister."- Von - r ui .urnis th p n V1 g rous stnving at development, even so rich and fer- g gantic trees are in a constant s^tfT^ nounshwe ^ in sufficient abundance. Hence, the st.ll more than the trees in our for A! 1 % theirown preservation, and impede each other s growth reqn.rmg a large supply of nutrinWt fp iS? 8 - te ? 8 Whidl have 8 rown to a considerable height, suddenly arrested in\Veir lrow tn TV ^ ^ lnfl " e " Ce f their more P^erful neighbours, are short t,me subject to a rapil3in?on W T* ^ re( l uisite J l ^es, and thus become in a of some months duration, eatS^vhv 1 t ** See ^ e noblest trees after spring an atrophy [0 the ^ m t, till, to the terror oTfh^soh a ^ 1 ^ lnSeCtS Seized with deca ? f rom the root rcmendous crash."- Von ^/^, voL i! p 243^ ntS f the fore ^ they fall down with a * Maximilian s Travels, p. 43. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1331 from a light-yellow green, to one bordering on blue, and these are mingled again with red, brown, and a gradation of deeper shades almost to black. The <c silver tree" is of a brilliant white; the head of the mangoa is brown. The Brazil-wood puts forth large flowers of a purple hue ; " and I have seen/ he says, " the vast mountain of Tengua clothed in yellow, from the multitude of its laburnums." The effect of the flowering parasitical plants he compares to " gay parterres in the air." The same traveller witnessed, in 1816, on a comparatively diminutive scale, one of those magnificent conflagrations which not unfrequently take place in the forests, occasioned sometimes by lightning, sometimes by the carelessness of travellers. "Fire," he says, "had seized upon an adjoining forest, and devoured about half a league square of it. Being to windward, and not incommoded by the smoke, I approached as n*ear as the heat would allow me, or the embers suffer a well-broken horse to advance. It is not in my power, however, to communicate more than a very faint idea of the sublime picture. I was in the midst of several hundred stems, as large as the middle-sized British oak, all black and smoking, from whose smouldering remnants continually fell half-consumed branches, and smaller pieces of charred wood, which, broken and breaking others in their fall, formed a shower of sparks, rendered vivid by their passage through the air. The ground was covered with these charred arms, with embers, and with ashes, whence arose small spiracles of grey smoke, as if escaping through crevices from an immense furnace, hidden and burning beneath. At some little distance in front, the fire raged in all its fury. From the burning underwood, the flames rushed upwards in large sheets, which expired in the air, or seizing the dried leaves of those monarchs of the forest which had defied all former storms, instantly set the whole head in a blaze ; and the crackling twigs formed a harsh counter to the surf-like roar of the flame below. While the fire spread itself, eating the forest all around, and became more active by every breeze, the remaining stumps in its immediate rear stood like piles of living coal, and seemed to writhe as under the influence of a liquid poison, creeping through their veins. The wintry appearance of those naked branches which preserved their station, and of the ground thickly strewed with ruins and black ashes, while flames surrounded me, and the heat of the atmosphere was almost intolerably oppressive, formed a contrast which cannot be described, an incongruous scene of desolation, which no art can represent."* How this conflagration commenced no one thought it worth while to inquire : it seemed to pass almost unnoticed, as it had not endangered any farm or plantation. In the year 1796, a conflagration broke out on the summit of the Tengua, which lasted for nine months, and was mistaken by some persons for a volcanic eruption. It was at length quenched by the rains. The spot, M. Luccock says, is still marked by the diminutive size of the trees, and the colour of the foliage. In proportion as any tract is cleared of wood, the birds of prey become less nu merous, while the smaller kinds increase and multiply. In one instance, this traveller noticed great numbers of small birds " like the linnet and canary ,"f where the land had been partially brought under cultivation. The marshy mea- * Luccock s Notes, &c., pp. 357, 8. f The canario has the form, and almost the same colour, but not the song, of the native of the Canary Islands : it is the first among the small birds that announces the dawn of day. The car- dial (cardinal) resembles the linnet, but is a little larger. It derives its name from a small crim son cap, or hood, which covers part of the neck : its song is loud and pleasant. 1332 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. dows abound with the liawk-heron, the American lapwing, and plovers and water-fowl in abundance.* The shining violet oriole, and the razor-billed black bird are the common inhabitants of the fields and hedges. The luxuriance and richness of the vegetable world in South America is ascribed by Humboldt to the great moisture which everywhere prevails, and which gives it an advantage over all other hot countries, forming a more happy and fertile contrast to those parts of Africa which lie within the same parallels of latitude. In many respects the climate, the soil, the varied surface, and the rich vegetation, seem to resemble more some parts of Asia Minor. But in that exuberance of evergreen foliage which forms the peculiar characteristic of the New Continent in the number of its richly-wooded mountains, the sources of countless springs in the abundance of large streams, in the character even of its sandless deserts and indomitable forests the tropical regions of Brazil are almost pre-eminent to those of any other region. The Amazonian forests, or those which stretch inland from the banks and tributaries of the Amazon, are especially remarkable for luxuriance of growth and the majestic grandeur of the trees. Many of the trees often grow to a great height, and remarkably straight upwards. Some of them are decked from the roots upwards with splendid flowers and parasites, and the trunks and boughs are frequently interlaced with innumerable runners or creeping vines. On the borders of the Amazon the sylvan vegetation grows up and spreads forth in the greatest luxuriance. The vines, creepers, and parasites, twist around the trees up to their tops, then grow down to the ground, and then, taking root, run up again, spirally along the boughs, extending from the branches of one tree to those of another, interlace the whole forest. This interweaving of vines and parasites, is often impenetrable to birds or beasts. The stems of the vines are as thick as a man s arm ; they are round, square, sometimes triangular, or even pentangular. The vines or parasites often grow in various forms of knots, screws, angles, or circles, and as tough as the most elastic fibrous substance. They constitute at times, as it were, a vegetable boa-constrictor, and twine, and press round, until they finally smother, and kill, the tree which so long supported them; and they occasionally remain erect, like a spiral column, after the trunk has mouldered away. This vegetable kingdom may be considered the peculiar country of monkeys. Prince Maximilian, speaking of his crossing over the Sierra of Una, where ick gigantic forests grow on the acclivity, observes, that they are full of s the Cfgonha or stork " s mi]r V t r " Tt^ , r P arattlse - Mr. Henderson enu- of a mSn," whicl i also liveT fi 1 ,K E fope ;" the gar ca or heron ; the tuyuyu, "the Plicate and beautiful bhd " ticking of tLe^omlt^"" *** *" r Se - Coloured *" a DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1333 monkeys, parrots, and other Brazilian animals and birds. In particular, a small red-and-gold-coloured monkey (simia rosalid) was seen here, called the red sahui, or marikina, which is not found further north. " Good Brazilian hunters," he remarks, " possess a wonderful talent for exploring these forests : their bodies being inured to fatigue, and the custom of always going barefoot, give them a great superiority in this employment. Their dress consists of a light shirt and cotton drawers. They often have a cloth jacket hanging over their shoulders, which they put on when it rains, or in the cool nights. The head is covered with a felt or straw hat. A leather belt, passing over the shoulder, holds the powder-horn and shot-bag-, while the lock of the long fowling-piece is generally secured by the skin of some animal." The interior of Brazil has been traversed by many scientific travellers. Among whom, Prince Maximilian s land journey from Rio de Janeiro to Bahia, through the interior and central parts ; Von Spix, Martius, Von Langsdorff, Eschwege, Rodrigues, Martius, St. Hilaire, and Natterrer are among the most distinguished.* The following are condensed sketches of the various sceneries and productions over which these enterprising men travelled. Von Spix speaks of the transition from the dark, low forests to the free, open tracts, as producing a striking change of feeling ; and as a contrast to the fore going picture of a Brazilian forest. " On these serene and tranquil heights, the noisy inhabitants of the wood are mute : we no longer hear the howling of herds of monkeys, the incessant screams of innumerable parrots, orioles, and toucans, the far-sounding hammering of the woodpeckers, the metallic notes of the uraponga, the full tones of manakins, the cry of the hoccoes, jacues, &c. The more numerous are the humming-birds, * St. Hilaire, the author of the " Plantes Usuelles" became fully acquainted with the Bra zilian character, and for a long time identified himself with the inhabitants of the sertoens. Mr. Natterrer, a German naturalist, spent seven years in traversing the interior. The scientific mission to Brazil, sent out by the King of Bavaria, was directed and executed by Doctors von Spix and Martius. They travelled from Rio de Janeiro through San Paulo, Minas Geraes, and Goyaz, to Maranham ; thence by sea to Para, they ascended the Amazon as far as Tabatinga, which is near Tavari, the western limit of the Brazilian territory. They made numerous lateral excursions on the rivers Negro, Japury, and other streams, and descended the Amazon to Para, whence they returned to Europe. They have presented to the world valuable works, the result of their observations. The scientific commissioners appointed by the Emperor of Russia to explore Brazil, was on a larger scale ; but far less fortunate. The Baron von Langsdorff, who had long resided at Rio Janeiro in a diplomatic capacity, was placed at its head, and directed its plans with great energy. This Russian expedition proceeded from Rio de Janeiro through San Paulo and Matto Grosso. It arrived at the sources of the Madera, when the party divided, and pursued different routes, in order to explore as wide an extent of country as possible before reaching their fixed destination, the city of Para. The toils and hardships of the journey brought on sickness, and several died. One very unwise regulation of the expedition, prohibited any member of the expedition to publish his journal or notes until after those of the director, if living, had been edited. The Baron von Langsdorff returned to Europe in a state of insanity, caused by sickness and exposure in the wild regions over which he had travelled. In that state, we are informed, he survives ; and we have, whether from this or from any political cause, no account of the Russian travels and observations in Brazil. M. Riedel, one of his coadjutors, who returned to Rio de Janeiro, and remained there, is considered better acquainted with the botany of Brazil than any other person. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. buzzing like bees round the flowering shrubs; gay butterflies fluttering over the rippling streams ; numerous wasps flying in and out of their long nests hanging suspended to the trees ; and large hornets (morimbondos) hovering over the ground, which is undermined to a great extent with their cells. The red-capped and hooded fly-catcher, the barbudos (the barbet), little sparrow-hawks, the rusty- red or spotted cabore (Brazilian owl), bask on the shrubs during the heat of noon, and watch, concealed among the branches, for the small birds and insects which fly by ; the tinamus walks slowly among the pine-apple plants, enapupes and immbus in the grass ; single toucans, seeking berries, hop among the branches ; the purple tanagers follow each other in amorous pursuit from tree to tree ; the caracara (falco brasiliensis), flying about the roads quite tame, to settle upon the backs of the mules or oxen ; small woodpeckers silently creep up the trees, and look in the bark for insects ; the rusty thrush, called Jodo de Barros, fearlessly fixes its oven-shaped nest quite low between the branches ; the siskin-like creeper slips imperceptibly from its nest (which, like that of the pigeons, is built of twigs, and hangs down from the branches to the length of several feet), to add a new division to it for this year: the cdoha, sitting still on the tops of the trees, looks down after the serpents basking on the roads, which, even though poisonous, consti tute its food ; and sometimes, when it sees people approaching, it sets up a cry of distress, resembling a human voice. It is very rarely that the tranquillity of the place is interrupted, when garrulous orioles and little parrots and parroquets. coming in flocks from the maize and cotton plantations in the neighbouring wood, alight upon the single trees on the campos, and with terrible cries appear still to contend for the booty; or bands of restless hooded cuckoos, crowded to gether upon the branches, defend, with a noisy croaking, their common nest, which is full of green- speckled eggs. Alarmed by this noise, or by passing tra vellers, numerous families of little pigeons (rolas), often no bigger than a sparrow, fly from bush to bush ; the larger pigeons (amarzoga and troquase}, seeking singly among the bushes for food, hasten alarmed to the summits of the neighbouring wood, where their brilliant plumage shines in the sun ; numerous flocks of little monkeys run whistling and hissing to the recesses of the forest; the cavies, running about on the tops of the mountains, hastily secrete themselves under loose stones ; the American ostriches (emus), which herd in families, gallop at the slightest noise, like horses through the bushes, and over hills and valleys, accompanied by their young ; the dicholopus (siriemas), which pursues serpents, flies, sometimes sinking into the grass, sometimes rising into the trees, or rapidly climbing the summits of the hills, where it sends forth its loud, deceitful cry, resembling that of the bustard; the terrified armadillo (tatu), runs fearfully about to look for a hiding-place, or, when the danger presses, sinks into its armour; the ant-eater (tamandiia), runs heavily through the plain, and, in case of need, lying on its back, threatens its pursuers with its sharp claws. Far from DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1335 all noise, the slender deer, the black tapir, or the pecari, feed on the skirts of the forest. Elevated above all this, the red-headed vulture (urubu) soars in the higher regions; the dangerous rattle-snake (cascaoel), hidden in the grasses, excites terror by its rattle ; the gigantic snake sports suspended from the tree with its head upon the ground : and the crocodile, resembling the trunk of a tree, basks in the sun on the banks of the pools. After all this has passed, during the day, before the eyes of the traveller, the approach of night, with the chirping of grasshoppers, the monotonous cry of the goat-sucker (Jodo corta pao), the bark ing of the prowling wolf and of the shy fox, or the roaring of the ounces, com pletes the singular picture of the animal kingdom in these peaceful plains."* The foregoing constitutes a remarkably descriptive picture of scenery, and its natural inhabitants. In travelling from San Paulo to Villa Rica, there is a gradual change in the general appearance of the country, after passing the boundary which divides the waters flowing south to the Rio Grande, from those which run northwards, and fall into the Rio de San Francisco. " While the Rio Grande, with the thundering noise of its fall, here takes leave of its native mountains, to flow to the lower countries towards the west, it at the same time prepares the wanderer for grander scenes of nature, which await him as he advances further to the north. The mountains become more lofty and more steep, the valleys deeper; massive rocks, on the summits or in the vale, more frequently interrupt the verdant slopes and plains ; the streams flow with a more rapid course. Sometimes the traveller finds himself on elevated spots which command a sublime prospect of manifold insulated mountain tops and profound valleys ; sometimes, he is enclosed be tween steep and threatening walls of rock. All objects assume more and more the features of a romantic Alpine country/* In a north-easterly direction along the ridge of hills connecting the Sierra de Capivary with the Sierra de Viruna, the country is described by Dr. Von Spix as poetically rural, but lonely and desolate. Extensive forests are still seen extend ing along the declivities and valleys. Near the Morro de Bom Fim, the last of these high mountains, the traveller crosses the Rio das Mortes, winding through a broad, swampy valley, and bearing its dark waters to the Rio Grande, which it joins about seventy miles west of San Joao d el Rey. It was in this valley that two parties of Paulistas, quarrelling about gold, engaged in a sanguinary con test, from which the river has derived its name. Of the natural edible products, there are various and delicious fruits, as oranges, mangoes, grapes, &c. The cocoa tree is one of the most generally useful trees in Brazil. Mr. Kidder says, " The cocoa is truly the staple vegetable, and although many of the uses to which it may be applied are unknown or unpractised here, yet it literally * Von Spix. 1336 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. furnishes the* people with meat, drink, fuel, houses, and commerce. Besides the sale of the raw nut, the pulp is converted into oil, the shell into dippers, and the fibrous husk into cordage ; while, all know the value of its water as a beverage. At the same time the leaf furnishes materials for the construction of an entire habitation. It is wrought into baskets, it makes fences, and when dried may be used for writing, while its ashes yield potash. The terminal bud is a delicate article of food; the juice of the flower and stem contains sugar, and may be fermented into wine, or distilled into spirits ; and, finally, the case of the trunk or stem is converted into drums, or used in the construction of buildings, while the lower extremity is so hard as to take a beautiful polish, after which it resembles agate." Those who mount the trees to pluck the fruit, carry a /once, or sharp bill hook, with a short handle, to cut the stems. It is twisted into the girdle, and the bearer, if expert, places simply his hands and feet against the side of the tree and walks up, if not with the agility of a monkey, certainly with incom parable self-co-mposure. The cashew tree, or cajueiro, is abundant on several parts of the coast and islands. Southey calls it the finest of the American trees. " How beautiful/ he says, " it is to behold in its pomp, either when it is re-clothing itself, in July and August, with the brightest verdure of its leaves, or when, during our northern autumn, it is covered with white and rosy-tinged blossoms ; or, finally, in the three following months, when it is enriched with its ruby and golden fruits, which hang amid its leaves like pendent jewels ! Its leaves have an aromatic odour, its flowers are exquisitely fragrant, its shade deep and delightful. A gum exudes from its trunk nothing inferior to that of Senegal, and in such abundance as to have the appearance of rain-drops upon the tree. This gum was used by the Indians as a medicine, being pounded and dissolved in water. This admirable tree is not common in the interior, but towards the coast whole tracts of country, which would else be barren, are covered with it; and the more sandy the soil, and the drier the season, the more it seems to flourish. The possession of a spot where it grew abundantly, used to be of such importance as often to cause war among the natives. The fruit somewhat resembles a pear in shape, but is longer. It is spongy and full of a delicious juice ; in any form it is excellent, whether in its natural state or preserved. What a blessing would this tree be to the deserts of Arabia and Africa." On some of the fazendas are cultivated, promiscuously, sugar-cane, mandioca, cotton, rice, and coffee. Around the farm-house, which is the centre, are usually situated out-houses for negroes, store-houses for the staple vegetables, and fix tures for reducing them to a marketable form. The engenho de cachassa is an establishment where the juices of the sugar cane is expressed for distillation. On most of the sugar estates there are distil- DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1337 1 cries, which make the molasses that is separated from the sugar into the rum, called by the Portuguese cachassa. The apparatus for grinding the cane is gene rally rude and clumsy. The Jatropha manihot L., or mandioca, being the principal farinaceous produc tion of Brazil, is deserving of particular notice. Its subsistence combines deadly poison with highly nutritious food. It is indigenous to Brazil, and was known to the Indians long before the discovery of the country. Southey remarks, "If Ceres deserved a place in the mythology of Greece, far more might the deification of that person have been expected who instructed his fellows in the use of mandioc." r hefarinha de maitdioca, or mandioc flour, was prepared by the slaves, scrap ing it into a fine pulp with oyster shells, or with an instrument made of small sharp stones set in a piece of bark, so as to form a kind of rasp. The pulp was then rubbed or ground with a stone, the juice carefully expressed, or finally evaporated by heat. The work of thus preparing it was considered pernicious to health, and the slaves employed mixed, as a corrective, the flow.ers of the nhambi and the root of the anrmto in their food. The natives prepare it as above, and in various other ways. The Portuguese invented mills for preparing the mandioc flour. They gene rally pressed it in cellars, and places where it was least likely to occasion acci dental injury. It has been asserted that a white insect was generated by the juice; so venomous, that the native women sometimes poisoned their husbands, "and slaves their masters, by mixing it in their food. A poultice of man dioc, with its own juice, was considered a cure for imposthumes. Mr. Kidder says it was administered for worms, and was applied to old wounds to eat away the diseased flesh. For some poisons, also, and for the bite of cer tain snakes, it was esteemed a sovereign antidote. The simple juice was used for cleaning iron. The poisonous quality is confined to the root; for the leaves of the plant are eaten, and even the juice might be made innocent by boiling, and be fermented into vinegar, or inspissated till it became sweet enough to serve for syrup. The root, after being removed from the soil, cannot be preserved from corrup- tion for three days ; the slightest moisture ruins the flour. The native mode of cultivating mandioca was by cutting down the trees, letting them lie till they were dry enough to burn, and after the burning of the wood, then planting the mandioca between the stumps. They ate it as flour, and the mandioc supplied them also with a spirituous drink. They prepared the liquid by slicing the roots, which were then boiled until well softened. The young women then chewed and threw them into a vessel, which was filled with water; the* liquid and pulp were then boiled, and after wards poured into large earthen jars, half buried in the floor of the dwelling. VOL. I. 8 H 2338 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA- The jars were closely stopped, and in two or three days fermentation com menced. When the banquetting day arrived, the women kindled fires around the jars, the liquid when heated, was served round in gourds : the men dancing and singing as they received and emptied, at one draught, the contents of a gourd. They ate nothing at these orgies, but continued drinking until all the liquor in one house was exhausted, and then resorted to the next, till they had drank all the liquid in the village. These orgies were held about once a month. De Lery says he witnessed one which lasted three days and three nights. Mandioca is difficult of cultivation, and requires from twelve to eighteen months to ripen. As its roots have a great tendency to spread, it is planted in large hills, to counteract its spreading, and to render the soil more dry and congenial to its growth. The roots, when dug up, are of a fibrous texture. The best process of preparation is first to boil them, then to separate the rind, and then to rasp the roots on a circular grater turned by water-power or other power. The raspings should then be put into sacks, and then placed, several together, under a screw-press to squeeze out the poisonous liquid. The dry mass is then pounded fine in mortars, and transferred to ovens, or concave plates, heated under neath. The flour is then rapidly stirred about until quite dry. The farinha, when well made, is white and granular. It is eaten at all Brazilian tables, and formed into a great variety of nutritious dishes. The residuum deposited by the juice of mandioca, after standing a short time, is dried, and then constitutes tapioca. The well-known colouring matter, annato, is a product of the tree known to* botanists as the bua orellana. This tree is of moderate size, with red and white flowers. Its colouring matter was used by the aboriginals to paint their persons. Annato is the oily pulp of the seed, rubbed off and then left to ferment. It is afterwards rolled into cakes, weighing from two to three pounds, to be exported. Cacao is a common production of Para and other parts. It is made from the seeds of the t/ieobroma cacao. The fruit called the Brazil-nut is only produced in the northern parts of the empire. It grows in great abundance spontaneously in the forests of the Amazon. The Portuguese call it Castanha do Maranham." It grows upon the lofty branches of a majestic tree, the bertholletia excelsa. The first attempts to cultivate Chinese tea, was about 1819, when the Count of Linhares, prime minister of Portugal, brought from the interior of China, several hundred immigrants who were acquainted with the whole pro cess of growing and preparing the tea- plant. These colonists became discontented, and have nearly disappeared. From cause, whether from the soil or climate of Brazil, or to imperfect pre- .1011 of the tea-leaf, when grown, the Chinese plant did not yield good tea. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1389 The tea-plant is now grown chiefly as a pretty shrub ; and seeds or cuttings are gratuitously given at the imperial botanical garden to those who apply for them. The Paulistas and others have since attempted the cultivation of the tea-plant, and have succeeded to some extent. We have had several samples of their growth, but none equalled good Chinese tea. The cost of production is said to be greater than the price at which better tea can be imported from Canton. The growers are, however, sanguine in the belief that, ultimately, they can produce the tea, in price and in quality, so as to compete with China in foreign markets. Coritiba, on the route to Rio Grande do Sul, is an aboriginal name, signifying many pines, and indicating the prevalence of the pine tree throughout the whole region. The fruit trees of Europe also flourish there in great perfection. Coritiba , is the principal town within the extensive district to which it gives name, and which is said to abound in mines of gold and diamonds. The district has also many estates appropriated to the rearing of cattle, horses and mules, and the cultivation of the products of the earth. It is, however, more renowned for an other product, the tea-herb of Paraguay, or Matte, the cassine gongonhx (Martius), or the herb of Paraguay. This, when pulverised, is called matte, and is much used in the Spanish republics of South America. Raw hide cases of it are exposed for sale in nearly every town of Brazil. The infusion is prepared in a bowl. A small quantity of the leaf, mixed with sugar, is suffered to stand a short time in cold water ; boiling water being added, it is immediately ready for use. As the particles of leaf swim in the tea, it is sipped through a tube, with a fine globular strainer at the end, immersed in the decoction. The natives, who abour all day, are said to be immediately refreshed by this tea. In Chile, Peru, &c., it is a constant beverage. It grows spontaneously in the districts of Coritiba and Parangua. The natural growth of the soil of Brazil, it will be observed, is ex ceedingly varied. The agricultural products will be found further noticed in the brief descriptive sketches of the respective provinces of the empire, and those which are most important in commerce will appear stated in the Tables of Exports. Wild Animals Live Stock. European animals have succeeded. There are great herds of cattle and horses in the countries south of 25 deg. latitude, where they wander about nearly in a wild state. In other parts they are reared, but are less abundant ; on the plains mules and asses are preferred to horses. Pigs are abundant only in some parts of the plains. Sheep are not numerous, and their wool is of inferior quality. The wild animals common to South America are found in Brazil, with the exception of llamas and guanacoes, and of the puma and spectacled bear. Among the rapacious animals are the hyena, tiger- cat, the ferocious saratu, the jaguar, a very fierce beast, ounces, and wild hogs. The tapir is large, timid, and feeds like a horse, but is amphibious, and will HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. remain a long time at the bottom of rivers. The flesh is said to resemble that of the ox. The wild animals killed for food are the tapir, three species of porcu pine, five species of deer, several species of monkeys,, the Brazilian hare, five species of armadillo, alpacas, the agoutis, and the wild boar. There are several kinds of wild bees. Birds. The feathered tribes of Brazil are of the most richly varied colours. Emus, or Brazilian ostriches are numerous on the table-land, as well as nearly all the other birds of South America, especially toucans, vultures, tanagras, parrots, the Balearic crane, humming-birds, and several species of pigeons. J? ts fi t Whales appear along the coast as far north as 12 deg. south latitude, and the Physeler macrorephaias (Linn.) is found south of 30 deg. south latitude. The whale fishery is carried on at different points of the shore, by the inhabi tants, and on the Brazil bank by the Americans. The garopa is met with north of 15 deg. south latitude, and great quantities are annually caught and exported. Several kinds of fish are caught in the Amazon, and dried for exportation. The huge manati is still common in that river, and in some of its tributaries : several species of turtle are also found in the Amazon, and the mantega or fat substance extracted from the eggs of the turtle, is an important article of commerce. The boa constrictor, or great cobras, said to be sometimes thirty feet long and as thick as a man s body, will gorge a deer, and, it is even said, an ox. The corral snake, the janacara, &c., are among the other reptiles, which are numerous. Musquitoes, and various insects, are, in the low districts, very annoying. The vacca marina, (Peixe boi), or fish ox or manati, never leaves the water, and it feeds principally upon a water plant (cana brava) that grows or floats on the borders of the rivers. It raises its head above the water to respire, as well as to feed upon this plant. It has two small fins situated near its head. The udders of the female are under the fins. The manati is considered the largest fish or animal inhabiting fresh-water, being sometimes seventeen feet long and two or three feet thick above the middle; its eyes are very small, and the opening of its ears are scarcely perceptible. Its skin is thick, and so hard as to be nearly proof against a musket ball. The Indians made shields of it in war. Its fat and flesh were always considered delicious by the natives. They smoked or dried it in place of beef. The turtle egg butter of the Amazon (manteiga da tartamga) is a substance peculiar to Central and South America. At certain seasons of the year the turtles appear by thousands on the banks of the rivers, in order to deposit their eggs upon the sand. The noise of their shells striking against each other while rushing inwards, is said to be sometimes heard at a great distance. Their next march begins at dusk, and ends with the break of morn, when they return to the water. They continue nestling in this manner until each turtle has deposited from sixty to one hundred and thirty or forty eggs. During the day-time the inhabitants collect These eggs, and lay them up in DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1341 heaps. These piles are often twenty feet in diameter, and of a corresponding height. While fresh they are thrown into wooden canoes, or other large vessels, and broken with sticks, and pressed by treading with the feet. Water is then poured on, and the vessels are exposed open to the sun. The heat brings the oily matter to the surface, when it is skimmed off with cuyas and shells. The oil is then exposed to a moderate heat until ready for use. When purified it has the appearance of melted butter. It retains a fishy taste, but the natives are ac customed to its use, and like it as well as Europeans do butter. It is carried to market in earthen jars. In former times it was estimated that nearly 250,000,000 of turtles eggs were annually used in making mantega. The Brazilian emu, or ostrich, is remarkable for strength and swiftness. Mr. Luccock and his party started an emu, and putting their horses to their utmost speed, they gave it chase. "The bird," he says, " quickly left us far behind, then closed its wings and stalked on in careless security. Though the neighbouring sands are the natural haunt of these birds, they were now numerous on the plains, having been driven hither, I suppose, by dry weather; we had in consequence several chases of the same kind, all of them equally fruitless. On turning the corner of a wood we suddenly came within thirty yards of an emu, followed by about sixty young ones, which were, probably, several collected broods. She marched off with a stately step, carrying her head in a sort of semicircle, and looking at us first with one eye then with the other. We again followed at full gallop ; but, as the pursuit con tinued the distance sensibly increased. The young birds clustered together* fluttered much, and advanced with evident haste; the pace of the old one was dignified and steady; she showed no marks of weakness, fear, or stupidity; on the contrary, while concerned for the safety of her charge, she seemed desirous to save them from unnecessary fatigue. " I kept one of these birds for some time within a spacious stockado, until it became familiar and occasionally impertinent; and he allowed me to stride over his back, and could just support my weight. Mounted by a boy of twelve years of age, he could run, and was easily guided by turning his head to the direction in which the rider wished him to proceed." Cattle Grounds. North of the Gonzales, there extends towards the north, between the Passo dos Negros and the Lagoa dos Patos, a broad patch of swampy land, "the accumulated sediment of ages." In these fens are several large farm ing establishments ; that of Pellotas, which stands about six or seven miles above the mouth of the river of that name, is said to occupy ten square leagues, a mode rate extent for a grazing farm in Rio Grande. Towards the west the country assumes a different aspect. An extensive tract, famous for its fine cattle, is com prehended under the name CharqueadoSj derived from the " charqued" beef which is prepared in this district for exportation. |342 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Mr. Luccock says, " that in one year an individual, Joze Antonio dos Anjos slaughtered 54,000 head of cattle, and charqued the flesh. The piles of bones which lay in his premises far surpassed my utmost conceptions ; and there were thousands of iirubues, the vulture of South America, flying round and feeding on the offal. During the slaughtering season it is not uncommon for large packs of do^s to make their appearance and assist the vultures in picking the bones ; and it is said that the ounce will do the same." In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the province of Rio Grande do Sul was covered with cattle, notwithstanding the devastation made among the herds by the Indians and the ounce. The conquerors of the province then com menced a system of wanton destruction, directed principally against the calves. One of which seldom sufficed for the dinner of two persons. If one wished for a tongue, rather than divide it, they would slaughter another calf; some would kill an animal in the morning in order to breakfast off broiled kidneys, and not to be incommoded by carrying home any part of the meat, would kill another for dinner. At length the Spanish and the Portuguese governors interfered; and an edict was passed by the governor of Monte Video, about the year 1650, pro hibiting the slaughter of calves and of all oxen under five years old. This partly checked the destruction; but in some parts, owing to the warfare carried on near the banks of the Plata, the charqued beef has at times been very scarce. In the beginning of the present century, there were in Rio Grande, 539 pro prietors of land, consisting offazendeiros, farmers, and lavradores, husbandmen. The latter, who bred only what was necessary for their own consumption, pos sessed generally about two square leagues of land : the former farmed from eight to ten leagues ; and some of these fazendas states were reported to extend to a hundred square leagues, or nearly 600,000 acres. To each three square leagues are allotted 4000 or 5000 head of cattle, six men and a hundred horses.* This proportion of horses is large; but they cost nothing in keeping, and are turned out on the plains ; on these estates no one, not even a slave, travels any distance on foot. About a hundred cows were allowed for the supply of milk, butter, cheese, and veal, to a fazenda of average size. Hogs are usually little taken care of; they root up the earth, devour reptiles, and subsist, also, on the waste parts of slaughtered cattle. The sheep are few and ill-made, with short, ordinary wool. The wool is used partly on the skins, as saddle covers, &c., or stuffing mattresses, Sec. "The breed of sheep," Mr. Henderson considered, " would, if attended to, much exceed that of cattle, in consequence of their generally producing two at a nil* !n-M l T lUl f i thrC i 1 r g " CS> k is com P uted Mr. Henderson says, that 1000 young cattle, offrom tliii ! SoT ded r marked annua "y ? thG n " mber Sent ? r killed > *? b? DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1343 birth; they, however, are not numerous, few farmers possessing 1000 head, and the major part not any/ The fazendeiros breed also droves of horses and mules. From the Rio Ypanema, grassy campos extend southward with little interrup tion to Coritiba, and into the capitania of Rio Grande, in the whole of which extensive tract the same system of farming is still followed, that is described by Dr. Von Spix as follows : " Every landholder possesses, according to the extent of his farm, from several hundred to 2000, nay, even 40,000 head of cattle. They generally reckon from 3000 to 4000 head on an estate which has two square miles of good pasture. All these roam at liberty in a wild state ; but, every farmer keeps besides, as many tame draught oxen and cows as he requires for the purposes of agriculture, and for milk, which is partly made into cheese. The attendance on the wild cattle gives but very little trouble ; all that is required is, to brand them with the mark of the owner, and to catch the animals intended to be slaughtered. From four to six servants, under the direction of a chief cowherd, perform all these services ; they prevent the herds from straying beyond the boundaries, and defend them from the attacks of the ounces, wolves, and wild dogs. These people are almost always on horseback, as their office compels them to ride twenty miles or more in a day. Every year, the whole herd is collected at different times in a place in a high situation, and sometimes fenced in. On this occasion, the mark of the owner is branded on the hind quarter of the beasts one year old, of which they reckon 1000 annually for a herd of 5000 or 6000. Those of four years old and more are selected for slaughter. The catching of these, frequently a troublesome and dangerous employment, is executed here, as in the pampas of Buenos Ayres, by means of long leathern nooses, lassoes, which the farmers servants manage with considerable dexterity.* The tame cattle are kept in the vicinity of the fazenda, run free in the meadows during the day, and are only shut up in the enclosures during the night. The flesh of the tame cattle is preferred to that of the wild, because, from their undisturbed and more quiet way of life, they grow fat sooner, and with less fodder. The pasture being so good, their milk is excellent ; but a cow gives only a third part of the quantity that good milch cows give in Europe. The hide is always the most valuable part of the cattle : it is stripped off, stretched upon the ground by means of short pegs, a little salted, and dried in the sun. The flesh, cut into thin strips, rubbed with * Mr. Mawe, describing this process as practised by the peons of Monte Video, says, " The by means of balls attached to leather thongs, is similar, but more unerring." Travels in Bra zil, p. 29. 1344 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. salt, and dried in the air, is an important article of exportation from the harbours of San Paulo and Rio Grande do Sul, to the cities in the north ; particularly to Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, and Maranham, where, under the names of Carne secu do Sertdo, Passoca, or Came charqueda, it constitutes an essential part of the subsistence of all the Brazilians, but especially of the negro slaves. " Besides the breeding of oxen, that of horses and mules likewise occupies several farmers in the capitania of San Paulo, but is carried on upon a far more extensive scale in Rio Grande do Sul. The horses of San Paulo are of a middling size, of slender make, and, if they are attended with care, acquire an elegant carriage, and become excellent racers. In general, twenty or thirty of those wild animals herd together, and hardly ever separate. The animals, when taken (by means of the long nooses), sometimes trembling with fear, sometimes full of impetuous fury, endeavour, by the strongest contortions and the most desperate leaps, to defend themselves against the riders. When the latter have succeeded in holding an animal fast by the ears and lips with a pair of tongs, in putting a halter over his head, and a sheep-skin by way of saddle on his back, one of the servants mounts him, and endeavours to overcome the obstinacy of the horse by means of the whip. After many violent motions and leaps, it is at length so far subdued, that it runs furiously away with its rider, and after a long course, it in some degree yields to the bridle. After being thus humbled, it stands still with its head hanging down, on which all the others separate from it. The next day, the same exercise is repeated ; and in a few days more, the horse is broken and fit for riding. The common Paulistas, and particularly the pidos (the herdsman s servants), make use of a very small flat, wooden saddle, which is often not even covered with leather. Their stirrups are so small that they will only admit the great toe : the spurs are fastened to the naked heel. The dress of the pido consists of a short jacket, narrow trousers, and a flat round hat, fastened with a strap, altogether of brown leather, made ef deer or capivara hides, and is very well adapted to protect him against the thorny hedges through which he must force his way, when pursuing wild animals. The wild horses are most frequently of a brown colour, very rarely white or piebald, and by their disproportionably short, thick heads and small stature, illy betray their extra- European breed. The mules are here more hand somely made animals than the horses: they are commonly equal in size to the European horse: their colours are black, brown, fallow, or striped like a zebra. Ih e preferable to the horses, especially on long journeys, because they can ^ i linger and thirst, and carry with greater security heavier The Guachos of Buenos Ayres arc not more expert on horseback, and in the lasso, than are these men, whose occupation, from childhood, is the >f the herds of cattle, which roam their vast campinas or prairies. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 134.5 It has been estimated that, in the province of Rio Grande do Sul, not mention ing parts of Santa Catharina and San Paulo, which are devoted to the same pur poses, about 400,000 cattle have been slaughtered annually, for their hides and flesh, while as many more are driven northward for home consumption. Most of the carne secca, or jerked beef, in common use throughout Brazil, is prepared here. Stacks of this meat, like cords of wood, are piled up in the provision houses of Rio de Janeiro. The Brazilians in preparing pork, skin off all the fat taking the lean meat for immediate use, and throwing the bones away. The fat part is rolled up and pressed into a basket, with a little salt sprinkled over and around it, it is then called toucinho, and carried great distances to market. CHAPTER IV. MINERALS OF BRAZIL, THE mineralogy of Brazil, can only as yet have been very imperfectly ex plored. Gold and precious stones have been the temptations, seized upon with the most rapacious avidity, though not always with success. The gold mines of Jarugua, in San Paulo, were the first discovered in Brazil. They are distant a few leagues from the city of San Paulo, which owes its origin to the mineral districts. They were so productive in the beginning of the seven teenth century, as to impart to the district the name of the Brazilian Peru. They were afterwards abandoned, but worked in about the year 1807, and Mr. Kidder says, they now (1844), cease to be regularly wrought, and have given place to the gold of Minas Geraes. Gold occurs on both sides of the Sierra dos Vertentes, and is found in almost all the rivers which extend from that range. There are also gold mines in the vicinity of Villa Rica, and at Congo Soco, near the Villa de Sabara, in Minas Geraes. Little silver has been found, but there are traces of copper, tin, and quicksilver. Iron is abundant, and it has lately been smelted. Diamonds occur in the deposits of several rivers, but it is not lawful to collect them, except on account of the government in the authorised diamond districts, epecially that which lies east of the Rio San Francisco, under 8 deg. south latitude, those of the Rio Pardo Mandonga, and that of the river Jequitinhonha, an affluent of the Rio del Belmonte, which traverses the district. The great diamond found in the River Abaete, is considered the largest known, and weighed 138 carats. Topazes VOL. I. 8 i HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. are found in several places. Salt is abundant, and the grounds much resorted to by the cattle and wild animals. There is a salt region on both sides of the Rio de San Francisco, which has an average width of from eighty to 100 miles; and an other at the western extremity of the Sierra dos Vertentes, in the Sierra de Agua- pehy. In both salt is prepared in large quantities. In 17 18, the gold mines of Matto Grosso were discovered, and in 1836, a route was opened into those of Goyas. In 1746, a route was opened between Cuyaba, in Matto Grosso and Para by the tributaries of the Amazon, which rendered it less necessary to ascend by the broken, rocky navigation of the Tiete. The earth washed for gold, Dr. Von Spix describes as " a ferruginous sand stone conglomerate ;" which agrees with Mr. Mawe s account. " The soil, 5 he says, "is red and remarkably ferruginous. The gold lies, for the most part in a stratum of rounded pebbles and gravel, called cascalh&o, incumbent on the solid rock. In the valleys, where there is water, occur frequent excavations, made by the gold-washers, some of them fifty or 100 feet wide, and eighteen or twenty feet deep. On many of the hills where water can be collected for washing, particles of gold are found in the soil, scarcely deeper than the roots of the grass." The mode of obtaining the gold, Mr. Mawe thus describes. " Where water of sufficiently high level can be commanded, the ground is cut in steps, each twenty or thirty feet wide, two or three broad, and about one deep. Near the bottom, a trench is cut to the depth of two or three feet. On each step stand six or eight negroes, who, as the water flows gently from above, keep the earth con tinually in motion with shovels, until the whole is reduced to a liquid mud, and washed below. The particles of gold contained in this earth descend to the trench, where, by reason of their specific gravity, they quickly precipitate. Work men are continually employed at the trench to remove the stones, and clear away the surface, which operation is much assisted by the current of water which falls into it. After five days washing, the precipitation in the trench is carried to some convenient stream to undergo a second clearance. For this purpose wooden bowls are provided, of a funnel shape, about two feet at the mouth, and five or six inches deep, called gameUas. Each workman, standing in the stream, takes into his bowl five or six pounds of the sediment, which generally consists of heavy matter, such as granular oxide of iron, pyrites, ferruginous quartz, and often more precious stones. They admit certain quantities of water into the bowls, which they move about so dexterously, that the precious metal, separating from the inferior and lighter substances, settles to the bottom and sides of the vessel. They then rinse their bowls in a larger vessel of clean water, leaving the gold in that, and begin again. " The washing of each bowlful occupies from five to eight or nine minutes. The gold produced is extremely variable in quality, and in the size of its particles. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1347 The operation is superintended by overseers, the result being important. When the whole is finished, the gold is placed upon a brass pan, over a slow fire, to be dried, and at a convenient time is taken to the permutation office, where it is weighed, and a fifth reserved for the government. The remainder is smelted with muriate of mercury, then cast into ingots, assayed, and stamped according to its intrinsic value." Bars of uncoined gold were formerly common in the circulating medium of Brazil. But at present specie of all kinds, except copper, is scarce, and seldom met with, except at exchange offices. The gold mines of Villa Rica, in Minas Geraes, are in a sort of schistous clay, resting on granite, gniess, or sandstone, laminated or solid the gold being scattered in small particles amid the superjacent schist and clay. The town of Villa Rica is situated at the junction of several streams, whose waters have only one outlet, by a narrow chasm cut by their force through the surface down to the more firm component parts.* The extent of a small plain above the town, supposed to have been once a lake, is from thirty to forty acres, and it is connected, by narrow passes, with others of a like size. The mountains surrounding this supposed ancient lake, rise from 700 to 1000 feet above its level ; and on the declivity of the most northerly of them the town is built. In the sides of all of them much gold is supposed still to exist, notwith standing the quantity which has been washed down or gathered from them. Mr. Mawe says, " Wherever a natural stream trickles down, its bottom is fre quently and carefully searched ; particularly where the current has met with any check, for there the precious metal is commonly detained. In parts where nature has provided no water, pits are dug and flanked with strong walls, or stockades, through which a stream is turned from a distance. The surplus, running over the edge of the embankment, is generally received into a second pit below ; some times into a third. At proper seasons, the pits are cleared of the water, the sediment is taken out, and treated as before mentioned. Numerous drifts also have been run horizontally into the softer parts of the mountain, until they entirely * M. de Humboldt, in his " Geognostical Essay on the Superposition of Rocks," has the fol lowing remarks on the quartz-rock formation : " On the table-land of Minas Geraes, near to Villa Rica (according to the excellent observations of M. d Eschwege), a micaslate, containing beds of granular limestone, is covered by primitive clay-slate. On this latter rock reposes, in conformable stratification, the chloritous quartz which constitutes the mass of the Peak of Itaco- lumi, 1000 toises above the level of the sea. This formation of quartz contains alternating beds; 1. of auriferous quartz, white, greenish, .or striped, mixed with talc-chlorite ; 2. chlorite slate ; 3. auriferous qnartz mixed with tourmaline ; 4. specular iron mixed with auriferous quartz. The beds of chloritous quartz are sometimes 1000 feet thick. The whole of this formation is covered with a ferruginous breccia, extremely auriferous. M. d Eschwege thinks, that it is to the destruc tion of the beds we have just named, and which are geognostically connected, that the soil which is worked by means of washing should be attributed, containing gold, platina, palladium, and dia monds (Corrego das Lagens), gold and diamonds (Tejuco), and platina and diamonds (Rio Abaete). The decomposed chlorite-slate, from which the topaz is procured, belongs to this forma tion." See " Humboldt on the Superposition of Rocks," London, 1823. pp. 11718. J348 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. perforate the coating of schist or clay, and reach its solid core, while the water oozing through the mass above, is received into basins, together with the metal which it may convey." Dr. Von Spix was conducted by M. Von Eschwege, the director-general of the mines of Brazil, to the eastern declivity of the Morro of Villa Rica, which has yielded the greatest abundance of gold. " From the southern hill of the mountain/ he says, " we passed through several gardens ornamented with fuchsia, near to the Hospicio de Jerusalem, and by the side of a deep trench to a naked ravine irregularly rent, and full of masses of rock which had fallen down, presenting a picture of wild desolation. How great was our astonishment, when our friend signified to us that this was the rich gold mine of Villa Rica ! Sieves and raw ox-hides were placed at certain distances, in trenches full of water, con ducted from the summit ; the first sieve to stop the coarser sand, and the latter to catch the gold dust in the hair, which stands erect.* Here and there we also saw detached trenches, in which the auriferous mud or sand collects. As soon as the rainy season commences, these simple preparations are put in motion. The former possessors always had their mine worked by several hundred slaves, and derived immense profit from it. At present, however, it seems to be much im poverished, so that but few gold-washers are employed in it, and the work is mostly left to free negroes for a daily payment of a patacca. This manner of ob taining gold from a public mine is called, miner ar a talha aberta." Von Spix. When this place was first discovered by the gold-hunters, it is said, that they had nothing more to do, than to pull up the tufts of grass or small plants on the side of the hill, and shake the precious dust from the roots. Mr. Luccock says, "The steep slope of the mountain is covered with a coarse kind of grass or rushes in small clumps or bunches; hence, when rain falls heavily, little rills pass round and between the roots, and whatever of a ponderous nature they hurry down wards, must be detained wherever their rapidity is checked. This happens at every tuft of rushes which stands directly in the little water-course ; and hence these roots, I presume, have become rich in metal, and they had at that time been undisturbed for ages. Hence, those who pulled the grass would find the gold, and those who plucked a second crop, must as naturally be disappointed. As these streamlets descended the hill, collecting a greater quantity of water, they acquired more force, and formed for themselves, by tearing away the soil, a course with an irregular bottom, having hollows in the softer parts, which would exist in the form of basins, and the descending metal would be retained in them ; hence the formation of these little caldeiraos which often suddenly enriched an adventurer. A great quantity of the precious metal has doubtless passed on * Sometimes woollen cloths are used ; and the first English blankets sold bv Mr. Luccock at Rio, were employed in this wav. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1349 without impediment, and been collected in the lake below, or buried amid the wreck with which it has been filled, and must there remain until better methods of mining are adopted." The colour of the gold found here, varies from the most beautiful gold-yellow, to a reddish copper-colour, a bright yellow, and even a grey yellow. There is a kind called ouro branco (white gold), which Mr. Luccock, however, supposes to be platina; ouro preto (black gold), which appears in the form of a dark-coloured dust ; and what is called ouro inficionado (poisoned gold), which, though pure, is often pale or copper-coloured. The iron foundry of Ypanema is situated in a beautiful valley at the foot of the wooded mountain of Guarassajava, which contains vast masses of magnetic iron ore. The foundary belongs to government. There are six or eight buildings for smelting and casting iron, besides a large house in which the director resides, and several smaller dwellings occupied by the workmen and their families, among whom are several Germans. " The works stand near a small stream of water at a considerable distance from the locality of the mineral. At a great labour the ore is transported in its rough state from the mountain upon the backs of mules. The mineral is said to yield ninety per cent of pure metal, which, although of a fine quality, is asserted to be too brittle for economical use. Greenstone, which is found near, is thrown into the furnace in fragments, and renders the iron more ductile. The principal castings are wheels, cylinders, &c., for the sugar engenhos of the vicinity. This is the only iron foundry in the empire. In 1810, the Portuguese govern ment, then directed by the Count de Lin hares, prime minister of Portugal, di rected the working the iron of Ypanema, and where he sent for a company of Swedish miners to conduct the business. Little was accomplished until the Conde da Palma, who succeeded him, authorised more extensive works to be constructed. Subsequently, during the war of the revolution, little further was done. Dom Pedro I. did not restore the business ; but under the regency of Feijo the old works were rescued from ruin, and they were enlarged with the design of entirely supplying Brazil with native iron. Major Bloem, at present the director, was sent to Europe to examine the manufacturing of iron in England. Where and on the continent, he visited sixty of the principal establishments, and returned with drawings and plans for the execution of his designs. He also engaged a large number of German artizans and labourers to carry on the works. On his return, before he had fairly commenced putting his plans into operation, the government funds were not forthcoming. The administration was changed, and the new ministers seemed jealous of the success of a measure originated under their predecessors. The German labourers, like Swiss soldiers, became discon- HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. tented, from being badly paid, and one after another absconded. Major Bloem however, at last succeeded so far, that in about two months about 8000 dollars worth of iron was produced. This iron foundry may, however, be considered a failure, and in a ministerial report for 1843, it was suggested, " whether, after thirty-four years of experiment, this whole establishment had not better be abandoned, at least until it could cease to prove a bill of expense to the imperial treasury." Lead Mines. These have been discovered at Cuyabara, west of Capao, and near Prula, a red lead ore, and a green chromate, has been here partially mined, and said to resemble those of Siberia. Topaz Mines. These are chiefly at Capao, or Chapoam. They are found in a quarry, where micaceous earth, ferruginous porcelain earth, and quartz seem to prevail, and out of which they are dug in a most obscure way by slaves, track ing for them. The greater portion of those dug up are said to be full of flaws.* A gold mine has been worked near the same place, the ore or dust being chiefly found in quartz. Gold dust is found in many other parts of Minas Geraes, Matto Grosso, &c. Diamond District. The chief places for digging for diamonds are at the river Mandonga, the Rio Pardo, &c. The working for diamonds was seized upon as a monopoly by government, under the Junta Real par a Administrate das Diamentes. When visited by Mr. Mawe, he says, " Yet, notwithstanding the idleness of the inhabitants, Tejuco may be called flourish ing, on account of the circulation of property created by the diamond works. The annual sum paid by government for the hire of negroes, salaries of officers, and various neces saries, such as nitre and iron, does not amount to less than 35,000/. ; and this, added to the demands of the inhabitants of the town and its vicinity, occasions a considerable trade. The shops are stocked with English cottons, baizes, and cloths, and other manu factured goods ; also hams, cheese, butter, porter, and other articles of consumption. Mules from Bahia and Rio de Janeiro come loaded with them." No idea was at first entertained, that the rivulets contained diamonds ; they were considered curious bright stones, until a few of them found their way to * Von Spix says, " The size of the stones is very various : the workmen affirmed that pieces have been found as large as a fist. The natural colour is manifold, sometimes greyish, some times bright yellow, and sometimes a mean between this and carnation of different shades, very rarely dark red. The stones which are found in the mala-cacheta are said to be the lightest. The ihabitants understand how to give to the topazes an artificial colour, particularly rose colour, by means of heat. The number of topazes annually found here is very considerable, but not always pure and fit for polishing ; a great part of tbem are of so imperfect a colour and so full of flaws hey are thrown away as useless. The greater part of these topazes is exported from this place to Rio de Janeiro^ a smaller portion to Bahia ; and in both places so great a quantity has >een accumulated within a few years, that the prices there are lower than at the mine itself. To- r with the topaz, the euklase is also found here, and has attracted the attention of the Nlmeiros, since mineralogists have inquired after it. This stone in general is scarce, and is more frequent in the mine of Capa than that of Lana." DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1 351 Lisbon, and were given as pebbles to the Dutch minister, to send to Holland ; where the lapidaries pronounced those pebbles to be fine diamonds. This was made known to the Dutch consul at Lisbon, who managed to contract for the precious stones. Government afterwards endeavoured to monopolise the dia monds, and made the district of Sierro do Frio its centre of operations. The number of diamonds sent to Portugal, during the first twenty years was said to exceed 1000 ounces in weight. Government was afterwards prevailed on to let the mines to a company, who were under certain stipulations to work with a limited number of negroes, or to pay a certain sum per day for every negro employed. This opened a door to fraud; yet the company continued in possession of the diamond mines until about the year 1772, when government retook possession of them. From this time, the establishment was always in debt to foreigners, who had advanced money on the security of having all the diamonds which the mines produced. During a period of five years, from 1801 to 1806 inclusive, the expenses were 204,000/. ; and the diamonds sent to the treasury at Rio de Janeiro, weighed 115,675 carats. The produce of the gold mines in the same period realised 17,300/. These years were esteemed singularly productive : for the mines have not in general yielded more than 20,000 carats annually. Ex tensive smuggling is, however, carried on in diamonds.* Brazil comprises probably one of, if not, the richest regions of precious metals and gems in the world; but we are not prepared to conclude, that the emperor or the people will be rendered either powerful or prosperous from these mineral resources ; no more than Peru or Mexico have been from their resources of gold and silver. The province of Minas Geraesf has, no doubt, become settled and opened in consequence. In 1825, the Anglo- Brazilian Mining Company purchased the mines of Congo Soco for 70,000/. That company has certainly carried great enterprise to, and enriched, the district by an enormous expenditure. Mr. Kidder says, in 1844, its speculations were conducted with profit; but this we have heard denied. The operations of the company extend towards other districts, and the head-quarters were fixed in the town of San Jose, on the bank of the Rio das Montes ; a place going to decay, until the establishment of the English company. One-fifth of the minerals exported by this company is exacted as a royalty by the government. As the greatest horror is expressed, in all polite companies in Tejuco, at the very mention of found that diamonds were bartered for every thing, and were actually much more current than specie. Even pious indulgences were bought with them ; and surely, no one could have suspected that the seller of his holiness s bulls would condescend to taste the forbidden fruits of Tejuco." f See brief description of Minas Geraes, Mina Novas, Goyaz, and Matto Grosso. 1352 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. CHAPTER V. POPULATION OF BRAZIL SOCIAL CONDITION EDUCATION RELIGION GOVERNMENT. THE population of Brazil is divided into free and slave inhabitants. First. The free inhabitants consist of, 1. Europeans; 2. White persons born in Brazil, who call themselves Brazilians; 3. Mulattoes, or the mixed caste between whites and blacks; 4. Mamalucoes, the mixed caste between whites and aborigines; 5. Aborigines in a domesticated state, generally called Cabocloes; 6. Indians in a savage state ; 7. Free negroes born in Brazil ; 8. Manumitted Africans; 9. Mestizoes, or zamboes, or between the mixed caste, aborigines and negroes. Second. The unfortunate slave population consists of Africans, Creole negroes, mulattoes, and mestizoes. In Brazil there is little political division of castes; this has induced intermarriage with the natives. According to the old code, people of colour were not eligible to some offices of government, nor could they become members of the priesthood ; but the mixed castes have gra dually advanced, and the regulations against them have become almost obsolete.* Marriages between white men and women of colour are not rare, and scarcely observed, unless the woman is of very dark colour, f The mamalucoes reside mostly in the interior, they have more independence of character than the *"A mulatto enters into holy orders," says Mr. Koster, "or is appointed a magistrate, his papers stating him to be a white man, but his appearance plainly denoting the contrary. In con versing on one occasion with a man of colour, who was in my service, I asked him if a certain capitam-mor was not a mulatto?" He answered, " He was, but is not now." I begged him to explain, when he added, " Can a capitam-mor be a mulatto ?" f Of the ciganoes, or the gipsies of Brazil, Mr. Koster says, " I frequently heard of these people, but never had an apportunity of seeing any of them. Parties of ciganoes were in the habit of appearing formerly once every year at the village of Pasmado and other places in that part of the country ; but the late governor of the province was inimical to them, and attempts having been made to aprehend some of them, their visits were discontinued. They are represented as being a people of a brownish cast, with features which resemble those of white persons, and as being tall and handsome. They wander from place to place in parties of men, women, and children, ex changing, buying, and selling horses and gold and silver trinkets. The women travel on horse back, sitting between the panniers of the loaded horses, and the young ones are placed within ic panniers among the baggage. The men are excellent horsemen, and although the packhorses nay be overburdened, these fellows will only accommodate matters by riding slowly upon their own horses, and never think of dividing the loads more equally ; but they preserve themselves and the animals upon which they ride, quite unincumbered. They are said to be unmindful of all religious observances, and never to hear mass or confess their sins. It is likewise said, that they never marry out of their own nation." DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1353 mulatto. They are much handsomer than the mulattoes, and the mamaluco women are considered superior in beauty to all others. The Creole negroes, in the northern districts, are brave and hardy, and willing to please the whites ; but easily affronted, and the slightest allusion to their colour enrages them. They will sometimes reply: " A negro I am, but always upright." They have their own regiments, as well as the mulattoes, of which every officer and soldier of the former is perfectly black. The uniform is white cloth, turned up with scarlet. On gala days, the superior black officers, in their white uniforms, pay their respects to the government exactly in the same mariner as officers of any other caste. Negroes have been excluded from the priesthood, and from the civil offices to which the mulatto is eligible. Slaves. The laws respecting slaves are considered by most travellers humane, and their treatment not severe. Aboriginal slavery has been legally abolished ; mulattoes and all those of colour are slaves whose mothers are slaves of African origin ; for no shade of the colour or blood of the whites entitles the child, whose mother is a slave, to freedom. Mr. Koster saw several persons, to all appearance of white origin, held in slavery. The Brazilian slave is taught the religion of his master. The numerous holidays of the Ca tholic calendar afford the slave thirty-five free days in the year, besides Sundays, to work for himself; and few masters venture to deprive their slaves of these periods. The slave can by law, compel his master to manumit him on tendering the sum for which he was purchased, or for which he might be sold. Slaves are also often manumitted at the death of their masters, and persons of large property fre quently set a few of them at liberty. A great number of infant slaves are also often declared free at their baptism, either by the sponsors, or in cases where the father is free : the master is obliged to manumit the infant at the baptismal font, on the price of a new-born child, about 5/., being presented to him. Still slavery, with all its mitigation, is liable to horrible cruelty, and it is a bitter condition in any country. The slaves whose condition is the most degraded and miserable, are those employed in the mines, especially the diamond mines. The Aboriginal Inhabitants consist of numerous tribes, many of whom are still asserted to be cannibals. We consider, however, that the latter charge is very much, if not altogether, an exaggeration. The Tapuyas, or Taperivas, were the most noted of the Brazilian tribes in the northern districts, and had extended themselves for a considerable way along the coast. The Topinambas had their chief settlements in Bahia. The Molopagues and Motayes had established them selves on the river Paraiba. The Botocudoes, or Aymares, were found in iVlinas Geraes and Porto Seguro : the Tamoyos, in Rio Janeiro ; the Coroardoes s in Minas Geraes ; the Guaycurues, in Matto Grosso ; and the Puries, in Espiritu Santo. (For further remarks on the aborigines, see Sketch of the Provinces.) VOL. I. 8 K 1354 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. In many parts the old Portuguese costume, often very gaudy, continues to be worn ; but modern European fashions have been adopted in most of the towns According to the last and best accounts which we possess, and as arranged by Mr. Kidder in his recent work on Brazil, and from the return of the consnl at Pernambucco, in 1844, the population of the several provinces was divided as follows : viz., ESTIMATED Population of the Empire of Brazil in 1844. PROVINCES. Free In habitants. Slave Po pulation. Whole Po pulation. PROVINCES. Free In habitants. Slave Po pulation. Whole Po pulation. Rio Grandodo Sul number. 53 707 number. 12 "ill number. 100,000 66 228 Brought forward.. number. number. im in her 2,763,205 120 000 326,902 120 000 Rio de Janeiro* 196,926 239 557 436,483 180,000 Pernambuco* Parahiba... 600,020 100 000 7(50,000 Rio Grande do Norte.... 40 000 Annas der 97 592 Ceara " " 180 000 40000 Piauhy 60 000 Watt > r y t o * " 46,000 Maranham* 105 119 1 1 1 905 217 024 Bahia 650 000 Para* 250 000 Carried forward.... .. 1 .. 2,763,205 Total .. .. 4,450,249 * Official statements. It is not considered by the consul that the slave population is included in the estimate for ernaoibucco : and probably not fully in the other estimates which are left blank. Nobility. There are in Brazil eighty-eight titles of nobility, to wit : twenty marquises; twenty-nine viscounts; seven counts ; and thirty-two barons. Titles of nobility are not hereditary. Sometimes the emperor concedes to a son the title of his father, when his services rendered to the country are considered of sufficient importance to merit such a favour. Mr. Kidder dwells upon the want of an adequate population in Brazil, which is apparent, from the above statement. His remarks with respect to Irish emi gration to that country are striking. He observes " That one would naturally suppose that the Catholic Irish would prefer emigrating to a Catholic country, rather than to a land settled by Protestant pilgrims. Facts do not corroborate this supposition, but on the contrary, they indicate that the Catholic emigrant finds more toleration among Protestants, than he can even in a country professing his own faith. Various schemes, both private and public, have been set on foot to encourage emigration to Brazil, but they will all prove abortive until the principles of perfect tolera tion prevail in the country. I am aware that the constitution nominally tolerates all religions, and that very liberal feelings are cherished by enlightened and \vell-educated Brazilians generally. Nevertheless, the lower classes of the people, particularly the Portuguese and their immediate descendants, have a great amount of national prejudice and inherent bigotry to conquer before the position of foreign settlers amon- them would be at all pleasant. < Again, there seems to have been a preference hitherto given to the plan of settling ers in distinct communities, and not of encouraging them to intermingle with the That this plan is defective is manifest, from the circumstance that few or ot these co omes have prospered. Besides, nothing is more evidently lacking in all Brazil than a sufficient number of practical, industrious mechanics. An acces- , . - lon to this class of inhabitants from almost any nation, would greatly elevate the condi- nternal improvements, and advance the common interests of the country. The day ,s infinitely to be desired when Brazil shall be able to dispense with special exemp- ns,and what is worse, lotteries, as means of promoting the common arts of life." Education. The instruction of youth has been lamentably neglected in Brazil, DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1355 Lately the French system has been introduced, in all its grades, from the primary schools to the law universities. Mr. Kidder observes " That a great degree of improvement upon the former stale of things is already manifest, but at the same time the work of educational reform has only commenced. The government has adopted a liberal policy on this subject, but unhappily its measures are not in all respects the most judicious. To instance a single point, the schools are supported by direct annual appropriations from the funds of the several provinces, save those which fall under the supervision of the general government; to wit, the law univer sities and the schools of the capital. Hence there is a liability to fluctuation in the amounts appropriated. While at the same time, the people being constrained to bear the burden in the shape of an involuntary tax, have none of their sympathies enlisted in favour of the schools, and too often neglect to avail themselves of their advantages when established. In no instance is there a public fund to meet the expenses of education. How easy it would be, even now, to appropriate lands for this object, which, as they become settled and increased in value, would form a perpetual and ever enlarging source of income, sacredly devoted to the single purpose of education. " It cannot be out of place 10 suggest to the Brazilians the very efficient system now in successful operation in the United States, as one well adapted to their circumstances, and capable of being made to promote their interests, beyond the possibility of calcula tion. In all the provinces it is complained that there is a great lack of competent teachers. This deficiency has every prospect of continuing until more liberal salaries are paid for their service?, even though the normal schools should be more successful than they have hitherto been. Those young men who become qualified for the important task of instruction, will turn their attention to more lucrative employments. " Another serious obstacle to the progress of education in Brazil, is the almost uni versal deficiency of suitable school books. Throughout some portions of the interior, children are taught to read from manuscripts. Printed matter is very rare, and generally very indifferent. A newspaper or a book that finds its way to the school, virtually becomes public property, and is passed from hand to hand as an acquisition from which all, by the common laws of humanity, are entitled to expect some benefit. " In addition to what has already been mentioned, it is to be feared that education in Brazil meets with the most serious embarrassments in the spirit and habits of large por tions of the people. They have not been trained up to appreciate the importance of mental cultivation. Their tastes have been formed after the model of other times. Their highest ambition of intellectual enjoyment is associated with the dull excitements of the festas. What is more degrading still, they are many of them under spiritual sub jection to men who are jealous of improvement, and who resist efforts in its behalf as dreadful innovations." A priest residing in one of the largest cities of the empire, exercising his func tions beneath the walls of one of the universities, was heard to say, u Nao goslo de livros; goslo mais de jogar." " I have no relish for books ; I like gaming better." A Brazilian statesman has said in the imperial legislature "As it respects the civilisation of the Brazilian people, properly speaking, almost nothing, unfortunately, has been done. A narrow strip on the coast is that which alone enjoys the benefits of civilisation, while in the interior our people are still to a great de gree enveloped in the greatest barbarism. We have been unable to do any thing, and nothing can be accomplished without the aid of a moral and intelligent clergy." The cause of education in Brazil is not however altogether hopeless ; there are schools, and the press is at work. Mr, Kidder observes " The history of Brazilian literature is brief; yet under the circumstances in which it has sprung up, that literature must be considered creditable. Of all that has been written in the Portuguese language within the last hundred years, Brazil has produced 1356 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, her full proportion of what is meritorious. The names of Caldas and Magalhaens, in the department of poetry ; Moraes in philology; and the Andradas in science and phi losophy. Within the last few years there has been a decided and promising movement at the capital in behalf of literature and the diffusion of useful knowledge. Several in stitutions have sprung up which, it is hoped, will exert a salutary and an extensive in fluence. " It must, perhaps, be considered as a misfortune to Brazil in a literary point of view, that her language is the Portuguese. A prejudice against that language prevails extensively among foreign nations. Although that prejudice is in a great degree unjust, yet it will not soon be overcome. Hitherto the meaerness of Portuguese literature, if it has not originated the sentiment alluded to, has at least strengthened it." Brazilians are, in general, a temperate people. Although the use of wine is common among them, wherever it can be procured and although cachassa, one of the worst species of alcoholic drinks, is almost as common as water yet public drunkenness is rarely witnessed, unless it be among foreign sailors who visit the ports. Religion. On few subjects do Brazilian writers, of all classies, express them selves with greater unanimity of opinion than respecting the state of religion in the country. People and ecclesiastics, officers of state, men of business, and politicians, all agree in representing the condition and prospects of religion as unsatisfactory. Monasticism is on the decline the number of secular priests is diminishing the churches are falling into ruin, and the spirit and principles of infidelity are already disseminated far and wide ! All this in a country peopled by the de scendants of the inquisitors, and in which, from the period of its discovery, Ro man Catholicism has held an undisputed predominance. Kidder. The following statements appear in the report of the minister of justice and ecclesiastical affairs, addressed to the imperial legislature of 1843 : " The state of retrogression into which our clergy are falling is notorious; The ne cessity of adopting measures to remedy such an evil is also evident. On the 9th of September, 1842, the government addressed inquiries 0:1 this subject to the bishops and capitular vicars. Although complete answers have not been received from all of them, yet the following particulars are certified. " The lack of priests who will dedicate themselves to the cure of souls, or who even themselves as candidates, is surprising. In the province of Paid there are parishes which, for twelve years and upwards, have had no pastor. The district of the River ntaming some fourteen settlements, has but one priest; while that of the liver feohmoens is in similar circumstances. In the three comarcas of Belem, the Upper i Lower Amazon, there are thirty-six vacant parishes. In Maranham twenty -five s have, at different times, been advertised as open for applications, without se curing the offer of a single candidate. The Bishop of San Paulo affirms the same thing respecting vacant churches in his is no uncommon experience elsewhere. In the diocese of Cuyaba, not a rrn is provided with a settled curate, and those priests who officiate as difference^ Chop s efforts to instruct and improve them with great in- In the bishopric of Rio de Janeiro, most of the churches are supplied with pastors, a great number of them only temporarily. This diocese embraces four provinces g nine years past not more than five or six priests have been ordained per DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1357 " It may be observed, that the numerical ratio of those priests who die, or become incompetent through age and infirmity, is two to one of those who receive ordination. Even among those who are ordained, few devote themselves to the pastoral work. They either turn their attention to secular pursuits, as a means of securing greater con veniences, emoluments, and respect, or they look out for chaplaincies, and other situa tions, which offer equal or superior inducements, without subjecting them to the literary tests, the trouble and the expense necessary to secure an ecclesiastical benefice. "This is not the place to investigate the causes of such a state of things, but certain it is, that no persons of standing devote their sons to the priesthood. Most of those who seek the sacred office are indigent persons who, by their poverty, are often prevented from pursuing the requisite studies. Without doubt a principal reason why so few de vote then selves to ecclesiastical pursuits, is to be found in the small income allowed them. Moreover, the perquisites established as the remuneration of certain clerical ser vices, have resumed the voluntary character which they had in primitive times, and the priest who attempts to coerce his parishioners into the payment of them almost always renders himself odious, and gets little or nothing for his trouble." By a royal decree of 1752, all the tithes of the Portuguese ultra-marine pos sessions were secularised, being made payable to the state, while the state became responsible for the support of the clergy. The arrangement proved profitable and convenient to the crwon. The govern ment put the priests on short allowance, and fixed their salaries at fifty, eighty, and one hundred milreis sums which have been lessening ever since, by a de preciation of the currency. Efforts have been made in Brazil, since the era of independence, to raise the stipend of the clergy, and they have been nominally successful, although the present salary of two hundred milreis (about five pounds sterling) is scarcely more valuable than the sum of one hundred formerly was. That the scanty emoluments of the clergy have had the effect to lessen the number of incumbents, there can be no doubt; but that they have, on the whole, been productive of injury in any form, is not so evident, since, as the Archbishop of Bahia once remarked, " It is better to have no priests than to have those who are ignorant and immoral." Ignorance and superstition, no doubt, prevail very generally in most parts of Brazil. The religious belief is, nevertheless, Catholic, although an error has been entertained that the Sebastianists* are still a prevailing sect. This opinion is altogether untrue, although some of that mad sect still exist. * The Sebastianists are those who believe in the re-appearance of Dom Sebastian, King of Portugal, who made an expedition against the Moors in Africa, in which he was defeated, and though never heard of, was probably killed in that battle. The prime point of faith is, that he will yet come, and that, too, as each believer has it, in his own lifetime. The Portuguese looked for his appearance at Lisbon, but the Brazilians generally think that he will most likely first revisit his own city of Sebastian. An abominable villain, named Joao Antonio, fixed upon a remote part of the province of Pernambuco, near Pianco, in the Comarca de Flores, for the appearance of the said Dom Sebas tian. The place designated was a dense forest, near which were known to be two acroceraunian caverns. This spot the impostor said was an enchanted kingdom, which was about to be disen chanted, whereupon Dom Sebastian would immediately appear at the head of a great army, with glory, and with power to confer wealth and happiness upon all who should anticipate his coming by associating themselves with the said Joao Antonio. He found followers, who, after awhile, learned that the imaginary kingdom was to be disen chanted by having its soil sprinkled with the blood of one hundred innocent children! In default HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, CHAPTER VI. CONSTITUTION, GOVERNMENT, ARMY, AND NAVY. IN the year 1825, and on the llth of December, Dom Pedro swore to a con stitutional form of government, by this compact it was provided, that the empire of Brazil is " a political association of all Brazilian citizens : which make a free and independent nation, which admits of no link of union or federation which would oppose its independence:" further that, Its territory is divided into provinces, which can be subdivided according as the good of the state shall require it. Its government is monarchical, hereditary, constitutional, and representative. The reigning dynasty is declared to be that of Dom Pedro I., emperor and perpetual defender of Brazil. The Catholic, apostolic, and Roman religion is to continue to be the religion of the empire. Every other religion will be permitted, with the exercise of its domestic or particular faith, in houses for this purpose, but without any exterior form of the temple. The second section determines who are to be considered Brazilian citizens. It declares that foreigners may be naturalised as citizens of Brazil, without re ference to their religion. Section third determines the powers of the national representatives, and divides the j udicial powers into four sections, legislative, controlling, exe cutive, and federal. The emperor and the general assembly are declared the representatives of the nation. of a sufficient number of children, men and women were to be immolated, but in a few days they would all rise again, and become possessed of the riches of the world. The prophet lacked the courage necessary to carry out his bloody scheme, but delegated power to an accomplice, Joao Ferreira, who assumed the title of " His Holiness," put a wreath of rushes upon his head, and required the proselytes to kiss his toe, on pain of instant death. After other deeds too horrible to describe, he commenced the slaughter of human beings. Each parent was required to bring for ward one or two of his children to be offered. In vain did the babes shriek, and beg that they might not be murdered The unnatural parents would reply, " No, my child, there is no remedy," and forcibly offer them. In the course of two days he had thus slain twenty-one adults and twenty children, when a brother of the prophet, becoming jealous of ** His Holiness," thrust him through, and assumed his power. At this juncture some one ran away, and apprised the civil au thorities of the dreadful tragedy. Troops were called out, who hastened to the spot, but the infatuated Sebastianists had been taught not to fear any thing, but that should an attack be made upon them, it would be the signal for the restoration of the kingdom, the resurrection of their dead, and the destruction of their enemies. Wherefore on seeing the troops approach, they rushed upon them, uttering cries of de fiance, attacking those who had come to their rescue, and actually killing five, and wounding others, before they could be restrained. Nor did they submit until twenty-nine of their number, including three women, had actually been killed. Women, seeing their husbands dying at their feet, would not attempt to escape, but shouted, " The time is come," &c. DKSCIUPTIVK SKKTCHES -OF BRAZTL. 1359 The legislative power is delegated to a general assembly with the sanction of the emperor. The general assembly is composed of two houses, a chamber of deputies, and chamber of senators, or senate. The attributes of the general assembly are 1. To administer the oath to the emperor, the imperial prince, to the regent or regency. 2. To elect the regency or regent, and to put the limits of its authority thereon. 3. To recognise the imperial prince as successor to the throne in the first session which follows his birth. 4. To name the tutor of the minor emperor in case his father should not have named him in his testament. 5. To clear the doubts which may be entertained relative to the succession to the crown. 6. To institute at the time of the emperor s death, or at the vacancy of the throne, an inquiry into the administration finished, to reform the abuses which may have intruded. 7. To choose a new dynasty in case of the extinction of the regent dynasty. 8. To make laws, to interpret them, to suspend the same, or revoke them. 9. To watch over the maintenance of the constitution, and over the general good of the nation. 10. To fix annually the public expenses, and to make the assessment of the direct taxes. 11. To fix annually, according to the government, the sea and land forces, ordinary and extraordinary. 12. To accord or oppose the entrance of foreign forces, by land or by sea, into the interior of the empire, or into its ports. 13. To authorise the government to contract loans. 14. To establish convenient measures for the payment of the public debt. 15. To rule the administration of the national domains, and to decree the alienation of them. 16. To create or suppress the public offices, and to fix their rules. 17. To determine the weight, the name, the value, the inscription, the type, and the denomination of the moneys, as well as the standard of the weights and measures. Each chamber to bear the appellation of august and noble representatives of the nations. Each legislature will last four years, and each annual session four months. The opening of the imperial sitting will take place every year on the 3rd of May. The closing of the assembly, will also be an imperial assembly, and these two assemblies will take place at a general assembly, with the meeting of both cham bers. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The naming of presidents, vice-presidents, and secretaries of both chambers, the verification of the powers of its members, the oath to be taken, and the police of the interior, to be settled under the form of an internal rule. All questions on a division shall be decided by the majority of the members present. The members of each chamber shall be held inviolate for their opinions, given in the exercise of their functions. No senator or deputy can be arrested during his deputation, by any authority except by order of his chamber, or unless being taken in the fact of committing a capital crime. The senators and deputies may be elected ministers and councillors of state, with the difference that the senators may continue to sit at the senate, and that the deputies will on taking office leave their seat vacant, and must proceed to a new election, in which he may be re-elected, and then assume his functions. The chamber of deputies is elective and temporary. To the chamber of deputies belongs the initiation,!. Of the taxes; 2. Of the recruiting service ; 3. Of the choice of a new dynasty in case of the ex tinction of the old one. In the chamber of deputies shall be initiated, 1. The examination of the former administration, and the reformation of its defects ; 2. The discussion of the propositions made by the executive power. The chamber of deputies alone is to decide whether there be any cause to accuse the ministers and councillors of state. The deputies shall receive, during the session, a remuneration to be fixed at the end of the last session of the preceding assembly. The senate is composed of members for life, and organised by provincial elections. Each province shall furnish as many senators as deputies, and when the number of deputies is uneven, the number of its senators shall be the half of the inferior even number, so that the province which has eleven deputies shall have five senators. The province which has but one deputy shall always elect a senator, notwith standing the above-mentioned rule. The elections shall be made in the same manner as those of the deputies, but with treble lists, from which the emperor shall choose one-third. The qualifications for a senator must be, 1. Born a Brazilian citizen, and to enjoy one s political rights ; 2. Aged forty, at least ; 3. Learned, able, and virtuous : those would be preferred who have rendered some service to their country ; 4. In the possession of a revenue of 800 milreis yearly, either in property, or through industry, commerce, or employments. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1361 The princes of the imperial house are of right senators, and will take their place in the senate at the age of twenty-five. The exclusive attributes of the senate are, 1. To take notice of the individual faults committed by the members of the imperial family, the ministers of state, the councillors of state, the senators, and by the deputies during the period of their legislation. 2. To watch over the responsibility of the ministers and councillors of state. 3. To expedite letters of convocation of the assembly, in case the emperor should not have done it two months after the time fixed by the constitution, the senate shall reunite extraordinarily to this effect. 4. To call together the assembly at the time of the emperor s death for the election of a regent, in case it should so happen that the provisional regent has not accomplished it. The proposition, opposition, and approbation of projects of law belong to both chambers. The executive power exercises, through each of the ministers of state, the power of proposal which belongs to him in the formation of the laws. It is only after having been examined by a commission of the Chamber of Deputies, from whence it must have its origin, that it can be converted into a law project. If the emperor refuse his consent to a law passed by the assembly, he will answer as follows : " The emperor will meditate on the project, and resolve at the conveniable time." To which the chamber shall reply, that it praises his majesty for the interest he takes in the nation, but if two successive legislatures approve of the project, and present it successively in the same terms, it is un derstood that the emperor will give his sanction. The fifth chapter of the constitution appointing general councils of the pro vinces, has been revoked in 1834, and annual representative assemblies elected every two years for each province. The constitution then at great length defines the powers of the emperor, His person is sacred, he convokes, prorogues, and dissolves the general assembly, sanctions or disallows its decrees, appoints and displaces his ministers, remits or mitigates punishments, appoints and suspends magistrates, proclaims am nesties, appoints bishops, and provides for ecclesiastical benefices, names and provides for civil employments, appoints the military and naval commanders and officers, sends his ambassadors and ministers to foreign courts, and intrusts them with the direction of negotiations, forms treaties of alliance, offence, defence, subsidy, and commerce, but submits them afterwards to the general assembly for approval, declares war and makes peace, grants letters of natural isation, confers titles and honours, civil and military, publishes the decrees for executing the laws, &c. &c. The constitution also provides an imperial council of state for life, but VOL. I. 8 L 1362 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, not to exceed ten in number. The organisation of the army and navy is then provided for ; judges and courts of law are also organised. The inde pendence of the judges is declared as follows : The legal power is independent; and will be composed of judges and juries, who will be employed for civil as well as criminal law. The juries will pronounce on the case, and the judges will apply the law Judges by right will be perpetual, but this does not mean that they cannot be removed from one place to another, during the time and manner explained by the law. The emperor can suspend them for complaints made against them, after always having heard the judges themselves, and taken the necessary infor mations, and heard the council of state. The judges cannot lose their places but by a judgment. Ail judges of a district, and the officers of justice, are responsible for abuses of power, and for prevarications which they may commit in the exercise of theii offices, and may be prosecuted for bribery, corruption, extortion, and embezzle ment of public money. The action may be followed up by the plaintiff himseli for one year and a day, or any other individual of the municipality, according tc the legal order of prosecution. In the provinces of the empire, tribunals of the second and highest order, for the convenience of the citizens, shall be instituted In criminal cases the interrogatives of the witnesses will be published, and all the other acts of the prosecution will be published after judgment. In civil and penal cases, carried over to the civil tribunal, the parties may name arbitrators. One cannot commence a prosecution without proving one has used means of reconciliation. For this purpose there will be judges of peace, who will be elected in the same manner and for the same time as the officers of the chambers. In the capital of the empire, besides the tribunals which ought to exist as in the other provinces, there will be another tribunal under the denomination of tribunal of justice, the members of which will be chosen from the other tribunals, with the title of councillors. This tribunal shall accord or refuse the review of cases, recognise the faults committed by its officers, by those of the other tribunals, by those employed by the diplomatic body, and by the presidents of the provinces, and take cognisance and decide in all contentions of jurisdiction, and the competition of the tribunals of the provinces. There will be a president named by the emperor in each province, who may change him according to the good of the service. The National Treasury. The receipts and expenses of the national finances e confided to a tribunal under the name of the national treasury, which, in its Cerent divisions established by the law, will have the administration and re- DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1363 sponsibility in reciprocal correspondence with the treasuries and authorities of the provinces of the empire. All direct contributions, with the exception of those which are applied to the sinking of the public debt, will be annually voted by the national assembly, but they will continue to be gathered until their abolition has been pronounced, or until they have been replaced by others. The minister of finances, after having received from the other ministers the lists relative to the expenditures of their ministry, will present annually to the chamber of deputies, as soon as it assembles, a general balance of the receipts and of the expenditure of the national treasury of the preceding year, as well as the general list of all the public expenses of the future year, and the value of all the contributions and all the public revenues. CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF CITIZENS. 1. No citizen under any compulsion, except in accordance with the law. 2. No law shall be established without its having some public use. 3. No law will have a retroactive effect. 4. Every man may communicate his thoughts by words, writing, and publish them by means of the press, without fearing reproach ; every one will be respon sible for the abuses they may commit in the exercise of this right, in the cases and under the form determined on by the law. 5. No person may be persecuted for any matter of religion, if he respect the religion of the state, and offend not the public morals. 6. It is permitted to every one to remain or depart from the empire as he thinks proper, taking with him his goods, in conforming to the rules of the police, and without bearing any malice to anybody. 7. The house of every citizen is an inviolable dwelling ; nobody may enter it at night, whoever he may be, without his consent, except in order to save it from fire or inundation. 8. Nobody can be arrested, save in case of a beginning of an accusation except in the cases foreseen by the law ; twenty-four hours after his imprisonment (if in a city, town, or village, in the neighbourhood of the residence of the judge, and in an interval in proportion to the extent of the territory, and determined by the law for the distant places), the judge will make known to the accused by letter, signed by his own hand, the reason of his imprisonment, the names of the accusers, and those of the witnesses, if there are any. 9. Even in the case of accusation, nobody can be conducted to prison, or be retained therein, if he gives a caution determined by the law ; generally for every crime that is not punished, with more than six months imprisonment, or expul- HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. sion from the district in which the accused lives. The accused will remain at liberty. 10. Except when taken in the fact, the imprisonment cannot be executed without a written order from the acting authority; if this order is arbitrary, the judge who issued it, and he that received it, will be punished as determined by the law ; in this measure regarding the imprisonment, are not comprehended military commands, necessary for solid bases of justice and equity. From the present day whipping is abolished, as well as the torture, marking with red-hot iron, and every other barbarous punishment. Penalties will alone be supported by the criminal ; therefore, there cannot exist any confiscation of property, and never will the infamy of the criminal be transmitted to his relations, in whatever degree that may be. The prisons will be secure, clean, and well attended; there will be different prisons to separate the criminals according to their situation and the nature of their crimes. 22. The right of property is guaranteed in all its fullness, if, after thorough examination, the public good requires that one should make use of the property of a citizen, he will be indemnified for the time to the amount of its value ; the law will fix the cases in which this single exception will take place, and it will give the rules for the determination of the indemnity. 23. The public debt is equally guaranteed. 24. No manner of labour, of culture, of industry, or commerce, can be hin dered any time that it does not oppose itself to the public morals or security and health of the citizens. 25. The corporations, with their deans, masterships, and secretaryships, are abolished. 26. Inventors will have the property of their discoveries, and of their produc tions ; the law will give them an exclusive temporary privilege, or will recom pense them, and will have regard for the loss they may sustain in the publica tion of the discovery. 27. The secrecy of letters is inviolable. The administration of the posts is rigorously responsible for the infraction of this article. 28. All recompenses conferred for services rendered to the state, either civil or military, are guaranteed, as well as the right acquired from these recompenses, conforming to the laws. 29. Persons in public employment are strictly responsible for abuses and omissions which they may commit in the exercise of their functions, and their neghgence in surveying the responsibility of their subalterns. 50. Every citizen can present to the legislative and executive powers his re clamations, complaints, or petitions, and even expose all infractions to the consti- DESCRIPTIVE SKKTCHES OF BUA/.1L. 1365 tution, in reclaiming from the acting authority, the effective responsibility of the criminals. 31. The constitution guarantees public aid to the indigent. 32. Primary instruction is voluntary for all citizens. 33. The establishment of colleges and universities, in which will be instructed the elements of the sciences, arts, and literature, is hereby ordained. 34. The constitutional powers cannot suspend the constitution, in that which concerns individual rights, except in the cases and circumstances specified in the following article. In speaking of the tribunals of Brazil, Captain Wilkes accuses the judges, magistrates, and other officers, of great partiality and injustice.* CHAPTER VII. POLITICAL DIVISIONS, OR PROVINCES OF THE EMPIRE. UNDER the head of Population, we have given the names and population of the several provinces. To these are added the wilderness regions of GUIANA, north of the Amazon, and of SOLIEMOENS, a vast territory, ill explored, west of the Rio Madera, and south of the Amazon, extending to the limits of Brazil, or to the Rio Yavari. SOLIEMOENS is intersected by large rivers, and this exten sive, naturally fertile, but wilderness region is inhabited by numerous aboriginal * Captain Wilkes says, " The administration of justice is confided to two high tribunals, which are open to the public, and where causes are decided on appeal by a majority of the judges. " These tribunals are, first, the rela9ao, of which there are two branches, one at Rio and the other at Bahia, each composed of eight judges. Second, the supreme tribunal of justice of twelve judges. The inferior courts are those for the trial of civil and criminal cases, an orphans court, and a court and judge of findings and losings, the last of which is not yet abolished, however ob solete it may have become. Great corruption exists in them all, and no class of people are so unpopular as the judges. It is generally believed, and the belief is acted upon, that to obtain justice, all classes, including priests and laymen, lawyer and client, legislators and people, regents and ministers, must submit to great imposition ; that it is next to impossible to recover a debt by law except through bribery. If a debtor has money or patronage, and refuses to pay, it is diffi cult to obtain the payment even of an acknowledged note of hand through the process of the law, and it generally takes years to accomplish. " It is, however, greatly to the praise of the Brazilians, that it is not often necessary to have recourse to law for this purpose. r l he greatest injustice occurs in the orphans court : but the court of findings and losings is one of the most singular in this respect. It takes charge of all things lost and found, making it the duty of a person finding any thing to deposit it with the judge. The loser, to prove property, must have three witnesses to swear that they saw him lose it, and three others that they saw the finder pick it up, otherwise it remains as a deposit. " The justices of the peace for each district are elected by the people, four at a time, to serve as many years by turns, substituting one for the other, when sickness or other circumstances pre vent either from serving. They have final judgments in amounts not exceeding sixteen milreis. In cases of civil process, they act as mediators to effect a compromise and reconcile difficulties. Their political attributes are to preserve the peace in case of riot or disorder among the people ; and they have a right to call on the national guard or military police to aid them, who must act under their direction. There is no civil police, and no imprisonment for debt." HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. tribes, speaking different tongues or idioms. Soliemoens contains several povoacoes (settlements), but in reality little more than a few rudely constructed buildings for the missions founded by the Carmelites along the banks of the Amazon. The prezidio de San Francisco Xavier de Tabatinga,* situated at the mouth of the Yavari, is estimated to be, by the voyageurs or canoemen, distant from the city of Para 2100 miles. The voyage upwards occupies from eighty to ninety days. A nation of aborigines, called Soriman, cor rupted into Solimdo and Soliemoens, imparts a name to this province which is more thinly inhabited than any portion of Brazil. Its natural advantages of soil, climate, and river navigation, are, from all accounts, at least equal to those of any of the Mississippi regions. But a race of equal enterprize and industry with those which have peopled and cultivated and built cities in the latter, have not yet appeared on the waters, or amid the forests and plains of the former. The REGION OF SPANISH GUIANA includes the whole of the Portuguese possessions north of the Amazon, west of the River Yamunda This region ex tends about 900 miles from east to west, and from about 4 deg. north to 4 deg, south latitude. The western part forms the ouvidoria of the Rio Negro. This great river has its source in the Andes, and communicates by one of its branches, the Cassiquiari, with the Oronoco, and after flowing down upwards of 1100 miles, falls into the Amazon in latitude 3 deg. 16 min. south. A few leagues below the mouth of the Cassiquiari (from Para a voyage of eighty-six days going up) is, or was some time ago, the fort of San Joze dos Marabytaunas, then the remotest military station in this captaincy, situated on the left bank of the Rio Negro. Some other small posts were stationed be tween this and the Oronoco. Below San Joze there are straggling settlements of baptised Indians on each side of the river ; and a few Portuguese adventurers, mixed races, and priests, appear here and there on the banks, and waters of the river down to its confluence with the Amazon. The Rio Branco is the largest tributary that enters the Rio Negro. It rises in the Sierra Baracayna from the northern slopes of which the Paragua, one of the great confluents of the Oro noco, flows. Three leagues above the mouth of the Rio Negro is the town of Rio Negro (formerly the fortakza da Barra), the entrepot for all the exports of the river, and the seat of government. According to the last accounts, it still con tains a church, also a pottery, a rude cotton manufactory, and a rope-walk of the piassaba palm; all government works. At its mouth, the Rio Negro is about a mile wide, higher up it expands in some places to the width of seven and eight leagues. " Near the shore, the water appears the colour of amber ; every where else, it is described as literally seeming black as ink ; it is, however, perfectly clear, pure, and wholesome. The confluence is said to be a most * Tabatinga is a fine white clay, much used in many parts of Brazil for buildings. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1367 impressive spectacle ; but the turbid stream of the Amazon predominates, and the Black River loses its purity as well as its name. It is with the greatest de light that boatmen ascending from Para, or descending from the province of the Soliemoens, come in sight of the high lands at the bar ; for this river is free from all the physical plagues with which the Orellana is afflicted ; no torment of insects is felt there, no evils of local and endemic disease. When the Indians, therefore, escaping from both, first dip their oars into the clear dark waters, they set up a shout of joy, and enter with the sound of their rude music upon its happier navigation/ The YAPURA (or the Grande Caqueta), is one of the greatest rivers that flow into the Amazon. Its current is so rapid and mighty, that no boat could make way against it, were it not broken by innumerable islands. The scenery on its banks is described as magnificently romantic and beautiful, but the country is unhealthy. It communicates by lakes and streams with the Rio Negro. The northern limits of Portuguese Guiana have been the subject of much dispute. By the treaty of Utrecht the river Oayapoek, Wiapoc, or Vincent Pinzon, was named as the common limit between Portuguese and French Guiana ; and the fort of St. Louis, situated on its northern margin, was the most southern establishment of what was called Equinoctial France. By the treaty of Amiens, the Aguary (or Arawary) was made the limit ; the line of demarcation being drawn from its source westward to the Branco, and the navigation was to be common to both nations. But by the treaty of 181 7> Cayenne, which had been taken possession of by the Portuguese in 1809, was restored to France, and the Wiapoc was again made the boundary. Southey observes " To prevent all further cavil, its mouth was stated to be between the fourth and fifth degrees of north latitude, and in longitude 322 deg. east of the Island of Ferro. From thence, the line of demarcation was to be in conformity to the treaty of Utrecht."* Where French Guiana terminates towards the west, the Brazilian territory borders on Columbia. The equinoctial line was their original boundary; but the settlements on the Rio Negro, or rather, Portuguese encampments, have ex tended as high as the fourth parallel of north latitude. The resources, such as great rivers, harbours, fertile soils, and valuable woods and fisheries, of Portuguese Guiana, are more than ample for the population and power of a great empire. Yet, at the present day, this vast region may be considered absolutely a wilderness, and, as far as the maintenance of the human race is concerned, scarcely superior to one great waste. PROVINCE OF PARA. Cazal divides the province of Para into four large districts : Para Proper is a flat and wooded country, extending west of Maranham 200 miles to the River Tocantines ; Xwguatania, lying between the Tocantines * Southey, vol. iii., p. 691. ]#(}# HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. and the Xingu ; Tapajnoia, extending from the latter river to the Tapajos ; and Mundrucania, so denominated from the Mundrucu Indians who inhabit it, ex tending from the Tapajos to the Madera. Of these divisions, the last three are, with the exception of a few settlements or encampments, on the margins of the rivers, almost wholly in the possession of the aboriginal tribes. The more proper boundaries of this immense country, is limited by the River Ayapoek, French, Dutch, and British Guiana, on the north of the Amazon, and by the Rivers Yamunda and Madera on the west, following the Madera south of the Amazon to the Falls of St. Antony, in latitude 8 deg. 50 min. south. A recent writer, a citizen of Para,* includes in the province of Para the whole region west to the Yavari, in 70 deg. west, or the country called the Province of Solie- moens, with the exception that the latter region, and the greater part of Para is still uninhabited, except by nomade tribes. The authority of Para, it is true, is as much extended over these wild lands as any other under the Brazilian government. Our recent information respecting Para is based on the work of Monteira Baena, Mr. Kidder s work, the most recent, and the British and French consular reports. "This immense extent of land/ says Baena, ec is agreeable to live in, fertile, covered by a luxuriant vegetation, which is gifted with many rare varieties, and by majestic forests composed of splendid trees, and proper for domestic or naval uses. It contains extensive lakes, towering mountains, and vast valleys ; the number of large rivers it encloses is astonishing." The land is almost, without exception, of the most fertile description, and particularly so in the neighbourhood of the rivers and on their numerous islands, where the soil consists of successive alluvial deposits from four to eight feet deep. Population. The earliest tables of the population of the province are those of 1749, which then gave to the city of Para 900 hearths and 6579 inhabitants. After these we have only tables for the following years, viz.: 1788, 1083 hearths (families) and 10,600 souls; 1801, 1820 hearths and 11,500 souls; 1825, 1930 hearths and 13,240 souls ; 1830, 1740 hearths and 12,46? souls. "The increase up to 1825 was not inconsiderable, when we consider that during that period it was repeatedly the seat of serious disturbances, and suffered four calamitous visitations of the small-pox and measles, which at each period carried off one-third of the whole population ; nor would we have to note a decrease of 180 hearths and 780 souls in the last census, compared to the previous one, were it not for our declaration of independence and the subsequent war with Portugal and the persecution and emigration of the Portuguese which * "Corographical Essay" on the Province of Para, by Antonio Ladislau Monteiro Baena, a ara, Engineer and Professor of the Military School in Beletn of Para, and Member of her $9 Ge 8 ra Phcal Institution of Rio de Janeiro. Published at Para in Novem- DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. followed it. Further causes of decreased population were: 1. The avidity which, after our independence, the young men sought public employment, neg lecting agriculture ; 2. The quackery and ignorance of a number of men pre tending to have a knowledge of medicine, the ignorance of midwifes ; and 3. The little resort to lawful matrimony, and the spreading habit of celibacy, or rather of concubinage. 55 "Many circumstances render it difficult to obtain an exact census of the population, particularly the pressing of men for the military or naval service; and the ignorance and remissness of the clergy and other minor authorities. The population of the province is composed of seven castes, viz. : The whites, blacks, aborigines, mulattoes, Mamalucoes, Curibocas, and Cafuzes. These distinctions are owing to the whites intermixing with the negro race and with the aborigines, and the cohabiting of the aborigines and African race. The Mamalucoes are the offspring of the whites and the aborigines ; the mulattoes and the negro women are the parents of the Cafuzes; and the abori gines and the negro women produce the Cttribocas, or Sambos. Of these castes the whites are the fewest in number, and the aborigines the most numerous; besides these there are numerous tribes of wandering natives, whose numbers are unknown, who roam in the forests, arid live amongst the most fertile parts bordering on the numerous rivers. Signer Baena enumerates the names of 157 Indian tribes, some of which live in small villages, and trade with the Brazilians or Spaniards within the Brazilian territory. He considers that the natural disposition of most of these tribes is such that their assimilation to social pursuits would be easily effected, and that they would then become as useful as other tribes, " such as the Minas, Mundurucas, Jurcinas, and Parapuras, who bring drugs from the forests, assist in curing and salting fish, in extracting oil or butter from the eggs, and navigate or paddle the trading canoes on the rivers. 55 With regard to the aborigines established in villages, he says, " their number has rapidly declined ; in 1720 there existed 54,216, living in seventy-three missions, nineteen of which were established by the Jesuits, nine by the monks of St. Anthony, ten by the Capuchins, fifteen by the Carmelites, and ten by the mendicant friars. In 1839 their number was reduced to 32,751 living in villages, and none of the above orders of fathers or friars exist among them. < Near the capital of Para there existed in 1720, domesticated natives 12,680 ; in 1800 they were reduced to about 5000, of which more than 2000 were occu pied in cutting timber, and in transporting and loading it, in the construction of vessels, in throwing up works of defence for the city, and on board of armed vessels. In 1839 the number was reduced to 3500. The barbarous persecution VOL. i. 8 M 1370 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. in the continued wars against the other aborigines, and the almost universal bad treatment of those poor people (which for so many reasons deserve our sympathy, and should even from self-interest have been differently treated, for they have undeniably given much manual labour to our predecessors), caused, with the devastations of the small-pox, this retrograde march of the Indian settlements all over the province, wherefore now most of the domesticated Indian villages are insignificant." Climate. Baena says, "There is no particularly sensible difference in the climate of this province all the year round, yet there is a particular time for the production of fruits. The more lasting rains begin regularly in December or January, and last till June or July. On the upper part of the River Soliemoens they beg-inonly in May. At that time some intermittent fevers (Tertian and Quartan) make their appearance, by which the forest Indians suffer much, because they have no means of curing or nursing themselves, and, like all savages when falling ill, become immediately pusillanimous. At that time the rivers also swell and rise above their ordinary banks, and in some, par ticularly the Amazon arid Madera, the voyages upward become very troublesome, because of the great currents which the barges and canoes must overcome by being drawn by ropes from the banks ; towards the evening very severe storms are frequent, and almost of daily occurrence on those rivers, and often as dangerous to small craft as the above-named. " The verdure of the trees is uninterrupted all the year round, and about October or November only the pasturage gets sometimes dried up on the more elevated points, because August, September, October, and November, are the least rainy months. " The morning air is particularly delicious. As the afternoon approaches a pleasing coolness comes on, and the nights are generally sufficiently cool, and the climate does decidedly not possess that high degree of temperature which the tropical situation of the country would authorise us to expect. "The innumerable rivers, bays, and lakes, the prevailing north-west and east trade winds, and the extensive forests refresh the air in a wonderful manner. In 1839, among twenty-seven parishes there were existing thirty-six men and thirty women above ninety years old, amongst which were eleven white men and seven white women, and there is credible proof of an Indian woman having reached the age of 200 years." Natural Productions of the Province of Para. Our author, in his account of the indigenous productions of Para, says, " The abundance of interesting productions and articles of commerce which pristine nature offers spontaneously in Para to medicine and to the arts is extraordinary, though it must be said that its inhabitants, as yet, by no means endeavour to profit fully of this uncommon liberality of the Creator. There are known twenty-three different palm- trees, each yielding fruit, fibres, cordage, oil, and even spirits; twelve kinds of trees having a milky substance, yielding india-rubber or other gums; twenty-two kinds of superior timber for ship-building; thirty-four varieties of wood for housebuilding or for canoes because of its peculiar lightness; thirteen kinds of wood for joiner s work ; and lire which are particularly good for making charcoal, besides many other unknown qua ,ies not yet examined, and an immense variety of bushes, plants, roots, &c. In uctober 1! 39, a collection of 340 species of woods was completed in the province of ae Jai , on a surface not exceeding a few leagues. Amongst these there are more an torty known as drugs, and above twenty different containing colouring matter, e many varieties of tanins, &c. Amongst the drugs there exist in abundance two xina na, one of the same kind as is exported from Mexico, and resins and balms to! many odoriferous resins, such as storax, &c. ; many kinds of oil-nuts, ocoa, tobacco, cotton, and other fibres, coffee, rice, castor-beans, &c , cloves, cinnamon, I matte-plant; ten known kinds of Chili-peppers, twelve known varieties of DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRA/IL. 1 371 indigenous, farinaceous roots and potatoes in use ; twenty-one kinds of fruit-trees in use, amongst which the mango and the bread-fruit; six kinds of bananas and plantains, various kinds of grapes ; almost all European vegetables and flowers are grown in the town of Para, and many indigenous, aromatic herbs. Melons and pine-apples "row in abundance." Live Animals. Of quadrupeds Signor Baena enumerates thirty-six as animals of the chase or to be hunted, amongst which the largest is the tapir (amphibious} the tiger, fox, various kinds of wild boars, five kinds of deer, &c. Ornithology, He enumerates 111 kinds of birds ; amongst which are many of the pheasant, peacock, and turkey species, and numerous game birds, par ticularly the black and snow-white curaqaos. Fishes. He names seventy-six kinds of fish caught in fresh water; amongst them, large quantities of sardinhas, and abundance of the gurijuba, a fish with a yellow skin without scales, which is largely consumed, fresh, dried, or salted ; between the head and under the belly, it has a white substance, equal to the Russian isinglass, and also used in Para to clarify coffee, wine, 8tc. The piraurucu, is dried like cod-fish, and also exported. The vacca marinha, or ??ianati, which we have already described, he describes as having a head similar to that of a calf ; " it never comes on shore, but lifts its head above the water, and feeds on the plants growing on the banks or in the lakes ; the female has breasts, and suckles the young ones; its flesh is like beef. It is the most general animal food, roasted or fried, and is dried and salted, or preserved in its own fat in large vessels. It is also exported. Sausages are also made from its flesh. Some of the lakes are full of them, and many are so large as to yield a pipe of oil." He then describes the several modes of taking them by the Para Indians, and which insure them always a subsistence. Crabs, lobsters, shrimps, oysters, and muscles, he says, are abundant. Of Reptiles, he enumerates twenty-five kinds; amongst which are twenty-one serpents, including the enormous boa-constrictor. Crustaceans Animals. Eleven kinds of these are enumerated; amongst them, two kinds of crocodiles, and two of tortoise or turtle ; of the first, some are twenty feet long, and afford great quantities of blubber for oil ; turtle abound in indescribable multitudes in the rivers Soliernoens, Branco, Madera, Tocantines, and others. Their meat is said to be very good before they lay their eggs, but not for some time after. From the eggs and from the fat of the animal, the Mantega butter, already described, is prepared in great abundance for general use in the province. It is used for light, and for the food of the poorer classes. The speckled tortoise also abound on the banks of the Caite, near the River Gurupi (salt water), and between this river and the Bay of San Joas, into which flows the Turicassu. Live Stock. Herds of cattle formerly swarmed on the Island of Joanna Ma- rajo ; but they are not, according to Buena, so numerous as they have at one time HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. been. In some cattle-farms on that island they manufacture cheese similar to the Minus Geraes cheese, but it is not so good. Nothing has as yet been done for the improvement of the breed of horses. Neither the sheep nor goats are of good breed, and no use is made of their skin and wool. Pigs, though much neglected, are generally of a much larger description than those of Portugal. CITY OF PARA, AND ENTRANCE TO THE AMAZON. Mr. Kidder, in 1844, appears to confirm the accuracy of the native geo grapher, Baena. The former sailed from Maranham to Para. The voyage was formerly performed by canoes coasting round not less than thirty-two bays, some of them so broad, that the opposite land is frequently invisible.* At present the voyage is performed in a steamboat. The distance from Maranham to Para by sea is about 400 miles, and the voyage is performed by the steam-packets in from two to three days. The coast is uniformly low, and much intersected with bays and lagoons. The southern mouth of the Amazon is usually called the Para river. The entrance is intricate, and by no means safe, as there are no prominent landmarks. In the night, or in thick weather, it is almost impossible to discover the only pilot station on the coast, called Selinas, and the pilots are never met at any considerable distance out at sea. The Para entrance lies between the two dangerous shoals of Tigoa and Braganza. Vessels have been frequently wrecked on these, and the crews have sometimes all perished. In descending the river, there is little danger. If the weather is clear, the breakers on the Togoga and Braganza banks are seen, as the tide flows upwards ; after entering this mouth of the Amazon the conflict of the ascending and descending waters is called, by its aboriginal name, pororoca, and characterises the navigation for some hundreds of miles. No sailing vessel can descend the river while the tide is rushing up from the ocean ; and both in ascending and descending, distances are measured and regulated by tides. Para is said to be three tides from the ocean, and a vessel entering with the flood must anchor during two ebb tides before reaching the city. Canoes and small vessels, to avoid any danger from the pororoca, generally lay- to in certain places called esperas, or resting-places, where the water is little agitated. Most of the vessels used in the Amazon are constructed with reference to its tidal navigation ; that is, for floating with the stream rather than for sailing before the wind, although sails may often be serviceable. The regular ebb and flow of the tides in the Amazon are observed as far as the confluence of the Madera, 600 miles above the mouth. The pororoca is much more turbulent on the northern side of the island of Marajo, where the * Tp, bc y s and ! a ? oons along the coast, are often connected by intricate streams and chan- 1 he former circuitous voyage in canoes traversed more than double the present direct Ihe canoes were driven ashore each evening, and the party rested for the night. They 1 navigated by Indians, who then received only about twopence per diem. DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHKS OF BRAZIL. 1373 mouth is broader, and the current more shallow. M. de la Condamine a hundred years ago wrote: " During three days before the new and full moons, the period of the highest tides the sea, instead of occupying six hours to reach its flood, swells to its highest limits in one or two minutes. It might be inferred that such a phenomenon could not take place in a very tranquil manner. The noise of this terrible flood is heard five or six miles, and increases as it approaches. Presently you see a liquid promontory twelve or fifteen feet high, followed by another, and another, and sometimes by a fourth. These watery mountains spread across the whole channel, and advance with a prodigious rapidity, rending and crushing every thing in their way. Immense trees are instantly uprooted by it, and sometimes whole tracts of land are swept away." On ascending the Amazon, the colour of the water changes from the dark blue of the sea to a lightish green, and then gradually to a dirty yellow. The mouth even of the lesser entrance is so broad, that when above forty miles within it, the coast and the island of Marajo are scarcely visible at the same time. The shores are low, and densely covered with mangroves, with scarcely a settlement, except the village of Collares. The Fort da Barra, where vessels are boarded by revenue officers, is two miles below from the city of Para. PARA, or the city of Belem, is situated in 1 deg. 21 inin. south latitude, and 48 deg. 28 min. west longitude, on an elevated point of land, on the south-east ern bank of the Para river, and eighty miles from the ocean. From the sea it has a very striking and pleasing appearance. The anchorage is good and safe, within an abrupt curve in the channel, which admits vessels of a large draft. The island of Marajo is twenty miles distant, but invisible from smaller islands inter vening. Para, like most Brazilian towns, exhibits whitened walls and red-tiled roofs ; it is regularly laid out; and has public squares, called the Palace-place, the Quartel, and the Largo da Polvora, and several smaller squares in front of the cathedral, and of several of the convents. The streets are neither well paved nor wide. There are many large well-built houses, but the back streets consist chiefly of wretched small dwellings. The best houses are well adapted to the climate, with a wide veranda often extending around the outside of the building; and another, along at least three sides of a large interior area. A part of the inner veranda, or a room connected with it, serves as an airy and pleasant eating-room. The front rooms only are ceiled, except in the best houses. Latticed windows are more common than glass ; but occasionally some houses have both ; preference is always given to lattices in the dry season. Instead of alcoves and beds for sleeping, hammocks swing- across the corners of all the large rooms, and along the verandas. Some houses have hooks for swinging hammocks for fifty or sixty persons every night. The insurrection of 1835 was greatly injurious to Para. In almost every street there are houses still, battered more or less with bullets or cannon shot. Some have been repaired, others abandoned. 1374 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Para fronts the river, and in its rear there is a beautiful shaded walk. The Estrada das Mangabeiras extends from near the marine arsenal on the river side, to the Largo da Polvora on the eastern extremity of the city. It is intersected by avenues leading from the Palace Square and the Largo do Quartel. Its name is derived from the mangabeira-trees, with which it is densely shaded on either side. The bark of these trees is of a light grayish colour, regularly striped with green, their product is a coarse cotton that may be used for seve ral purposes, their appearance is at once neat and majestic. In the immediate vicinity of this road is the old convent, now hospital, of San JozeS and near by it the recolhimento of orphan girls. In the grounds of the former establishment a botanical garden was commenced in 1797, for the cultivation of indigenous and foreign plants and trees. The spices and fruits of the East Indies would have flourished here, and, mingled with the botanical plants of the American torrid zone, would have formed a collection unrivalled for richness and variety. But what was only commenced, has been long since abandoned. There are a few private gardens in the vicinity, but neglect of improvement has followed disorders that have for many years prevailed in this town ; many streets are overgrown with thick bushes. In the suburbs are forsaken tenements, and the walls of large houses. Beyond the actual precincts of the city, a dense forest com mences. Mr. Kidder says, <( The traveller, on entering Para, is struck with the pecu liar appearance of the people. The regularly descended Portuguese and Afri cans do not, indeed, differ from their brethren in other parts, but they are com paratively few here, while the Indian race predominates. The aboriginals of Brazil may here be seen both in pure blood, and in every possible degree of in termixture with both blacks and whites. They occupy every station in society, and may be seen as the merchant, the tradesman, the sailor, the soldier, the priest, and the slave. In the last-named condition they excited most my atten tion and sympathy. The thought of slavery is always revolting to an ingenuous mind; whether it be considered as forced upon the black, the white, or the red man. But there has been a fatality connected with the enslavement of the In dians, extending both to their captors and to themselves, which invests their ser vitude with peculiar horrors. Nearly all the revolutions that have occurred at Para are directly or indi rectly traceable to the spirit of revenge with which the bloody expeditions of the early slave-hunters are associated in the minds of the natives and mixed bloods throughout the country. 5 As the aborigines are no longer directly enslaved, they are daily pressed for the service of the army and navy. The large river canoas are rudely constructed crafts, with stem and stern square, DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1375 the after part rises out of the water like that of a Chinese junk ; over their poop there is a round-house, generally made of thatch, for protection against the sun and the dew, and under which hammocks for sleeping are swung ; sometimes, there is a similar round-house over the bows ; there is also a sort of elevated spar- deck. The steersman generally sits upon the roof of the after round-house. These rude vessels are well enough adapted to their purpose of floating with the tide. In one part of the city, when beasts are slaughtered for markets, vast num bers of vultures are observed perched upon the trees, or flying indolently in the air. Along the margin of the river, both morning and evening, great numbers of people may be seen bathing. Men, women, and children, belonging to the lower classes, may be seen at the same moment diving, plung ing, and swimming, in different directions. Ponta das Pedras is the principal landing-place, where there are usually numerous canoes and aborigines conversing in the various dialects of the Amazon, and keeping or delivering parrots, macaws, and some other birds of gorgeous plumage, and occasionally monkeys and serpents. They also bring for sale, Brazil nuts, cacao, vanilla, annatto, sarsaparilla, cinnamon, tapioca, balsam of copaiba in pots, coarse dried fish in packages, and baskets of fruits, in infinite variety, both green and dry, with immense quantities of gum-elastic shoes; sus pended on long poles. Close beside the palace there are the walls of a half-erected theatre, com menced 1775 The prison, in the same neighbourhood, bears the date of 1775. Thejniz dedireito is the chief officer of the police, who examines all passports, and gives a licence of residence. No monks of any orders are left. The money expended in the erection of the five monasteries in Para, appropriated to secular use, must have been immense. The cathedral of Para, said by Mr. Kidder to be the largest religious edifice in the empire, was commenced in 1720, and completed and consecrated in 1775 by a bishop, attended by the monks, magnates, and people. Like most of the other churches it is built in the form of a cross. The population* of the Comarca of Para, or Belem, in thirty-two villas, seventeen hamlets, and five missionary stations, is stated by Baena, in 1839, as follows : Free people, 90,767 ; slaves, 26,961=117,728. Comarca of the great island of Joanes Marajos, in five villas and six hamlets: free people, 10,689 ; slaves, 204012,739. In the Comarca of the Rio Negro, in nine villas and thirty-eight hamlets : free people, 17,881 ; slaves, 962=18,843. Total of settled inhabitants in 1839, 149,854. * The Marquis of San Joas da Palma, former governor of Matto Grosso, estimated the num ber of the aborigines of Brazil at above 1,000,000 ; of which the by far greater part are in the province of Para and Matto Grosso. 1376 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION OF PARA. PARA enjoys one great advantage over every other sea-port town in Brazil, from its unparalleled intercourse by water with the interior. The commercial resources of this country, and the admirable trading position of the city are of the first rank. But the men and people to bring forth the elements of profit and civilisation are wanting. Some Glasgow merchants opened the trade with great spirit, but their property, to the value of about 70,OOOZ. sterling, was most flagrantly pillaged during the revolt in 1835. Some American citizens have instituted saw-mills at Maguery, in the neighbourhood. The cotton-wools of Para are admirable. Caoutchouc is abundant, and made into shoes, &c. The following are the articles enumerated by Baena as those exported from Para, viz. : " Cotton, rice (large grained), ditto, (small), oil of Andiroba, castor-oil, copaiva- palm, rum, spirits of aniseed, Indian-rubber, painted fruit shell vessels, cocoas of various kinds, cacao, cloves/coffee, crajina, hides, sweet chestnut, cinnamon, horns, casto-rbeans, horses, sweetmeats, farina, tapioca, isinglass, guarana, gums of various sorts, gergelin (ben oil-seed), guariuba, tutai-issica, earthenware of Cameta, honey, wax, maquriras, Indian-corn, puriri (spice-nut), piassaba fibres, piassaba cordage. Choice woods, amongst which are rosewood, zebra-wood, and lignum-vitne, hoops made of creepers, oars, netted hammocks, cotton-spun cloth, sarsaparilla, surnauma, tallow, tonquin-beans, tobacco, tana, tacuaris (cane), tabocas, anatto, calves -skins, hides, vanilla, Peruvian- bark, tar, turtle-butter, and isinglass." The ports to which the above goods are chiefly exported are : Lisbon, Oporto, Gibraltar, Salem, Nantes, New York, Liverpool, London, Alexandria, Barbadoes, Cayenne, Maranham, Oara, and Pernambuco : the exportation, coastwise, is not accounted for with exactitude. Mr. Baena states the value of exports during the following years to be as under : Dollars. Dollars. In 1789, to 286,085 618 1796, 297,429 127 1799, 343,672 853 In 1816, to 578,928 575 1819, 452,715633 1827, 488,253 758 1806, 785,323941 Inland Trade. -While in other parts of Brazil the interchange of goods is impeded by a want of good roads, canals, and navigable rivers, Baena observes, " The whole province of Para is thrown open in all directions and free from every impediment. Its highways and by-ways are all by water, on bays, rivers, lakes, and creeks, and will remain so as long as the same laws of nature will rule our globe. img is more self-evident than that with such happy topographical facilities, and tihty of its soil, and the variety of its productions, this province is destined at irly day to carry on a commerce of vast importance. The canoes in 1839 generally employed, earned from 1000 arrobas to above 2000 arrobas, or about forty-five to fifty ns, and the number of their oarsmen were from five to nine Indians. The river ^J a " a m derate date > and are decl dedly much more advantageous on such The towns of Cameta, Vigia, Macapa, Monte-Allegre, Lantarem, Obidos, Tan Assu and Barra do Rio Negro are the trading places of the interior, but Tan Assu exports nearly all its cotton and cacao to Maranham. DKSCR1PTIVK SKKTCHKS OF BRAZIL. 1377 RETURN of the British and Foreign Trade at the Port of Para, for the Year ending the 5th of January, 1845. I N W A R D S. NATIONS. Number of Ships. Register Ton nage. Number of Men. Value of Cargoes in British Sterling. British 9 form. 1 474 Portuguese. j4 French . 9 United States 28 3 2 1 140 1 | 550 ; Spain 1 120 325 Belgium. . 1 145 10 1 540 I 10 *j Total 69 11,136 770 99,188 The Danish and Hamburg ships, and two other foreign ones, were chartered here to take cargoes for English account to foreign ports. The cocoa crop has been very short this year, and many ships have sailed in consequence, both for Europe aud the United States, only half or two-thirds loaded. BRITISH and Foreign Trade continued. NATIONS. British Portuguese. . . French United States. Hamburg Denmark Tuscany Spain Belgium Hanover Total.. OUTWARDS. SHIPS IN PORT. Number of Ships. Register Ton nage. Number of Men. Value of Car goes in British Sterling. Of what Na tions. No. 3 3 1 1 8 8 15 9 27 2 4 M i ton?. 1,267 2,755 1,940 3,628 470 690 140 120 281 154 72 293 99 204 20 37 11 9 19 10 1 17,207 33,470 20,655 52,324 3,847 10,780 1,470 745 3,260 3,747 countries. United States Portuguese English Hamburg 70 11.445 774 147.505 The coasting trade between this port and that of Maranham is carried on by three small ships, who have made collectively, within the jear, nineteen voyages inwards and nineteen outwards, and discharging at this port foreign merchandise, during this period, for value of 65,400/. They have loaded at this port produce, during the said period, for Maranham, for value of 23.760/. During the year we have had the arrival of nineteen steam packets from Rio de Janeiro, and who touch on their voyages, here and back, at the intermediate ports of Bahia, Alagoes, Pernambuco, Ceara, and Maranham. BRITISH CONSULATE, PARA, January, 5, 1845. The general revenue of the province of Para for the year 1844 only produced 142 contos de reis, or 14,791/. British sterling; the government expenses for the same period, including troops and navy, amounted to23,958/. ; deficiency, 9167/., supplied from Rio de Janeiro. The sugar and coffee plantations do not produce sufficient for home consump tion, and supplies of both are imported from the southern provinces. The imports are all descriptions of manufactured cotton goods, silks, hardware, wines, spirits, porter, salt, flour, salt provisions, furniture, olive-oil, gunpowder, iron in bars, lead, cordage, sail-cloth, &c. The only manufactures carried on in this province are those of ordinary cotton cloth for sacks and hammocks ; Indian-rubber is worked into shoes and into different forms. There are no public works carrying on in the province, and all those which were formerly executed are fast going to decay. VOL. i. 8 N ]380 HISTORICAL PROGKESS OF AMERICA. The PROVINCE of PIAUHY lies to the east of Maranham. It is divided into five comarcas, three of which are said to be kept in an orderly state of administration. The others are usually in the most unsafe condition. This pro vince has but twenty leagues of sea-coast; but it extends to the south and inland about 400 miles. It is generally level, and in some parts undulated. It has extensive unwooded plains, with large herds of cattle. Silver, lead, and iron mines are said to abound. The soil in many parts is well adapted for the culti vation of mandioca, rice, maize, cotton, and sugar-canes. Its principal river is the Parahiba, which flows into the sea by several intricate channels. Its capital is Oeyras, with about 5000 inhabitants. There is no seaport for foreign trade, but it carries on some coasting traffic. The PROVINCE of Rio GRAND DEL NOBTE lies between Parahiba and Ceara. Its coast is uniformly low and sandy ; but inland it is described as undulated, and its forests are said to afford the best Brazil wood, and many drugs. The soil is not generally fertile; but the climate is considered healthy. It produces cotton, sugar-cane, rice, and several other articles ; the rearing of cattle is in some parts a principal object. NATAL, the capital, is situated on the right bank of a river, near its mouth. It is an old town, but its population is small. It was a place of importance during the Dutch wars, and its fortress, by which the city is still defended, was then considered the strongest in Brazil. The port admits no larger vessels than 150 tons burden. The foreign commerce of the province is inconsiderable, and there is no prospect of its improvement. Within the limits of this province is Cape St. Roque, which is the north-eastern point of the coast of South America. A large rock marks the extremity of this cape.* PROVINCE of CEARA. This large province is faced chiefly with white sand hills, but they do not extend inland. Cotton and dye-woods are the principal exports. The cattle are considered among the best in breed in the empire, and are driven to supply the markets of Pernambuco and Ceara. The carnauba palm, caraphera linfera, is a beautiful tree, and is said to rival the cocoa palms. They also furnish food, building materials, and raiment. Besides the edible nut, or the fruit, the palmito, the tender extremity of the flowering branch, is deemed delicious eating. These palms have trunks remarkably regular and strong, and serving either for fuel or building timber. The Island of Fernando de Noronha, which lies about seventy leagues north-east from Cape M. Koque, in south latitude 3 deg. 5G min. This island has been successively under the dominion )! i ortugal, Hohand, France, and Brazil. It is about twenty miles in circumference. Many tie islets are divided from the principal island, and from each other by narrow channels. Thev cky and barren, although frequented by va.t numbers of sea-fowl. There is good fishing s two harbours, but not very safe in stormy weather, and looks at a distance like i with a steeple. It has long been a place of exile and imprisonment. The Portu- formerly no loss than seven forts. No woman is allowed to land on this island. There ?;IITIMMI for preventing the escape of criminals DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1381 "The great natural advantages of this province," says Mr. Kiddcr, must be noted among the existing causes of its low state of improvement. The stem voice of necessity work or die, never disturbs the day dreams of the Brazilian, as he yawns in his ham mock (faring the bright hours of sunshine. The great mass of the lower classes live as they list. Their wants are few and simple, and to a great degree conformed to the spontaneous productions of nature. Multitudes of Indians inhabit Ceara, in a state of semi-barbarism. As a general rule, they are idle and vicious, living chiefly upon indi genous fruits, or those which are cultivated with scarcely any trouble but seekin- occasional plunder." Formerly the aborigines were under a careful regulation, and were hired to work on the plantations. This superintendence has disappeared, the wretched beings are in a state of utter neglect and indolence, and no efforts are made for their instruction or improvement. Slaves are comparatively few in the province. This is lamented by the people generally, as a great calamity ; but indolence enough prevails, and it would be cruel to enslave others to increase the lazi ness of the free population. The melancia, or water-melon, is produced here in profusion. These melons are eaten as a principal article of food, especially by the Indians and mixed races. They are so abundant, as to be sold frequently at the rate of twenty cents per hundred. For a penny may often be purchased as much as would feed a man for a week. Mr. Kidder says, " Thousands of these people, in the interior, have never seen the article of bread. An anecdote was related to me of a matuto from the far sertao, who, on visiting Aracaty, resolved to gratify his curiosity respecting what he had so often heard of as a great foreign luxury. He accordingly went to a baker s shop and purchased a hat full of rolls, and then seated himself under a tree and commenced paring them, as he \\ould oranges or bananas. The taste, however, did not please his palate, and he soon threw them away as unfit to be eaten." The freshets and the droughts are considered the scourges of these parts. " During the droughts," says Mr. Kidder, " years have been known to pass by with out rain. At such times vegetation perishes, and both animals and human beings die off without number. It was painful to listen to the descriptions given of these seccas, and the famine consequent upon them. I was prepared to understand them by the details previously given me of a similar scene, which a gentleman, with whom I met in Pernambuco, had witnessed a few years previously in Rio Grande do Norte. Absolute starvation prevailed in the country, and the only hope of the inhabitants was in 6nding their way to parts of the coast to which supplies had been brought from abroad. Hundreds died upon the way, and their emaciated corpses were scattered upon the sand, often without interment, but so emaciated and withered as scarcely to taint the air, or offer a banquet to the worm. Some who had strength to arrive, and money with which to purchase food, survived. Others arrived too late, and being so exhausted and enfeebled, that the morsel which they craved to sustain life only served to hasten their dissolution." The province of Ceara contains, by estimation, 180,000 inhabitants. In 1841, it possessed thirty-one primary schools, frequented by 830 pupils ; and Latin schools, with forty-six pupils. The House of Correction belonging to the province, was occupied by eighteen delinquents. Its prisons were few, |382 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. and generally insufficient to prevent the escape of criminals. The following is the official list of crimes committed during the year, between July, 1840, and July, 1841: Murders, seventy-two; attempt to murder, fifteen; threat, one; serious wounds, twenty; light wounds, twenty-four; physical injuries, four ; robbery, ten ; theft, seventeen ; rape, three ; calumny and injury, eight ; use of prohibited arms, two ; prevarication, one; disobedience, fifteen ; defalcation, two; abuse of authority, one; sedition, one: total, 196. Speaking of religion, " The unquestionable fact/ says President Coelho, is not only chargeable upon a clergy (with some honourable exceptions), of being ignorant, depraved in habits, corrupt in morais, involved in the concents of the world, and totally forgetful of their heavenly mission ; but it is also due to the indifference with which the legislature treats the wants of the church. "Not long since a proposition was made to the National Assembly to erect a new inland province. A desire for improvement is said to prevail in Ceara, and various enterprises have been projected ; but the depressed state of its finances has prevented their completion. The reflector, and other apparatus of a light-house, which is very much needed on Point Micoripe, had been imported from England, and lain in the custom-house four years for want of funds to put it in operation. Lamps and fixtures for lighting the streets of the town had been provided ; but up to the present, there was a lack of funds to supply them with oil. There was not a single cemetery or grave yard for the use of the city. All the interments were made, from year to year, in the solitary church of the town, which was thus rendered, as the president expresses it, the very focus of putrefaction and pestilence. " Kidder. The town of Ceara is situated in 3 deg. 42 min. 58 sec. south latitude, and 38 deg. 34 min. west longitude. Its port is difficult to find, from there being generally a thick haze over the land. Its landmarks are the point of Micoripe, on the south, and the inland mountain -peaks of Mararanguape, to the north. These are the only high mountains seen near the coast north of Bahia. They mark the termination of the great Serra do Mar, which ranges through at least twenty degrees of latitude, in some parts approaching near the ocean, in others inland. Ceara is frequently called Fortaleza, after an old fortress erected near to defend the harbour. Little of the city is visible from the sea, except this fort and the few huts which line its sides. On the left of the town there is a small river, whose banks are adorned with coqueiros. The public buildings are not large, and are constructed in the usual Brazilian manner. The city does not contain a convent, nor any monastic edifice. This remark applies to the whole of Ceara, but to no other province in Brazil. The only finished church in Ceara is that of Nossa Senhora do Rozario, the especial protectress of the negroes. That of the Conception, frequented by the whites, was a few years ago pulled down, in order to be rebuilt on a larger scale; but the work stopped when the walls were about half erected, and still remains in that condition. The Bay of Ceara opens to the north, forming a regular and spacious semi- DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1383 circular form. The harbour is protected and screened by a reef of rocks under water. It is said to become annually shallower from the "sand filling it up. Mr. Kidder says, in 1842, "At the time of our arrival, a few coasting-smacks and an English brig were all the vessels in port. The landing is nowhere good, on account of the heavy surf that con tinually breaks upon the strand. Adapted to this, the pilot-boat in which I went on shore was guarded by strong outriggers to prevent capsizing, but even then did not wil lingly come in contact with the shore." After conveying passengers from the ship to a fordable depth, they are landed in a paviola, a kind of chair elevated on poles, and carried by four men in the same manner as a bier. The PROVINCE OF PARAHIBA comprehends the larger portion of the old captaincy of Itamaraca, and extends west nearly 200 miles to the boundary of Ceara. The River Paraiba, or Parahyba, which rises in the Serra do Jabitaca, flows to the north-east, and falls into the Atlantic by two channels, divided by the island of St. Bento. The coast of Parahiba extends about sixty miles along the shores of the sea and bays of the town. The absence of industry and the state of morals in this province has been severely animadverted upon in Brazil, and instead of justice being enforced by the laws, it is said that parties take not summary justice, but revenge into their own hands. Religious observances, fetes, and processions, are, however, common. Mr. Kidder, who gives the most recent account of this province, sailed to it by a singularly-built vessel, a sort of catamaran, called in Brazil, & jangada* " When," says he " about to embark from Itamaraca, I found it as necessary to secure a good jangada, as it would be in New York to select a choice berth for a passage to Liverpool. The Paquete do Norte was recommended to me as one of the finest craft owned on the island. " On its being chartered expressly for a passenger, the proprietor proceeded to fit it out in extra style, by putting a girau\ upon it." * " A voyage at sea upon a jangada is not an incident of every day s occurrence, at least with North Americans. Nor is it easy to convey in words a perfect idea of the simple and singular structure by which the savages of Brazil were accustomed to traverse the waters of their coast hundreds of years ago. Although in constant use since the period of discovery, the jangada has preserved its aboriginal form and style of construction, and even in this age of improvement is not likely to undergo any change for the better. Properly speaking, it is merely a raft, composed of unhewn logs of a peculiarly light wood, called pan de jangada. Trunks of trees are selected, about six inches in diameter, as nearly straight and uniform as possible. These are stripped of bark, sharpened at each end so as to cut the water, and then fastened to each other by three rows of transverse pins. The number of logs used is generally six, although I have seen them com posed of three, four, seven, and even twenty logs. These latter are used as lighters for unloading vessels, and are nearly square in form, while the sailing jangada is rectangular, and generally about five feet in width by sixteen or twenty in length." Kidder s Brazil, 1844. f The term girau is entirely technical, being used to designate what in English it would be difficult to name, unless it were called a suspension cabin. Its construction was in this wise : two strong poles were lashed one to each of the stancheons or sticks just mentioned, at the height of eighteen inches, and thence slanted forward till they rested upon the logs near the mast. Across these were fastened boards making a floor. Over-head sticks were bent to support a cover, not dissimilar in appearance to that of a travelling waggon ; thus a space was left for the pas senger about three feet in height and four in width. A thick rush mat was then spread on the bottom for a bed, and another over the top as an awning, to which, in case of rain, an oilcloth 1384 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. They sailed by moonlight, with a tolerable breeze from the land, and as these coasting craft pass usually within the reefs which lie off the shore, they seldom encounter a rough sea. He passed the several little ports of Barras Pontas, Pe- dros Guyanna, Gracire, Pildinhu, &c. Every village along the coast was adorned with its grove of cocoa trees. Se veral jangadas engaged in fishing were also passed. The coast presented sandy beaches, now and then intercepted by perpendicular bluffs of red soil, from twenty to sixty feet high, over which, to their verge, grew shrubs. On doubling Cape Blanco, he was landed at Tambuin, only six miles, across the country from Parahiba, whereas the voyage by sea would have been thirty to forty miles round another cape. Not being able to procure horses, he, with some others, walked to the city of Parahiba. He tells us> " My companheiros de viagem having determined to walk up to the city in my com pany, they proposed to carry my baggage, and divide between themselves the price offered. This suited me, and we started off. I had worn my tall Paulista boots on board the jangada, to protect myself from an occasional wave, and I now proved their value on shore ; for although we were on a royal road (estrada real) we were obliged to wade streams occasionally. " On leaving the sandy regions of the beach this road became very pleasant, although it was a mere path winding through an almost continuous forest. After the day s con finement within the narrow compass of my girau, walking was agreeable. The six miles soon disappeared behind us, and we began entering the suburbs of the city before we were really aware of it. On inquiring for an English gentleman to whom I had a letter, I was directed to his sitio, near where I entered the town, and finding him at home, was once more welcomed to the hospitalities, I like to have said, of a fellow countryman, for such truly do Englishmen appear and prove to us when abroad. The sitio of Mr. R., which at Bahia would he called a roc^a, and at Rio de Janeiro, a chacara, occupies the finest locality in Parahiba. It is situated on the brow of the hill, within the bounds of the upper town, and commands a view of the ocean on the north, the Cape and Fort Cabedello, the mouth and course of the river, up to the shipping before the lower town, including at the same moment a boundless and diversified landscape. The view from this place often reminded me of the far-stretching plains lying west of the Genesee river, as seen particularly from West Avon. Mr. R. was giving especial attention to the culti vation of his grounds, and planting many coffee trees, which, although they grow and produce luxuriantly, are but rarely found in any of the northern provinces. It is a sin gular circumstance, that coffee is retailed at a higher price in Pernambuco than in the United States. Orange trees suffer very much from the depredations of the ants, being sometimes stripped of their entire foliage in a single night. When a tree has thus been visited three successive times, it does not survive. My friend also had many of these invaluable fruit trees, while his place furnished a vegetable garden, fine springs of water, a yard of cows, and other valuable appendages of rural life, so that he might be truly said to have rus in urbe, < a farm in the city. The house was large and airy, with brick floors, latticed windows, and no ceiling above, save in the parlour." CITY OF PARAHIBA. The harbour of this town is ten miles below, within the bar over which vessels of considerable burden may pass, and smaller vessels could be added, so that all might be kept dry. Thus rigged, my paquete was ready for sea. The only itions needed for purposes of navigation were first, a setting-pole, to push off from shore ; der mast, and a three-cornered sail to catch the breeze ; and third, a long, broad oar, to serv< as a rudder. Its crew consisted of two men, the proeiro and pa/rao, or the bowsman DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1385 ascend to the town; the river navigation upwards is performed in rude boats or canoes. Mr. Kidder was in this city during one of the many fetes. In the evening, he says, "The Matrix church, at which the fete was held, was situated near by. It stood at one end of an oblong area. Its front was illuminated by candles hung in broken lanterns around the door, and burning before an image in a niche attached to the cupola. Large fires were blazing in different parts of the area. Around them were groups of blacks, eager to fire off volleys of rockets at appropriate parts of the service that was going on within the church. After the novena was finished, all the people sallied out into the campo to witness the fire-works. These commenced about nine o clock, and continued, I was told, till after midnight. "Had this been a scene of professed diversion for a company of rude and ignorant Africans, it would have been more sufferable. But professing to be part of a religious service (honra a Nossa Senhora Padroeira) performed on God s holy day, and joined in with enthusiasm by priests, monks, and people, I confess it shocked my feelings in the extreme, and I wished myself almost anywhere rather than witnessing it. Whole fami lies, including mothers and their daughters, were out in the damp night air to gaze upon spectacles partaking of the lowest species of the ludicrous. "The next day on horseback, accompanied by Mr. R , we passed through the principal streets of the upper town, in which are the convents, the prison, misericordia, treasury, palace of the governor, and several churches. Thence we passed out on the road leading towards Pernambuco, about three miles, to a large cruzeiro, called cruz das almas, cross of souls. Here we turned to the right, and descended to the low grounds on the bank of the river, which we followed back to the lower town. The river is very wind ing, and is not navigable beyond the present anchorage. Canoes go up a long distance, although in the summer season the bed of the river becomes dry beyond twenty leagues. Its prevailing course is north-west, and the town is situated upon the southern bank. One of the finest buildings it contains is a new trapiche, or government warehouse. In front of it were three English vessels anchored, loading with cotton and Brazil wood. They were the only vessels in port." Extending from the river, two streets contain the principal buildings and com mercial establishments of the lower town. Several houses were then in process of erection, rents were high, and landed property had recently been on the rise. The number of inhabitants is less than in the upper town. The elevation of the latter above the water is about 200 feet, and rises rather abruptly. The military arsenal, a large yellow building, is beautifully situated, in a level area, between the two towns. The public edifices of the upper town and lower town, are built in the style usual in the Brazilian cities, and the treasury has in front a high flight of steps by which it is entered. The streets are wide, and paved with a kind of clay slate, much worn. The old gelousias, suspended from projecting cornices of thick carved stone, are still seen at Parahiba, which in its general aspect, is like our towns. Mr. Kidder says, a gentleman just returned from a journey into the interior, described the state of morals and civilisation in the sertoens of this province, and of Rio Grande do Norte, as shocking in the extreme: " In those wild and thinly populated regions, where the traveller ferrets out his lonely path through the forests for leagues upon leagues without seeing a habitation, it would be natural to suppose that among the few existing inhabitants there would prevail great fraternal love and harmony, especially in view of their all being bound together in VOL. r. 80 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. They sailed by moonlight, with a tolerable breeze from the land, and as these coasting craft pass usually within the reefs which lie off the shore, they seldom encounter a rough sea. He passed the several little ports of Barras Pontas, Pe- dros Guyanna, Gracire, Pildinhu,c. Every village along the coast was adorned with its grove of cocoa trees. Se veral jangadas engaged in fishing were also passed. The coast presented sandy beaches, now and then intercepted by perpendicular bluffs of red soil, from twenty to sixty feet high, over which, to their verge, grew shrubs. On doubling Cape Blanco, he was landed at Tambuin, only six miles, across the country from Parahiba, whereas the voyage by sea would have been thirty to forty miles round another cape. Not being able to procure horses, he, with some others, walked to the city of Parahiba. He tells us, * My companheiros de viagem having determined to walk up to the city in my com pany, they proposed to carry my baggage, and divide between themselves the price offered. This suited me, and we started off. I had worn my tall Paulista boots on board the jangada, to protect myself from an occasional wave, and I now proved their value on shore ; for although we were on a royal road (estrada real) we were obliged to wade streams occasionally. " On leaving the sandy regions of the beach this road became very pleasant, although it was a mere path winding through an almost continuous forest. After the day s con finement within the narrow compass of my girau, walking was agreeable. The six miles soon disappeared behind us, and we began entering the suburbs of the city before we were really aware of it. On inquiring for an English gentleman to whom I had a letter, I was directed to his sitio, near where I entered the town, and finding him at home, was once more welcomed to the hospitalities, I like to have said, of a fellow countryman, for such truly do Englishmen appear and prove to us when abroad. The sitio of Mr. R., which at Bahia would be called a roga, and at Rio de Janeiro, a chacara, occupies the finest locality in Parahiba. It is situated on the brow of the hill, within the bounds of the upper town, and commands a view of the ocean on the north, the Cape and Fort Cabedello, the mouth and course of the river, up to the shipping before the lower town, including at the same moment a boundless and diversified landscape. The view from this place often reminded me of the far-stretching plains lying west of the Genesee river, as seen particularly from West Avon. Mr. R. was giving especial attention to the culti vation of his grounds, and planting many coffee trees, which, although they grow and produce luxuriantly, are but rarely found in any of the northern provinces. It is a sin gular circumstance, that coffee is retailed at a higher price in Pernambuco than in the United States. Orange trees suffer very much from the depredations of the ants, being sometimes stripped of their entire foliage in a single night. When a tree has thus been visited three successive times, it does not survive. My friend also had many of these invaluable fruit trees, while his place furnished a vegetable garden, fine springs of water, a yard of cows, and other valuable appendages of rural life, so that he might be truly said to have rus in urbe, a farm in the city. The house was large and airy, with brick floors, latticed windows, and no ceiling above, save in the parlour." CITY OF PARAHIBA. The harbour of this town is ten miles below, within the bar over which vessels of considerable burden may pass, and smaller vessels could be added, so that all might be kept dry. Thus rigged, my paquete was ready for sea. The only is needed for purposes of navigation were first, a setting-pole, to push off from shore ; ender mast, and a three-cornered sail to catch the breeze ; and third, a long, broad erve as a rudder. Its crew consisted of two men, the proeiro and pafrao, or the bowsman and steersman. l DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1385 ascend to the town; the river navigation upwards is performed in rude boats or canoes. Mr. Kidder was in this city during one of the many fetes. In the evening, he says> "The Matrix church, at which the fete was held, was situated near by. It stood at one end of an oblong area. Its front was illuminated by candles hung in broken lanterns around the door, and burning before an image in a niche attached to the cupola. Large fires were blazing in different parts of the area. Around them were groups of blacks, eager to fire off volleys of rockets at appropriate parts of the service that was going on within the church. After the novena was finished, all the people sallied out into the campo to witness the fire-works. These commenced about nine o clock, and continued, I was told, till after midnight. "Had this been a scene of professed diversion for a company of rude and ignorant Africans, it would have been more sufferable. But professing to be part of a religious service (honra a Nossa Senhora Padroeira) performed on God s holy day, and joined in with enthusiasm by priests, monks, and people, I confess it shocked my feelings in the extreme, and I wished myself almost anywhere rather than witnessing it. Whole fami lies, including mothers and their daughters, were out in the damp night air to gaze upon spectacles partaking of the lowest species of the ludicrous. "The next day on horseback, accompanied by Mr. R , we passed through the principal streets of the upper town, in which are the convents, the prison, misericordia, treasury, palace of the governor, and several churches. Thence we passed out on the road leading towards Pernambuco, about three miles, to a 1 a tgz cruzeiro, called cruz das almas, cross of souls. Here we turned to the right, and descended to the low grounds on the bank of the river, which we followed back to the lower town. The river is very wind ing, and is not navigable beyond the present anchorage. Canoes go up a long distance, although in the summer season the bed of the river becomes dry beyond twenty leagues. Its prevailing course is north-west, and the town is situated upon the southern bank. One of the finest buildings it contains is a new trapiche, or government warehouse. In front of it were three English vessels anchored, loading with cotton and Brazil wood. They were the only vessels in port." Extending from the river, two streets contain the principal buildings and com mercial establishments of the lower town. Several houses were then in process of erection, rents were high, and landed property had recently been on the rise. The number of inhabitants is less than in the upper town. The elevation of the latter above the water is about 200 feet, and rises rather abruptly. The military arsenal, a large yellow building, is beautifully situated, in a level area, between the two towns. The public edifices of the upper town and lower town, are built in the style usual in the Brazilian cities, and the treasury has in front a high flight of steps by which it is entered. The streets are wide, and paved with a kind of clay slate, much worn. The old gelousias, suspended from projecting cornices of thick carved stone, are still seen at Parahiba, which in its general aspect, is like our towns. Mr. Kidder says, a gentleman just returned from a journey into the interior, described the state of morals and civilisation in the sertoens of this province, and of Rio Grande do Norte, as shocking in the extreme: " In those wild and thinly populated regions, where the traveller ferrets out his lonely path through the forests for leagues upon leagues without seeing a habitation, it would be natural to suppose that among the few existing inhabitants there would prevail great fraternal love and harmony, especially in view of their all being bound together in VOL. I. 8O 1386 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. the unity of the one church, at whose shrines they are all baptised and all confess: Yet, unhappily, intrigue, discord, and murder, seem to be the order of the day. Revenge arrogates to itself the administration of justice, and crime of the deepest dye tramples upon law, and sets its execution at defiance. The most trifling affront is followed by murder, and any man s life may be sold to hireling assassins for a pitiful sum." Enormous sums were expended in the erection of monasteries in this province. Most of them are now going to decay. Mr. Kidder says, in some which would accommodate 200 monks, there are not more than from four to six. He says " The government has shown its discretion by appropriating them to purposes of business and utility wherever it has had occasion. This province, following the example of some others, has given each convent th2 privilege of matriculating nine novices hitherto without effect. Ninguem quer ser frade * Nobody wishes to be a friar, is the common remark. Although a life of ease and virtual opulence would thereby be secured, yet such was the public and private dislike of monasticism, that, as yet, no one was willing to share its inglorious spoils." The monastery of San Bento has only a single tenant, the abbot. " This order here, as in almost every place where it is established, possesses engenhos with slaves and large landed property in the vicinity. The Carmo convent was without an inhabitant, save some troops quartered in it. The prior was recently deceased. He was described as a notorious bon vivant, answering fully the idea of a jolly fat friar. "As I one day passed by the prison, it appeared to be full, both above and below ; and, to judge from the loud talking and laughing within, it might have been taken for a place of amusement." Cotton and sugar are the principal exports of this province. The sugar estates do not extend far towards the interior, on account of the expense of con ducting their products to market. What sugar is made beyond the circuit of from fifteen to twenty leagues, is consumed in the form of rapadura, as the unclarified article is denominated. It is generally moulded in small cakes. The kind of beer, or spirit, called caxaca, is increasing both as regards its manufac ture and in the quantity drunk. Speaking of the food of the people, Mr. Kidder says The chief peculiarity which I observed at the table in these regions was a fondness for peppers, which even in Brazil, might be considered extreme. In addition to being bountifully served up in every dish, a pure decoction of this vegetable, in the form of gravy, containing sufficient/re to consume an unpractised palate, was deemed an essen tial dressing. 4 Farinha de mandioca was much used, with a preparation of oil, pepper, and vinegar, called farrofa." A great many persons, of Indian descent, are seen in Parahiba, although it is often difficult to distinguish them from the Portuguese on the one hand, and the negroes on the other, with both of which races they are amalgamated. Mr. Kidder returned by land to Pernambuco, and describes the incidents of his journey, from which we condense briefly the following. He praises the horses generally ; yet he was cheated in the one provided for him, and was accompanied by a mulatto guide. " On entering the first piece of woods, we passed two men armed with swords and PS, ot whom I had no favourable impressions, although they were talking cheerfully, and d,d not molest us Pacirico afterwards told me that they were hunters, on their way D secure game (bicho do matto). By and by the sky began to redden, and daylight DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1387 soon appeared. I now had an opportunity of observing our condition and appearance. I found myself to be astride of a genuine Rosinante, whose beauties and whose virtues would not have suffered in comparison with those of the original steed of the knight of La Mancha. At the same time, the horse of my man, Pacifico, was a worthy & com- panion. " Several showers occurred during the morning ; and between bridgeless rivers and wet bushes, through which we are constantly passing, my feet became very wet, notwith standing my high boots. At the distance of four leagues, we passed through an Indian village called Jacoque. It had a church, school, and some ninety or one hundred houses built in the ordinary style of mud and thatch. At nine o clock we arrived at Terra Cavada, the name of a sitio, to the owner of which I carried a letter. The senhor was not at home, but as it was raining, I did not scruple to accept the kindness of his good lady, who ordered a hammock to be suspended for my use while the horses could eat and rest. The situation was beautiful, and the whole vicinity seemed to be a plantation of bananeiras. The house was among the most indifferent objects in sight. "At eleven o clock I was ready to resume my journey ; but just at that moment I received an intimation from Pacifico that breakfast was preparing, and that we must con sequently wait. The repast was straightway served and well relished. "At twelve o clock we were again on our way. The rain had ceased, the busl:es had become dry, and all nature had put on a more cheering aspect. The face of the country was undulating, sometimes presenting a hill-side covered with denden palms, or an open ing sprinkled with mangabeira trees; and anon a dense impenetrable forest of varied foliage. " I frequently saw large copim or ant houses, both upon the sides and in the tops of trees. In form they resembled wasps nests, although they were much larger, and made of earth. In the course of the afternoon I observed a flock of large parrots, and some other birds of gay plumage ; also, a monkey passing over the road just before me, upon the connected branches of trees. "About two o clock we passed another Indian village, called Alhandra. It might have had a thousand inhabitants, but they were by no means exclusively Indians. The place appeared, in all respects, like the common provoacoes and villas of the country. About five o clock, P.M., I arrived in sight of Goyanna,a town ancient and celebrated in his tory. It presents a lovely aspect when seen from a distance, but of that kind which gives a very false idea of the reality. All the Brazilian towns have two peculiarities which add to their external appearance, first, the buildings have a uniform colour, white ; second, every eminence or prominent point within them is adorned with a temple of antique structure. " Goyanna is a Cabe$a de Comarca, or shire town. It is four leagues from the sea- coast, fourteen from Parahiba, and fifteen from Recife, situated between two small rivers. In it resides a judge of civil, and another of criminal law, who preside at the sessions ; also, a prefect of the police. It has a Latin school, two primary schools, a recolhimento, hospital da misericordia, convent of reformed Carmelites, and five churches. " On entering the town it proved to be miserable and dirty. Almost the only build ing which did not appear to have a downward tendency, was a new prison going up. Pacifico conducted me to the best, and perhaps the only establishment in the place in which we could be accommodated for the night. " The road, often crossing a stream or a canal, lay through a forest for several leagues, being wider than before. The air was fresh and balmy, and numberless birds of plumage and of song enlivened the scene: The soil was sandy, the surface level, and considerable hewn timber was scattered along the road. After proceeding two or three leagues, houses became more frequent, almost all of them exhibiting a bottle or jug at the window, as a sign that ardent spirits could be bought within. I saw frequent flocks of parrots and paroquets. The natural cry of the former resembles that of the common hawk. The day was beautiful. I overtook, and for some time accompanied, a troop of sertanejos,* whose horses were loaded with bags of farinha de mandioca and bales of cotton. In this manner nearly all the products of this province and Pernambuco are carried to market. * The term Sertanejo signifies an inhabitant of the Sertao. It is considered more dignified than matuto, and is applied to proprietors in the interior. 1388 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. I was not a litlle amused at their manner of mounting. When, on account of a high load they are unable to spring on at one leap, they take hold of the horse s tail, place their foot upon the gambrel joint, and walk up over the hips of the animal. About noon we came to an engenho denominated Caga Fogo, which appeared more as every Brazilian plantation might and ought to appear, than any other I saw in the country. The house was low but large, and neatly whitewashed, with green doors and window-blinds. It was located in the midst of an extended and fertile valley, surrounded with the proper out-houses, Hanked on the one side by a splendid field of sugar-cane, and on the other by green pastures, extending to the brow of the neighbouring hills, and sprinkled with grazing herds. Near by was a fine pond, furnishing water-power for the sugar-mill and similarpurposes, while its dam answered as a bridge to the stream, having a waste-weir for the surplus water. The next place, the village of Pasmodo, is remarkable for the manufacture and sale of great numbers of the knives (facets de ponta) which it is the passion of this people to carry, in a silver-mounted sheath, by their side, and their vice to use too often for des perate purposes. " We at length paused at Itabatinga, near to Iguarassu, where my guide left his horse, preferring to carry the cloak and portmanteau himself, rather than to attempt getting the jaded animal any further. I tried in vain to get an exchange for mine. In front of the house where we stopped was a cattle fair, which had collected a number of spectators. It seemed to be a branch of the weekly fair that is held at Pedras de Fogo, a place seven leagues beyond Goyanna. At that place vast numbers of people collect every Wednes day and Thursday for the general sale, purchase, and interchange of commodities fur nished and needed by the sertoens. As a means of judging of the concourse of people who assembled there, I was told that sixty or seventy oxen are frequently slaughtered on the spot for their sustenance. " Inguarassu is located upon an elevation, at the foot of which flows a small river of the same name, crossed by an ancient but very good stone bridge. It is a league and a half from the sea coast, and six leagues from Pernambuco. It is at present a villa, has a primary school, a convent of Antoninos, recolhimento, misericordia, prison, town-house, mother church, and four hermidas, or filial churches. It has the air of antiquity, and is on the decline, having but little business. I observed one temple with its roof fallen in. " Soon after passing Iguarassu, I overtook a troop of a dozen horsemen ; several blacks were riding forward, and their masters in the rear. In front of all was a drove of cattle, which I supposed to belong to the party, but which it appeared did not, being soon left behind. I ascertained that the cavalcade was from Assu, in the province of Rio Grande do Norte, eighty leagues distant, and on its way to Pernambuco to purchase goods. "During the several hours we rode in company, the moral condition, and the civil relations and prospects, both of Brazil and the United States, were thoroughly discussed. We had, in the meant time been travelling over the table lands, where engenhos and habi tations of different kinds were somewhat frequent amid a succession of clayey hills. At length the Rio Grandenses stopped for the night, and I had yet three leagues between me and the Recife. Notwithstanding a ride of nearly fifty miles since morning, my Kosinante still kept upon his legs. This was nearly all I could say in the beginning ; but it was now evident that, notwithstanding his appearance, his capacities fora long run were second to those of but few horses in the country. " Just before dark I passed the correio de governo, or government mail, which was a species of leathern trunk, strapped on the back of an Indian on foot. This is the usual -hod of conveying the mails in these regions; and, in addition to that of the govern ment, there is a weekly post of the same description between Pernambuco and Parahibu, supported by the merchants. We at length arrived in Olinda." DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1389 TRADE AND NAVIGATION OF PAUAH1BA. EXPORTS from die Province of Parahiba during the Year, terminated December, 31, 1844 together with their estimated Value in Sterling at the place and time of Shipment PORTS. COTTON. VALUE. SUGAR. Liverpool . . . bags. 23,111 tony. 1963 cwts. 18 1 Ibs. 16 a. d. 80,553 19 2 2lf 2 11 raaes. 148 309 381 barrels. 38 153 50 bairn. 1,750 6,766 3,000 9,580 Falmouth Gibraltar Hamburg; 61 5 3 1 18 Trieste Total 23,172 1969 2 1 6 80,765 2 1 838 247 V( !,(. .; I MPORTS continued. PORTS. S U G A R. VALUE. HIDES. VALUE. tons. 220 cwts. qrs. Ibs. *. d. number. t. rf. Falmouth 734 2 2 g Gibraltar. . 218 13 16 * * Trieste 961 Total 2134 15 .. 16 33,493 2 20,583 9005 N.B. In addition to tbe above, a considerable quantity of specie and sugar, as ako a few bags ot cotton, have been smuggled with the connivance of tbe Custom-house officers, who receive half the amount of which the revenue is thus defrauded. Average rate of exchange during the year, 9600 reis per pound sterling. SHOWING the Amount of Produce Exported from Parahiba do Norte, during the Year ended December 31, 1844, to British Ports in British Bottoms; ditto to Foreign Ports in British Bottoms; and lastly, to Foreign Ports in Foreign Bottoms. PORTS. S U G A R. VALUE. COTTON. VALUE. HIDES. VALUE. To British ports in British bottoms To foreign ports in British bottoms To foreign ports in foreign bottoms tons. 1173 244 716 cwts. 6 19 9 qrs. I 1 Ibs. 4 20 20 s. d. 16,220 2 4,458 9 6 12,814 8 8 bags. 23,111 61 s. d. 80,553 19 2 211 2 11 number. 17,183 3,400 s tl. 7,517 10 1,487 10 Total... 2134 15 16 33.493 2 23.172 80.765 2 1 20.583 9.005 TONNAGE Employed in the Export Trade of Parahiba do Norto during the Year, terminated December 31, 1844. NATIONS. Number of Vessels. Number of Crews. Tonnage. All in ballast on entering, with the exception of two British 24 318 6037 British vessels, 2 24 519 which brought one 1 5 73 300 and tbe other 280 barrels of cod Total 27 347 6629 fish, value 7Wl. GROSS Return of British and Foreign Trade at the principal Ports within the Consulate of Parahiba during the Year ending December 31, 1844. PORT OF PARAHIBA. ARRIVED. DEPARTED. NATION . Number of Vessels. Tonnage. Number of Crew. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Number of Vessels. Tonnage. Number of Crew. Invoice Value of Cargoes. British 23 5637 303 720 24 6037 318 103,915 2 519 24 2 519 24 12,814 Hamburgese 73 5 1 73 5 1,709 Total . . . 26 6-229 332 720 27 6629 347 118,438 J390 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, CHAPTER IX. PROVINCES OF PERNAMBUCO AND ALAGOAS. THE province of Pernambuco has constituted one, if not the most important, part of the Brazilian empire since the period of the Dutch conquest. It abounds with many good harbours, and the soil is very generally fertile. Its capital has been called the Tripoli of America. The province of Pernambuco, as reduced by the separation of Alagoas, is di vided into thirteen comarcas, viz., Recife, Cabo, Rio Formoso, San Antao, Bonito, Limociro, Nazareth, Puo d Alho, Goyanna, Brejo, Garanhuns, Flores, and Boa Vista ; the free population of the whole is stated by Mr. Cowper to amount to 600,020 souls (exclusive of foreigners) ; the basis of this calculation is the census taken in 1842, the period of the election of the legislative assembly of 1846, which gave for the whole province, 120,004 hearths, and upon the calculation made of there being five persons to each hearth : viz,, the husband, wife, two children, and one domestic. This last census, according to the best informed persons, is as nearly exact as can be ascertained. The number of slaves is by some calculated to exceed by two-thirds, the free population, others increase this estimate, but the former pro portion may approximate more closely to the true number. The greater portion of the slaves are employed in the 512 sugar plantations, which this province con tains, and in about 200 small engenhos in the western comarcas, where the coarser kind of sugar is manufactured for the consumption of the inhabitants of the Sertos (or mountainous region), in the provinces of Piauhy, Ceara, &c. The other predial slaves are employed in the cultivation of cotton, mandioca, vegetables, &c. In the comarca of the Recife, which possesses many extensive plantations of su gar-cane; the cultivation of farinha, vegetables, fruit, &c., for the consumption of the Recife and Olinda, with their suburbs, forms a gainful pursuit to the agricul tural people.* The island of Itamaraca, in this comarca, is remarkably fertile, producing tropical vegetables of every description, and is celebrated for the supe rior flavour of its grapes and other fruits.f * Mr. Cowpcr s reports. f Mr. Kidder revisited this island in 1842; his sketches are very graphic, and can ably afford extracts. He says " My passage to the island had been engaged by a friend ; and about noon of a fine day, I was hurried to embark on board the canoe, San Bernardo, with the intelligence that the tide having How, now furnished the most favourable opportunity for sailing. The wind was blowing ilmost a gale, and the idea of going to sea in a canoe did not seem very inviting. But on enter ing the craft all my apprehensions subsided. I found it not less than seven feet wide by about twenty-five in length ; yet it had been formed out of a single tree, and was much shorter than some others to be tound on the same coast. These canoes are worth from 500 to 1200 milreis DESCRIPTIVE SKETCHES OF BRAZIL. 1 39 1 The comarcas of Cabo and Rio Formoso possess the greatest number of sugar engenhos, having a considerable extent of sea-coast, and many rivers with tributary streams. The facility of transporting the produce to the Recife, offers an advantage, to the proprietors of the plantations, of much importance. In the latter comarca is the small town of Una, so notorious by the situation of its small but secure harbour, in which the slave-vessels may with safety land their each. The one in question was valued at 800 milreis, It had a short deck at each end, forming beneath, what I will call the fore and after cabins, midships being entirely open for cargo. This canoe carried an immense triangular sail and a jib, and had on each side an embono, or buoy, made of two large trunks of the jangada wood fastened together, and lashed to the upper edge to prevent capsizing. It was navigated by three men. The captain was a mulatto, and his two men were negroes. They carried, besides myself, two watermen as passengers. In going out, we passed alongside the JRegisto, to exhibit the despatch of the vessel. " We immediately bore away to the north, taking no notice of reefs or shallows, presuming they would not interfere with the slight draught of the canoe. There seemed to prevail the greatest harmony between the captain and his men, without any of those troublesome ideas of rank and authority which commonly prevail on salt water. After satisfying my curiosity about the mode of navigation, and enjoying the fine views furnished as we were standing off Olinda Point, I took undisputed possession of the after-cabin, and extended myself for a nap. The swell was very heavy, as we were in shoal water, and off extreme points of land ; nevertheless, our craft being light, shipped but little water, and we rode gaily over the surges. When I afterwards arose we were off Pan amarello, a fort and village of the same name, both distinguished in the his tory of the country. The island to which we were bound was just in sight from the top of the wave. About four o clock we landed at the Pilar a pova9io (settlement), so called after a church ofNossa Senhora do pilar, having completed the voyage of eight leagues in four hours. The whole coast in this part of the island is planted with cocoa-nut trees, in the shade of which are clustered a great number of huts and houses. I took a turn through the village. I found it built without the least regularity along paths winding in different directions. The church was rather an ancient building, with heavy walls, and a deserted aspect. Opposite, stood the theatre, apparently enjoy ing a much greater degree of prosperity. The houses generally appeared on the outside as if built entirely of the cocoa-palm leaf, but, in fact, this material only covered the sides, in the same style as thatch did the roofs." He says of a senhor s house " This domicile was of rather a superior order for the place, being built of strong taipa walls, whitewashed without, and having a good tiled roof. It had two front rooms, and more or less in rear, with an enclosure of a few rods of ground for a garden. Senhor M. was a man of about fifty years, short, thick set, and pleasant, although decidedly home spun in his manners. I] is family consisted of a wife, a daughter, and five grandchildren. The daughter, about a year previous, had been left a widow, and had returned to the paternal roof with her children. These children were pretty, and more than ordinarily intelligent in their appear ance. After supper, which consisted of hard biscuit and butter, with tea, a rede (a hammock) was suspended for me from rings at opposite corners of the front room. This was the first time I had slept in one of these swinging beds, which are the true fashion of the country. "Fisheries. The fish-pen (curral de peixe), is made by stakes driven into the sandy bottom. Small rods are attached to the stakes by means of cross pieces and withes, and brought so close to each other as to prevent the passage of any but the smallest fishes. The rows of stakes generally commence at the Praya, and run in a right line into the sea, some ten, twenty, or thirty rods, ac cording to the depth of water, and thence describe an enclosure, in some form between a square and circle, with openings towards the land. Into these the fish run with the ebb-tide, and are then easily taken in a net. The privilege of building these curraes is licensed by government. Some times a place is found for them a long way out from shore, and one or two that I saw appeared to be on the reef itself, or some branch of it, not less than half a league distant. Being constructed of stakes of equal length, some of them appear very well at a distance, and not unlike fortifications. A great profit is generally realised by their proprietors, and occasionally 200 or 300 milreis per day. When, however, their products fail, it is a public calamity to the community of islanders and coast residents, whose principal articles of diet are fish and the cocoa-nut. " There are several churches in the island, and very many of the houses have their saint or tutelary deity. " On the second day, having engaged a horse for riding, I proceeded about two miles along the southern shore, alternately in paths among the cabins, and upon the hard white sand of the beach. The dwellings extended with more or less regularity the whole distance, while I had the day un HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. happy cargoes. The municipality of Sirenhaem is famed for its fruitful soil, the small river of the same name running through the valley irrigates the land, and adds to its fertility, especially during the dry seasons. In the comarcas of Nazareth and Puo-d Alho are some sugar engenhos, many cotton plantations, and extensive fields of farinha de mandioca. The comarcas of Bonito and Limo- ciro have a few sugar estates ; in the latter, the cultivation of cotton is prin cipally attended to. The comarca of Goianna, named from the town of that name, formerly a city of much importance, has a considerable number of large sugar engenhos ; most of them have the advantage of water-conveyance by means of the River Goianna, at whose mouth is the small port of Catuama, another favourite spot at which the slave-merchants order their vessels to disembark their cargoes. At Pedras de Frego, situated at the line of division between this comarca and Parahiba, is held the greatest cattle-fair in this or the adjoining provinces ; the town is, in consequence, rising in importance. The sertao of the province comprises an extent, from north to south, of fifty leagues, and 147 leagues from east to west. Many parts of the interior, far west, were little known till the year 1815, since which period, it has increased in wealth and pros perity. The Sertenagos are a fine muscular race; sober, steady, honest, and in defatigable in their occupations, either attending to their horses and cattle, of which they have considerable herds, or occupied in their cotton, or vegetable before found them in the same manner a mile and a half to the westward. Thus it may be said, that the whole eastern shore of Itamaraca is covered with habitation?, embowered in the shade of one continuous cocoa-grove. " Nothing could be at once more useful and ornamental than these magnificent palms. They are planted in regular lines, and grow to a nearly uniform height. Their trunks are slender and limbless, marked only by regular scars left in their growth, as one set of deciduous leaves falls off, yielding the precedence to another. Quite in their lofty top the fruit is clustered. The leaves, though simple and plume-like in form, are majestic in size. They stretch in various curves from the common centre of each tree-top, so as to unite their extremities, and form an umbrageous canopy so dense as to be scarcely penetrated by the rays of a vertical sun. These bowers are ever green, and whether illuminated by sun, moon, or star-light, they shed down by varying reflections a sombre brilliancy, calculated to chasten the feelings and soothe the heart. Throughout all this vast arena the grass grows wild, and the turf is intersected by narrow, winding paths, exhibiting a white sandy bottom beneath. Here the mild air of the grove is freshened by an almost unceasing breeze from the sea, while he who enjoys it can look out upon a boundless expanse of the ocean. heaving its restless tide, and breaking into foam over the coral reefs which girt the island. The strip of the shore planted with coqueiros, varies from forty to one hundred rods in width. Beyond this, the prevailing tree is the cajueiro, or cashew, which, together with the vine, the mangueira, and other trees, produces fruit in great abundance and perfection. " It was the lamentation of every one I met, and especially of mine host and hostess, that I was not there in the summer, the season of fruit. " Many remarks might be made respecting this interesting island. I shall only add a few on state of society. The great majority of the inhabitants are watermen, and employed more or ss upon the fisheries. They seem to abandon themselves very much to the luck of their profes- lon and to have very little idea of regular and persevering industry. What little labour the men arm on shore is generally done mornings and evenings. After the sun s rays begin to be felt seriously, they may be seen gathering into groups for conversation, or stretching themselves out in :ne slii e of their trees and houses for repose. The females seem to be more regularly employed, and most of them add to the very simple routine of their domestic duties an almost uninterrupted ting ot thread lace. A number of the men own little plots of ground occupied by their hut a tew cocoa-nut-trees ; others rent their tenements of a reserved proprietor, at two milreis per month." DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1393 plantations. This district is comprisedin the comarcas of Brejo,Garanhuns,Flores, and Boa Vista: in the comarca of Brejo the most valuable quality of Brazil cotton is produced ; yet the distance, fifty leagues, by land from the Recife, the port of shipment, occasions a serious expense. The products of these districts cotton, hides, &c. are carried to the Recife on horses : each animal laden with two bags of cotton, weighing four to five arrobas, or 150 Ibs. each bag; hides and other articles in proportionate weight ; the valleys in the other comarcas of the sertao are very fertile ; Enci is the most distant, being 180 leagues west- north-west from the Recife. This extensive district is, in general, visited septen- nially by drought, the earth is then parched up, the rivers and the streams are dry, and sustenance for man or beast is with difficulty obtained. The sudden change of temperature common in other climates, is rare in Per- nambuco, especially during the summer months, at which period the weather is delightful: in the rainy season, some days occur when the atmosphere is charged with haze and mist, rendering the sun invisible: some minutes before the rain falls the clouds descend, thick and black; the air is oppressively close, the heaving of the sea is suspended, and a gloomy calmness prevails, sure prognostics of the approaching rain, which shortly pours down in torrents, re freshing the parched earth, and fertilizing the soil. The provincial government has for the last seven years, effected improvements of the principal roads to the interior; opening one to San Antonio, and the neigh bouring towns south-west, is proceeding rapidly. On this road, a long and high suspension bridge has been constructed across the valley of a turbulent river; the first bridge of the kind in the empire. The roads and bridges to the southward comarcas, are also attended to, and considerable sums were ex pended in their repairs ; various improvements are also taking place in the city of Pernambuco, not only in adorning it, but also rendering it more salubrious; a company has been formed to convey purer water into it than the inhabitants have been accustomed to drink, by underground pipes, from an exhaustless spring at Ipopucas, seven miles distant, and introduced into every quarter of the city. In various parts, fountains are to be erected for general use and public ornament, and it is in contemplation to supply each dwelling with water by means of pipes. This city is now enabled to maintain its rank in the empire, as the third of importance, and as the capital of a province so fertile and magni ficent as Pernambuco : the products of which exported during the last five years, viz., 1840 to the end of 1844, through the Recife, were, tons. Sugar to foreign port?, average each year ". . . .30,068 To ports in Brazil . . ; i- - Total 34,177 The exports of cotton to foreign ports, averaged 32,279 bags, of about VOL. I. 8 p HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. 1 60 Ibs. each ; and that of hides, the average number, exported from the province, was 72,500. There are, however, drawbacks on the progress of agricultural industry in this province. In the interior, the spirit and influence of practices of feudal origin prevail; private animosities, aggravated by political feelings, enrage families, until vengeance is satiated by the removal of the offending party. Even in the towns these diabolical passions occasion strife and wickedness. The following interesting account of the sugar plantations or engenhos of Pernambuco was, in 1846, furnished to the British consul by M. A. de Mornay, a gentleman, who, from his occupation as a civil engineer, has frequent oppor tunities of observation : " In the province of Pernambuco, the sugar engenhos are situated almost altogether along the coast ; and one is surprised in travelling through the country to find such a complete chain of them, not only along the main roads, or rather tracks, but along numberless cross-tracks, which cut the land in all directions, and extend as far as twenty or thirty miles inland. Immediately behind the land occupied by the engenhos, is a strip of land, varying very much in width, averaging about ten leagues, or thirty miles. The soil is similar to that of the sugar districts, and it is covered with a luxuriant forest of fine timber trees. Behind this again, is the country called the Sertao, or Catinga, where the cotton is grown, and which supplies all the cattle and horses for the use of the engenhos, and for general consumption along the coasts. There are, however, but two natural divisions in the soil and climate of the province. The land which lies along the coast, together with the forest land, forms one division; and the other is the Sertao, which comprises the whole of the interior. The soil of the former is a rich clay, or fine loam, exceedingly fertile, abounding in small rivulets and springs, and refreshed with rain at intervals during the dry season, and where it has not been cut away for cultivation, densely covered with wood. The soil of the latter is compact and sandy, and the climate very dry, the trees appear stunted, and are very thinly scattered over the ground; it is, lowever, very productive after the heavy rains of winter have fallen. The Sertanejos chiefly plant Indian corn, and a kind of kidney bean, which their principal food. It sometimes happens in the sertao that a winter passes it rain falling, and sometimes two or three dry years follow each other, in :ase the inhabitants suffer greatly from hunger and thirst, and whole fami- starvation, and sometimes in procuring food in the wood, they die of me poisonous root, and this is not of unfrequent occurrence. These > said to occur once in about ten years. The rivers always dry up in er, and for water during that season they depend upon the rains of win- i are collected in large artificial ponds ; or, if in the neighbourhood of a Arable nver, they dig wel , B in the dry bed The lation be said to SUGAR AND AGRICULTURAL PLANTATIONS OF PERNAMBUCO. 1395 be divided into two distinct bodies, and the distinction is not made between the white and black, but between the slave population and the free; very little dis tinction being made on account of colour. The reason probably is, that there are few families who are not tainted more or less with a mixture of negro blood. The free population of the sugar district is divided into three classes, the Senhor d Engenho, the Lavrador, and the Morador. The Senhor d Engenho is the owner of the land, the mill, &c., and he is also the sugar ma nufacturer ; he plants the chief part of the cane himself, but as he can always make more sugar than his own plantations will produce, he invites agriculturists who have a few slaves, to live on the lands of the engenho, for the purpose of planting cane, to be ground at the mill, and made into sugar, half of which is deli vered over to the Lavrador, the other being kept as his own share. There are also Senhores d Engenho who do not possess the land ; they erect the dwelling- house, mill, &c., and work the land for a certain number of years, generally eight to twelve; at the end of that time all the buildings, works, &c., belong to the owner of the land, and they are considered sufficiently remunerated for the use of the soil. The Lavrador is the cane planter who lives on the land of the Sen hor d Engenho, land and house-rent free. As well as cane, he is allowed to plant mandioca, and any thing for his own consumption. He delivers his cane at the mill, and there receives his moiety of the sugar. That of Lavrador is con sidered quite a gentlemanly employment, and men of good family, who do not possess, or who have not the means of working an engenho, think it no degradation to follow it. There are, however, Lavradores of all grades, in colour and re spectability ; some plant very extensively their plantations, producing as much as fifty tons of sugar yearly, while those of others will produce no more than one or two tons. " The Morador is a kind of tenant at will, he also pays no rent, but builds his own hut or shed. Both the Lavrador and the Morador are so far dependent on the Senhor d Engenho, that in the elections they are completely controlled by him ; but on those estates where the owner has some government appointment (generally in the police), or has acquired a power independent of the government, by allowing to live on his estates, and protecting assassins and other bad cha racters. The Morador, if one of these protected criminals, is completely in the power of the Senhor d Engenho, and ready to obey him in every thing, even in the commission of the most atrocious crime. " The social condition of the population in the sugar district is very peculiar, for with a very liberal constitution, its actual state makes it appear to be go verned on the feudal system. With all the machinery of the law apparently in force, it is in reality very little respected by the majority, the lower orders only fearing the Senhor d Engenho on whose estate they live, and the Senhor d En genho only fearing one more powerful than himself. It is usual for a man after 1396 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. committing a murder to go to a Senhor d Engenho and beg his protection, and unless he has private reasons for not doing so, he is always ready to padrinhar, godfather the criminal, thus adding to his power. " A rough estimate of the number of engenhos in the province gives about 600, and they occupy about an equal number of square leagues, or one square league each engenho. One square league of land is ample for four engenhos, so that this belt of land now occupied by sugar establishments, is capable of re ceiving four times its present number, and if the whole of the land suitable to the growth of cane were put under cultivation, eight times the number might very well exist. Each engenho produces on an average fifty-five cases of clayed sugar annually, fifty of white, and five of brown, or mos- cavado, which are equal to forty-two tons of white, and four and one quarter tons of brown, or 24,800 tons of white, and 2550 tons of brown, for the entire produce of the province (this is a very low estimate). Each engenho, with sufficient hands, and with their present rude mode of cultivation, might produce at the very least, thrice as much as at present, and if the whole of the land suitable to the growth of the sugar-cane were put under cultivation, the province would yield sixteen times what it does at present, or 396,800 tons of white, and 40,800 tons of moscovado. "The number of slaves is various on different engenhos, but the average may be taken at thirty for field blacks, and ten for house and other blacks, and the average number of blacks belonging to the Lavradores about twelve, making fifty-two, the average number on each engenho, or 31,200 for the entire black population in the sugar district, not including those in the capital or villages. To work an engenho effectively near the capital, forty slaves are considered a fair number, but far in the country, if the land be well wooded, twenty-five blacks will produce an equal effect, on account of the facility of procuring fuel and wood for fencing, and the land being more productive. There are engenhos in the virgin forests with as few as fifteen field blacks, and even less; the soil there is so exceedingly productive, hence the possibility of working an engenho with so few hands. There are some few engenhos with as many as 150 slaves, but the quantity of sugar they make is not in proportion to the number of hands, they are, however, kept in much better order, and the slaves are in much better condition. The greater number of engenhos are very deficient in slaves, and the consequence is, that much work, not of immediate necessity for the production >f a large quantity of sugar, is left undone, or very badly done, or else the slaves are very much over-worked There is a spirit of emulation among the Senhores Engenho to make a large quantity of sugar with a small number of blacks, but tead of accomplishing this by the economisation of labour and good manajre- : is generally done by driving the slaves at their work to the very extent their strength, and even beyond it. This forced work they cannot resist many SUGAR AND AGRICULTURAL PLANTATIONS OF PERNAMBUCO. 1397 years; they become thin and languid, their skin dry and scurvy, and of a dark slate colour, instead of the polished black of a healthy negro; and in those entren- hos where the slaves are in this state, there are always several who have what is called the vicio/ or vice of eating earth. It is a generally received opinion that this vice or desire to eat earth is wilful on the part of the slave, and persisted in, in spite of severe floggings, for the purpose of putting an end to his already nearly worn-out existence ; it is, however, more probably the consequence of a state of health brought on by over-work, bad food, and general ill-treatment; the appearance of a slave who eats earth is a yellow skin, a white fur on the tongue, and a dropsical appearance, particularly about the eyes; and the vice of eating earth is the effect and not the cause of the disease ; this disease is not confined altogether to the slave population, free children among the poorer class are fre quently met with, suffering from the same malady. "A child who eats earth is considered a reproach to his family, and he is said to be instigated by the devil, all possible means are tried to prevent his getting at any earthy substance, but all their care avails nothing, he continues in the same state, the devil, as they say, always finding means to supply him, he will sometimes eat the earthern water-jars. (< The hours of field labour during the season that the engenhos are not at work, are from six in the morning until six at night, and at most engenhos they give them, work about the establishment before that hour in the morning and after it at night, this work they call ( kinginggoo; the length of the kinginggoo* varies according to the disposition of the master, it very commonly continues from four to six in the morning, and from six to ten at night, and on some occa sions until midnight; during the season of the crop, which lasts from September to February or March, besides their usual day labour, from six in the morning until six in the evening, they are divided into two gangs to work in the mill during the night, one gang working from six until midnight, and the other from midnight until six in the morning ; half an hour is allowed them in the morning for breakfast, and two hours in the middle of the day to take rest and food, ex cept during the months of grinding, when they take their food how they best can. Their work at this season is very hard, and it is common to see them alter nately sleeping and waking, without interfering with their occupations ; the boys in the manjara (a seat behind the horses of a cattle mill), fearing to be observed, get into the habit of sleeping for a second of time only, and of rousing them selves sufficiently to whip the horses, when they have another nap no longer than the first; the black who carries away the cane trash from the mill, may often be observed taking a similar nap in the act of stooping to join the ends of the cane leaves round his bundle : and it appears that they derive rest from these con tinual momentary snatches of sleep during their night s labour. Some masters allow the Sundays, and one or two holidays in the year; but during the time of 1398 HISTORICAL PROGEESS OF AMERICA. sugar-making very few allow them Sunday. The blacks are generally insuffi ciently clothed; the men are allowed every year a pair of coarse cotton drawers, a shirt, and generally a hat also, and a piece of red baize to cover themselves at night ; the women have a similar allowance : their food consists of two pounds of dried beef, called came de siera, per week, and a measure of farinha de man- dioca every day, in quantity being about as much as would fill a wine-bottle ; the dried beef is very salt, and comes from Rio Grande do Sul. The general mode of cooking it is, by throwing it on the hot embers until it is burnt outside ; this is often the only food of the slave during the whole year, except, perhaps, fresh beef on Christmas Day ; the food is sometimes varied by giving them salted cod-fish ; to this sameness of salt food, added to hard work, may be attributed many of the bad diseases of the skin, to which they are subject ; a slight scratch, particularly in the legs and feet, often turns into the most obstinate sore. On those engenhos, where the slaves are not over- worked, a number of Creoles will be seen, and the general appearance of the blacks, healthy and cheerful, while on the other the young blacks are all of new importation, and a considerable portion of the profits of the owner must go yearly in purchasing slaves to supply the place of those who die. When they are very well treated, the stock is kept up by those bred upon the estate. If there were not, however, a constant supply from the coast of Africa, the slave population would rapidly diminish, and many sugar engenhos, in a very few years, would be unable to continue their operations. Many Senhors d Engenho already find their fabricas decreasing yearly on ac count of the difficulty of procuring, and consequent high price of new blacks. A strong healthy field black is now worth as much as 60/. or 70Z. sterling: before the slave treaty he could be bought for 251. sterling. " In a general view of the agriculture of this province it will be seen that nature is very little assisted in her labour ; in Pernambuco it is true that the earth is tilled, planted, and cleared upon the best estates in an efficient manner, but the choice of lands and the change of crops, manuring, the formation of roads and bridges from the plantations to the mills, are very little attended to. In Alagoas this is in a still more backward state; ploughs, and other European implements of husbandry are unknown there, and indeed they are not much used in Pernam buco ; I have only seen one plough in operation, notwithstanding that the tillage of the ground would be no less benefited here by their use than that of Europe ; the hoe is the favourite agricultural implement : in planting, it is the spade and plough , in cleaning, the rake and harrow, and cotton, sugar, mandioca, maize, and all the other productions owe their existence to it." Pasturage is in its wild state, and confined chiefly to the " catinga," where the grass grows spontaneously ; in the matto and cost a, grass is grown from seed, but scarcely for pasture, as the cattle are not allowed to graze upon it, but cut, and then carried for food to cattle-sheds and stables; the cattle of the poorer DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1399 classes, in the wooded country and along the shores, are excluded from the Capim da Planta, or sown grass, by fences, and find very precarious sustenance ; little attention is paid to the breeding of cattle in respect of crossing and im proving the stock, the horses are chiefly Spanish barbs turned out with the mares to graze in the " catinga," almost in a wild state ; the colts of this breed are worked young, and often fed on " caxaga," or sugar skimmings, and molasses, by which they soon lose their teeth, and then become nearly unfit for service. They are usually about twelve hands high, and are rather showy little horses. The horned cattle yield beef of good quality during the rainy season; but after drought it is of an inferior description. The milch cows, as such, are of little value, at least upon the coast ; the sheep are long-legged, with hair rather than wool, but the mutton is considered excellent. The manufactures of the province are almost entirely domestic or family work. In the Sertao the leather dresses of the Sertanejas, " redes," or hammocks, and a coarse, but not ugly, sort of cotton cloth is made, never dyed. This cloth resembles the shepherds plaid of Scotland and the north of England, and is used for trowsers. In the Matto those knives are manufactured, which are carried by every one, and used indifferently for all purposes, from eating their dinners to stabbing their neighbours. On the coast, lace is made of several descriptions; the most general is not unlike point lace, and considering the time occupied in its production, it is sold at a low price. A pretty work, too, peculiar to Brazil is also manufactured upon the coast, namely, " Lavarinha." Coarse cotton bags for sugar are also made at almost all the engenhos, in the houses of the poor : there is no large manufacturing establishment in this part of Brazil, except an English iron foundry in the capital, and two other English ones in progress. PERNAMBUCO, or, as this city is more commonly called in the country, the Recife, or the Reef, is situated close to the Atlantic coast, in 8 deg. 6 min. south latitude, arid 35 deg. 1 min. west longitude. Its free population, including the suburbs, is stated by the British consul, in 1845, to amount to 74,310 inhabitants, and the adjoining town of Olinda has 17,824, so that the total number of free inhabitants in these towns, exclusive of slaves, is 92,134, among whom are enu merated 160 French, 125 English, and 300 Germans, including 200 German labourers, who arrived under contract for the service of the provincial government. Of United States citizens, the numbers seldom exceed ten or twelve. The city of Pernambuco and its suburbs are divided into three parishes; within the town are those of San Pedro de Gonsalves, or Recife, San Antonio, and Boa Vista. These three contain seventeen churches, and also a British chapel; two monasteries, three recolhimentos, or asylums for girls, six hospitals (public and private), a theatre, a government palace, custom-house, prison, marine and military arsenals, and three suits of barracks for troops. Its institutions for public instruction are a lyceum, two Latin, and seven primary schools. It has 1400 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. three printing-presses, publishing two daily newspapers and three other periodi cals, besides occasional volumes of books. Its streets are paved in part, and illuminated by 360 lamps. Four old fortresses the Picao, on the extremity of the reef ; the Brum and the Buracco, on the sandy shore towards Olinda ; and Cinco Pontas, or the Pentagon, on the southern front of the city. The appearance of Pernambuco, when seen from the water is peculiar ; its site is flat, and but little elevated above the level of the sea. The white high buildings erected on the praya, seem to rise from the ocean. Inseparable from this view of , Pernambuco is that of Olinda, on a bold and picturesque hill two miles north. Its natural appearance caused Duarte Coelho as he arrived on the coast in 1530, to exclaim, " O linda situagao para se funda uma villa!" "O beautiful site for a town !" His exclamation was immortalised by being used, in part, to furnish a name. Olinda continued the capital of the province for about 200 years ; but, at length, owing to its situation not being favourable for commerce, from being too far from the Recife, which forms the only harbour near ; a town gradually arose up near the Recife, by which name it was called. Mr. Kidder says "Many of the houses of Pernambuco are built in a style unknown in other parts of Brazil. That occupied by Mr. Ray, United States consul, stood fronting the water-side. Its description may serve as a specimen of the style referred to. It was six stories high. The first, or ground-floor, was denominated the armazem, and was occupied by male- servants at night ; the second fm-nished apartments for the counting-room, consulate, &c. ; the third and fourth for parlours and lodging-rooms; the fifth for dining-roorns ; and the sixth for a kitchen. Readers of domestic habits, will perceive that one special advantage of having a kitchen located in the attic, arises from the upward tendency of the smoke and effluvia universally produced by culinary operations. A disadvantage, however, inseparable from the arrangement, is the necessity of conveying various heavy articles up so many flights of stairs. Water might be mentioned for example, which, in the absence of all mechanical contrivances for such an object, was carried up on the heads of negroes. Surmounting the sixth story, and constituting in one sense the seventh, was a splendid observatory, glazed above and on all sides. " The prospect from this observatory was extended and interesting in the extreme. It was just such a place as the stranger should always seek in order to receive correct im pressions of the locality and environs of the city. His gaze from such an elevation will not fail to rest with interest upon the broad bay of Pernambuco, stretching with a mode rate, but regular incurvation of the coast, between the promontory of Olinda and Cape St. Augustine, thirty miles below. This bay is generally adorned with a great number of jangadasy which, with their broad latine sails, make no mean appearance. Besides the commerce of the port itself, vessels often appear in the offing bound on distant voyages, both north and south. No port is more easy of access. A vessel bound to either the Indian or the Pacific Ocean, or on her passage homeward to either the United States or Europe, may, with but a slight deviation from her best course, put into Pernambuco. She may come to an anchor in the Lameirao, or outer harbour, and hold communication with the shore, either to obtain advices or refreshment?, and resume her voyage at plea sure, without becoming subject to port charges. This is very convenient for whaling ships and South Sea traders, which accordingly make this port a great rendezvous. In order to discharge or receive their cargoes, they are required to come within the reef, conform to usual port regulations." Ships of war seldom remain long here. None of large draught can pass the DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1401 bar, and those that can are required to deposit their powder at the fort. The strong winds, and heavy roll of the sea, are frequently sufficient to part the strongest cables. The commercial shipping is under full view from the observa tory, yet it is too near at hand, and too densely crowded together, to make an imposing appearance. O LINDA, built upon a hill, has white houses and massive churches with luxu riant foliage interspersed amongst them, in which those edifices on the hill-side seem to be partially buried. From this point a line of highlands sweeps inward, terminating at Cape St. Augustine, and forming a semicircular reconcave, analo gous to that of Bahia. The summit of the highlands is crowned with green forests and foliage. " Indeed," says Mr. Kidder, " from the outermost range of vision to the very precincts of the city, throughout the extended plain, circumscribed by five-sixths of the imagined arc, scarcely an opening appears to the eye, although, in fact, the country overlooked is populous arid cultivated. Numbers of buildings also, within the suburbs of the city, are overtowered, and wholly or partially hid by lofty palms, mangueiras, cajueiros, and other trees. The interval between Recife and Olinda is in striking contrast to this ap pearance. It is a perfectly barren bank of sand, a narrow beach, upon one side of which the ocean breaks, while, on the other side, only a few rods distant and nearly parallel, runs a branch of the Beberibe River, This stream is navigable to boats as far as Olinda, and forms the principal channel of communication with that place, although the beach may be considered a species of turnpike." At a distance of from one-fourth to half a mile from the shore is the bank of rocks already mentioned as extending along a great extent of the northern coast of Brazil. Its top is scarcely visible at high water, being then covered with a surf which dashes over it. At low water it is left dry, like an artificial wall, with a surface sufficiently even to form a promenade rising out of the sea. It is from two to five rods in breadth. Its edges are a little worn and fractured, but both its sides are perpendicular to a great depth. The rock, in its external appearance, is of a dark brown colour. When broken, it is found to be composed of a very hard species of yellow sand stone, in which numerous bivalves are embedded in a state of complete preserva tion. At several points deep winding fissures extend through a portion of the reef, but in general its appearance is regular, much more so, than any artificial wall would be after exposure for ages to the surges of the ocean. Opposite the northern end of the town, as though a breach had been artifi cially cut, there is through this reef a channel of sufficient depth and width to admit ships of sixteen feet draught, at high water. Close to this opening, on the extremity of the reef, stands the fort, built by the Dutch. Its foundations were admirably, laid, being composed of long blocks of stone imported from Europe, hewed square. They were laid lengthwise to the sea, and then bound together by iron. A wall of the same origin extends from the base of the fortification to the body of the reef. VOL. I. 8 Q HISTORICAL PROGRESS OP AMERICA. The district of San Pedro is not large. Its buildings are chiefly in the old Dutch style of architecture, and many of them retain their latticed balconies or gelouzias. The principal street of the Recife is Rua da Cruz. At its northern extremity, towards the Arsenal da Marinha, it is wide, and imposing in its aspect. Towards the other end it is narrow, and flanked by high houses, like most of the streets by which it is intersected. A single bridge connects this part of the city with San Antonio, the middle district. This bridge across the Beberibe is more modern than the one having a row of shops on either side. That having been broken down in the revolution of 1824, was rebuilt in a different style. It has no covering, but is flanked on either side, and in the middle, by rows of seats, which furnish a favourite resting-place to throngs of persons who walk out in the evenings to enjoy the cool air and refreshing sea-breeze. On the side towards the sea vessels anchor near to it, though they do not pass above this bridge. At either end stands an archway, built of brick. These arches are disconnected with the bridge, although they span the street leading to and from it. The principal object of their construction seems to have been to furnish a prominent place for shrines and images. These arches survived the destruction of the old bridge, on account of the religious purposes to which they are devoted. In the San Antonio quarter of Pernambuco are the palace and military arsenal, in front of which a wall has been extended along the river s bank. Above the water s edge there is a row of green-painted seats, for the accommo dation of the public. The principal streets of this quarter, with an open square used as a market place, are spacious. The bridge crossing the other river is long, although the stream beneath is shallow. On the southern or south-western bank of this river stands the British chapel, in a very convenient place. Boa Vista is chiefly occupied by private residences and country seats. A few large buildings stand near the river 3 and, like most of those in the other sections of the town, are devoted in part to commercial purposes. Beyond these, the houses are generally low, and are surrounded by gardens or sitios. The streets are unpaved, and in a most wretched condition, and many of the streets and lanes in the suburbs are filthy.* TRADE OF PERNAMBUCO. Butter and other manufactured goods have been, but not altogether, supplied The hedges in the environs of Pernambuco are similar to those at Rio, although generally stvle Towth. Many f the houses exhibit an expensive, and at the same time tasteful, statues The ICU l \ * W&S pointed to " e > in the veranda of which was arranged a collection of W.ier being a wealthy and notorious slave-dealer, some wag, a few years since, ; to oblige or to vex him, crept in by night and supplied him with a cargo of new neg.oe, by painting all the marble faces black. an ther favourite section of the town A stone brid S e DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. J4Q3 by Great Britain ; latterly the woven cotton cloth called " domestics" has been in reduced from the United States, particularly for the African market. The American cloths of this kind are stouter and heavier than those of English manufacture, more equable in length and breadth, each piece thirty yards in length, and of the width of twenty-seven to twenty-eight inches. These " domestics 5 sell also for better prices than the English ; but the manufacturers of Lancashire are making an imitation of these " domestics/ the imports of which have been successful. In printed cottons those of Manchester and Glasgow remain unrivalled, except in printed muslins, in supplying which the Swiss are successful competitors. In linens those of Scotland and Ireland command a preference, although the few imported from Portugal are always in demand. In the finer descriptions of woollens, the French are profitably increasing their imports. Salted cod-fish, from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, is almost exclusively in the hands of the English. A chance foreign vessel may arrive on speculation, which is not injurious to those colonies, as the parties either purchase the fish, or take it in barter for other commodities. This trade forms a considerable item in the British commerce with Pernambuco: of eighty-eight English vessels which arrived and discharged in this port in 1844, twenty- six vessels were from the North American colonies. The French have introduced one cargo from the island of St. Pierre on the coast of Newfoundland ; yet with the bounty allowed by their government of twelve francs for each barrel of two quintals, it sold at a loss to the owners ; their fish is too large and fat to be sufficiently cured and prepared for the climate of Brazil. Tea has been principally supplied from the United States. Butler. The French have been within the last few years augmenting their importation of this article. In 1840, they introduced 4160J firkins ; 1841, 5549 ; 1842, 5066; 1843, 7981 ; and in 1844, 8962 firkins; the English imported dur ing the same years, viz., in 1840, 4437 firkins; in 1841, 3889; in 1842, 3249; in 1843, 4022; and in 1844, 3616 firkins. The quality of the French is con sidered much inferior to the Irish butter, and sells at lower rates. Earthemvare and Glass. The former is chiefly from England. Some coarse ware is imported from Oporto and Hamburg. The German common glass is much used from its cheapness. Soap is now manufactured to a very considerable extent in Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, and this city, but the quality is much inferior to the foreign. Hats.lhQ German manufacturers in this city supply a cheap article which is injurious to the import of common hats, with the exception of the Braga hats, from Portugal, which are always in demand ; the finer qualities from England and France are only worn by the higher classes and foreigners. 1404 HISTOEICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. /y ow r.. That of the finer kind imported from Trieste, is eagerly sought for by the bakers, to mix with that from the United States, which, together, make superior bread. Iron, bar and rod, iron-work and hardware, iron boilers and pans for the sugar eno;enhos, are all in considerable demand; the latter from England, except ing some inferior kind of hardware from the continent. The English iron is, however, favoured in the import duty, paying 1 rial 250 dollars per quintal, and Swedish pays 1 rial 750 dollars per quintal, a difference in favour of the former of 500 rials, or Is. Ofd. per quintal. Messrs. Starr and Co. s works for the manufacture of steam-engines, ma chinery, &c., are extensive, and prosperous ; two other English establishments of a similar description have been lately formed, with favourable prospects. A quantity of produce is sent to foreign ports from Maceio, Parahiba, Aracati, and Ceara, on account of merchants in Pernambuco, and received in payment for commodities sold to the shopkeepers and others in the interior. In this province many circumstances have tended strongly to check its pros perity ; the great depreciation in the currency, the baneful effects of the slave- trade, in draining the province of the precious metals; the great diminution in the produce of cotton, formerly its staple article of export, all operate against its prosperity. The prod uce of sugar has, however, rapidly increased, viz., 1828 to 1831, the average annual export was 1,607,389 arrobas, and in the four years 1841 to 1844, the same was augmented to 2,083,212 arrobas annually, an increase of 475,823 arro bas annually, or, 6797|| tons. The number of hides exported during the two periods of the preceding mentioned four years, has augmented in a yet greater ratio than sugar : iu the four years, 1828 to 1831, the annual average export was 60,272 hides, and in the latter four years of 1841 to 1844 inclusive, the same average has increased to 122,573 hides per annum, showing a surplus of 62,301 hides. Anew article of export has lately attracted much attention, the carnauba wax, obtained from the leaves of a peculiar species of the palmatto. In the sertao of the province, and the provinces of Ceara and Piauhy,are immense forests of this tree, which can provide an inexhaustible supply, should it be found suitable for the English market. The inhabitants of the districts where this palm grows, during the dry season of the year, beat from the leaves a white powder, which, being care fully collected, is boiled in water to the state of consistency forming the wax. Many small quantities have been sent to Liverpool as an experiment. In the manufac ture of composition candles and other articles it forms a principal ingredient. The candles made entirely from this vegetable wax in the sertao, are said to emit an agreeable perfume whilst burning. Bees -wax has latterly been attended to, and the management of bees belter understood. DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1405 The feeding of the silkworm has recently become a subject of interest. These products, if capable of being encouraged and fostered, would add con siderably to the advancement of this province. Were the imperial government in a position, with reference to its finances, en tirely to remit , or even to modify the export duty levied upon the produce of the Brazils transmitted to foreign ports, it would confer an invaluable boon upon the agriculturists. This duty is ten per cent upon a weekly average valuation of sugar ; twelve per cent upon cotton, coffee, and tobacco, and seven per cent upon rum, hides, and all other articles. The cotton districts require this relief perhaps more than any other, as the planters are obliged to incur very heavy expense in bringing their cotton, by horse conveyance, a distance varying from twenty to 100 leagues, to the Recife, during the dry seasons, when food and fodder for man and beast are difficult to obtain : the obstructions and charges are augmented, leaving him, the planter, for the fruits of his labour and industry, a sum little more than 1 %d. to 2^d. per Ib. RETURN of British and Foreign Trade within the Consulate of Pernambuco, during the Year ending the 31st of December, 1845. A R R I V E E m D E P A , RT E D. DESCRIPTION. Number of Vessels. Tonnage Number of Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. Number of Vessels. Tonnage Number of Crews. Invoice Value of Cargoes. REMARKS. tons. 907 398 789 74 tons. 16 582 962 309,668 r Six vessels in port 1844, sailed in 1845; < ten ditto sailed in Brazilian 7 95 6 750 10 2 514 132 25 583 1 ballast; one ditto Lremains in port. 19 3 766 219 118 461 20 3 993 231 114,899 r On* vessel was <j over in the year 16 2 278 191 13 381 16 2 *221 191 46,586 L1844 ; none in port. r One vessel over < in 1844 ; one now in 7 2 243 86 19 43Q 7 2 *>43 86 43,029 Lport. None in port. 24 5 009 362 58 814 28 6 183 451 97,298 {Nine vessels over in 1844; five ditto Sardinian 28 5 368 336 20,084 26 4 780 305 101,544 waiting cargoes. r Five remained < over 1844 ; seven United States 35 10 6,117 2 728 332 118 120,415 22 230 19 12 3,216 3,132 171 139 56,692 53,074 Lvessels now in port. r Ten vessels went south with part <{ cargoes ; two ditto sold here ; four re- Liuain in port. r Four vessels over <j in 1844 ; two now g 1 533 87 25,195 5 1,031 51 22,411 Lin port. 1 Three vessels in 3 562 29 10,366 2 450 21 9,069 < One vessel sailed 4 938 39 4,400 3 750 3 17,500 ( One vessel south Sicilian . 2 601 28 2,900 4 1,044 55 15,621 r Two were over J. from 1844 ; none in Lport. Total 242 49,796 2919 827,215 226 48,539 2725 913,574 1406 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA 0) ! S S I 2 1 " c o 11 S S 1 li? I ij M ! S I I CO S ! I ! 4 Porter. f g 8 S ; i i S w - EQ tT <N" I! 1= | I: s S :1 II j 1 j to i f 00 J" o" on" S t^ / t 4 1 :| 3D 00 O) = : ; II 5! co O Earthenware. ,-*-, rw>^\ ^v^ 970 loose pcs. 9,142 4,473 =! o J 1 f "cf <M ^ : :1 :l S fe 1 <C **" K " rj< o oT <N" = 1 |; 5 i! Si t- a \ 1 if :3 ; : : r ^r O O ^A* .2 -2- 0- : - c 2 * gg :S ; ; l 2^ 1 J S IS i H IS : o 4 S| m CO lO O t- . ^ <M n T . . ^1 *u : : 5 ^ ^1 c 0) c 3 1? oo e O CO 00 J5 T ( l <N SL O iO rr t-^ if y. .- n a : I 3 |S C ? -, : 3 i <N t. |l . 0) i! P O Woollen eu 00 *)< !l -f - 2S ;i Sc 11 : S & W 2 : :- - <f< ^ O S V ? I. M 00 V4 CO*H i-i si 1 * jfl o ; CO : : .* : 1 a. s 3 O a .S-o w tf D H 1 S? t. K r- .MM 10 ^ CO 1 PH 2 1 :* | r = 2 4 :- 2 2 : w g? S -"S U d i "s p to gSa t fc 1*8 1- e. < S 1 : : ^0 a 00,00 . 1 |s| 1 : OJ j : : : : 1 Cotton. j g 3| -| 11 1 22 1 -: I o * r- , i 1 CO II i HJ 60 1 1 I to H fe I ! U s iJlifiiill Totals Total in the year 1844 .. Increase Decrease ... Great Britain, 1845 i i Increase Decrease France, 1845 1 OAA 1 Decrease Hamburg, &c., 1845 1844 Increase Decrease 00 00 i rt Decrease DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 14Q7 QUANTITY of the following Articles Imported from Great Britain for all other Countries, COUNTRIES. IRON, IRONWARE, AND MACHINERY. Sugar Paus. Stove Plates. Shovels. Bar Iron. Hoops. Rods. Sheet. Ma chinery, &c. Chain Gables. An- chor. Nails. Great Britain... number. 183 number. 760 dozens. 892 number. 1810 bundles. 1283 bundles. 50 bundles. 170 tons. 108 nuinbr. 4 numbr. 27 kgs.&bgs. 257 6 1 31 23 318 Brazilian Ports France Portugal Hamburg, &c Other countries 325 1885 Total 188 7GO | 892 4020 1283 50 170 103 4 27 ARTICLES Imported from Great Britain, &c. continued. COUNTRIES. COPPER. LEAD. Cases. Single Sheets. Shots. Rolled. Sheet. Bars. White Lead. Bundles. Loose. Weight not declared. Weight specified. Great Britain Brazilian Ports number. 18 tons. cwt. 21 1 barrels. 637 38 701 156 12 number. 18 tons. cwt. 5 7 bundles. 75 75 number. 144 944 tons. 25 barrels. 100 62 Spain Other countries Total 18 21 16 1544 18 5 7 150 1088 25 162 ARTICLES Imported from Great Britain, &c. continued. COUNTRIES. WINE. CANDLES. COALS. CORDAGE. Pipes. Hogs heads. Barrels. Cases and Baskets. Wax. Sperm. Tallow. Compo- s.tioii. Hemp. Coir, and Manilla. Great Britain Brazilian Ports France number. 15 210 1091 8 number. 13 45 57 84 31 2 93 325 number. 6-2 23 120 156 1859 5 1 number. 34 138 896 5 364 24 Ibs. 67 1 Ibs. V 990 Ibs. iVo 30 20 Ib*. 789 10 1007 52 41 tons. coils. 1421J ; 232 58 15 785 116 coils. 776 52 13(5 Hamburg, &c Other countries Total 1324 222G 1461 68 997 1GO 1899 1430$ 1191 964 ARTICLES Imported from Great Britain, &c. continued. CHE ES E. MAC- CARONI PITCH n . , COUNTRIES. Boxes. Loose. DRUGS. POWDER. WARE. AND VERMA- r i.i. ii. PAINTS. AND TAR. POTASH. SIXS. Rosiv. Great Britain number. 487 packagf. 605 packag. 80 kegs. 5554 packag. 558 boxes. brls.,&c. 1313 barrels. 100 barrels . 8 boxes. barrels. 1 Brazilian Ports 9 605 108 26 9 551 799 "4 57 50 225 1641 Portugal 47 94 470 20 688 33 188 70 41 647 Other countries 189 94 84 87 809 52 656 1142 790 Total 2025 699 399 5554 1338 2179 1391 193 1369 3058 791 1408 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, TABLE showing the Export of the principal Articles of the Produce of the Province of Pernambuco to Foreign Ports, and the Nations by whose Vessels the same was conveyed, during the Year ending the 31st of December, 1845. NATIONS. Number of Vessels. Tonnage. Number of Crews. COTTON. S U G A R. 74 tons. 10,582 097 baps. 13,259 cases. 9,267 boxes. 134 barrels. 9,161 bags. 76,830 B raz il 10 2,514 132 55 184 10 7,137 979 Fr-ince 20 3,993 231 891 798 .. 1,635 29,625 16 2,2-21 191 11,879 2 2,672 7 2,243 86 1,798 .. 920 9,300 20 4.780 305 28 1,724 9 2,420 41,022 28 fi,183 451 426 1,802 294 17,833 18,162 19 3,216 171 9,104 23,410 12 3,132 139 14 2,382 399 5,542 3,045 *1) k 5 1,031 51 612 3 1,992 3,430 2 450 21 10 359 .. 252 1,740 3 750 30 ,, 645 .. 536 4,750 Sicilies 4 1.044 55 5,385 1,050 Total, 1845 Ditto, J844 26,562 41,385 19,571 21,388 849 772 61,892 75,105 216,015 96,890 77 119,125 Decrease .. 14,823 1,817 13,213 PRODUCE of the Province of Pernambuco to Foreign Ports continued. NATIONS. Total Weight of Sugar. Hides. Rum. Carnaubax Wax. Great Britain arrobas. 933,497 64,^99 208,288 14,560 145,898 31 ?,245 319,337 184,417 179,757 63,1136 29,304 62,090 48.292 Ibs. 2 9 I j 21 ; 2 j number. 24,208 2,678 89,913 817 1,975 1-2,443 6,814 10,888 3,200 .100 2,505 3,000 4,994 pipes. 93 723 93 344 183 153 barrels. 6 8 12 arrobas. 2768 1 Ibx. 28 Hra/il Spain Sardinia Portugal United States. Sweden Denmark Sicilies Total 1S45 2,565,8 24 2,146,688 3 11 163,935 124,074 1586 1429 26 241 2769 28 Ditto, 1844... Increase 419,135 24 39,801 157 2769 28 Decrease .. 215 N.B. Weight of Sugar, 1835. Do. do. 1844.. arroba*. Ibs. 2,565,824 3 2.146,688 11 tons. cwts. qrs. Jb. 36,654 12 2 11 30,666 19 2 3 Increase 419,13524 5,987 13 8 TABLE showing the Export of Cotton, Sugar, and Hides, from the City of Pernambuco to Foreign Ports, from the Year 1828 to the Year 1845, both inclusive. YEARS. COTTON. S U G j V R. Bags. Cses. Boxes. Barrels. Bags. Weight: 1828.. number. number. number. number. number. arrobas Ibs. number. 1829. 2,073 31,073 6,771 1,460,628 52,444 1830.. .. 61 151 4,973 28,973 8.222 1,463,332 46,573 1831 ^3 157 38,576 13,849 1,705,614 65,489 1832.. 1,402 42,466 8,429 1,799,986 76,584 1833.. 21,708 3,895 42,555 3,640 1,518,300 66,656 1834 1835 42,799 I M 48 3,432 1,262 54,477 27,110 5,444 1,143 1,301,612 854,088 84,743 86,350 1836 17,520 2,846 56,996 9,180 1,388,888 91,492 1837 4,163 65,337 31,399 1,828392 90,701 1838... 1,603 57,346 19,248 1,456,420 93,771 1839 1,929 68..S12 29,927 1,750,380 105,851 1840 1841 1842.. . 35,849 26,990 21 357 2-1,940 23,650 3,739 3,110 2,149 78,800 86,247 90,256 27,923 43,168 , 66,596 1.878,675 18 2,191,093 21 2,261,699 9 111,052 132,993 136,494 1843.. 3*5 906 1,361 78,739 54 390 1,906,936 18 125,296 1844.. 1.392 60,613 73,204 2,017,522 29 104,428 1845 26|562 19,571 772 849 75,105 61,892 96,890 216,015 2,146,688 11 2,565,824 3 124,074 163,935 DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1409 The SMALL PROVINCE of ALAGOAS, was formerly included within the limits of Pernanibuco, but was cut off from the latter, in order to reduce the province of the Pernambuccans, of whose independent spirit Rio de Janeiro has been always jealous. Alagoas derives its name from the lagoon, on which stood its old capital. The coast is very flat, with sandy beaches interrupted by red clay cliffs, eighty to ninety feet high. Maceio, the capital, is fifty-two leagues to the south of Pernambuco. Mr. Cowper, the British consul at the latter place, who visited Maceio, in January, 1846, says, the town is well-built, and contains about 5000 inhabitants; and that the port is sufficiently extensive. The trade of this place consisted, in 1845, in exporting produce, to the value of about 112,000/. sterling, exclusive of Brazil-wood (of which the crown has a monopoly), to the estimated value of about 12,000/. sterling. The direct European imports of manufactured goods, amounted in value to 8250/. sterling (all from Great Britain); and of the exports, the value of about 95,0007. sterling was exported in British vessels: twenty-five British vessels entered the port, and five belonging to other countries. A revolution had previously broken out in the province ; but it was suppressed, but not until the place was sacked by the party called the Sisos, or Smoothers, who were then established in Para ; the president of which has put down the press. The mere legislation of the province is considered a farce. Immense quantities of oysters abound in the lake of Alagoas, and constitute a cheap article of food. Some parts are very deep, but generally the water is shallow. The lands around the lake is devoted to the cultivation of sugar, with here and there a small town, or povoa^aos; the chief of these are Villa de Norte, Cocoa Seco, and Pedreiro ; and the principal engenhos, Carapina and Pinto. The country is undulating, arid the soil of that peculiar dark colour, said to be the best adapted for the growth of sugar; but the engenhos of Alagoas are very inferior to those of Pernambuco; filth and poverty seem stamped on their walls, and idleness and neglect upon their fields. Some engenhos have no more than six slaves, and make only four or five cases of sugar annually. Many of the sugar baking-houses are described by Mr. Cowper as merely thatched sheds; and the mill power is either water or cattle, never steam. Owing to the drought, he found the majority of the water-engenhos stopped ; at this part, however, the mundahu enabled them to work. The condition of the people is worse in this province than in Pernambuco, even near Maceio their huts were altogether built of cocoa-nut leaves a rare circumstance in Pernambuco ; but they appeared, however, to be tolerably supplied with the mere necessaries of life. " Passing," says Mr. Cowper, "the villages of Corto Latouba, and the En- genho Gassatorte, we ascended to the tabolleira, or table-land, and here the whole face of the country altered, it is about three long leagues in extent, and appears to be the barrier at this part between the coast and the matto, or forest." VOL. I. & R 1410 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. He divides these provinces into three natural districts : the costa, or coast; the matto, or forest; and the sertao, or highlands. The barren taballeira appears to divide the first from the second; cactacea, and other desert weed-plants, are scantily spread over it; the soil is sandy, on which no water rests, and the few trees that are met with are stunted, the whole appearance of the taballeira is de serted and wild : it has no inhabitants. At its extremity he passed a village called Boca da Matta, or Mouth of the Forest; here the soil changed to a rich light loam of a deep red colour, with large timber-trees. Mr. Gowper says, "The race of men visibly changed too; upon the coast we had seen the black, the white, and their varieties, forming a mongrel race, morally and physically degenerate, but on the side of the taballeira upon which we now found ourselves, the matto, the human species at once improved, few varieties were to be seen ; they were almost universally mulattoes, which, indeed, they call themselves; it is probable that an ad mixture of Indian blood may have produced this change, for it appears that human exotics improve by being grafted upon the indigenous race ; the mamalukas, or female offspring of the white and Indian, are universally considered the most beautiful women in Brazil; and I have do doubt that the superior physical appearance of the people of the matto to those of the coast, is the cross between the negro and the Indian. Two leagues from Boca da Matta, we arrived at Atalaia, a town, originally belonging to the Indians, situated, upon the Mundahu River, and containing about 1500 inhabitants; it is now in a miserable condition; it was the point at which most of the encounters between the government troops and the rebels, during the last insurrection, took place: this commenced what the drought has accomplished, the utter ruin of Atalaia. It is long since the Indians possessed it; they were driven out by the Portuguese, who raised it to con siderable importance in a commercial point of view; it became the emporium for the productions of Europe for supplying the interior, and they there received the cotton and cattle forwarded thence for the coast; until very lately it remained in this state ; the population being almost wholly white, but the brutality of the soldiers, sent to quell the rebellion, to the women, drove the Portuguese to the coast, and Atalaia has sunk into a receptacle for fugitive thieves and slaves; the insurrection cost the province 900 contos, or 90,000//> He passed the Engenho Cagado, upon the Mundahu, which was here quite dry, and reached the commercially unimportant town of Capella, on the Parahiba River, which the drought had dried up. Cotton, produced in this neighbour hood, is forwarded to Maceio on horseback. Here he met some of the wretched emigrants from the sertfio, driven towards the coast by the famine produced by the want of rain ; they looked like living skeletons. Leaving the next village, Costa, he entered the beautiful valley of Gamellera, at the foot of the Serra dos DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 141 1 dois Timaos. He says, " Highly picturesque mountains, several thousand feet above the level of the sea, and actually one thousand from the valley, are at its end; betwixt them the Parahiba falls over rocks, hollowed into caves, and rushes through the town, which is pleasing, and contains about 500 or 600 inhabitants. The hills upon each side are covered to their summits by palm-trees, in the most exquisite state of perfection ; from these the people extract oil, and in the lower parts of the valley plant cotton." He was several hours crossing the serra, which is the boundary betwixt the matto and the sertao, and about twenty-six leagues from Maceio due west, and then reached Assemblia, the first Sertaneja town. He then informs us, " In the sertao all is again changed the face of the country, the race of men, and their habits. The negro and his varieties are almost entirely lost, for very few slaves ever enter the sertao; the roots of this species (the sertao inhabitants) are the white and the Indian, the former predominating ; the women are very beautiful, feminine in their manners, and soft and gentle in their voices, forming a strong contrast with their fellow- countrywomen of the coast ; with considerable natural modesty too, they have none of the gaucherie of the latter, and their hospitality and kindness knows no bounds. The men are a fine, open-hearted, active set of fellows, devoted to their herds, which they tend on horseback ; they are unrivalled horse men: their dress is peculiar, and unlike any thing I have seen in other countries, it is entirely composed of leather; the hat is broad-brimmed and low-crowned; the guarda peita, or waistcoat, is slung round the neck, and has no back ; the tibao, or jacket, usually worn slung over one shoulder, like the hussar pelisse ; the trousers in two pieces, the legs being separate to enable them to sit their horses with greater ease ; then the long espada, or sword, with its silver handle ; the faca de ponta, or dagger, silver-hilted and sheathed ; the heavy silver spurs, with immense iron rowels; the patrona, or cartouch-box ; the flaying knife, or faca grande ; and the purse, wove by the women : the accoutrements of the horse too, with its high saddle and ornamented bridled, present a living picture, which it is impossible not to admire. They glory in the name of e Baqueiro, and the sons of the richest proprietors join their ranks. From their continued exposure to the sun, there is a marked difference in their colour and that of the women; and it is, perhaps, particularly owing to this wild state of existence, and to their frequent, and to our ideas not justifiable, forages upon the Indians, that we may attribute their practice of taking justice into their own hands." With reference to the change of soil from the sea-coast inland, he says, "Upon the immediate coast, the soil was flat and sandy; a little inland, muddy alluvium, rising gradually in undulating hills, a rich black loam was the prevailing supersoil, next the light red loam, and hills of increasing altitude, covered with HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. magnificent timber; but in the sertao, after passing the Dois Timaos, the country is peculiar: it does not present a range of serras, but a multiplication of stupen dous isolated mountains, or, at most, short ranges, very often almost impassable ; these mountains are excessively rocky, and the singularity in their appearance is, that their superficie is covered by broken pieces of rock, sometimes so regular in form that, where the red limestone prevailed, they resembled heaps of bricks." He collected specimens of a variety of marble, crystals, and stalactites, during that journey. Of that vast portion of the sertao, the catinga, or plains be tween the serras, which is devoted to pasture, he says, " They are most im portant districts, inasmuch as the whole of the cattle and horses of the country are bred there. Why the term catinga has been applied to it is doubtful, the only known meaning of the word in the Portuguese language, is the peculiar smell which is said to exude from the bodies of dirty blacks. The catinga has an excessively barren appearance, the soil poor, arid, and gravelly; the trees, or rather brushwood, stunted; cactacese, of infinite variety, abound; one solitary fruit, the imbu, is produced there, and nowhere else; but most im portant of all, is the wild grass, or capim, which springs up in immense profusion at the slightest rain. Three years of drought, when I passed the catinga, had rendered it a desert; indeed, the miserable horned-cattle had instinctively learnt to knock off the thorns of the cataceee, and devour their stems ; the starving population, or the very few that were left, were eating the fruit of cactus, and that of the imbu. We frequently travelled a whole day without meeting a soul. An intelligent French engineer is of opinion that the catinga was once covered with forests, which, having been burnt, destroyed the soil for the purposes of high vegetation. I arn of an extremely different opinion, for these reasons: first, I have never seen large forests on a gravelly soil ; secondly, for what purpose could the forests have been destroyed, and so extensively ? for the catinga not only exists in Pernambuco and Alagoas, but runs in an uninterrupted line from Bahia, and perhaps further south, to Piauhy; and, lastly, there are no remains whatever of large timber, or that rich dark soil and red subsoil which distinguishes the forest lands of this country, produced, I presume, by the decay of vegetable matter. I believe the soil of catinga to be virgin ; and it is upon this, as I before observed, that all the cattle of the country is bred. " There are oases to this desert in the shape of well-watered hills ; it is upon these spots that the towns of the sertaos are placed, where cotton is produced, and its agriculture flourishes. Assembled was the first of these, it is situated upon the Parahiba River, and had been a place of considerable commerce before the drought; it was now (1846) in a state of dreadful destitution, crowded with refugees from the catinga, with farinha at famine prices, and these unfortunates, without DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1413 roof s to cover them, were living or dying, or both, in the ditches, with a few leaves placed from bank to bank as a shelter; the Parahiba had ceased to flow, but like all the rivers of this province the bed was rocky, so that it retained portions of water between them in hollows, which the people called * pocos/ or wells. In the neighbourhood of Assemblea we visited the cotton estate, or Fazenda de Algodao/ of Lorenzo." At Lorenzo he first observed the marked distinction between the Senhor do Engenho and the Senhor da Fazenda, " the former is the feudal lord, the sovereign and owner of all upon his property, and he lives in a certain degree of state ; the latter great proprietor and planter is still a chief, but neither the sovereign nor owner of his people ; he lives very much as they do, and his sons call themselves baqueiros/ and act as such, too, in the same manner as the poorest tenant upon the estate ; they both have infinite power, the first from the fear inspired by his position ; the second, from the affection generally felt for his person. The Senhor do Engenho commands; the Senhor da Fazenda requests, and they are both obeyed. Assemblea contains about 1800 inhabitants; passing from thence through the Matto Oscuro into the Valley of Limoeira, we ascended the Serra de Gravaha, and reached the town of Gluebrangula in the evening; it is situated upon the Parahiba, it contains about 2000 permanent residents, but was filled like Assemblea, with emigrants from the upper sertiio ; it was one of the principal commercial emporiums upon the Parahiba, but [owing to the drought is falling rapidly to decay. We slept at a very fine Fazenda de Gado, or cattle estate, about two leagues from Quebrangula, called Gamella, and crossing a mountain called the Serote, the next day passed the small village of Passages, when recrossing the frontiers into Pernambuco, we arrived at the town of Papacaca, beautifully situated amongst the hills, and surrounded with cotton plantations, it is 100 leagues west-south-west from this city, is a new town, and I have no doubt that when the river communication is once more open, it will become an important commercial station, it contains about 1000 inhabitants, whose amiable simplicity and hospitality I shall always gratefully remember. " Upon the 30th of January we crossed the most formidable mountain which we encountered during the whole journey, called the Serra de Travassada, and entering the catinga, passed the Fazendas de Gado of Trapiar and Salgado ; we then crossed in quick succession the Serras of Communati, Ponta, and Panema ; in the latter we rested at the Engenho das Antas, the only sugar estate which we saw in the sertao ; indeed, sugar is infinitely scarcer there than in England, we carried our own with us ; we passed through the pretty village of Agoas Bellas, and descending the Serra de Panema, arrived at the town of that name, formerly called the Panema dos Indies, but, alas ! that devoted race are driven from there 1414 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. into the neighbouring catinga, where they commit depredations upon the cattle, and are in turn shot wherever met with, as a baqueiro said, in my presence, < Of all the beasts of the field the Indian is the worst, when I meet one I shoot him like a ti^er. Panema contains probably 800 or 1000 inhabitants, and does not appear to be a place of much commercial or agricultural importance it is sur rounded by cattle fazendas. MOXOTO TRIBE. " From this point we entered a territory infested by Indians, this tribe, called Moxoto, is very extensive ; they are so far wild that they decline submitting to the Brazilian government; they go quite naked, are armed with bows and arrows, and live by hunting, and, as the whites say, by depre dation upon the cattle belonging to them, and by robbery and murder ; on the other hand, they occasionally voluntarily seek work in the towns and at the fazendas, and are sometimes hunted, caught, and forced to work. When we were there, the inhabitants formed parties to go out and shoot them, asserting that orders had been received from Rio de Janeiro to exterminate them, but I cannot believe that so cruel a mandate could have been issued ; as far as our experience goes they are perfectly harmless, we met them repeatedly in the catinga, leagues from any habitation ; we were two foreigners, with a pair of pistols between us, our watches, chains, &c., visible, and our baggage-horse carrying provisions; they were starving, but they never molested us in the slightest degree/ Leaving Panema, he proceeded across the catinga to the Serra dos Cavallos, passed the village of Logrador, and the Fazendas of Lagumes and Cai9ara, in the serra of the latter name, crossed the frontier to the province of the Alagoas, arrived at Pilao, then passed through Capar, both insignificant places, then crossed the Serra de San Francisco, again into the catinga, and through the villages of Metade and Mereceocla, to the Serra da Matta Grande, in the midst of which the town of Matta Grande is situated; in the most fertile spot that he had seen since his entry into the sertao. It was covered with cotton plan tations. Matta Grande is well-built : contains not less than 3000 inhabitants: be fore the drought it was the most important trading place of this part of the sertao. It is 128 leagues from Pernambuco, and seventy-six from Maceio. He travelled onwards to the Fazenda de Gatto, and the villages of Boucheron and St. Bento, in the catinga, and ascended the Serra de Matta Branca, from the summit of which, on a clear day, the spray of the Falls of Paulo AtTonso may be seen, fourteen leagues distant ; the town of Matta Branca is situated amongst hills, which are very fertile, and produce good cotton, which is conveyed to Piranhas. We have in a former chapter introduced Mr. Cowper s account of the River San Francisco. He returned by land to Maceio from Penedo. He informs us that abundant supplies of ship-building wood may be obtained in the neighbour- DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1415 Iii many parts, after leaving Penedo, the country exhibited burning forests, and at different intervals, the conflagration continued until they arrived at Pernambuco, a distance of eighty leagues. This destruction is attributed, in some cases to wantonness, in others to carelessness, but Mr. Cowper believed that the continued drought had rendered the fallen foliage and brushwood so combustible, that it was impossible to guard against their accidental ignition. From Penedo he passed in succession the hill of Minimba, remarkable for its steep ascent, the village of Ospontes, an extensive tabalkira, the Engenho Pesco90, the Rivers Conindongo and Xinga, the village of Benguela, and the Engenhos Genepapo and Por^uo, upon the Cururipe River; at the latter there is good building timber. He then proceeds onwards by the Lagoa de St. Lucia, and the town of that name, the village of Boca da Matta, the Engenhos Tiquia, Prata, Novo, and Caoeascomba, and passed the hill of Barra Branca, to the town of San Miguel, which he describes as a rather well-built place, containing about 1500 inhabitants. In its immediate vicinity is the Engenho Tequimba, from whence to Taparagua the road for seven leagues is through virgin forests, which are so termed in Brazil when they retain any trees of the original forest; but, he says, <e they are very unlike the noble forests on the Amazon, which^have never yielded to man." He passed through Paparagua, which has about 500 inhabitants : it is a large environ of Alagoas. ALAGOAS is situated about a mile from it, on a picturesque hill on the borders of the lake, but grass is growing in its streets, and it is falling rapidly to decay; its population is about 3000. He then embarked on the lake, and crossed to Maceio. Proceeding along the coast, he passed the dangerous quicksands of the Menon River on horseback, the village and river of Pioca, the bar, river, and village of St. Antonio, and some most beautiful cretaceous cliffs, the only break to the monotony of sand-hills which he had seen on the coast of Brazil, they are about 100 feet high, of a blue and white colour, ruptured occasionally into deep, picturesque ravines. At this point he left the coast, and proceeded up the Camaregibe to a bustling little commercial town called the Passo de Cama regibe, with about 1000 inhabitants. Good building timber of various kinds grows in its neighbourhood. The exportation of timber is, however, prohibited except under special licence from the imperial government, which is not conceded for ship-building timber. He passed near Camaregibe an engenho worked by freemen. In the same part of the country he says there existed a horrible disease, which he had never before met with, or indeed heard of. It is called " goma ;" the sufferer in this case 1416 B1STOJUCAL PEOGKESS OF A1IEB1C4, theSenbor do&geahoof Vaga da Souza ; it is spoken of as of a cone bro^Jit from Afirica, of which white men only are the It is said to be incurable- The iiory is that if a white nian copulates with an African girl of a - lUia tuaatiMi"*, " break out after a certain time, which are difficult to heal, aad attack the kg and anna, h* they .."i natailljkiii the body; not so the disease, which is sure to appear afresh before death in die shape of "goon," when the flesh by degrees withers from the bones. The consul, howtr, imagines die whole story to be M|Ja*v and believes the " bobas" to be nothing more than the common a saraa/* to which every one in that country is more or leaf liable, and that it has nothing |atfflii to do with the " goma/ 9 which has alt the appeal *re and rharirirriaJin of leprosy, also a malady with which that country is unfortunately afflicted. From Caanregibe he passed the Engeahos Canto, Lacea*, Matta Bedooda, Capitao Dias, Santa Cruz, IV*jerc% and reached the town of Porto Cairo upon the Una. It is now a small place with large houses, and a tity-Uke appear- mute. It taafrrH ntndt in tfrff It still carries on some trade, and jyyeii* to be giaduafiy recovering its former IVptfjfiiiig onward* he p-ird the Engenbos Gara d Onca, Pao d Arco, Taparatuba, and Daas Barns, [and then itninaatri the frontiers from Alagoas to the province of Pernambuco. On his journey to the capital of the latter, he passed the Eogjonnos Paracinha. Sar^. and Lamoeira, to the pros perous town of Bio Formoso, upon the river of that name. The commerce of this town he describes as considerable ; it* population is about 2000. After leaving the town he travelled onwards by the Engenho Gaucano, and village of San Amaro, the Engenhos Tropixe, Agoa Fria, Anjo Tacero, to the town of Seringhaem. upon the Seringhaem River, a place with very Uttle commerce, and not above 1000 inhabitants. He visited the g^f^im St. Braz, Rosario. Caxoeira, and Caxoeira Xora, and a beautiful little cascade upon the Sering haem, and the mouths of the Formoso and Seringhaem, and after visiting the several Engenhos of Genepapo, Pendanbinha, Caet Salgado, Meoces, and VehSo, and the town of Cape St. Augustin, a flourishing place, with a population of about 1500 souls. He arrived at the city of the Recife, Peraamboco, having accomplished a most arduous journey of 305 leagues in thirty-seven days, and lost six horses through the privations which they suffered. MACEIO. The port of Maceio, is protected by a reef of rocks, visible at ebb tide. The beach within it forms a semicircle of white sand. Immediately back from the beach are a row of white houses, with here and there groves of coqueiros, bearing fruit. Upon the hill above stands the city of Maceio, with a population of about 3000. There is not a convenient landing-place in its harbour. DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1417 In 1844 Maceio, contained two churches, in miserable repair, and two in the process of erection, but no convents. Its other public buildings rere a theatre, a govern men t-ho use. barracks for soldiers, and a camara muni- :dpaL The theatre was ornamented outside with rude crosses and forms repre senting stars and circles ; apparatus for illumination was affixed to all these ornaments. .Notwithstanding various evidences of popular interest in this sdifice, it stood open and apparently deserted, one of its sides having yielded to the force of gravitation, or having been pulled down for repairs. Most of the jhouses in Maceio are built of taipa, and, with one or two exceptions, do not exceed a single story in height. Children who are not free run about naked : free women employ themselves in lace-making. The shops are described as wretched. The place altogether is described as dull and uninteresting. There is an English and foreign burying-ground, but Mr. Kidder says, its gate, " made of wood, had been suffered to decay and fall in pieces, and thus the enclosure was left open and desolate. Many of the bouses in the extremities of the town are very small, and covered only with a thatch of the cocoa-palm leaves." The exports of the province of Alagoas are chiefly sugar, cotton, hides, Brazil-wood and rosewood. Sugar, in large cases, is brought from the interior, upon rude carts, drawn severally by six or eight oxen. The cotton comes in bales of about ISO pounds each. Of these a horse carries one on either side of a pack-saddle. Mules have not yet been introduced into this region as beasts of burden, although it is thought they would be more serviceable than horses. Of late the greater proportion of the productions of the province has been exported by way of Bahia and Pernambuco. Formerly foreign shipments were more frequent, and a greater number of foreigners resided in the place. At one time two newspapers were published in Maceio, but, belonging to opposite political parties, they were continually wrangling with each other. Bad words soon led to bad deeds. Early one morning it was found that the taipa wails of one printing-office had been broken through, and its types and press destroyed. In a short time the other shared the same fate; neither have been re-established. CHAPTER X. PROVINCES OF BAHIA, SERGIPE, ESPIRITU SANTO, AND PORTO SEGURO. THE PROVINCE OF BAHIA including the old captaincy dos Ilheos, extends from the Belmonte, in latitude 15 deg. 25 min. south, to the Rio Real, which di vides it from Sergipe del Rev, in latitude 11 deg. 38 rain, south,* being about * Cazal states that the province extends from 10 deg. south latitude to 16 deg. south latitude ; but neither the boundaries of this nor of some other provinces, are well defined. VOL. I 1418 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. 300 miles in length. On the west and north-west, it is separated by the River San Francisco from Pernambuco ; while, on the south-west it bounds on Minas Geraes. It is divided like Pernambuco, into the comarcas of Bahia, Ilheos, and Jacobina, the former two comprising the coast, and the latter the western part of the province. With the exception of the descriptions of Prince Maximilian and Mr. Hen derson, which in many instances are now obsolete, we have but little satisfactory information respecting the interior of this province. Mr. Kidder confines his account chiefly to the city of Bahia, and the British consul has not transmitted any accounts of the internal parts. Travelling across the province from Ilheos to Minas Geraes, primeval forests, mountains, hills, and plains are traversed. There are scattered villages during the route ; and canoes ascend, though with great difficulty, and often danger, some of the rivers Cultivation is not described in a flourishing condition in the province, although it is susceptible of the greatest extension and prosperity. Its commerce is represented both by the British and French consuls, and by Mr. Kidder, to have been for some years on the decline. The British consul considers the diminished importation of flour (about one-half) as one indication of decline in the means of the inhabitants. The diminished sale of European manufactures he attributes to the same cause, and to the failure of agricultural crops, and he attributes the consequences of the revolutions of 183? and 1838, as other causes. The trade of Bahia has also lost much of the exports of Sergipe and Alagoas, where the merchants of Pernambuco have formed branches of their commercial establishments. It will appear, however, from the tables of trade hereafter, that the trade of Bahia is rather stationary than retrograding. The PROVINCE OF SERGIPE DEL REY derives its name from the River Seregipe, an aboriginal name, on which St. Christovao the capital was first established,* but removed afterwards to another situation. Its conquest and colonisation were commenced in 1590, and was granted to Christovam de Barros, the deputy-governor of Bahia, as a reward for his services in reducing the na tives. It was long considered a district of Bahia, but had its ouvidors about the year 1696. Having less natural advantages for commerce, this province has not made the same progress as the other maritime captaincies. Along its coast there are no capes, islands, or good ports. Its rivers have bars which are generally more or less dangerous, and afford little shelter, except to small vessels. The surface of the province is generally flat, there being scarcely a hill or mountain >f any considerable elevation. The Serra Itabaianna, between the Rio Real and the Vazabarris, which, though more than twenty miles from the coast, is visible DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1419 t a great distance from the sea. Valuable Brazil and other woods grow on this 3rra. Cazal divides the province into eastern and western. The former in con- jequence of its woods, is called Mattas ; the latter, which includes the larger portion of territory, has acquired, from the sterility of its soil, the denomination if Agrestes: the eastern part of the province yields sugar and tobacco, and the vestern is chiefly devoted to rearing cattle. A few aldeias on the River San Francisco, its northern boundary, are the most cultivated spots. In the eastern )art, four settlements have been named towns,* besides Sergipe or St. Chris- .ovao, which, being the capital, ranks as a city. It is situated on an elevation iear the River Paramopama, an arm of the Vazabarris, eighteen miles from the ;<jea. Sumacas ascend to it, and take in sugar and cotton. It contains one or two bonvents, two chapels, a misericordia, a town-house, and a large bridge ; all built pf stone: it has plenty of good water. But the most populous and the busiest [settlement in the whole province is or was, some time ago, the povoagao of iEstancia, five leagues from the sea, on the River Piauhy, which falls into the !Rio Real, by which sumacas ascend to it. None of the rivers are navigable for large vessels, and the entrances of all are dangerous. The commerce and industry of Sergipe and Bahia are so intimately con nected, that the following statement by the French consul of establishments, &c., in 1843, includes both, viz., 728 sugar engenhos, 172 distilleries, seven snuff and fifty-five cigar manufactures, one paper, four soap, four candle works, one cotton factory, seventy-eight saw-mills, eleven ship-yards, nine printing presses, and ten newspapers. CITY OF BAHIA. Bahia de Todas os Santos, the Bay of All Saints, was discovered in 1503 by Americus Vespucius, under the patronage of the King of Portugal, Dom Manoel. Vespucius carried home from the cast of Santa Cruz, as the newly-discovered country was first called by the Portuguese, a cargo of ibiripitanga, the dye-wood, which, when cut in pieces, resembled brazas, coals of fire. From which circumstance it acquired the name of Brazil wood, and also conferred a name on the country. In 1510, a vessel under the command of Diogo Alvares Correa, was wrecked near the entrance of this bay. The Tupinambas, a ferocious tribe inhabiting the coast, fell upon and destroyed all who survived the ship wreck, save the captain of the vessel, Diogo, whom they spared, as some sup posed, on account of his activity in assisting them to save articles from the * These are, San Amaro, north of the confluence of the Sergipe and the Cotinquiba ; San Luzia, near the River Guararema, above its junction with the Rio Real ; Itabaianna, in the vicinity of the serra of that name: and Villa Nova de San Antonio, on the San Francisco, twenty-five miles below Propiha or Urubu de Baixo, the chief place in the Agrestes. f Memorias Historicas e Politicas da Provinciada Bahia, in 4 vols. by Ignacio Accioh de Cer- queira, et Silva, a native of Bahia. 1420 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. wreck. Bahia owes to this event its foundation, and its being long the capital of Brazil. Bahia, or San Salvador de Bahia, stands on the western shore of the Bahia de Todas os Santos, which extends twenty-eight miles from south to north, and twenty from east to west. The bay has two entrances on both sides of the island of Itaparica, of which the eastern is about five miles wide, and is used by large vessels; the western, called Barra Falsa, is only two miles wide, and owing to its shallovvness can only be navigated by coasting-vessels. The best anchorage is opposite the town of Bahia. The town consists of two parts, the Praya or Citade Baxa, and the Citade Alta, which has the aspect of an old city. The Praya (beach) is one street nearly four miles long, and contains the magazines and ware houses for inland produce and foreign goods. At its southern extremity are the arsenal and the royal docks, and about three miles north-east of it, at Tagagipe, the ship yards in which mercantile vessels are built. A steep and very difficult ascent leads to the Citade Alta. Those who can pay, are carried up in a cadeira or ornamented chair, which is supported on the shoulders of negroes. The upper town consists of stone houses from three to five stories high, and of a good appearance. In the centre are several squares surrounded principally by public buildings. The cathedral, the old Jesuits 5 college, now a hospital, and numerous churches, are the chief public buildings in the upper town. Mr. Kidder is silent as to the number of inhabitants of Bahia and other towns in this province. The population has been estimated as exceeding 180,000 souls. Some of the streets, between the upper and lower towns, wind by a zig-zag course along ravines; others slant across an almost perpendicular bluff, to avoid, as much as possible, its steepness. Nor is the surface level, when you have ascended to the summit. Its extent between its extreme limits, Rio Vermelho and Montserate, is about six miles. The town of Bahia is nowhere wide, and for the most part is composed of only one or two principal streets. The direction of these changes with the various curves and angles of the promontory. Frequent open ings, between the houses built along the summit, exhibit the most picturesque views of the bay on the one hand, and of the country on the other. Great sums have been expended in the construction of pavements, but more with a view to preserve the streets from injury by rains, than to furnish roads for any kind of carriages. Here and there may be seen an ancient fountain of stone work, placed in a valley of greater or less depth, to serve as a rendezvous for some stream that trickles down the hill above ; but there is no important aqueduct. Beyond the city stands the ruined wall of a public cemetery This cry had been laid out and prepared under the auspices of a company, to ich had been conceded the privilege of making the interments for the whole :ity, to their future exclusion from the churches. This was a measure so impe- DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1421 ratively called for with respect to health, that it had met with but little opposition at first, and had obtained the sanction of the archbishop. But no sooner was the new cemetery opened for use, than the popular fury broke forth against it. The people assembled in a mob, excited by their priests, whose perquisites were about to be curtailed. When the troops were called out to quell the riot, they joined the mob, and the whole cemetery was defaced and ruined. The hedges of the suburbs of Bahia are composed of lime-trees, the leaves of which, when newly-trimmed, emit an exquisite fragrance. Large jaca-trees, with their heavy fruit clinging to the limbs and trunk, together with other trees, are abundant here. Descending towards the Red River, or rivulet, the route is beautifully orna mented by coqueiros, and other indigenous trees and shrubs. Close under the brow of the Antonio hill is the principal establishment connected with the whale- fisheries of the harbour. On the capture of a whale in the bay, hundreds of people, the coloured espe cially, throng around to witness its dying struggles, and to procure portions of the flesh, which they cook and eat. Vast quantities of this fishy food are cooked in the streets, and sold by Quitandeiras. Swine also feast upon the remains. This fishery, at the close of the seventeenth century, was rented to contractors by the crown for 30,000 dollars annually. The American whalers occasionally take whales oft this coast, but in general they find other cruising grounds more profitable. Ascending a winding path from the beach to the Victoria Hill, the English cemetery is beautifully situated. In the principal parts of the city, there is an almost entire absence of horses and mules in the streets ; but there is an unlimited number of goats and pigs. The old cathedral, an immense edifice, which had been constructed with great expense, is now in a very neglected state. One of its wings is appropriated to the public library. It contains about 10,000 volumes, a large portion of which are in French, and some valuable manuscripts. In its immediate neighbourhood, are the archiepiscopal palace and seminary, and the old Jesuit college, now used as a military hospital. The latter building, together with the church of Nossa Senhora da Concei^ao on the Praya, may almost be said to have been built in Europe, from whence the stones, regularly prepared for use, were imported. There are numerous other churches the president s palace, a substantial building of ancient date. In 1811, a gazette, entitled "The Golden Age/ was commenced; but a board of censors was appointed by the archbishop. At the same period the public library was founded, through the liberality of individuals. 1422 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. In the year 1815, the first steam sugar-mill was introduced from England. The public promenade of Bahia is situated on the boldest and most command ing height of the old town. One of its sides opens towards the ocean, and another up the bay ; an iron railing protects the visitor from danger of falling over the steep precipice by which extends its whole front. The space allotted to the battery is laid out in good taste ; but the variety and beauty of the trees and flowers of the Passeio Publico render it a delicious promenade. " During the fete on the anniversary of the birth of the young emperor," says Mr. Kidder, speaking of the Passeio Publico; " here it was, under the dark dense foliage of the mangueiras, the lime-trees, the bread-fruit, the cashew, and count less other trees of tropical growth, that about 9000 lights were blazing. Most of these hung in long lines of transparent globes, so constructed as to radiate severally the principal hues of the rainbow, and waved gracefully in the evening breeze as it swept along, laden with the fragrance of opening flowers/ 5 The Dias de grande gala, or political holidays, are celebrated throughout the empire. These are six in number : first, New Year s day, or that of paying com pliments to the emperor and his representatives in the provinces ; the second, on the 25th of March, the anniversary of the adoption of the constitution ; the 7th of April, that of the emperor s accession ; the 3rd of May, or that of opening the legislative assembly ; the 7th of September, that of the declaration of indepen dence; and the 2nd of December, or the emperor s birthday. On the cele bration of the latter, Mr. Kidder says; " The wealth, fashion, and beauty of the Bahians never boasted a more felicitous dis play than was mutually furnished and witnessed by the thousands that thronged this scene. What an occasion was here offered to the mind disposed to philosophise on man. From hoary age to playful youth no condition of life or style of character was unrepre sented. The warrior and the civilian, the man of title, the millionaire, and the slave, all mingled in the common rejoicings ; while the practised eye would not hare failed to dis cern in the crowd, the lurking desperado and assassin. Never, especially, had the pre sence of females in such numbers, been observed to grace a scene of public festivity. Mothers, daughters, wives, and sisters, who seldom were permitted to leave the domestic circle except in their visits to the morning mass, hung upon the arm of their several pro tectors, and gazed with unassembled wonder at the seemingly magic enchantments before and around them. The dark and flowing tresses, the darker and flashing eye of a Brazilian belle, together with her sometimes darkly shaded cheek, show off with greater charms from not being hid under the arches of a fashionable bonnet. The graceful folds 1 her mantilla, or of the rich gossamer veil which is sometimes its substitute, wreathed in some indescribable manner over the broad, high, and fancy-wrought shell that adorns her nead, can scarcely be improved by any imitation of foreign fashions. Nevertheless, the Jorteof a Brazilian lady is in her guitar, and the soft modinhas she sings in accompani ment to its tones. Besides its walks and its natura scenery, the Passeio Publico presented two objects special attraction. One was the marble monument erected in memory of Dom John s a. In another quarter, upon a high parapet overlooking the sea and bay, ad been constructed a fancy pavilion, in the style of an Athenian temple." island of Itaparica is about eighteen miles long, and five wide on an aver age. It has a population estimated at 16,000 souls, of whom 7000 were said to DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1423 live in its town. San Amaro, situated on a river which falls into the northern ex tremity of the bay, in a country abounding in sugar and tobacco, was estimated to contain 10,000 inhabitants. Caxoeira, on the River Paraguassu, is built at the point to which the tide ascends, and near some cataracts which interrupt the ascent of the river. In its neighbourhood there are plantations of sugar and tobacco ; it con tains 25,000 inhabitants. Camamu, is a seaport south of the Bahia, and with an estimated population of 8000 inhabitants ; exports to the capital mandioc, rice, maize, coffee, and the bark of the mango-tree, which is used in tanning. A row of small islands and rocks skirt the shores north of the Bahia de Camamu, and form a channel by which small vessels can proceed to the Barra Falsa, without being exposed to the dangers of an open sea. Excursions are made in boats from Bahia round its magnificent bay and islands. One of these Mr. Kidder describes " We first steered," he says, " for Itaparica, and promptly traversed the nine miles intervening between the city and that island. Passing round the upper extremity of the island, we came to its principal port, and went on shore by means of canoes that im mediately gathered around the steamboat. Here we found a villa defended by a fort, having two churches, and about 300 small, low houses. " We next touched at Bom Jesus, a small island situated on the south side of the Ilha dos Frades. Here were a Matriz, or mother church, and a few small dwellings, located without order on the Praya. " Returning, we passed near other islands, which, with their small villages, appeared exceedingly picturesque. As the sun was setting we passed by the small promontory of Bom Fim, and enjoyed a perfect view of the city. " What can be more beautiful than those extended and curving lines of whitened buildings the one upon the heights, the other upon the water s edge everywhere separated by a broad, rich belt of green, here and there dotted with houses. Nowhere does the uniformity of whitened walls and red-tiled roofs show to finer advantage, in contrast with the luxuriant vegetation that surrounds them. In fact, there are few cities that can present a single view of more imposing beauty than does Bahia, to a person be holding it from a suitable distance on the water. Even Rio de Janeiro can hardly be cited for such a comparison. That city excels in the endless variety of its beautiful suburbs : yet I should be at a loss to point out one which, in all respects, equals that part of Bahia known as the Victoria Hill. In Rio, one section competes with another, and each offers some ground of preference; but in Bahia, the superiorities seem all to be united in one section, leaving the foreigner no room for doubt or discussion respecting the best quarter for locating his residence. On the Victoria Hill may be found the finest gardens that Bahia afford, the most enchanting walks, and the most ample shade. Here too are the best houses, the best air, the best water, and the best society. The walls of two ancient and extensive forts, also add very much to the romantic and historical inte rest of the place. In fine, he who looks for anyone spot that combines more of exter nal beauty, than does that to which I refer, will roam long and widely over the face of the earth. " In the lower town there are various fabricas de imagens image manufactories. Saints, crucifixes, and every species of ghostly paraphernalia of Romanism are exhibited in the shops with profusion that I nowhere else saw, indicating that the traffic in these articles was more flourishing here than in other parts. It is not in name only that Bahia enjoys the ecclesiastical supremacy of Brazil. It is the seat of the only archbishopric in the empire. Its churches exceed in number, and in sumptuousness, those of any other 1424 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. city; and its convents are said to contain more friars and more nuns than those of all the empire besides. " In 1827, the pope issued a bull making the Brazilian Benedictines independent of their order in Portugal. Dissensions then broke out among them, when the election of an abbot-general took place at Rio de Janeiro. The pope s legate attempted to inter fere, but was repulsed. The order, after this feud, became almost extinct, and the na tional assembly was allowed to confiscate its possessions! but did not succeed, and licence was granted them to receive more novices. " Some of those who were admitted under this licence became so insubordinate, that that the abbot of the convent at Rio was obliged to call in the police of the city to maintain order. " The Slippered Carmelites and the Barefooted Carmelites in Bahia, have been much more distinguished for wranglings among themselves, and for evasions of the revenue- laws, and of their own rules forbidding them to hold property, than for any special vir tues or good works. The latter order is now nearly extinct, and the archiepiscopal seminary occupies their convent. The monks of the congregation of St. Philip Nert founded a hospicio on the Praya in 1756, but their succession having failed the hospicio was transferred into an orphan asylum. " The Barefooted Augustineans and the Almoners of the Holy Land, at one time had each small establishments in Bahia, but their building have been turned to secular purposes. "The nunneries of Bahia are in the order of their foundation, as follows 1. The convent of Santa Clara do Desterro. 2. The convent of our Lady of Soli tude. 3. The convent of our Lady of the Cliff. 4. The convent of our Lady of lercy. Besides the regular nunneries, there are two recolhimentos. " The Italian Capuchins are bearded impertinent mendicants of most filthy appear ance. They have never been numerous in Bahia. They have a hospicio or small con vent, and a splendidly decorated chapel in the town " TRADE OF BAHIA. The commerce of this port as well as of the naturally rich province of which the capital, has, especially since 1837, been declining. The attempts to suppress the slave-trade, is urged as the chief reason for lh,s diminished trade; for Bahia being opposite to the coast of Africa, was ^ni:::; 1 . 16 pi : incipai rendezvous ** ^ ^ M - ^ *** V- V as, Villa Vicoza, &c.), market f b H - ments for the payment of slaves at wMrf P ? rtl y bl S ed to do s > to meet their engage- lity, and at a much lower raTe than i , P ? he) an be btained with grater faci- 1 minished, occasioned by he abom 1 8 ^T^ T e Cro )S of "bacco are ^reatlv tobacco et en 66000n Ve t K ade j", ^ *" 1817 lli in proponi0 " number of slaves, there "^ P OSS6SS a -nsiderab.e COMMERCE OF BAHIA. THE Exports from Bahia in 1846 were as follows : 1425 ARTICLES. Quantity, Value. Average Price. TOTAL VALUE. Sugar arrobas 1 980 579 dlrs. rials. 3 801 831 816 dlrs. rials. 1 920 dlrs. rials. Cotton ... . . . do 111 702 70 i (572 421 6 290 Coffee do 58 ^96 205 724 139 Hides do. 165,998 437 791 634 2 G31 Tobacco do 231 343 457 708 092 1 978 7 846 243 742 803 31 066 Cabinet wood pieces 5 505 23 362 521 4 244 Total value 5.S72.834 426 THOSE Articles were Exported as follows COUNTRIES. Sugar. Cotton. Coffee. Hides. Tobacco. Rum. Cabinet Wood. Great Britain arrobas. 246 886 arrobas. 90 622 arrobas. 14 235 arrohas. 8 601 arroba?. 33 263 pipe*. 508 piece?. 42 677 15 376 16 167 23 960 152 192 Hanseatic cities 887 433 1 998 6 75 6 866 1 3 423 Portugal 123,638 659 3 111 34 185 89 518 412 826 Holland.. 8 625 1 006 1 530 5 90 9 Italy 76292 68 6893 53 861 32 409 556 Denmark 18 869 364,776 1 465 4 931 25 178 6 827 722 39 Spain 6 437 1 594 8 916 302 River Plate 4 5-21 89 1 485 2 281 United States of North America 21 34 5,551 g 200,232 508 857 166 172 4 254 45 350 1 3?2 28 Total 1,980,579 111,702 58,896 165,998 231,343 7,846 5,503 NAVIGATION of Bahia in 1843. E N T ] E R E D. D E P A RTED. T 01 A L. COUNTRIES. Ships. Tonnage. Ship?. Tonnage. Sbips. Tonnage. number. 68 tons. 16 254 number. 68 tons. 15 960 number. 136 tons. 32 214 42 554 23 5 031 65 14 585 13 4 275 18 5558 31 9 833 g 2 966 16 5,015 24 7 981 21 5 036 10 2716 31 7 752 j\f,i ca 16 3 158 24 3 953 40 7 111 J5 3,045 16 2,949 31 5994 g 1 872 17 3,749 25 5 621 13 2 263 g 2 373 21 4 636 12 1 933 12 23 27 24 4 260 7 2,579 "5 1483 12 4,062 10 2 324 4 044 14 2 968 2 757 3 940 5 1 697 5 1,211 1 237 6 1,448 11 2,236 3 576 14 2,812 4 1 312 3 943 7 2255 Total for 1843 .... 255 60 775 231 54 451 486 115229 pi 842 258 57434 252 58 206 510 115640 1841 289 62 737 304 70 955 5 3 133 692 Years 184 283 80,079 309 90,029 592 170,108 Iears 1839 1S38 223 300 48,187 63481 252 349 72,133 99 375 475 649 120,320 162 856 .1837 175 39,617 192 55,772 307 95,389 The coasting trade between Bahia and other Brazilian poits in 1843, employed 921 sbipj, 104,563 tons ; or 90 vessels less than in 1842. THE Coasting Trade Employed during the following Year?, viz : YEARS. Vessels. Measurement. 1841 number. 1,134 tons. 118,355 1840 1,450 140,153 1 839 . . ... 1 240 112851 1 g3g 1,345 139,263 1837 844 69,512 VOL. I. 1426 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. IN 1843 the Coasting Trade of Bahia was as follows, viz. : COUNTRIES. Ships. Tonnage. number. 158 270 253 78 72 90 tons. 30,235 21,236 16,956 15,328 11,405 9,403 Ports of the Province of Bahia .... other ports Total 921 104,563 IMPORTS and Exports of Bahia in 1843. French Consul s Return. COUNTRIES. Importations. Exportations. TOTAL. fr. 15,307,047 fr. 6,740,242 fr. 22,047,2*9 1,547,732 3,334,472 4,882,204 2,253,513 1,188,917 3,442.430 553,384 2,654,002 3,207,386 2,342,336 851,859 3,194,195 Africa 262,956 1,455,743 1,718699 109,763 1,550,751 1,660,514 586 884 991.920 1,578,810 750,353 54,637 804,990 226,302 439,877 666,179 411,562 411,562 342,410 456,536 798,946 404 832 404,832 Total for 1843 24,687,512 20,130,524 44,818,036 ( 1842 . 27 443 603 19 068 948 46,512,551 Year8 ----} 1841 ::.::::: 28 858,000 18,342,000 47,200,000 Average or 1834 to 1810 26,032,000 23,041,000 49,073,000 RETURNS of the British and Foreign Trade of Bahia, during the Years 1844 and 1845. NATIONS. . ARRIVED. DEPARTED. ARRIVED. DEPARTED. 1844 1844 1845 1845 Vessels. Ton nage. Crews. Vessels. Ton nage. Crews. Vessels. TOM- nage. Crews. Vessels. Ton nage. Crews. British Sardinian Swedish an i Norwegiau .. American Portuguese French... No. 99 44 34 31 27 16 15 11 tons. 22,886 8,039 9,204 6,512 4,682 3,400 5,530 3,471 2,25? 728 1,2-23 949 470 339 144 364 No. 1252 415 488 396 232 140 60 ii 8 18 No. 93 43 30 27 27 15 12 17 8 3 4 4 2 tons. 21,545 8,018 10,810 5,948 4,680 2,891 4,627 5,629 2,983 470 1,223 1,531 470 339 No. 1177 427 451 336 209 218 60 11 No. 107 65 56 31 29 22 26 14 10 3 4 5 1 2 2 tons. 26,874 11,702 15,120 6,071 5,038 4,741 5,907 6,041 2,560 886 1,339 1,455 483 480 361 286 No. 1388 688 340 388 292 306 242 133 37 55 64 13 21 18 24 No. 109 53 57 28 i6 25 24 16 11 3 4 5 2 1 2 1 tons. 27,216 9,541 14,896 5,552 6,273 5,541 6,253 6,704 3,233 770 1,349 1,435 1,206 200 498 96 No. 1417 682 318 394 331 290 212 157 36 55 64 30 11 26 11 Danish... Austrian II. in scat ir Belgium Sicilian... Prussian Rusiian. . . Hanoverian.... Dutch Peruvian . . . Spanish Oriental Total 1 113 10 2 539 23 300 70,111 3030 288 71,709 2912 378 89,347 4009 367 90,783 4034 COMMERCE OF BAHIA. 1427 PLACES ARRIVED FROM. Vessels. Tonnage. PLACES DEPARTED TO. Vessels. onnage. Of these 107 British vessels, that ar rived, in 1845, there were from Great Britain . . with general cargoes Do. do. coals number. 37 4 tons. 9,204 1,169 Of these 109 British Teasels that de parted, in 1845, there were for Great Britain.. with general cargoes number. 32 tons. 8,342 2 682 1 408 ~ , an co . OD z? * _ * " V i| * Total from Great Britain . . 44 11 463 ballast _ .. ~ _ . Sydney general cargoes 3 1,256 1 144 i 146 Halifax do. 203 2 261 St John s. ... do 6 1,209 5 1 344 Little Bay do 1 181 212 New Zealand general cargo 1 189 2 463 16 3,739 2 402 Rio Grande hides 1 186 Para do 1 365 1 204 1 102 Do. ballast 5 1,411 Patagonia do 2 565 1 203 1 280 2 557 1 181 1 950 2 293 San Bias do. 1 648 2 570 Possession Island ballast 1 155 3 1,275 228 1 179 j 104 5 1 373 St Helena . . 9 1,920 2 531 Cape de Verds general cargo 335 Stettin suga 3 825 Cadi/ sal 5 1,214 Gibraltar general cargr 1 287 Gibraltar fruit, &c 2 155 78 1 55 1 149 Jersey do 1 164 2 405 63 is 4n Constantinople rum 1 204 Total from Great Britain.. 44 11 463 Total for other parts 43 10 548 66 Grand total 109 27,216 Imports consist principally of the following commodities ; viz., from Great Britain and her colonies : Ale and porter; anchors; arms; bees -wax ; blacking; butter; candles, tallow; ditto, sperm; chain cables; cheese; coals; coal tar; cod-fish; copper ; cordage; cutlery; drugs; earthenware; glass; glass-bottles; gunpowder; hams; hats; iron in bars; ditto in hoops ; ironmongery ; lead; leather; linseed oil; manufactures; nails; paints; paper; pianos; pickles; pitch; provisions; saddlery; sail cloth ; saltpetre; soap; steel; tar; tin plates ; white lead ; wearing apparel, &c. From France. Arms; brandy; butter; candles, tallow ; ditto, sperm; cheese; drugs; glass; glass-bottles; haberdashery; hats; leather; manufactures; olive oil; paper; perfumery; raisins; saddlery; wearing apparel; wine. From Portugal. Bees -wax; candles, tallow; drugs; earthenware; hams; hats; ironmongery; leather; nails; olive oil; salt ; snuff; vinegar; wine. From the United States. Candles, tallow ; ditto sperm; cod-fish; cordage ; deals; drugs; flour; furniture; gin; hams; manufactures; provisions; resin; soap; tar ; tea; tobacco ; whale oil. From Sardinia. Brandy; candles, tallow; drugs; manufactured silk ; olive oil ; paper ; raisins ; steel ; vermicelli ; wine. From the Hanseatic cities, Brandy ; candles, tallow ; cheese ; coal tar; cordage; demijohns; drugs; gin; copper ; glass and glass bottles; hams ; ironmongery; leather ; linseed oil ; manufactures; paints; pianos; provisions ; sail-cloth ; tar; tin plates. From Denmark. Cheese; cordage, demijohns; gin; linseed oil; manufactures; pitch ; provisions; sail cloth ; tar. From Holland. Cheese ; demijohns ; gin ; glass; ditto bottles; linseed oil ; manu factures ; white lead ; window-glass; zinc. From Spain. Brandy; drugs; olive oil; paper; raisins; salt; soap; wine. From Austria. Flour ; manufactures ; olive oil, can ; soap ; steel ; wine. From Sweden. Deals; masts; mess beef ; iron; pitch ; tar. From Sicily. Brandy; drugs; olive oil; raisins; salt; soap: wine; brimstone. 1428 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. From Monte Video. Candles, tallow; hides ; horns ; jerked beef; lard; tallow. The general regulations with respect to trade at this port are the following: Merchandise imported is first landed at the custom-house, or bonded warehouses, where bulky articles are allowed to remain one month, and others four months, for which accommodation a charge is made of three and a half per cent on its valuation. If not removed at the expiration of these respective periods, an additional charge is made of one quarter per cent per month. Three months credit is granted to merchants, by giving security for the amount of duties, for which they pay "an interest of six per cent per annum. The greater part of the commodities imported are sold on credit, varying from two to eight months, according to the stock in the market. Although these credits are stipu lated, the payments generally depend on the season when the crops are brought for sale, consequently merchants are obliged to have an immense capital outstanding in this country, and finally, are frequently obliged to receive produce in payment, at higher prices than it might be bought for in cash. All that produce, which is not received in payment for this merchandise, is bought for cash. It is deposited, on its arrival from the interior, in bonded warehouses, whence it is shipped, after paying the export duty. There are no privileges of importation in favour of ships belonging to this country, they are on the same footing as foreign vessels, with the exception of the coasting trade, which is exclusively carried on by Brazilian vessels. There is no difference made in the duties on goods, whether imported in Brazilian or foreign vessels. Statement of Port charges at Bahia on all Vessels Foreign or National. rials. Tonnage duty on vessels which discharge and load here . 900 per ton. on vessels which enter in ballast and load here or vice versa .... . 450 ,, on vessels which enter and sail in ballast, or call for refreshments ..... 30 per ton edpary. Vessels which enter the port in distress pay no tonnage duty. Hospital duty for every person belonging to the crew . . 640 Bahia, at present, is the only port of this province wherein goods may be warehoused on importation, and afterwards exported. Weights and Measures. Quintal, four arrobas; arroba, thirty-two pounds; Canada, two imperial gallons; alqueire, seven-eights of a bushel. PROVINCE OF ESPIRITU SANTO AND PORTO SEQURO. Of these united dis tricts, which extend from the frontiers of the provinces of Rio Janeiro, and that of Bahia, we have very little recent information. They are the least known and the least commercial in Brazil. No author of much repute, except Prince Maximilian, of Nieuwied has traversed the interior, and we haveinthe general description of the country, briefly given parts of his information. Neither of these provinces appear to have any foreign trade, yet they have a sea coast of more than 400 miles in extent. Espiritu Santo comprehends about three-fourths of the capitania, granted in 1534, to Vasco Fernandez Coutinho, as a remuneration for his services in Asia. It extends from the River Capabuan (or Itabapuana, the boundary DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1429 of Rio Janeiro) to the Rio Doce, which separates it from Porto Seguro, on the north. On the west it borders on Minas Geraes. " The lofty and naked ridge of Middle Brazil," remarks Prince Maximilian, " in the provinces of Minas Geraes, Goyaz, and Pernambuco, is divided from the eastern coast by a broad traet of high forests, which extend from Rio de Janeiro to the Bay of All Saints (Bahia), about eleven degrees of latitude, and which are not yet taken possession of by the Portuguese settlers; only a few roads have hitherto been opened, with infinite labour, along the rivers that traverse them. In these forests where the primitive inhabi tants, who are pressed upon at every other point, have till now enjoyed a serene and peaceful abode, we may still find those people in their original state." Cazal says, that of the whole maritime ports of Brazil Espiritu Santo has made the least progress; and that the civilised populationis almost entirely limited to the sea-coast. The salubrity of the climate and fertility of the soil, would ap pear to render this province susceptible of the most prosperous improvement. But the greater part seems to be covered with original forests. Brazil-wood, the cedar, the sassafras-tree, and various other resinous and aromatic species, and Peruvian balsam are all said to be abundant. From Itabapuana northward, to the banks of the Itape-mirim, a distance of little more than twenty miles, the district was not long since so dangerous, that a quartel^or military post was established for protection against the Puries. On the south bank of the Itape-mirim, there was built a village inhabited partly by small planters, fishermen, and a few mechanics. This river is narrow, but a small trade has been carried on, in sugar, cotton, rice, millet, and timber. The Serra de Itape-mirim, was celebrated for the works for washing gold, called Minas de Castello, five days journey up the river. That district was, however, so molested by the Tapuyas, that the few Portuguese settled there left it about forty years ago, to reside in the town. The country higher up was inhabited chiefly by Puries, and Botucudoes, called "the real tyrants of the wilderness, 5 also come down occasionally to plunder. Prince Maximilian traversed the wilds by the route which leads from Minas de Castello to the frontier of Minas Geraes, a distance of about twenty-three leagues. On the first day s journey from Itape-mirim they reached the Fazenda de Aga, near the morro of Aga, a lofty, round mountain. Near Aga is ihepovogao of Piuma (or Ipiuma), where there is a wooden bridge over the rivulet, three hundred paces in length ; " a real curiosity in these parts." After riding through a hilly country of woods and meadows, they reached the Villa Nova de Benevente, at the foot of a hill on the north bank of the Iritiba or Reritigba, and founded by the Jesuits, who had collected at this place 6000 Indians , their church and convent is still seen on the eminence commanding the town. It was the largest aldeia on this coast, till the Indians were destroyed, or driven away by the hard labour exacted of them. Villa de Goaraparim, the next town, was found to be a poor place. The houses are only of one story, and the streets are unpaved. The district was said J430 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. to contain about 3000 souls. The road from Benevente passes through magni ficent forests to the Atlantic. At one place " says Prince Maximilian, " we met with an extremely beautiful erove consisting en tirely of air* palms. Young rigorous trees of this species from twenty to thirty feet high, rise with their straight, dark brown stems, surrounded with thorny rino-s Their beautifully feathered leaves screened the damp ground from the scorching noon-tide sun ; while vounger ones which had not yet any stem, formed the brush-wood, above which old dead palms, withered and decayed, projected like broken columns. Upon these trees, devoted to destruction, the solitary, yellow-hooded woodpecker, or beautiful species with the red head and neck, was at work. The flower of the flame-coloured heliconia covered the low bushes near us, round which twined a beautiful convolvulus with the finest azure blue-bells. In this magnificent forest, the ligneous creeping plants, again showed themselves in all their originality, with their curvatures and singular forms. We contemplated with admiration the sublimity of this wilderness, which was animated only by toucans, parrots, and other birds." Beyond this wood, were some fishermen s huts, the povogao de Obu ; and then another containing sixty or eighty families of fishermen, called Miaipe. He halted again at Goaraparim ; the next day he reached a little fishing hamlet on the coast, called Ponta da Fruta, and on the day following, five leagues further, through marshy meadows and woodland, brought him to Villa Velha, a wretched place on the Rio de Espiritu Santo. This river is of considerable magnitude, and it is said to be navigable to the first fall, a distance of forty miles, and the tide runs up about twelve miles, to the mouth of the River Sena, which joins it on the left bank. Several other streams fall into it. On a high,conical hill, covered with wood, immediately joining the town, there stood at that time the Franciscan convent of Nossa Senhora da Penha, one of the richest in Brazil, dependent on the Abbey of St. Bento at Rio : " It is said," adds Prince Maximilian, " to possess a wonder-working image of the Madonna, for which reason numerous pilgrims resort thither ; but at the period of our visit, there were only two ecclesiastics on the spot. It is well worth the trouble to ascend the steep eminence, in order to enjoy the inexpressibly grand prospect which there offers itself to the view. It overlooks the wide expanse of the ocean, and, on the land side, fine chains of mountains and various peaks, with interjacent valleys, from which the broad river issues in the most picturesque manner imaginable." About half a league from Villa Velha, on the opposite side of the bay, stands the capital of the province, Villa da Victoria. It is built, according to Cazal, " on an amphitheatrical site, on the western side of an island, fifteen miles in circum ference, 3 and is thus described by the Prince of Nieuwied. " The cidade de Nossa Senhora da Victoria is a pretty, neat place, with considerable buildings, constructed in the old Portuguese style, with "balconies or wooden lattices, neat paved streets, a tolerably large town hall, and a Jesuits convent, since occupied by the governor, who has a company of regular troops at his disposal. Besides several con vents, there are a church, four chapels, and a hospital (misericordia). The town is, however, rather dull, and visitors, being very uncommon, are objects of great curiosity! The coasting trade is not unimportant; several vessels are in consequence always lyin^ here, and frigates can sail up to the town. The neighbouring fazendas produce sugar 3 mandioc, flour, and rice, bananas, and other articles which are exported along the coast Several forts protect the entrance of the fine River Espiritu Santo; one directly at the mouth ; a second battery, built of stone, higher up, with eight iron guns; and still DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL 1431 further up on the hill between the latter and the town, a third battery of seventeen or eighteen guns, a few of which are brass. The town is built rather unevenly, on pleasant hills; and the river flowing past it, is here everywhere enclosed within high mountains, partly consisting of rocks, which are in many places naked and steep, andcovered with creeping plants. The beautiful surface of the broad river is broken by several verdant islands, and the eye, as it follows its course up the country, every where finds an agreeable point of repose in lofty, verdant, wood-covered mountains." The River Jucu falls into the ocean about three miles to the south of the en trance of the bay ; it abounds in fish. About four leagues up this river is the large fazenda of Araatiba. The great forest of Aragatiba, through which lies the route to the fazenda, is described as a dismal wilderness. Emerging from it, the travellers came into an open country, where they were agreeably surprised all at once to see a large white building, presenting an extensive front of two stories, with two small towers, situated on a beautiful green level spot at the foot of the lofty morro. Near the house was a church ; and at the foot of a hill were the negro huts, the sugar-mill, and the farm buildings. The estate employed 400 negroes. About a league distant, on a romantic spot on the River Jucu, entirely surrounded with lofty primeval forests, was a second fazenda, called Coroaba, not far from which was the military post of St. Agostinho. The government had settled there about forty families, who came from the Azores. These people, who lived in great poverty, bitterly complained of their wretched condition, splendid promises having been made to them but not performed. Proceeding along the coast, two days journey from Villa da Victoria, they came to Villa Nova de Almeida, a large village of civilised Indians, founded by the Jesuits on elevated ground near the mouth of the Rio dos Reys Magos (river of the royal magi). In no other parish of the province had the number of native Indians increased so much as this. It had a large stone church, and contained in its whole district, nine leagues in circumference, about 1200 souls. "The inhabitants of the village," adds Prince Maximilian, " are chiefly Indians, but there are also some Portuguese and negroes. Many possess houses here, to which they come from their plantations on Sundays and holidays only. The Jesuits here formerly gave instruction in the lingoa geral (general language, i. e. of the Indians). The Indians derived their subsistence from their plantations of mandioc and maize; they also ex ported some wood and earthenware, and carry on a fishery, which is not inconsiderable, on the sea and the River Sahuanha, or Dos Rays Magos, which runs past the village. " To the north of the Sahuanha, the whole coast is covered with thick woods. In a few hours you come to the River Pyrakahassu (great Fish River). Here, at the barra, or mouth, is a hamlet of a few houses, called Aldea Velha ; and rather higher up the river, a considerable village was founded by the Jesuits. The chief subsistence of the aborigines was derived from shell and other fish, whence great heaps of shells are still found on the bank of the river." After crossing the Pyrakahassu, here a deep, broad, and rapid stream, the travellers entered a magnificent forest; on emerging from which, their road lay for four leagues along an uninteresting tract of coast, broken by a succession of small promontories and inlets, to the quartel do Riacho, a military post, from whence, by a fatiguing journey of eight leagues through deep sand, they reached the quar- HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. telda D**encia, at the mouth of the Rio Doce, the boundary of the province, and the most considerable river between Rio de Janeiro and Bahia. At a short distance from the coast, between the quartel do Riacho and the Doce, extends the Lagoa dos Indios. The River Doce (sweet river) assumes that name after the confluence of the Rio Piranga with the Ribeiro do Carmo. It flows through a considerable extent of country, farming several small falls, three of which succeeding each other at short intervals, are called the Escadinhas (stairs). Two miles below these falls, the Doce receives the Mandu, which comes from the interior, running north-north-east between woods, and is navigable for canoes. "The banks of the beautiful river, Doce," says Prince Maximilian, " are covered with thick forests, which are the haunt of a great number of different animals. Here are frequently found the anta, or American tapir, two kinds of wild swine (the caytetu or peccary, and the porco a quechada branca), two species of deer, and above seven varie ties of the cat kind, among which the spotted ounce and the black tiger are the largest and most dangerous. But the rude, savage Botucudo, the aboriginal inhabitant of this country, is far more formidable than all those beasts of prey, and is the terror of these impenetrable forests. This part of the country is still very thinly peopled. The Conde de Linhares, late minister of state, had particularly directed his attention to this fertile and beautiful country. He established new military stations, and built the village now called after him, Linhares, eight or ten leagues up the river, at the place where the first military station had formerly been. He sent thither deserters and other criminals, to people the new colony; and these settlements would certainly have prospered in a short time, had not death too soon carried off that active minister." Prince Maximilian, desirous of exploring the banks of this river, embarked on the following morning in a long canoe rowed by six soldiers : "In order to ascend the Rio Doce, when it is at its height, four men at least are necessary, who propel the canoe with long poles (varas). As there are everywhere shallow places, which in the dry season appear as sand-banks, the poles can always reach them, even when the water is high ; and with the most favourable combination of cir cumstances, it is possible to reach Linhares in one day, but not till late in the evening. " The weather was very fine, and when we had become accustomed to the rocking of the narrow canoe, caused by the soldiers walking backwards and forwards to push it along, we found the excursion very agreeable. When it was quite daylight, we saw the broad surface of the rapid stream glistening in the morning sun. The distant banks were so thickly covered with gloomy forests, that in the whole of the long tract which we passed there was not a single open spot which would have afforded room even for a house. Numerous islands of various sizes and forms rise above the surface of the water ; they are covered with ancient trees of the most luxuriant verdure. The water of the Rio Doce, when at its height, is turbid and yellowish, and is universally asserted by the inhabitants to generate fevers. It abounds in fish ; even the saw-fish (pristis serra) comes up far abore Linhares, and into the lagoa of Juparanan, where it is frequently caught. " From the forests we heard the cries of numerous monkeys, particularly thebarbados, the saiiassus, &c. Here it was that we first saw in their wild state the magnificent mac- caws (psittaciis macao, Linn.), which are among the chief ornaments of the Brazilian forests ; we heard their loud screaming voices, and saw these splendid birds soaring above the crowns of the lofty sapucaya trees. We recognised them at a distance by their long d their glowing red plumage shone with dazzling splendour in the beams of the unclouded sun. Parroquets, maracanas, maitaccas, tiribas, curicas, camutangas, nan- layas, and other species of parrots, flew, loudly screaming, in numerous flocks from bank to bank ; and the large and stately Muscovy duck (Anas moschata, Linn.) alighted on the branch of a cecropia, in the margin of the forest on the bank of the river. The DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1433 black skimmer (rynchops nigrar Linn.) sat motionless and with contracted neck upon the sand-banks : toucans and the ^urucuas (Trogon viridis, Linn.) uttered their loud cries. " The banks of the islands and of the channel were for the most part thickly over grown with the high fan-like reed, the sheath of whose flower is used by the Botocudos for their arrows. " We proceeded up the river past several islands, and into a channel between the Ilha Comprida and the north bank of the river. The current was by no means so strong here, but then we met with many fallen trunks of trees and large branches, which we had to clear away before we could advance further. The bushes and lofty ancient trees, which border this channel, present the most diversified and magnificent spectacle. Various kinds of cocoas, especially the elegant palmitto (in other parts called jissara), with its tall, slender stem, and the small bright, green, beautiful feathery crown, adorn these dark forests, from the recesses of which the calls of unknown birds strike the ear. Below, close to the water were some splendid flowers. " Ajacare,* quietly basking in the sun fled at the sound of our oars. We soon came to several islands, upon which the people of Linhares had made plantations ; for it is only on these islands that they are quite safe from the savages, who have no canoes, and there fore cannot cross, except where the breadth and depth of the river are inconsiderable. The officer called guarda mor resides in the Ilha do Boi (Ox Island), and the priest of Linhares on the Ilha do Bom Jesus. Towards noon we came in sight of Linhares, and landed on the north bank." By order of the Count Linhares, tbe buildings were erected in a square, upon a spot cleared of wood, near the bank of the river, and on a steep cliff of clay.f The commanding officer at Linhares was obliged to make the tour of all the posts, a journey of ninety leagues, once a month. Not far from Linhares, on the north side of the Doce is the Lagoa de Jupa- ranan, communicating with the river by a deep channel, about sixty feet broad, and a league and a half in length. This lake, which is surrounded by hilly banks, is about seven leagues in length from south-east to north-west, half a league broad, and from sixteen to eighteen leagues in circumference. Its depth is, in many places from eight to twelve fathoms. THE DISTRICT OF PORTO SEGURO is bounded by the rivers Doce and Bel- monte on the south and north, its western boundaries are Minas Geraes. It lies * The jacare of the east coast of Brazil is far inferior to the gigantic crocodile of the old world, and even to those met with in the countries of South America nearer to the equator. This species is not feared ; they are never more than eight or nine feet in length. f "In order to protect this settlement in general from the attacks and cruelties of the Botocu- does, eight stations had been established, which are pushed forward in different directions into the great forests ; they are also destined to protect the commercial intercourse which has been at tempted to open up the river with Minas Geraes. Soldiers have come down from that province in sufficient numbers, well armed and provided with the defensive coat, called gibao d armas. These coats, some of which are kept at all the stations, are an indispensable covering against the arrows, which the savages discharge with great force. They are wide, made of cotton, and thickly lined with several layers of cotton wadding, have a high stiff collar, which covers the neck, and short sleeves that protect the upper part of the arm : they come down to the knee, but are very incon venient, on account of their weight, especially in hot weather. The strongest arrow, even when discharged near at hand, does not easily penetrate such a coat, and it never has force enough to inflict any serious wound. I directed one of my hunters to fire at one with a rifle, at the distance of eighty paces, and the ball penetrated both sides of the coat. It appeared, however, on further trials, that the largest shot fired at the distance of sixty paces, fell flattened to the ground, without penetrating, and that these coats are, therefore, a sufficient defence against arrows." VOL. I. 8 U 1434 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. between 19 cleg. 33 min. and 15 deg. 25 min. south latitude,* and is consequently about sixty-five leagues in length. It was on this part of the coast that Cabral first landed, and took possession, for the crown of Portugal, of Brazil. " But if," remarks Mr. Southey, " the port from which the province is named be the place where Cabral first anchored, his ships must have been of no considerable burden, or the depth of the port must have diminished, for within the bar it shallows to twelve feet." The town of Santa Cruz was begun upon Cabralia Bay (the Bay of Cabral), but the settlement was transferred to the banks of the Joao de Tyba, four miles to the northward, in consequence, Cazal states, of its more favourable soil. The Jesuits, who founded a college in the capital in 1553, with a view to prosecute their labours among the Indians of this province, left only two aldeias entirely Indian, at the time of their expulsion. In fact, less progress has been made in civilising the aborigines than cultivating the soil in Porto Seguro, than even in Espiritu Santo, still more backward in cultivation. The civilised inhabitants are almost wholly confined to the neighbourhood of the coast, and the interior is almost a continued forest abounding with the finest timber. From the banks of the Rio Doce to the San Matthseus, a wilderness extends along the coast, twenty leagues in length; for the greater part of the way not even fresh-water is said to be found. At two leagues from Regencia, is the quartel de Munserra, near which is a long, narrow lake, called Lagoa de Juparanan da Praya, communicating with the sea by a broad channel, which is dry at low water. Some leagues further, in a small, low valley, is another lake, called Piranga ; and beyond this, the road crosses the Barra seca, the outlet of a third lake, abounding in fish. In this neighbourhood are extensive campos. Turtle frequent the coast.f Above the bar of the river is the town of San Matthseus, situated in * On the authority of Mr. Lindley, which agrees with Prince Maximilian s map, Mr. Hender son says, between 15 deg. 54 min. and 19 deg. 31 min. south latitude. Cazal mentions only one lake between the Doce and the San Matthgeus, which he calls the and describes to be " f considerable length from east to west, but very narrow." Prince Maximilian says, "While our people were employed in fetching some sea-water, m picking up drift wood on the beach, we found to our great surprise, at a short distance our fire, a prodigious sea-turtle (tcstudo nydas, Linn.) which was just going to deposit its ?. Uur presence did not disturb it; we could touch it and even lift it up; but to do this it re- the united strength of four men. Thecreature manifested no sign of uneasiness but a kind ng, nearly like the noise made by the geese when any one approaches their voung. It con- nucd to wot <, as it had commenced, with its fin-like hinder feet, digging in the sand a cylindrical ight to twelve inches broad ; it threw the earth very regularly and dexterousfy, and, as "On T ng M G n , b th Sides and bo an immediately after to deposit its eggs. tool- t] IP \ soldl f rs , la d himself all along on the ground near the purveyor of our kitchen, and ?gs out of the hole as fast as the turtle deposited them ; and in this manner we collected n about ^ten minutes We considered whether we should add this fine animal to our and the diffiru tv f i 5 "? wcl S ! J tof the turtle, which would have required a mule for itself alone, tent ourselves !&h %? ""^ *" awkward burden de US resol " e tO S P are its life > and tO C n " well" I^JlES Si the m tdas and the sof t-shelled turtle (testudo myda* and coriacea) as Uc h v Ttr YT WM ! fl deposit their C Z& in the sand J the est mont^ in the cularly m this uninhabited part of the coast between the Riacho and the Mucuri." DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1435 the midst of swamps, which render the place far from healthy ; but the fertility of the soil has attracted numerous settlers to this quarter. " As one of the newest towns in the province of Porto Seguro, says Prince Maximilian, cc it is in a thriving condition. It then contained about a hundred houses, and has in its district nearly 3000 inhabitants, both whites and people of colour. 5 The in habitants cultivate mandioc, and export its flour, and also planks from the forests. Here the orange, the lemon, and the water-lemon flourish luxuriantly. Eight leagues from the town of San Matthseus, up the river, is the station of Galveyas. The River San Matthaeus, originally called the Cricare, has its source in Minas Geraes, and descends through the forests, forming several small falls and receiv ing in its course several streams. Cazal mentions the large River Cotache as join ing it on the left margin, soon after the last fall. The northern bank is frequented by Patachoes, Cumanachoes, Machacalies, and other tribes, as far as Porto Seguro. The southern bank is believed to be chiefly occupied by Botucudoes. In this river is found manati. Fish of various kinds is said to abound. About half a league from San Matthseus, the little River Guajinteba falls into the sea. On this river is the fazenda of As Itaunas. Beyond this, three small streams, the Riacho Doce, the Rio das Ostras, and the Riacho da Barra Nova, also dis charge into the Atlantic. The Villa de San Joze do Portalegre, situated at the mouth of the Mucuri, is distant, according to Cazal, nearly thirty miles from the San Mattheeus. This town is commonly called Portalegre. The inhabitants are chiefly Indians, and are very poor; but some trade has been attracted to it. Almost all the fine species of wood found on the eastern coast of Brazil abound in the forests of this district. About a day s journey and a half up the river, a fazenda had been established by the Conde da Barca, at a spot called, from the number of araras or maccaws, Morro d Arara, on the banks of a spacious lake. Here, Prince Maxi milian took up his residence for several months. " In these solitary wildernesses," he says, " the chase was our most agreeable, most useful, and indeed only occupation ; and though the insecurity of the forests laid us under many restraints, and obliged us to make it a rule never to go out, except in suffi ciently numerous parties, yet we always procured abundance of game. Whenever we went out of our huts in the morning, we heard the loud drum-like voice of the barbados (mycetes], and the hoarse growl of the gigo, another hitherto nondescript monkey ; the maccaws, which flew loudly screaming over our huts, in pairs, threes, or fives, joined in this noisy concert, which re-echoed through the woods ; and we were in like manner sur rounded by flocks of parrots, of schaiias, maitacas, jurus (psittacus pulverulentus, Linn.), curicas, and many other kinds." Five leagues to the north of the Mucuri, is the River Peruhipe, on the southern margin of which, four miles above its mouth, is the little town of Villa Vigoza, consisting of about 100 houses, with a church and camara, pleasantly situated among groves of cocoa-palms, which give an interesting character to the landscape. The inhabitants carry on some trade in mandioca flour, which is exported in small coasting-vessels. 1436 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Caravellas, situated on the northern margin of the river of the same name, about five miles from the sea, and ten miles north of the Peruhipe. It has straight streets, intersecting each other at right angles. The houses are neatly built, but, for the most part, of one story only. The church stands in an open spot near the Casa da Camara. It carries on a trade in mandioca flour, &c. Small vessels from Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio, and the other ports on the east coast, are lying here. An arm of the Peruhipe communicates with the Caravellas, affording a passage from Vi9oza.* The banks are covered with mangrove-trees, the bark of which is used in tanning, and groves of cocoa-palms. The Barra Velha, "is the old mouth of the River Alcobaga." On its northern bank, not far from its mouth, stands the Villa de Alcobaga, built on a white sandy plain. Here, as well as along the whole coast, some trade is carried on in mandioca flour. The ancient forests on its banks are, or have been, inha bited by Patachoes and Machacaries, who, from this place northward, have peaceably visited the Portuguese settlements, offering wax or game in exchange for necessaries. On the northern bank of this river, several leagues up the country, is the fazenda of Ponte do Gentio. At the time of Prince Maximilian s visit, some Indian families resided here, with six families of Il/iores (islanders), as the inhabitants of the Azores are called, nine Chinese, some negro slaves, and a Portuguese steward. The Chinese were some of those who were brought to Rio by the Conde de Linhares. There are several other fazendas in this neighbourhood, on the right bank of the river ; but, from an eminence which commands the village, the whole coun try presents the appearance of uninterrupted forests. Five leagues to the north of the Rio Alcobaca, or Itanhen, the Rio do Prado, or Sucurucu (written by Cazal, Jucurucu), falls into the Atlantic. The Villa do Prado, originally a settlement of Indians, has a little coasting trade with farinha (mandioca flour), a little sugar, and other produce.f The river has a bar which is passed by loaded sumacas. The coast north of Prado exhibits cliffs of clay resting on a ferruginous K * M r Li " dle / sav9 tllat the River Caravellos (or of caravels, an ancient three-mast vessel), midable and dangerous bar, that will admit vessels of twelve feet onlv ; but, when over the bar, they have ten fathoms water." of P^ W i hiIC detained b y heay y rains in this dreary, sandy spot," Prince Maximilian saw numbers described ^ the Machacaries > inhabit the forests on the Sncurucu. They are thus rmmd Cy M ntered th ? ^ Stark naked with their arms in their hands, and were immediately . by a crowd of people. They brought large balls of black wax for sale, and we procured bows and arrows of them, in exchange for knives and red handkerchiefs. These cured tl ng striking in their appearance ; they were neither painted, nor otherwise disfi- faces andToar^P I t 01 1 m JJ f them f the middle size > of rather slender make, with large bonv bec^vondi I % Onlvafew of them had handkerchiefs tied round them, which had which hen] ronnrT \ CCaSi n Their leader WOre a red WO llen Ca P and b lue breeches we e c iven to thorn !? s mcwl ere. Food was their chief desire. Some flour and cocoa-nuts some of them ?," they pened verv dexterously, with a small axe. In bartering, oITre d 6 ^ 1 8 f ^ ^ asked chi <% for * or hatchets ; but one of them got a red handkerchief tied round his neck. A cocoa-nut fixed upon a pole, was set DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1437 sandstone ; the summits are covered with wood, and numerous valleys have a little stream flowing to the sea through dark-green forests. On all the rocks alone this coast, there are shell-fish which afford a purple juice. In some of these valleys are fazendas. To the north of the point of land called Comechatiba, or Currubi- chatiba,* a day s distance from Prado, the sea is again bordered by high cliffs and rocks, and the route leads over the heights. A league and a half from Comechatiba, is the little River Cahy, which cannot be passed, however, except at ebb-tide : at high water, it is rapid and rough. It flows, like all these rivers, from a dark woody valley. Between three and four leagues further northward, is the mouth of the Corumbao, somewhat larger than the Cahy. At the barra are seve ral sandy islands, the haunt of herons and other water-fowl. A league and a half further, the River Cramemoan falls into the sea, on the south bank of which is the little Indian village of the same name, now a military post, called the Quartel da Cunha. In the foreground of the mountains which skirt the open country on the left, is seen the circular white head of the Morro de Pascoal, which serves as a landmark to manners : it is a part of the Serra dos Ay mores. The route again leaves the beach soon after passing the Cramemoan, and ascends, by a steep path, to a dry, elevated campo, called Juassema, the site of a town which was founded by one of the Dukes d Aveiro, and destroyed by the Aymores. The next river is the Rio do Frade, a small stream. Cazal makes its barra eight miles north of the Cramemoan. Canoes can proceed two days journey up the stream, the banks of which are fertile. Monte de Pascoal is seen at a distance of twelve leagues to the west. Three leagues further is the mouth of a rivulet, formerly called Itapitinga. Here, what was formerly a convent of Jesuits, is now a church. The town contained, in 1813, about fifty houses and 500 inhabitants, almost all Indians of a dark-brown complexion. They cultivate mandioca and cotton, and some are fishermen. The Bay of Trancozo is described by Mr. Lind- ley as small and shallow, and the country, he says, is delightful. The distant forests are inhabited by Patachoes.f From this place it is about fifteen miles to Porto Seguro, the capital of the district. Between Trancozo and Porto Seguro (about three miles south of the latter), is a steep morro crowned with the chapel of Nossa Senhora d Ajuda, near which formerly stood the town of San Amaro. up at the distance of forty paces, and they were desired to shoot at this mark, which they never missed. " Their weapons are, in the main, the same as those of the other savages ; their bows are, how ever, larger than those of any of the other tribes. I measured one of them, and found it to be eight feet nine inches and a half, English measure ; they are made of airi wood (bignonia)" * A reef in the sea forms at this place a good harbour. j- " From the Rio do Frade to Villa Prado," says this traveller, " is a long range of neglected coast, intersected by several smaller rivers, and frequented by such numbers of hostile Indians, that travelling on the beach is extremely dangerous." This was in 1802 ; but, in 1816, the people were on such friendly terms with the Patachoes, that they no longer feared them. " The whole coast," Mr. Lindley adds, " is a continuation of reefs, sunken rocks, and shallows; yet, the neigh bouring pilots conduct vessels so skilfully through, that few accidents occur." HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The town of Porto Seguro, situated at the mouth of the River Buranhem, though it ranks as the first in the district, is less than Caravellas. The port which has given name both to the town and the district, is formed by a reef, or rather ledge of rocks, that runs out for about a mile, from an extended point of the main, in a direction parallel to the land, presenting a natural mole. " These rocks are dry at low water, and terminate abruptly, appearing again faintly at half a mile s distance. The space between is the bar or entrance, over which is twenty feet water at high tides, but inside, it shallows to twelve feet. The last is the average water of the port, except at some distance up, where the river empties itself, and the water is somewhat deeper. The bottom is a fine sand, gradually ascending to a broad beach. In entering the port, the view of the country is delightful. Near the water s edge is a ran"-e of fishermen s cottages, shaded with the waving cocoa in front, and each having its adjoining orange-ground. On the back of these cots, the native underwood intrudes, and, intersected into numberless paths, forms evergreen groves full of birds of rich plum- ao-e, and some of song. To the northward, the land rises up to a steep hill, which is asce nded by a winding path, and on its summit stands the (upper) town The prin cipal inhabitants have each their country farm, situated chiefly on the banks of the river, and ranging five leagues from its mouth up to Villa Verde. At these they have planta tions of the sugar-cane and mandioca." There is, however, but little agriculture, and the greater part of the farinha consumed, comes from Santa Cruz. This, with salt-fish, constitutes the chief subsistence of the population. There belong to the port the little two-masted vessels, called latichas, which sail with great swiftness. The main-mast has a broad, square sail ; the mizen mast, which is shorter, has a small triangular one . and they can be set in such a manner, that the vessel runs so close to the wind, when others cannot steer their course. Porto Seguro is stated by Mr. Lindley to be in latitude 16 deg. 40 min. south, longitude 40 deg. 12 min. west. Several small rivers join the Porto Seguro or Buranhem, which is also called the Rio da Casioeira, in consequence of a fall. The soil on its banks is said to be of great fertility. Above five leagues (nearly eighteen miles) north of Porto Seguro, the Sante Cruz falls into the sea. It is rather narrower than the Buranhem, but, like the latter, has a good harbour, protected by a projecting reef of rocks against the violence of the sea. Its first name was the Joam de Tyba. The town of Santa Cruz lies near the mouth, on the south bank, at the foot of the hill. From this place, a fine beach, " as level as a threshing-floor," extends to the River Mogiquic,aba (or Misquiaba), a distance of several leagues. The Mogiquic,aba is less considerable than the Santa Cruz. A plain, five leagues wide, extends northward from the Mogiquigaba to the Belmonte. About half way is the Barra Velha, where an arm of the river, now dry, once discharged itself into the sea. The Rio Grande de Belmonte (so called to distinguish it from the other rivers of the same name), runs close by the town of Belmonte, and falls into the sea in latitude 15 deg. 40 min. south. At high-water, this large river is rapid, but its entrance is always dangerous, being encumbered DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1439 with sand-banks which, even at high-water, render the navigation formidable to the lanchas. The Villa de Belmonte was originally a town of Christianised Indians, who were settled here not above sixty or seventy years ago. Few, if any, of their descendants are now left. We can add nothing more to the foregoing sketches of these provinces, of which we can vouch for the authenticity. CHAPTER XI. INTERIOR PROVINCES OF MINAS GERAES, MATTO GROSSO, AND GOYAZ. THE province of Minas Geraes, owes its chief celebrity to its precious me tals and diamonds. The country has, besides, many natural advantages for agri culture and for pasturage. Nor can it be asserted that when Pombal projected the foundation of the capital of Brazil in this province, his judgment was alto gether wrong : although the magnificent splendour of the Bay of Rio Janeiro, is scarcely paralleled in the scenery of the world. A capital, with mountains guarding it from maritime invasion, and more central with regard to the other provinces of the empire, might certainly have been erected amid the valleys of this province. Minas Geraes is described as by far the most undulated and mountainous re gion of Brazil. It is separated from the province of San Paulo and Rio Janeiro by the Serra Mantiqueira. The most elevated part of this chain is called the Ita Culume. On the north it bounds on Bahia and Pernambuco, from which it is separated by the rivers Verde and Carynhenha ; on the east, it is bounded by part of Bahia, Porto Seguro, and Espiritu Santo ; and, on the west, by Goyaz. Its extreme length from north to south is estimated at about 600 miles, extending from which in latitude 13 deg. to 21 deg. 10 min. south; its breadth is estimated about 350 miles. The climate is described as temperate, compared with others in the tor rid zone, owing to the elevation of its table-land. It abounds with rivers and mountain streams, the greater part of which have their sources in the Serra Man tiqueira, and flow into four great drains. The Rio "Doce and the Jequitinhonha, which flows into the Atlantic ; the San Francisco, which runs for a great distance north ; the Rio Grande, or Para, which receives also the Rio das Mortes, flows in a westerly direction. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Minas Geraes is said to have been first explored by an inhabitant of Porto Se<mro, in the end of the sixteenth century, who, with a party, ascended the Rio Doce, and discovered some emeralds. Some Paulistas visited the country, about 1694, and discovered gold. Villa Rica and Mananu were so far inhabited as to be called towns in 1 711, II Joao del Rey, and Sabara, on the following year, and Villa de Principe, three years after. Don Lourenzo d Almeyda was appointed the first governor-general of this province in 1720. In 1818, Villa Rica was declared the capital of Minar, Villa Boa that of Goyaz, and Villa Bella of Matto Grosso. There have been discovered in this province, gold,platina, silver, copper, iron, lead, mercury, antimony, bismuth, fossil-coal, diamonds, emeralds, rubies, topazes, chrysolites, saphires, agates, aqua-marinas, amethysts, and almost all the pre cious stones. The agricultural products are, cotton, tobacco, sugar, wheat, maize, mandioc, coffee, indigo. It yields also drugs, such as ipecacuanha, co- lumbo-root, jalap, liquorice, vanilla, various gums, and Jesuit s bark. In 1776 according to the documents quoted by Mr. Southey, the province of Minas Ge raes contained 319,769 inhabitants. In 1808, the German traveller, M. Von Eschwege, says, " the population amounted to 433,049 ; of whom, 106,684 were whites, 129,656 free mulattoes, 47,937 free negroes, and 148,772 negro and mu latto slaves. In 1820, they were computed to be 456,675 free persons, and 165,210 slaves; total, 621,885." " With double the population," says Von Spix, " Minas has three-and-a-half times as many negro slaves, and nine times as many free negroes as San Paulo. 31 The population, as stated in the table which we have taken from Mr. Kidder s work, amounted in 1844, to 760,000 souls, but we are uncertain as to whether this number includes all the slaves ; nor does it, we believe, include the aborigines. We have but little recent information relative to this province which would justify us in adding much to all we have said under the general description of Brazil, excepting what we can glean from Mr. Kidder s sketches. This traveller says, its form is nearly square, and its area about 150,000 square miles ; or one- seventh larger than the United Kingdom. Some parts of Minas resemble Goyaz and Matto Grosso, being still a wilder- ss, and overrun with Indian tribes. Other districts are among the most im proved parts of the empire. One writer has remarked, that if there be one spot in d which might be made to surpass all others, Minas is that favoured spot. is mild and healthful ; its suiface is elevated and undulating; its soil is Ie, and capable of yielding the most valuable productions ; its forests abound n Choice timber, balsams, drugs, and dye-woods. s name signifies the general mines, and gold, silver, copper, and iron, and B stones are found within its limits. Several of its most valuable gold DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1441 ines have been wrought by an English mining company for the last twenty years. This company was organised under Dom Pedro I., in 1825, with an active capital of 200,000/. It has rendered great service to the country generally, by introduc ing the most approved methods of mining, and by giving an impetus to Brazilian industry. The company pay twenty per cent upon its products to the government, and employs a large number of miners from Cornwall ; and at Gongo Socco, its principal mine, there is a thriving English village. The agricultural industry of Minas Geraes consists chiefly of the cultivation of coffee, sugar, tobacco, and cotton. Its soil yields Indian corn in great profusion, and would grow wheat. Upon its campinas, or uplands, innumerable herds of cattle, and some flocks of sheep are pastured. Of the milk of the cows is made a species of soft cheese, known as the queijo de Minas ; the cheeses are about two inches thick, and six or eight in diameter. When fully prepared, cured, they are wrapped in banana leaves and packed in baskets, to be transported to market, like every thing else, on the backs of mules. Immense quantities of this cheese is sent to Rio de Janeiro, and from thence distributed along the coast as an article of food. Some coarse manufactures of cotton are made. Roads are either wanting, or the few that have been opened are extremely bad. Considerable sums have been wasted in the construction of roads* but no produce can yet be sent to market in a wheeled carriage. The journey from Ouro Preto, the capital, to Rio de Janeiro, a distance of about 200 miles, is only performed on the backs of mules and horses, and in no less time than about fifteen days. According to official accounts, education in Minas Geraes, is more advanced than in the other provinces. The provincial government has expended large sums for the support of schools. Provision has been made to maintain 182 public schools. Of these there were recently in operation, ninety-six primary schools for boys, fifteen for girls, and twenty-six Latin schools. About 8000 pupils are registered in these schools. The average attendance was about 6000. There are also a number of private schools : and the majority of the inhabitants are giving their children an education. Se veral youths have been sent to Europe at the expense of the province, to qualify themselves for normal masters. Should the projected steam navigation upon the Rio Doce and the Rio de San Francisco ever be carried into execution, the prosperity of Minas Geraes would be greatly promoted. MATTO GROSSO is a great inland and chiefly wilderness province, bounded by the provinces Para, Goyaz, San Paulo, and the Spanish territories. It is said to contain no less than four climates, and its area is vaguely computed as greater than that of all Germany. " Nature," says Cazal, " has partitioned it into three grand districts, of which VOL, I. 8 X 1442 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. two are divided into six smaller ones, which will, perhaps, at some future day, form the limits of the same number of ouvidorias, when the increase of its po pulation shall render such a measure desirable. These seven grand divisions are, Camapuania on the south ; Matto Grosso proper, Cuyaba, and Bororonia in the centre ; and Juruenna, Arinos, and Tappiraquia on the north. "The larger portion of this province must be considered as terra incognita, for the most part in the possession of native tribes. Tippiraquia, so called from the Tippiraque Indians, lying between the rivers Araguaya and Xingu, is nearly unknown. Arinos and Juruenna, named from the rivers which intersect them, are not better known. These rivers unite and form the great Tapajos. Boro ronia, which takes the name of the Bororo Indians, is watered by the SanLoureno, and lies between Goyaz and Cuyaba. " Camapuania, the southern division of the province, takes its name from the River Camapuan ; it is described almost universally flat, and a vast portion of the western half is annually submerged by the inundations of the Paraguay, which is stated, to cover, in some parts, more than seventy miles of plain. Its northern limits are a chain of mountains, extending in the thirteenth parallel of latitude, from east to west, from which emanate the Paraguay and its branches flowing to the southward, and the heads of the Tapajos and the Xingu flowing northward. Numerous other rivers have their origin in a cordillera of inconsider able elevation, running from north to south, and dividing the canton into east and west, denominated the Serra Amambahy. The middle of the northern part of this district is known by the name of Vaccaria, or cattle -plains, c in consequence of the cattle that were dispersed here, when the Paulistas expelled the inhabitants of the city Xerez, and of five neighbouring small aldeias, which formed a small province, of which the said city was the head." Of the numerous savage nations, the most powerful are the Guaycurues. The route to Matto Grosso was formerly from the sea coast, but there has for some time been communications with it from Para by ascending either the Tocantins, the Xingu, the Tapajos, or the Madera rivers. The distance in a right line from Para to Villa Bella, one of the principal places of Matto Grosso, is about 1000 miles, but at least 2500 miles have to be traversed in making the passage by water. By the Geographical and Historical Institute of Rio de Janeiro, a detailed account of this route has been published. For the space of 1500 miles up the Amazon and the Madera, to the falls of San Anthony, a powerful current forms the only obstacle. A great part of the country through which the Madera flows is described as very unhealthy. From the falls of San Anthony a succession of falls and rapids occur for more than 200 Canoes and their cargoes overland are carried over portages to avoid the falls and rapids, by the most tedious and difficult labour; and, three or four months are occupied in surmounting this difficult part of the route; DESCRIPTION OF KllAZlL. 1443 above these falls there are about 700 miles of good navigation on the Maiuore and Guapore Rivers, the whole voyage occupies about ten months by the traders carrying goods, A host of Indians and negroes are required as oars men and carriers. It is usual for several companies to associate together, and the enormous quantity of provisions required, occasions great expense and delay. The downward voyage is performed in much less time. Notwithstanding the toil of this long and dreary voyage to Matto Grosso, it is less dreaded than the overland difficult route by the mountains to and from Rio de Janeiro. Matto Grosso signifies a dense forest, a not very imperfect description of this vast region. The province is sometimes called Cuiaba, after a river which runs through it. The bishopric which it constitutes is known by that name only. Mr. Kidder says, Matto Grosso lies nearer the centre of South America. It contains over 500,000 square miles, while its population does not, by the largest estimate exceed 40,000, or one inhabitant for each area of twelve square miles. Sixty-six different tribes of Indians still exist in the province. Most of these tribes are in an entirely savage state. A few of them are on friendly terms with the government and people of the province ; others are decidedly hostile, and omit no opportunity of making desolating incursions upon the cultivated districts. Ex tending through seventeen degrees of latitude, the climate of this province is con siderably varied. It is generally considered healthy. Although mountainous throughout, it has no volcanoes, nor any peaks which for height can be compared with those of the Andes. It abounds in deep caverns and magnificent cataracts. Two of its caverns have been explored and described at some length. One of them has been called the Gruta das On9as, from the great number of wild beasts that inha bited it. The other is called Gruta do Inferno, or the Grotto of Hell. Its soil, which must be exceedingly varied, is said to be generally fertile. In some parts considerable attention is given to grazing, but generally s peaking, the inhabitants make no exertions to produce any thing that is not requisite for their immediate consumption. The province abounds in gold and diamonds, but owing to the lack of skill employed in searching for them, the products of either, in latter years, have been very small. What is gained by the miners and the garim- peiros, as the diamond seekers are called, together with small quantities of ipeca cuanha, constitute the whole amount of exports from the province. These articles are generally sent to Rio de Janeiro, where they suffice to purchase the few manufactured goods that are used by the inhabitants of Matto Grosso. Cuiaba, the capital of the province, is situated on a healthy ground near the River Cuiaba. It is, in fact, little more than a village. Its houses are nearly all built of taipa, with floors of hardened clay or brick. The region immediately surrounding it is said to be so abundant in gold, that some grains of it may be J444 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. found wherever the earth is excavated. It is about 100 miles from the diamond district. The first printing-press in Matto Grosso, was brought to it at the expense of the government m"l838. The number of primary schools provided for by the government is eighteen. Eight of these were, in 1843, supplied with teachers, having 434 boys on their lists. The number of scholars in private and Latin schools, at the same time, was about 200. Great inconveniences were suffered from the lack of books, paper, and nearly every other material essential to ele- mentarv education. In addition to this low state of education, that of religion appears, from the reports of successive presidents of the province, to be still worse. There are but few churches, and not more than half of these have priests. GOYAZ, so called from the aboriginal nation Goya; occupies the central parts of Brazil, east of Matto Grosso, and is very similar in its natural and present condition, soil, productions, and climate, to the latter. It extends from Para, on the north, to San Paulo, on the south. Its eastern boundaries are Maranham, Piauhy, Pernam- buco, and Minas Geraes. Goyaz was early discovered by the Paulistas, in their search for mines and capturing of slaves. It is described as abounding in gold, diamonds, and precious stones, but its remoteness from the sea, and its want of roads and navigable rivers, are obstacles to those prospects to which its resources are otherwise adapted. Goyaz is not generally mountainous, but its surface is elevated and undulated. Magnificent forests grow on the banks of its rivers, but the greater portion of the province is covered with low and stunted shrubbery of the same kind as prevails in the province of Minas, and known by the name of catingas and carac- qnenos. Its soil yields the usual productions of Brazil, together with many of the fruits of southern Europe. Cultivation has been greater in Goyaz than in Matto Grosso, but it is still in a very rude and limited state. The Goyas are now nearly extinct, but other tribes still live within it, and some of them cherish a deadly hatred to the people who have invaded and dis turbed them. Settlements are said to be often laid waste by their hostile incur sions, and regular troops are constantly under arms to resist them. Lately mineral waters have been discovered in Goyaz. Several warm springs are said to exist in the south-western part of the province. M. Auguste St. Hilaire and General Raymundo Joze da Cunha Mattos give us some statements relative to this province. Both of them travelled extensively within its boundaries, and both agree in representing the state of society as back ward in the extreme. The vaqueiros, or cattle proprietors, possess vast herds of horned cattle, and their principal business is to mark, tend, and fold them. They stand the use of the lasso, and also of the long knife, but their moral and intellectual condition i s deplorable. St. Hilaire remarks, that the people who DESCRIPTION OF 13KAZIL. 1445 become domesticated in these vast wilds, seem to lose the very elements of civi lisation. By degrees their ideas of religion, and their respect for the institution of marriage, disappear. They learn to dispense with the use of money as a circu lating medium, and to forego the use of salt upon their food." But this is not all " a species of brutish infidelity is already disseminated throughout these sertoens, which, it is to be feared, will end not only in degrading the people below the ordinary rank of moral and civilised society, but even below the condition of the aboriginal Indians." Goyaz and Matto Grosso were originally settled by gold hunters. The lure of treasure led adventurers to bury themselves in the deep recesses of these interminable forests. Their search was successful. " Gold was so plentiful, that for the first year every slave commonly returned three and often four ounces a day. It lay upon the very surface of the ground. But the thoughtless adventurers had made no provision for supporting themselves in the wilderness, and they discovered, when too late, that food was more precious than gold. A few white deer were the only game they could find, and mangabas the only fruit. Higher prices for provisions have seldom been demanded in a besieged town, or during extreme famine, than these poor miners were glad to pay. A pound of gold could scarcely buy a bushel of corn, and in one instance a pound of gold was bartered for a pound of salt. A drove of cattle arrived, and flesh and bone together were sold for an ounce and a half of gold per pound. The gold which they gathered was expended for food, but all was not enough, and many of them died of starvation. " The time when gold was most abundant, was described by one of the sur vivors as a season of pestilence and famine; and the discoverer himself, who counted his gold by arrobas* died of leprosy. In later times gold has become scarcer, but the march of improvement has been slow, and notwithstanding the ardent anticipations of Mr. Southey and some others, the day is likely to be distant when these regions will either be populous or highly enlightened." Mr. Kidder says, the presidential reports of Goyaz state the number of pri mary schools in that province to be sixteen for boys and two for girls. There existed at the same time five or six schools of a higher order, and the number of pupils attending them is about one thousand. The provincial government has, within a few years, imported a printing-press, which is chiefly employed in print ing official documents. The condition of the mechanical arts in these two pro vinces may be inferred from statements made in the report of the minister of the empire in 1844. 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I , MI M.I ..... i, M,, M,, i i. ,1,, , MUM, .j.ii. i, ,,, . i,.., ........ iii ........ i. .MM, ..... I irmny I ..... ili "I I mli li l.oi |,). ,,,,,|||, ..... I,, Mill,.,, .......... . ,ll, lli. IM.IIMI (I, ! " ll m ill. | i i. l .1 ...... I ml ..I ll,, I ..... , ......... I ....... I I ..... | ........... I M. . .1 on are. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, On proceeding to the interior he observes, it is necessary to premise, that not ly rail cars, but also stage coaches, and all other vehicles of public conveyance, . entirely unknown in the country, owing, in a great degree, at least, to the unsuitable character of the roads. All who do not walk must expect to be con veyed on the backs of mules or horses, and to have their baggage transported in the same way. For long journeys, the former are generally preferred. But it frequently happens at Santos that neither can be hired in sufficient number with out sending to a considerable distance. Although scarcely a day occurs in the year in which more or less troops of mules do not leave that place for the upper country, yet the greater part of those animals are totally unfit for riding, being only accustomed to the pack-saddle, and having never worn the bit. It may be here remarked, that ordinary transportation, to and from the coast, is accomplished with no inconsiderable regularity and system, notwithstanding the manner. Many planters keep a sufficient number of beasts to convey their entire produce to market; others do not, but depend more or less upon professional carriers. Among these each troop is under charge of a conductor, who superintends its movements and transacts its business. They generally load down with sugar and other agricultural products, conveying, in return, salt, flour, and every variety of imported merchandise. A gentleman who had for many years employed these conductors in the transmission of goods, told him he had seldom or never known an article fail of reaching its destination. On leaving Santos, he says, " The first characters that engaged my attention were the two tropeiros,or conductors of the troop. They were not mounted, but preferred going on foot, in order to give proper attention to their animals and baggagei "The road was level as far as Cubatao, leading along the river, and twice crossing that stream by bridges. The principal house of the village mentioned was the Registro: where, in addition to paying a slight toll, each passer-by had his name and nation registered. A short distance beyond Cubatao we commenced nscending the Serra do Mar, or Ocean Cordillera. This range of mountains stretches along more than 1000 miles of coast, sometimes laved at its very feet by the ocean ; at others branching off inland, leaving a considerably wide range of low and level interval, called by the Portuguese, Beira Mar. 4 The road leading up the Serra do Cubatao, is one of the most expensive and best wrought in Brazil. Yet owing to the steepness of the ascent, it is utterly impassable to carriages. It embraces about four miles of solid pavement, and upwards of 180 angles in its zig-zag course. A solid pavement up this mountain pass was rendered essential from the liability of the road to injury by the continued tread of animals, and also from torrents of water which are frequently precipitated down and across it in heavy rains. otwithstanding the original excellence of the work, maintained as it had been by frequent repairs, we were obliged to encounter some gulleys and slides of earth DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1449 which would have been thought of fearful magnitude had they not been rendered insignificant in comparison with the heights above, and the deep ravines which ever and anon yawned beneath precipitous embankments. At these points, a few false steps of the passing; animal would have plunged both him and his rider beyond the hope of rescue. Our ascent was rendered more exciting by meeting successive troops of mules. "Through openings in the foliage, we had repeated opportunities of viewing the country below, skirted by the ocean. The Jesuit Vasconcellos, who had performed the ascent about 200 years before, thus describes the pass, and the description, it is said, will still hold true with the exception of the last sentence, which makes the elevation too great. <" l The greater part of the way you have not to travel, but to get on with hands and feet, and by the roots of trees ; and this among such crags and preci pices, that I confess my flesh trembled when I looked down. The depth of the valley is tremendous, and the number of mountains, one above another, seems to leave no hope of reaching the end. When you fancy you are at the summit of one, you find yourself at the bottom of another of no less magnitude. True it is, that the labour of ascent is recompensed from time to time ; for when I seated myself upon one of these rocks, and cast my eyes below, it seemed as though I was looking down from the heaven of the moon, and that the whole globe of earth lay beneath my feet. A sight of rare beauty for the diversity of prospect, of sea and land, plains, forests, and mountain tracks, all various, and beyond measure delightful. This ascent, broken with shelves of level, continues till you reach the plains of the Piratininga, in the second region of the air, where it is so thin, that it seems as if those who newly arrive could never breathe their fill/ " From the summit of the serra, which is 2250 feet above the sea, the distance to San Paulo is about thirty miles, over a country diversified with undulations, of which the prevailing declination by the course of streams is inland. Ne vertheless, so slight is the variation from a general level, that the highest point within the city of San Paulo, is estimated to be in precisely the same altitude with the summit mentioned. No inconvenience could therefore be ex perienced from rarification of the atmosphere at such an elevation. " The soil here is occasionally sandy, and frequently mingled with ferruginous sandstone, partially decomposed. At other points a reddish marl predominates. The general appearance of the country resembles the oak openings of the western states of North America, being interspersed with prairies ; although the character of the vegetation is entirely different, and is also much varied from the region below. One decided peculiarity of the uplands of San Paulo, consists in their prairies being dotted with ant-hills. The earth composing the outer crust of these insect habitations, becomes so perfectly indurated between rain and sun, as to retain the erect and oval form originally given it, for scores of years. VOL. i. 8 T J45Q HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. "The rain ceasing, we proceeded as far as Rio Pequeno (Little River),, and made a halt at a rancho upon its banks. The ordinary rancho is a simple shed, or rather a thatched roof set upon posts, entirely open below. It is built ex pressly for the accommodation of travellers, and its size corresponds to the public spirit of the neighbourhood. Sometimes a rancho is from sixty to 100 feet long, and proportionally wide. Occasionally one may be found enclosed. Those who first come are entitled to their choice of position. They unlade their mules, and pile up their saddles and cargo, frequently constructing a hollow square, within which they sleep, either upon skins extended on the ground or in hammocks. Their beasts are turned out to graze for the night; and as each troop ordinarily carries such culinary apparatus as its company requires, they have abundant leisure for preparing food while their animals are resting. " Frequently, for the sake of securing better pasture, the tropeiros encamp in the open air. They then pile up their panniers of sugar, coffee, or other cargo, in a right line, cover them with hides, and dig a trench around them in order to prevent injury from any sudden shower." The fact, that the great majority of all who travel in the interior of Brazil prefer arrangements of this kind, may account for the scarcity of better accommo dation. The latter part of his route led over a pleasant rolling country, but thinly inhabited. The road, although simply a beaten track, not designed for carriages of any description, has been found to need frequent repairs, from the throng of laden mules that are constantly passing over it. A party of Germans, just arrived, were thus employed. The rest were chiefly mulattoes and Indians. "It would be expected in the absence of carriages, that unless females were absolute keepers at home, they would become expert in riding. We accord ingly had repeated opportunities of witnessing their dexterity in managing the rein and stirrup. We could hardly persuade ourselves to admire their style of riding, notwithstanding their skill, and the fleetness of their horses ; yet in. the destitution of side-saddles, it would be difficult to suggest a better. Men s hats seemed to be in fashion with them, both in riding and walking." The troops, or caravans, so often met on this route, are composed of from 100 to 300 mules each, attended by a sufficient number of persons. The mules have each a pack-saddle, bearing upon each side well-balanced panniers, con- taming bags of sugar, or other goods. One is trained to take the lead, and is selected on account of experience on the roads. Its head is often adorned with sea-shells and plumes of peacocks feathers. It has a bell suspended, and then takes the lead. The conductor of each troop is well mounted, and with a lasso, is ready to pick up any animal that attempts to stray away. Passing through the plains of Ypiranga, he soon came in sight of San Paulo, and passed up a narrow street into that ancient city * " Proceeding to the only house where public entertainment could be expected, I was soon DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1451 The city of San Paulo is situated between two small streams, upon elevated uneven ground. Its streets are narrow, and not laid out with regularity. They have narrow side-walks, and are paved with ferruginous conglomerate closely resembling old red sandstone. Some of the buildings are constructed of this stone ; but the material more generally used in the construction of houses is the common soil, slightly moistened, built up into a solid wall. These walls are usually very thick, and are generally covered by projecting roofs, which preserve them from the rains. Walls of this kind have been known to stand more than 100 years, without th- least protection. The houses within the city are generally two stories high, and constructed with balconies, sometimes with, and sometimes without lattices. These balconies are the favourite resorts of both sexes in the coolness of the morning and evening and when processions are passing through the streets.* In the suburbs and vicinity of San Paulo there are many handsome houses and gardens. This town is a rendezvous for the province. Many of the more wealthy planters who have houses in the city, spend only a small part of their time on their estates. They direct in the city the sale and disposal of their pro duce, as it passes down the serra to market. Near the town is the botanical garden, established about thirteen years ago. It is laid out in good taste, with shaded walks, and has a tank of pure water. It is rather neglected, from a want of funds. There are twelve churches in the city of San Paulo. The cathedral is large, and in it some twenty ecclesiastics chant high mass. A considerable number of persons, chiefly women, were present. arranged in comfortable lodgings. This house was kept by one Charles, a Frenchman, married to a Portuguese wife, and for many years a resident of the place. I found that almost every pre ceding traveller, from whatever nation, had been entertained by him. This experience of Mon sieur Charles had led him to an unusual degree of caution respecting his guests. His rule was, to admit none without a letter of introduction. A gentleman, acquainted with this regulation, had favoured me with the necessary note." * " The houses of Brazil, whether constructed of earth or stone, are generally coated outside with plastering, and whitewashed. Their whiteness contrasts admirably with the red tiling of their roof; and one of its principal recommendations is the ease with which it can be re-applied in case of having become dull or soiled. In San Paulo the prevailing colour is varied in a few instances with that of a straw yellow, and a light pink. On the whole, there appeared a great degree of neatness and cheerfulness in the external aspect of the houses in San Paulo. " There is a considerable variety in their general plan ; but almost all are so constructed as to surround an area, or open space within, which is especially useful in furnishing air to the sleeping apartments, and is rendered the more indispensable by the custom of barring and bolting, with heavy inside shutters, all the windows that connect with the street In cities, the lower stories are seldom occupied by the family, but sometimes with a shop, and sometimes with the carriage-house or stable. The more common apartments above, are the parlour and dining-room, between which, almost invariably, are alcoves designed for bed-rooms. The furniture of the par lour varies in costliness according to the degree of style maintained ; but what you may always expect to find, is a cane-bottomed sofa at one extremity, and three or four chairs arranged in pre cise parallel rows, extending from each end of it towards the middle of the room. In company, the ladies are expected to occupy the sofa, and the gentlemen the chairs. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Among the prevailing fruit-trees here, is the Jaboticabeira in great abun- dance. This tree belongs to the order of Myrtaceae, and exhibits the great singularity of bearing its flower and fruit directly upon the trunk and large limbs, to which they are closely attached, while the extremities are covered with dense green foliage. The fruit is highly delicious, resembling in appearance the large purple grape. The campos may be denominated prairies or openings, and in which rare plants abound. Among the variety, the tibou is extremely fatal to cattle, and they die without remedy soon after eating it. Education in San Paulo. The Academy of Laws, or, as it is frequently de nominated, the University of San Paulo, ranks first among all the literary in stitutions of the empire. The secretary and acting president, Doctor Brotero, lias published a standard work on the " Principles of Natural Law," and a treatise upon " Maritime Prizes/ The edifice of the Curso Juridico, was originally constructed as a convent by the Franciscan monks, whom the government compelled to abandon it, for its present more profitable use. Being larger and well built, a few alterations ren dered it suitable to the purposes for which it was required. The lecture- rooms are on the first-floor, the professors rooms and library on the second ; these, together with an ample court-yard and two immense chapels, compose the buildings. In one chapel are several paintings. Both abounded in images and painted representations of the patron saint. The library of the institution, contain ing 7000 volumes, is composed of the collection formerly belonging to the Francis cans, a part of which was bequeathed to the convent by the Bishop of Madeira ; the library of a deceased Bishop of San Paulo, a donation of 700 volumes from the first director, and some additions ordered by the government. It was not overstocked with books upon law or bdles let t res, and was quite deficient in the department of science. There was a superabundance of unread and unreadable volumes on theology.* In its arrangement, the University of Coimbra was followed as a model for this. The education imparted by it may be formal and exact in its way, but * The Academy of the Legal and Social Sciences of the city of San Paulo, was created by a law dated August 11, 1827. It was formally opened by the first professor, Doctor Joze Maria de Avellar Brotero, on the first day of March, 1828-Lieutenant-General Jo/e Arouche de loledo Kendon being first director. The statutes by which it is governed were approved by law, November 7, 1831. in es ot the preparatory course are Latin, French, English, rhetoric, rational and moral philosophy, geometry, history, and geography. inited - CSUlar COUrSC 6XtendS thro "S h five y ears - The several professorships are thus de- ar 7 v 1 Frofessorsni P Natural and Public Law, Analysis of the Constitution of the -\ul M- i^7 Sand O f f ^Pkmacy. Second Year.-lst. Continuation of theabovesub- L-! v ~Th r ^ Ccle * iastlcal Law - Third Year.-lst. Civil Laws of the Empire ; 2nd. Criminal 1 r CeSS - Fourth Year.-lst. Continuation of Civil Law; 2nd. ; 2nd - Theory and Practice DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 145 can never be popular. The Brazilian people regard utility more than the anti quated forms of a Portuguese University. The number of students, from year to year, has been, 1828, 33; 1829, 114; 1830, 213; 1831, 270; 1832, 274; 1833, 267; 1834,221; 1835, 175; 1836, 178; 1837, 94; 1838, 63; 1839, 60; 1840, 53; 1841, 59; 1842, 61; 1843, 65. Excursion to the Interior. Mr. Kidder travelled inland. He says, " The route was greatly diversified, between hill and dale, but did not often give an extended prospect. Indeed, each successive turn of our winding way seemed to take us deeper into a vast labyrinth of vegetable beauty, only here and there touched by the hand of cultivation. The palm-tree, in any of its numerous varieties, is a peculiar ornament to a landscape. Two single species prevailed throughout this section. One shot directly upward, a tall, slender, and solitary trunk, without leaf or flower. The other, growing to the length of from sixty to ninety feet, gradually tapered from the base to the ex tremity, until it reached the minuteness of a thread, throwing out at each joint a circle of leafy tendrils, which sometimes caught the branches of other trees for support, and sometimes waved pendulous and gracefully, forming every imaginable curve in the air. There were also the golden vochysia, bignonias of various hues, and now and then an immense tree, a veteran of the forest, decked with blossoms as bright and gay as the first dress of the primrose in spring. JARAQUA. "Although containing two or three thousand people, and receiving its principal importance from being a central point for business, the place con tained but one inn or estalagem, and that was a small house some distance from the street, with much more of a private than public appearance. The master of the house was absent, and I saw none of its inmates save negroes and children. The key of my apartments was sent out, by means of which I was soon intro duced to a place having neither floor nor window, and which, but for the door that opened before me, would have been unvisited by either air or light. How ever, there was room to turn round, and to stow away our saddles and portman teaux, and in a recess hard by I discovered a bed. Supper was sent in anon, consisting of chicken broth and boiled rice. "The next morning was delightful, the sky bright, and the air fresh, although the sun on appearing rapidly gained strength. Our route led through a nearly leveJ forest of four leagues in extent, beyond which there appeared clearings and cul tivated grounds. During the day I passed the only saw-mill I observed any where in Brazil ; all forms of timber being ordinarily cut by the slow and toil some process of the hand or cross-cut saw. Several features in the general as pect of the country, more than usually resembled the appearance of things in th( United States. " The variety of birds that enlivened our route was greater than common. Thf 145 1 HISTORICAL PROGRESS Of AMERICA. pomba and pombinha de rola species of mourning doves, were most frequently seen ; while the uraponga, thus named in imitation of its note, was Constantly heard. I will here remark, notwithstanding the extravagant accounts which some writers have given respecting the inhabitants of a South American forest, that while travelling very extensively in that country, in different latitudes, I found both birds and animals much more rare than they are throughout the United States. Squirrels of no species appear, and the most that a traveller will have seen, in ordinary circumstances, throughout a day s ride, will have been a monkey or a flock of paroquets. The apparent absence of game, however, may be in p trt owing to its extreme wild ness, for monkeys are often heard howling at a dis tance. " The soil over which we passed was but little diversified, constantly resembling the red marly alluvial of San Paulo. We reached the villa of San Carlos,, at which I was most hospitably entertained by a gentleman to whom I bore letters- of introduction. This town is on the border of a vast series of level plains, sweeping inland. The road over which I had passed from the coast was only suitable for beasts, but from this place transportation could be effected by carts or waggons for a distance of near 300 miles. " As a matter of course, this place had become a great rendezvous for mule teers, who conveyed the sugars of the interior hence to the sea-coast, and brought back salt and other commodities in exchange. Troops might be seen loading and unloading every day." CHAPTER XII. PROVINCES OF SANTA CATHARINA AND OF RIO GRANDE DO SVL. SANTA CATHARINA. In 1796, this province was computed to contain 1246 fogos (fires or hearths, that is, houses), and 23,865 adult inhabitants, exclusive of troops. In 1812, the population, according to Cazal, amounted to 31,53(X In 1844, there were, by official returns, 53,707 free inhabitants, and 12,511 slaves. The province has three towns Nossa Senhora do Desterro on the Island of Santa Catharina, San Francisco on the island of the same name, and Laguna on the continent ; and seven frequezias or parishes three on the island, uud four on the continent. Ihe inhabitants of these provinces devote their time more to the breeding of cattle than to the cultivation of the soil. They are also engaged in the fisheries along the coast and in the lagoons. The island of Santa Catharina is mountainous. The province of Santa Ca- tharina is the smallest in Brazil. It comprehends the island from which it takes its name, and an extent of about 200 miles of sea-coast. The capital, which is called Nossa Senhora do Desterro, is situated upon the north-western extremity DFSCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1455 of the island, and is but a small town, although its harbour is compared with that of Rio de Janeiro for excellence and beauty.* It is well supplied with good water. The verdure, the orange trees, and houses generally well built, render the place refreshing and picturesque. Its natural advantages are great, but its trade is inconsiderable; and is covered with forests and fields of pasturage. The climate is temperate, and most of the trees and fruits of Europe will grow in perfection. It is often visited by invalids* Flax is grown in the neighbouring country, of which coarse linen is made, and cotton and thread are often woven together. Jars, water-pots, and other vessels are made of the red clay of the interior. Among the shells abounding on the coast, there is a species of Murex, from which a beautiful crimson colour is extracted. The butterflies are splendid m Langsdorff says, " They are not like the tame and puny lepidopters of Europe, which can be caught by means of a small piece of silk. On the contrary, they rise high in the air, with a brisk and rapid flight. Sometimes they light and re pose on flowers arid the tops of trees, and rarely risk within reach of the hand. They appear to be constantly on their guard, and if caught at all, it must be when on the wing, by means of a net at the extremity of a long rod of cane. Some species are observed to live in society, hundreds and thousands of them being sometimes found together. These generally prefer the lower districts and the banks of streams. When one of them is caught and fastened by a pin on the surface of the sand, swarms of the same species will gather round him, and may be caught at pleasure* Mines of coal are said to exist within this province, but no satisfactory disco veries have yet been made. Doctor Parigot, who was employed to make surveys in the province in 1841, "reported the existence of a carboniferous stratum, from twenty to thirty miles in width, and about 300 in length, running from north to south through the province. The best vein of coal he opened he pronounced half bituminous, and situated between thick strata of the hydrous oxide of iron and bituminous schist. 5 Oranges, pine apples, and various fruits are described as delicious. Mandioc, flax ; cotton, rice, maize, some wheat, &c., are cultivated. The whale and other fisheries are carried on near the shores, and in the bays and lagoons, and this small and fertile province requires only industry and a larger population to render it an earthly paradise. THE PROVINCE OF GRANDE DO Sut, is described as healthy, and abounds in * Commodore Anson touched here in 1740, the place having become of more consequence, and the authority of the government being increased in proportion, the inhospitable system esta blished in other parts of Brazil, had been introduced there also. A great contraband trade was then carried on from this island with the Plata, the Portuguese exchanging gold for silver, by which traffic both sovereigns were defrauded of their fifths. Fortifications were then being erected. In 1749, the population of Santa Catharina had increased to 4197 ; but about the end of the century, several thousands were carried offby a contagious disease, which appears to have been dysentery with putrid fever. J456 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. natural advantages. It has for a long time past been involved in a rebellion which has nearly destroyed its prosperity. One result of this continued revolu tion has been the almost entire extinction of slavery within the contested territory. In order to increase their ranks, the revolting party promised, from time to time, liberty and arms to every slave of a legitimist who would desert his master, and the government likewise promised the same to those slaves who would desert the revolters ; and, by a summary act, deprived all the rebels of the legal right to hold slaves. Thus, between the two parties, the slaves are declared free, although it is possible that many on both sides will, by some means, be kept in ignorance of the privilege. The proximity of Rio Grande to the Spanish Republics on the south and west, brings the inhabitants into intercourse with those of the latter ; which no doubt engenders a republican spirit. The population of Rio Grande has intermixed with that of the neighbouring states. The appearance and character of the inhabitants of Rio Grande par take of the circumstances there pursued. They are described as generally tall of an active and energetic appearance, with handsome features, and of a lighter skin than prevails among the inhabitants of the northern provinces of Brazil. Both sexes are accustomed from childhood to ride on horseback, in which they acquire great skill ; they take their amusements, as well as perform their journeys, arid pursue the wild cattle of their plains on horseback. The use of the lasso is learned from boyhood, and is managed with almost inconceivable dexterity. Little children, armed with their lasso or bolas, make war upon chickens, ducks? and geese of the poultry farm-yard, as preparatory to bolder attempts. For the pursuit of wild cattle, horses are admirably trained, so that when the lasso is thrown they know precisely what to do. A province so extensive, and so conveniently situated, as that of Rio Grande do Sul, possesses the greatest advantages, and many harbours. Pasturage is the most general means of the inhabitants. There are several towns. Up to the year 1763, the provincial capital was San Pedro do Sul, or Rio Grande, its harbour, which forms the entrance to the Lagoa dos Paros is impro perly termed a river. PORTO ALLEGRO, or PORT ALEGRE, is situated near the mouth of the River Jacuhy, and is said to be well built, and to contain about 10,000 inhabitants. Vessels are built, and some trade carried on with the sea and with the interior. Sao Leopoldo, north of it, is described as a thriving place, with about 5000 in habitants. Francisco de Paula, inland to the north, has been chiefly a place for preparing jerked beef. If this province were only restored to tranquillity, its pastures, soil, and other resources would with an industrious and intelligent population, render it suscep tible of great prosperity. DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1457 CHAPTER XIII. PROVINCE AND CITY OF RIO DE JANEIRO. THIS province, Rio de Janeiro, derives its name from its port, falsely called Rio de Janeiro : for it is not a river but a magnificent inlet of the sea, and with only a few insignificant streams flowing into it, bounded on the north by Espiritu Santo, and by Minas Geraes. On the west it borders on San Paulo ; and on the south and the east it has the Atlantic Ocean. It comprises about half of the original capitania of San Vincente, together with a portion of territory for merly belonging to Espiritu Santo. It is estimated to be sixty leagues in length from east to west, near its northern extremity, and fifty near its southern, and to be about twenty-three leagues of average breadth. We have various accounts of this province, but little that we can rely upon of recent date, except the sketches of Mr. Kidder, and the official returns of trade which will be found hereafter. The Serra dos Orgoas, organ mountains, so called on account of the resem blance which the pyramidal heads bear, in various parts, to the face of an organ, divide the province into two parts ; northern, or Serra-accina (mountains above), and southern, or Beira-mar (sea-coast). These, again, are subdivided into districts, or comarcas. The greater part of the province of Rio de Janeiro is moun tainous. The chief river is the Parahiba, which rises in a small lake in the southern part of the Serra da Bocania ; it flows into the captaincy of San Paulo ; and after a long and tortuous course, re-enters the province of Rio de Janeiro, and runs into the Atlantic. For navigable purposes, the rivers of this province are considered nearly useless. There are several lakes, the most remarkable are, the Jacare-pagua, and the Roderigo de Freytas, The Angra dos Reys (King s Bay) is very large, and scarcely less splendid than that of Rio de Janeiro; and, like the latter, is adorned with many islands. The principal of these, Ilha Grande, has good harbours, the best of which has obtained the name of O Seio de Habraham (Abraham s bosom). At ANGRA DOS REIS there was at an early period a town founded but its subsequent growth did not correspond to the expectation of its founders. Mr. Kidder, in 1842, judged it to contain about 250 houses, which are arranged in a semicircular form upon the pray a or low ground, bordered by surrounding mountains. ILHA GRANDE is about fifteen miles from east and west in length, and at its VOL. i, 8 z 1458 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. greatest breadth about seven miles from north and south. A considerable por tion of it is under the cultivation of sugar-cane, coffee, &c. It is frequently re sorted to by whale-ships, in order to recruit their stock of wood, water, and fresh provisions. PARATY is the next port at which the steamboat touches, and the last to the south belonging to the province of Rio de Janeiro. The town is small, but re gularly built, and beautifully situated at the extremity of a long arm of the sea, which is adorned with picturesque palm-wooded islands. It contains three churches, dedicated to Nossa Senhora, the first of the conception, second of grief, third of the cliff. The territory connected with this port embraces the fertile plains of Bananal, Paraty-Mirim, and Mambucaba; distinguished for their luxuriant production of many of the fruits of southern Europe, as well as coffee, rice, mandioca, legumes, and the choicest of sugar-cane. Great labour and outlay has been incurred in completing a macadamised road, from Porta da Estrella, near the head of the Bay of Janeiro, over the serra towards the province of Minas Geraes. Iguassu is a busy place, situated about ten miles from the mouth of a river of the same name, on which it stands. This river rises in the Serra dos Orgaos, and although winding in its course, is navigable for large lanchas up to the town. This place, twenty years ago, did not contain more than thirty houses. The planters bring their coffee,, beans, farinha de mandioca, toucinho and cotton, to Iguassu, from which it is sent by lanchas to Rio de Janeiro. CITY OF RIO DE JANEIRO. Rio DE JANEIRO, or San Sebastiao de Rio de Janeiro,* the capital of the empire, stands on the western shores of the Bahia de Rio de Janeiro, one of the most splendidly magnificent inlets of the ocean. This bay, called by the Abori gines Netlierohy, or hidden waters, is about twenty-four miles in length, nearly north and south, and fifteen miles in its greatest width. The entrance, between two granite mountains, is hardly a mile wide, and formed by two projecting, rocky, and elevated headlands, which are fortified, as well as a small island near the entrance. The Bay of Rio de Janeiro affords one, or rather several of the best harbours on the globe. It is so free from dangers and shoals that no pilot is required. The city, which is at once the sovereign and commercial metropolis of the empire, stands about four miles from the entrance, and extends about three miles over undulating ground. The aspect of Rio de Janeiro is brightly vivid in its white buildings and verdant back-grounds. It presents no brick walls, dingy roofs, or tall chimneys f Ri de Janeiro and its waters which we have > the **<* of t DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1459 resembling the features of European cities. The houses, churches, and publie edifices rise amidst hills which branch off from the adjacent mountains. At the foot, and along the brows of these hills, the white walled and red-tiled roofs, are decked by the luxuriant vegetation of trees and shrubs that impart picturesque beauty to the splendid, and romantic, scenery of a landscape unsurpassed in its variety and in its grandeur. The Morro do Castello, with its tall signal staff, crests the most command ing height directly above the entrance from ocean to the bay. The Morro telegraph announces the flag, class, and place of each vessel that appears in the offing. Between the Ponta do Calabouo, and the Ilha das Cobras, the older and denser part of the town appears in view. The emperor has two palaces the first in front of the general landing-place, which was the ancient residence of the viceroys of Portugal. It is now only occa sionally thrown open for reception by the emperor on court days ; that is, not as a residence, but much like St. James s Palace in London. The palace of residence is about five miles distant, in the suburb of St. Christopher. There is also the palace of the National Assembly, the palace of the Senate, the palace of the Campo da Honra, the palace of the Municipality, and the palace of the bishop. Other edifices are the naval and military arsenals, barracks, the Custom House and Consulado, offices of the government and of the police, courts of justice, prisons, and the ancient College of the Jesuits, now the Academy of Medicine, the Academy of the Fine Arts, the National Library, and a National Museum. The religious buildings are the cathedral, an imperial chapel, about fifty churches and chapels, two monasteries, two nunneries, two public and three pri vate hospitals, and two cemeteries. The streets intersect each other at right angles except along the beach, and the declivities of the hills, where there is only space for one winding street. The Passeio Publico, or public promenade, commands beautiful views. It is a general resort for recreation. There are several squares or open spaces in other parts of the town. Fountains are numerous, some of them with faades of granite. These supply all the population abundantly with pure running water, flowing along the aqueducts from the mountains. The chief anchorage of this splendid haven is within hearing of the deep- sounding reverberations of the surges of the ocean. Here are seen floating high in air, the flags of the war and merchant ships of England, of France, of the States, and occasionally those of other European and American states. The war United and the trading fleets have each their respective anchorage grounds. On arriving by sea in Rio de Janeiro it is usual to land in a small boat at the Largo do Pao, or Palace-square : and at flood tide the waters dash against the granite parapet. ^460 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMEK1CA. At other landing-places the passenger is carried over the surf on the shoulders of boatmen. There are no docks and wharves, unless it be platforms erected to land from the steam ferry-boats which ply between the city and the op posite side of the bay. Coasting steamers, merchant vessels, and men-of-war all ride at anchor in the harbour. At the Palace-square, generally, a throng of all colours, especially Africans, are collected round the fountain to obtain water, which flows perpetually from numerous pipes, " and when caught in tubs or barrels, is borne off upon the heads of both males and females. 5 The slaves are barefooted, even when gaily dressed. To prevent disturbances when the slaves, usually social, happen to fight, soldiers are generally stationed near the fountains. The Largo do Pa^o is the resort of the citizens and foreigners, who walk or sit there to enjoy the sea breeze. The Palace of the Viceroys, now appropriated to various public offices, is a large stone building, in the old Portuguese style of architecture, and contains the suite of rooms in which the court is held on levee days, and has also numerous apartments. The buildings at the rear of the Palace-square were all erected for ecclesiastical or conventual, but now used for secular pur poses. The old chapel remains, but has been superseded by the recently-erected imperial chapel, which stands at its right. Adjoining the imperial chapel is that of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, daily open as a cathedral. The streets are generally narrow, arid paved with large stones. The houses seldom exceed three stories in height. In streets chiefly devoted to trade, the first floors only are appropriated as shops, and families occupy the upper apartments. The buildings are nearly all built of granite. The outside walls consist of small and irregular stones cemented and coated with plaster. The colour is almost invariably a clear white, on which the sun often reflects a painful bril liancy to the eyesight. The Rua Direita is the widest and most business-like street: it runs nearly parallel to the shore of the bay.* ^T be Tl an j mated and peculiar than the scenes which are witnessed here dur- . hours of the day, namely, from nine A.M. till two P.M. During these hours only "tied to discharge and receive their cargoes, and at the same ttrae all goods and s Krn, , t ? s P atched at ^ Custom-house, and* removed therefrom. Consequent upon how3^Lk ,C^Ti ty is 7 quired toremove ^ Roods dispatched at the Custom- of a vast comme productions of the country that are daily required in the transactions < "M,;1 Iw h,mnn InrT T When the reader ^over, is told that all this labour is per- nnless, indeed, it is dra^Th ^ * Y ? T F a dra * is USed in the cit 3 for sllch P l r P oses > to ti-M.ro before hL J ne S roes > as for the heavier burdens a few are,-he will be prepared (lin-rtion. e 8cores of ne S roes moving with loads upon their heads in every takes the lead and i Teal uffl ? " ^ pSt nnmberin g ten r twenty individuals, of whom one can be found W\r]c af -nri *! lhese are usuall J the largest and strongest men that ney seldom wear any other garment than a pair of short pantaloons; DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1461 The Praca do Commercio, or Exchange, in the Rua Direita, was formerly a part of the Custom-house, but given by government for a Bourse or Exchange, in 1834. At considerable expense it has been much improved in appearance. Its reading-room is supplied with Brazilian and foreign newspapers. Beneath its portico the merchants of different nations meet in the morning to negotiate their respective affairs. Adjoining the Praca is the Alfandega, or Custom-house. The extensive warehouses of this establishment extend to the sea-side, and goods are landed under cover from boats or lighters, and then warehoused until a requisition is formally made for their examination and delivery, The commercial houses have usually a custom-house clerk, whose business it is to pass goods at the Alfandega, and which relieves strangers from any trouble. In getting through the portdo grande of the customs, about the time that its toll-gate is being closed up for the day, boxes, bales, and packages of every species of goods, cases of furniture, pipes of wine, and coils of rope, present confused heaps, among which are crowds of clerks, feitors, and negroes, who rush and vociferate to seize on their packages. In the same street is the Correio Geral, or General Post-Office. The larger mails are forwarded and received by the coast, and generally by sailing vessels. The inland mails depart once in five days. They are despatched and received by means of men on horseback or by foot carriers. Charges for postage are moderate. Owing to the warmth of the climate, there is no necessity for closed doors in Brazil, but ventilation is necessary. Each door is hung with a green cloth, bearing the imperial coat of arms, and resembling the national flag, which is a sphere of gold on a cross of the Order of Christ, surrounded by a circle of stars in silver, representing the different provinces of the empire ; the escutcheon is surmounted by the imperial crown, and supported by a wreath of coffee tree and the tobacco plant. The Brazilians enthusiastically admire their flag; and it is daily exhibited, suspended over doors, or over their forts and shipping. their shirt is thrown aside for the time as an incumbrance. Each one takes a bag of coffee upon his head, weighing one hundred and sixty pounds, and when all are ready they start off upon a measured trot, which soon increases to a rapid run* As one hand is sufficient to steady the load, several of them frequently carry musical instru ments in the other, resembling children s rattle-boxes, these they shake to the double quick time of some wild Ethiopian ditty, which they all join in singing as they run. Music has a powerful effect in exhilarating the spirits of the negro, and certainly no one should deny him the privilege of softening his hard lot by producing the harmony of sounds, which are sweet to him, however uncouth to other ears. It is said, however, that an attempt was at one time made to secure greater quietness in the streets, by forbidding the negroes to sing. As a consequence they performed little or no work, so the restriction was in a short time taken off. Certain it is, that they now avail themselves of their vocal privileges at pleasure, whether in singing and shouting to each other as they run, or in proclaiming to the people the various articles they carry about for sale. The impression made upon the stranger by the mingled sound of their hundred voices falling upon his ear at once, is not soon forgotten. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. The streets of Rio have descriptive names : for example, those which lead out of the Rua Direita at right angles with it, are Rua dos Pescadores, Rua do Sabao, Ruada Alfandega, Rua do Rozario, Rua do Ouvidor. Parallel with the Rua Direita are the Rua da Quitanda, the great mart for dry goods, and the Rua dos Ourives, in which most of the jewellers and artisans in gold and silver are located. The Rua do Ouvidor is chiefly occupied by French, whose shops are filled with rich and fancy goods. On the corners of several of the streets are niches with images of some grim saint or Madonnas. Candles are lighted, novenas are sung, and prayers are offered in front of these images, though many are in a state of decay. " There are," says Mr. Kidder, " within the city and its suburbs about fifty churches and chapels. They are generally among the most costly and imposing edifices of the country, although many of them have but little to boast as respects either plan or finish. They may be found of various form and style Some are octagonal, some are in the form of the Roman and some of the Grecian cross, while others are merely oblong. The church of the Candellaria is one of the largest, with spires and a handsome front. Like nearly every other build ing for ecclesiastical purposes in the country, it stands as a memento of past ge nerations. "The chapels of the convents are in several instances larger, and probably more expensive, than any of the churches. That of the convent of St. Benedict is one of the most ancient, having been repaired, according to an inscription it bears, in 1671. The order of the Benedictines is by far the richest in the empire, possessing houses and lands of vast extent, though the number of monks is at present quite small." In Rio de Janeiro all the most elevated and commanding sites of its vicinity are occupied by churches and convents. Of the hospitals of Rio de Janeiro, there are several belonging to different Irmandades, or Brotherhoods. These Brotherhoods are not dissimilar to the beneficial societies of England and America, though on a more extended scale. They are generally composed of laymen, and are denominated third Orders, as, for example, Ordem terceira do Carmo, da Boa Morte, do Bom Jesus do Cal- vario. The Brotherhoods contribute to the erection and support of churches, provide for the sick, bury the dead, and support masses for souls. In short, next after the state, they are the most efficient auxiliaries for the support of the religious establishment of the country. Many of them, in the lapse of years, have become rich by the receipt of donations and legacies, and membership in such is highly prized. The Foundling Hospital is sometimes called Casa da Roda, in allusion to the wheel in which infants are deposited from the streets, and by a semi-revolution >nvcyed within the walls of the building. DESCRIPTION OF AMERICA. 14(J3 " That such institutions are the offspring of a mistaken philanthropy, is as evident in Brazil as it can be in any country. Not only do they encourage licen tiousness, but they foster the most palpable inhumanity. Out of 3630 infants exposed in Rio during ten years anterior to 1840, only 1024 were living at the end of that period. In the year 1838 1839, 449 were deposited in the wheel, of whom six were found dead when taken out; many expired the first day after their arrival, and 239 died in a short period. " The Asylum for Female Orphans, Recolhimento, is a very popular establish ment. It is chiefly supplied from the Foundling Hospital. "The annual expenses of the Misericordia are from 80,000 to 100,000 dollars. A small portion of its receipts are provided for by certain tributes at the custom house, another portion by lotteries, and the balance by donations and the rent of properties which belong to the institution through purchase and legacies. The Foundling Hospital and Recolhimento have been in existence about 100 years. The original establishment of the Misericordia dates back as far as 1582. It took place under the auspices of that distinguished Jesuit, Joze de Anchieta." There is, at Rio de Janeiro, a scarcity of inns and boarding-houses. " There are several French and Italian hotels, with restaurants and rooms to rent; and these are chiefly supported by the numerous foreigners constantly arriving and temporarily residing in the place. But among the native population, and intended for Brazilian patronage, there are only eight or ten inns in a city of 200,000 in habitants, and scarcely any of these exceed the dimensions of a private house. It is almost inconceivable how the numerous visitors to this great emporium, from every part of the empire, find necessary accommodations. It may safely be presumed that they could not, without a heavy draft upon the hospitalities of the inhabitants, with whom, in many instances, a letter of introduction secures a home. In the lack of such a resort, the sojourner rents a room, and by the aid of his servant and a few articles of furniture, soon manages to live, with more or less frequent resorts to some casa de pasto, or victualling-house. Most of the members of the National Assembly are understood to keep up domestic establish ments during their sojourn in the capital. As a consequence of this lack of inns and boarding-houses, nearly all the commercial firms are obliged to maintain a table for the convenience of their clerks and guests. On the whole, this arrange ment is probably better for the morals and habits of the young men they employ, who thus live under the immediate supervision of their superiors, than if they were to be scattered abroad promiscuously, as those in a similar condition often are in our own cities. Many of the foreign residents, particularly the English and Americans, locate their families in some of the extensive suburbs of the city, and go to and fro morning and evening. The municipal regulations of the city are in some respects peculiar." Kidders Brazil. 1464 HISTORICAL PKOGRESS OF AMERICA. There is a public slaughter-house (matadouro), where all the cattle consumed in the town are slaughtered, but there are no public markets. Butchers open pri vate stalls, especially in the Rua de San Joze. Vegetables, fruits, and poultry are abundantly offered for sale in most of the public places. At these places, also, various dishes are cooked and eaten on the spot by the slaves and lower classes.* The waters of Brazil abound in numerous varieties of fish, with which the market is well supplied. Horticulture is in a rude state, but the indigenous fruits of the country are delicious and abundant, among which are oranges, limes, cocoa-nuts, pine-apples, mangoes, bananas, pomegranates, mammoons, goyabas, jambos, ara9as, mangabas, and many other species of delicious fruit. These are brought in profusion to the markets, and hawked about in baskets on their heads by slaves and free negroes. Most sorts of goods are sold in the same way. Pedlars are constantly chanting the excellence of their commodities. Mr. Walsh remarked, in 1828, that beggars were seldom seen in the streets of Rio. Mr. Kidder says this was far from being the case in 1838. Through the lenity or carelessness of the police, great numbers of vagrants were continually per ambulating the streets and importuning for alms ; and mendicants of every descrip tion had their chosen places in the thoroughfares of the town, where they regularly waited, and saluted the passers-by with a mournful drawl. The House of Correction is situated on the brow of a high hill. Its grounds are surrounded by high granite walls, constructed by the prisoners. Near it is a quarry, where numbers of prisoners are employed. All are made to labour in some kind of work. The more refractory are chained together. Slaves are also sent here to be corrected. Mr. Kidder says, " they are received at any hour of the day or night, and retained free of expense as long as their masters choose to leave them. It would be remarkable if scenes of extreme cruelty did not sometimes occur here." There are other prisons in this city. By the latest report at hand, there were i the two other principal prisons "366 prisoners, committed on the following -Sixty-two homicide, four threats, fifty robbery, nine swindling, three perjury, seventy-nine theft, twenty-seven assault and battery, eleven attempts to ,Jul VI a ^ er co "" tries " says Mr. Kidder, " the style of living in Brazil varies very Plain s /nt 6 fH ; U f n i f famil eS from the most ex travagant etiquette of the wealthv, to the with e PecAhl R l ?"T On pe ple But * ventu?e to affirm that whosoever has dined Brazilian .family, at least within the precincts of any of the cities of the empire, wi th detal ed d ^"ntio 0nS ? ^ ^ ^ n **l<>* * 4 the reader of these pages the marvel le ; r ? n P tlons of every dinner or pic-nic in which I had a share, or of dilating upon ate B a i H C h ? l !f h CCaSi nS - Bllt fr0rn ^ own observation I became convinced commerce sunn ^ ^ tO a PP reciate sufficiently the various luxuries with which foreign SSjS&yS?- While they also understand the use of those indigenous produl sess a real excellent!- country, which foreigners are slow to appreciate, but which pos- DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1465 rob, six use of arms, three calumny, two prohibited games, twenty-three counter feiting, thirty-nine committed abroad, crimes unknown, three enslaving free persons, two aiding prisoners to escape, six resistance to authority, three suspicion of being fugitive slaves, two rape, two defrauding revenue, twenty-one sentenced for correction. Only 159 of these persons had been tried and sentenced. Five were to suffer capital punishment. Eleven of those sentenced for correction had been transferred from the Calabou90. This is a dungeon on the point of land stretching into the bay, just in front of the city, where fugitive slaves are confined until called for by their masters." There are also places of confinement in the different forts. "The streets of few cities," says Mr. Kidder, "are better lighted than those of Rio. Throughout the bounds of the municipality large lamps are arranged at given distances from each other, not upon posts permanently, but with certain iron fixtures, by which they are lowered for cleaning and lighting. Oil is univer sally used, gases not having as yet been introduced. A much smaller number of police officers is required to be on duty, and many crimes are prevented by the dissipation of that darkness under which they would seek a covert. "Whatever may have been the facts in former years, great quietness prevails throughout the city at night. The head-quarters of the police are in an ancient public building, in the Rua da Guada Velha. That department of the municipal government is understood to have been administered with unwonted discretion and efficiency during a few years past. "All foreigners, before landing, are required to deliver their passports to the visiting officer of the port. These passports are handed over by that officer to the secretary of the police, on whom the foreigner must call, within a given time, to verify the description of his passport, and to receive a licence to reside in the country. The visit is usually one of ceremony. "All children born in the city, whether rich or poor, bond or free, black, white, or yellow, to be vaccinated as a preventive of the small-pox. To provide for this, a Vaccine Institute (Junta Vaccinica) has been established, which is open all Thursdays and Sundays. A number of professors are always in attendance here, and vaccination is performed on all who come or are brought to receive it, free of charge. The patient is required to return on the eighth day to have the pustule examined. From some of the best specimens of its operation the virus is taken and inserted in other arms, and thus perpetually preserved. " The lower floor of the City Hall (Camara Municipal) is devoted to the use of the Vaccine Institute. This edifice is located on the east side of the Campo da Honra.* A mingled throng is generally present on the mornins when vacci nation is performed at the institute. Here will be seen a company of negros * Campo da Honra and Campo da Acclama9ao, are the modern names of the Campoda Santa Anna. VOL. I. 9 A HISTORICAL PROGBESS OF AMERICA. w or newly-imported Africans ; there an Indian and a tropeiro from the inte rior- while on all sides of the house, and on benches placed at intervals through the sala, are nurses, and mothers, and children in abundance." In front of the Camara Municipal several elegant views may be enjoyed. On the left looking toward the north-east, may be seen a large and much fre quented fountain, the military arsenal, and the hill on which the bishop s palace << The National Museum is open to public visitation every Thursday. The collection of curiosities is interesting, but not extensive. That of minerals has been much augmented by the cabinet of Joze Bonifacio de Andrada, who early in life had been professor of mineralogy in the University of Coimbra, in Portu gal, where he published several works that gained him a reputation in Europe. The department of mineralogy is well arranged, but contains more foreign than native specimens. Brazilian curiosities are not numerous in other departments : among the aboriginal relics are a fair collection of ornaments and feather dresses from Para and Matto Grosso. The imperial academy of the Fine Arts was founded in 1824, by a decree of the National Assembly. It has a director, four professors, viz., of painting and landscape, of architecture, of sculpture, and of design, with a number of assist ants. It is open to all who wish to be instructed. About seventy students are matriculated annually. In 1843 the whole number of students was 100. The Imperial Academy of Medicine is the old Jesuits college, near the Morro do Castello, and is attended by from 100 to 150 students. Several of the professors have been educated in Europe It is in close connexion with the Hospital da Misericordia. There are also military and naval academies. At fifteen years of age, any Brazilian lad who understands the elementary branches of a common educa tion, and the French language, so as to render it with facility into the national idiom or Portuguese, may, on personal application, be admitted to either of these institutions. The latter is located on board a man-of-war, at anchor in the harbour. The Collegio de Dom Pedro II., established in 1837> corresponds to the lyceums established in most of the provinces. The number of collegios and aulas, for elementary instruction, in Rio is numerous. The public schools, of which there are twenty-eight, with about 1000 pupils, are still insufficient, and private individuals, Portuguese, French, English, and Italian, have been induced to open schools. The episcopal seminary of San Joseph, under the direction of the diocesan bishop, for educating young men for the priesthood, was founded as early as It has a rector, vice-rector, professors of doctrines and morals, of philosophy, of Latin, of chanting, of French, and English. DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1467 The national library consists chiefly of the books originally belonging to the royal library of Portugal, brought over by Dom John VI., who opened it to the public. The English, the German, and the Portuguese residents have each estab lished libraries for their respective use. With the exception of pamphlets and small volumes, scarcely any original works have been published. Mr. Kidder informs us the revolutions and po litical agitations of Portugal have had a tendency to drive the literati of that kingdom to more quiet scenes. Many of these have taken up their abode in Paris, and it has become their interest to write and publish for Brazil as well as for Portugal. Moreover, these are the degenerate days of Portuguese literature, in which the pure Lusitaniaii is corrupted by Gallicisms, and the press is burdened with translations from other tongues, almost to the exclusion of original works. Every petty novel from the feuilletons of Paris, must be translated to make a book in Lisbon and in Rio de Janeiro. So much are the multitude occupied with reading these useless productions, that they have but little time or inclination to inquire for what is original and substantial. Besides, the French language has usurped the place of Latin in Brazil. A know ledge of it is required as a prerequisite to an entrance into all public institutions of the higher grade, and it is very generally read. Hence, French books are in demand, and to a great extent usurp the place of those in the mother tongue. Almost every vessel from Havre also, brings out a large invoice of French books to be sold at auction. Book auctions, indeed, are of very frequent occurrence. Europeans who are about to retire to their native country, and Brazilians who go abroad, generally dispose of their libraries by public sale. The newspaper press in Rio issues four daily, two tri-weekly, and from six to ten weekly papers and irregular sheets. " During the session of the national assembly, the proceedings and debates of that body are published at length on the morning after their occurrence. The established papers are not, as in this country, the organs of different political parties. While they enter warmly into political discussions, they seem to consider it a duty to be always on the side of the government, or the party in power. Hence, however much any:change is deprecated before it occurs, yet when it is once consummated, it is chronicled as a glorious event. If the party in the minority wish to abuse those in power, they must establish a journal for the express purpose, or publish their correspondence in handbills, which are sent out as an accompani ment to the daily news, into whose columns it could not be admitted. " Let the minority, however, once rise into power, and these columns are all at its service ; being still zealously devoted to the support of the government. Much 11G g HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. , .ins is taken by some of the papers to give commercial intelligence fully and correctlv while none of the sheets are filled with stereotyped advertisements. The matter of the advertising columns is renewed almost daily, and is perused by great numbers of general readers, for the sake of its piquancy and its variety." Not a few of these annuncios appear singular. It was announced at one time, that a solemn Te Deum would be celebrated on a given day, in the church of San Francisco de Paula, for the happy restoration of Bahia, subsequent to a rebel lion in that city, and that his imperial majesty would attend. A few days after, the following appeared : " The committee to make arrangements for the Te 7J.-////I in San Francisco de Paula, thinking that they would better satisfy the philanthropic designs of those who have subscribed for that object, by remitting the money in their hands to Bahia, to be divided among the poor widows and orphans, and especially, since due thanks have already, in another church, been offered to God for the restoration; have resolved not to have the proposed Te DC urn sung, of which persons invited are now informed." The daily papers of Rio resemble those of Paris very much in form, style of printing, and arrangement. The bottom of each sheet contains the Folhetim. The Folhetim do Jonial do Commercio y during an entire year contained only one original tale, the remainder of its contents being translated from the French. There is a Medical Review, and a Brazilian and Foreign Quarterly. The last periodical has been conducted with great spirit and literary enterprize, and promises to be of utility to the country : but it is often filled with translations. The Brazilian Historical and Geographical Institute, was founded at Rio de Janeiro, in 1838, and has produced beneficial effects. This association adopted as its fundamental object the collecting, arranging, and publishing or preserving documents illustrative of the history and geography of Brazil. The General AsMMnbly voted a yearly subsidy of 2000 milreis in aid of its objects, and the department for foreign affairs instructed the attaches of the Brazilian embassies in Europe, to procure and to copy papers of interest, that exist in the archives of different courts, relative to the early history of Brazil. During the first year of its existence, it numbered about 400 members and correspondents, and had collected above 300 manuscripts. It publishes at length, in a Quarterly Review and Journal, the proceedings of the society. ENVIRONS OF RIO DE JANEIRO* The immediate neighbourhood and environs of Rio de Janeiro are beautifully interesting. The Praya do Flamingo, is a sandy beach, deriving its name from the flamingos by which it was formerly frequented. A handsome row of residences extends along its shore. Their occupants," says Mr. Kidder, "are daily refreshed with strong sea-breezes, and entertained by night and by day with the heavy and measured music of the ocean s roar," Parallel with this prayaruns the Oatete, a wide DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1469 and important street, leading from the city to Botafogo. About half-way between the town and the last-mentioned suburb, is the Larangeiras, or the valley of orange groves. A shallow but limpid stream gurgles along a wide and deep ravine lying between two precipitous spurs of the Corcovado mountain. Passing up its banks you see scores of lavandeiras, or washerwomen, standing in the stream and beating their clothes upon the boulders of rock which lie scattered along the bottom. Many of these washerwomen go from the city early in the morning, carrying their huge bundles of soiled linen on their heads, and at evening return with them, purified in the stream and bleached in the sun. Fires are smoking in various places, where they cook their meals; and groups of infant children are seen playing around, some of whom have been large enough to tottle after their mothers ; but most of them have been carried there on the backs of the heavily burdened slaves. Female slaves, of every occupation, may be seen car rying about their children. " Up the valley of the Larangeiras is a mineral spring, Agoa Ferrea, indicating the chalybeate properties of the water, which at certain seasons of the year is much frequented. Near this place the road leads up the Corcovado, which may be ascended on horseback within a short distance of the summit. The ascent should be commenced early in the morning, while the air is cool and balmy, and while the dew yet sparkles on the foliage. The inclination is not very steep, although the path is narrow and uneven, having been worn by descending rains The greater part of the mountain is covered with a dense forest, which varies in character with the altitude, but everywhere abounds in the most rare and luxurious plants. Towards the summit large trees become rare, while bamboos and ferns are more numerous. Flowering shrubs and parasites extend the whole way. At no great distance from the top is a rancho, where one may breakfast. "The horses are here left behind, and in a few minutes walk the thicket ceases. Above this the rocks were covered with only a thin soil, and but here and there a shrub nestling in the crevices. What appears like a point from below, is, in reality, a bare rock, of sufficient dimensions to admit of fifty persons standing on it to enjoy the view at once, although on every side, save that from which it is reached, its sides are extremely precipitous. In order to protect persons against accidents, iron posts had been inserted, and railings of the same material extended around the edge of the rock. Save this slight indication of art, all around exhibited the wildness and sublimity of nature. "The elevation of the mountain, 2000 feet, is just sufficient to give a clear bird s-eye view of one of the richest and most extensive prospects the human eye ever beheld. The harbour, and its islands; the forts, and the shipping of the bay ; the whole city, from San Christovao to Botafogo ; the botanical garden ; the Lagoa das Freitas, the Tejuco, the Gavia, and the Sugar-Loaf mountains; the islands outside the harbour; the wide-rolling ocean on the one hand, and the 14,70 HISTORICAL PEOGEESS OF AMEEICA. measureless circle of mountains and shores on the other; all lie expanded around and beneath. From the sides of this mountain various small streamlets flow downward. By means of artificial channels, these are thrown together to supply the aque duct of the city. In descending, this remarkable water-course is followed, until the city is entered, at the grand archway leading from the hill of Santa Theresa to that of San Antonio. Nor is this section of the route less interesting to those fond of nature. All along negroes are met, waving their nets in chase of the gorgeous butterflies and other insects, which might be seen fluttering across the path and nestling in the surrounding flowers and foliage. " Many slaves are trained from early life to collect and preserve specimens in entomology and botany, and^ by following this as a constant business, gather immense collections." The aqueduct which supplies Rio de Janeiro with pure fresh water is a " vaulted channel of mason work, passing sometimes above and sometimes be neath the surface of the ground, with a gentle declivity, and air-holes at given distances." Between the city of Rio de Janeiro and the entrance from the ocean lies the nearly circular indentation of Botafogo, which, with its surrounding moun tains, including the lofty Corcovado on the right, the Sugar-Loaf on the left, the distant Gavia, or topsail mountain, and the Tres Irmaos, or Three Brothers, forms a most picturesque view. Praya Vermelha, below the Sugar-Loaf, extends from the fortress of San Joao to Fort Praya Vermelha. The latter is a station for recruits to the army. Here the unfortunate aborigines taken from the upper Amazon and other parts are drilled. This fortress was the scene of a san guinary outbreak of the German soldiers and the Brazilians. On the beach of the Atlantic, called Copa Cabana, beyond the Sugar-Loaf, are a few fishermen s huts and a few old houses. The sand of this beach is as white as the surf which rolls over it. The Botanical Garden is situated west of Botafogo, in a spot not well chosen, though much resorted to. It is the property of the government, and the Na tional Assembly grants annually a sum for its support and improvement. Mr. Kidder, who does not speak favourably of its condition, says, "Much pains were taken at an early day to introduce choice trees and plants from India; and loves, cinnamon, pepper, and tea, are among its present productions. Recently, tall nogueiras da India, or Sumatra nut-trees, which were planted for the it of their shade, have to some extent, given place to mulberry and : trees, capable of at once shading the walks, and of adding to the valuable products of the soil." Engenho Velho, the principal suburb of Rio Janeiro, lies on the west, and rect or road leading to it is through the Campo da Acclamagao, and the DESCRIPTION OF BRAZIL. 1471 Cidade Nova, by the Rua de San Pedro, the Aterrado, or highway to San Christovao, and the imperial palace of Boa Vista. At the foot of the Tejuco Mountains, there is a fertile and somewhat exten sive plain, within the limits of the city, but occupied by detached houses and wide streets nearly all bordered with hedges of flowering mimosas. The houses are not remote from each other, nearly every house in this suburb is surrounded by a garden, and embowered in the foliage and shade of fruit and other trees. Mr. Kidder, who resided in this suburb, says, u For the very perfection of rural beauty, few spots on the earth can equal Engenho Velho. Our residence was in the Rua de San Francisco Xavier, within sight of the parish church, and probably at no great distance from the spot on which the Jesuits had anciently established the Sugar Engenho that gave name to the vicinity. The house in which we lived was contiguous to a large chacara, as the land attached to a country seat is usually deno minated. In front of the palace of Boa Vista may be enjoyed a magnificent view, looking towards the city. The eye first rests upon the rich foliage of the trees bordering the imperial grounds at the foot of the hill ; next upon several groups of houses near the public road, among which stands that monument of the first emperor s shame, the palace he built as a residence for his publicly acknowledged mistress, the Marchioness of Santos. A little to the left, on a green eminence, is the Hospital dos Lazaros; and then, the beautiful sheet of water formed by a recess of the bay, which stretches itself around a high ridge of granite hills, and at high tide seeks to return upon the rear of the city itself." Boats are always plying over different parts of the bay of Rio Janeiro with passengers and produce. " By taking a seat in one of them, at the nearest place of embarkation, you may in a few moments be set down at the Sacco d Alferes, from which a moderate walk will take you into the city, either by a rough winding path over the hill, to the Campo da Honra, or along the sea-side, by the Praya de Gamboa, where the English cemetery is located, and through the Vallongo, where the slave mart used formerly to be held. If, however, it is preferred to pass the whole distance by water, the course will be sufficiently near the shore to show all the beauties of its vegetation, and of the buildings which line its successive prayas. These buildings are most of them low, and insignificant with respect to architecture, but their whitened walls always present a beautiful contrast to the greenness of the vegeta tion around them. " Rounding the Ponta da Saude, you come to the general anchorage of all the merchant vessels that may be receiving or awaiting cargo. Here, may be seen the long, low, clipper- built brigs and schooners that ply between the coasts of Brazil and Africa. There, is the heavy, dull-sailing bark of the Norwegian, or the Hamburghese. On either hand, over vessels of every class, from the coasting smack to the largest freighting ships, may be seen the flags of Spain, Portugal, HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. Sardinia, Tuscany, Naples, France, Belgium, Bremen, Austria, Denmark, Swe den, England, the United States, the South American Republics, and Brazil These vessels are required to anchor at sufficient distance apart to swing clear of each other in all the different positions in which the ebbing and flowing tide may place them; thus boats may pass among them at pleasure. Here and there guard-ships are stationed, to prevent smuggling ; and near by are several hulks of Brazilian men-of-war, one of which is used as the seat of the Naval Academy. " Havin"- passed through the entire extent of this anchorage, your boat is opposite the Convent of San Bento, and veering to the right, you pass into the channel between the Ilha das Cobras and the mainland. Beneath the hill on which the monastery is located is the Naval Arsenal, with a small yard taste fully arranged ; and just beyond it are the red stairs (escadas vermelhas), a well- known landing-place, contiguous to the Praya dos Mineiros, and the Rua Di- reita." The communication between different parts of the city has within late years been greatly facilitated by an omnibus company, which established regular lines of carriages between the Praca da Constituigao, a central point in the city, and Larangeiras and Botafogo on the one side, and San Christovao and En- genho Velho on the other. These carriages are each drawn by four mules. From Engenho Velho an excursion is easily made to Tejuco, a beautiful place amphitheatrically surrounded by mountain peaks and with several coffee plantations. The pure air of these mountains renders Tejuco a place much re sorted to, especially in the hot months of December, January, and February. The grounds attached to the Palace of Boa Vista, are extensive, and inter sected by long walks, shaded by splendid mangueiras and other trees, along the borders of natural, and artificial streams of water. Here may be seen stone troughs, at which strong washerwomen are beating clothes; and there is a fishing pond with a boiling fountain in the centre, and a boat alongside, in which his majesty used to amuse himself. The palace is situated on an eminence at the right of the gardens. It was originally a private residence, presented by its generous owner to Dom John VI. It has been gradually enlarged and improved, and thus rendered very suitable to the purposes to which it is devoted. Eleven leagues beyond San Christovao, in a westerly direction, is the imperial fazenda of Santa Cruz. This plantation is occasionally visited by the imperial family as a place of recreation. It is an im- nse estate, upon which vast numbers of slaves are employed. It was, at an riy day, the site of a Jesuit college, and for many years past had been the pro- >f toe government ; but still is only partially redeemed from a state of That portion of it which has been reduced to cultivation, is said to be in a fcrent state, notwithstanding much expense has been lavished upon it. circumstance is sufficient to indicate the generally low state of agriculture COMMERCE OF RIO DE JANEIRO. 1473 in the empire; in further proof of which, it would only be necessary to state that the plough is almost wholly unknown. Of the numerous islands in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, Ilha do Governador or Governor s Island, is the largest, being in length twelve miles from east to west. Nearly all the islands are inhabited, and under tolerable cultivation. The most important places upon the borders of the bay are Mage, Piedade, Porta da Estrella, and Iguassu. To these several places great quantities of pro duce are carried down on the backs of animals from the interior, and then con veyed in small vessels to the city. CHAPTER XIV. COMMERCE OF RIO DE JANEIRO. THE port of Rio de Janeiro, with its capacious and safe harbours is admirably situated for commerce. It is much resorted to by vessels in distress, navigating the ocean between the equator and the Capes of Good Hope and Horn. Ships of war and merchant vessels bound round Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope, find this a most convenient place to procure water and fresh provisions. Ships from Europe and North America meet in this great conveying harbour ships sailing to or arriving from Bombay, Canton, New Holland, New South Wales, Valparaiso, and the various islands of the Pacific, as well as California and Oregon, on the western coast of North America. Rio de Janeiro has become the chief emporium of Brazilian commerce, and especially of its mining districts. All the ports on the coast south of Bahia, and it may be said to the frontiers of the Banda-Oriental to Monte Video, send most of their produce for exportation to Europe or for home consumption to Rio de Janeiro. Farinha, beans, bacon, and dried or salt meat are brought to the metropolis. Hides, horns, dried meat, tallow, and bacon, with rice and wheat flour, come by sea, chiefly from the provinces of Rio Grande do Sul, and San Paulo. The latter furnishes also cheese, the bark of the mangrove-tree for tanning, with some gum-woods, sugar, and rum. Santa Catherina sends also sole leather, onions, garlic, dried fish, and pottery. The small harbours to the north of Rio de Janeiro, viz., San Joao do Paraiba, San Salvador, Macahe, Porto Seguro, Caravelhas, Victoria, &c., supply vegetables and fish, beams, planks, hoops, Brazil-wood, bark, charcoal, fuel, cocoa-nuts, tobacco, sugar, rum, rice, &c. Cape Frio sends lime, tubs and casks made of the trunk of the gamelleira (fig-tree). Ilha Grande furnishes pottery and lime. Bahia sends slaves, tobacco, millstones, tucum (thread made of the fibres of the palm), and cocoa-nuts ; Pernambuco, salt, saltpetre, c. Monte Video, hides, horns, VOL. I. 9 B HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. leather, &c. This coasting trade is principally carried on in small one or two- masted ships, and keeps up a constant intercourse between the whole Brazilian coast and the capital. From the mouth of the Plata to Rio de Janeiro, the voyage generally occupies from twenty-two to thirty days; from Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul, in from fifteen to six-and-twenty days: from Porto Seguro in from eight to fifteen; from Bahia in from twelve to twenty; much depending, how ever, on the season and the winds. The inland trade is extensive between Rio de Janeiro and the neighbouring provinces, with San Paulo and MinaSjto which there are passable roads for animals over the mountains. The latter sends its cotton, coffee, and tobacco chiefly to Rio, though further from some parts than Bahia, the road being less difficult : it exports also, besides its precious stones, cheese, marmalade, brown sugar, and very coarse cottons for clothing the slaves and poor shepherds of the southern provinces. From Rio Grande do Sul and San Paulo, many thousands of oxen, horses, and mules are annually driven to Rio Janeiro. The inhabitants of the remote provinces of Matto Grosso and Goyaz bring gold in bars and dust, pre cious stones, and smuggled diamonds (the latter being contraband), to exchange for European manufactures. To the smaller ports of Brazil Rio exports all sorts of European goods, to both the western and eastern coasts of Africa Eng lish and Portuguese goods; to Europe sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, hides, otters skins, horse-hair, &c.; and in speaking of trade, we must not omit the abhorred traffic in human beings, which disgraces Rio de Janeiro. COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS OF RIO DE JANEIRO, AND OF OTHER BRAZILIAN PORTS. /. vitiation relative to Brazil-wood. The exportation of Brazil-wood from the ports of Brazil, has always been an exclusive privilege of the imperial government ; but, as abuses have occurred, and some vessels, perhaps through ignorance of the Brazilian laws m relation to the trade, have exported on private account the said article to foreign ports, t is made known, to those whom it may concern, that the laws of Brazil forbid entirely exportation of the article by private individuals, and impose a fine of thirty milreis :en dollars) a ton on each vessel that may take the wood by contraband, from any the empire, to foreign countries. The fine will be enforced even after the de- the vessel from Brazil, for which purpose the government has taken all neces sary measures to arrest the aiders and abettors in the clandestine shipment. due na ff* Du f Brazil-^. 1. After the llth November, 1844, the anchorage cues upon Brazilian anc 1 foreign ships in foreign trade will be reduced to 900 reis, and " C asUvise vessels to ninet y reis a ton > for what P eriod soever >ann n " ba , llast and sailin with car g> and arriving with cargo, and saiing , ttt> Wlll pay one . half the dues _ entering * n - * ^ to try the market, whether in scoS^ distress, will pay nothing, unless they of the expenses incurred. * l dlSCharge the netessar y car g for CUSTOMS TARIFF OF BRAZIL; 1475 Art. 5. Ships that have paid in any port of the empire the anchorage dues of the articles 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, arriving in another port in the same voyage, pay nothing ex cepting taking cargo, and then have to pay the difference of the dues. Art. 6. Coastwise vessels, trading between the ports of the empire, will pay one- half the dues when half the crew be composed of Brazilian citizens ; and will pay nothing if, besides this circumstance, they be employed in the coast or in the high sea fishery. Art. 7. Vessels of countries that will charge more dues upon Brazilian tonnage, or port dues_ higher than dues paid by their own vessels, are subject, in the ports of Brazil, to pay one-third more of the dues established, or to be raised to the same dif ference imposed by the said countries upon the Brazilian vessels. Luis HENRIQUE FERREIKA D AcuiAii, Consul-General. To guide Owners and Captains of Vessels bound to the Brazilian Ports. To despatch a vessel at the office of the consulate of Brazil are necessary : Three copies of the manifest, one certified at the custom-house. The invoice of all and every shipper. Bills of lading. Bill of health. List of crew ; and passengers, if any, must take passports. It is also necessary to give three days notice at the consulate, of the intended de parture of vessels, for any port in Brazil. Art. 146. The master of any vessel sailing with a cargo for any of the Brazilian ports ought to bring two copies of his manifest, exactly alike, which must contain : Sec. 1. The name, description, and tonnage of the vessel. Sec. 2. The master s name, with the date at the end, and his signature. Sec. 3. The port where he took the cargo, stated in the manifest. Sec. 4. The port or ports said cargo is bound to. Sec. 5. The marks, countermarks, number of packages, and their descriptions, such as bales, boxes, chests, pipes, half pipes, barrels, tierces, &c. Sec. 6. A declaration of the quantity and quality of the merchandise in each pack age as near as possible, or of several homogeneous packages with the same mark, and of the goods stowed loose. Sec. 7. The names of the shippers and consignees, or whether they are to order. Every thing must be written in words at length, except the numbers of the packages, and on entire sheets of paper not pieced to one another. Art. 147. When a vessel has taken cargo at more than one port, she ought to bring a manifest from each one of the ports whereat she may have received shipment. Art. 148. At the end of the manifests, the master shall state the number of pas sengers, both cabin and steerage ones, and make all other declarations he may deem necessary. CUSTOMS* TARIFF OF BRAZIL. Imperial Decree of the 12th of August, 1844; Ordering the carrying into effect of the regulation and tariff of the custom houses of the empire. I am pleased in virtue of the authority conferred on the government, by the 10th article of the law of 243 of the 30th of November, 1841, that from the 1 1th day of November of the present year forward, the regulations and tariff issued herewith, signed by Manoel Alves Branco of my council of state, minister and Secretary of State for the Finance Department, and President of the Public National Treasury, shall be observed, and the said minister shall so understand it, and cause it to be executed. Palace of Rio de Janeiro, 12th of August 1844, twenty-third year of the indepen dence,and of the empire. With the sign manual II. M., the emperor. (Signed) MANOEL ALVES BRANCO. HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. i f rrvinff into effect the tariff of the custom houses of the empire of Brazil. From the 1 1th of November of the present year, the clearance for consumption AHTICLL 1.- >m u>t ^ countries, and which may then, or shall thereafter, be stored lS i uses or stores belonging thereto, of the empire, shall be regulated in the follow- II. Snuff or tobacco in powder, cigars, and paper ditto, and tobacco in rolls or leaf, T- made of hcssens, or India sacking, knives in the shape of daggers, RTICLE m au d for CQach ho and for Qther doors and Sot Ttsfoneso^ wafer-course s, "cepas," and for cornices and corners of houses, re- Sirto crrataliscd or in any manner composed, tea, ardent spirits, beer, cider, gin, mar- ne of whatever ualit and produce shall pay fifty per cent. oV otr qs, and wineof whatever quality and produce shall pay fifty per cent. nicLK IV -Carpets, ordinary hessens or sacking, scales of whatever quality and ready- i not sneci ied in the tariff, playing cards, brushes, with ivory handles, Chinese fire- won u^ds "or Sy other artificial ^fcfcbtod paper ditto silver or gold being of fine Sv Piper for papering rooms, painted in groups or landscapes, large sized foolscap paper . ria l ditto or any other not specified in the tariff, powder, scented soap common ditto, mould c indies composition (stcarina) ditto, prunes, or any other fruit in glass bottles, or tin cases, either preserved or in spirits, chocolate made from ordinary cocoa, vinegar, gigs, carnages, or ciJrme-boxcs, frames, wheels, harness for either one or the other, matting for houses, carts for c-irrvin- people, sociables, side saddles, porcelain, ink and sand stands, and any other article of crockervware not included in the tariff, chandeliers, liqueur or wine glasses, plain of ordinary class f No 1), those of cither blown or cut glass ordinary, and the German ordinary cut, and such like (No. 2), those of plain glass, blown or cut, with cut or plain bottoms, ordinary (No. 3), cham- najme or beer "lasses, mugs, glasses (direitos), from ten to one in a quart, glass bottles holding a quart or moreTall these articles being of No, 1 and 2; black or dark glass bottles holding the same quantity, including those which are used for liqueurs, or Le Roy ; tavern glasses far as one " Canada (seven-tenths of a gallon) flasks of ordinary glass with stoppers of the same up to three pounds or more, or without stoppers of two pounds or more, those with wide mouths with stoppers of the same to hold four pounds or more, or without stoppers for opodeldoc, glasses for lamps, planks of mahogany fir any other fine wood, and furniture made of any wood whatsoever, shall pay forty per cent. ARTICLE V. All other articles, except the following, imported from foreign countries shall pay thirty per cent. 1st. Steel, tar, zinc in bar or sheet, lead in ditto, ditto pewter in bars or rods, iron in bars, rods, plates, or tongues for foundries, tin, nutgall, tin in sheets, brass in plates, ivory, saltpetre, withes, cod fish, stock fish, or any other, either dry or salt, biscuit, jerked or corned meat, aniseed, wheat, flour, white or coloured kid, calves skins for shoes, ditto varnished, pig skins, or ox-hides, green or dry, sole leather for shoemakers, or saddlers, copper, and copperas, all of which shall pay twenty-five per cent. 2nd. Wheat in grain, barilla, gold or silver wire, narrow gold or silver lace, wire covered with gold or silver thread (Jicras), thread, fringe, spangles, gold lace (patheia), ribbon made of gold and silver wire (passamanos) being of second class gold or silver, ordinary or false, laces of the same kind or woven with sewing silk, linen thread, cotton or silk laces, or entremozo of plain cotton, net laces of cotton, silk, or twist (torcaf), cambric handkerchiefs of cotton or linen, and silk sashes, all of which shall pay twenty per cent. 3rd. Books, maps, geographical globes, mathematical instruments, surgical or chemical ditto, dress pieces, velvets, or damasks worked with silver or fine gold, sewing silk or twist, and hair for hair dressers, shall pay ten percent. 4th. Gold or silver wire (canalitho) thread cord, narrow lace, wire covered with gold or silver thread, thread, fringe, gold lace, spangles, gold lace (patketa), lace, tapes, and all other articles of this nature being of fine gold or silver shall pay six per cent. 6th. Coals, gold for gilding, or any silver articles and utensils, shall pay five percent. 6th. Gold or silver jewellery, or any manufactured gold articles shall pay four per cent. 7th. Loose diamonds and other precious stones, seeds, plants, and new races of useful animals, shall pay two per cent. ARTICLE VI. All these duties shall be calculated either by taking the valuation marked in the tariff which is annexed to this regulation, of the article to be cleared, as often as the quantity re ferred to in thc said valuation be contained in the merchandise about to be cleared, or upon the invoice value, sworn to and signed by thc principals of the commercial houses who clear the goods, when the same slial not be reformed by the seizures (impvgnacoes) of the regulation of the 22nd rhich may always take place in such cases), taking the hundredth part of it multi plied by the quota of the duties, when the merchandise shall not have any particular fixed valua tion in the tariff, but only a note of ad valorem duties. ARTICLE VII,- The duties hitherto paid for clearances of trans-shipment, or re-exportation, CUSTOMS TARIFF OF BRAZIL. 1477 are reduced to one per cent upon the value of the merchandise, but this reduction depends upon the definitive approbation of the general legislative assembly, and therefore all those persons who require such clearances before the said approval be given, must find good security, if the goods be cleared for the coast of Africa, for the payment of fifteen and a half per cent, besides the one per cent above referred to : and of two and a half percent if for any other places out of the empire the said duties to be paid into the public coffers, should this reduction not be approved. ARTICLE VIII. These clearances shall be calculated by dividing the valuation of the merchan dise to be trans-shipped or re-exported by the number which represents the relation in which it stands as regards the value of the said merchandise, and taking the quotient, wholly or in part as often as the unities or parts thereof may be contained in the duties to be paid, or by arbitration as laid down in the 218th article of the regulation above referred to, when the merchandise shall have no fixed valuation in the tariff. The clearances for trans-shipment or re-exportation to ports within the empire, which are now effected without paying the duties of consumption, are provisionally suspended until a better regulation be made on this subject. ARTICLE IX. The additional imposts for business of the office (expedient*) and ware house rent, hitherto paid upon merchandise, shall henceforward be included in the duties for con sumption, and in order to comply with the law which orders the separate entry of this latter, twenty per cent shall be deducted at the end of each month from the whole amount of the taxes and duties for consumption, and the sum so deducted shall be divided into seven parts, two of which shall be considered as equivalent to the one percent destined as a six monthly security for the interest on the loan in London, and the other five as equivalent to the two and a half destined for the destroying of paper currency. ARTICLE X. All merchandise, whether cleared for consumption, trans-shipment, or re-expor tation, shall pay one quarter per cent on its respective value for each month it may remain in the warehouses of the custom-houses of the empire, which shall be calculated in the same manner as laid down in the eighth article for the clearances for trans-shipment and re-exportation, giving, however, fifteen days free to " Estiva" merchandise, that is, liquid, soap, &c., and two months to dry goods. ARTICLE XI. Notes for clearances must declare the foreign measure or weight reduced to Brazilian, without which they will not be distributed ; foreign measure in length (de extern**) must always be reduced to the Brazilian " vara," and the others to the measure or weight by which the valuation is fixed in the tariff upon merchandise to be cleared, and which it ought to pay, or to that measure or weight by which the article is commonly sold in the market, should the duties be marked in the tariff ad valorem. ARTICLE XII. The officer (feitor), to whom the clearance shall be given, must examine the reduction or weight, increasing or decreasing it as may be necessary ; he shall declare the quantity and inches which the goods have in width in " varas," or any other measure or weight, always in cxtenso. In the clearances of goods for which the duties must be paid per square " vara," the officer (feitor) must reduce them to this measure, and declare the number of square varas they contain, as well as the duty to be paid for each addition. ARTICLE XIII. In order to ascertain the number of square varas, the officer (fetter) after having found the exact number of single varas, will multiply this by the number of inches in the width of the article, and divide product by forty. The quotient obtained by this operation will show the exact number of square varas. For example, twenty-five varas of calico, being twenty inches in width, 25 20 40)500(12| 480 120 contains twelve and a half square varas. In those articles which are not measured by the single vara, such ns handkerchiefs a but upon which the valuation is imposed by the square vara, the officer (feitor} must take the length and width, and multiply one by the other ; and having obtained the number of square? inches which each handkerchief or shawl contains, he must multiply it by the product of the length and width, and afterwards divide this product by 1,600, the quotient will give the number of square varas upon which the tax is to be calculated. For example, ten dozens of handkerchiefs, thirty inches square ; HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. 30 30 900 120 1-600)108,000(67^ 96 120 112 16=1 The ten dozens, or 120 handkerchiefs, contain sixty-seven and a half square varas. AHTICLE XLV When in the note for clearance any article shall be included which ought to pay ad valorem duties, the officer (feitor) after the quantity shall state how much per cent it ouiht to pay, and he shall enter in the column of imposts the value of the invoice, in order that thr person who makes the calculation may, after deducting the duties, enter the amount in the column of imposts, making the following declaration at the end thereof: " I have examined the merchandise and entered the imposts (and awards for damage when there shall be any) or duties ml valorem according to the tariff. The person who makes the calculation must multiply the number of square varas, or any other measure, or weight by the imposts, enter their amount in the respective column, and sum up, and having also examined the reductions, shall enter the fol lowing declaration : " the additions and imposts or duties ad valorem agree, and it must pay for dutiesof importation and store renter extensor Underneath the sum of the duties he must enter the amount to be paid for store rent, making the following declaration : " subject to store rent."" Another person must then examine the sums and calculations, and declare the sums and calcu lations agree, and must pay, namely, Duties for consumption .................... . ........................ dollars Store rent ......................................................... ARTICLE XV. When any part of the goods submitted for clearance shall be damaged, two officers (feitorcs) named by the inspector, and in his presence shall proceed to make the examina tion, and declare the quantity damaged, and decide how much per cent shall be deducted from the impost on account of that damage. The officer (ftitor) who makes the clearance, referring to this decision, marked with the initials of the inspector, shall declare the quantity damaged, and the deduction decided upon, and he shall enter the imposts in the respective column with the said deduction, for example ; 2400 square varas of coloured calico, impost in the tariff. ....................... 8.400 reis. 88 ditto damaged, with twenty-five per cent deduction; impost awarded... 300 These declarations of award for damage shall be signed by the inspector, without which tha "calculistas" shall not proceed with the clearance. Whenever deductions are made on account of damages, the first " calculista" shall declare on the margin of the clearance, the total amount of the said deductions to be taken from the duties, as in the case above referred to ; Loss by award for damages at eight per cent ................................. 800 dollars. ARTICLE XVI. In the clearances of merchandise, the following points are to be observed : 1. The value stated in the invoice shall include workmanship, precious stones and metals, and the whole shall be subject to seizure as well as other merchandise. 2. In the measurement of the goods, a quarter of an inch shall not be taken, but if it exceed that quantity it must be taken as half, and exceeding this latter, it must be considered as one inch. 3. In the notes for clearances, only the merchandise brought in one vessel shall be included ; there must be as many notes as there may be vessels having merchandise to clear. ARTICLE XVII. The statistical returns, which must be drawn up in the custom-houses, shall c quantities cleared in square varas, or other measures, or Brazilian weights, for which : the officers (feilores) shall also declare in the clearances by invoice, the duties paid and the qMntittes deducted by award for damages. , AnTii:i.K XV III. Regarding the goods put up at auction for consumption in consequence of J they may have been in the stores of the custom-house, beyond the time given itions ; and those sold before that time shall have expired because of their being nagcd , venhed by an examination made by the officers (feitore*) according to the if*L T T/? rCC tl \ e ad vahrem duties sha11 be collected from the price obtained at the rv - f th p; should . be so classcd >n the tariff; and when they are goods upon which the tariff im- "^ ^^ ^ not upor theT d " ^ ^^ ^ always be collected u P on the P rices obtained at auction and COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. 1479 ARTICLE XIX. The stamp-duty established by the law of the 21st of October, 1843, shall be included in the imposts in the tariff. ARTICLE XX. The government is authorised to impose upon goods of any foreign nation the said inequality. ARTICLE XXI. A differential duty shall also be collected in the custom-houses of Brazil upon the merchandise of those nations which receive greater duties for consumption upon goods im ported to their ports in Brazilian vessels, than upon those imported in their own ships, proceeding with them in the same manner, as with those mentioned in the foregoing Article. ARTICLE XXII. The duties or imposts in the present tariff shall not be increased within the financial year ; but the government may order the payment in gold or silver, of the twentieth part of those which may be above six and less than fifty per cent of the prices of the merchandise, or even diminish them as may appear most requisite. ARTICLE XXIII. All laws contrary to the present are revoked. Rio de Janeiro, August, 12, 1844. (Signed) MANGEL ALVES BRANCO. IMPORTS into Rio de Janeiro. 1830-1840 1842-1843 1830-1840 1842-1843 COUNTRIES. Value. Value. COUNTRIES. Value. Value. G reat Britain milreis. 15,092,553 milreia. 13 697 638 milreis. 2*5 436 416 milreis. 26 108 890 1,799686 4 28 471 TT rr> France 4,314,362 3 985 972 765 413 618 249 Portugal 2,652,598 1 912 077 Brazilian Ports 680 1 15 1 062 205 (Truguay {1,552640 982 437 2 045 460 1,577,217 932 092 Carried forward .... 25,436,416 26,108,890 NOTE. The ret originally answered to the mill of our currency. Milreis signifies a thousand reis. The silver coin denominated milreis is nearly equivalent to a dollar. Gold and silver currency having now disappeared from Brazil, the paper milreis issued by the Bank of Brazil fluctuate in value according to the rates of exchange. The present value of the milreis is about fifty cents. EXPORTS from Rio de Janeiro. 1841-1842 1842-1843 1841-1842 1S42-1843 COUNTRIES. Value. Value. COUNTRIES. Value. Value. Great Britain rnilreis. 3 910 194 milreis. 3 920 629 milreis. 18238483 milreis. 17 897 771 United States 6 044 960 6005,131 Austrian I orts 1 770 146 2 050 075 1 430 040 1 118036 567 621 544 290 Portugal 1 194 174 1 205 100 Sweden 797 502 469 097 1 01 1 035 655 242 444 909 389 963 453 893 704 206 Holland 188 055 34 9 23 Belgium 789 527 928471 1 707 530 834 190 3 404 660 3 360 956 Hanse lown Carried forward .... 18,238,483 17,897,771 PRODUCTS Exported from Rio de Janeiro. COFFEE. SUGARS. HIDES. RICE. TAPIOCA. YEARS. Quantity. Quantity. Quantity. Quantity. Quantity. 1841 bags of 160 Ibs. 1 013 915 cases. 10465 number. 152 543 bags. 18 788 barrels. 3082 1842... 1,199,731 15,400 198,082 16,191 3893 1843 1,189,523 9,433 345,070 12,187 4685 NOTE. Various other articles of commerce should be added to make this table complete. 1480 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, ARTICLES Exported from Rio de Janeiro, during the Financial Year 1841-1842. ARTICLES. Value. ARTICLES. Value. Coffee Sugar ( .old Dust Hides, dry salted milreis. 18,002,288 878,857 832,971 824,283 92,OG9 GG0.316 Brought forward Sole Leather Beans Honey Mats Cotton milreis. 22,517,473 71,473 6,535 6,250 6,116 5,978 Tobacco Rum Rice Wood* (precious) Mandioc Flour 360,016 220,682 141,509 129,307 85,420 77 197 Rusk Cacao Snuff Potatoes 4,232 3,970 3,485 3,192 1,709 1 626 r weetnieats 42 220 1 625 26 044 Wool.. 1 306 23 050 Cheese 1 137 liacon 17 111 788 10 641 Glue 550 13 355 459 Ipecacuan . ... 13 212 Hoofs 320 j, 12,919 260 Cigars 12 G30 125 Kire-wood 10373 Tea 103 9 383 19 Wax 7 728 48 119 Objects of Natural Hist 7 883 Total Carried forward.. .. 22,517,473 VESSELS employed in Exporting the above. COUNTRIES. Vessels. Tonnage. COUNTRIES. Vessels. Tonnage. American number. 113 tons. n umber. tons. llrm.h 114 32 153 Uiirin-n Avri un Austrian -lR.:m Chilian Denmark 3 11 7 12 1 52 2 20 341 5,756 2,321 3,282 397 16,941 477 7 084 Neapolitan Norwegian Oldenburg Montevidean Portuguese Prussian Russian 2 1 10 37 4 1 2,322 578 247 1,441 10,721 1,272 526 lUniliurpew Lubtc Canird forward 26 1 365 9,285 360 116,886 Spanish Swedish Total 17 42 569 4,394 15,655 169,573 BAGS of Coffee. IGOlbs. each, Exported from Rio de Janeiro COUNTRIES 1841 1842 1843 1841 1842 1843 Quantity. Quantity. Quantity. COUNTRIES. Quantity. Quantity. Quantity. Antwerp HiOlb*. each. IGOlbs. each. 160lbs. each. IGOlbs. each. ICOlbs. each. IGOlbs. each. n 32, 7 Hi 12,342 50,224 26,890 Brought forward . . Portugal .. 468,817 12 964 633,577 514,891 j | CI, ,,.! 8,108 18,637 12,134 Spain 5 12G WJT .i 194,920 80,318 Sweden 26 514 31 324 Prance 47,640 32,0-21 36,773 Trieste 62 202 111 607 73 501 ll.uubiirg. .... 197,360 27, 203 133,586 20,797 184,523 United States Venice 431,222 351,522 548,011 i i-dtii-an 4,758 24,595 0,141 76,934 382 102,850 Other countries 1,988 5,008 3,439 irrird forward.. 188,817 633,577 514,891 Total 1,013,865 1,179,231 1,189,523 COUNTRIVQ 1811 1812 Qtt-ntity. Quantity. f Hoo.1 Hop,... British Channel.. .. lUnse Towns... IMUnd caseK. <13 1317 655 cases. 448 1,904 97 Mo.litorranean.... Portaf*] i in 1.GG9 KM cr La Plata 2,637 4,994 Carried forward.. 7920 11,749 C^ES_oJ^SugarExported from Rfo de Janeiro. 1843 Quantity. ^_ cases. 101 821 10U 1497 3117 6409 COUNTRIES. Brought forward.. Sweden 1841 1842 1843 Quantity. Quantity. Quantity. cases. 7,920 171 1,886 cases. 11,749 619 2,302 179 319 471 cases. 6409 90 2203 439 292 Trieste Valparaiso Venice 428 60 Other countries Total 10,465 15,639 9433 COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. 1481 HIDES Exported from Rio de Janeiro. 1841 1842 1843 1841 1842 1843 Quantity. Quantity. Quantity. COUNTRIES. Quantity. Quantity. Quantit>. number. 900 number. 5 075 number. number. number. number. British Channel 3,652 25,290 25,381 Portugal G4 7- r i9 107,814 05 Oil 2o:U "< Denmark 1,101 4,054 6 149 <j 224 29,426 23985 24 109 Hanse Towns 9,767 11,817 32,034 Trieste 10 666 16 081 Holland 800 Mediterranean 22,311 37,623 97,502 Other countries 69 Carried forward.. 67,157 107,844 203,198 Total 152,548 198,082 MjM)70 Commerce between Brazil and the United States. The commerce between Brazil and the United States congists chiefly in the exchange of useful productions, the consumption of which is constantly on the increase. This circum stance gives reason to expect that the commerce between the two countries will continue to expand in the future as it has done heretofore, in proportion to their mutual increase of population. It will be seen from the following tables, that the importations from Brazil to the United States have increased in twenty -one years from the value of 605,126 dollars to 948,814 dollars per annum. During the same period the export* from the United States to Brazil have increased from 1,381,760 dollars to 2,<01,502 dollars. The principal articles of importation from Brazil to the United States, are coffte, sugar, and hides. The principal exports to Brazil are flour and cotton manufactures. Numerous other articles are constantly exchanged between the two countries for their mutual convenience and benefit, but not in great quantities. Brazil has already become one of the greatest coffee growing countries of the world. It supplies the United States with more than half of their annual importations of that article. Nearly all the commerce between the two nations is done by vessels belonging to the United States. The aggregate tonnage employed in 1841-42 in conveying exports to Brazil, was 38,778. That employed in making importations, was 37,058. COMMERCIAL Arrivals and Departures, Coastwise and Foreign, during the Year 1845, compared with those in the Four preceding Years. < 3 A S T WISE. F ( ) R E I G I i PORT S. YEARS. ARRI V A L S. DKPAR TURKS. ARRI V A L S. D EP A R TURKS. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. Total 1845.... number. 2373 tons. 168,872 number. 2382 tons. 172,136 number. 878 tons. 201,266 number. 881 ton?. 274,955 1844.... 2438 169,316 2434 170,356 753 170,869 799 240,895 1843.... 2259 152,611 2282 156,951 854 192,303 849 255,883 1842.... 2029 146,837 2015 153,081 803 183,606 775 241,769 1841.... 1815 123,094 1929 139,501 915 206,160 867 270,651 Average 2183 152,146 2208 158,405 841 191,441 834 ! 256,831 COMPARATIVE Export of Produce during the Years 1841, 1842, 1843, 1844, and 1845, showing the Increase or Diminution in 1845, upon the Average of Five Years, YEARS. CLEARED OUT WARDS. Coffee. Sugar. Hides. Horns. Tanned half Hides. Rice. Rum. Rose wood. Ipeca cuanha. To bacco. Ta pioca. Vessels. Tons. 1845 No. 584 No. 174,320 bags. 1,208,062 cases. 14,539 No. 215,689 No. 308,646 No. 18,399 bags. 27,274 pipes. 4725 dozen. 2182 Ibx. 27,681 rolls.&c. 15,003 brl5. 74-Vl 1844 571 167,018 1,260,431 11,513 369,183 541,436 515,051 15,506 22,335 14,976 3804 938 4,365 21,676 6123 1843 590 171,207 1,189,523 9,433 345,070 12,187 3206 1701 18,161 4685 1842 569 169,575 1,179,731 15,460 198,082 382,283 39,928 16,191 18,788 3451 1230| 19,113 31,270 3S98 1841 520 148,893 1,013,915J 10,465 152,54* 310,853 22,100 2176 1202i 17,607 28,078 3088 Average Increase in 1845 Decrease in 567 166,203 1,170,332J 12,282 256,114 411,648 23,654 17,883 3472 1451 13,753 22,837 5049 2405 17 8,117 37,730 2,257 9,391 1253 731 13,928 40,425 103,032 5,255 1 .. 7,834 VOL. I. 9 c 1482 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, 1 00 I .5 I. i! s.S II P E ISS 1 - Z, : : =S : || -S- - : s" g 2 : 8 SO .OO !- -2S " -T o 2 a | "si r 5I 11 1 { 2.1 po rt c-^ 7| 5 3 s ^?*w 5, * i * : > : : S I "H2 e os rt rt o B IWKA I;; I = : s 2 *> o 8^ l il illll COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. 1483 i i U fc " 12- ** I? I i O >O . . . c* .001/5 to irt . O I * r I "-S - <" ~ o lit i :a I* : *| !! S2 : e, s g o ; : :* iS :?:::: :S a _____ i ;g .^, . .0 s- Jl -1 & dSg -::8"8g:::S:S 8 : :| 3 : S I "I " 1| ^ : : S :S : :S : : :8S" : : :g 8" : -- i - * o . .000 .... .jo wo ii ^"w 2 o r a ^ a a s? S 6 5-ss^55 = f::^f.;^ **. * " 5 " S5 ^ wsf rrwt- t = 5 -S e = 1484 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. 1 Tapioca. barrels. ci s = !:!*. o 1 Ipeca cuanha. J .S3 . : i : m : : :: ! Tobacco. ] : ::: : ..".*: : : | .: .: .: r o 9 1! j -If: - rV: 5 ~ : I H a 9 e s 1 O : : : . : : : i I i i . . 2 * ef * - * l * o i i ~ - ~ to co o o 3; o o ^ *o c> : ! .: 1 o . s jj o : : = I || : : 00 O d T VO " ; : " i ? 3 5* II i ( tn 1 S 3 S SS S | : -i i* -<*. o & O f CO 00 lf5 1 = ! 3 1 a;* o to 3 1 = : ; |S8 1 li t- K <=> g 2 . ; 1 1 Coffee. | _ O^ C^ "I ^. l sS, C^ 5c ^ ift j ei C d> cT ciw* CO f-i i-< ^. J S SJ 2 S S 3 O . CO CO d ^ &}, ^ Tx C? * rj** <cT ^- ^* ^ ^* i-^ ^ S .=< eo 2J 1 o OTAL. | J? S p> w e$ o w "" w m "5, c. e 5 N | 8 8 v {$ S OMNICOO o eg oco 00 2 CO " 5 S <S2? co P? i-T ~ o" xi" C? 1 ( ^ WMCO^* <N h. o ^ w o o -< DESTINATION by Countries and . rf H M 0, Q W H S5 O U GREAT BRITAIN AND HER DEPENDENCIES. Cape of Good Hope. In 9 British vessels .. Corfu. In 2 British, 487 ; 1 Danish, 296; 1 Hamburg, 310 Cowea. In 1 British, 277; 1 American, 474; 1 Belgian, 290; 3 Danish, 730; 1 Ham burg 224 1 Norway, 375 ; 2 Sweden, 724.. Palmouth. In British, 1874 ; 3 Danish, 781 : 1 French, 536; 3 Sweden, 1339 Gibraltar. In 2 British Jersey. In 3 British Liverpool. In 14 British London. In 24 British Afalta. In 6 British, 1700; 3 Austria, 107; 2 Danish, 480; 4 Sweden, 1403 AUSTRIAN STATES. Trieste. In 1 British, 238 ; 11 Austria, 3712 ; 1 Bremen, 320 ; 1 Danish, 297 ; 1 Dutch, 353 ; I Neapolitan, 320 ; 1 Norway, 231 ; 1 Sardinian, 292 Venice. In 1 Austrian, 234 ; 1 Swedes, 381.. g ^ i S :.s c^ 1 ^ aJs ^=" : 5 "fc oo w . w ajo> . S 5 ; &^M to *. g | 8^ g^< : gl w 1 jo ^22 fig Off.: gf| 1 i- -rfrf 1 S|l ig JK S if g|i s .si Ssi8 l s . : S- *"* * s "a -1 : t: P i5!iU;-!!i; $!i ^ ^jf^iyfi a- a <u ^V>aiS StcSrtbo.^ ;=fi 5 ^ SJ5B ^p!r ifli ! w ill!! iifiiil < > ^o W5 W B ^ COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. 1485 i - - . g-g 1 | - = 2 ^ jS w - <=> -5 H 5 : ; : : : : : 3 s II i s| o ? 1 u 3| . . : Y. : | ,. .. i :-l H * *"* U - = -^ 11 1 . N S S . . * 2 fsg fg o 81 g e< ceo s i" g 8S S a S o V _J O M fl 1 to 5. jh- o * o i 4> S"I Q | S" 5- 5 : S : : : : : : : : r* IS 22 tf^ O O O >-< O OO CO O O x" H 3 o.^ i .. . I . . . i a S if) 3 s a o o i e> oo <N O r- co 2?"" 1 ** ^ Cl | j :: ;*- "i -*? : >rt i *^ 5=^ "^ ^ : t o CH w rt o S "- ! w - n a|a _ s|r^ ^ co O ^ 10 C^ t^. 1^ f~ ^ S j s Ul 1 " s " - - : " 2 S?} a o oo o o o> o oo t- ODO en ->i< Jg T SJO 2 S3! 2 HJ t^C)(MM . W O5CO<NO 00 i-iOO i * 0>gfflOC<0 n S) rHOS^ O "TT 1 (JltCiO t~- OC^ OO OOO^COOI^- *^C^ ^1 K." s>f oo 1 .-r f-J -J ? -<" efsfiT ^oc^oo" i^ a^oo" o> s -"^^^2^ 11,208,062 iJl BJ OCiOOO C^OC^OOOO OlOOtO t^^^i^coj I III J < 0> r-l "- -" 2 ^ M " z i-i H n^T^ ^ - - r ^ s ^ M I !ls 35 ^ a* rf H P4 K P ^":ri-3 -3 i 4 j3 i 7. t :- SS J Ji!? 1 g 25 - : I " iS - - I*jal* ! 1 sli i 1 t i IJ,-i\. I . s l*i S .^ jl^ll ^ B I Sr.g" . a s *" a S8 B SH| lii >: ! h vessels of 23,896 ton >ns ; 24 Hamburg, 777 , 1266 tons ; 4 Rusnia OQ 5l*5|| 1 Sf S?ftt|jl| ill I ll I! I S^ |il: I|a| J <"|5 * fc |5||| ps! ||| ^ -s :ii ";r ?- 1 3*J m c a 2 eo H P ^iiffijili 5 **! "Ill 1 II 111 islll^Kil II EJwi-illl "*cJ:--3 .> -s ^2| e |^|^ w ^ s ~ 8* 53 5 S 5 <W^^ a, M Fq ffluS* ^ ^ e TOTAL. 1 tons ; 26 Frei 11,585 toua ; 148G HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. DEMONSTRATIVE Table of the Value of the Export of Produce to Foreign Countries from the exporting Provinces of Brazil during the Year 1842 1843. Exporting Province. Whence to. Value of Produce. TOTAL. Exporting Province. Whence to Value of Produce. TOTAL. Hio de Janeiro. Eipirito Santo... r. ahia.... 1 1 AlBgOM.. | I Pernim- buco... < Carried - _ country. Austrian donii rials, mar. 2,4. iO,055 130 928,471 7GO 3,360,956 580 144,310 430 5,997,275 290 1,118,036 080 3,927,406 5-10 75,505 100 777.957 780 13,663 430 1,205,100 220 34,923 700 62,053 570 704,206 780 30,640 310 469,097 060 227,329 930 37,468 910 608 140 655,242 370 rials, mar. 22,220,309 119 2,066 742 6,215,735 939 190,681 640 618,322 530 Brough .-| Pernnm- DUCO(C0M-< tinned.).. Parahiba < Ceara.... < Maran- ham... St. Ca- / herine s. |^ Para.... \ St. Paulo. J *Rio Grande < do Sul. Total.... country. rials, mar. rials, mar. 29,253,115 970 6,138,489 852 765,312 422 222,925 999 1,789,316 149 87,840 95* 820,218 385 377,959 147 1,214,480 318 Spain . ... 98,228 121 611,213 894 170,362 898 29,116 125 237,142 17 381,295 785 21,868 870 23,704 352 684,958 328 34,780 872 Portugal Holland.... II arise at ic cities Denmark I m ted States... Ports of Pacific. Sweden Sardinia Great Britain.,. HanseaticTowns United States... Great Britain . Portugal Ionian Islands .. Portugal Holland HanseaticTowus United States... Great Britain... Ports of Pacific- Argentine States Russia .... 27 200 4,032 185,969 628 10,024 771 22,872 I m key Country not de clared . . . For consumption of vessels HanseaticTowns United State*... Fisheries Uruguay State.. Uruguay State.. Austrian domi nions 2,982 475 37,750 689 11,987 912 121,215 331 338,517 779 14,752 718 1,262,109 245 893,876 925 899,816 633 17,957 239 433,445 103 103,373 730 2,688 24,041 340 53,862 57 342,516 157 2,101,025 922 2,076 299 300,177 595 567,623 251 11,825 775 5,223 190 36,928 390 449,258 342 Portugal HanseaticTowns China Great Britain... United States... Argentine States Uruguay British Channel Denmark 61,281 662 9,202 890 27,356 400 United States... Argentine States France Great Britain... -lanseaticTowus United States... France Great Britain... 11,114 660 12,880 180 279,045 623 148,482 234 112,918 90 9,209 600 246,567 998 Italy Portugal Ports of Pacific. United States... Argentine States 290 115 293,281 168 31,554 850 J69 120 1,776 730 2,231 712 48,655 452 Austrian domi- 60,378 485 72,399 571 10,890 442 53,013 142 Uruguay British Channel Great Britain... 5reat Britain... J ortugal ?orts of Pacific. HanseaticTowni Great Britain... Portugal 27,655 757 571,112 725 19,554 48 Austrian, do- 69,505 540 110,435 400 234,380 795 26,145 595 125,200 260 306,100 956 49,231 715 5,637 322 69,505 540 228.336 195 lanseaticTowns Jnited States... Austrian donii- 983,161 613 287,048 366 203,060 288 157,176 163 719,699 300 2,260,985 282 ttanseaticTowns United States... Argentine States Prance . Jreat Britain... Portugal Holland Denmark ..... Great Britain... Countries not declared 29,253,115 970 . 1 40,669,658 412 p.rt of .h i7/,V OW /, n & to the civil war in ^at province, and the greater - COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. 1487 D L. G T * co e* rj. is~sfc~tl"s?s ss 2 S -""OOCOO- I Oh. ?S <N * TV <NO *f 00 "" W I! * s S S g S R 5 8 P< 0^, I? % o si cf S] J| A K O cc .- , o i o o -N $ * t * O . CO r !f il II Ii i: j* 82 || 1! sii flflS 14! ^ BJ; .2 ?5 .o oj tf Ml ^ SscJS S a < M-^-a 111 2r 022 ii* ?*E |g O C* t^ Tf W CO 00 t^- CO O < .-.r. ; ii I 1 go>^. co co oo SSS-SS .j M . i " ci *i -r. 4 S NtOfMOOWCa O!O O O .... . > 00 O T -C " . rO CO 00 iOCr>OOCO < *0 O<rt . <3" C^ r-f -Too ^Tco Tf" Tj."of n <> ! * Oi O *< is. eo 1 00 CJ CN^ O5 j; K 050j_to w o,- OOCO O S lss g "1 C ?, - ^i. t~ - g o rt 1488 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. OFFICIAL Account of the External and Internal Funded Debt of Brazil. Year ending 30th of June. EXTERNAL. Nominal Capital in Sterling. INTERNAL. Brazilian Cur rency. 1836 1837 1834 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 Brazilian loans in London 5 per cent 5,705,400 5,655,000 5,605,000 5,555,000 5,916,000 5,866,600 5,816,000 5,580,400 6,999,200 6,999,200 6,999,200 ition iu the empi sible Inscribed 4, 5, and 6 per cent rials. 18,629,201 22,503,667 23,300,600 28,973,000 26,575,200 34,409,400 40,821,200 43,285,400 48,221,600 45,521,600 48,035,200 Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. do. do do. do Do. do. do .. Paper money in circuit government is respon e for whicb 48,030,853 rials. COMPARATIVE Table of the Revenue of Brazil from the Year 1847 to 1848, as compared with the Revenue actual received in the Three Financial Years undermentioned. GENERAL REVENUE. ACTUAL L Y RECEI V E D I N Calculated foi 184142 184243 184344 1847 and 1848 rials. 10,088,410 rials. 8,684,928 rials. 10,459,319 rials. 13,254,000 Maritime despatch, anchorage dues, &c- &c.... 564,279 2,811,525 567,641 2,852,282 745,719 3,021,425 620,000 3,096,000 1,846,116 1,857,020 2,412,935 2,449,550 Special imposts levied in Rio Janeiro 546,019 436 924 640,896 849 027 720,6/0 859 342 820,000 400 000 16,293,264 15,451,794 18,219,410 20,639,550 Imposts as guarantee for six months dividend 556,346 492 260 536,368 927,429 Imposts for the amortisation of the paper cur- rency of the couutry. . . ... . . , 2 037 266 2 725 974 2 145 533 3 233 021 18,886,876 18,760,028 20,901,311 24,800,000 the purpoxes above-mentioned, have not been applied for some years to the purposes they are destined. No amorl ation of the paper currency has taken place since 1839. Rio OK JANEIRO, 15th of August, 1846. OFFICIAL Statement of the Receipts and Expenditure of the Empire of Brazil in the Financial Years undermei tioiu-d, showing the Division of her Expenses amongst the different Departments of State, and the yearly ca culated Deficit* in the Revenue, &c. Financial Years. Receipts calculated. Expenditure calculated. Calculated Deficit Surplus. Department of Empire. 1836-37. 13)7-38. 183839. 183940. 181041. 1841-42. 1842-43. 1843 -44. 14 15. 184545. 1840-47. 184748 rials mar. 13,024,749 12,205,262 13,063,28!) 14,196,229 14,000,000 14,352,000 15,200,000 16,500,000 16,83.1,000 26,000,000 24,000,000 24,800,000 rials mar. 13,501,574 571 13,150,371 851 13,622,697 15,230,175 92 17,639,603 432 20,564,609 934 20,92-1,843 23,120,866 783 26,320,520 441 26,662,231 576 27,330,229 785 27,279,897 914 rials mar. 476,825 571 885,109 853 1.033,946 92 3,639,603 432 6,212,609 934 5,724,843 6,620,866 9,484,520 441 602,231 576 3,330,229 785 2,479,897 914 rials mar. 4*o",59l 677 rials mar. 1,625,459 360 1,536,178 1,527,072 1,567,538 1,829,683 2,219,854 120 2,594,719 800 3,182,964 2,860,263 2,840,517 2,939,556 3,005,734 Toti.1 40,550,683 598 40,591 677 Financial Years. Department of Justice. Department of War. Department of Finance. Department of Marine. Department of Foreign Affairs. lRM-37. 1S37 3H. a 183940. 1840-41. 1841-42. l>li -43. l-H-44. 1844-45. 181540. 1846-47. 184748. rials mar. 672,633 220 762,239 788 809,940 387 839,737 054 I.036,t21 2<J 1,OG5,5%4 163 1. 1 32,4 1 4 588 1,698,348 411 1,474,790 175 1, OH .l, 104 679 1,612,427 928 1,660,955 731 rials mar. 2,695,203 753 3,156,097 583 3,113,223 580 3,586,015 310 5,013,935 629 6,407,015 62 5,306,481 372 5,891,869 830 8,702,928 411 9,098,488 30 6,474,756 200 6,170,707 583 rials mar. 3,755,685 50 5,632,304 204 5,877,985 50 6,390,1-25 810 6,796,934 21 7,769,054 456 8,823,585 174 9,180,119 571 9,729,286 778 9,367,911 452 12,219,351 748 rials mar. 915,348 360 1,935,803 418 2,131,030 386 2,663,023 482 2,705,483 753 2,679,294 833 2,507,317 66 2,732,500 144 3,098,536 77 3,037,212 415 3,485,667 909 rials mar. 153,348 800 127,648 800 163,436 920 163,134 800 267,346 423,867 300 470,325 535,064 800 454,710 579,398 569,090 COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. 1489 Austrian Dominion i> :a z h II S *t! o J ^ o 2 <% s W b S o fc gj -tfrfC^OO ** t-*C gto" go--V|f g w * w co ^ 25 S j ta r* e ^ C0 OOC^Tj. <X>SO OOO C^i -00 " C>.?5 OS W C5 :s :S i?5 2 j 00 OC 70 S Z-~ o e* to oTo" "" o >< -o" cc ^ ill3Si 18 *" met-* sT ^ ^ t^ f? o M o < o oo o ;-. ?3 58- = O II! . -f; i il VOL. I. . .. 9B 1490 fli lit IJISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. . S oKg S Ko-;^ g "gSSigSSS E3g!?gS3 8gggg ~ B S* I 8*8S**"8SS 55**5P WOOSt*C*>0> TT <0 50 W M 5 gg::::::::::: i::::!;!! : S 1 3* ^sj?s??i^isss?2?: d 35^ _ w, os_ o in 1-1 o_~ e^,3>,-^ "*, oc , c ^ w . .^o . <N co >o -100 -n-i^. g ^^^ ~z PS ? v^ . . T ". rt i- o" * efef t 00 TT t- T ooo ioo"o K CO OOOO .ooco 5 x. o H W ^ V3 a s - / 7 3 y: r -< o - as u w ^J s rjj ^. S O IjliiKi f il- i iNj i!!i COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. 1491 1| i! K ift <O 35 o r^ co C"> r-1 o I-H 1 O 1-1 t S li6I5 I 2 a "" : rf C <N O ^ > O d ^* O <M <M i i O -"J- 10 O O 00 i i CH 1C f- :o TT I , o to * a o M i CN *-* CT1 C^ O O ( , o> i X O t^. ! CC5OC 1 * *T OCi^"^ ^ <^ CiCi iT7tDO*T v^ o v^oooj- ? 1-1 <r, c^ oocoicci o -qTjf JOB ^WO I R KOOT )C^ X f ) GO " ^<C<l O!N tOOOOOOOf lOO^ti^* t^-!O O-^^fOI og^.eo ^^^g^^^JS ^!2 5oo i o ^ r^ro^g^o 1-1 o o-^ t S g S S g IS 00 : a -iii- OiO K S Ot-*OT>m (NOOOOS^ rj<ioC5OrO POXOOOOO eo r^ eo s * t- OO^C^MO Tf 00 1C 00 ooo li SffSSfi S3 S ^ S " S "" r " S : " aSS ^2 t,^v ~**i. "V (N - O CO "5 - ef~ n ,5 Si* 3 ^ 5. 2 S F-l 10 ^1 -H 1 3 : : : : : i I 1 S a * ; i ^ i -^ S o : :* iS ^ | c 1 g . I rS r 1 -- = J5 1492 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. -< iosr>-~oo~>fi 1 >i <i"*5 OKT OCT. o> -< o <N to t>.-*tec50to<s *> l i. -" s i 2 J*5 StglSfifcSllfclaiil ssssssss ss s^ssssss > ?s- is is? s8ilI8SSSlii?SSH aspsissisgso ssiilsis- - 1 H S 3 II s s* r* ^W rf p 2 sr2 - -5-s8 - 5 a; s. les and a. QOOOOOO OO o 3j | : : s : N : M : :~ : : : :::: : :*- ::"::::: : : :" : : : : f CiO-^OO OtOO^S*-^ ^ O O^fO Ofll C*fl(O PlNOCOWlOOINOO >3- 00 OOVS w f*S o o w a oS" :> -:. :55 t o ::t2 oro* oo ** S * fi . 5 jj to . eq . o . ^-t>-..- b...oo ..o. ,. o ...^S.Sl Q M 1 C "- 1 -^ t^ h a. c SON aoomc* o r fc, 1 oo o n t~ <o o c " ^ " : 2" : : : : : : : : : : s : : ; "* H u ^O m W B SS S 5 S 8SS S=;g ooooccoo S s ** -r ci oc SSS S? w oo So 9 s 1 | p I i- | i 1 ! 2=: ;|r !!;;!! !i"|^p s j g i i| j ; j |S S o Eb cc i> 8 51 2 1 S8 |l 11 1 l e S i 5 1 S3 1 M ^ V OCO W IN .Tb, . f m *< ; - .2 o ^ 2 : : s : i i * ? * "Sco ao wiiSIIo^foSo ow J M ^ jl O of"" " o" *e^"*" "* J^^t k ^*. ~^co.c^ c^ ci . h 2 i 5 ta o . aj2o S eooo ,H OIM<<NOOOCO o 5 i S i i i i i isS :Si i i -S : : : : ::::: :g : :g :|gg :gs : : * 2! ^cc^ootoc-ise^S ^ OOO M OcO to fe5 fe ^^gS? _ SS i* > -8^*rSIi:*^:: : | * :|j * :S :S : : :t : I c " " o" * ;5 : - o H ^ tj W U5 iili IN nMMii I n nni i m\n NAME* CLASMII OFMERCHAND ririliyiiiiiiillllsiiiiiili liil ililliliii 1 1 ir^fcSSS^ COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. 1493 Ill a g I S 8SS3 CC? ww f-N C5 O> <fi 00 * : = { OM c OO wo in [8 : :*- :| :|| : : ; :g :~ z< S : o" " " rf t^* >- V^ o lOG^OiQOOi T W ao t- .2 IS aoo * ao ^-r N O N ^ *C O SSSS 53 ! O T t~ 5 * o" To 1 oo Sis - : .MHI*KI(ttt!llli" 1=51* SI " r^ o" cTo? tcao o co -fl- -rf r" o *< 115 "55 S^i! f - " 8 g 2"g--S - : IsP IS "23 2 O H W 2 3 B. S5 i 1 ^ 31 o w 4 s &4 5! O 11 p = 2 |1 l 5 r s rl 3g ^.l-SMjIk^ifsii !!l|iifllii!{!i1i ill* I .i-illj^fJlSI-ii ^1 ;- S *ft-SJ^^ * ^Sa ?i-S<3-? s ^ te ^5o-J a ^ : 555o^.aT32g Ii4l 14 ] ! s^llllilllill^llifllllii 1 !!!!! a l fl Ej 11 1494 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. . 1 ~ > tared for umption. 2 *l C* <> S3" 1 Is S a H c fe "> : s S IK 1 Ports of Empire. <N 00 n | year 184243.... of September, 184 i ."5 a S s ~ fi o 1 g g on as 1; H s 1 rr ** if 1 ji a | | 2 fc 55 og goo 3.0 oo 13 rt <o o ui w g3 S or* a :-* : 5:^ 2:or::S:-^ MM>< = *.. -<M. . . WC5 >r consumpi description o CO T3.W II = ; llj u= sis c r-c c = 1s- 5 :P B4 ^ _ - a o w 2 -C || IT> 600" J3 p-S ^ S Ills- ^ " II t-S a =? COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. 1495 CHAPTER XV. AKMY AND NAVY. THE military staff is considered on an extensive and large scale. There is also supported a large corps of military police or gendarmerie, and a national guard. The national guard is organised by law; and all males from eighteen to forty-five years of age are enrolled in it. They are equipped at their own cost, the nation furnishing arms and ammunition. The national guard performs sen tinel duty daily at the palace and public offices. Captain Wilkes says, "The navy is not effective ; they want seamen, and are not likely to have any. A naval academy is established for the education of cadets or mid shipmen. Here they enter at twelve years of age, receiving some of the first rudiments of education, and remain four years. After passing an examination, they are sent to sea, serve there four years,and if found qualified are then promoted to second lieutenants. " The military academy they enter later, remain seven years, passing through various courses of study, and if found competent, they are made lieutenants. From what I un derstood, the system of education is very imperfect." STANDING ARMY. The standing army of Brazil consisted, in 1844, of 24,244 officers and soldiers, viz. : number. 17,095 lits 1,769 National guards in service 5,380 Troops of the line.. Volunteers and re( THE troops of the line in 1844, were distributed in the provinces as follows: COUNTRIES. Men. COUNTRIES. Men. Rio de Janeiro Baliia number. 2,453 620 Brought forward number. 12,875 731 118 Parabiba 124 81 86 879 Ceara 381 Goyaz 234 Fiauhy 302 7 758 843 131 Para 1,128 601 625 Carried forward 1-2,675 Total 17,095 BRAZILIAN Naval Force, 1844. VESSELS. Vessels in Commission. Vessels in Ordinary. Vessels con demned. Vessels. Men. Guns. Ships of the line number. number. 163 803 273 376 177 277 249 23 142 214 128 number. 34 102 44 76 26 32 11 12 12 number. 1 2 1 1 2 number. 2 1 2 5 4 7 4 9 10 1 13 6 7 Yachts Transports Total 67 2830 350 i 7 Naval Officers. 1844. Admiral, 1 ; Vice-admirals, 2; Commanders of the Squa drons, 4; Commanders of Divisions, 8; Post-captains, 16; Captains, 30; Com manders, 60; First-lieutenants, 160; Second-lieutenants, 240 ; students in the Ndval Academy, 67. The Judiciary. The department of Civil Justice is administered by the following officers:!. Justices of the Peace, elected by the people ; 2. Municipal Judges, ap pointed by the crown ; 3. Judges of Orphans, ditto ; 4. Judges of Common Law, ditto; 5. Judges of the Supreme Court, ditto. 1496 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, DESCRIPTION of Spccimcus of Timber, the Growth of this Province and the Province of Pernambuco and Alagoas. NAME OF TIMBER. MAXIMUM. To what Purpose Quantity. Gravity. Peculiar Quality. Long . Cube applicable. No. fee 80 CO 100 80 70 100 60 80 60 60 80 80 80 80 CO 50 fee 3 3 2 2 14 r u li U i i If i 2 beams of ships ! lii-rnln. knees, ri &c., of ships /"planking and ch < sen pieces f L ornaments planking ornamental fitting ships masts do. do. 16301)1, &C. do. r planking- ships, I ornamental wor ornamental work r blocks, sheaves, . bridges, &c. beams of house and ships do. beams, &c. do. to turners work do. and beams, do. do. and cabinet makers do. do. do. do. do. do. ornamental beams of houses beams, & c . ornamental beams of houses &c. ornamental work and tools planking- ornamental ooring and ceiling ceiling and inte rior work ruing and carving beams, machi nery, &c. do. do. do. catamarans beams, machi nery, & c . ornamental beams, &c. do. do. ornamental beams, &c. do. do. do. do. unlimited } do. | do. } do. do. } do. do. do. do. do. abundant do. do. | do. do. do. do. do. do, do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. ot abundant abundant do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. heavier than wat do. less than wate do. heavier less do. do. do. do. do. heavier do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. -i do. do. do, lighter heavier lighter heavier lighter do. heavier lighter do. do. heavier do. do. do. lighter heavier do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. do. r tough fibre, entre- f strong tough fibre, (, do. everlasting, r strong, easily i worked, and like L mahogany. ( canary colour, I easily worked, hard, rvery elastic, and I does not splinter, do. do. hard and durable, do. ["ornamental, and full of oil, from < which is ex tracted the oil L of copaiba, rwhen first cut brown, shortly 1 after mulberry colour ; even grained, and L splits easily, pwhen first cut | is deep brown, turns black by contact with the L atmosphere, rvery heavy and durable; splits very easily into long laths for w roofs of houses, hard and durable, do. "very heavy, com pact, and of a . brown colour. t hard, light yellow, X everlasting. do. smooth grain, light yellow, close smooth grain, light yellow, hard, and takes a good polish, good work, do. do. do. hard. methinglike birch, hard, soft ; insects will not enter, soft ; free from in sects. lit, tough wood, rd and durable. do. do. do. ort of corkwood. durable. hard, durable, very good, do. do. do. do. do. do. do. 2. -merim 3. Amartllo-venatico .... 4. Flor d algadao b. ,, -Buzuntao .... 7. Brauco 8. Verruelho 9. Gararoba Vermeltio ... 10. Amarellu 11 Pao d OIeo 12. Barabu 13. Corajao de Nigro 14. Sapoe airana, Vermelba 15- ii Amarella 10. Imbiriba Branca.. 17. Preta . 18. PaoFerro 19. Angelim 19A. Margoso... 20. Larenginha 21. Pitia Martini . 30 f 22. Arroba 23. Branca 24. Angica 15 30 30 30 35 10 50 10 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 30 50 40 50 80 80 50 50 50 50 50 50 1 1 II 1 1 3 1 3 3 2 i I | 3 3 25. Hollandine 26. Deapotl 27. Oitocica 28. Carnauba 29. Laraogeira 30. Pao Carga 31. lacarauda 32. Loiero 33. Cedar 34. Gcnepapo 35. Mesque Bravo... 30. Ingapore ... 37. Koran Lei 38. Pao Cabello 39. Pao langddo... 40. Mullo Vermelho 41. Cuudern 42. Pachino 43. Masaranduba 44. Golandi .. . 45. latobd... . 4ei. Lviu-ira 47. Mandu 49. MarciaPreU..., 50. Dorada COMMERCIAL STATISTICS OF BRAZIL. 1497 NAMES of other Trees. NAME OF TIMBER. NAME OF TIMBER. NAME OF TIMBER. NAME OF TIMBER. No. No. No. No. 51. Secapera. 93. Gon/ala Alves. 130. Carasco. 178. Pao Santo. 52. Catoli. 53. ,, Carne de Vaca. 94. Batinga. Q5. Branca. 137. Carvao. 138. lambeira. 17 .. Mamaguda. 180. Cacao. 54. ,, Acari. Chefie de Novelha. 96. ,. Vermelha. 97. Seta Casca. 139. Pto. 140. Pao Carne. 181. BalAamo ou Copaira. 1*2. Viageira. 55. Pao Sanque. 98. Japaranduba. 141. Pao de Pomba. 183. Ticooro. 56. Louro Cherizo. 99. Caboatao. 142. Batteiga. 184. Cajaeira. 57. ,, Amarello. 100. Camboini. 143. Carajaonde. 185. Pitombeira. 58. Fediente. 101. Mapermiga. 144. Casquinha. 186. BorUoa/inho. 59. Te. 102. Pororoca. 145. Carapatinha. 187. Merenduba. CO. Cedra, Cajeatinga. 103. Gamellera. 146. Martello. 188. Aroriba. 61. Vedadtira. 104. Branca. 147. Manga. 189. Boronomc. 62. Mauguba. 105. Vermelha. 148. da Matta. 190. Caxneira. 63. Angelim Doce. 106. de Pulga. 14p. Masaranduba. 191. Pao d Alho. 64. Sapocaia de Pitao. 107. Mainao. 150. da Matta. 192. Sasafras. 65. de Inverno. 108. Jamtia. 151. da Praia. 193. Canella Cheirosa. G6. Pirana Verdadeira. 109. Manso. 152. Pnjuca. 194. Federente. 67. Inverno. 110. Cabella de Cotin. 153. Quatinguaba. 195. Fumecete. 63. Puo d Arco. 111. Coipema. 154. Catinga de Porco. 196. Lemao. 69. de Verde. 112. Jaguarana. 155. Amberim Vermelha. 197. Alcanforeira. 70. Roxo. 113. Mangabeira. 156. Almeixa. 198. Pao Brazil. 71. Cheero. 114. Sambacium. 157. Cortegena. 199. Funcbo. 72. Cainacari de Curruno. 115. Emhababa. 158. Mangue Vermelha. 200. Tamarina. 73. de Lezo. 116. de Matta. 159. Branca. 201. Pitangeira. 74. Murici. 117. de Capoirca. 160. Manca. 202. Bragelleta. 75. Pieo e. 118. laboticabeira. 161. Cabraiba. 203. Violletta. 76. Matnajuda. 119. Oitizeira. 162. Sapocia. 204. Maracanha. 77. Branca. 1-20. do Cor. 163. Peroba Vermellia 205. Mustarba. 78. Vermelha. 121. da Praia. 164. Amarella. 106. Palmeira. 79. Imberendeba. 122. Gulandeim. 165. Branca. 107. Canjica or Snakewood. 80. Peloneta. 123. Carvalho. 166. Oleo Cabuceira. 208. Sebastiao d Arruda. 81. Jaqueira. 124. Branca. 167. Arueira. 209. Casca de Tartarguga. 82. Ingahi. 125. Vermelha. 168. Grapeapunha. 210. lacaranda Rei. 83. Ingazeira Cainao. 126. Articoom. 169. Guatumba. 211. Cabunca. 84. Sepo. 127. Cagao. 170. Vermelha. 212. ., Taa. 85. Paboa. 123 , Ape. 171. Tupicaru. 213. Gaviao. 86. Cabelludo, 129. Mulunga. 172. Arepicara. 214. Branca. 87. Morroso. 130. Espiiiheiro. 173. Jiguiteba. 215. Violetta. 88. Barbatitnao. 131. Araca. 174. Jequeba. 21. Pardo. 89. Barauna. 132. Assou. 175. Gitahi. 217. Vermelha. 90. Arniena. 133. Prelea. 176. Canafestula. 218. Ipe. 91. Sebastiao d Aunda. 134. Araca Brava. 177. Parahiba. 219. de Brejo. 92. Camaru. 135. Merita. VOL. I. 9E BOOK X- MISCELLANEOUS CHAP TEES. CHAPTER I. TRADE AND NAVIGATION OF GREAT BRITAIN WITH CUBA, SPANISH AND AMERICAN REPUBLICS, AND BRAZIL. THE progress of the trade of England with Cuba, Mexico, and the states of South America though comparatively limited by the condition of those countries is still of great importance. The exports from England were 1822. 1825* of o To Mexico . / , . . 90,000 1,400,000 To Columbia ...... . . 27,000 650,000 To Buenos Ayres . ""V . 230,000 1,600,000 347,000 3,303,000 3,650,000 3,650,000 Increase .... 3,303,000 According to the official accounts of the British custom-house the value of the exports of England to the new republics in 1824 amounted to the several values as follows, viz.: . To the Brazils o 49* q 94 rp o | . O )*4>O t <ij * lo bpamsh America ....... 2 377,100 the same destination, passing by the West Indies . 4, l97, J 576 Total exports of Great Britain to the new republics of America . . . 10000000 According to the tables published by the French govern- mem, m the month of May, 1829, France exported to Total " . . . . 19,600,000 COMMERCIAL STATISTICS. 1499 These reports are exclusive of the important exports of British manufactures from the British West Indies to the Spanish American Republics. A RETURN of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels entered and cleared in Trade with Mexico, from the Year 1820 to the latest Account. YEARS. ENTERED INWARDS. CLEARED OUTWARDS. Total declared value of British and Irish pro duce and manu factures export ed from the United Kingdom to Mexico. British. Foreign. Brituh. Foreign. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. Vessels. Tonnage. 1 2 4 5 5 10 9 11 30 18 35 32 34 32 35 33 31 44 35 34 51 65 328 480 1,246 1,402 919 1,705 1,283 2,015 6,342 3,386 6,236 4,971 6,006 5,814 6,893 7,098 5,343 7,591 7,003 7,374 10,025 12,868 *5 1 2 2 1 2 "l 663 78 326 490 245 425 95 i 6 11 16 47 20 30 20 21 51 30 20 34 29 35 21 38 26 29 26 31 166 1,131 1,9;4 2,483 8,157 3,620 5,238 3,890 3,369 8,369 8,574 5,056 3,740 5,591 5,502 6,. 39 3,880 6,126 5,056 4,830 4,392 5,836 1 i *2 4 2 2 2 1 *3 1 .{ 409 306 266 483 639 326 320 490 277 376 151 4b8 4 1,076 89,360 267.419 391,997 1,042,678 471,285 692 800 307,029 303,562 978,441 728,858 199,821 421,487 459,610 402,820 254,822 520,200 439,776 660,170 465,330 434,901 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828.. . 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1836 , 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 AN Account of the Number of Ships, distinguishing British and Foreign, with their Ton nage, that have entered and cleared for Cuba from the United Kingdom during the past Five Years, ending the oth of January, 1846. (This Account for the Year 1846, includes, with Cuba, all the other Foreign West Indies.) YEARS, ending 5th [January. ENTERED INWARDS. CLEARED OUTWARDS. BRITISH. FOREIGN. BRITISH. FOREIGN. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. 1841 number. 134 145 143 147 122 206 tons. 30,777 33,377 47,217 40,611 34.712 59,294 number. 32 14 34 53 41 76 tons. 6,597 2,509 7,661 12,206 10,243 16,865 number. 103 142 162 130 109 179 tons. 23,137 37,295 43,890 36,050 31,289 54,756 number. 52 41 61 75 62 109 tons. 17,807 10,677 17,186 24,748 15,396; 27,995 1842 1843 1845 1846 AN Account of the Number of Ships, distinguishing British and Foreign, with their Ton nage, that have entered and cleared for the Brazils from the United Kingdom during the past Five Years, ending the 5th of January, 1846. YEARS, ending 5th January. ENTERED INWARDS. CLEARED OUTWARDS. BRITISH. FOREIGN. BRITISH. FOREIGN. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. 1841 number. 120 153 124 158 200 248 tons. 29,212 37,507 30,875 38,020 45,649 58,119 number. 11 14 16 8 14 14 tons. 2014 2913 3467 2099 2589 3888 number. 207 185 209 207 255 231 tons. 49,545 46,078 53,128 50,034 60,521 56,135 number. 42 30 80 50 Z tons. 10,997 7,509 20,529 12,983 1-2,574 24,626 1842 1843 1844 . 1845. . 1846 1500 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. AN Account of the Number of Ships, distinguishing- British and Foreign, with their Ton- na^e, that have entered and cleared for Mexico, and the other Ports of South America, from the United Kingdom, during the past five Years, ending the oth of January, 1846. YEARS, ending 5tU January. ENTERED INWARDS. CLEARED OUTWARDS. BRITISH. FOREIGN. BRITISH. FOREIGN. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. ] Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. Ships. Tonnage. number. 227 375 340 364 337 320 tons. 49,291 82,520 77,187 84,754 97,4fi5 83,962 number. 20 11 43 1 7 13 tons. 5,996 2,972 11,561 4,565 1,516 3,318 number. 185 191 214 259 266 356 tons. 41,072 42,636 47.601 55,261 70,617 104,524 number. 10 11 21 15 13 15 tons. 1,992 2,276 5,469 3,193 2,310 2,933 1843 1844 1H45 1846 BRITISH and IRISH Produce and Manufactures Exported from the United Kingdom to Cuba. ARTICLES. Years. Declared value. ARTICLES. Years . Declared value. 2 r 1840 3,744 1840 102,945 Apparel, slop*, and haber- ! 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 3,743 4,675 6,581 3,949 9,753 Linen manufactures, includ- I 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 106,897 105,097 20 J, 580 193,179 313,663 I r 1840 13,304 Brass and copper nianufac- 1 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 14,884 8,750 14,546 15,155 20,919 Machinery and mill work.... < i I 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 12,853 14,838 12,134 3,843 9,471 I 1845 6 456 ( 1840 3,714 1 1841 6,261 Coal*, cinders, and culm ^ 1842 1843 1844 1845 16,079 7,005 6,677 10,260 1840 1841 1842 1843 6,901 6,630 5,173 15,949 f 1840 191,660 1844 1845 10,230 1 534 Cotton manufactures, includ- J ing cotton yarn i Earthenware of all sorts J 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 272,809 104,556 181,136 224,079 602,028 19,162 16,531 8,930 Tin and pewter wares, tin un- j wrought, and tin plates.... j I 1840 1841 1842 1813 1844 1845 4,210 3,580 2,609 5,612 4,907 0,188 | 1843 18,165 I 1844 J845 11,721 29,518 f 1840 1841 46,155 34,195 ( 1840 8,750 Woollen manufactures, in- j 1842 1843 30,550 40 896 Glass 1841 1842 0,213 3,242 1814 54 ,40t> . 1843 4 ,056 I 1845 67,356 1844 7,677 I 1845 7,932 r 1840 22,295 Hardwares and cutlery j 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 27,666 36,766 15,940 33,619 46,047 Other articles I 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 23,710 18.221 35,343 21,582 7,800 * 1845 68,904 r 1840 51 423 c 1840 514,782 Iron and steel, wrought and J un wrought < 1841 1842 1843 45^489 30,291 Aggregate yalue of British j aud Irish produce and ma- ^ 1841 1842 1843 592,540 306.253 624,871 1844 . 50,540 45,134 53,984 I 1844 1845 654,214 COMMERCIAL STATISTICS. 1501 QUANTITIFS of the principal Articles Imported into the United Kingdom from Cuba, and ____Q^antities^so Imported entered for Home Consumption. ARTICLES. Years. Imported. Entered for Home Coo- sumption. ARTICLES. Yeara. Imported. Entered for Home Con sumption. tons. tons. tons. tons. 1" 18-10 1,382 1,141 r 1840 731 780 Cedar wood.... J 184 1 1842 1843 499 459 1,474 674 326 1,251 Mahocany... < 1841 1842 1843 382 184 1,223 458 340 1,154 1844 1 0^ e 1,392 1,196 1841 3,282 3,145 L Io4o L 1845 7,214 Ibs. Ibs. cwts. cwts. r 1840 14,180 11,640 r 1840 Cochineal, gra- j nilla arid dust.. <] 1841 1842 1843 11,403 99,697 4,867 7,630 49,185 29,579 I 1841 1842 1843 32,083 3,423 207 1,735 2,759 1844 .... 2,959 I 1844 4,631 3 L 1845 893 L 1845 52 627,538 r 1840 1,955,928 705 Gallons (in Gallons (in. i 1841 725,223 317 cluding eluding Coffee J 1842 1S43 1844 2,019,626 1,054,247 555,460 200,503 418,826 371,552 r 1840 1841 overproof.) 271 46,047 overproof.) I 1845 187,855 34,293,190 Rum J 1842 35,380 2 1843 70,100 4 tons. tons. | 1844 188,078 12 r 1840 26,289 L 1845 51,915 2,469,135 1841 32,659 Copper ore J 1842 1843 1844 1845 32,270 31,683 34,765 10,630 31,355 34,073 141 Sugar unrefined J 1840 1841 1842 cwts. 304,063 134,352 207,602 CWtS. 414 150 id 1 1843 448,761 4 f 1840 1,153 1,028 1844 299,276 29 1841 1,610 1,123 L 1845 352,402 4,856,604 1842 861 691 1 1843 1,005 917 r 1840 I 1844 346 513 i 1841 3,754 L 1845 462 Sugar refined... j 1842 1 1 1 1843 cwts. cwts. 1844 r 1840 1,252 870 L 1845 1841 6,871 903 Ibs. Ibs. Honey 1842 1843 1844 1845 8,068 5,179 2,829 403 483 806 r Tobacco unma- I nufactured.... < 1840 1841 1842 1843 259.702 401,410 235,514 494,954 176, -157 213,256 189,689 179,431 1844 247,263 230,194 Ibs. Ibs. L 1845 453,061 25,917,100 r 1840 1841 3,128 861 - 1840 153,038 16t5,733 Indigo,,. ,. < 1842 1843 1844 1845 16,298 62,675 5,317 43,574 1,738 Tobacco manu factured, or 4 cigars 1841 1842 1843 1844 260,021 311,848 252,789 208,822 170,404 167,749 173,318. 171,827 1845 268,936 245,059- tons. tons. r 1840 179 240 1840 4,714 4,714 i 1841 493 311 I Logwood.. . . J 1842 1843 50 268 232 282 Wool, cotton < 1841 1842 1843 23,690 140,958 23,690 140,533 j 1844 M 32 1 04.1 218 L 1845 133 L 1845 BRAZIL. British and Irish Produce and Manufactures Exported from the United King dom to Brazil. ARTICLES. Years. Declared Value. ARTICLES. Years. Declared Value. ( 1840 1,345 r 1840 15,021 Alkali, mineral, viz., soda and J barilla .... \ 1841 1842 1843 1,344 3,213 2,103 Apparel, slops, and haber- J 1841 1842 1843 16,129 14,630 20,282 1844 1845 3,353 1S44 1845 30,120 18,261 r 1840 2,568 r 1840 16,0:6 1841 3,295 I 1841 12,576 1842 4,039 1842 15,148 1843 1844 4,932 5,938 1841 26,478 I 1845 ( 1845 28,189 (continued.) 1502 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. ARTICLES. Years. Declare Value ARTICLES. Years. Declared Value. 1840 929 r 1840 328 1841 221 1841 1,052 1842 545 Yarn . 1842 1843 754 1843 205 1844 282 1844 1,667 1845 148 L. 1845 148 1840 176 1840 40,025 1841 14 1841 38,183 1842 146 1842 38,976 1843 444 1843 46,461 1844 1844 47,752 1845 1,584 1845 41,082 1840 12,535 1840 18,057 1841 12,381 1841 19,106 1842 16,804 1842 21,445 1843 1844 20,541 12,713 1843 1844 27,437 16,783 1845 26,922 1845 18,295 1840 2,791 f 1810 58,021 1841 3,-i92 | 1841 48,071 Blacking... 1842 4,836 1842 50,756 1843 2,391 Jard wares and cutlery.,,... < 1843 80,070 1844 1,659 1844 79,088 1 1845 i 1845 76,998 1840 829 1840 9,781 1841 646 1841 5,258 Books, printed 1842 488 Hats of all sorts 1842 3,953 1843 421 1843 1,517 1844 526 1844 4,297 1845 577 1845 2,018 11840 40,914 1840 59,320 )84l 1842 1843 33,503 33,085 36,815 Iron and steel, wrought and 4 1841 1842 59,200 53,013 1 8 44 44^261 1843 1844 54,996 61,196 1845 33,308 1845 68,482 Butter 1840 1841 1842 72,227 66,144 63,166 1840 1841 TS42 7,945 8,771 10,910 1 1843 1844 1845 64,294 53,544 65,257 1843 1844 1845 9,021 10,240 5,000 Cabinet and upholstery wares H ii [ 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1,966 1,437 801 921 2,710 cather, wrought and un- J wrought .. 1 1840 1841 1842 1843 1845 1845 16,482 12,044 15,028 23,309 17,519 10,177 Carriage* 1840 1841 1842 1,978 5,489 2,767 r 1840 1841 1 O^O 3,953 4,073 1 Q7A 1843 1 Q4/I 1,748 jeather, saddlery, and bar- j ness * 184* 1843 1,870 2,061 . :-- [ 1844 1845 2,290 1844 1845 2,592 1,763 Coals, cinders, and culm 1840 1841 1842 1843 9,718 6,134 17,552 9,396 1840 1841 1842 1843 235,378 243,997 152,484 154,323 - 1S44 1845 9,597 17,732 1844 1845 170, 262 213,004 Cordage 1840 1841 1842 1,307 159 4,293 f 1840 1841 17,897 17,698 1 1843 1844 1845 8^335 1,6*2 2,793 achinery and mill-work.. .. ] 1842 1843 1844 1845 24,941 17,342 19,931 16,685 Cotton manufactures 1840 1841 1842 1843 524,709 471,228 819,530 096,669 " r uical instruments.....,, . j 1840 1841 1842 1843 5,500 6,107 5,320 5 687 - 1814 1845 ,359,991 1,429,361 1844 1845 tJ,UO/ 5,902 (continued.) COMMERCIAL STATISTICS. 1503 ARTICLES. Years. Declared Value. ARTICLES. Years. I)t clared Value. Oil, linseed, hempseed, and 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1343 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 11842 1843 1844 1845 2,166 3,583 4,922 6,006 7,159 7,196 6,398 7,099 9,129 7,888 9,254 1,528 3,952 2,356 4,004 3,093 4,769 2,137 4,284 4,088 5,121 6,857 25,515 29,217 21,996 30,403 28,606 14,022 67,001 51,016 45,384 57,812 43,650 10,908 6,338 4,314 6,7fl6 6,616 3,011 3,260 r 1840 1941 1842 1843 1844 1845 IBM 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1642 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1,287 1,951 2,053 478 1,42 98 3,481 5,064 5,782 11,108 4,882 5,959 8,085 6,518 4,245 4,935 7,383 307,930 329,984 258.308 278,171 288,940 309,626 15,393 12,721 14,039 15,720 18,322 60,444 2,625,853 2,556,554 1,156,605 2,440,i:i3 2,313,538 2,213,306 I r Pin and pewter wares, and j Plate, plated wares, jewel- I [ r i J nib re Has and parasols j Woollen manufacture?, in- Saltpetre, refined in the J r i Aggregate value of British and Irish produce and manufac- ^ , Stationery J i QUANTITIES of the principal Articles Imported into the United Kingdom from Brazil, and Quantities so Imported entered for Home Consumption. ARTICLES. Years. Imported. Entered for Home Con- | sumption. ARTIC LES. Years. 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 Imported. Entered for Home Con sumption. 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 cwta. 277 772 834 400 243 572 668 464 811 1,066 Ibs. 67,382 296,794 185,756 1,033,368 580,501 1,543,196 8,608,616 2,191,853 5,833,345 4,923,114 3,499,660 5,449,754 cwts. 68 178 530 484 138 546 456 443 722 736 Ibs. 2 96 248 424 48,544 2,579,497 22,625 1,226 47,015 307,243 670,308 34,293,190 r \ Hides, untanned -J r Horn?, horn- tips, anil pieces < cwts. 24,190 13,815 44,92r 58,191 125,732 187,340 805 889 1,589 3,022 5,277 4,459 4,926 1,986 2,735 3,772 286 269 304 323 523 cwts. 12,569 7.480 2i,520 18,633 122,052 575 1,026 1,654 2,384 5,664 4,776 4,615 2,781 2,178 2,928 358 301 252 325 482 f Balsam, capivi.. J I V. f India-rubber, or J caoutchouc . . J f I j 1504 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, ARTICLES. Years. Imported. Entered for Home Con sumption. ARTICLE S. Years. Imported. Entered for Home Con sumption. Radix ipecacu- J -ItlllT ,. * 1840 1841 1842 1843 4,481 977 4,345 Ibs. 5,672 9,815 10,051 6,622 7,301 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 cwts. 983 1,870 2,305 2,503 6,491 cuts. 1,099 1,679 2,224 2,417 4,060 apwca < 1844 1 1845 L ( 1845 1840 1641 1842 gallons (in cluding overproof.) 26,059 12,154 4 gallons (in cluding overproof.) 17 13 Woods, \iz. : Brazil - 1 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 tons. 900 1,693 127 470 293 tons. 36 188 608 657 406 L 1845 L 1843 1844 1845 16,211 46,342 5 2,469,135 Ibs. Fustic \ 1840 1841 1842 1813 192 147 326 683 192 147 371 683 1840 4, l4l 780 1844 55S 558 1841 1,399 563 I 1845 391 1842 1843 1944 5,572 11,736 15,004 3,537 7,718 33,529 \ 1840 1841 1,491 2,488 1,545 1,682 1845 23,064 1842 1843 1,009 3,235 1,894 2,902 rtoscwuuu, > 1 1844 932 1,906 cwts. cwts. L 1845 p 1840 216,018 1,545 I 1841 365,663 27 r 1840 33 115 Sugar, unrefined j 1842 1843 1844 1845 260,068 234,155 271,415 325,359 11 31 21 4,856,604 i i Zebra wood .... <j L 1841 1S42 1843 1844 1845 156 178 201 101 135 87 170 211 Ibs. Ibs. r 1840 r 1840 14,779,171 13,952,644 I 1 1841 931 934 j 1841 16,671,348 14,095,988 Tallow J 1842 1843 2,475 3,654 2,475 2,942 Wool. cotton.. .. < I 1842 1843 15,222,828 18,675,123 13,554,516 15,893,142 1844 4,410 4,825 1844 21,084,744 20,846,395 L 1845 2,450 1,191,896 L 1845 20,157,633 BRITISH and Irish Produce and Manufactures Exported from the United Kingdom to Mexico, and the other States of Central and South America, exclusive of Brazil, during the following Years : ARTIC LES. Years. Declared Value. ARTICLES. Years. Declared Value. 1840 1841 1842 4,715 3,292 6,126 Brass and copper manufac-J 1840 1841 1842 4,951 4,416 8,313 I 1844 1845 5,326 tures 1 1844 1845 16,123 15,623 Apparel, slops, and haber-J 1840 1841 1842 19,144 20,925 24,275 r Cabinet aud upholstery wares. <j 1840 1841 1842 2,508 3,295 5,717 I 1844 22,239 35,733 ! 1844 4,654 L 1845 29,675 I 1845 r 1840 7,633 1840 5,184 Arms and ammunition 1841 1842 10,155 17,454 1841 1842 2,767 4,067 1843 37,230 1843 4,047 1844 18,763 j 1844 1,341 1845 7,932 1845 r 1840 2,312 1^0 3,490 Ik. r and ale t< l 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 4,271 6,111 6,568 7,072 9,994 18 1 18-] 2 1843 1844 IS45 5,216 3,441 5,211 8,199 13,155 f 1840 1,848 1840 1,2-27 ] 1841 1,070 1841 966 1842 1,278 1842 1,610 i 1844 2,364 1,514 1843 1844 848 1,874 I 1845 1,817 L 1845 1,204 (continued.) COMMERCIAL STATISTICS. 1505 ARTICLES. Years. Declared Value. ARTICL ES. Years. Declared Value. r 1840 2,248,870 1840 0,050 Cotton manufactures, includ-j 1841 1842 1,408,716 1,001,0-20 1841 IS 42 8,968 9,549 ing cotton yarn j 1843 1844 1845 1,476,347 1,355,675 1,702,918 I 1843 1844 1845 16,492 10,3 H r 1840 32,600 J840 6,965 1841 41,720 1811 4,335 Earthenware of all sorts ..... J 1842 52,931 1S42 5,398 1843 60,419 1843 4,748 j 1844 35,490 1844 6,281 L 1845 32,830 1815 8,334 p 1840 10,705 r 1810 7,430 1 1841 10,738 1841 7 052 1842 11,773 Plate, plated ware, jewellery, j 1842 16,058 1843 1844 11 593 1843 1844 11,. US 6,080 L 1845 11,184 I 1845 6,878 1840 70,008 r 1840 101,511 1841 1842 104,(>69 150,730 I 1841 1842 66,288 09,198 1843 158,431 1843 71,072 i 1844 143,608 | 1844 75,091 L 1845 131,658 I 1845 41,160 r 1840 1,367 1840 5,728 1 IIi#c< r\f all ani-fc J 1841 1842 1,198 632 1841 1842 4,313 2,673 1843 3,547 1843 1,404 1844 1,733 I 1844 1,766 L 1845 1,395 1845 2,873 f 1 1840 61,316 r 1840 9,050 1841 60,814 1841 8,353 1842 66,424 Stationery ^ 1842 8,524 8 563 1843 1844 55,889 66,060 j 1844 8,693 L 1845 42,004 I 1845 10,681 r- 1840 1,468 1840 429 1841 1842 1,017 2,099 1841 1842 1 QA1 2,202 7,765 9 508 1843 1844 1,450 1,078 1 1040 1844 3)534 1 1845 2,544 L 1845 542 f~ 1840 6,147 r 1840 5,666 1841 6,667 1841 7,770 1842 1843 15,069 18,019 Tin and pewter wares, tin un- 1 wrought, and tin plates } 1842 1843 10,154 12,889 1844 17,968 1844 9,972 L 1845 16,488 I 1845 6,500 r 1840 1,363 r 1840 541,338 leather, saddlery, and harness. 1841 1842 1 843 2,231 2,432 1 Woollen manufactures, includ-J 1S41 1842 1843 468,108 648,496 839,300 1844 3J72 1844 775,707 . 1845 3,240 L 1845 833,690 r 1840 1841 370,424 291,812 r 1840 1841 17,330 15,907 Linen manufactures, including < 1842 361,977 ?842 25,439 1843 383,882 1843 25,384 1844 1845 337,931 382,086 I 1-44 1315 19,802 47,010 Machinery and mill-work . . . . ^ 1840 1841 1812 1843 10,363 5,688 10,491 12,531 r Aggregate value of British and Irish produce and ma-<^ 1840 1841 1842 1S43 3,576,357 2,5S5,402 3,217,824 3,286,327 1844 1845 19,820 21,403 L 1844 1845 3,013,267 3,490,705 VOL. I. 1506 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA, QUANTITIES of the principal Articles Imported into the United Kingdom from Mexico, and the other States of Central and South America, and Quantities so Imported en tered for Home Consumption. ART 1C LES. Years. Imported Entered fo Home Con sumption. r - ARTICLES. Years. Imported Entered for Home Con sumption. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Bark, Peruvian. .< r 1840 1841 1842 1843 69,267 208,823 124,041 303,605 47,514 53.297 86,152 61,088 1840 1841 1842 1843 124,766 247,031 155,003 130,836 96,368 69,619 89,131 95,835 o 1844 225,415 80,136 1844 120,148 93,409 1845 4,706 1845 100,444 cwts. cwts 1 1840 379,226 206,559 1840 3,667 4,830 1841 50,131 67,490 1841 1,421 Cochineal, gra- J nilla, and dust, j 1842 1843 259,080 421,742 162,250 415,835 Mother-of-pearl shells 1842 1843 3,074 727 1844 1845 303,890 2,620 273,397 1844 1845 8^411 8,082 7,227 r 1840 1,058,015 184 1840 732 522 Cocoa... 1841 1842 1843 1844 1,802,547 441,084 1,229,515 15,796 86 27 919 2,815 Orchal 1841 1842 1843 1844 7,640 4,790 2,452 2 4,558 990 5,379 ! I 1845 5,641 2,579,497 1845 Coffee J 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 587,353 1,754,535 2,189,839 6,184,449 8,093,639 13,229,367 51,151 2,066 606,819 3,229,303 5,046,729 34,293,190 Saltpetre and cubic nitre * 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 146,928 154,824 185,636 276,160 142,271 172,843 139,083 117,170 136,979 1-10,641 165,971 [ Copper ove .... <{ 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 ton s. 12,813 14,230 15,345 21,794 21,470 tons. 1 4,667 20,872 21,361 Sarsaparilla < 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 Ibs. 14,509 6,352 56,511 48,642 15,004 27,9.32 Ibs. 16,262 9,878 15,837 23,918 33,529 I 1840 cwts. 3,3(52 cwts. 1840 number. 72 number. > -- - & ..v.. I 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 7,651 3,351 1,972 25,169 688 4 4 2 84 145 Skins and furs undressed, viz. :< deer .... i 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 53,729 1,639 8,514 6,058 11,700 14,514 7,220 22,978 30,893 tons. tons. r 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 2,831 20 398 2>27 26,218 952 9,696 12,428 26,123 j 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 196,811 1,119,565 820,376 818,649 20,909 213,726 907,403 647,466 555,426 185,202 j cwfs. cwts. 1 1845 106,673 Hair, horse.... .. J 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 6,943 21,096 8,892 12,011 5,320 7,285 16,171 9,546 10,772 6,499 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 16,052 490,743 119,250 248,252 65,447 24,895 422,X06 60,096 179,162 205,171 { Hides, untannccl.^ 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 216,273 401,136 401,731 278,256 264,727 254,039 196,955 365,075 368,704 283,223 273,255 f ugar unrefined. < 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 cwts. 1,683 1,445 19 761 697 6,890 cwts. 7 1 1 14 4,856,604 f Horns, Lorntip* and pieces oN liorna . 1 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 4,745 14,200 5,971 7,038 8,130 3,971 11,003 5,902 6,795 8,503 allow. . . 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 62,723 206,375 113,866 103,003 101,301 62,862 184,6S9 132,743 81,599 112,490 Ibs. Ibs. ^ 1845 110,800 1,191,896 f Jalap J 1840 1841 1842 1 C (1 22,300 8,742 59,560 24,535 13,618 21,126 f 1840 1841 1842 793 347 421 1 3 1 I Io4o 1844 1845 37,303 34,957 34,312 32,328 1 1843 1844 548 43 65 1 I 1845 235 8,704 (.continued.) STATISTICS OF PRECIOUS METALS. 1507 ARTI CLES. Years. Imported. Home Con sumption. ARTICLES. Yeara. Imported. Kntered for Home Cou- sumption. Tobacco, unma-J nufactured .. .. j 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 Ibs. 786,097 719,478 264,471 1,556,210 421,323 472,542 Ibs. 180,915 390,323 524,991 635,399 775,876 25,917,100 Mahogany <| i 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 tons. 477 613 872 1,231 1 1,030 tons. 320 558 99 856 404 Tobacco, manu- | factured, or ci-<{ gars j 1840 1841 184 2 1843 1844 164 1,426 289 6,263 121 167 648 242 143 r Nicaragua <j 1840 1841 1842 1843 2,782 1,302 2,008 2,518 2,507 1,804 2,327 2,451 I 1845 1,063 245,059 I 1844 1845 4,542 3,465 tons. tons. Ibs Ibs ( Woods, viz. : Fustic... .... ] 1840 1841 1842 1843 4,895 4,221 5,458 6 656 4,137 3,087 4,912 r Wool, cottoii . . . . < 1840 1811 1842 3,148,643 4,493,864 3,854,418 2,845,628 3,654,788 3,410,381 I 1844 1845 4,216 4,371 4,152 I 1843 1844 1845 2,644,747 4,896,904 640,585 2,947,517 4,274,277 ( 1840 1841 1842 9,854 12,094 10,151 8,092 8,760 8,108 f Wool, sheep andl 1840 1841 1842 4,380,751 9,173,931 3,203 219 4,016,342 6,605,243 1843 10,747 9,856 lambs \ 1843 I 1814 1845 8,760 7,042 8,471 1844 1845 3,789,697 6,354,127 4,590,582 CHAPTER II. STATISTICS OF THE PRECIOUS METALS AND COINAGE OF THE SPANISH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. BEFORE Humboldt wrote his " Political Essay upon New Spain," the reports circulated respecting the quantities of gold and silver exported from America all differed in their calculations. These discrepancies arose from their not possessing accurate data. AUTHORS. Epochs. Value. AUTHORS. Epochs. Value. Ustariz 1492 to 1724 dollars. 3 536 000 000 Neckar 1763 to 1777 dollars. 304 000,000 1492 to 16 8 1 500 000 000 Gerboux 1724 to 1800 1 600 000 000 Moncada 1492 to 1595 2,000,000,000 The author of the " In 1519 to 1617 1,536,000,000 vestigation upon Com- 1492 to 1718 5 154 000 000 1492 to 1775 8,000,000,000 1779." 1492 fo 1775 5,072,000,000 According to Humboldt, the quantity of precious metals taken out of the mines of America is as follows: marks. From 1492 to 1500 , 250,000 1500 to 1545 3,000,000 1545 to 1600 ll.QOO.OOO marks. From IGOO to 1700 16,000,000 1700 to 1750 22,500,000 , 1750 to 1803 35,300,000 He also gives the following recapitulation of the value of gold and silver taken from the mines of America from 1492 to 1803 : dollars. Registered from the Spanish colonies - 4,035,156,000 Portuguese ditto 684,544,000 Not registered from the first 816,000,000 2 M second 171,000,000 Total 5,706,700,000 Of which Amount, during those 311 years the proportions furnished were as follows : dollars. dollar*. New Spain 2,028,000,000 I Chili ,... JSM5MS Peru and Buenos Ayres 2,410,300,000 Brazils ,.,*. 83o,530,000 New Granada ,. 275,000,000 1 1508 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. He computes the annual product of the mines of the New World, at the commencement of the present century, as follows : COUNTRIES. Value. Value. Value. marks of gold. 7,000 marks of silver. 2,338,220 dollars. 23,000,000 3,400 611,090 6,240,000 Chili 12,212 28,700 2,060,000 4 850 000 New Granada Brazil 20,500 29,900 2,990,000 4,369,000 Total 75,212 3,459,840 43,500,000 He calculated that the animal product of the European mines of Hungary, Saxony, and other places, and that of northern Asia, during the same period, amounted to nearly 5,000,000 more. It is stated in an article on the precious metals in Hunt s Merchant s Maga zine : " The quantities of gold which America yielded at the commencement of this century, was, to the quantity of silver, in the proportion of one to forty-six ; and in Europe, the proportion between gold and silver was as one to forty. The value of gold and silver, of equal quantities, was then in the proportion of fifteen to fifteen and a half of the latter, to one of the former. Finally, the quantity of gold produced, has aug mented, in comparison, to the quantity of silver. "From 1800 to 1810, the product of the American mines had a considerable increase, but, during the latter year, the contest commenced which resulted in the complete sepa ration of the colonies from the mother country ; and the convulsions and want of security caused by the struggle, likewise the proscription of the old Spanish families, the prin cipal proprietors of the mines, who fled with the relics of their fortune to Spain, Cuba, Bordeaux, and other parts of the south of France ; caused the abandonment of several mines, and a very extraordinary diminution in the amount of their product. We have not the means to calculate with precision the exact extent of this decadence." According to Mr. Ward, in Mexico, from the year 1811 to 1828, the average of the coined metals was only 10,000,000 dollars a year ; while, in 1810, it had risen to 26,500,000 dollars. Mr. Jacob computed the total product of the American mines, including those of Brazil, during the twenty years terminating in 1829, at 379,937,731 dollars, or 18,996,845 dollars yearly; which is considerably less than half the amount which was produced at the beginning of this century. Storch, in correcting the calculations of Humboldt, computes that the circulation of metals in Europe, which in 1815 amounted to 1,320,000,000, in _830, was increased to 1,600,000,000; being, in a great measure, on account of England withdrawing her paper money, and resuming cash payments ; and like- through Russia, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and the United es, having followed her example; besides the consumption of gold and silver, wrought up into plate, jewels, and other artificial objects, having consi derably augmented. Mr. Jacob estimates the value of the precious metals which are annually destined for ornaments of luxury (objcts de luxe), as follows: STATISTICS OF PRECIOUS METALS. 1509 Great Britain 2,4. r >7, 22 1 France. 1,200,000 Switzerland ..../!! Vvi. ooo The rest of Europe 1 ,(>(). >, !!)! And that which is calculated for the same objects in America, 287^280 Total 5,000,000 We consider this computation little more than conjecture. M. Chabrol calculates that the annual consumption of gold and silver in Paris, for the use of works of art, amounts to 14,552,000 francs, or 582,4807. sterling a year ; this corresponds with the calculation of M. Benoiston de Cha- teauneuf: both parties agreeing that the consumption of precious metals in Paris, in objects of art, is double that of the rest of France ; the consumption of the whole kingdom being 21,825,000 francs, or 873,0007. ; that is to say 327,0007- sterling a year less than the calculation of Mr. Jacob. Mr. M Culloch estimates the consumption of the precious metals in works of art, as follows : Great Britain 1,842,910 France.... 866,190 Switzerland 355,000 The rest of Europe 1,204,118 America 300,000 Total 4,563,224 This computation is probably still too high. According to Humboldt, the total consumption of precious metals in Europe, for other objects besides that of coinage, amounts to 17/436,400 dollars; and, adding to this amount 1,411,764 dollars, fifty-five cents, for the consumption of America, the total sum would be 18,848,164 dollars, which is 2,821,889 dollars less than the calculation of M Culloch, and no less than 8,919,641 dollars under that of Mr. Jacob. We, however, consider all these estimates based on vague data. A London periodical, the Mining Journal, estimates that, "In forty years, from 1790 to 1830, Mexico produced 6,436,4537. worth of gold, and 139,817,0327. of silver; Chile, 2,768,4887. of gold, and 1,822,9247. of silver; Buenos Ayres, 4,024,8957. of gold, and 27,182,6737. of silver; Russia, 3,703,7437. of gold, and 1,500,9717. of silver. Total, 187,257,1797. sterling, or 4,680,4297. 9*. 7rf., per annum." Produce of the Gold Mines in the Ural Mountains and in Siberia, derived from official sources. Of the total quantity of gold extracted in 1846 from the mines belonging to the crown, and to private individuals situate in the Ural Mountains and in Siberia, the Royal Mint received 1397 poods, 15lbs., arid 13 solotnicks ; and during the course of the winter about 3-25 poods, 14 Ibs., and 74 solotnicks more are expected to be transmitted to the mint, which will make the total produce of the mines for the year 1846, amount to 1722 poods, 29 Ibs., and 87 solot- Vormerlv the gold was sought for only in the neighbourhood of the mines of Katherineburg, belonging to the crown ; in the mines of Berezoff; and in the country adjacent to the mines of Kolyvano, Voskresseusk, and of Nertchinsk. This gold was extracted from the silver which the mines produced, but the total quantity did not amount annually to more than from 31 to 4( In the 1 year 1819 beds of auriferous sand were discovered in the Ural mountains. The follow ing table shows the quantity of gold extracted in the year 1819 to 1828, inclusive ; 1510 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. YEARS. Quantity. Weight. Solotnicks. poods. 40 Ibs. 9 number. 55 1820 44 3 85 1821 79 21 36 125 19 79 228 13 38 257 12 54 257 25 15 307 30 95 1828 317 39 44 Total 1711 .... 21 In 1829 the discovery was made of the beds of auriferous sand in Siberia. In the first in stance the produce was but small, but subsequently, and more particularly during the last six years, the results were brilliantly successful, as may be seen by the following table : YEARS. Quantity. Weight. Solotnicks. Ig29 poods. 314 Ibs. 31 number. 1 378 15 79 1831 396 29 37 1832 410 8 61 408 22 71 1834 406 4 64 1835 413 1 8 1836 426 3 74 469 20 75 Ig38 524 36 69 1 839 525 6 38 1840 585 15 60 1841 681 20 34 1842 950 26 68 1843... 1, 9 83 2 60 1844 . .. 1 341 25 60 1845 1 386 6 41 1846 1,722 29 87 Total 12,624 28 24 Since the discovery of the beds of auriferous sand, namely, since the year 1819, the total quantity of gold extracted from the Ural mountains, as well as from Siberia, amounts to 14,335, poods, 28 Ibs., and 45 solotnicks, of which quantity 2924 poods, 24 Ibs., and 32 solotnicks was produced from the crown mines in the Ural mountains ; 1293 poods, 7 Ibs., 28 solotnicks from those in Siberia; and 4219 poods, 39 Ibs., 79 solotnicks from the mines belonging to private indi viduals in the Ural mountains, and 5897 poods, 37 Ibs., 11 solotnicks from those in Siberia. The produce of the gold mines in the year 1846, which amounted, as before stated, to 1722 poods, 29 Ibs., 87 solotnicks, forms more than a tenth part of the total quantity of gold extracted, since (he year 1819, from all the mines in Russia, and exceeds by 336 poods, 23 Ibs., 46 solotnicks the total quantity for the year 1845. See Statistics of the Coinage, &c. Vol. II. p. 1174, for an account of the gold mines and coinage of the United States. The following statements are condensed from the official returns received by her majesty s government from Mexico and South America. COINAGE of Mexico. YEARS. GOLD. SILVER. TOTAL. Ten years, 1801-10 dollars. dollars. dollars. 1811-20 216,220,000 1821-30 106,130,000 1831 96,080,000 99,760,000 1^:12-33 no returns. 11,720,000 lv.(4 no returns. 1835 11,830,000 12,040,000 1836 11,650,000 12,000,000 1*37 380,000 11,480,000 1 1,230,000 11,610,000 STATISTICS OF PRECIOUS METALS. 1511 COINAGE at the Mexican Mines in 1836 and 1837. MINTS. 1836 1837 Gold. Silver. TOTAL. Gold. Silver. TOTAL. Mexico dollars. 20,000 dollars. 734,000 dollars. 754,000 dollars. l ),000 dollar/?. 510,000 dollars. 520,000 171 ooo 5,4t>0,000 5,460,000 none 151 000 5,238,000 5,238,000 1 099 000 1 099 000 1111 000 Durango 359,000 23 000 1,063,000 561 OCO 1,42-2,000 584 000 207,000 13 000 721,000 567 000 928,000 224 000 224 000 225 000 Total 573 000 381 000 1 I 235 000 t\ 14,600 j6 J> 2,290,000 2,411,000 j676,200 ^-2,245,000 ^2,322,320 STATEMENT of the Value of Copper Money coined at the Mint of the City of Mexico, from the 1st of January, 1829, to the Cessation of that Coinage on the 18th of January, 1837. PERIODS. Total Nominal Value. PERIODS. Total Nominal Value. Year ending Sl.stof December 1829 dollars. 123 3624 dollars. 1,678 762 30th of June 1831 . 256 000 1 005 500 , 1832 180 000 1836 1 152.200 1 833 . . 491 300 From 1st July 1836 to 18th Jan , 1837 875 572 1834 4 7jo 034 1 Total carried forward 1,678,7621 at par (48d. per dollar).. .16 942,407 NOTE. The copper coins are Cuartillas. of which 32 are equal to 1 dollar, and Tlacos, of which 64 are equal to 1 dollar. The weight of 100 dollars, 20/. sterling, nom in al value in copper coin, is about 49 Ibs. Spanish, or nearly 51 Ibs. avoirdupois, the real average value of which is considered to be under 29 dollars, or 51. 16s., including an allow ance for coining. COMPARISON of the Coinage in Gold and Silver of the Mints of the Mexican Republic, in the Years 1840 and 1841. MINT. GOLD. SILVER. TOTAL 1841. Year. Amount. Amount. Amount. Mexico 1840 1841 1840 1841 1840 1841 1840 1841 1840 1841 1840 1841 1840 1841 dollars. 71,207 97,628 437,1*68 440,240 243,082 155,140 63,050 dollars. 1,917,017 2,151,496 4,066,310 4,386,641 3,459,500 3,296,000 747,907 823,348 172,406 359,000 1,137,867 1,110,247 881,546 655,015 dollars. 2,249,124 4,38*6,641 3,7*316,240 gVV.iss 422,050 i,uo,247 655,015 G uadalaxara Total coinage 1S41. . .... .... 13,537,805 Increase for 1841, 403,195 dollars. Value of total coinage for 1841, at 48d. per dollar Ditto of iurreaqp on tlm var ditto 80,639 RETURN of the Amount, in Dollars, of the Precious Metals Coined in Bolivia during the Eight Years ending the 31st of December, 1837. S 1 L 1 V E R. YEARS. GOLD. In Dollars of 8 Reals. Small Coinage of Half Real^, 1, 2 and 4 Real?. Total each Year. 1830 dollars. dollars ct. 1,06-2,196 75 dollars cts. dollars cts. 1,662,196 75 1831 iri i i -j ji *" - . fU -K 1,874,121 .. 1,874,121 1832 2,038,04 1 2.* .. 2,038,041 25 183 i -i / < ..(} 1,885,645 5 1,885,0 Jo 25 1834 j 2,104,605 50 2,104,605 50 JS35 184 204 1,474,598 C79755 1 2,338,557 10 1836 82 920 1,647,6* * 404811 1 2,135,395 J837 186,126 1,772201 402,695 2,361,022 Total 16,399,583 85 ^3,279,916 15s. 1512 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. NnTP The first coinage of small money commenced in 1835; it contains from 33 to 3G per cent of alloy, and is ,,rl,,H v plv used for the interior circulation of Bolivia and of the neighbouring provinces ot North and South Peru. Ttfe Bolivian dollar contains the same proportion of pure silver aa the old Spanish dollar, and the small money U} ] ? f Kyi IST * 1 Wgned). J. B. PENTLAN D. I liri- or refineil silver contains 12 dwt.*., and the standard lor coinage in Bolivia is 10 dwts. 20 grains ; consequently gtandard silver contains 200 parts of pure silver and 28 parts of alloy. Since the year 1830, however, all the silver coins issued from the Mint of Potosi, with the exception of dollars, liavc been of the standard ot 8 dwts., about 26 per cent less than the national standard ; and although the annual issue small and base coin is nominally restricted to 200,000 dollars, equal to 40,000/., this regulation is not a ways inhered to thus in 183.-) its issue amounted to 509,090 dollars 4 cents, equal to 101.818/. 2s.; in 183G to 303,186 dollars -rut* emnl to GOG 37/. (is.; and in 1837 to 301,563 dollars, equal to 60,3121. 12s. Jlt-r Majesty s Legation, Lima, April 18, 1838. (signed) BELFORD HINTON WILSON. STATEMENT of Metals bought and coined in the Mint of Popayan, in Columbia, from the Year 1790 to that of 1829. Total for 40 years. Value bought in gold. Value bought in silver. Gold coined. Silver coined. dollars. r!s. mara. 27,593,792 4 20 dollars, rls. mara. 184,035 3 9 marr.os. *oz. och. torn. grs. 210,762 0025 marcos. oz. och. torn, grs 22,063 0059 * The denominations after marcos (marks) follow in this order: onzas, ochavas, tomine.-*, grains. Office of the Mint at Popayan, 23rd of January, 1834. JOSE J. CARBAJAL. NOTB. Of the 1 84,035 dollars, value of silver coined, two-thirds were in old silver. All the rest of the stiver after 1810, and nearly all before, was the produce of plate and old coin sold to the mint. Very little silver was ever sent from the mines to Popayan before 1810, and none after ; nor do the sums enumerated as having been coined there during the whole period, include the annual 2,000 dollars stated in the Note in the Bogota Tables to hate been extracted from gold, aa the gold produced by the mines, whose produce was sent to Popayan, contained no silver. Nearly the whole, therefore, of the silver bought and coined by the mint of Popayan, was the produce of plate ornaments and old money sold. \V. T. 1 Marco . 1 II.. Spanish 8 Tomiues 1 oz. Spanish 1 <>/. Jroy Colombian Measures of Gold and Silver. $ lb. Spanish 8 oz. 10 oz. Spanish, or 100 Castellancs. 8 Ochavas 1 Castellano. 6 Tomines 444 grains English. 12 Grains . 480 grains English. 1 Mark 1 oz. 1 Ochava 1 Tomin Of a mark of gold are coined 136 dollars, in conformity with the Colombian law of 1821. The Spanish Ordenauza enacted that 8 dollars should be coined from a mark of silver of 11 diueros of fineness.- RETURN of the Amount in Dollars of the precious Metals coined at the Mint of the Re public of South Peru, since its Establishment in 1824. S I L 1 ! f E R. YEARS. GOLD. In dollars of 8 reals. Small money of hall reals, 1, 2, and 4 reals. Total amount of each year. 1K24 dollars. dollars. dollars. dollars. |s j;, * 1826 1827 53 65G ls;tll is.H ]H:r_> 753 228 ]s;t:i IS;H 353,732 401,925 tt6& i 22,585 1,01*5,537 1,068,122 113,303 * 1 6,658,870 Sterling 1,331,774 The coinage of small money commenced in 1835 ; it contains 66 per cent of pure silver, and circulates only in the territory of the Peru Bolivian Confederacy. La Paz, 1st of Julj, 1838. (Signed) J. B. PENTLAND. STATISTICS OF PRECIOUS METALS. 1513 STATEMENT of the Value of Gold and Silver which has been coined in Bogota, iu the Years herein expressed. YEARS. VALUE IN DOLLARS. YEARS. VALUE IN DOLLARS. Coined in gold Coined in sil- in Bogota, ver in Bogota. Coiiu d in gold in Bogota. Coined in sil ver iu Bogota. 1790 1791 dollars. 2,157,040 2,290,176 2,614 944 2,515,104 2,931,880 2,992,224 2,433,312 dollars, rials. 2,119 5 12,212 5f 15,603 4f 25,721 5f 22,221 4 17,069 15,898 8,149 3 3,014 14,552 9,841 2f dollars. 28.220,024 2,296,99* 2,344,701 1 ,097,088 1,826,688 2,712,768 2,068,714 1,397,168 2,071,992 1,438,160 dollars, riala. 146,405 7 19,688 6. r i,315 40,167 31,863 01 84,710 49,352 30,6-11 93,350 96,500 1812 1813 17,94 1795 1814 1815 1816 1817 1798 -1799 1818 1810 ... 1800 1801 1820 -18 9 ! 18021803 ] 822 1 8215 1804 1805 2,740,032 2,774,112 2,556,000 2,215,200 1824 1825 1826 1827.. 1808 1809 1828 1829 . 1810 1811 Total Carried forward 46,374,298 657,997 71 28,220,024 146,405 7 This is an exact statement from the books of the mint, Bogota, December 21, 1830. STATEMENT of the Value of Gold and Silver bought in Bogota, in the Years herein expressed. VALUE IN DOLLARS. VALUE IN DOLLARS. YEARS. Value bought in gold in Bogota. Value bought in silver in Bogota. YEARS. Value bought in gold in Bogota. Value bought in silver in Bogota. 1790 1791 . . . dollars rials. 1 984 228 2 1 dollars, rials. dollars, rials. 25 359 497 3^ dollars rials. 102,126 5| 1792 1793 2 o49 741 4 l 1 1 267 3 1812 1813 2090 126 A 1,170 4 1794 1795 1 1 790 I 1814 1815 2,173 157 l 3 - 11,997 2 1796 1797 310 398 1 l 11 873 5 s 1,795,323 64 39,584 3 17981799 2608418 6 27 788 5 1818 1819 1,622,837 2$ 6,337 71 1800 1801 16 563 I 3 1820 18 9 1 .... 2 540 892 3 41,346 71 1802 1803 2 243 932 6 1 1892 1823 1,846 373 6f 28,599 41 1804 1805 2510 506 6 1 772 4 1 1,358,480 6i 43,193 3f 1806 1807 2 476 429 4f 1 770 65 1,827,525 62,392 If 1808 1809 2,403,535 6$ 1,684 11 1828 1829 1,331,904 If 23,545 7* 18101811 2,005,063 7i 17,616 Of Total 41 946 178 I 1 360 294 61 Carried forward .... 25,359,497 3f 102,126 55 This is an exact statement from the books of the mint of Bogota, December 21, 1830. RETURN (corrected) of the Number of Marcs of Gold coined at the Mint of Lima between the Years 1790 and 1819, both inclusive, (Transmitted in Despatch of 13th April 1841.) YEAR? . Marcs of Eight Ounces. Dollars at 144 Dollars 4 Rials per Coined Marc. Pounds Sterling. YEARS. Marcs of Eight Ounces. Dollars at 144 Dollars 4 Rials per Coined Marc. Pounds Sterling. 1790. 1791. 1792. 1793. 1794. 179.5. 1796. 1797. 1798. 1799. 1800. 1801. 1802. 1803. 1804. Carriec forwar marcs. 4,063 4,926 5,109 4,756 5,763 4,856 4,626 4,288 3,936 3,646 2,782 2,410 2,480 2,575 2,592 dlrs. rs. 587,103 4 711,807 738,250 4 687,242 832,753 4 701,692 668,457 619,616 568,752 526,847 401,999 348,245 358,360 372,087 4 374,544 s. 117,420 14 142,361 8 147,650 2 137,443 8 166,550 14 140,338 8 133,691 8 123,923 4 113,750 8 105,369 8 80,399 16 69,649 71,672 74,417 10 74,908 16 1,699,551 4 Br. 1 war 1805. 1806. 1807. 1808. 1809. 1810. 1811. 1812. 1813. 1814. 1815. 1816. 1817. 1818. 1819. Tota \.r- ().. marcs. 58,808 2,937 1,602 2,834 2,698 2,502 2,524 2,495 3,980 4,728 5,334 3,476 5,344 5,388 3,266 3,530 dlrs. rs. 8,497,756 424,396 4 231.4S9 409,513 389,861 361,539 364,718 360,527 4 575,110 683,196 770,763 502,282 772,208 778,566 471.937 517,310 5. 1,699,551 4 84,879 6 46,297 16 81,902 12 77,972 4 72,307 16 72,943 12 72,105 10 115,022 136,639 4 154,152 12 100,456 8 154,441 12 155,713 4 94,387 8 103,462 I d. 58,808 8,497,756 111,496 ; 16.111,172 3,222,234 8 VOL, N.B. Exchange, forty-eight pence per dollar 9 G 1514 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. IE ^ - CO*^O 1-4 M -V " 1 | I 1 O 00 CT ift CO f~ C5 ^ ;-; -IISS- X I c ii 3& -i-, | -r * iiS 1 1 "~ r "Z* ^- ^orTo u^fN-^irTo s CO 00 1 t 1 J i CO -l rH "" 1 d a s^ N ^oo ^ 00 i s | Slll^lslg jj S - C*i * Q -H r S5 3 |s. y woc-. o ooooo o 9 between (9 J O Pounds S at 5 Dolla Poun 41P.IHPT I 4 a 5 y S - a. 1 ~s 1 13 ] Dollars at 1 liars 4 Rials Marc. 2 O CO^ O -^ O f O O O -Slii Islsl : :g : =5||&tf SSSfg 50 " S 1 """ a o a s 5 o S O 0> *>. eoo-toM o&> r - 2 . cs i. c * 2g22~ ^^^S^o ^S i i ^ !Z5 ^ fce- 1 "o S * SCOOOO WOC50CS010JOO o ^5 P y. jji *- t3 ^Zn^^^ll OrO NCOCOCO -<oO(M 9> (4-4 Q to g ^ <3 00^22 --S. ^^ 1 ^*" ^|^" s^^iJsSg | | +* *2 T H|U HM ^ C CO ? S? ^P?S"-* i I 1:1 lllH lllllllll i * 1 i i rl 3 c ? 8 fc t ^ * ? l - 1<J -"-o ^ c ^^;^ 31 fl -*^ Mco**cr>i>.~H^< Q a g | gri S S 1 " 1 S ^^SssitSooS - i H ** -t a i S | s : : : : j j ::::::: ) y CNfjStC^Si^i^^J^^S^^^ 1 * ^ ^^S co o I "So a S 5 II c o oo o CO O i-4 i-< -le)lo<rt|s M CO !O CO <M <M .-Isi = < 5 h 3 i Cs S ^o 00 cv cr. 01 o o 500 L-5 tfi I 00 00 Dollars lars 4 Coine 1 2 e wTS 1 i rcfaTirfcf O fr- -* -* 00 CO o o oo o o . 1^ i^ N O ^-> 2 ? S 1 <Ji 15 1:3 .ss:=a- _ P so N. . * g * 8 * 2^5 M K"* 5 ao g^ S O ^ i o * *- 1*1 S^.S ^i6 itlll! *j -S -CO ril!ll STATISTICS OF PRECIOUS METALS. 1515 01 4) D fl > .Sg!3- S | a - ^ en W I iC" - 11:1 O as n a e > Sills i;?--S ! &JD o S8*tf|~ I P I- a Sg *> So I s 5f I 1 |! ! Us 8 S s>l 111 12 V. hfi & **S g g S ^ "S ^ 8-2?Jri *! -^ l?151! I 5 !PU! |l iipi 1: o ^ s a TS .^ 3a 2 ^ S3 - CD iOMp "^s2l3* B * S af y C3 O O> . r s -5^3 g^ "C-c3o5 | | <u iSg.S-.a^^ l|f|||lS ^ .QggCTfci.Drt +H G ^To* H * <d Ui - O*rt . jj s " "i a> : > S * : |SHs. ^ "*"0fa , II 3 S!! 00 QJ -2 tS ^ ~ - - -- - - - g^s 5llPJIIIpllJsIS.SssI.i53 " "- : - - " " oc n e-i > oc c n & ! -2 -T c 7^ f vi <*-+&* m 9* vf mm nmm e? tin etc<S -*.-; x *r -. f. .-::-: 1^S&"& S Ssi"8^sS flir *"ssa w " rf - f ""^ SH V3 A OOOOOMOO S S S S S g"S S SS5 *ocaP 1516 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. 1 . o ffi S to* a o j * II to g I I Total in Marcs Eight Oun OCOCOOOOCOCOOO CO M O rf CO O ff< C W OCS O (N I I-H ~< <N 05 n & o co Tj< -<t o > SooooSo ScS S "** " M OWO OOCT T. O P-I l^ IN - 1 O O ^-1> IM CO Tf CO CO O O O O O ^iflin-Mt-Nooco- ^ixoo T o c O O -< (M t>. rt N CO * O C^ O CO OO H . O CO 00 *H . O IN -< M< O h. O O * ^C^-CO*^OiOO^OCOC^ t^ i^ ^J -< oo 1C (N IN COCOMMMNO ^ I STATISTICS OF PRECIOUS METALS. 1517 . Sterling dollars pe ing, at per . Dollars, at lars per M rt^ bJD IS. II o oooooooooo I o O >O 2 -o I I oooooooooo oSwSoiaD* oq oo S J3 ooooooooooo ot^oo P o o o o o to o o o 07 eooooo ^3 -^icoowomooo O ** COODOOOOTJ*C5(Mrf <=>ooooo*ooo . r^ pf -^ .C a OOOOOOOO w c/) r o o ooooooocioo^ {^OOOO MOOOK5000CC5 *t^<*f9ttte*~, tSOCJOO COOOOOOOOOO 5< to o o ob t- ao o o co" eTi>co ef " TtC^t-Tcr oO O "J* O Tf O ** <t O TC O -* O O O <N -H tO Ifl CO 1- <-< tO (N CO >O ^CObt^-^5^OCTJCOOO OtOO O i OOOOOOoOO SCO 00 l-l l-l g S I! *S i^3 w v O) II IS W <D i s B |B * ,;. 8 <? *22S*2 2 ~ " " ^ _ - ~ T ~ gO oo oc -S3 I o o 5 S2 gSSS.S^ |o IlllisS fl >i i^ 00 W O .gw s- 88 1 si n to 1-2 II ^ to o .ggsg:: - i ci to i- a co i j- aSis^l 2" ^ ^ CO CO CS CO C ir 1C O 5 ^ ^ e o? us o TT rr g co ro 1518 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. 1 o H- CO CO O ff 7? 1 a S o 2 2* N i s 2S8I 2 OT" S S iiil 3 oo *i< so o cs si a " N o 1 "" 2 so c* a S a g ^uiA; * SO N r)* 4 JB __ O J^. M C H t~* o i- ^ * o to so >cci *.o ^ ~ oo - CO 1C -COOO at .* 2 S so ?3 S S S CO CO "* 00 CN "es S t^ so co o 2 CM S 5 x s 2 s o o" co" IN" ?f cc j2 o w i-i .5 co co s a o 1 a Q W O O SO Ot rf ,S o o o o o 000 o goco m COI-K :* 1 wo :-* s? ^ ^ v - CO o cosoco H . K FH O 1C O ^ . t^- < ( C^ * c3 so -^r o c^ t^ O C* <N C^ 35S g 2 J * 8 a * ejs ^r IM g <M *) CO d feS S CT 1 a g ^^.^ SO <0 N CO ^^ W3 9 CO O M Tf SO >O O en gi 00 CQ -M _ .7)1 oj oo . so o i s^ Is 2 2.S W (N 0> 3 sssg. i t- 00 *f l n . Oi CO | XS3 - 2 | s?> s s 3 i 1 2 g o-* eo o M o o oo SO so so 1 ssse * i-t tn & oo oo i-< a> 8 gcOTf 2 SS?i s 5-^S-*- 1 3 g|S| 1 l 00 o o 93 00 CO 00 * -5 O^OO fl OC" t-^ -"" ! 1 III J lg a i : a CO 00 CO o t~ .S o ooo te S 8S B g 1C CN ,, so O * (N . so Jo 2 CO O " I 1 S IgSs | S" of 2 ^ so C5 S,fe S g cT marcs. 7o6 56,782 S ^ Hfa-^.ts, b o ^ i> ~+ * CN i-i f O >r>f - ^ OOOffJ o ao o so oo H g 10 co g s a SsSSS o *. ^ 00 SO CO 1 ^ go so I 1 1 23 1 5 co o 2 Jlcow 00 ^ s CO CO .3 SS2 s s sg S a " c* 1 1 i fj [ : .S :.S : : : III! u OJ a : : : : : 5 : : : : : l|i;|; I ll ??? I .s is > i|I | S :^Ko fi i S So 1:1 ill * * ill oa H O O Silver Ingots: Ingots of silver exported from t of Valparaiso, paying there the From the Custom-house of Seren From the Custom-house of Copia From the Custom-house of Huasc Gold Ingots: Exported from the Custom-house Ditto do. Ditto do. Gold and silver coined in the There has been coined in gold... Ditto silver.. Copper in bars : Exported from the Custom-hous paying there the duties Exported from the Custom-house Ditto do. Ditto do. Ores of Copper : Exported from the Custom-house Exported from the Custom-hou copper ores Exported from the Custom-house Ditto do. Gold and Silver in transit : Gold STATISTICS OF PRECIOUS METALS. 1519 RETURN of the Number of Marcs of Silver smelted at the various Smelting- ho uses in Peru, YEARS. Lima. Truxillo. Pasco. Ayacu- cho. I P <. I Total in Marcs of 8 Ounces. Total in Dollars, at 8 Dollarx 4 rials per Marc. Total in Pounds ster ling. 1835 1836 marcs, oz. 10,955 21,509 ( 15,137 5) < 9,027 V (. 2,082 OJ 16,003 5 31,080 marcs, oz. *23,424 *43,784 f *55,G79 6) ( 2,52305 *2G,685 6 *39,753 3 marcs, oz. 276,744 234,404 235,856 4 f 248,912 3) I *3,019 G) 279,200 3 marcs. 2,417 3,045 1,417 2,000 1,500 marcs, mrs. oz. 20,725 3,673 22,411 3,795 18,750 1,417 18,000 5,772 6 18,319 ! 7,560 3 marcs, oz 337-938 328,948 341,889 7 320,394 1 377,503 1 dlrs. r.. 2,872,473 2,796,058 2,900,063 7J 2,723,350 Oi 3,208,776 4| *. d. 574,494 12 659,211 12 581,212 15 9 544,970 3 641,755 6 3 1837 1838 1839 Total.... 105,794 2 191,849 7 1,278,197 10,379 98,235 22,218 1.1,706,673 1 14,506,721 4J 2,901,344 6 3 RETURN of the Number of Marcs of Silver coined at the Mint of Lima, between the Years 1790 and 1819, both inclusive. YEARS. Marcs of Eight Ounces. Dollars at 8 Dollars per Marc Pounds ster ling at 5 Dol lars per YEARS. Marts of Eight Ounces. Dollars, at 8* Dollars per Marc Pounds ster ling, at 5 Dol lars per Pound. Pound. mares. oz. dlrs. rs. s. d. marcs. oz. dlrs. rs. t. d. 1790.... 539,10t 3 3-17 4,582,361 7 916,472 7 6 Brought 1791.... 513,303 5 15-17 4,303,081 6 872,616 7 forward 8,678,608 1 73,767,162 6 14,7- -,3,032 11 1792. .. 542,615 7 5-17 4,612,235 2 922,447 1 1806.... 511,528 2 14-17 4,347,991 869,598 4 1793... 585,054 5 15-17 4,972,965 2 994,593 1 1807 1 443,993 14-17 3,773.941 3 754,788 5 6 1794... 624,531 14-17 5,308,939 3 1,061,787 17 6 1808 ! 487,488 4 8-17 4,143,052 6 828,730 11 m>5. . . 622,167 3 5-17 5,288,423 1,057,684 12 1809 510,286 1 13-17 4,337,432 7 867,486 11 6 1796... 582,181 5 3-17 -4,948,544 989,708 16 1810.... S2S.550 6 16-17 4,492,082 3 898,536 9 6 1797... 502,195 1 3-17 4,208,658 6 853,731 15 1811 530,450 4, 508, H 25 901,765 1798. . . 525,659 1 5-17 4,408,102 7 893,620 11 6 1812 457,281 2 10-17 3,886,891 5 777,378 6 6 1799... 608,988 6 6-17 5,175,404 G 1,035,280 19 1813 481,180 6 0-17 4,090,036 6 81-,007 7 1800... 517,490 7 9-17 4,398,724 879,744 16 1814.... 426,907 7 3-17 3,628,7 1 7 1 7-25,743 8 6 1801... 532,144 7 9-17 4,523,232 904,646 8 C 1815.. .. 440,613 6 12-17 3,745,217 5 749,043 10 6 1802... 487,431 1 15-17 4,143,165 4 828,033 2 1816 454,931 3 15-17 3,866,917 5 773,383 10 6 1803... 469,408 3 7-17 3,989,971 5 797,994 6 6 1817 398,653 4 6-17 3,388,555 1 677,711 6 1804. . . 510,616 1 7-17 4,340,237 4 868,047 10 1818.... 398,397 7 7-17 3,386,382 3 677,276 9 G 1805... 515,660 4 16-17 4,383,115 2 876,623 1 1819.... 334,788 4-17 3,270,698 2 654,139 13 Carried 8,678,608 1 73,767,162 6 14,753,632 11 Total.. 15,133,659 2 16-17 128,636,104 5 25,727,220 18 6 forward.. RETURN of the Number of Marcs of Silver of Eight Ounces, reduced into Bars, at the Callana (Smelting-house) of Arequipa, during the Years 1832 to 1836. YEARS. Bars. Marcs of Silver. Dollar?, Rial?, at S dollars per Marc. Pounds Sterling. Exchanue 48rf. per Dollar. number. 63 marcs oz. 10,628 3 dlrs. rs. 90,341 1| s. d. 18,068 4 9 43 7,130 2 60,607 1 12,121 10 6 1834 25 4,362 37,077 7,415 8 21 3,673 5 31,225 (iA 6,245 3 6 1836 24 3,794 7 32,256 3& 6,451 5 9 Total 176 29,589 1 251,507 4 50,301 12 6 1520 HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF AMERICA. AN Account of the Quantities of Gold and Silver stamped at the Mint of Santiago de Chili, from the Year 1790 to 1830 inclusive. G L D. S I L V E R. YEARS. Marcs. Value in dollars. Marcs. Value in dollars. marcs. 5,307 dollars, rs. ms. 721,752 marcs. 21,770 dollars, rs. ma. 185,045 5,621 4 764,524 23,882 4 203,001 5,403 734,808 21,324 181,254 4,850 659,600 29,895 254,107 4 5,708 4 776,356 24,164 205,394 1795 * 6,072 4 825,860 28,306 240,601 6,245 849,320 28,141 239,198 4 6,005 816,680 27,490 233,665 5,838 793,068 23,076 196,146 5,193 706,248 22,945 195,032 4 6,470 880,736 24,454 207,859 5,117 695,912 24,510 208,335 5,441 739,976 22,685 192,822 4 5.49G 747,456 15,000 127,500 1804 5,849 795,464 17,458 148,393 5,282 714,272 20,630 175,355 4,f)86 637.2C6 22,559 o 191,751 4 4,625 623,000 15,950 135,575 4,642 631,312 19,879 168.271 4 4 815 651 840 19,082 162,197 6359 864 824 18496 157,216 j^U 5 230 712 042 13 177 1 12,289 5 631 766 860 41,499 358,665 2 17 4 574 622,004 59 865 509,918 2 1814 3,455 470,136 44,044 380,330 3 25 4,778 650,256 48,421 412,660 1 Igj6 4,719 642,200 57,740 492,082 2 ]H17 4,398 598 128 63 475 539,537 4 )VJlJj 3,702 503 472 44 142 5 4 375212 6 24 ISl ) 4,603 626 590 28 . 560 241,995 1 17 4,2 JO 583 816 139C3 118,645 1 25 1 192 271 336 15 458 131 723 1 17 ]H 2 > 3 873 527 278 18 014 1 53 494 7 1823 2 300 31 } 160 5 7 9 9 48 809 7 IK 24 ... 1 388 3 1 789 15 56 IttS 1 159 7 Q 3 400 18 o 1 294 4 176 2 9 719 4 6115 6 1827 282 62 4 531 2 JH S ... . 5G5 7 1 S 2 J 410 1 6 6 874 2 Total 172,869 23,630,620 6 929,963 3 4 7,911,761 2 17 British Consulate, Valparaiso, January 1, 1832. ACCOUNT of the Quantity of the Precious Metals extracted from the Mines of the Repub lic of Chili, during the Year 1834. METALS. Coined at the Mint Exported from Valparaiso. Exported from Coquimbo. Exported from Huasco. Exported from Copiapo. TOTAL. VALUE. <;,,Iil marcs, oz. 3 840 2 marcs, oz. marcs, oz. marcs, oz. marcs, oz. marcs, oz. dlrs. rials. Silver. 5 405 Copper Copper ore ... quintals. Ibs. quintals. Ibs. 17,771 37 6,389 32 quintals. Ibs. 33,360 58 9,499 quintals. Ibs. 23,434 71 20,961 92 quintals. Ibs. 2,698 36 quintals. Ibs. 77,265 2 36,850 24 1,081,710 2i 66,791 3,158,149 1| The anarchy and the rebellions which have disordered the Spanish American Republics, have rendered it impossible to procure recent accounts of the produce of the mines ; and we have been unable to procure any account of the produce of the Brazilian mines, upon which any reliance can be placed. The produce of the precious metals from all the mines in the world, is but very imperfectly known; and the foregoing tables contain, we believe, all the information of any consequence that has been officially ascertained. END OF VOL. I. C. WHITING, BEAUfOKT HOUSE, STRAND. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. FPR NQV 4 1940 DEC 2 1940M MAR 6 1941 MAK 17 DEC 9 34 JAM 10 1347 JAN 10 1947 REC D LD 50ct 63BB 5Aug 65CD JUL?2 ( MAR 17 19? YD 06574 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY .. -K mm i